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# Mount Rainier
*Revision ID: 1157040549 | Timestamp: 2023-05-25T22:32:30Z*
---
| prominence_ft = 13,246
| prominence_ref =
| isolation_mi = 731
| isolation_ref =
| parent_peak = [de Orizaba](Pico)(Pico de Orizaba), [Mexico](Mexico)
| listing =
| range = [Range](Cascade)(Cascade Range)
| country = [States](United)(United States)
| state = [Washington](Washington (state))
| subdivision2_type = County
| subdivision2 = [County](Pierce)(Pierce County, Washington)
| part_type = Protected area | part = [Rainier National Park](Mount)(Mount Rainier National Park)
| map = USA Washington
| map_caption =
| label_position = left
| coordinates =
| coordinates_ref =
| topo = [USGS](United States Geological Survey) Mount Rainier West
| type = [Stratovolcano](Stratovolcano)
| age = 500,000 years
| volcanic_arc = [Volcanic Arc](Cascade)(Cascade Volcanoes)
| last_eruption = 1450 CE
| first_ascent = 1870 by [Stevens](Hazard)(Hazard Stevens) and [B. Van Trump](P.)(P. B. Van Trump)
| easiest_route = rock/ice climb via Disappointment Cleaver
}}
[[File:Mt Rainier from ISS 2018.jpg|thumb|Mount Rainier seen from the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station)]]
**Mount Rainier** ( ), also known as **Tahoma**, is a large active [stratovolcano](stratovolcano) in the [Range](Cascade)(Cascade Range) of the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest) in the United States. The mountain is located in [Rainier National Park](Mount)(Mount Rainier National Park) about south-southeast of [Seattle](Seattle). With a summit elevation of , it is the highest mountain in the U.S. state of [Washington](Washington (state)) and the Cascade Range, the most [prominent](topographically)(Topographic prominence) mountain in the [United States](contiguous)(contiguous United States), and the tallest in the [Volcanic Arc](Cascade)(Cascade Volcanic Arc).
Due to its high probability of an eruption in the near future, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, and it is on the [Volcano](Decade)(Decade Volcano) list. The large amount of glacial ice means that Mount Rainier could produce massive [lahar](lahar)s that could threaten the entire [River](Puyallup)(Puyallup River) valley. According to the [States Geological Survey](United)(United States Geological Survey), "about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones."
Between 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier. Approximately 84 people died in mountaineering accidents on Mount Rainier from 1947 to 2018.
## Name
The diverse [peoples](Indigenous)(Native Americans in the United States) who have lived near Mount Rainier for millennia have many names for the mountain in their various [languages](Indigenous languages of the Americas).
[Lushootseed](Lushootseed) speakers have several names for Mount Rainier, including *xʷaq̓ʷ* and *təqʷubəʔ*. *xʷaq̓ʷ* means "sky wiper" or "one who touches the sky" in English. The word *təqʷubəʔ* means "snow-covered mountain". *təqʷubəʔ* has been anglicized in many ways, including 'Tacoma', 'Tahoma', and 'Tacobet'.
[Sahaptin](Sahaptin language) speakers call the mountain *Taxúma*.
Another anglicized name is Pooskaus.
[Vancouver](George)(George Vancouver) named Mount Rainier in honor of his friend, Rear Admiral [Rainier](Peter)(Peter Rainier (Royal Navy officer, born 1741)). The [of the Lewis and Clark expedition](map)(:File:Map of Lewis and Clark's Track, Across the Western Portion of North America, published 1814.jpg) of 1804–1806 refers to it as "Mt. Regniere." Although Rainier had been considered the official name of the mountain, [Winthrop](Theodore)(Theodore Winthrop) referred to the mountain as "Tacoma" in his posthumously published 1862 travel book *The Canoe and the Saddle*. For a time, both names were used interchangeably, although residents of the nearby city of [Tacoma](Tacoma, Washington) preferred Mount Tacoma.
In 1890, the [States Board on Geographic Names](United)(United States Board on Geographic Names) declared that the mountain would be known as Rainier. Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to Tacoma and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924. After the 2015 restoration of the original name [Denali](Denali) from Mount McKinley in Alaska, debate over Mount Rainier's name intensified.
## Geographical setting
[[4.jpg|thumb|Mount Rainier, as viewed from Kerry Park in Seattle](File:Seattle)]
[[Rainier from 30,000 feet.jpg|thumb|Mount Rainier from an aircraft](File:Mount)]
Mount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Tacoma and Seattle. Mount Rainier is [third](ranked)(List of Ultras of the United States) of the 128 [mountain peaks](ultra-prominent)(Ultra-prominent peak) of the United States. Mount Rainier has a [prominence](topographic)(topographic prominence) of , which is greater than that of [K2](K2), the world's second-tallest mountain, at . On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the [metropolitan area](Seattle-Tacoma)(Seattle metropolitan area) to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as "the Mountain". On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away as [Oregon](Corvallis,)(Corvallis, Oregon) (at [Peak](Marys)(Marys Peak)), and [British Columbia](Victoria,)(Victoria, British Columbia).
With 26 major [glacier](glacier)s and of permanent [snowfield](snowfield)s and glaciers, Mount Rainier is the most heavily [glaciated](glaciated) peak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by two [crater](volcanic)(volcanic crater)s, each more than in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater. [Geothermal](Geothermal (geology)) heat from the [volcano](volcano) keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanic [cave](glacier)(glacier cave) network within the ice-filled craters, with nearly of passages.
A small [lake](crater)(Volcanic crater lake) about in size and deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of , occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than of ice and is accessible only via the caves.
The [Carbon](Carbon River), [Puyallup](Puyallup River), [Mowich](Mowich River), [Nisqually](Nisqually River), and [River](Cowlitz)(Cowlitz River)s begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of the [River](White)(White River (Washington)) are [Winthrop](Winthrop Glacier), [Emmons](Emmons Glacier), and [Glacier](Fryingpan)(Fryingpan Glacier)s. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges into [Bay](Commencement)(Commencement Bay) at [Tacoma](Tacoma, Washington); the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of [Lacey](Lacey, Washington); and the Cowlitz joins the [River](Columbia)(Columbia River) between [Kelso](Kelso, Washington) and [Longview](Longview, Washington).
### Subsidiary peaks
[[File:Mt. Rainier seen from Bainbridge Island.jpg|thumb|right|[Tahoma Peak](Little)(Little Tahoma Peak) to the left of Mount Rainier]]
The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest is called the Columbia Crest. The second highest summit is Point Success, , at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has a [prominence](topographic)(topographic prominence) of about , so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap, , at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramatic [Wall](Willis)(Willis Wall).Named after [Willis](Bailey)(Bailey Willis), USGS geological engineer, who played a key role in getting Mount Rainier designated as a national park. Liberty Cap has a prominence of , and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of is commonly used in Washington state.
High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as [Tahoma Peak](Little)(Little Tahoma Peak), , an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of , and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mount Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington.
## Geology
[[Rainier 6909h.JPG|thumb|Mount Rainier](File:Mount)]
[[Rainier Hazard Map-en.svg|left|upright|thumb|Hazard map](File:Mount)]
Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the [Volcanic Arc](Cascade)(Cascade Volcanic Arc) that consists of [flow](lava)(lava flow)s, [flow](debris)(debris flow)s, and [pyroclastic](pyroclastic) ejecta and flows. Its early [volcanic](volcanic) deposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of the [Formation](Lily)(Lily Formation) (about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a "proto-Rainier" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone. The present cone is more than 500,000 years old.
The volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly of [andesite](andesite). Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about before a major debris [avalanche](avalanche) and the resulting [Mudflow](Osceola)(Osceola Mudflow) approximately 5,000 years ago.
In the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars ([volcanic](volcano) [mudflow](mudflow)s), due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way to [Sound](Puget)(Puget Sound), a distance of more than . Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle. This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top of Rainier, bringing its height down to around . About 530 to 550 years ago, the [Mudflow](Electron)(Electron Mudflow) occurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow.
After the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava and [tephra](tephra) built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11 [Holocene](Holocene) tephra layers have been found.
Soils on Mount Rainier are mostly gravelly ashy sandy loams developed from colluvium or glacial till mixed with volcanic tephra. Under forest cover their profiles usually have the banded appearance of a classic [podzol](podzol) but the E horizon is darker than usual. Under meadows a thick dark A horizon usually forms the topsoil.
### Modern activity and threat
The most recent recorded [eruption](volcanic)(volcanic eruption) was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882, and 1894 as well.
Seismic monitors have been placed in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity. An eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and an eruption would also cause trouble from [British Columbia, Canada](Vancouver,)(Vancouver) to [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [California](California) because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere.
Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the [Ring of Fire](Pacific)(Ring of Fire). This includes mountains and calderas like [Shasta](Mount)(Mount Shasta) and [Peak](Lassen)(Lassen Peak) in California, [Lake](Crater)(Crater Lake), [Sisters](Three)(Three Sisters (Oregon)), and [Hood](Mount)(Mount Hood) in Oregon, [St. Helens](Mount)(Mount St. Helens), [Adams](Mount)(Mount Adams (Washington)), [Peak](Glacier)(Glacier Peak), and [Baker](Mount)(Mount Baker) in Washington, and [Cayley](Mount)(Mount Cayley), [Garibaldi](Mount)(Mount Garibaldi), [Caldera](Silverthrone)(Silverthrone Caldera), and [Meager](Mount)(Mount Meager massif) in [Columbia](British)(British Columbia). Many of the above are dormant, but could return to activity, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier. Of these, only two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of [eruptions](sub-plinian)(sub-plinian eruptions) or higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to collapse, and Mount Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, produced the largest eruption in the continental United States when it erupted in 1980. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in the Cascade Range at 2–3 per century.
Mount Rainier is listed as a [Volcano](Decade)(Decade Volcano), or one of the 16 volcanoes with the greatest likelihood of causing loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes. If Mount Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the [volcano](volcano) compared to Mount St. Helens, the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the fact that Mount Rainier is almost twice the size of St. Helens. Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property, as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to the [States Geological Survey](United)(United States Geological Survey) (USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier. Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the 5000-year-old [Mudflow](Osceola)(Osceola Mudflow) would destroy [Enumclaw](Enumclaw, Washington), [Orting](Orting, Washington), [Kent](Kent, Washington), [Auburn](Auburn, Washington), [Puyallup](Puyallup, Washington), [Sumner](Sumner, Washington) and all of [Renton](Renton, Washington). Such a mudflow might also reach down the [Duwamish](Duwamish River) estuary and destroy parts of [Seattle](downtown)(Downtown, Seattle, Washington), and cause [tsunamis](tsunami) in Puget Sound and [Washington](Lake)(Lake Washington). Rainier is also capable of producing [flow](pyroclastic)(pyroclastic flow)s and expelling lava.
[[File:Volcano evacuation route sign.jpg|thumb|left|upright|One of many [evacuation](emergency)(emergency evacuation) route signs in case of volcanic [eruption](eruption) or lahar around Mount Rainier]]
According to K. Scott, a scientist with the USGS:
A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire... For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable flood insurance.
The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in [County](Pierce)(Pierce County, Washington). The more populous [County](King)(King County, Washington) is also in the lahar area, but has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard. More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the [tragedy](Armero)(Armero tragedy).
### Seismic background
Typically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids. Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier. Further swarms were observed in 2011 and 2021.
### Glaciers
[[Rainier 3D version 1.JPG|thumb|Three-dimensional representation of Mount Rainier](File:Mount)]
[[File:Nisqually Glacier 0902.JPG|thumb|[Glacier](Nisqually)(Nisqually Glacier) is seen clearly from the southeast of the mountain.]]
[Glacier](Glacier)s are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water for [power](hydroelectric)(hydroelectric power) and [irrigation](irrigation). Together with perennial snow patches, the 29 named glacial features cover about of the mountain's surface in 2015 and have an estimated volume of about .
Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by [deformation](deformation (mechanics)), the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970, [Glacier](Nisqually)(Nisqually Glacier) was measured moving as fast as per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base.
The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past. For example, during the [ice age](last)(Pleistocene), from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin.
Between the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the [Ice Age](Little)(Little Ice Age). During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position downvalley from the site of the [Bridge](Glacier)(Glacier Bridge), [Tahoma](Tahoma Glacier) and [Tahoma Glacier](South)(South Tahoma Glacier)s merged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus of [Glacier](Emmons)(Emmons Glacier) reached within of the White River Campground.
[of the Little Ice Age glaciers](Retreat)(Retreat of glaciers since 1850) was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The glaciers and snowfields of Mount Rainier also lost volume during this time, except for the Frying Pan and Emmons glaciers on the east flank and the small near-peak snowfields; the greatest volume loss was concentrated from ~1750 m (north) to ~2250 m (south) elevation. The largest single volume loss is from the Carbon Glacier, although it is to the north, due to its huge area at The [Carbon](Carbon Glacier), [Cowlitz](Cowlitz Glacier), Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed.
The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows, through [outburst floods](glacial)(jökulhlaup) not associated with any eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August, 2015.
## Human history
| image2 = Mount Rainier over Tacoma.jpg
| caption2 = Viewed from the northwest ([Tacoma](Tacoma, Washington)), Liberty Cap is the apparent summit with Mowich Face below."Mowich" is the [Jargon](Chinook)(Chinook Jargon) word for "deer".
}}
At the time of European contact, the river valleys and other areas near the mountain were inhabited by [Americans](Native)(Indigenous peoples of the Americas) who hunted and gathered animals and plants in Mount Rainier's forests and high elevation meadows. Modern descendants of these peoples are represented by members of modern tribes that surround the mountain; including the [Indian Tribe](Nisqually)(Nisqually (tribe)), the [Indian Tribe](Cowlitz)(Cowlitz (tribe)), the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the [Nation](Yakama)(Yakama), the [Tribe of Indians](Puyallup)(Puyallup (tribe)), and the [Indian Tribe](Muckleshoot)(Muckleshoot), among others in the area. The archaeological record of human use of the mountain dates to over 8,500 years before present (BP). Sites related to seasonal use of Mount Rainier and its landscapes are reflected in chipped stone tool remains and settings suggesting functionally varied uses including task-specific sites, rockshelters, travel stops, and long-term base camps. Their distribution on the mountain suggest primary use of subalpine meadows and low alpine habitats that provided relatively high resource abundance during the short summer season. Evidence suggests that there existed a tradition of Native Americans setting fire to areas of the region each year as a way to encourage meadow development.
The first Europeans to reach the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest) were the [Spanish](Spain) who arrived by sea in 1774 led by [Perez](Juan)(Juan José Pérez Hernández). The next year, under the direction of [Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra](Juan)(Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra), a boat was sent ashore to [island](Destruction)(Destruction Island). Upon landing, the crew was attacked and killed by the local indigenous population. Although attempts were made in 1792 to create a permanent Spanish settlement at [Bay](Neah)(Neah Bay, Washington), the project was unsuccessful and by 1795, Spain had given up on the region. Although not documented anywhere, it is likely that Spanish sailors first observed Mount Rainier while sailing in the [of Juan de Fuca](Strait)(Strait of Juan de Fuca).
Upon reaching what would become California in 1579, [Francis Drak](Sir)(Francis Drake)e claimed the entire northwest coast of North America for [England](England). This claim to the coast of the Pacific Northwest was not further explored until in 1778 [James Cook](Captain)(James Cook) sailed the coastline of modern day Washington and British Columbia, stimulating a subsequent increase in English ships coming to the area as part of the [trade](fur)(North American fur trade). On July 22, 1793, [Alexander Mackenzie](Sir)(Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)) of the British [Fur Company](Northwest)(North West Company) reached the Pacific Ocean via overland route that crossed the Rocky Mountains.
The first American, [Ledyard](John)(John Ledyard), reached the region aboard Captain Cook's ship in 1778. By 1787, six Americans from Boston formed a company which began trading along the northwest coast. The [and Clark](Lewis)(Lewis and Clark Expedition) overland expedition reached the northwest coast in 1805 and observed Mount Rainier for the first time in the Spring of 1806.
The first documented sighting of Mt. Rainier by a European was by the crew of [George Vancouver](Captain)(George Vancouver) on 7 May 1792 during the [Expedition](Vancouver)(Vancouver Expedition) (1790-1795). On the 8 May 1792, Vancouver gave the name of Mt. Rainier to the observed peak in homage to Vancouver's friend [Admiral Peter Rainier](Rear)(Peter Rainier (Royal Navy officer, born 1741)).
At the outset of the 19th century, the region where Mt. Rainier was located was claimed by Spain, the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain, with most claims being based on instances of early naval exploration of the region's coast. Spain relinquished all remaining claims to the Pacific Northwest that had not already been handed over with the [Purchase](Louisiana)(Louisiana Purchase) in 1819 with the [and cession of Florida](purchase)(Adams–Onís Treaty) by the United States. In 1824, Russia ceded all land claims south of [54°40′ north](parallel)(parallel 54°40′ north) to the United States as part of the [Treaty](Russo-American)(Russo-American Treaty of 1824). In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty, agreeing upon the joint settlement and occupation of the Oregon country which consisted of the territory north of [latitude](42°N)(42nd parallel north), south of [latitude](54°40′N)(Parallel 54°40' north), and west of the [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains) to the [Ocean](Pacific)(Pacific Ocean). The [Oregon Treaty](1846)(Oregon Treaty) between the United States and United Kingdom set new borders between British and American territory along today's [borders](approximate)(Canada–United States border). In 1853, the land between the [river](Columbia)(Columbia River) and the border with [Canada](British)(History of Canada (1763–1867)) was organized into the [Territory](Washington)(Washington Territory), which was the administrative status of the region at the time of the first successful ascent of Mount Rainier.
In 1833, Dr. [Fraser Tolmie](William)(William Fraser Tolmie) explored the area looking for medicinal plants. [Stevens](Hazard)(Hazard Stevens) and [B. Van Trump](P.)(P. B. Van Trump) received a hero's welcome in the streets of [Olympia](Olympia, Washington) after their [summit climb in 1870](successful)(The first ascent of Mount Rainier). The first female ascent was made in 1890 by [Fuller](Fay)(Fay Fuller), accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates.
Descending from the summit in 1883, James Longmire discovered a mineral spring; this ultimately led to his establishment of a spa and hotel, drawing other visitors to the area to seek the benefits of the spring. Later, the headquarters of the national park would be established at Longmire, until flooding caused them to be relocated to Ashford. The area also became the site of features like a museum, a post office, and a gas station, with additions like a library and a gift shop soon following; many of these buildings were ultimately nominated to the national historic register of historic places. Longmire remains the second most popular place in the park. In 1924, a publication from the park described the area:
[[Rainier sunset.jpg|thumb|Mount Rainier sunset](File:Mount)]
"A feature at Longmire Springs of great interest to everyone is the group of mineral springs in the little flat to the west of National Park Inn. There are some forty distinct springs, a half dozen of which are easily reached from the road. An analysis of the waters show that they all contain about the smae [sic] mineral salts but in slightly differing proportions. All the water is highly carbonated and would be classed as extremely "hard". Certain springs contain larger amounts of soda, iron and sulphur, giving them a distinct taste and color."
[Muir](John)(John Muir) climbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of the [Forest Reserve](Pacific)(Pacific Forest Reserve) in order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber and [watersheds](drainage basin).
Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, President [McKinley](William)(William McKinley) established Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifth [park](national)(national park). Congress dedicated the new park "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" and "... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, [mineral](mineral) deposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition."
On 24 June 1947, [Arnold](Kenneth)(Kenneth Arnold) reported seeing a [of nine unidentified flying objects](formation)(Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting) over Mount Rainier. His description led to the term "[saucers](flying)(flying saucers)".
In 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together the [Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System](Mount)(Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System) to assist in the [evacuation](emergency)(emergency evacuation) of the [River](Puyallup)(Puyallup River) valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by the [County](Pierce)(Pierce County, Washington) Department of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only away, respectively.
Mount Rainier appears on four distinct United States [stamp](postage)(postage stamp) issues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps, and was also shown on a [sheet](souvenir)(souvenir sheet) issued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted by [General](Postmaster)(Postmaster General) [A. Farley](James)(James A. Farley) as special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, "Farley's Follies" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is [imperforate](imperforate). Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available.
The Washington [quarter](state)(50 State Quarters), which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and a [salmon](salmon).
## Climbing
[[File:M Rainier.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Climbers on [Glacier](Ingraham)(Ingraham Glacier), above [Tahoma](Little)(Little Tahoma)]]
[climbing](Mountain)(Mountain climbing) on Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of [Alaska](Alaska). Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year, about 90% via routes from [Muir](Camp)(Camp Muir) on the southeast flank, and most of the rest ascend [Glacier](Emmons)(Emmons Glacier) via Camp Schurman on the northeast. Climbing teams require experience in glacier travel, self-rescue, and wilderness travel. All climbers who plan to climb above the high camps, Camp Muir and Camp Schurman, are required to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb.
Additionally, solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the Superintendent before attempting to climb.
### Climbing routes
[[Muir Mt Rainier.jpg|thumb|Camp Muir is commonly used by those attempting to summit Mount Rainier](File:Camp)]
All climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary widely between climbing routes. Routes are graded in [NCCS](National Climbing Classification System) Alpine Climbing format.
The [route](normal)(normal route) to the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route, [YDS](Yosemite Decimal System) grade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently established [Muir](Camp)(Camp Muir), it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term "cleaver" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a "disappointment" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit. An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions.
The Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Camp Schurman is equipped with a solar toilet and a ranger hut.
The Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. It runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier. First climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935, it is listed as one of the [Classic Climbs of North America](Fifty)(Fifty Classic Climbs of North America) by [Roper](Steve)(Steve Roper) and [Steck](Allen)(Allen Steck). This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on the mountain, but approximately 25% of its deaths.
### Dangers and accidents
About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia. These incidents are often associated with exposure to very high altitude, fatigue, dehydration, and/or poor weather. 58 deaths on Mount Rainier have been reported from 1981 to 2010. Approximately 7 percent of mountaineering deaths and 6 percent of mountaineering accidents in the United States are attributed to Mount Rainier.
The first known climbing death on Mount Rainier was Edgar McClure, a professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon, on July 27, 1897. During the descent in darkness, McClure stepped over the edge of the rock and slid to his death on a rocky outcrop. The spot is now known as McClure Rock.
[Unsoeld](Willi)(Willi Unsoeld), who reached the summit of [Everest](Mount)(Mount Everest) in 1963, was killed, along with an [State College](Evergreen)(Evergreen State College) student, in an avalanche on Mount Rainier in 1979. He had climbed the mountain over 200 times.
The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when ten clients and a guide died in an avalanche/ice fall on the [Glacier](Ingraham)(Ingraham Glacier).
This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier.
In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—were killed on May 31, 2014, after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers, and officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at , possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown. The bodies of three of the client climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth client climber and two guides were never found.
## Outdoor recreation
In addition to climbing, [hiking](hiking), [skiing](backcountry)(backcountry skiing), [photography](photography), and [camping](camping) are popular activities in the park. [trail](Hiking)(Hiking trail)s, including the [Trail](Wonderland)(Wonderland Trail)—a circumnavigation of the peak, provide access to the backcountry. Popular for [sports](winter)(winter sports) include [snowshoe](snowshoe)ing and [skiing](cross-country)(cross-country skiing).
## Climate
The summit of Mount Rainier has an [cap climate](ice)(ice cap climate) ([climate classification](Köppen)(Köppen climate classification): **EF**)
}}
}}
## Ecology
[[Rainier 3.jpg|thumb|Reflection Lake is a popular place to view Mount Rainier](File:Mount)]
Mount Rainier's protected status as a national park protects its [primeval](wilderness) [ecosystem](Cascade)(Cascades (ecoregion)), providing a stable [habitat](habitat) for many [species](species) in the region, including [endemic](endemic) [flora](flora) and [fauna](fauna) that are unique to the area, such as the [red fox](Cascade)(Cascade red fox) and [Rainier lousewort](Mount)(Pedicularis rainierensis). The ecosystem on the mountain is very [diverse](Biodiversity), owing to the climate found at different elevations. Scientists track the distinct species found in the [forest](forest) zone, the [subalpine](subalpine) zone, and the [alpine](Montane ecosystems#Alpine grasslands and tundra) zone. They have discovered more than one thousand species of [plants](plants) and [fungi](fungi). The mountain is also home to 65 species of [mammals](mammals), 5 [reptile](reptile), 182 [bird](bird), 14 [amphibians](amphibians), and 14 of native [fish](fish), in addition to an innumerable amount of [invertebrates](invertebrates).
### Flora
[[Meadow (6997737191).jpg|thumb|Subalpine wildflower meadow in Paradise region of Mount Rainier](File:Wildflower)]
Mount Rainier has regularly been described as one of the best places in the world to view [wildflowers](wildflowers). In the subalpine region of the mountain, the snow often stays on the ground until summer begins, limiting plants to a much shorter [season](growing)(growing season). This produces dramatic blooms in areas like [Paradise](Paradise, Washington). In 1924, the flowers were described by naturalist [W. Schmoe](Floyd)(Floyd W. Schmoe):
"Mount Rainier National Park is perhaps better known the world over for these wonderful flowers than for any one feature. The mountains, the glaciers, the cascading streams and the forests may be equalled if one looks far away enough, but no park has been so favored in the way of wild flowers."
Forests on the mountain span from as young as 100 years old to sections of [growth forest](old)(old growth forest) that are calculated to be 1000 years or more in age. The lower elevation consists mainly of [red-cedar](western)(western red-cedar), [fir](Douglas)(Douglas fir), and [hemlock](western)(western hemlock). [silver fir](Pacific)(Pacific silver fir), [white pine](western)(western white pine), [yellow cedar](Alaska)(Alaska yellow cedar), and [fir](noble)(noble fir) are found further up the mountain. In the alpine level, Alaskan yellow cedar, [fir](subalpine)(subalpine fir), and [hemlock](mountain)(mountain hemlock) grow.
### Fauna
[[her chops (7030763521).jpg|thumb|A Cascade red fox active during Paradise's long winter](File:Licking)]
The mountain supports a wide variety of animal life, including several species that are protected on the state or federal level, like the [Spotted Owl](Northern)(Northern Spotted Owl). Efforts are also being made to reintroduce native species that had locally been hunted to extinction, like the [fisher.](Pacific)(Fisher (animal)) There are sixty-five types of mammals living on the mountain, including [cougars](cougars), [goats](mountain)(mountain goats), [marmots](marmots), and [elk](elk). Common [and amphibians](reptiles)(Amphibians and reptiles of Mount Rainier National Park) include [snakes](garter)(garter snakes), [frogs](frogs), and [salamanders](salamanders). There are many [of birds](types)(List of birds of Mount Rainier National Park) found throughout the different elevations on the mountain, but while some live there all year, many are [migratory](Bird migration). Salmon and [trout](trout) species use the rivers formed by the [glaciers](glaciers), and though the lakes stopped being [stocked](Fish stocking) in 1972, thirty lakes still have reproducing populations.
## See also
* [Rainier National Park](Mount)(Mount Rainier National Park)
* [Rainier Wilderness](Mount)(Mount Rainier Wilderness)
* [Rainier Forest Reserve](Mount)(Mount Rainier Forest Reserve)
* [of Mount Rainier National Park](Bibliography)(Bibliography of Mount Rainier National Park)
## References
-->
}}
## Notes
## External links
* [Mount Rainier National Park](http://www.nps.gov/mora/) (also used as a reference)
*
* [Mt. Rainier Eruption Task Force](https://web.archive.org/web/20101113212033/http://www.emd.wa.gov/plans/documents/mtrainier_volcanic_hazards_response_plan.pdf) (pdf)
* [Mount Rainier stream drainage](http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Rainier/Maps/map_rainier_drainages.html)
* [Mount Rainier Trail Descriptions](http://www.nps.gov/mora/planyourvisit/trails-of-mount-rainier.htm)
*
*
* : contains images and videos of the summit caves
### University of Washington libraries and digital collections
* [Lawrence Denny Lindsley Photographs](http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/ll/searchterm/Mount%20Rainier/field/all/mode/all/conn/and/cosuppress/), Landscape and [photography](nature)(nature photography) of Lawrence Denny Lindsley, including photographs of scenes around Mount Rainier.
* [The Mountaineers Collection](http://content.lib.washington.edu/mtnweb/index.html), Photographic albums and text documenting the Mountaineers official annual outings undertaken by club members from 1907–1951, includes 3 Mt. Rainier albums (ca. 1912, 1919, 1924).
* [Henry M. Sarvant Photographs](http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/sarvant/searchterm/Rainier/field/covera/mode/any/conn/and/cosuppress/), photographs by Henry Mason Sarvant depicting his climbing expeditions to Mt. Rainier and scenes of the vicinity from 1892–1912.
* [Alvin H. Waite Photographs](http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/waite/searchterm/mount%20glacier*!baker%20adams/field/all!all/mode/any!none/conn/and!and/cosuppress/) Photographs of Mt. Rainier by Alvin H. Waite, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
[ ](Category:Mount Rainier)
[of the United States](Category:Stratovolcanoes)(Category:Stratovolcanoes of the United States)
[of Washington (state)](Category:Volcanoes)(Category:Volcanoes of Washington (state))
[Rainier](Mount)(Category:Lakes of Washington (state))
[Volcanoes](Category:Decade)(Category:Decade Volcanoes)
[volcanoes](Category:Subduction)(Category:Subduction volcanoes)
[Volcanoes](Category:Cascade)(Category:Cascade Volcanoes)
[volcanoes](Category:Active)(Category:Active volcanoes)
[volcanoes](Category:VEI-4)(Category:VEI-4 volcanoes)
[points of United States national parks](Category:Highest)(Category:Highest points of United States national parks)
[Rainier](Mount)(Category:Mount Rainier National Park)
[of Pierce County, Washington](Category:Mountains)(Category:Mountains of Pierce County, Washington)
[stratovolcanoes](Category:Pleistocene)(Category:Pleistocene stratovolcanoes)
[points of U.S. states](Category:Highest)(Category:Highest points of U.S. states)
[Rainier](Mount)(Category:North American 4000 m summits)
[of Washington](Category:Stratovolcanoes)(Category:Stratovolcanoes of Washington)
|
Brendan Rodgers
|
brendan_rodgers
|
# Brendan Rodgers
*Revision ID: 1160352638 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:36:51Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Carnlough](Carnlough), Northern Ireland
| height =
| position = [Defender](Defender (association football))
| youthyears1 = 1984–1987
| youthclubs1 = [United](Ballymena)(Ballymena United F.C.)
| years1 = 1987–1990
| clubs1 = [United](Ballymena)(Ballymena United F.C.)
| caps1 =
| goals1 =
| years2 = 1990–1993
| clubs2 = [Reading](Reading F.C.)
| caps2 = 0
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 1993–1994
| clubs3 = [(Isle of Wight)](Newport)(Newport (IOW) F.C.)
| caps3 =
| goals3 =
| years4 = 1994–1995
| clubs4 = [Town](Witney)(Witney Town F.C.)
| caps4 =
| goals4 =
| years5 = 1995–1996
| clubs5 = [Town](Newbury)(Newbury Town F.C.)
| caps5 =
| goals5 =
| nationalyears1 = 1988
| nationalteam1 = [Ireland Schools](Northern)(Northern Ireland national under-16 football team)
| nationalcaps1 = 7
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| nationalyears2 =
| nationalcaps2 =
| nationalgoals2 =
| manageryears1 = 2006–2008
| managerclubs1 = [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.) ([Reserves](Chelsea F.C. Under-23s and Academy))
| manageryears2 = 2008–2009
| managerclubs2 = [Watford](Watford F.C.)
| manageryears3 = 2009
| managerclubs3 = [Reading](Reading F.C.)
| manageryears4 = 2010–2012
| managerclubs4 = [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.)
| manageryears5 = 2012–2015
| managerclubs5 = [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.)
| manageryears6 = 2016–2019
| managerclubs6 = [Celtic](Celtic F.C.)
| manageryears7 = 2019–2023
| managerclubs7 = [City](Leicester)(Leicester City F.C.)
}}
**Brendan Rodgers** (born 26 January 1973) is a Northern Irish professional [manager](football)(Manager (association football)) and former [player](Football player).
Rodgers began his career as a [defender](Defender (association football)) at [United](Ballymena)(Ballymena United F.C.), where he stayed until he was signed by [Reading](Reading F.C.) at the age of 18, although a genetic knee condition forced him to retire at age 20. He remained at Reading as a coach and then academy director, and continued to play non-league football at [Newport](Newport (IOW) F.C.), [Town](Witney)(Witney Town F.C.) and [Town](Newbury)(Newbury Town F.C.) for several years. After a period travelling around Spain to study coaching methods, he was invited by [Mourinho](José)(José Mourinho) to leave Reading and join [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.) as [manager](youth)(Chelsea F.C. Reserves and Academy) in 2004, later being promoted to [manager](reserve)(Chelsea F.C. Reserves and Academy) in 2006.
In 2008, he was appointed manager of [Watford](Watford F.C.), where he remained until he accepted an offer to become manager of his former club Reading in 2009. He left the club by mutual consent after some disappointing results six months later. He returned to management with [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.) in 2010, leading the club to promotion to the [League](Premier)(Premier League), the first Welsh team to do so, before guiding them to finish 11th the following season. On 1 June 2012, Rodgers accepted an offer to become the new manager of [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.), whom he led to runners-up position in the league in the [season](2013–14)(2013–14 Premier League) before his dismissal in October 2015. He became manager of [Celtic](Celtic F.C.) in May 2016 and led Celtic to an undefeated domestic season in his first year, and [trebles](Treble (association football)) in both of his first two seasons. He left Celtic for [City](Leicester)(Leicester City F.C.) in February 2019, winning the [FA Cup](2021)(2021 FA Cup Final) in his second full season, before he left by mutual consent in April 2023.
## Early life
Rodgers was born in the seaside village of [Carnlough](Carnlough) in [Antrim](County)(County Antrim), Northern Ireland. His father Malachy was a painter and decorator, while his mother Christina was a volunteer for the Irish charity [Trócaire](Trócaire). Rodgers is the eldest of five boys. His younger brother Malachy became a well-known country-and-western singer locally, and is now pursuing a career in [Nashville](Nashville), [Tennessee](Tennessee), United States. He grew up as a supporter of [Wednesday](Sheffield)(Sheffield Wednesday F.C.) and [Celtic](Celtic F.C.).
Rodgers was brought up a Catholic. He attended St John's Catholic Primary School in Carnlough, and then moved on to [Patrick's College, Ballymena](St)(St Patrick's College, Ballymena) until the age of 16.Brendan Rodgers, *The Road To Paradise* The Official Autobiography, p. 10. His mother died in 2010 at the age of 53, and in September 2011 Rodgers was by his father's side when he died of cancer, aged 59.
## Playing career
As a teenager, Rodgers represented [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland national football team) at schoolboy level, notably playing against [Brazil](Brazil national football team) in 1988. He began his senior career as a [defender](Defender (association football)) for [United](Ballymena)(Ballymena United F.C.), his local team, in 1987. Three years later, at the age of 18, he was signed by [Reading](Reading F.C.) where he played in the reserves. His professional playing career was ended when he was 20, due to a genetic knee condition. Following this enforced retirement, Rodgers spent several years playing in non-league football for [(IOW)](Newport)(Newport (IOW) F.C.), [Town](Witney)(Witney Town F.C.) and [Town](Newbury)(Newbury Town F.C.), while remaining as a youth coach at Reading. He found employment at [Lewis](John)(John Lewis Partnership) to support his young family.
## Coaching career
Rodgers spent a large amount of time travelling around Spain studying different coaching methods, and was eventually invited by manager [Mourinho](José)(José Mourinho) to leave his role of academy director at Reading and join the [Academy](Chelsea)(Chelsea F.C. Reserves and Academy) as their head youth coach in 2004 after a recommendation by Mourinho's assistant and future [League](Premier)(Premier League) manager [Clarke](Steve)(Steve Clarke). Rodgers was promoted to reserve team manager two years later, and was kept in that position by subsequent Chelsea managers [Grant](Avram)(Avram Grant) and [Felipe Scolari](Luiz)(Luiz Felipe Scolari).
## Managerial career
### Watford
On 24 November 2008, Rodgers left Chelsea to become the manager of [Championship](EFL Championship) club [Watford](Watford F.C.). Rodgers won only two of his first ten league games as manager, leaving Watford in the relegation zone by January. Watford's form dramatically improved, however, and Rodgers was able to guide them to finish 13th, avoiding relegation.
### Reading
Weeks after guaranteeing Watford's survival, and following the resignation of [Coppell](Steve)(Steve Coppell) as Reading manager, Rodgers quickly became the favourite to succeed him and rejoin his old club. He initially distanced himself from reports linking him with the job, saying that his "concentration (is) fully on Watford". However, he eventually agreed a deal to become the new manager of Reading on 5 June 2009, after a compensation package worth an initial £500,000 with Watford was agreed, which later rose to £1 million. The Watford Supporters' Trust stated that Rodgers' reputation was "severely damaged" in the eyes of the supporters as a result of the move, but they nevertheless "thanked (Rodgers) for his efforts last season" and "(wished) him well for the future". On 11 August, Rodgers got his first win as Reading manager with a 5–1 win over [Two](League)(EFL League Two) side [Albion](Burton)(Burton Albion F.C.) in the first round of the [Cup](League)(EFL Cup). Despite a good start in the league, a disappointing string of results followed, and Rodgers left Reading by mutual consent on 16 December, just over six months after his arrival, with Reading one place above relegation in the Championship.
### Swansea City
[[File:Brendan Rodgers.jpg|thumb|upright|Rodgers celebrating winning the [Championship play-off final](2011)(2011 Football League Championship play-off Final) with [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.)]]
Rodgers accepted an offer to become the manager of Championship side [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.) on 16 July 2010. Prior to this appointment, he had been asked to join the coaching staff at [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) under manager [Mancini](Roberto)(Roberto Mancini). His beginning as Swansea manager was very successful, leading to Rodgers being named the [Manager of the Month](Championship)(EFL Championship Manager of the Month) for February 2011 after Swansea won five out of the six league games they played that month, while keeping four clean sheets. By 25 April 2011, Rodgers had managed to comfortably secure Swansea City's place in the [Championship Play-Offs](2011)(2011 Football League Championship play-off Final) for promotion into the Premier League, with a convincing 4–1 victory over [Town](Ipswich)(Ipswich Town F.C.) at the [Stadium](Liberty)(Liberty Stadium).
On 16 May 2011, Rodgers led Swansea to the [Championship Play-Off final](2011)(2011 Football League Championship play-off Final) as the favourites after defeating underdogs [Forest](Nottingham)(Nottingham Forest F.C.) over two legs in the semi-final. He faced his old club Reading in the final at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium) on 30 May 2011, which Swansea won 4–2 thanks in part to a hat-trick from [Sinclair](Scott)(Scott Sinclair), meaning Swansea became the first Welsh team ever to gain promotion to the Premier League. Rodgers was praised by the media and supporters for consoling Reading manager [McDermott](Brian)(Brian McDermott (footballer)) and owner [Madejski](John)(John Madejski) before receiving the trophy.
Rodgers' first win as a Premier League manager came on 17 September 2011, when Swansea beat [Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.) 3–0 at the Liberty Stadium. Despite many predicting before the [season](2011–12 Premier League) began that Swansea were favourites to be relegated, their debut season proved very impressive, as they picked up points against [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.), [United](Newcastle)(Newcastle United F.C.), [Hotspur](Tottenham)(Tottenham Hotspur F.C.) and Chelsea, keeping them well above the relegation zone. In January 2012, Swansea claimed their first away win of the season at [Villa](Aston)(Aston Villa F.C.), a month which also saw them beat [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) 3–2 at home and hold Chelsea to a 1–1 draw. This saw Rodgers earn his first [League Manager of the Month](Premier)(Premier League Manager of the Month) award. In February, Rodgers signed a new three-and-a-half-year contract to keep him at the club until July 2015.
### Liverpool
#### 2012–13 season
[[File:Brendan Rodgers 2014 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Rodgers with [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.) in 2014]]
On 1 June 2012, Rodgers was unveiled as the new [manager](Liverpool)(List of Liverpool F.C. managers) on a three-year contract, following the departure of [Dalglish](Kenny)(Kenny Dalglish) two weeks prior. Rodgers' appointment was immediately endorsed by former colleague and [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF) manager [Mourinho](José)(José Mourinho). In July 2012, Rodgers wrote an open letter to the Swansea City supporters, thanking both the staff and supporters for his time at the club, and wishing them well for the future. Days later, Rodgers held his first training session at [Melwood](Melwood) as the squad reported back for pre-season training.
On 2 August 2012, Rodgers oversaw his first competitive game as Liverpool manager, a 1–0 win in the [Europa League](UEFA)(2012–13 UEFA Europa League) against Belarusian club [Gomel](FC Gomel), and won his first home game in charge in the second leg one week later. In his first league game as manager on 18 August, Liverpool lost 3–0 against West Brom at [Hawthorns](The)(The Hawthorns). His first win in the league came against [City](Norwich)(Norwich City F.C.) at [Road](Carrow)(Carrow Road), Liverpool winning 5–2. On 31 October, Rodgers welcomed his former club Swansea to [Anfield](Anfield) in the fourth round of the [Cup](League)(2012–13 Football League Cup), a match Liverpool lost 3–1. On 6 December, Liverpool defeated [Udinese](Udinese Calcio) 1–0 away in the Europa League to qualify for the round of 32 as group winners.
On 27 January 2013, Liverpool were knocked out of the [Cup](FA)(2013–14 FA Cup) in the [round](fourth)(2012–13 FA Cup), surprisingly losing 3–2 to [One](League)(EFL League One) team [Athletic](Oldham)(Oldham Athletic A.F.C.). Liverpool finished in seventh position in the [League](Premier)(2012–13 Premier League) in his [season](first)(2012–13 Liverpool F.C. season) in charge, one position higher than the [season](previous)(2011–12 Liverpool F.C. season).
#### 2013–14 season
At the start of the [season](2013–14)(2013–14 Premier League), Rodgers was named the [League Manager of the Month](Premier)(Premier League Manager of the Month) for August 2013 as Liverpool won their first three league games of the [season](2013–14 Liverpool F.C. season). In January 2014, he was fined £8,000 after making comments about referee [Mason](Lee)(Lee Mason) after a 2–1 loss to Manchester City in December 2013. He was later named Manager of the Month for the second time that season for March 2014, after Liverpool won all five of their games that month to go top of the Premier League.
A run of 11-straight wins for Liverpool left them five points clear at the top of the Premier League with just three matches to play. However, they then suffered a 2–0 home defeat to Chelsea on 27 April. This result handed the advantage to Manchester City in the title race. In their next game away to [Palace](Crystal)(Crystal Palace F.C.) on 5 May, Liverpool led 3–0 with 11 minutes to go, but the game finished 3–3. Liverpool ended the season as Premier League runners-up, two points behind champions Manchester City.
Liverpool scored 101 league goals in the season, the club's most since the [season](1895–96)(1895–96 in English football) and the third-highest in Premier League history. Later that month, Rodgers was named the [Manager of the Year](LMA)(LMA Manager of the Year), becoming the first Liverpool manager to win the accolade in its 20-year history. On 26 May 2014, Rodgers signed a new four-year contract at Liverpool.
#### 2014–15 season
Liverpool were eliminated from the [UEFA Champions League](2014–15)(2014–15 UEFA Champions League) after drawing against [Basel](FC Basel) in their final group match, dropping into the [League](Europa)(2014–15 UEFA Europa League). *The Reds* were subsequently knocked out in the Europa League round of 32 after losing 4–5 on [penalties](Penalty shoot-out (association football)) to Turkish side [Beşiktaş](Beşiktaş J.K.). On 19 April 2015, Liverpool were defeated by Aston Villa in the [Cup](FA)(2014–15 FA Cup) semi-final. Liverpool finished the season with a 6–1 defeat to [City](Stoke)(Stoke City F.C.), finishing sixth in the [League](Premier)(2014–15 Premier League). Premier League match report |url=http://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/may/24/stoke-city-liverpool-premier-league-match-report |access-date=31 July 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en}} This meant Rodgers became the first Liverpool manager since the 1950s not to win a trophy after three seasons in charge. Despite this, Rodgers received the backing of Liverpool's [owners](Fenway Sports Group).
#### 2015–16 season
On 4 October 2015, Liverpool played their 225th [derby](Merseyside)(Merseyside derby) against [Everton](Everton F.C.) with the game ending again in a 1–1 draw. This was the fifth time in Liverpool's previous six games that they had taken a 1–0 lead, then to have the game end in a 1–1 draw; while they had just one win in their previous nine games. Just one hour after the game, Rodgers was sacked, leaving Liverpool in tenth place after eight matches played. Later, it became known that the decision to sack him had already been made prior to the match against Everton. The following day, Rodgers released a statement through the [Managers Association](League)(League Managers Association) stating, "I am, of course, incredibly disappointed to be leaving... [but] it has been both an honour and a privilege to manage one of the game's great clubs."
Rodgers' signings for Liverpool included [Milner](James)(James Milner), [Firmino](Roberto)(Roberto Firmino), [Coutinho](Philippe)(Philippe Coutinho), [Lallana](Adam)(Adam Lallana), [Gomez](Joe)(Joe Gomez (footballer)), [Lovren](Dejan)(Dejan Lovren), [Origi](Divock)(Divock Origi) and [Balotelli](Mario)(Mario Balotelli).
### Celtic
#### 2016–17 season
[[File:Cel-Zen (12) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Rodgers with [Celtic](Celtic F.C.) in 2018]]
Rodgers was appointed manager of [Premiership](Scottish)(Scottish Premiership) champions Celtic on a 12-month rolling contract on 20 May 2016, following the exit of [Deila](Ronny)(Ronny Deila). Upon his arrival in Glasgow, Rodgers spoke of his admiration for the late [Burns](Tommy)(Tommy Burns (footballer)), the former Celtic player and manager who was in charge of Reading when Rodgers began his coaching career.
On 12 July, in his first competitive game in charge, Celtic [1–0](lost)(Lincoln Red Imps 1-0 Celtic) away to Gibraltar's [Red Imps](Lincoln)(Lincoln Red Imps F.C.) in the first leg of their [qualifying round](second)(2016–17 UEFA Champions League qualifying phase and play-off round) of the [Champions League](2016–17)(2016–17 UEFA Champions League). He said of the surprise result, "There is obvious disappointment. There is no embarrassment." Celtic overcame their one-goal deficit with a 3–0 win at [Park](Celtic)(Celtic Park). On 23 August 2016, Celtic qualified for the [stage](group)(2016–17 UEFA Champions League group stage) of the 2016–17 Champions League for the first time in three years after a 5–4 aggregate victory over [Be'er Sheva](Hapoel)(Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C.). In the first game of the group stage, 13 September 2016, Rodgers suffered a 7–0 defeat against [Barcelona](FC Barcelona) at [Nou](Camp)(Camp Nou), this was Brendan Rodgers' heaviest defeat and the worst result for Celtic in European competition.
On 27 November 2016, Rodgers won his first trophy as a manager as Celtic beat [Aberdeen](Aberdeen F.C.) 3–0 in the [final](2016 Scottish League Cup Final (November)) of the [League Cup](Scottish)(Scottish League Cup). The win also gave Celtic their 100th major trophy.
On 31 December 2016, Rodgers became the first manager in Celtic history to win his opening three games against Rangers. This victory meant Celtic went 19 points clear, with a game in hand, in the [Scottish Premiership](2016–17)(2016–17 Scottish Premiership) table. It also secured Celtic their 5th consecutive league victory, 58 points from a possible 60, and stretched their unbeaten run in domestic football to 24 games.
On 2 April 2017, Celtic defeated Hearts 5–0 to secure the club's sixth consecutive league title, with eight games to spare. Five days later, Rodgers signed a new four-year contract with Celtic.
As Celtic's unbeaten domestic run continued, they subjected Rangers to their heaviest defeat at Ibrox since 1915, thrashing their rivals 5–1 on 29 April. Celtic's 2–0 win over Hearts on 21 May saw them finish 30 points ahead of second-placed Aberdeen in the league with a record 106 points, and the team become the first Scottish side to complete a top-flight season undefeated since 1899. On 27 May 2017, Celtic defeated [Aberdeen](Aberdeen F.C.) 2–1 to win the [Cup](Scottish)(2017 Scottish Cup Final), securing a domestic treble for the fourth time in their history, and ending the [season](2016–17)(2016–17 Celtic F.C. season) unbeaten in all domestic competitions.
#### 2017–18 season
On 4 November 2017, Rodgers guided Celtic to a 4–0 victory over [Johnstone](St)(St. Johnstone F.C.). This victory meant Celtic were unbeaten for their last 63 domestic games. The victory also meant they surpassed the 100-year British-held recorded for consecutive domestic games undefeated, which was also held by [Maley's](Willie)(Willie Maley) Celtic team, set in 1917 at 62. On 26 November 2017, Rodgers won his fourth trophy in a row as a manager as Celtic beat [Motherwell](Motherwell F.C.) 2–0 in the [Scottish League Cup Final](2017)(2017 Scottish League Cup Final). Rodgers became the first manager in the club's history to win his first four domestic trophies and also stretch the unbeaten domestic record to 65 games. This unbeaten run finally ended after 69 games, with a 4–0 loss to [Hearts](Heart of Midlothian F.C.).
On 29 April 2018, Rodgers secured his second and Celtic's seventh consecutive league title with a 5–0 win against Rangers at Celtic Park. This win also extended Celtic's unbeaten run against Rangers to 12 games. The season ended with Rodgers winning the first 'Double Treble' (a treble in two consecutive seasons) in Scottish football history with a 2–0 [Cup Final](Scottish)(2018 Scottish Cup Final) win over Motherwell on 19 May 2018.
#### 2018–19 season
Rodgers said that he turned down an approach from a [club](Chinese)(Football in China) during the summer of 2018. He told [Scotland](BBC)(BBC Scotland): "With China it's big money, but I've found happiness here." After failing to qualify for the Champions League, Celtic qualified in second place from the group stage of the UEFA Europa League. They were knocked out by Valencia in the round of 32, 3–0 on aggregate. Celtic won the Scottish League Cup in December 2018, Rodgers' seventh successive trophy with the club. In February 2019, with Celtic leading the Premiership by eight points, Rodgers departed Celtic, joining English [League](Premier)(Premier League) club [City](Leicester)(Leicester City F.C.).
### Leicester City
#### 2018–19 season
In February 2019, Rodgers was appointed manager of [City](Leicester)(Leicester City F.C.), following the sacking of [Puel](Claude)(Claude Puel). Rodgers' first game in charge of *The Foxes* was on 3 March 2019 away against former club Watford. The game ended in a 2–1 defeat, with [Gray](Andre)(Andre Gray) scoring a 92nd-minute winner for *the Hornets*. In Rodgers' home debut, his second game in charge, Leicester won 3–1 over struggling [Fulham](Fulham F.C.). Striker [Vardy](Jamie)(Jamie Vardy) scored his 100th goal for the club in the match.
#### 2019–20 season
On 6 December 2019, Rodgers signed a contract extension keeping him at the club until 2025. At the point of signing the deal, his team had recorded 7 wins in a row and sat second in the table after 15 Premier League games. In his first full season, Rodgers guided Leicester to fifth place and therefore qualifying for the [Europa League group stage](UEFA)(2020–21 UEFA Europa League group stage#Group G).
#### 2020–21 season
They started the [season](2020–21)(2020–21 Premier League) strongly, beating [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) 5–2 away from home on 27 September 2020, meaning that Rodgers is the first manager whose team have scored 5 goals against a team managed by [Guardiola](Pep)(Pep Guardiola). In Europe, Leicester managed to win the [League](Europa)(Europa League) group with [Braga](S.C. Braga), [Athens](AEK)(AEK Athens F.C.) and [Luhansk](Zorya)(FC Zorya Luhansk) to progress to the round of 16, but they were eliminated by [Prague](Slavia)(SK Slavia Prague) after a 0–0 away draw in [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic) and a 0–2 home loss.
On 15 May 2021, he led Leicester City to win the first [Cup](FA)(FA Cup) title in their history, after a 1–0 win over [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.) in the [final](2021 FA Cup Final). The end of the season in the league saw a fierce battle between Leicester, Chelsea and Liverpool for the remaining [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) spots. Despite being in third place for most of the season, a 1–2 loss to Chelsea in the penultimate round saw Leicester drop to 5th place after Liverpool's 3–0 defeat of [Burnley](Burnley F.C.), with Leicester and Liverpool tied on points and Chelsea up in third via a solitary point. Despite Chelsea's 1–2 loss against [Villa](Aston)(Aston Villa F.C.) giving them a chance to a fourth-place finish, Leicester couldn't take advantage due to a dramatic 2–4 loss to [Hotspur](Tottenham)(Tottenham Hotspur F.C.) after maintaining a 2–1 lead until [Schmeichel](Kasper)(Kasper Schmeichel)'s own goal in the 76th minute, coupled with a brace from [Bale](Gareth)(Gareth Bale). Thus, Leicester once again finished fifth, qualifying for the [League](Europa)(2021–22 UEFA Europa League).
#### 2021–22 season
In the Europa League, Leicester City finished third in their group to drop to the [Europa Conference League](UEFA)(2021–22 UEFA Europa Conference League), in which they managed to reach their first ever European semi-final as a club, before losing 2–1 on aggregate against [Roma](A.S. Roma), who were managed by Rodgers' former colleague [Mourinho](José)(José Mourinho).
#### 2022–23 season
Leicester began the season with seven defeats from their opening 10 Premier League games, slumping to the bottom of the table before a run of four wins from five games going into the [World Cup](2022)(2022 Fifa World Cup) break. The Foxes continued to struggle after the season resumed, and Rodgers conceded he understood fans' frustrations after chants against him from some away fans. He left the Foxes by mutual consent on 2 April following a 2–1 defeat against fellow strugglers [Palace](Crystal)(Crystal Palace F.C.). On 4 April, he said he had every confidence he would have been able to keep the team in the Premier League.
## Management style
Rodgers believes in his teams keeping possession of the ball and playing a flowing passing and attacking game with the ball always moving; defensively, he likes his team to put a lot of pressure on the opposing team.
His Liverpool team during the [season](2013–14)(2013–14 Liverpool F.C. season) interchanged from [4–5–1](4–5–1) to [3–5–2](3-5-2) to [4–4–2](4–4–2) to [4–3–3](4–3–3) to a diamond formation. [Gerrard](Steven)(Steven Gerrard) described Rodgers' one-on-one management as the best he had seen.
## Personal life
Rodgers separated from his wife, Susan, in the summer of 2014; the couple divorced in December 2015. They have two children – a son, [Anton](Anton Rodgers (footballer)), also a footballer, and a daughter, Mischa. Rodgers got engaged to Charlotte Searle in February 2016, and they married in June 2017. He is a boyhood [Celtic](Celtic F.C.) fan. On 6 March 2019, [thieves](theft) broke into his home in [Glasgow](Glasgow), stealing family possessions and medals he won at Celtic.
In June 2011, Rodgers joined a team representing the [League](Football)(English Football League) to climb [Kilimanjaro](Mount)(Mount Kilimanjaro) in aid of [Curie Cancer Care](Marie)(Marie Curie (charity)) in honour of his mother – who died in 2010 – and his father – who died of cancer in 2011. In June 2014, he was awarded an [honorary](Honorary degree) [of Science](Doctor)(Doctor of Science) [degree](Honorary degree) by the [of Ulster](University)(University of Ulster).
Rodgers speaks [Spanish](Spanish language) and [Italian](Italian language). His nickname is "Buck Rodgers", after the comic strip character [Rogers](Buck)(Buck Rogers).
In May 2020, Rodgers said that he and his wife had tested positive for [COVID-19](COVID-19) in March the same year after showing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic – both of them made full recoveries. Rodgers likened his breathing difficulties to the altitude when he climbed [Kilimanjaro](Mount)(Mount Kilimanjaro). The couple endured losses in smell, taste, and strength for three weeks before being tested positive.
## Managerial statistics
## Honours
### Manager
**Swansea City**
*[League Championship play-offs](Football)(Football League Championship play-offs): [2011](2011 Football League play-offs#Championship)
**Celtic**
*[Premiership](Scottish)(Scottish Premiership): [2016–17](2016–17 Scottish Premiership), [2017–18](2017–18 Scottish Premiership)
*[Cup](Scottish)(Scottish Cup): [2016–17](2016–17 Scottish Cup), [2017–18](2017–18 Scottish Cup)
*[League Cup](Scottish)(Scottish League Cup): [2016–17](2016–17 Scottish League Cup), [2017–18](2017–18 Scottish League Cup), [2018–19](2018–19 Scottish League Cup)
**Leicester City**
*[Cup](FA)(FA Cup): [2020–21](2020–21 FA Cup)
* [Community Shield](FA)(FA Community Shield): [2021](2021 FA Community Shield)
**Individual**
*[Manager of the Year](LMA)(LMA Manager of the Year): [2013–14](2013–14 Premier League)
*[Scotland Manager of the Year](PFA)(PFA Scotland Manager of the Year): [2016–17](2016–17 in Scottish football)
*[Manager of the Year](SFWA)(SFWA Manager of the Year): [2016–17](2016–17 in Scottish football)
*[Premiership Manager of the Season](Scottish)(Scottish Professional Football League yearly awards): [2016–17](2016–17 in Scottish football), [2017–18](2017–18 in Scottish football)
*[League Manager of the Month](Premier)(Premier League Manager of the Month): [2012](January)(2011–12 Premier League#Monthly awards), [2013](August)(2013–14 Premier League#Monthly awards), March 2014
*[League Championship Manager of the Month](Football)(EFL Championship Manager of the Month): [2011](February)(2010–11 Football League Championship#Monthly awards)
*[Premiership Manager of the Month](Scottish)(List of Scottish Professional Football League monthly award winners): [2016](August)(2016–17 Scottish Premiership#Awards), October 2016, December 2016, April 2017, [2017](September)(2017–18 Scottish Premiership#Awards)
## References
## External links
*[Manager Profile – Brendan Rodgers](http://www.lfchistory.net/Managers/Manager/Profile/25) at LFC History
*
*
}}
}}
[births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[footballers from County Antrim](Category:Association)(Category:Association footballers from County Antrim)
[footballers from Northern Ireland](Category:Association)(Category:Association footballers from Northern Ireland)
[association football defenders](Category:Men's)(Category:Men's association football defenders)
[United F.C. players](Category:Ballymena)(Category:Ballymena United F.C. players)
[F.C. players](Category:Reading)(Category:Reading F.C. players)
[(IOW) F.C. players](Category:Newport)(Category:Newport (IOW) F.C. players)
[Town F.C. players](Category:Witney)(Category:Witney Town F.C. players)
[Town F.C. players](Category:Newbury)(Category:Newbury Town F.C. players)
[Ireland men's youth international footballers](Category:Northern)(Category:Northern Ireland men's youth international footballers)
[of Ireland men's youth international footballers](Category:Republic)(Category:Republic of Ireland men's youth international footballers)
[football managers from Northern Ireland](Category:Association)(Category:Association football managers from Northern Ireland)
[F.C. managers](Category:Watford)(Category:Watford F.C. managers)
[F.C. managers](Category:Reading)(Category:Reading F.C. managers)
[City A.F.C. managers](Category:Swansea)(Category:Swansea City A.F.C. managers)
[F.C. managers](Category:Liverpool)(Category:Liverpool F.C. managers)
[F.C. managers](Category:Celtic)(Category:Celtic F.C. managers)
[City F.C. managers](Category:Leicester)(Category:Leicester City F.C. managers)
[Football League managers](Category:English)(Category:English Football League managers)
[League managers](Category:Premier)(Category:Premier League managers)
[Professional Football League managers](Category:Scottish)(Category:Scottish Professional Football League managers)
[football coaches](Category:Association)(Category:Association football coaches)
[F.C. non-playing staff](Category:Reading)(Category:Reading F.C. non-playing staff)
[F.C. non-playing staff](Category:Chelsea)(Category:Chelsea F.C. non-playing staff)
|
Genesis _band
|
genesis__band
|
# Genesis (band)
*Revision ID: 1159843646 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T22:00:58Z*
---
): [Stuermer](Daryl)(Daryl Stuermer), [Rutherford](Mike)(Mike Rutherford), [Banks](Tony)(Tony Banks (musician)), [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins)
| alt = Genesis onstage performing
| landscape = yes
| background = group_or_band
| origin = [Godalming](Godalming), [Surrey](Surrey), England
| genre = ||[rock](pop)(pop rock)|[pop](progressive)(progressive pop)|[rock](soft)(soft rock)}}
| years_active =
| label =
| spinoff_of =
| website =
| past_members = * [Banks](Tony)(Tony Banks (musician))
* [Rutherford](Mike)(Mike Rutherford)
* [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel)
* [Phillips](Anthony)(Anthony Phillips)
* [Stewart](Chris)(Chris Stewart (author))
* [Silver](John)(John Silver (musician))
* [Mayhew](John)(John Mayhew (musician))
* [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins)
* [Barnard](Mick)(Mick Barnard)
* [Hackett](Steve)(Steve Hackett)
* [Wilson](Ray)(Ray Wilson (musician))
}}
**Genesis** are an English [rock](rock music) band formed at [School](Charterhouse)(Charterhouse School), [Godalming](Godalming), [Surrey](Surrey), in 1967. The band's most commercially successful line-up consisted of keyboardist [Banks](Tony)(Tony Banks (musician)), bassist/guitarist [Rutherford](Mike)(Mike Rutherford) and drummer/singer [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins). In the 1970s, during which the band also included singer [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel) and guitarist [Hackett](Steve)(Steve Hackett), Genesis were among the pioneers of [rock](progressive)(progressive rock).
The group were formed by five Charterhouse pupils, including Banks, Rutherford, Gabriel, and [Phillips](Anthony)(Anthony Phillips), and named by former Charterhouse pupil [King](Jonathan)(Jonathan King), who arranged for them to record several singles and their debut album *[Genesis to Revelation](From)(From Genesis to Revelation)* in 1968. After splitting from King, the band began touring, signed with [Records](Charisma)(Charisma Records) and became a progressive rock band on *[Trespass](Trespass (album))* (1970). Following Phillips' departure, Genesis recruited Collins and Hackett and recorded *[Cryme](Nursery)(Nursery Cryme)* (1971). Their live shows began to feature Gabriel's theatrical costumes and performances. *[Foxtrot](Foxtrot (album))* (1972) was their first hit in the UK and *[England by the Pound](Selling)(Selling England by the Pound)* (1973) reached number three there, featuring their first UK hit "[Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)](I)(I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe))". The [album](concept)(concept album) *[Lamb Lies Down on Broadway](The)(The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway)* (1974) was promoted with a transatlantic tour and an elaborate stage show, before Gabriel left the group.
Collins took over as lead singer, and the group released *[Trick of the Tail](A)(A Trick of the Tail)* and *[& Wuthering](Wind)(Wind & Wuthering)* (both 1976) with continued success. Hackett left Genesis in 1977, reducing the band to Banks, Rutherford, and Collins. Their ninth studio album, *[Then There Were Three...](...And)(...And Then There Were Three...)* (1978), contained the band's first major hit "[You Follow Me](Follow)(Follow You Follow Me)". Their next five albums – *[Duke](Duke (album))* (1980), *[Abacab](Abacab)* (1981), *[Genesis](Genesis (Genesis album))* (1983), *[Touch](Invisible)(Invisible Touch)* (1986) and ''[Can't Dance](We)(We Can't Dance)* (1991) – were also successful. Collins left Genesis in 1996, and Banks and Rutherford replaced him with [Wilson](Ray)(Ray Wilson (musician)), who appeared on their final album *[All Stations](Calling)(Calling All Stations)'' (1997). The commercial failure of the album led to a group hiatus. Banks, Rutherford and Collins reunited for the [It On Again Tour](Turn)(Turn It On Again: The Tour) in 2007, and again in 2021 for [Last Domino? Tour](The)(The Last Domino? Tour).
With between 100 million and 150 million albums sold worldwide, Genesis are one of the world's [music artists](best-selling)(List of best-selling music artists). Their [discography](Genesis discography) includes 15 studio and six live albums. They have won numerous [awards](List of awards and nominations received by Genesis) (including a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) for [Concept Music Video](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video) with "[of Confusion](Land)(Land of Confusion)") and have inspired a number of [band](tribute)(tribute band)s recreating Genesis shows from various stages of the band's career. In 2010, Genesis were inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame).
## History
### 1967–1969: Formation, early demos, and *From Genesis to Revelation*
[[File:Chouse22.jpg|thumb|235px|The group formed at [School](Charterhouse)(Charterhouse School) in [Godalming](Godalming), [Surrey](Surrey).]]
The founding members of Genesis, [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel), [Banks](Tony)(Tony Banks (musician)), [“Ant” Phillips](Anthony)(Anthony Phillips), [Rutherford](Mike)(Mike Rutherford), and drummer [Stewart](Chris)(Chris Stewart (author)), met at [School](Charterhouse)(Charterhouse School), a [school](public)(Public school (United Kingdom)) in [Godalming](Godalming), [Surrey](Surrey). Banks and Gabriel arrived at the school in September 1963, Rutherford in September 1964, and Phillips in April 1965. The five were members in either one of the school's two bands; Phillips and Rutherford were in [Anon](Anon (band)) with singer [Macphail](Richard)(Richard Macphail), bassist [Jobe](Rivers)(Rivers Jobe), and drummer Rob Tyrrell while Gabriel, Banks, and Stewart made up [Wall](Garden)(Garden Wall (band)).
In January 1967, after both groups had split, Phillips and Rutherford continued to write together and proceeded to make a demo tape at a friend's home-made studio, inviting Banks, Gabriel, and Stewart to record with them in the process. The group recorded six songs: "Don't Want You Back", "Try a Little Sadness", "She's Beautiful", "That's Me", "Listen on Five", and "Patricia", an instrumental. When they wished to have them professionally recorded they sought Charterhouse alumnus [King](Jonathan)(Jonathan King), who seemed a natural choice as their publisher and producer following the success of his 1965 UK top five single, "[Gone to the Moon](Everyone's)(Everyone's Gone to the Moon)". A friend of the group gave the tape to King, who was immediately enthusiastic. Under King's direction, the group, aged between 15 and 17, signed a one-year recording contract with [Records](Decca)(Decca Records).
From August to December 1967, the five recorded a selection of potential singles at Regent Sound Studios in [Street](Denmark)(Denmark Street), London, where they attempted longer and more complex compositions, but King advised them to stick to more straightforward pop. In response Banks and Gabriel wrote "[Silent Sun](The)(The Silent Sun)", a pastiche of the [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees), one of King's favourite bands, which was recorded with orchestral arrangements added by [Greenslade](Arthur)(Arthur Greenslade). The group exchanged various names for the band, including King's suggestion of "Gabriel's Angels", before taking King's suggestion of "Genesis", indicating the start of his production career. King chose "The Silent Sun" as their first single, with "That's Me" on the [B-side](B-side), released in February 1968. It achieved some airplay on [Radio One](BBC)(BBC Radio One) and [Caroline](Radio)(Radio Caroline), but failed to sell. A second single, "A Winter's Tale" / "One-Eyed Hound", followed in May 1968, which also sold little. Three months later, Stewart left the group to continue with his studies. He was replaced by fellow Charterhouse pupil [Silver](John)(John Silver (musician)).
King believed that the group would achieve greater success with an album. The result, *[Genesis to Revelation](From)(From Genesis to Revelation)*, was produced at Regent Sound in ten days during their school's summer break in August 1968. King assembled the tracks as a [album](concept)(concept album), which he produced. Greenslade added further orchestral arrangements to the songs, but the band were not informed of this fact until the album was released. Phillips was upset about Greenslade's additions. When Decca found an American band already named Genesis, King refused to change his group's name. He reached a compromise by removing their name from the album cover, resulting in a minimalist design with the album title printed on a plain black background. When the album was released in March 1969, it became a commercial failure because many record shops filed it in the religious music section upon seeing the title. Banks recalled that "after a year or so", the album had "sold 649 copies". A third single, "Where the Sour Turns to Sweet" / "In Hiding", was released in June 1969. None of the releases was commercially successful. The lack of commercial success led to the band's split with King and Decca.King, Jonathan. *In the Beginning*, *[Genesis to Revelation](From)(From Genesis to Revelation)* (sleeve notes). 1993 release. King continued to hold the rights to the album, which has seen numerous reissues. In 1974, it peaked on the US chart at No. 170.
After the album was recorded, the band went their separate ways for a year; Gabriel and Phillips stayed at Charterhouse to finish exams, Banks enrolled at [University](Sussex)(University of Sussex), and Rutherford studied at [College of Technology](Farnborough)(Farnborough College of Technology). They regrouped in mid-1969 to discuss their future, for their offers in further education might result in the group splitting up. Phillips and Rutherford decided to make music their full-time career, for they were starting to write more complex music than their earlier songs with King. After Banks and Gabriel decided to follow suit, the four returned to Regent Sound in August 1969 and recorded four more demos with Silver: "Family" (later known as "Dusk"), "White Mountain", "Going Out to Get You", and "Pacidy". The tape was rejected by each record label that heard it. Silver then left the group to study leisure management in the United States. His replacement, drummer and carpenter [Mayhew](John)(John Mayhew (musician)), was found when Mayhew looked for work and left his phone number "with people all over London".
### 1969–1970: First gigs, signing with Charisma, and *Trespass*
In late 1969, Genesis retreated to a cottage owned by Macphail's parents, in [Wotton](Wotton, Surrey), Surrey, to write, rehearse, and develop their stage performance. They took their work seriously, playing together for as much as eleven hours a day. Their first live gig as Genesis followed in September 1969 at a teenager's birthday. It was the start of a series of live shows in small venues across the UK, which included a radio performance broadcast on the [BBC](BBC)'s *[Ride](Night)(Night Ride (BBC Radio 2))* show, on 22 February 1970, and a spot at the Atomic Sunrise Festival held at the [Roundhouse](Roundhouse (venue)) in [Farm](Chalk)(Chalk Farm) a month later. During this time the band met with various record labels regarding contract offers. Initial discussions with [Blackwell](Chris)(Chris Blackwell) of [Island](Island Records) and [Wright](Chris)(Chris Wright (music industry executive)) of [Chrysalis](Chrysalis Records) were unsuccessful. In March 1970, during the band's six-week Tuesday night residency at [Scott's Jazz Club](Ronnie)(Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club) in [Soho](Soho), members of [Bird](Rare)(Rare Bird), whom Genesis had previously supported live, recommended the band to producer and A&R man [Anthony](John)(John Anthony (record producer)) of [Records](Charisma)(Charisma Records). Anthony attended one of their shows and enjoyed them enough to convince his boss, label owner [Stratton-Smith](Tony)(Tony Stratton-Smith), to watch their next appearance. Stratton-Smith recalled, "Their potential was immediately apparent ... the material was good and their performance was good ... It was a long shot, because they needed time to find their strength ... but I was prepared to make that commitment". He agreed to a record and management deal within two weeks, paying Genesis an initial sum of £10 a week (equivalent to £|0}} in ).
Genesis stayed at Wotton until April 1970, by which time they had enough new material for a second album. Recording for *[Trespass](Trespass (album))* began in June at [Studios](Trident)(Trident Studios) in London, with Anthony as producer and [Hentschel](David)(David Hentschel) hired as assistant engineer. The album included longer and more complex songs than their first, blending [folk](Folk music) and [rock](progressive)(progressive rock) elements with various [signature](time)(time signature) changes, as in the nine-minute song "[Knife](The)(The Knife (song))". *Trespass* is the first in a series of three Genesis album cover designs by [Whitehead](Paul)(Paul Whitehead). He had completed the design before the band decided to include "The Knife" on the album. Feeling the cover no longer reflected the album's overall mood, the band persuaded Whitehead to slash a knife across the canvas and have the result photographed. Released in October 1970, *Trespass* reached No. 1 in [Belgium](Belgium) in 1971 and No. 98 in the UK in 1984. "The Knife" was released as a single in May 1971. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* briefly mentioned the album with a negative view following its 1974 reissue: "It's spotty, poorly defined, at times innately boring". "Genesis seemed to be dying a death around our second album", Gabriel told [Blake](Mark)(Mark Blake (writer)). "We couldn't get arrested. So I got a place at the [School of Film Technique](London)(London Film School)."
|width=25%}}
After *Trespass* was recorded, ill-health and developing [fright](stage)(stage fright) caused Phillips to leave Genesis. His last show with the band took place in [Heath](Haywards)(Haywards Heath) on 18 July 1970. He felt the increased number of gigs affected the group's creativity, and that several songs he wrote were not recorded or performed live. He had contracted [pneumonia](bronchial)(bronchial pneumonia) and became isolated from the rest of the band, feeling that it had too many songwriters in it. Banks, Gabriel, and Rutherford saw Phillips as an important member, being the most instrumental in encouraging them to turn professional. They regarded his exit as the greatest threat to the band and the most difficult to overcome. Gabriel and Rutherford decided the group should continue; Banks agreed on the condition that they find a new drummer that was of equal stature to the rest of the group. Mayhew was therefore fired, though Phillips later thought Mayhew's working-class background clashed with the rest of the band, which affected his confidence.
### 1970–1972: Collins and Hackett join and *Nursery Cryme*
The search for a new guitarist and drummer began with advertisements placed in copies of *[Maker](Melody)(Melody Maker)*. The invitation was spotted by drummer [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins), formerly of [Youth](Flaming)(Flaming Youth (band)), who already knew Stratton-Smith. He recalled, "My only knowledge of Genesis was through seeing the ads for their gigs. It seemed like they were constantly working. ... I thought 'At least I'm going to be working if I get the gig'." [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Queen drummer)), subsequently of [Queen](Queen (band)), turned down an invitation to audition. Collins went to the audition at Gabriel's parents' house in [Chobham](Chobham), Surrey with his Flaming Youth bandmate, guitarist [Caryl](Ronnie)(Ronnie Caryl). As they arrived early, Collins took a swim in the pool and heard what the other drummers were playing. "They put on 'Trespass', and my initial impression of a very soft and round music, not edgy, with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking [Stills and Nash](Crosby,)(Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young)". Gabriel and Rutherford noticed the confident way Collins approached and sat at his drum kit and knew he would be the right replacement. Banks said, "It was a combination of things. He could make it swing a little bit ... he could also tell good jokes and make us laugh ... And he could sing, which was an advantage because Mike and I were not very good at back-up vocals". In August 1970, Collins became the new drummer for Genesis. Caryl's audition was unsuccessful; Rutherford thought he was not the player the group were looking for.
After a short holiday, Genesis began to write and rehearse as a four-piece band in [Farnham](Farnham), Surrey. The now empty guitar sections in their songs allowed Banks and Rutherford to expand their sound and play what Gabriel described as "interesting chords". As they had not found a new guitarist, Genesis resumed as a live act with Rutherford adding [pedals](bass)(bass pedals) and Banks playing lead guitar lines on a [Pianet](Pianet) through a distorted [box](fuzz)(Distortion (music)) amplifier in addition to his keyboard parts, something that he credits in helping him develop his technique. In November 1970, after a second audition with Caryl fell through, Dave Stopps, owner of [club](Friars)(Friars Aylesbury) in [Aylesbury](Aylesbury), suggested they use [Barnard](Mick)(Mick Barnard) of The Farm, who joined the band for their gigs; which included Genesis's television debut on BBC's *[2](Disco)(Disco 2 (TV series))*. After two months of performances, the band found Barnard lacked in expertise and wished to try someone else. In December, Gabriel spotted a *Melody Maker* advert from [Hackett](Steve)(Steve Hackett), formerly of [World](Quiet)(Quiet World), who wanted to join a band of "receptive musicians, determined to drive beyond existing stagnant music forms". Gabriel advised Hackett to become familiar with *Trespass* and attend their upcoming gig at the [Theatre](Lyceum)(Lyceum Theatre, London) in London. Hackett auditioned with the group in a flat in [Court](Earl's)(Earl's Court) and formed an instant rapport with Rutherford through a common interest in [chord](inverted)(inverted chord)s. After Hackett joined in January 1971, Stratton-Smith organised a UK tour with Genesis opening for fellow Charisma acts [Lindisfarne](Lindisfarne (band)) and [der Graaf Generator](Van)(Van der Graaf Generator). Their first overseas dates took place in March with gigs in Belgium followed by their first of three consecutive appearances at the annual [Festival](Reading)(Reading Festival) on 26 June.
Rehearsals for the band's third album, *[Cryme](Nursery)(Nursery Cryme)*, took place at [House](Luxford)(Luxford House) near [Crowborough](Crowborough), [Sussex](East)(East Sussex), which Stratton-Smith had owned. Recording began at Trident Studios in August 1971 with Anthony and Hentschel reprising their respective roles as producer and assistant engineer. The band's sound evolved, with Hackett's more aggressive electric guitar work and Banks adding a [Mellotron](Mellotron) previously owned by [Crimson](King)(King Crimson) to his set of keyboards. The opening track, "[Musical Box](The)(The Musical Box (Genesis song))", originated when Phillips and Mayhew were in the group. The band developed the piece further including the addition of new guitar parts from Hackett. "The Musical Box" and "The Return of the Giant Hogweed" are the first recordings in which Hackett uses the [tapping](tapping) technique.[Interviews feature from *Nursery Cryme* DVD at 31:02–31:33](Band)(#NurseryCrymeDVD) Hackett and Collins wrote "For Absent Friends", which was the first Genesis track with Collins on lead vocals. On the album's cover, Whitehead depicted a Victorian [house](manor)(manor house) based on Gabriel's parents' home, and scenes and characters from the lyrics to "The Musical Box".
*Nursery Cryme* was released in November 1971 and reached No. 39 in the UK in 1974. Though the group still had a minor cult following at home, they started to achieve commercial and critical success in mainland Europe, with the album reaching No. 4 in the Italian charts. From November 1971 to August 1972, Genesis toured to support the album, including further visits to Belgium and, for the first time, Italy, where they played to enthusiastic crowds. In January and March 1972 they recorded radio sessions for BBC's *Sounds of the Seventies* program, and later in the year performed at the Reading Festival to some critical acclaim. During the tour, Genesis recorded "Happy the Man", a non-album single, with "[Stones](Seven)(Seven Stones (song))" from *Nursery Cryme* on its B-side.
### 1972–1974: *Foxtrot* and *Selling England by the Pound*
[[Gabriel The Watcher of the Skies (cropped).png|thumb|left|200px|Gabriel in 1974 performing "Watcher of the Skies", dressed in a cape with bat wings and fluorescent makeup](File:Peter)]
Following rehearsals in a dance school in [Bush](Shepherd's)(Shepherd's Bush), Genesis recorded *[Foxtrot](Foxtrot (album))* at [Studios](Island)(Island Studios) in August and September 1972. During the early sessions, disagreements between Charisma and Anthony contributed to the end of his association with Genesis. After two replacement engineers were tried out, the band settled on [Burns](John)(John Burns (audio engineer)) and a new producer, [Hitchcock](Dave)(Dave Hitchcock).
The album features the 23-minute track "[Ready](Supper's)(Supper's Ready)", a suite of various musical segments. The track included an opening acoustic piece, a Gabriel-penned song called "Willow Farm", and a piece derived from a jam by Banks, Rutherford and Collins called "Apocalypse in 9/8". Other songs were the [science-fiction](science-fiction)-themed "[of the Skies](Watcher)(Watcher of the Skies)" and the property-development-themed "['Em Out by Friday](Get)(Get 'Em Out by Friday)". *Foxtrot* was released in October 1972 and reached No. 12 in the UK. It fared even better in Italy, where it went to No. 1. *Foxtrot* was well received by critics. [Welch](Chris)(Chris Welch) of *Melody Maker* thought *Foxtrot* was "a milestone in the group's career", "an important point of development in British group music", and that Genesis had reached "a creative peak". [Thomas Erlewine](Stephen)(Stephen Thomas Erlewine) thought *Foxtrot* marked the first time "Genesis attacked like a rock band, playing with a visceral power".
The *Foxtrot* tour covered Europe and North America from September 1972 to August 1973. Gabriel surprised the other members of the band at the [Stadium](National)(National Stadium (Ireland)) in [Dublin](Dublin) on 28 September 1972 by wearing a costume on stage, following a suggestion by Charisma booking agent [Conroy](Paul)(Paul Conroy (Music Executive)). He went off stage during an instrumental section in "The Musical Box" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head. The incident resulted in front cover reports in the music press, allowing the band to double their performance fee. In December 1972 Stratton-Smith organised the band's first gigs in the US, with a show at [University](Brandeis)(Brandeis University) in [Massachusetts](Waltham,)(Waltham, Massachusetts), and one at [Hall](Philharmonic)(David Geffen Hall) in New York City with openers [Driven Thing](String)(String Driven Thing), in aid of the [Cerebral Palsy Fund](United)(United Cerebral Palsy). They were well received despite the band complaining of technical issues. Gabriel's costumes expanded in the following months to include [face paint](fluorescent)(Luminous paint) and a cape fitted with bat wings for "Watcher of the Skies", several guises throughout "Supper's Ready" and a mask of an old man for "The Musical Box". An album of recordings from the following UK leg, initially recorded for the American radio program *[Biscuit Flower Hour](King)(King Biscuit Flower Hour)*, was released as *[Live](Genesis)(Genesis Live)* in July 1973. It reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 105 in the US.
In the summer of 1973, Genesis re-signed their contracts with Charisma. Stratton-Smith said they got "a much improved deal" despite them being able to get a better one with a bigger label, but the group were loyal and trusted the label with their careers. With a new contract and thus a green-light for a new album, Genesis recorded *[England by the Pound](Selling)(Selling England by the Pound)* at Island Studios in August 1973, the second Genesis album that Burns co-produced. Much of it was written at Una Billings School of Dance and [Chessington](Chessington). Gabriel contributed lyrics based on the idea of commercialism and the decline of English culture and the rise in American influences. Its title refers to a [Labour Party](UK)(Labour Party (UK)) slogan to make it clear to music critics who may have thought Genesis were beginning to "sell out" to the US. "[of Fifth](Firth)(Firth of Fifth)" features an extended electric guitar solo from Hackett. The album's cover is a modified version of a painting named *The Dream* by Betty Swanwick who added a lawn mower to tie the image to the lyrics of "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)".
*Selling England by the Pound* was released in October 1973 to a positive critical reception, though slightly more muted than *Foxtrot*. The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 70 in the US. By this time, Genesis had made little effort to organise their finances and were £150,000 in debt (equivalent to £|0}} in ).. They hired promoter [Smith](Tony)(Tony Smith (manager)) as their new manager to improve their fortunes and published the band's subsequent music through his company, [& Run Music Publishing](Hit)(Hit & Run Music Publishing). The *Selling England by the Pound* tour visited Europe and North America between September 1973 and May 1974. Their six shows in three days at [Roxy](The)(Roxy Theatre (West Hollywood)) in Los Angeles were well received by audiences and critics. The success of the tour earned the group the "Top Stage Band" title by readers of *[NME](NME)*. At its conclusion, Macphail resigned as their tour manager as he wished to pursue other interests. "[Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)](I)(I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe))" was released as a UK single with "Twilight Alehouse", a non-album track recorded in 1972; it reached No. 21 following its release in February 1974. Its success led to an offer for Genesis to appear on BBC's national show *[of the Pops](Top)(Top of the Pops)*; the group thought this would not suit their image, and they declined the offer.
### 1974–1975: *The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* and Gabriel's departure
In June 1974, Genesis started work on their [double](Double album) [album](concept)(concept album) *[Lamb Lies Down on Broadway](The)(The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway)*. This marked a point at which Gabriel's relationship with the rest of the group became increasingly strained, which contributed to his departure. The album was written at [Grange](Headley)(Headley Grange) in [Hampshire](East)(East Hampshire), where upon their arrival the building had been left in a very poor state by the previous band, with rat infestations and excrement on the floor. Gabriel objected to Rutherford's idea of an album based on *[Little Prince](The)(The Little Prince)* by [de Saint-Exupéry](Antoine)(Antoine de Saint-Exupéry), thinking the idea was "too twee". He proposed to the band a less fantastical and more complicated story involving Rael, a [Rican](Puerto)(Puerto Ricans) youth living in New York City who embarks on a spiritual quest to establish his freedom and identity while meeting several bizarre characters on the way.Welch, Chris. "Genesis: The Lamb Lies Down On Broadway". *Melody Maker*, 23 November 1974. Gabriel wrote the story with influences from *[Side Story](West)(West Side Story)*, "a kind of punk" twist to ''[Progress](Pilgrim's)(Pilgrim's Progress)*, author [Jung](Carl)(Carl Jung), and the film *[Topo](El)(El Topo)'' by [Jodorowsky](Alejandro)(Alejandro Jodorowsky). Most of the album's lyrics were written by Gabriel, leaving much of its music to the rest of the group. His absence from a considerable amount of writing sessions due to difficulties with his wife's first birth was something about which Rutherford and Banks "were horribly unsupportive". Gabriel also left the group when director [Friedkin](William)(William Friedkin) asked him to write a screenplay, but returned after the project was shelved. In August 1974, production moved to Glaspant Manor in [Carmarthenshire](Carmarthenshire), [Wales](Wales) with Burns as co-producer, operating Island Studios' mobile equipment. Further work and mixing took place at Island, where [Eno](Brian)(Brian Eno) contributed synthesizers and effects that the album's sleeve credits as "Enossification". When Gabriel asked Eno how the band could repay him, Eno said he needed a drummer for his track "[Whale Eyeless](Mother)(Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy))". Collins said, "I got sent upstairs as payment". Gabriel was pleased with Eno's work but Banks was less enthusiastic.
[[live 1974-11-20.jpg|thumb|right|245px|Rutherford, Gabriel, and Collins in 1974 during *The Lamb...* tour](File:Genesis)]
*The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* was released in November 1974 and reached No. 10 in the UK and No. 41 in the US. "Counting Out Time" and "[Carpet Crawlers](The)(The Carpet Crawlers)" were released as singles in 1974 and 1975, respectively. Its sleeve is the first of four Genesis albums designed by [Thorgerson](Storm)(Storm Thorgerson) and [Powell](Aubrey)(Aubrey Powell (designer)) of [Hipgnosis](Hipgnosis). From November 1974 to May 1975, Genesis completed 102 dates across North America and Europe as part of [Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* tour](*The)(The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway Tour). Their set included *The Lamb...* performed in its entirety with an encore, a decision that was not supported by the entire band considering most of the audience were not yet familiar with the large amount of new material.Neer, Dan (1985). *Mike on Mike* [LP](interview), Atlantic Recording Corporation. The stage show involved new, more elaborate costumes worn by Gabriel, three backdrop screens that displayed 1,450 slides from eight projectors, and a [lighting display](laser)(laser lighting display). Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.
During their stay in [Cleveland](Cleveland) during the tour, Gabriel told the band he would leave at its conclusion. He wrote a statement regarding his departure to the English press that was published in August 1975 titled "Out, Angels Out", explaining he had become disillusioned with the music industry and wanted to spend extended time with his family. Banks later stated, "Pete was also getting too big for the group. He was being portrayed as if he was 'the man' and it really wasn't like that. It was a very difficult thing to accommodate. So it was actually a bit of a relief."
### 1975–1977: Collins becomes frontman, *A Trick of the Tail*, *Wind & Wuthering*, and Hackett's departure
Following the *Lamb* tour, Hackett recorded his first solo album *[of the Acolyte](Voyage)(Voyage of the Acolyte)* as he felt unsure that Genesis would survive following Gabriel's departure. He reconvened with the remaining group members in London in July 1975. Collins' idea of continuing as an instrumental group was quickly rejected by the group as they thought it would become boring. Rehearsals for *[Trick of the Tail](A)(A Trick of the Tail)* took place in [Acton](Acton, London) where material was quickly written and with little effort; most of "Dance on a Volcano" and "Squonk" was put together in the first three days. Recording began in October 1975 at Trident Studios with Hentschel as producer. As a replacement singer had not been found, the band decided to record the album without vocals and audition singers as they went. They placed an anonymous advertisement in *Melody Maker* for "a singer for a Genesis-type group", which received around 400 replies. Collins proceeded to teach selected applicants the songs; Witches Brew frontman and flautist Mick Strickland was invited into the studio to sing, but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range, and the band decided not to work with him. Having failed to find a suitable vocalist, Collins went into the studio and attempted to sing "Squonk". His performance was well received by the band, and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist. Collins then sang on the remaining tracks.
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*A Trick of the Tail* was released in February 1976 and was a commercial and critical success for the band. The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 31 in the US. The title track was released as a single, though it did not chart. In June, the album was certified Gold by the [Phonographic Institute](British)(British Phonographic Institute) for selling over 100,000 copies which helped the band clear the £400,000 of debt (equivalent to £|0}} in ) they owed when Gabriel left. For the first time in their career Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs, including "A Trick of the Tail" and "Robbery, Assault and Battery". Before the upcoming tour, Collins sought a drummer he felt comfortable with while singing; he chose [Bruford](Bill)(Bill Bruford) who offered to do the job. From March to July 1976, Genesis performed across North America and Europe with the [Trick of the Tail* tour](*A)(A Trick of the Tail Tour), to enthusiastic crowds. Collins adopted a more humorous rapport with the audience, unlike Gabriel's theatrical approach, which was successful. The shows in [Glasgow](Glasgow) and [Stafford](Stafford) were filmed for their concert film *[In Concert](Genesis:)(Genesis: In Concert)*, released in cinemas in February 1977 as a [bill](double)(double bill) with *[Rock](White)(White Rock (film))*.
In September 1976, Genesis relocated to Relight Studios at [Hilvarenbeek](Hilvarenbeek) in [Netherlands](the)(Netherlands) with Hentschel to record *[& Wuthering](Wind)(Wind & Wuthering)*. It was put together in a short amount of time and a considerable amount of material was written beforehand, of which the most suitable songs were picked for development. Rutherford spoke of the band's conscious effort to distance themselves from songs inspired by fantasy, something that their past albums "were full of". The band spent roughly six weeks writing the album with a basic form of each track put down in twelve days. Additional recording and production work was done at Trident Studios that October. Hackett, having already released a solo album, enjoyed the greater amount of control over the recording process that working within a group could not provide. He felt his songs, including "Please Don't Touch" (which he later released on his second album ''[Don't Touch!](Please)(Please Don't Touch)*) were rejected from the final track order in favour of material that Banks, in particular, had put forward. Collins spoke of the situation, "We just wanted to use what we agreed was the strongest material, irrespective of who wrote it". *Wind & Wuthering'' was released in December 1976 and reached No. 6 in the UK and No. 26 in the US. Rutherford's track, "[Own Special Way](Your)(Your Own Special Way)", became its sole single and went to No. 43 in the UK. Its B-side is "It's Yourself", originally intended for *A Trick of the Tail*.
[[Hackett 1977.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Hackett in January 1977 on the *Wind & Wuthering* tour, the last before his departure](File:Steve)]
Prior to the 1977 tour, Bruford declined an offer to return as second drummer, leaving Collins searching for a replacement. He heard American drummer [Thompson](Chester)(Chester Thompson), of [Zappa](Frank)(Frank Zappa)'s band and [Report](Weather)(Weather Report), play a drum passage on "[Trouble Every Day](More)(Trouble Every Day (song))" from Zappa's live album *[& Elsewhere](Roxy)(Roxy & Elsewhere)*. Collins said, "It floored me completely ... I had never met him. I rang him up and said, 'Hi Chester, I've heard your stuff, would you like to play with Genesis?' ... He didn't even audition!" Genesis toured *Wind & Wuthering* from January to July 1977 across Europe, North America, and for the first time, [Brazil](Brazil). The stage show cost £400,000 (equivalent to £|0}} in ). which featured a new [system](PA)(public address system), lasers and smoke, and lighting supplied from two rows of [747](Boeing)(Boeing 747) aircraft landing lights. Touring began on 1 January with three sold-out shows at the [Theatre](Rainbow)(Rainbow Theatre) in London, where 80,000 applications were made for the 8,000 available tickets. They returned to London for three nights at [Court](Earls)(Earls Court Exhibition Centre), then the largest arena in Britain, supported by [Havens](Richie)(Richie Havens). The band's growing popularity in North America led to television appearances and concerts organised in larger venues than previous tours, including [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden) in New York City. Their Brazilian dates were attended by over 150,000 people and a proposed 100,000-person gig was cancelled over rioting fears. An armed bodyguard accompanied each member throughout their stay.
In May 1977 Genesis released *[the Pigeon](Spot)(Spot the Pigeon)*, an [play](extended)(extended play) of three tracks left off *Wind & Wuthering*. It peaked at No. 14 on the UK singles chart. It was the final Genesis release before Hackett left the group. He had been writing more material on his own and found it increasingly difficult to contribute more of his ideas within a group context. He wished to embark on a solo career and "take the risk in order to find out just how good I was on my own".[Interviews feature from *...And Then There Were Three...* DVD at 2:08–2:15](Band)(#ATTWTDVD) News of Hackett's departure coincided with the band's double live album *[Out](Seconds)(Seconds Out)*, recorded in [Paris](Paris) on the *A Trick of the Tail* and *Wind & Wuthering* tours and released in October 1977. It reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 47 in the US.
### 1977–1980: *...And Then There Were Three...* and *Duke*
By the time *Seconds Out* was released, Banks, Rutherford, and Collins had already recorded *[Then There Were Three...](...And)(...And Then There Were Three...)*, the first Genesis album recorded as a trio, in September 1977 at Relight Studios with Hentschel as producer. It was then mixed at Trident Studios in London. In order to put across a greater number of musical ideas, the album is a collection of shorter songs. Most of its eleven songs were written individually; Banks contributed four, Rutherford three, Collins one, and the remaining three were written collectively. Their new material signalled a change in the band's sound with songs becoming more pop-oriented, including the group-written track "[You Follow Me](Follow)(Follow You Follow Me)". Collins recalled it was the only song on the album written from scratch during rehearsals. Rutherford felt comfortable taking on lead guitar duties in addition to his usual rhythm and bass roles, although the band had considered auditioning replacement guitarists or using a session guitarist on the album. Collins later saw the album as "a very vocal, solid album" that lacked more rhythmic tracks like "Los Endos" or songs from *Wind & Wuthering*, as coming up with ideas on the drums while living in his flat in [Ealing](Ealing) with his family was difficult.
*...And Then There Were Three...* was released in March 1978. It received some mixed reviews from critics at the time owing to the album only containing short songs, which excited new fans but disillusioned those who had been used to the band's previous work. [Welch](Chris)(Chris Welch) wrote a positive review in *Melody Maker*, citing a "remarkably powerful" album. It was a commercial success and peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US. "Follow You Follow Me" was released as its lead single and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 23 in the US, their highest-charting single in both countries since their formation. Its success introduced the band to a new audience, including a larger female interest, helped by its music video airing on *Top of the Pops*. Its success caused some fans to accuse the group of [out](selling)(selling out) to more commercial music. A follow-up single, "[Too Many](Many)(Many Too Many)", was less successful, for it had already appeared on the album.
In the search for a new touring guitarist, Rutherford tried out [Thrall](Pat)(Pat Thrall) and [Randall](Elliot)(Elliot Randall), followed by [Johnson](Alphonso)(Alphonso Johnson) of Weather Report, but he was primarily a bassist and could not play Hackett's lead guitar parts comfortably. Johnson then suggested American guitarist [Stuermer](Daryl)(Daryl Stuermer) of [Ponty](Jean-Luc)(Jean-Luc Ponty)'s [fusion](jazz)(jazz fusion) group, who was more comfortable with various guitar styles. During Stuermer's rehearsal in New York City, Rutherford was satisfied with his performance after they played through "Down and Out" and "Squonk". When Stuermer was chosen, he familiarised himself with a list of 26 songs he was asked to learn by going through five per day. The *...And Then There Were Three...* tour ran from March to December 1978 and visited North America, Europe, and for the first time, Japan. It cost an estimated £2 million to stage (equivalent to £|0}} in ). which included the sound system, light and laser displays, and additional effects from six computer-controlled mirrors, all of which took eight hours to set up and five to dismantle. One of their shows featured a guest appearance from Gabriel, who sang "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)". In June, Genesis headlined the year's [Festival](Knebworth)(Knebworth Festival), their only UK show that year.
In December 1978, Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children. Following a meeting with Banks, Rutherford and Smith, Collins went to [British Columbia](Vancouver,)(Vancouver), Canada, to try and rebuild the family. He explained: "I was never going to leave the band. It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we'd have had to organise ourselves differently." Banks and Rutherford decided to put Genesis on an extended break and make their respective debut solo albums, *[Curious Feeling](A)(A Curious Feeling)* and ''[Day](Smallcreep's)(Smallcreep's Day (album))'', at [Studios](Polar)(Polar Studios) in [Stockholm](Stockholm), [Sweden](Sweden). In April 1979, Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage failed. With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album, Collins performed with [X](Brand)(Brand X), played the drums on former bandmate Peter Gabriel's third album, and started writing his own first solo album, *[Value](Face)(Face Value (album))*, at his home in [Surrey](Shalford,)(Shalford, Surrey).
In 1979, Banks and Rutherford moved into Collins's home in Shalford to write and rehearse material for *[Duke](Duke (album))*. The three found the writing process easier and less complicated than *And Then There Were Three*. Rutherford reasoned that this was the case because they were "getting back to the basic stage of ideas being worked on jointly". Banks put it down to their break in activity, resulting in "good ideas ... which hasn't happened for some time". *Duke* continued the band's transition into writing shorter songs. Each member contributed two songs for the group to develop: Banks put forward "Heathaze" and "Cul-de-Sac", Rutherford used "Man of Our Times" and "Alone Tonight", and Collins had "[Misunderstanding](Misunderstanding (Genesis song))" and "Please Don't Ask". All three wrote the remaining five tracks, including "[Duchess](Duchess (Genesis song))", the first Genesis song to feature a [machine](drum)(drum machine), specifically a [CR-78](Roland)(Roland CR-78) imported from Japan. In its original form, the album was to contain a 30-minute track based on a fictional character named Albert, but the idea was cancelled to avoid comparisons to "Supper's Ready" from *Foxtrot*. In November, the band recorded *Duke* at Polar Studios with Hentschel reprising his role as producer, and included a cover from French illustrator Lionel Koechlin, featuring the character Albert.
Released in March 1980, *Duke* was the band's biggest commercial success at the time of release, spending two weeks at No. 1 in the UK and peaking at No. 11 in the US. The album spawned three singles; "[It On Again](Turn)(Turn It On Again)" went to No. 8 in the UK, "Misunderstanding" reached No. 14 in the US, and "[Duchess](Duchess (Genesis song))" peaked at No. 46 in the UK. *Duke* was supported with a UK and North American tour from April to June 1980, which began with a 40-date tour of the UK for which all 106,000 tickets were sold within hours of going on sale.
### 1980–1985: *Abacab* and *Genesis*
[[File:The Farm recording studio 2006.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The band's remodelled studio in [Chiddingfold](Chiddingfold), Surrey, known as the Farm. *Abacab* was the first album recorded there.]]
In November 1980, Genesis bought [Lane Farm](Fisher)(The Farm (recording studio)), a farmhouse with an adjoining cowshed near [Chiddingfold](Chiddingfold), Surrey, as their new rehearsal and recording facility. The building was remodelled into a studio in four months before recording for *[Abacab](Abacab)* began in March 1981. The new environment had a productive effect on the writing process as the band wrote enough for a double album, but they discarded one hour's worth of songs that sounded too similar to their past albums. Banks said the band made an effort to keep melodies as simple as possible, which signalled further changes in their direction. The shift was underlined in its production when Hentschel, their producer and engineer since 1975, was replaced by [Padgham](Hugh)(Hugh Padgham) after Collins liked his production on *Face Value* and Gabriel's [solo album](third)(Peter Gabriel (1980 album)). Production duties were solely credited to the band for the first time with Padgham as their engineer. The album is formed of group written material with an individual song from each member. "[Reply at All](No)(No Reply at All)" features the [Horns](Phenix)(Phenix Horns), the [section](horn)(horn section) of American band [Wind & Fire](Earth,)(Earth, Wind & Fire).
*Abacab* was released in September 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 7 in the US. Three singles from the album entered the top forty in both countries; "[Abacab](Abacab (song))" reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 26 in the US, "No Reply at All" reached No. 29 in the US, and "[It Dark](Keep)(Keep It Dark)", a European-only single, went to No. 33 in the UK. *Abacab* was supported with a tour of Europe and North America from September to December 1981, ending with shows at Wembley Arena and the NEC Birmingham. The tour marked the band's first use of the [Vari-Lite](Vari-Lite), a computer-controlled [lighting](intelligent)(intelligent lighting) system. Following a demonstration at The Farm, the band and Smith showed an immediate interest in the technology and became shareholders of the company. In May 1982, three tracks recorded during the *Abacab* sessions – "[Paperlate](Paperlate)", "You Might Recall", and "Me and Virgil" – were released as an EP in Europe, *[3×3](3×3)*, which peaked at No. 10 in the UK. Its cover is a homage to the *[and Shout](Twist)(Twist and Shout (EP))* EP by [Beatles](the)(the Beatles), with sleeve notes written by that group's former publicist [Barrow](Tony)(Tony Barrow).
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In June 1982, Genesis released the double live album *[Sides Live](Three)(Three Sides Live)* in two different versions. The North American edition contains three sides of live recordings with the fourth comprising the *3×3* tracks and two from the *Duke* sessions. The European release contains a fourth side of extra live tracks. The album coincided with the home video release of the [Sides Live* concert film](*Three)(Three Sides Live (film)) recorded in 1981. A tour of North America and Europe followed that ran from August to September 1982, featuring guest appearances from [Bruford](Bill)(Bill Bruford) and the Phenix Horns. On 2 October, Genesis headlined a one-off concert with Gabriel at the [Keynes Bowl](Milton)(National Bowl) under the name [of the Best](Six)(Six of the Best). The concert was organised to raise money for Gabriel's [of Music, Arts and Dance](World)(World of Music, Arts and Dance) project that was, by that point, in considerable debt. Hackett, who flew in from abroad, arrived in time to perform the last two songs.
Work on the twelfth Genesis album, *[Genesis](Genesis (Genesis album))*, began in March 1983 with Padgham returning as engineer. It was the first album written, recorded, and mixed at the remodelled studio at the Farm. Banks remembered the band were scarce for new musical ideas that "felt at times as though we were stretching the material as far as we could". "[Mama](Mama (Genesis song))" concerns a man's obsession with a prostitute at a [Cuba](Cuba)n brothel. It originated from a beat Rutherford came up with on a [LinnDrum](LinnDrum) machine that was fed through his guitar amplifier and an echo gate. Collins' laugh on the track originated from "[Message](The)(The Message (Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five song))" by [Flash and the Furious Five](Grandmaster)(Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five). Released in October 1983, *Genesis* went to No. 1 in the UK and peaked at No. 9 in the US, where it reached Platinum by December that year and went on to sell over four million copies. Three tracks were released as singles; "Mama" reached No. 4 in the UK, their highest-charting UK single to date, and "[All](That's)(That's All (Genesis song))" reached No. 6 in the US. The Mama Tour ran from late 1983 through to 1984, covering North America and five UK shows in [Birmingham](Birmingham). The latter shows were filmed and released as *[Live – The Mama Tour](Genesis)(The Mama Tour)*.
In February 1984, Genesis took a break in activity to allow each member to continue with their solo careers. Rutherford formed his group [+ The Mechanics](Mike)(Mike + The Mechanics), Banks worked on his solo album *[Soundtracks](Soundtracks (Tony Banks album))*, and Collins released *[Jacket Required](No)(No Jacket Required)*, which achieved worldwide success and increased his popularity as a result. The music press took note that Collins' success as a solo artist made him more popular than Genesis. Before the release of *No Jacket Required*, Collins insisted that he would not leave the band. "The next one to leave the band will finish it", Collins told *Rolling Stone* magazine in May 1985. "I feel happier with what we're doing now, because I feel it's closer to me. I won't be the one." He added, "Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes. I still won't leave the group, but I imagine it will end by mutual consent." In June, Collins spoke of the band's intention to start work on a new album that year, ending rumours to a false announcement that aired on [Radio 1](BBC)(BBC Radio 1) suggesting Genesis had split.
### 1985–1996: *Invisible Touch*, ''We Can't Dance'', and Collins's departure
Genesis reconvened at The Farm in October 1985 to start work on *[Touch](Invisible)(Invisible Touch)*, which lasted for six months. They continued their method of songwriting used on *Genesis* by developing material from group improvisations. Banks remembered the time as a strong period creatively for the band, with ideas "flowing out of us". "[Touch](Invisible)(Invisible Touch (song))" was developed in such a way, when the group were working on "The Last Domino", the second part of "[Domino](Domino (Genesis song))". During the session, Rutherford began to play an improvised guitar riff to which Collins replied with an off-the-cuff lyric – "She seems to have an invisible touch" – which became the song's chorus hook.
Following its release in June 1986, the album spent three weeks at No. 1 in the UK and reached No. 3 in the US, and became the best-selling Genesis album with seven million copies sold. The album's five singles – "Invisible Touch", "[It All Away](Throwing)(Throwing It All Away)", "[of Confusion](Land)(Land of Confusion)", "[Too Deep](In)(In Too Deep (Genesis song))", and "[Tonight, Tonight](Tonight,)(Tonight, Tonight, Tonight)" – entered the top five on the US singles chart between 1986 and 1987 with "Invisible Touch" topping the chart for one week. Genesis became the first group and foreign act to achieve this feat, equalling the five singles record set by [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson), [Jackson](Janet)(Janet Jackson), and [Madonna](Madonna). Genesis commissioned the creators of the satirical British television show *[Image](Spitting)(Spitting Image)*, [Fluck](Peter)(Peter Fluck) and [Law](Roger)(Roger Law), to make puppets of them in the style of the show for the video of "Land of Confusion".
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The [Touch Tour](Invisible)(Invisible Touch Tour) was the band's largest world tour in its history, which included 112 dates from September 1986 to July 1987. Genesis received some criticism in their decision to have [beer](Michelob)(Anheuser-Busch brands) as a sponsor. The tour concluded with four consecutive sold-out shows at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium (1923)) in London. The shows were released in 1988 as *[Invisible Touch Tour](The)(Live at Wembley Stadium (Genesis DVD))*. When the tour ended, Genesis took a five-year break while each member committed to their solo projects. They performed twice during this time; on 14 May 1988, they performed a 20-minute set at the [Records 40th Anniversary concert](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary) at Madison Square Garden. This was followed by a set at a charity gig at the 1990 Knebworth Festival on 30 June, headlined by [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd).
In 1991 Genesis recorded their fourteenth album, ''[Can't Dance](We)(We Can't Dance)'', from March to September with their new engineer and co-producer, [Davis](Nick)(Nick Davis (record producer)). The band took advantage of the increased capacity the CD offered and released over 71 minutes of new music across 12 tracks. Collins wrote the lyrics to "Since I Lost You" for his friend [Clapton](Eric)(Eric Clapton) following the death of Clapton's four-year-old son Conor. Following the release of ''We Can't Dance'' in November 1991, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for one week and No. 4 in the US, where it went on to sell over 4 million copies.
The album spawned several hit singles; "[Son of Mine](No)(No Son of Mine)" went to No. 6 in the UK and "[Can't Dance](I)(I Can't Dance)" reached No. 7 in the UK and the US. In 1993, ''We Can't Dance* was nominated for a [Award](Brit)(Brit Award) for Best British Album.
[[Live- Land Of Confusion.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Genesis performing at the Knebworth Festival in August 1992.](File:Genesis)]
The *We Can't Dance* tour visited North America and Europe from May to November 1992 with each concert attended by an average of 56,000 people. The tour spawned two live albums; *[Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts](The)(The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts)* reached No. 3 in the UK and *[Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs](The)(The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs)* went to No. 1 in the UK. A live home video, also titled *[Way We Walk](The)(The Way We Walk)'', documented one of the band's six consecutive shows at [Court](Earl's)(Earl's Court) during November 1992. Following the tour, the band took a break in activity. Banks, Rutherford, and Collins performed at [Castle](Cowdray)(Cowdray Castle), [Midhurst](Midhurst) in September 1993 for a money-raising event with [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd) touring guitarist [Renwick](Tim)(Tim Renwick) and drummer [Wallis](Gary)(Gary Wallis) and [Queen](Queen (band)) drummer [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Queen drummer)). Rutherford also played bass on Pink Floyd's set at the same concert.
In March 1996, Collins announced his departure from Genesis. In a statement, he said, "Having been in Genesis for 25 years, I felt it time to change direction in my musical life. For me now, it will be music for movies, some jazz projects, and of course my solo career. I wish the guys in Genesis all the very best in their future. We remain the best of friends."
### 1996–2006: Wilson as frontman, *Calling All Stations*, and hiatus
Shortly after Banks and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis in 1996, they went to The Farm to start writing *[All Stations](Calling)(Calling All Stations)*. Rutherford initially found the sessions difficult as he saw Collins as "the guy in the middle" who made Banks and himself work better. Their best ideas developed in this period were put forward while they auditioned new singers, including [Dunnery](Francis)(Francis Dunnery) and [Van Eede](Nick)(Nick Van Eede). The two main contenders, [Longdon](David)(David Longdon) (later of [Big Train](Big)(Big Big Train)) and Scottish singer [Wilson](Ray)(Ray Wilson (musician)) of [Stiltskin](Stiltskin), auditioned throughout 1996, which involved singing along to Genesis tracks with the lead vocals removed. Wilson was announced as the new Genesis singer in June 1997. Though much of the album was already written by the time he joined, Banks was pleased with his contributions to the album, which included writing the lyrics to "Small Talk" and riffs on "[About Us](Not)(Not About Us)" and "There Must Be Some Other Way". Banks and Rutherford opted for two drummers on *Calling All Stations* – Israeli session musician [Zidkyahu](Nir)(Nir Zidkyahu) and [D'Virgilio](Nick)(Nick D'Virgilio) of [Beard](Spock's)(Spock's Beard).
*Calling All Stations* was released in September 1997. It was a success in Europe, where it reached No. 2 in the UK, but the album only reached No. 54 in the US, their lowest charting album there since *Selling England by the Pound*. A single from the album, "[Congo](Congo (song))" reached the top 30 in the UK and Genesis completed a European tour from January to May 1998, adding Zidkyahu on drums and Irish guitarist [Drennan](Anthony)(Anthony Drennan). A North American tour was planned but was cancelled following its poor commercial response and lack of ticket sales, which led to Banks and Rutherford announcing in 2000 that the group would no longer be recording and touring.
In 1998, Banks, Collins, Gabriel, Hackett, Phillips, Rutherford, and Silver gathered for a photo session and dinner to celebrate the release of the four-disc box set, *[Archive 1967–75](Genesis)(Genesis Archive 1967–75)*. The set features "Supper's Ready" and "It" with new overdubs by Gabriel and Hackett. In 1999, Banks, Collins, Rutherford, Hackett, and Gabriel released a new version of "[Carpet Crawlers](The)(The Carpet Crawlers)" for the compilation album *[It On Again: The Hits](Turn)(Turn It On Again: The Hits)*. On 21 September 2000, Collins, Banks, Rutherford reunited at the [Managers Forum](Music)(Music Managers Forum), in honour of their manager Tony Smith. Gabriel attended the ceremony but chose not to perform. Genesis briefly performed at Gabriel's wedding in 2002. In 2004, Genesis released *[Collection](Platinum)(Platinum Collection (Genesis album))*, a three-disc compilation album covering the band's career that reached No. 21 in the UK.
### 2006–2020: Turn It On Again Tour, BBC documentary, and reunion speculation
In a press conference held in London in November 2006, Banks, Rutherford, and Collins announced their reunion for the [It On Again Tour](Turn)(Turn It On Again: The Tour), their first with Collins in fourteen years. They revealed the initial plan of touring *The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway* with Gabriel and Hackett. The five met in Glasgow in November 2004 to discuss the idea further, but it never developed further as Gabriel was unable to commit due to other projects. Instead, Banks, Rutherford and Collins decided to proceed with Chester Thompson and Daryl Stuermer returning on drums and guitar, respectively. In March 2007, a press conference was held in New York City to announce the North American leg.
[[File:Genesis Live 01.jpg|thumb|280px|Genesis performing at [Trafford](Old)(Old Trafford), [Manchester](Manchester) in 2007. From left to right, Daryl Stuermer on bass, Mike Rutherford on guitar, behind him Chester Thompson on drums, Phil Collins on vocals and Tony Banks on keyboards.]]
The Turn It On Again Tour featured a stage designed by architect [Fisher](Mark)(Mark Fisher (architect)) with a lighting display by [Woodroffe](Patrick)(Patrick Woodroffe (lighting designer)), included a 55-metre long LED backdrop formed of 9 million LED lights. The European leg saw close to 400,000 tickets sold in 40 minutes for shows in Germany and the Netherlands. The European leg ended with a free concert on 14 July at the [Maximus](Circus)(Circus Maximus) in [Rome](Rome) in front of around half a million people. This was filmed, and released on DVD the following year as *[in Rome 2007](When)(When in Rome 2007)*. A live album formed of recordings from various European dates was released in 2007 as *[over Europe 2007](Live)(Live over Europe 2007)*. On 7 July, the band played at the [Earth concert in London](Live)(Live Earth concert, London) at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium).
The band's autobiography *Genesis Chapter & Verse* was published in 2007 as a full colour 359 page hardback book. The writing credits were Tony Banks, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Steve Hackett, and Mike Rutherford, edited by Philip Dodd.
In 2007, the band's studio albums from *Trespass* to *Calling All Stations* were digitally remastered by [Davis](Nick)(Nick Davis (music producer)) across three box sets: *[1970–1975](Genesis)(Genesis 1970–1975)*, *[1976–1982](Genesis)(Genesis 1976–1982)* and *[1983–1998](Genesis)(Genesis 1983–1998)*. Each album is presented as a two-disc set containing a CD/[Audio CD](Super)(Super Audio CD) of a new stereo mix and a DVD with a [surround sound](5.1)(5.1 surround sound) mix and bonus features including previously unreleased live performances, interviews, and concert programs. Two more box sets followed in 2009, *[Live 1973–2007](Genesis)(Genesis Live 1973–2007)*, which collected all of the band's live albums, and *[Movie Box 1981–2007](Genesis)(Genesis Movie Box 1981–2007)*, which compiled all of the band's live home video releases.
After 2011, Genesis members expressed mixed opinions about a reunion. Collins retired from the music industry as an active musician that year in favour of family commitments, and has stated he can no longer play the drums due to medical issues. Hackett has said "I would say it's possible, but highly improbable. I've always been open to it. I'm not the guy who says no." Gabriel addressed the possibility of a reunion: "I never say never. It really didn't happen last time. I think there's a small chance, but I don't think it's very high." In 2014, Collins reiterated, "Have people thought it through? It's not as if you're going to get Peter as the singer, me as the drummer. I can't play any more, so it's never going to happen", adding it would not be likely for Gabriel to perform songs on which Collins originally sang lead vocals.
In 2014, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford, Collins and Hackett reunited for *[Together and Apart](Genesis:)(Genesis: Together and Apart)*, a BBC documentary about the band's history and the various solo albums the members have released. Although he participated in the documentary and promoted it, Hackett was critical following its broadcast, saying that it was biased and did not give him editorial involvement, adding that it ignored his solo work despite his speaking at length about it. The documentary also did not cover Ray Wilson's time in Genesis. In 2015, Hackett was doubtful about a Genesis reunion, saying: "Look at the documentary and you'll get an idea of the priorities that come across."
In 2015, Collins announced an end to his retirement, and speculated a reunion with Banks and Rutherford would be possible, a view that Banks endorsed. In 2017, Rutherford said he was also amenable to a reunion tour if Collins was interested. Hackett said he would like a reunion of Genesis's 1971–1975 line-up, but stressed it was very unlikely, adding "I won't say any more because I don't want to raise expectations." Collins published his autobiography in 2016, and stated in the introduction that he retired from Genesis in 2007.
### 2020–2022: The Last Domino? Tour
On 23 January 2020, Collins, Banks and Rutherford were spotted together at a basketball game in New York City's [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden), sparking rumours about a possible Genesis reunion. On 4 March, the trio announced their reformation and [Last Domino? Tour](The)(The Last Domino? Tour) on [Ball](Zoe)(Zoe Ball)'s [Radio 2](BBC)(BBC Radio 2) show. The tour was originally planned for seventeen dates across the UK and Ireland between November and December of the same year, with longtime touring guitarist/bassist [Stuermer](Daryl)(Daryl Stuermer) and Collins's son Nic on drums. Their usual touring drummer, [Thompson](Chester)(Chester Thompson), was not invited, and said he had not spoken to Collins in ten years. The tour was rescheduled twice due to the subsequent [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) and lockdown, firstly from April 2021 and then from September 2021. Collins asserted that the tour would be his last with Genesis due to his health issues, and said there were no plans for the band to record new music, but added: "Never say never". A North American leg was later added for November 2021, following the UK leg. The tour was supported with the release of a greatest hits set *[Last Domino? – The Hits](The)(The Last Domino? – The Hits)*.
The tour began on 20 September 2021. On 8 October, with four dates remaining, the UK leg was postponed due to a positive test for COVID-19 in the band. The dates were rescheduled for March 2022, ending with three shows in London on 24–26 March. Genesis performed their final concert of The Last Domino? Tour on 26 March in London. Gabriel was in attendance, but did not join the band on stage.
In September 2022, Genesis announced that they had sold a portion of their music rights to [Concord](Concord (entertainment company)) for an estimated £270 million. The deal includes publishing copyrights and streaming income from their post-1978 output, and solo albums by Banks, Rutherford, and Collins. Their earnings from the deal with Concord and The Last Domino? Tour made Genesis top a list of highest-paid entertainers of 2022 by ''Forbes* magazine, with $230 million.
On 3 March 2023, the 5 CD live box set *[Broadcasts](BBC)(BBC Broadcasts)'' was released, featuring material originally broadcast between 1970 and 1998.
## Musical style
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[[File:Mike Rutherford.jpg|thumb|left|Mike Rutherford playing his distinctive [neck guitar](double)(Multi-neck guitar), combining [12-string](Twelve-string guitar) and [bass](bass guitar).]]
Genesis identify first and foremost as songwriters. Though styles changed dramatically over the group's career, they were always built on musical contrasts and the willingness to experiment.
Members of the original line-up were exposed to [classical](Classical music) and [music](church)(church music) as well as rock artists of the 1960s, particularly [Beatles](the)(the Beatles). Gabriel's vocal style was influenced by [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding) and other [Stax](Stax Records) artists. Some of Genesis's music was inspired by [blues](blues) according to Hackett, who says that the sonic innovation of the electric guitar in the early 1970s came straight from this. In their early years, Genesis' music combined elements of the pop, [folk](folk music), and [psychedelic](psychedelic music) genres. Several songs developed during Phillips' time in the band originated on [guitar](12-string)(Twelve-string guitar)s, often with unconventional tunings. By the 1970s, the group began to include fantasy and surreal elements in their lyrics, such as "The Musical Box". *Nursery Cryme* marks the first time electric instruments were used more extensively. *A Trick of the Tail* marked a return to the band's roots with acoustic passages and songs inspired by fantasy.
Early lyrics drew from psychedelia, fantasy, [figures](mythological)(Myth), and fairytale themes. Gabriel emerged as one of the band's main lyricists who often incorporated puns and [entendre](double)(double entendre)s in his lines and track titles and addressed various themes including [commentary](social)(social commentary). *Selling England by the Pound* contains references to English culture of the time including "Aisle of Plenty", where four British supermarket chains are referenced to reflect the album's theme of commercialism. Literary sources are used as inspiration for many Genesis tracks; "[Cinema Show](The)(The Cinema Show)" is based on [S. Eliot](T.)(T. S. Eliot)'s poem *[Waste Land](The)(The Waste Land)*, and [C. Clarke](Arthur)(Arthur C. Clarke)'s novel ''[End](Childhood's)(Childhood's End)'' inspired the lyrics to "[of the Skies](Watcher)(Watcher of the Skies)".
By the time the group had slimmed down to the trio of Banks, Rutherford and Collins, they had decided to change lyrical styles, dealing more with everyday matters which connected with female fans. Collins' songs, in particular, were personal in nature. However, the group still featured humour in songs such as "Illegal Alien", and dealt with serious themes such as politics on "Land of Confusion" and commercialisation on "I Can't Dance".
Banks has said that a common way of developing songs throughout the band's career was for Collins to play the rhythm, Rutherford to set up a groove and riffs, and for him to add the harmonies and melodies on top. He cites the "Apocalypse in 9/8" section of "Supper's Ready", "The Cinema Show" and "Domino" as examples of this, and says the restrictions it gave him allowed the group to produce straightforward pop songs such as "Invisible Touch" and "Land of Confusion" in later years.
Banks has used a number of keyboards during Genesis' career, continually trying out new models, though he has used the piano regularly throughout the group's lifetime. In the 1970s he frequently used the [organ](Hammond)(Hammond organ), [Pianet](Hohner)(Hohner Pianet), [Mellotron](Mellotron), [Electronic Piano](RMI)(Rocky Mount Instruments) and [Pro Soloist](ARP)(ARP Pro Soloist). In the 1980s, he used the [Circuits Prophet 5](Sequential)(Sequential Circuits Prophet 5) and Prophet 10, the [Quadra](ARP)(ARP Quadra) and various [Korg](Korg) synthesizers. For the Turn It On Again tour in 2007, his main keyboard was a [OASYS](Korg)(Korg OASYS). As both a guitarist and bassist, Rutherford regularly swapped between the two roles, and his trademark instrument with Genesis, particularly through the 1970s, was a double-neck guitar. In the 1980s and beyond, he favoured the [Clapton Stratocaster](Eric)(Fender Eric Clapton Stratocaster).
## Legacy
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Genesis have been estimated to have sold between 100 and 150 million albums worldwide.Moskowitz, David V. *[The 100 Greatest Bands of All Time: A Guide to the Legends Who Rocked the World](https://books.google.com/books?id=8XG9CgAAQBAJ&dq=genesis+has+sold+million+records&pg=PA267) *. ABC-CLIO, 2015, p. 267. Their total certified album sales include 21.5 million in the US, 7.2 million in the UK, 5.6 million in Germany, and 3.4 million in France. Genesis have been awarded eleven Gold and four Multi-Platinum albums in the UK, while in the US they have seven Gold, two Platinum, and four Multi-Platinum albums.
In March 2010, Genesis were inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) by [Phish](Phish) guitarist [Anastasio](Trey)(Trey Anastasio). The band's awards include a [Clef Award](Silver)(Silver Clef Award) for outstanding contributions to British music at its second annual ceremony in 1977. In 1988, the band received one of the only two [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) issued for the short-lived [Concept Music Video](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video) category for "[of Confusion](Land)(Land of Confusion)". In September 2012, a Lifetime Achievement Award was given to the band at the inaugural Progressive Music Awards. In 2004, *[Q](Q (magazine))* ranked Genesis as the seventeenth-biggest band in a list compiled based on album sales, time spent on the UK charts, and largest audience for a headlining show. Genesis were honoured at the second [Rock Honors](VH1)(VH1 Rock Honors) in May 2007, which featured Banks, Rutherford and Collins. In 2008, the band received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the [Awards](Mojo)(Mojo Awards).
Genesis were targets for criticism throughout the 1970s from those who disliked progressive rock. Influential BBC DJ [Peel](John)(John Peel) championed the band in their early years and they performed three sessions for him between 1970 and 1972, but he "grew disillusioned with their later excesses". Some regarded the group as overtly middle-class, paying particular attention to the founder members' private education, and claimed rock music was being taken away from the working class, whom they regarded as its core audience. Likening his background to that of the [punk](Punk rock) artist [Strummer](Joe)(Joe Strummer), who had become a "people's hero" musician, Gabriel stated in 2013, "To this day, we've never outgrown the snotty rich-kid thing ... we were always very straight about where we came from, and we were middle-class, not aristocratic." Gabriel's theatrics were unpalatable to some of the mainstream rock audience, resulting in a cult following rather than that of a mainstream rock band.
At their commercial peak in the 1980s, the music of Genesis faced the accusation of being "flabbergastingly insignificant" by leading American music critic [Hilburn](Robert)(Robert Hilburn), and it has been described as "barely distinguishable" from Collins's solo work. According to *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*s Erik Hedegaard, Collins in particular was blamed by those who accused the band of [out](selling)(selling out). Retrospectively, *[New Rolling Stone Album Guide](The)(The Rolling Stone Album Guide)* critic J. D. Considine documented how the band had been "largely ignored" by the music press and public in their earliest years, before being "derided as middlebrow throwbacks still in thrall to the pomposities of art rock" in the late 1970s and then dismissed as "[easy-listening](easy listening) lightweights" in the 1980s. He argued this was unfair, as the band had made their "share of mediocre albums" but no bad ones. Critics, though, disagree about which albums were mediocre; Considine cites *Selling England by the Pound* as one of the band's three worst (those meriting 2 stars out of 5), while the AllMusic Guide picks it as one of their three best.
Journalists have reported that fans preferring one era of the band strongly dislike others. Rock author Colin McGuire has described the arguments from fans of the Gabriel era as "they sold out and became too corporate when Collins stepped into the spotlight", while fans of the Collins era argue "the Gabriel years were boring and hard to stomach". He concluded both eras of the band should be judged on their own merits. The band themselves have been aware of these divides; press interviews for *Abacab* explicitly stated that fans of *Foxtrot* might not like the album, but should keep an open mind. [Classic Rock](Ultimate)(Ultimate Classic Rock) stated, "There are few groups in the classic-rock canon with a more divisive discography than Genesis ... there's no arguing that they helped create the template for prog-rock and made some of the genre's most essential albums", but continued "the Genesis sound gradually grew less and less progressive, until the band became a straight-up pop act. Good luck finding anybody out there who's equally enamored of both sides of the band's story." On their legacy, *Q* reviewer Andy Fyfe wrote in 2007 that "little of the band's output has aged well" and "transcends in the way real classics do", stating they would "remain perennial whipping boys for decades to come".Andy Fyfe. "Proggy Style". *Q*. May 2007. Issue 250. p. 136. However, *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* chief rock music critic [McCormick](Neil)(Neil McCormick) has said that Genesis were "a daring and groundbreaking band (certainly in their early career)", described Collins as "an outstanding drummer" and stated that "after Gabriel left, he stepped up to prove himself a charismatic frontman with a very distinctive vocal character".
### Influence
Genesis have been cited as a principal influence on the [rock](neo-progressive)(neo-progressive rock) subgenre that emerged in the 1980s, featuring bands including [Marillion](Marillion) and [Pallas](Pallas (band)).Interview with Graeme Murray in *Classic Rock*, March 2011, Issue 155. Steve Hackett's work in Genesis influenced guitarists such as [May](Brian)(Brian May) of [Queen](Queen (band)), [Lifeson](Alex)(Alex Lifeson) of [Rush](Rush (band)), and [Van Halen](Eddie)(Eddie Van Halen) of [Halen](Van)(Van Halen). [Maiden](Iron)(Iron Maiden) founder [Harris](Steve)(Steve Harris (musician)) cites Gabriel-era Genesis as one of his main influences, describing "Supper's Ready" (along with [Tull](Jethro)(Jethro Tull (band))'s song "Thick as a Brick") as one of his two favourite pieces of music of all time in an interview with *[Prog](Prog (magazine))*. Genesis were also an influence on [post-punk](post-punk) artists such as [Minds](Simple)(Simple Minds) and [Sergeant](Will)(Will Sergeant), guitarist of [& the Bunnymen](Echo)(Echo & the Bunnymen), as well as the [electronic](Electronic music) [wave](new)(New wave music) band [Human League](The)(The Human League). [Anastasio](Trey)(Trey Anastasio) of [Phish](Phish) said "It's impossible to overstate what impact this band and musical philosophy had on me as a young musician. I'm forever in their debt." [Autumn](Mostly)(Mostly Autumn) "fuse the music of Genesis and [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd) with Celtic themes" in their sound. The [rock](alternative)(alternative rock) band [Elbow](Elbow (band)) acknowledge Genesis as an influence, such as on their breakthrough song "[Newborn](Newborn (Elbow song))".
There are a number of Genesis [band](tribute)(tribute band)s, including ReGenesis who focus on the group's 1970s music. The most successful act is the Canadian band [Musical Box](The)(The Musical Box (band)), who have been officially endorsed by the band and had Hackett and Collins perform as guests with them. Gabriel took his children to see the Musical Box so "they could see what their father did back then", while Hackett said "They not only manage to sound, but look virtually identical".
## Band members
;Current members
*[Banks](Tony)(Tony Banks (musician)) – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
*[Rutherford](Mike)(Mike Rutherford) – bass, guitar, bass pedals, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
*[Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins) – lead and backing vocals, drums, percussion (1970–1996, 2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
;Former members
*[Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel) – lead vocals, flute, oboe, percussion (1967–1975)
*[Phillips](Anthony)(Anthony Phillips) – guitar, backing vocals (1967–1970)
*[Stewart](Chris)(Chris Stewart (author)) – drums, percussion (1967–1968)
*[Silver](John)(John Silver (musician)) – drums, percussion (1968–1969)
*[Mayhew](John)(John Mayhew (musician)) – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1969–1970; died 2009)
*[Barnard](Mick)(Mick Barnard) – guitar (1970–1971)
*[Hackett](Steve)(Steve Hackett) – guitar (1971–1977)
*[Wilson](Ray)(Ray Wilson (musician)) – lead vocals (1996–2000)
;Former touring musicians
*[Caryl](Ronnie)(Ronnie Caryl) – guitar (one gig in 1971)
*[Bruford](Bill)(Bill Bruford) – drums, percussion (1976)
*[Thompson](Chester)(Chester Thompson) – drums, percussion (1976–1992, 2006–2007)
*[Stuermer](Daryl)(Daryl Stuermer) – guitar, bass, backing vocals (1978–1992, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
*[Zidkyahu](Nir)(Nir Zidkyahu) – drums, percussion (1997–1998)
*[Drennan](Anthony)(Anthony Drennan) – electric and acoustic guitars, bass, backing vocals (1997–1998)
*Nic Collins – drums, percussion (2020–2022)
*[Pearce](Daniel)(Daniel Pearce (musician, born 1978)) – backing vocals (2020–2022)
*Patrick Smyth – backing vocals (2020–2022)
## Discography
;Studio albums
* *[Genesis to Revelation](From)(From Genesis to Revelation)* (1969)
* *[Trespass](Trespass (album))* (1970)
* *[Cryme](Nursery)(Nursery Cryme)* (1971)
* *[Foxtrot](Foxtrot (album))* (1972)
* *[England by the Pound](Selling)(Selling England by the Pound)* (1973)
* *[Lamb Lies Down on Broadway](The)(The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway)* (1974)
* *[Trick of the Tail](A)(A Trick of the Tail)* (1976)
* *[& Wuthering](Wind)(Wind & Wuthering)* (1976)
* *[Then There Were Three...](...And)(...And Then There Were Three...)* (1978)
* *[Duke](Duke (album))* (1980)
* *[Abacab](Abacab)* (1981)
* *[Genesis](Genesis (Genesis album))* (1983)
* *[Touch](Invisible)(Invisible Touch)* (1986)
* ''[Can't Dance](We)(We Can't Dance)* (1991)
* *[All Stations](Calling)(Calling All Stations)* (1997)
;Live albums
* *[Live](Genesis)(Genesis Live)* (1973)
* *[Out](Seconds)(Seconds Out)* (1977)
* *[Sides Live](Three)(Three Sides Live)* (1982)
* *[Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts](The)(The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts)* (1992)
* *[Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs](The)(The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs)* (1993)
* *[Over Europe 2007](Live)(Live Over Europe 2007)'' (2007)
## References
### Citations
### General sources
* }}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
*
* Banks, Tony; Collins, Phil; Gabriel, Peter; Hackett, Steve; and Rutherford, Mike; edited by Dodd, Philip (2007). *Genesis Chapter & Verse*, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. .
## External links
*
*
*
* [Genesis](https://www.discogs.com/artist/124506-Genesis) at [Discogs](Discogs)
*
}}
[ ](Category:Genesis (band))
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Jocelyn Chia
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jocelyn_chia
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# Jocelyn Chia
*Revision ID: 1160339679 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:31:20Z*
---
**Jocelyn Chia** (born ) is an [American](Americans) stand-up comedian. She was formerly a lawyer before becoming a comedian in 2009.
## Early life and education
Chia was born in [Boston](Boston), United States. She studied in [Nicholas Girls' School](St)(CHIJ Saint Nicholas Girls' School) and [Junior College](National)(National Junior College) in Singapore. She then went back to United States for her college degree.
## Career
### Early career
After graduating from college, Chia worked for 3 years as a corporate lawyer between 2006 and 2009.
### Stand-up comedy
In 2009, Chia then entered the stand-up comedy circuit, beginning her career as a comedian.
She was the head of corporate events at [Magnet Theater](The)(The Magnet Theater) in 2014.
In 2016, she won the Ladies of Laughter competition, and was also a finalist at the 2017 [York's Funniest](New)(New York's Funniest).
In 2017, she received the Rising Star Award – Comedy at the [American Television & Film Festival](Asian)(Asian American Television & Film Festival), and made her [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central) debut in 2018.
#### Stand-up routine on Malaysia and MH370 disappearance controversy
On 7 June 2023, a video clip of Chia making remarks about the retrospective effects of Malaysia's [expulsion](Independence of Singapore Agreement 1965) of Singapore and the missing [Airlines Flight 370](Malaysia)(Malaysia Airlines Flight 370) in an audience interaction during a stand-up routine, performed at [Cellar](Comedy)(Comedy Cellar) in New York City, became viral on social networks. The clip threw heavy criticisms from citizens, celebrities, diplomats, and politicians of both Malaysia and Singapore, who deemed it "crude" or "insulting". TikTok removed it for "breach[ing] community guidelines and depicting discriminatory content". One hundred protesters from the [Malays National Organisation](United)(United Malays National Organisation) (UMNO) protested outside the United States Embassy in Kuala Lumpur in response to Chia's performance and called to ban her from Malaysia. Malaysian comedian [Leong](Jason)(Jason Leong) supported Chia's routine, earning rebuke from some, while [Iskander](Harith)(Harith Iskander) urged caution to fellow comedians that their content can be easily taken out of context.}} Singaporean entertainer [Kumar](Kumar (Singaporean entertainer)) would chastise Chia as well. The Singaporean ambassador to Malaysia apologised on her behalf. [Balakrishnan](Vivian)(Vivian Balakrishnan), Singaporean Foreign Minister, called Chia's joke "horrendous statements".
Chia responded that the clips had lacked the necessary context, having the segment to condensed into a short clip for social media, and that it was performed at the comedy club for more than a year and half without issues. A few days later, the [Malaysia Police](Royal)(Royal Malaysia Police) (RMP) stated that they would be making an application with [Interpol](Interpol) to seek for Chia's full identity and whereabouts, without providing further details. During her interview with the [BBC](BBC), Chia added that Malaysia's reactions to her jokes as being ridiculous and that it's only making her more famous. On 14 June 2023, Interpol however stated that there was no request for assistance from Malaysia. Its spokesperson also added that the request for assistance must be "compliant with Interpol's Constitution which forbids any activities which are religious, racial, military or political in nature" and that "any request associated with offences related to freedom of expression would also be assessed in line with international human rights standards."
## Personal life
Chia is an American. She held joint American-Singaporean citizenship until adulthood.
## References
## External links
*
[stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians)
[American women lawyers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women lawyers)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Massachusetts](Category:Comedians)(Category:Comedians from Massachusetts)
[from Boston](Category:Lawyers)(Category:Lawyers from Boston)
[people of Singaporean descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Singaporean descent)
[women comedians](Category:American)(Category:American women comedians)
[Junior College alumni](Category:National)(Category:National Junior College alumni)
[who lost Singaporean citizenship](Category:People)(Category:People who lost Singaporean citizenship)
[American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians)
[American lawyers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American lawyers)
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GirlsDoPorn
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girlsdoporn
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# GirlsDoPorn
*Revision ID: 1160349394 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:00:21Z*
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| products =
| owner =
| num_employees =
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}}
**GirlsDoPorn** was an American [website](pornographic)(pornographic website) active from 2009 until 2020. In October and November 2019, six people involved were charged on counts of [trafficking](sex)(sex trafficking) by force, [fraud](fraud), and [coercion](coercion). In December 2019, two more individuals were charged with obstruction of sex trafficking enforcement. The website was removed in January 2020 after 22 victims won the civil case against the company. According to the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice), the website and its sister website GirlsDoToys generated over $17 million in revenue. Videos were featured on GirlsDoPorn.com as well as [pornography](pornography) aggregate websites such as [Pornhub](Pornhub), where the channel reached the top 20 most viewed, with approximately 680 million views.
Pornography produced by the company, which was based in [Diego](San)(San Diego), [California](California), was in the style of a '[couch](casting)(casting couch)', featuring women who were not professional pornographic actors. A lawsuit filed in 2016 involving 22 plaintiffs alleged "intentional misrepresentation, fraudulent concealment, unlawful and fraudulent business practices, and the intentional infliction of emotional distress" on the parts of New Zealand nationals Michael Pratt (co-owner) and Matthew Wolfe (co-owner and cameraman), as well as Andre Garcia (pornographic actor). In January 2020, the plaintiffs received damages of $12.775 million, as well as ownership to videos they featured in. However, they are yet to receive any money, as of February 2022.
Lawsuits and other testimony describe alleged practices by GirlsDoPorn in detail. According to a lawsuit, women who responded to fake modeling advertisements on [Craigslist](Craigslist) were put into contact with "reference girls" who pretended to have had positive experiences shooting videos for the company. Some participants were told that they would be paid between $2,000 and $6,000 to have sex for 30 minutes on camera. All plaintiffs said that they were given verbal promises that the videos would never be released on the internet or in the United States, instead being told the videos would be put on DVDs and sold only to private buyers or independent video stores in [Australia](Australia), [Zealand](New)(New Zealand), or [America](South)(South America). When they reached San Diego, they were made to sign contracts that did not mention the name "GirlsDoPorn". The Department of Justice said that "some were sexually assaulted and in at least one case raped". Filming was described as lasting up to seven hours; according to an ex-employee, 50% of women were not paid the amount they were promised.
## History
GirlsDoPorn was a pornography website owned by Michael Pratt (born 1982, New Zealand), who also worked as the cameraman and editor. Matthew Wolfe (born 1982 or 1983, New Zealand) was co-owner and cameraman. He is also a childhood friend of Pratt's. Doug Wiederhold and Ruben Andre Garcia (born 1986 or 1987) were the main male pornographic actors for the company. Lawyer Aaron Sadock began working for the company in 2012, while cameraman Theodore "Teddy" Gyi filmed around 120 videos between 2015 and 2017. Pratt began planning and shooting for GirlsDoPorn in 2007. The website was launched in 2009.
Pratt began working in the pornographic industry around the year 2000, after graduating from high school. He initially launched the affiliate porn websites Wicked Movies, Kute Kittens, and TeenieFlixxx, the last an affiliate of the existing website ExploitedTeens, all of which produced pornography in the same style that GirlsDoPorn later would. In 2007, he moved to the United States to film pornography. Between 2007 and 2012, Wiederhold worked with Pratt, the two filming videos of Wiederhold having sex in hotel rooms with women who were not in the porn industry. These videos formed the basis of the videos first released by GirlsDoPorn. In 2010, Wiederhold and Pratt created the [MILF](MILF) pornography website MomPOV, which has a [Vanuatu](Vanuatu) address but operates from [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas). In 2011, Wolfe moved from New Zealand to the United States. Wolfe was involved with Pratt's work from 2008 onwards. Over 100 videos were filmed by Wolfe for GirlsDoPorn between 2011 and 2019.
GirlsDoPorn was active during a period of growing consumption of '[couch](casting)(casting couch)' internet pornography. Such pornography is often filmed in hotel rooms with minimal crew, and may feature women who have not previously filmed pornography and are given money on-camera. In the case of GirlsDoPorn, their homepage boasted, "You will not find these girls on any other website". The women would be asked about their sex lives on camera, and sometimes videos included them reading parts of their contracts aloud. The male performer's face is not shown. *[Vice](Vice (magazine))* reported that "the current iteration of the 'casting couch' trope is largely based on" Backroom Casting Couch, a series that started in 2007 by a pornographer who allegedly deceived the women featured in his videos.
Over a dozen U.S. and foreign companies were associated with GirlsDoPorn throughout its lifespan. In 2011, GT Group Limited, a company referenced in the [Papers](Panama)(Panama Papers), was listed as its parent corporation. *[Sydney Morning Herald](The)(The Sydney Morning Herald)* reported in 2011 that GT Group Limited was founded by a man associated with arms smuggling, drug gangs, and tax fraud. By 2017, its parent corporation were Oh Well Media Limited, a company based in [Vila](Port)(Port Vila), Vanuatu, which is an offshore tax haven according to the *[Diego Reader](San)(San Diego Reader)*. The company BLL Media Inc. was referred to in contracts signed with some women who worked for the company.
GirlsDoPorn.com charged a subscription of $30 per month; it published a 45-minute video on a weekly schedule. The official site Girls-Do-Porn.com posted short, free extracts of the videos. The company had a spin-off site, GirlsDoToys, launched by Pratt and Wolfe in 2014. In January 2017, GirlsDoPorn.com was the 33,949th-most-visited website in the United States, receiving roughly 1.2 million visitors between November and December 2016, including approximately 84,000 who were visiting the website for the first time. According to the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice), the websites GirlsDoPorn and GirlsDoToys generated over $17 million in revenue. Pratt was the sole recipient of profits from the websites. Upon filing bankruptcy in 2018, Pratt estimated his income to be greater than $60,000 per month, and reported over $134,000 in [taxes](back)(back taxes).
The company received tabloid attention in 2013 and 2014 when it was reported that two [pageant](beauty)(beauty pageant) models for [Teen USA](Miss)(Miss Teen USA) were the subjects of videos on the website; as a consequence of this being made public, the models ceased connection with the beauty pageants. Some women who filmed videos with GirlsDoPorn later became professional pornographic actors, including Emily Willis, who filmed two videos with the website in 2018 after dating Garcia for a month, according to her own account.
In a court testimony in October 2019, Wolfe said that GirlsDoPorn continued to recruit new women, whose contracts did not mention the name of the website. According to *[Technica](Ars)(Ars Technica)*, GirlsDoPorn.com went offline in January 2020.
## Content on other websites
In addition to being released on GirlsDoPorn.com, videos produced by the company were also released on websites that aggregated pornographic videos such as [Pornhub](Pornhub), [XVideos](XVideos), and [YouPorn](YouPorn). They were viewed over 800 million times on these websites, including roughly 680 million views on Pornhub, where GirlsDoPorn was amongst the top 20 most viewed channels. Overall, court documents found that videos produced by the website were watched over 1 billion times, and pirated versions were viewed hundreds of millions of times. GirlsDoPorn's channel was removed from Pornhub in October 2019, which journalists at *[Dot](Daily)(Daily Dot)* and *[Motherboard](Motherboard (website))* said was a slow response to the incident. Additionally, the videos could still be found afterwards unofficially on Pornhub's website. *Motherboard* found that the digital fingerprinting that Pornhub uses to remove duplicates of removed videos, Vobile, prevented them from uploading some identical or nearly-identical clips of GirlsDoPorn videos, but also did not remove many slight variants on the footage.
A lawsuit was filed in December 2020 against Pornhub's parent company, [MindGeek](MindGeek), for its partnership with GirlsDoPorn and alleged continual hosting of GirlsDoPorn videos up to December 2020, after repeated requests for removal by subjects. Following this, *Vice* reported that XVideos, [XNXX](XNXX), and [Spankbang](Spankbang) had removed many GirlsDoPorn videos on their sites and ensured that the search term "Girls Do Porn" returned no results.
Discussion website [Reddit](Reddit) had a forum, "r/girlsdoporn", which began in 2013 and was dedicated to posting links and videos as well as the identities of the women featured on GirlsDoPorn. In October 2019, amidst a lawsuit against GirlsDoPorn, moderators removed most content on the subreddit and announced it to be in hiatus. Reddit removed the subreddit shortly afterwards. The forum had approximately 99,000 accounts subscribed to it at the time of its closure. In 2014, GirlsDoPorn.com launched an internet forum. The company was also active on [Instagram](Instagram), where posts would brag about how young the actors involved were.
One woman told *Motherboard* that, as of 2021, [Twitter](Twitter) was the host of most continuing harassment against her, with users contacting her employers with links to the video she featured in; [YouTube](YouTube) also declined to remove a video harassing her for five months until contacted by *Motherboard*. A YouTube video that harassed four women in relation to GirlsDoPorn, with comments giving their identifying information, reached roughly 2million views.
## Reported practices
Details of alleged practices by the company have been documented in lawsuits, mainstream media and court testimonies by employees of the company. One attorney pursuing legal actions reported that he and his co-counsel communicated with 150 women who said that they were misled during their experience filming videos for GirlsDoPorn. A lawsuit filed in 2016 contained information from 22 plaintiffs. Six further women who were not part of the lawsuit told [7 San Diego](NBC)(NBC 7 San Diego) journalists in 2019 that they had similar experiences.
### Casting process
According to the 2016 lawsuit, GirlsDoPorn was associated with fake modeling websites such as BeginModeling, ModelingGigs, ModelingWork, and Bubblegum Casting. Advertisements for these websites were posted on [Craigslist](Craigslist) under college towns and localities spanning the US and Canada. Explore Talent was also used by them to find models. They requested applicants aged between 18 and 22, and provided forms asking for physical and personal information about applicants.
Pratt, Wolfe, and Garcia often used aliases when dealing with the girls they recruited and never revealed their real names. Pratt would use names such as "Mike" and "Mark". Garcia mostly went by "Jonathan", and Wolfe used "Ben", "Joshua" and "Isaac" when doing the recruiting and subsequent filming. They would contact women who had applied and tell them that the job was not modeling, but having sex on camera. They claimed that the footage would be used only for DVDs sold to private buyers and independent video stores in Australia, New Zealand, or South America and would never be released online or in the United States in any form. There were instances where women were lured to San Diego under the false pretences of a clothed modeling or nude modeling shoot, if they declined initial offers to film pornography.
Some women were offered between $2,000 and $6,000 for 30 minutes of filming, consisting of five sexual positions lasting between five and seven minutes apiece. Women involved report frequent and persistent contact from the company before they agreed. Filming would take place in [Diego](San)(San Diego), California, and their travel expenses and accommodation would be paid for. Several women report that Garcia booked flights for them before they had fully committed.
Women who agreed were put into contact with a "reference girl". According to one such person, reference girls were hired to lie to the women and conceal information in order to convince them to agree to the job. They were paid between $25 and $200 per contact they persuaded. They would communicate via text or video call. Some women took months of convincing to agree. According to several of these women, reference girls would make false claims about distribution of the videos, saying that their ostensible videos had not been seen within the United States. One woman involved reported Garcia threatening to sue her after she attempted to withdraw from the process shortly before she was due to fly to San Diego.
### Filming process
Once in San Diego, women were met by employees who had signed [agreement](non-disclosure)(non-disclosure agreement)s forbidding them from mentioning the name GirlsDoPorn. They were allegedly instructed to call the company Plus One Media, or deny that the videos produced would be published online. The women stayed in four-star hotels, where filming took place. Additionally, women have alleged being lied to in various ways by Garcia to convince them to enter his apartment: in some cases, he said that the women should stay at his apartment before he drove them to the airport the next morning; in others, he feigned needing to stop at his apartment and suggested that the women should come inside briefly.
Women in the 2016 lawsuit were hurried to sign contracts written in hard-to-understand legal terminology, sometimes being told the contracts were needed for tax purposes. The contract did not mention "GirlsDoPorn" or even the fact that the video would be put on any website. The contracts involving the 22 plaintiffs also did not mention "GirlsDoPorn" anywhere in the entire document, as per court records. There were reports that company employees got the women drunk before signing, smoked [marijuana](marijuana) with them, or offered them [cocaine](cocaine). An FBI complaint said that the company prevented the women from keeping copies of their contracts. In the lawsuit's 187-page proposed statement of decision, the release form is described as purposefully long and vague, written with an intent to obscure the true nature and character of the video's distribution.
Filming lasted up to seven hours, in contrast to the 30-minute shoot that the women were told to expect. It began with an interview in which the subject was asked personal and sexual questions, after being coached on how to answer. The interview would be re-shot if the producers were unhappy with the performer's lack of enthusiasm. There were reports of Garcia being verbally abusive.
During sex, some women reportedly experienced vaginal bleeding, while another said that she vomited in her mouth and began choking due to the violence of the sex. Accounts of the women document that if they expressed pain or refused to continue, they were told that it was too late to withdraw, and in some cases the exit was physically blocked by the men. Some women were also threatened with cancellation of the return flight or being asked to pay back the flight and hotel costs if they tried to renege on filming or refused to shoot an additional scene. Filming for GirlsDoToys took place during the same trips.
The [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) reported that "some [the women](of) were sexually assaulted and in at least one case raped". It has been reported that Garcia had sex with some of the women before or after shooting, or in the midst of shooting, after asking the cameraman to leave. One woman said Garcia sexually assaulted her after she said she could not film due to [menstruation](menstruation)—he forced a paint sponge into her vagina—and she was then forced to film.
Former employee Val Moser testified that only 50% of women received the amount of money they were promised. The court case found that women were frequently told that their pay would be reduced immediately after stripping naked, despite never being told that their pay was contingent. Another frequently used tactic was to cut pay after the scene was shot by citing body flaws even though the models had sent nude photos clearly showing whatever blemishes and tattoos they had. One woman was paid $400 after having been promised $2,000, and also locked out of the hotel room where she was expecting to stay. After the shoot she left the room because she was feeling upset and when she came back most of the money they had given her was gone. The envelope of money contained only a few $20s and a stack of $1s, totaling $400. Another was paid $2,500 rather than the promised $5,000, with an explanation that she appeared too old.
### Outcomes
Videos were published online around a month after recording. Some women filmed on multiple occasions, and their first video was not released online until they had completed all of their shoots. One woman reported that naked photos she had sent in communication over the Craigslist advert were also published. Some women reported receiving [transmitted infection](sexually)(sexually transmitted infection)s from sexual contact with Garcia. Personal information of the women was posted online, including contact details, former high schools and places of employment, and both their and their families' full names, social media profiles and home addresses. Many women contacted GirlsDoPorn employees to complain. According to court documents, the company's response varied. In some cases they claimed that they would attempt to remove the video; in others, they referred to Panakos Law, which would send cease-and-desist requests to the complainant. There was testimony that Panakos Law also sent cease-and-desist requests to women who contacted other websites asking for the video of them to be removed.
The names of hundreds of women who filmed videos for GirlsDoPorn were published on [Wikileaks](Porn)(Porn Wikileaks), a website specifically set up to [dox](doxing) porn actors. The 2016 lawsuit alleged that the website's domain was transferred to an email address known to be owned by Pratt in November 2015, and an FBI affidavit describes the site as "a website connected to Pratt". Judge Kevin Enright found it "more likely than not" that Pratt, Wolfe, and Garcia were instigators of the online harassment of one of the women who filmed with them. Pratt controlled the website until August 2016; it was purchased in August 2019 by pornographic film studio [Bros](Bang)(Bang Bros) and closed down.
Women involved in filming reported that their family, friends, and colleagues were sent text messages with links to videos or [GIF](GIF)s of them having sex when the videos they made were published online. The incidents led to women involved losing jobs or accommodation and leaving college or being disowned by family. A high school teacher lost her job several years after filming when the principal was emailed the video in which she appeared. Others reported experiencing panic attacks, depression, self-harming and, in at least four cases, [ideation](suicidal)(suicidal ideation). One woman lost contact with family after a video interspersing GirlsDoPorn footage with her childhood ballet performance was published under the woman's real name. According to an opinion piece in *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, a 20-year-old woman, described as a "vibrant college athlete", was allegedly murdered by a jealous ex-boyfriend over the video she made for the site. He awaits trial as of December 2020.
## Investigation and legal action
### Investigation
In June 2016, lawyer [Goldberg](Carrie)(Carrie Goldberg) contracted the cybersecurity and cyber intelligence firm Fortalice, LLC to investigate the identity of the owners of GirlsDoPorn. Intelligence Professional [DeBarber](Charles)(Charles DeBarber) produced numerous reports unmasking the true owners of GirlsDoPorn (Wolfe and Pratt) and the identity of their recruiter/male performer Ruben Andre Garcia. Analysis proved Pratt and Wolfe were the true owners and not an offshore entity linked to the [Papers](Panama)(Panama Papers) in [Vanuatu](Vanuatu). DeBarber would later testify at the 2019 civil trial regarding metadata proving Michael Pratt was posing online as a Jane Doe and contacting suspected Jane Does involved in the civil suit to gain information on the plaintiffs.
### Lawsuit filing
In June 2016, four women filed a lawsuit in the San Diego Superior Court against Wolfe, Pratt, Garcia, and GirlsDoPorn. Six months later, the lawsuit had 14 plaintiffs; within a year, the number was 22. Plaintiffs were aged between 17 and 22 during recruiting of their videos for GirlsDoPorn and most of them were college students at the time of filming the video. 10 of the 22 plaintiffs reported that they wanted to leave at some point before or during the shoot but were made to complete it. The plaintiffs testified on how the release of the videos adversely affected their college life, career plans and plans for having a family. The plaintiffs requested more than $22 million in damages. The defendants stood accused of "intentional misrepresentation, fraudulent concealment, unlawful and fraudulent business practices, and the intentional infliction of emotional distress". Brian Holm was a lead attorney, with John O'Brien as co-counsel. Eventually the legal team of the 22 plaintiffs grew to include multiple law firms including Sanford Heisler Sharp LLP. Attorney Daniel Kaplan also represented GirlsDoPorn in the lawsuit.
### Trial and charges
An initial trial date was set for March 8, 2018, but the trial was set back by several different delays. In January 2019, the judge set a tentative ruling that Wolfe, Pratt, and Garcia had engaged in "malice, fraud or oppression". The same day, Pratt filed for bankruptcy, and the case was put on hold. The bankruptcy judge deemed that Pratt had acted in bad faith, so the case resumed in early 2019. After further delay, trial began on August 20, 2019, lasting until November 2019. Kevin Enright served as the judge.
[[File:Michael Pratt FBI Top Ten Most Wanted.jpg|right|thumb|GirlsDoPorn website owner Michael James Pratt fled the United States in 2019; he was listed as one of the [Most Wanted Fugitives](Ten)(FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives) on September 7, 2022, and captured by [National Police](Spanish)(Spanish National Police) on December 21, 2022.]]
In September 2019, attorneys were told that Pratt had left the country, according to NBC 7 San Diego. The following month, Garcia and Wolfe were arrested on charges of sex trafficking after a search warrant was executed by the FBI. Wolfe was denied bail in October 2019, and again in May 2020.
In September 2020, Pratt was added to the FBI's wanted fugitives list. He was listed in the [Ten Most Wanted Fugitives](FBI)(FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives) in September 2022, with an offer of $100,000 for information that leads to his arrest.
In November 2019, a federal indictment was unsealed naming three more individuals—Theodore Gyi, Valorie Moser, and Amberlyn Dee Nored–as defendants. Gyi had acted as a videographer. Moser was the administrative assistant who had worked for Pratt for almost three years. She had also testified on the plaintiffs' behalf in the trial. Amberlyn had acted as a fake reference girl on Pratt's behalf. She had never shot a pornographic video for GirlsDoPorn or any other production. In her own declaration filed in the civil case court, Amberlyn stated that she had acted as a reference for five to seven women. In November 2021, the U.S. Attorney's Office told the federal judge overseeing the criminal case that the sex trafficking charge against Amberlyn Dee Nored was being dismissed "to satisfy the ends of justice".
Pratt alone has been charged with producing [pornography](child)(child pornography) of a 16-year-old girl in 2012 and of sex trafficking of a minor. Additional charges for Pratt and the other five include conspiracy to commit sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion and sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion. The crimes are alleged to have happened in October 2013, January 2015, May 2015, January 2016, and February 2016.
There are multiple reported cases of attempted disruption or obstruction during the trial. Attorney Holm was harassed throughout the legal process, with fake gay porn images of him spread, and one woman testifying that she was paid to make repeated harassing phone calls to him by a GirlsDoPorn employee. He reported that harassing posts on social media and pornography blogs were made about himself, his wife and young daughter, and that a private investigator was hired to follow him. In a separate case, brothers Fredrick Jimenez and Efrain Jimenez were charged in December 2019 for obstruction of sex trafficking enforcement. The complaint states that they tried to remove and destroy evidence related to the federal sex trafficking in October 2019. Fredrick Jimenez was an ex-employee of GirlsDoPorn.
Prosecutors also collated evidence of witness harassment: a U.S. attorney found evidence that defendants called the plaintiffs to falsely pose as journalists. A witness alleged that a co-defendant offered her $1,000 in exchange for not testifying in the trial. FBI agents found a planned video script, "22 Whores + 5 Shady Lawyers VS GirlsDoPorn", which encouraged viewers to spread the real names of the plaintiffs.
In December 2020, Garcia pled guilty to federal charges of sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion. On June 14, 2021, Garcia was sentenced to 20 years in custody, more than the prosecutors' suggested 12.5 years and the 7 years sought by his defense team. He will also be on supervised release for 10 years following the end of his custodial term. In January 2021, Gyi pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion; he lied to performers that their videos would not be posted on the internet. He was sentenced to four years in prison on November 9, 2022. Six of his victims gave their impact statements during his sentencing hearing. In March 2023, Gyi was ordered to pay over $100,000 as restitution to two of his victims.
In April 2021, Moser pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit sex trafficking by force, fraud, and coercion.
On February 10, 2022, a superseding indictment was filed charging Michael Pratt and Matthew Wolfe with additional charges of sex trafficking as new victims came forward to join the federal case. The charges of production of child pornography and sex trafficking of a minor were also added against Wolfe. On July 26, 2022, Wolfe plead guilty to the count of conspiracy to commit sex trafficking by force, fraud and coercion. He was due to be sentenced on October 10, 2022.
On December 21, 2022, Pratt—a U.S. [national](foreign)(foreign national)—was arrested in a hotel in [Madrid](Madrid), Spain by the [National Police](Spanish)(National Police Corps (Spain)) pursuant to an [Red Notice](Interpol)(Interpol notice), after three years in hiding. This followed assistance by [Immigration and Customs Enforcement](U.S.)(U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement) (ICE), who received a [line](tip)(tip line) lead.
On January 24, 2023, cameraman Alexander Brian Foster was charged with one count of conspiracy to commit stalking and he pleaded guilty the same day. He admitted to creating the video "22 Whores + 5 Shady Lawyers VS GirlsDoPorn" which was intended to harass the Jane Does in the civil case and cause them substantial emotional distress. He also admitted to filming around 100 videos for GirlsDoPorn and GirlsDoToys. He was facing a maximum of five years in prison. Foster was sentenced on April 28, 2023, to one year and one day in prison.
### Lawsuit outcomes
On January 2, 2020, the women in the trial were awarded $12.775 million in damages—$9.475 million for compensatory damages and $3.3 million in punitive damages. This is in addition to payment of their $8million legal fees and $800,000 in costs. On January 9, Faith Devine was appointed receiver over the business and individual assets of the defendants."Order After Hearing (Order Appointing Receiver after hearing) filed by DOE 1, Jane." (January 9, 2020). San Diego Superior Court. ROA 3041, Case Number 37-2016-00019027-CU-FR-CTL. Retrieved May 10, 2020. As of February 2022, the women are yet to receive any money.
Furthermore, the women were given ownership rights to the videos they featured in. The ruling ordered defendants to remove all images and videos from websites under their control, and to take action to remove them from other websites. After a ruling in December 2021, this was expanded to apply to 402 women who were filmed for GirlsDoPorn, not just the 22 plaintiffs.
In the injunction, the court ordered GirlsDoPorn to clearly state in bold and centered at the top of the first page of their model agreement that the video was going to be published on GirlsDoPorn.com. The verbal release must also show the model clearly stating the name of the website. Additionally, they were ordered in the future to state in recruitment postings that videos will be posted online, give participants copies of the contracts before arriving, and ensure that participants sign documents indicating that they understand their names or personal information may be used. Later in January 2020, another woman sued the men involved with GirlsDoPorn with a similar case to the 22 previous plaintiffs. In February 2021, the woman was awarded a default judgement of almost $450,000.
Domi Publications—the operator of MomPOV formerly owned by Pratt—sued two of the lawyers who defended GirlsDoPorn for malpractice, alleging that they declined a settlement of $16,000 a few weeks before the trial. According to the lawsuit, Wiederhold wanted a settlement and Pratt wanted to proceed to trial. Domi declared [7 bankruptcy](Chapter)(Chapter 7 bankruptcy) and named the 22 Jane Does as creditors.
### MindGeek lawsuit
On December 16, 2020, 40 women involved with GirlsDoPorn filed a lawsuit against [MindGeek](MindGeek)—a company that owns Pornhub, Tube8, and other pornography websites—for damages including distress, ostracization, trauma and attempted suicide. The lawsuit claims that MindGeek knew about the company's sex trafficking as early as 2009 and definitely by fall 2016, but continued to partner with GirlsDoPorn until the company became defunct. MindGeek featured GirlsDoPorn as a Content Partner and a member of the Viewshare Program. The lawsuit also alleges that MindGeek failed to remove GirlsDoPorn videos despite requests for removal by victims, as recently as December 2020. The plaintiffs sought $80million in damages. The lawsuit follows a *New York Times* article about Pornhub and GirlsDoPorn, following which Pornhub began to remove videos from unverified users. On April 1, 2021, another 10 women joined the lawsuit against Mindgeek, bringing the total number of plaintiffs to 50. In October 2021, a court document reported that MindGeek had settled the lawsuit, with the terms of the agreement not made public.
## References
[establishments in California](Category:2009)(Category:2009 establishments in California)
[disestablishments in California](Category:2020)(Category:2020 disestablishments in California)
[companies disestablished in 2020](Category:American)(Category:American companies disestablished in 2020)
[erotica and pornography websites](Category:American)(Category:American erotica and pornography websites)
[based in San Diego](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in San Diego)
[properties established in 2009](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet properties established in 2009)
[properties disestablished in 2020](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet properties disestablished in 2020)
[in California](Category:Pornography)(Category:Pornography in California)
[trafficking](Category:Sex)(Category:Sex trafficking)
|
Index of anatomy articles
|
index_of_anatomy_articles
|
# Index of anatomy articles
*Revision ID: 1109423084 | Timestamp: 2022-09-09T18:54:42Z*
---
Articles related to [anatomy](anatomy) include:
## A
*[abdomen](abdomen)
*[aorta](abdominal)(abdominal aorta)
*[nerve](abducens)(abducens nerve)
*[nucleus](abducens)(abducens nucleus)
*[abducent](Anatomical terms of motion)
*[nerve](abducent)(abducent nerve)
*[abduction](anatomical terms of location)
*[bone](accessory)(accessory bone)
*[cuneate nucleus](accessory)(accessory cuneate nucleus)
*[nerve](accessory)(accessory nerve)
*[olivary nucleus](accessory)(accessory olivary nucleus)
*[reflex](accommodation)(accommodation reflex)
*[acetabulum](acetabulum)
*[tendon](Achilles)(Achilles tendon)
*[nerve](acoustic)(acoustic nerve)
*[acromion](acromion)
*[adenohypophysis](adenohypophysis)
*[adenoids](adenoids)
*[adipose](adipose)
*[aditus](aditus (disambiguation))
*[ad antrum](aditus)(aditus ad antrum)
*[gland](adrenal)(adrenal gland)
*[adrenergic](adrenergic)
*[neuron](afferent)(afferent neuron)
*[nasi](agger)(agger nasi)
*[agnosia](agnosia)
*[agonist](agonist)
*[ligament](alar)(alar ligament)
*[albuginea](albuginea)
*[alimentary](alimentary)
*[allantois](allantois)
*[allocortex](allocortex)
*[motor neurons](alpha)(alpha motor neurons)
*[artery](alveolar)(alveolar artery (disambiguation))
*[process](alveolar)(alveolar process)
*[alveolus](Pulmonary alveolus)
*[of the hippocampus](alveus)(alveus of the hippocampus)
*[anatomy](amatory)(amatory anatomy)
*[amaurosis](amaurosis)
*[horn](Ammon's)(Ammon's horn)
*[ampulla](ampulla)
*[of Vater](Ampulla)(Ampulla of Vater)
*[amygdala](amygdala)
*[pathway](amygdalofugal)(amygdalofugal pathway)
*[amygdaloid](amygdala)
*[amylacea](Corpora amylacea)
*[anaesthesia](anaesthesia)
*[analgesia](analgesia)
*[analogous](analogy (biology))
*[anastomosis](anastomosis)
*[pathology](anatomical)(anatomical pathology)
*[position](anatomical)(anatomical position)
*[snuffbox](anatomical)(anatomical snuffbox)
*[terms of location](anatomical)(anatomical terms of location)
*[terms of motion](anatomical)(anatomical terms of motion)
*[anatomy](anatomy)
*[of the human heart](Anatomy)(Anatomy of the human heart)
*[anconeus](anconeus)
*[angiography](angiography)
*[angiology](angiology)
*[gyrus](angular)(angular gyrus)
*[anhidrosis](anhidrosis)
*[morphology](animal)(animal morphology)
*[anisocoria](anisocoria)
*[ankle](ankle)
*[reflex](ankle)(ankle jerk reflex)
*[ligament](annular)(Annular ligament (disambiguation))
*[of Zinn](annulus)(annulus of Zinn)
*[anomaly](anomaly (disambiguation)#Biology)
*[aphasia](anomic)(anomic aphasia)
*[anosognosia](anosognosia)
*[cervicalis](ansa)(ansa cervicalis)
*[lenticularis](ansa)(ansa lenticularis)
*[cerebral artery](anterior)(anterior cerebral artery)
*[chamber of eyeball](Anterior)(Anterior chamber of eyeball)
*[choroidal artery](anterior)(anterior choroidal artery)
*[commissure](anterior)(anterior commissure)
*[communicating artery](anterior)(anterior communicating artery)
*[corticospinal tract](anterior)(anterior corticospinal tract)
*[cranial fossa](anterior)(anterior cranial fossa)
*[cruciate ligament](anterior)(anterior cruciate ligament)
*[ethmoidal foramen](anterior)(anterior ethmoidal foramen)
*[ethmoidal nerve](anterior)(anterior ethmoidal nerve)
*[funiculus](anterior)(anterior funiculus)
*[horn cells](anterior)(anterior horn cells)
*[horn of the lateral ventricle](anterior)(anterior horn of the lateral ventricle)
*[hypothalamus](anterior)(anterior hypothalamus)
*[inferior cerebellar artery](anterior)(anterior inferior cerebellar artery)
*[limb of the internal capsule](anterior)(anterior limb of the internal capsule)
*[lobe of cerebellum](anterior)(anterior lobe of cerebellum)
*[nucleus of the thalamus](anterior)(anterior nucleus of the thalamus)
*[perforated substance](anterior)(anterior perforated substance)
*[pituitary](anterior)(anterior pituitary)
*[root](anterior)(anterior root)
*[spinal artery](anterior)(anterior spinal artery)
*[spinocerebellar tract](anterior)(anterior spinocerebellar tract)
*[superior alveolar artery](anterior)(anterior superior alveolar artery)
*[tibial artery](anterior)(anterior tibial artery)
*[vertebral muscle](anterior)(anterior vertebral muscle)
*[white commissure](anterior)(anterior white commissure)
*[region of the neck](anterolateral)(anterolateral region of the neck)
*[system](anterolateral)(anterolateral system)
*[antidromic](antidromic)
*[antihelix](antihelix)
*[antrum](antrum)
*[fibrosus](anulus)(annulus fibrosus (disambiguation))
*[tendineus](anulus)(Annulus of Zinn)
*[anus](anus)
*[aorta](aorta)
*[body](aortic)(aortic body)
*[aponeurosis](aponeurosis)
*[apophysis](Tubercle (anatomy))
*[appendage](appendage)
*[skeleton](appendicular)(appendicular skeleton)
*[appendix](vermiform appendix)
*[aprosody](aprosody)
*[stenosis](aqueductal)(aqueductal stenosis)
*[humor](aqueous)(aqueous humor)
*[arachnoid](arachnoid (brain))
*[granulation](arachnoid)(arachnoid granulation)
*[vitae](arbor)(arbor vitae (anatomy))
*[archicerebellum](archicerebellum)
*[archicortex](archicortex)
*[archipallium](archipallium)
*[archistriatum](archistriatum)
*[line](arcuate)(arcuate line (disambiguation))
*[nucleus](arcuate)(arcuate nucleus)
*[postrema](area)(area postrema)
*[areola](areola)
*[arm](arm)
*[pilorum](arrectores)(arrectores pilorum)
*[dorsalis pedis](arteria)(arteria dorsalis pedis)
*[arcades](arterial)(arterial arcades)
*[artery](artery)
*[condyle of mandible](articular)(articular condyle of mandible)
*[disc](articular)(articular disc)
*[articulation](Articulation (anatomy))
*[muscle](aryepiglotticus)(aryepiglotticus muscle)
*[arytenoid](Arytenoids)
*[cartilage](arytenoid)(arytenoid cartilage)
*[muscle](arytenoideus)(arytenoideus muscle)
*[astereognosis](astereognosis)
*[asterion](asterion)
*[asterixis](asterixis)
*[astrocyte](astrocyte)
*[asynergy](asynergy)
*[ataxia](ataxia)
*[joint](atlanto-occipital)(atlanto-occipital joint)
*[atlas](atlas (anatomy))
*[atresia](atresia)
*[node](atrioventricular)(atrioventricular node)
*[atrium](atrium (anatomy))
*[aphasia](auditory)(auditory aphasia)
*[cortex](auditory)(auditory cortex)
*[meatus](auditory)(auditory meatus (disambiguation))
*[ossicles](auditory)(Auditory Ossicles)
*[radiations](auditory)(auditory radiations)
*[system](auditory)(auditory system)
*[tube](auditory)(eustachian tube)
*[auricle](auricle (disambiguation))
*[nerve](auriculotemporal)(auriculotemporal nerve)
*[auscultation](auscultation)
*[autonomic](autonomic nervous system)
*[ganglion](autonomic)(autonomic ganglion)
*[skeleton](axial)(axial skeleton)
*[view](axial)(axial view)
*[axilla](axilla)
*[artery](axillary)(axillary artery)
*[axis](axis (anatomy))
*[axon](axon)
*[collateral](axon)(axon collateral)
*[hillock](axon)(axon hillock)
*[azygos](azygos (disambiguation))
## B
*[sign](Babinski)(plantar reflex)
*[baculum](baculum)
*[and socket joint](ball)(ball and socket joint)
*[of Baillarger](band)(band of Baillarger)
*[gland](Bartholin's)(Bartholin's gland)
*[cistern](basal)(basal cistern)
*[forebrain](basal)(basal forebrain)
*[ganglia](basal)(basal ganglia)
*[nucleus of Meynert](basalis)(basalis nucleus of Meynert)
*[lamina](basal)(basal lamina)
*[membrane](basement)(basal lamina)
*[artery](basilar)(basilar artery)
*[membrane](basilar)(basilar membrane)
*[pedunculi](basis)(basis pedunculi)
*[cell](basket)(basket cell)
*[amygdala](basolateral)(basolateral amygdala)
*[biceps](biceps)
*[aponeurosis](bicipital)(bicipital aponeurosis)
*[valve](bicuspid)(bicuspid aortic valve)
*[bifurcation](Aortic bifurcation)
*[symmetry](bilateral)(symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry)
*[duct](bile)(bile duct)
*[biology](biology)
*[cells of the retina](bipolar)(bipolar cells of the retina)
*[heminopia](bitemporal)(bitemporal heminopia)
*[blastomere](blastomere)
*[blood](blood)
*[brain barrier](blood)(blood brain barrier)
*[body](Human body)
*[bone](bone)
*[marrow](bone)(bone marrow)
*[labyrinth](bony)(bony labyrinth)
*[capsule](Bowman's)(Bowman's capsule)
*[artery](brachial)(brachial artery)
*[plexus](brachial)(brachial plexus)
*[vein](brachiocephalic)(brachiocephalic vein)
*[reflex](brachioradialis)(brachioradialis reflex)
*[conjunctivum](brachium)(brachium conjunctivum)
*[of the inferior colliculus](brachium)(brachium of the inferior colliculus)
*[of the superior colliculus](brachium)(brachium of the superior colliculus)
*[pontis](brachium)(brachium pontis)
*[restiformis](brachium)(brachium restiformis)
*[brain](brain)
*[stem](brain)(brain stem)
*[brainstem](brainstem)
*[branchia](Gill)
*[musculature](branchiomeric)(branchiomeric musculature)
*[breast](breast)
*[bregma](bregma)
*[veins](bridging)(bridging veins)
*[ligament of the uterus](broad)(broad ligament of the uterus)
*[area](Broca's)(Broca's area)
*[bronchi](bronchi)
*[bronchiole](bronchiole)
*[bronchus](bronchus)
*[Broner](Broner)
*[gland](Brunner's)(Brunner's gland)
*[fatpad](buccal)(buccal fatpad)
*[membrane](buccal)(buccal membrane)
*[nerve](buccal)(buccal nerve)
*[buccinator](buccinator muscle)
*[bulbospongiosus](bulbospongiosus muscle)
*[gland](bulbourethral)(bulbourethral gland)
*[bulbus](bulbus (disambiguation))
*[bulla](Auditory bulla)
*[of His](bundle)(bundle of His)
*[bursa](Bursa (anatomy))
*[buttock](buttock)
## C
*[spots](cafe-au-lait)(cafe-au-lait spots)
*[scriptorius](calamus)(rhomboid fossa)
*[calcaneus](calcaneus)
*[calcar](calcar)
*[avis](calcar)(calcar avis)
*[femorale](calcar)(calcar femorale)
*[cortex](calcarine)(calcarine cortex)
*[fissure](calcarine)(calcarine fissure)
*[sulcus](calcarine)(calcarine sulcus)
*[calf](calf (anatomy))
*[calix](calyx (disambiguation))
*[calvaria](calvaria (anatomy))
*[calyx](calyx (disambiguation))
*[of Schlemm](canal)(canal of Schlemm)
*[canaliculus](canaliculus (disambiguation))
*[cancellous](cancellous)
*[tooth](canine)(canine tooth)
*[canthus](canthus)
*[capillary](capillary)
*[capitate](capitate)
*[capitulum](capitulum (anatomy))
*[caput](caput)
*[medusae](caput)(caput medusae)
*[carapace](carapace)
*[cardiac](cardiac)
*[skeleton](Cardiac)(Cardiac skeleton)
*[angle](cardiophrenic)(cardiophrenic angle)
*[system](cardiovascular)(cardiovascular system)
*[carina](carina (anatomy))
*[carotid](carotid)
*[bifurcation](carotid)(carotid bifurcation)
*[body](carotid)(carotid body)
*[canal](carotid)(carotid canal)
*[groove](carotid)(carotid groove)
*[plexus](carotid)(carotid plexus (disambiguation))
*[sheath](carotid)(carotid sheath)
*[sinus](carotid)(carotid sinus)
*[siphon](carotid)(carotid siphon)
*[carpus](Carpal bones)
*[cartilage](cartilage)
*[caruncle](caruncle (disambiguation))
*[catheter](catheter)
*[cauda](cauda)
*[equina](cauda)(cauda equina)
*[caudal](Caudal (anatomical term))
*[caudate](caudate (disambiguation))
*[nucleus](caudate)(caudate nucleus)
*[cava](cava (anatomy))
*[sinus](cavernous)(cavernous sinus)
*[tympani](cavum)(cavum tympani)
*[subdurale](cavum)(cavum subdurale)
*[cecum](cecum)
*[celiac](celiac (disambiguation))
*[artery](celiac)(celiac artery)
*[ganglion](celiac)(celiac ganglion)
*[trunk](celiac)(celiac trunk)
*[celom](body cavity)
*[canal](central)(central canal)
*[gelatinous substance of spinal cord](Central)(Central gelatinous substance of spinal cord)
*[nucleus of inferior colliculus](central)(central nucleus of inferior colliculus)
*[retinal artery](central)(central retinal artery)
*[sulcus](central)(central sulcus)
*[tegmental tract](central)(central tegmental tract)
*[nucleus](centromedian)(centromedian nucleus)
*[semi](centrum)(centrum semi)
*[semiovale](centrum)(centrum semiovale)
*[cephalic](cephalic)
*[vein](cephalic)(cephalic vein)
*[peduncle](cerebellar)(cerebellar peduncle)
*[projection](cerebellar)(cerebellar projection)
*[tonsil](cerebellar)(cerebellar tonsil)
*[angle](cerebellopontine)(cerebellopontine angle)
*[tract](cerebellorubral)(cerebellorubral tract)
*[tract](cerebellothalamic)(cerebellothalamic tract)
*[cerebellum](cerebellum)
*[aqueduct](cerebral)(cerebral aqueduct)
*[arterial circle](cerebral)(cerebral arterial circle)
*[hemisphere](cerebral)(cerebral hemisphere)
*[peduncle](cerebral)(cerebral peduncle)
*[fluid](cerebrospinal)(cerebrospinal fluid)
*[cerebrum](cerebrum)
*[cerumen](cerumen)
*[cervical](cervical (disambiguation))
*[enlargement](cervical)(cervical enlargement)
*[fascia](cervical)(cervical fascia)
*[plexus](cervical)(cervical plexus)
*[spinal nerves](cervical)(cervical spinal nerves)
*[spine](cervical)(cervical spine)
*[sympathetic ganglia](cervical)(cervical sympathetic ganglia)
*[vertebrae](cervical)(cervical vertebrae)
*[ganglion](cervicothoracic)(cervicothoracic ganglion)
*[cervix](cervix)
*[chaeta](chaeta)e
*[cheek](cheek)
*[chest](chest)
*[respiration](Cheyne-Stokes)(Cheyne-Stokes respiration)
*[chiasma](chiasma (disambiguation))
*[sulcus](chiasmatic)(chiasmatic sulcus)
*[choanae](choanae)
*[tympani](chorda)(chorda tympani)
*[villi](Chorionic)(Chorionic villi)
*[choroid](choroid)
*[plexus](choroid)(choroid plexus)
*[chyle](chyle)
*[arteries](ciliary)(ciliary arteries)
*[body](ciliary)(ciliary body)
*[ganglion](ciliary)(ciliary ganglion)
*[muscle](ciliary)(ciliary muscle)
*[nerves](ciliary)(ciliary nerves (disambiguation))
*[reflex](ciliospinal)(ciliospinal reflex)
*[cilium](cilium)
*[gyrus](cingulate)(cingulate gyrus)
*[cingulum](cingulum (disambiguation))
*[of Willis](circle)(circle of Willis)
*[system](circulatory)(circulatory system)
*[artery](circumflex)(circumflex artery (disambiguation))
*[cisterna](cisterna)
*[chyli](cisterna)(cisterna chyli)
*[magna](cisterna)(cisterna magna)
*[column](Clarke's)(Clarke's column) (dorsal nucleus)
*[claustrum](claustrum)
*[clava](Gracile tubercle)
*[clavicle](clavicle)
*[fiber](climbing)(climbing fiber)
*[clinoid](clinoid)
*[clitoris](clitoris)
*[clivus](clivus (anatomy))
*[cloaca](cloaca)
*[clonus](clonus)
*[coccyx](coccyx)
*[cochlea](cochlea)
*[duct](cochlear)(cochlear duct)
*[nerve](cochlear)(cochlear nerve)
*[coeliac](coeliac (disambiguation))
*[coelom](body cavity)
*[coeruleus](coeruleus)
*[bone](collar)(collar bone)
*[eminence](collateral)(collateral eminence)
*[fissure](collateral)(collateral fissure)
*[trigone](collateral)(collateral trigone)
*[colliculus](colliculus (disambiguation))
*[collum](collum (disambiguation))
*[colon](colon (anatomy))
*[of the fornix](columns)(columns of the fornix)
*[commissure](commissure)
*[carotid artery](common)(common carotid artery)
*[facial vein](common)(common facial vein)
*[veins](communicating)(communicating veins)
*[anatomy](comparative)(comparative anatomy)
*[conchae](Turbinate)
*[process of mandible](condylar)(human mandible)
*[condyle](condyle (disambiguation))
*[cell](cone)(cone cell)
*[of the sinuses](confluence)(confluence of the sinuses)
*[tendon](conjoint)(conjoint tendon)
*[eye movement](conjugate)(conjugate eye movement)
*[conjunctiva](conjunctiva)
*[tissue](connective)(connective tissue)
*[conoid](conoid)
*[reflex](consensual)(consensual reflex)
*[constrictor](constrictor muscle)
*[contralateral](contralateral)
*[elasticus](conus)(conus elasticus)
*[medullaris](conus)(conus medullaris)
*[muscle](Coracobrachialis)(Coracobrachialis muscle) [coracoid](coracoid)
*[process](coracoid)(coracoid process)
*[cordotomy](cordotomy)
*[cornea](cornea)
*[reflex](corneal)(corneal reflex)
*[corniculate](corniculate)
*[cornu](cornu (disambiguation))
*[corona](corona (anatomy))
*[radiata](corona)(corona radiata)
*[plane](coronal)(coronal plane)
*[suture](coronal)(coronal suture)
*[view](coronal)(coronal view)
*[coronary](coronary)
*[arteries](coronary)(coronary arteries)
*[sinus](coronary)(coronary sinus)
*[coronoid](coronoid (disambiguation))
*[process](coronoid)(coronoid process (disambiguation))
*[quadrigemina](corpora)(corpora quadrigemina)
*[albicans](corpus)(corpus albicans)
*[callosum](corpus)(corpus callosum)
*[striatum](corpus)(corpus striatum)
*[corpuscle](corpuscle (disambiguation))
*[corrugator](corrugator (disambiguation))
*[cortex](cortex (anatomy))
*[axons](corticobulbar)(corticobulbar axons)
*[amygdala](corticomedial)(corticomedial amygdala)
*[fibers](corticopontine)(corticopontine fibers)
*[tract](corticospinal)(corticospinal tract)
*[fiber](corticostriate)(corticostriate fiber)
*[cartilages](costal)(costal cartilages)
*[margin](costal)(costal margin)
*[angle](costophrenic)(costophrenic angle)
*[gland](Cowper's)(bulbourethral gland)
*[coxae](Hip)
*[cranial](Human skull)
*[autonomic ganglia](cranial)(cranial autonomic ganglia)
*[bone](cranial)(Human skull)
*[nerve ganglia](cranial)(cranial nerve ganglia)
*[nerve lesion](cranial)(cranial nerve lesion)
*[nerve nuclei](cranial)(cranial nerve nuclei)
*[nerves](cranial)(cranial nerves)
*[cranium](cranium)
*[cremaster](cremaster muscle)
*[cribriform](cribriform (disambiguation))
*[plate](cribriform)(cribriform plate)
*[ligament](cricoarytenoid)(cricoarytenoid ligament)
*[muscle](cricoarytenoid)(cricoarytenoid muscle)
*[cricoid](cricoid)
*[cartilage](cricoid)(cricoid cartilage)
*[joint](cricothyroid)(cricothyroid joint)
*[ligament](cricothyroid)(cricothyroid ligament)
*[muscle](cricothyroid)(cricothyroid muscle)
*[crista](crista)
*[galli](crista)(crista galli)
*[extensor reflex](crossed)(crossed extensor reflex)
*[ligament](cruciform)(cruciform ligament)
*[of cerebrum](crus)(crus of cerebrum)
*[of clitoris](crus)(crus of clitoris)
*[of diaphragm](crus)(crus of diaphragm)
*[of fornix](crus)(crus of fornix)
*[of heart](crus)(crus of heart)
*[of penis](crus)(crus of penis)
*[of superficial inguinal ring](crura)(crura of superficial inguinal ring)
*[cubital](cubital (disambiguation))
*[cuboid](cuboid bone)
*[culmen](culmen (cerebellum))
*[cuneate](cuneate (disambiguation))
*[fasciculus](cuneate)(cuneate fasciculus)
*[nucleus](cuneate)(cuneate nucleus)
*[tubercle](cuneate)(cuneate tubercles)
*[cuneiforms](cuneiform (anatomy))
*[fibers](cuneocerebellar)(cuneocerebellar fibers)
*[cuneus](cuneus)
*[cupula](cupula (disambiguation))
*[cusp](cusp (anatomy))
*[cutaneous](cutaneous)
*[cyst](cyst)
*[duct](cystic)(cystic duct)
*[cystogram](cystogram)
## D
*[dartos](dartos)
*[DCML](Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway)
*[response](decerebrate)(decerebrate response)
*[declive](declive)
*[of movement](decomposition)(decomposition of movement)
*[response](decorticate)(decorticate response)
*[cerebellar nuclei](deep)(deep cerebellar nuclei)
*[lingual artery](deep)(deep lingual artery)
*[deglutition](deglutition)
*[deltoid](deltoid muscle)
*[triangle](deltopectoral)(deltopectoral triangle)
*[demyelination](demyelination)
*[dendrite](dendrite)
*[spine](dendritic)(dendritic spine)
*[dens](odontoid process)
*[alveolus](dental)(dental alveolus)
*[caries](dental)(dental cavities)
*[formula](dental)(dentition)
*[pulp](dental)(dental pulp)
*[gyrus](dentate)(dentate gyrus)
*[nucleus](dentate)(dentate nucleus)
*[tract](dentatothalamic)(dentatothalamic tract)
*[ligament](denticulate)(denticulate ligament)
*[dentine](dentine)
*[dentition](dentition)
*[anguli oris muscle](depressor)(depressor anguli oris muscle)
*[dermatoglyphics](dermatoglyphics)
*[dermatome](dermatome (anatomy))
*[dermis](dermis)
*[cervicalis](descendens)(descendens cervicalis)
*[aorta](descending)(descending aorta)
*[duodenum](descending)(descending duodenum)
*[detrusor](detrusor)
*[septum](deviated)(deviated septum)
*[band](diagonal)(diagonal band)
*[band of Broca](diagonal)(diagonal band of Broca)
*[diaphragm](diaphragm (anatomy))
*[sellae](diaphragma)(diaphragma sellae)
*[recess](diaphragmatic)(diaphragmatic recess)
*[diaphysis](diaphysis)
*[diastole](diastole)
*[diencephalon](diencephalon)
*[fossa](digastric)(digastric fossa)
*[muscle](digastric)(digastric muscle)
*[triangle](digastric)(digastric triangle)
*[system](digestive)(digestive system)
*[diplopia](diplopia)
*[diploë](diploë)
*[dislocation](dislocation (medicine))
*[dissection](dissection)
*[distal](Anatomical terms of location#Proximal and distal)
*[diverticulum](diverticulum)
*[eyes phenomenon](doll's)(doll's eyes phenomenon)
*[dorsal](Dorsum (biology))
*[cochlear nucleus](dorsal)(dorsal cochlear nucleus)
*[column](dorsal)(dorsal column)
*[column nuclei](dorsal)(dorsal column nuclei)
*[funiculus](dorsal)(dorsal funiculus)
*[horn](dorsal)(dorsal horn (disambiguation))
*[root](dorsal)(dorsal root)
*[root ganglion](dorsal)(dorsal root ganglion)
*[spinocerebellar tract](dorsal)(dorsal spinocerebellar tract)
*[trigeminothalamic tract](dorsal)(dorsal trigeminothalamic tract)
*[fasciculus](dorsolateral)(dorsolateral fasciculus)
*[nucleus of thalamus](dorsomedial)(dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus)
*[sellae](dorsum)(dorsum sellae)
*[hump](dowager's)(kyphosis)
*[gland](ductless)(ductless gland)
*[ductus](ductus)
*[deferens](ductus)(ductus deferens)
*[duodenum](duodenum)
*[mater](dura)(dura mater)
*[septae](dural)(dural septae)
*[venous sinus](dural)(dural venous sinus)
## E
*[ear](ear)
*[eardrum](eardrum)
*[(medicine)](ectopia)(ectopia (medicine))
*[nucleus](Edinger-Westphal)(Edinger-Westphal nucleus)
*[ducts](efferent)(efferent ducts)
*[nerve fiber](efferent)(efferent nerve fiber)
*[limb](efferent)(efferent limb)
*[duct](ejaculatory)(ejaculatory duct)
*[elbow](Elbow-joint)
*[conduction system of the heart](electrical)(electrical conduction system of the heart)
*[nucleus](emboliform)(emboliform nucleus)
*[embolus](Embolism)
*[embryo](embryo)
*[yolk stalk](embryonic)(embryonic yolk stalk)
*[veins](emissary)(emissary veins)
*[enamel](tooth enamel)
*[encephalon](encephalon)
*[encephalopathy](encephalopathy)
*[endocardium](endocardium)
*[endocranium](endocranium)
*[gland](endocrine)(endocrine gland)
*[system](endocrine)(endocrine system)
*[endoderm](endoderm)
*[endolymph](endolymph)
*[endometrium](endometrium)
*[endoneurium](endoneurium)
*[endorphin](endorphin)
*[endothelium](endothelium)
*[enkephalin](enkephalin)
*[cortex](entorhinal)(entorhinal cortex)
*[ependyma](ependyma)
*[epicanthus](epicanthus)
*[epicardium](epicardium)
*[epicondyle](epicondyle)
*[aponeurosis](epicranial)(epicranial aponeurosis)
*[epidermis](Epidermis (skin))
*[epididymis](epididymis)
*[hematoma](epidural)(epidural hematoma)
*[space](epidural)(epidural space)
*[epigastrium](epigastrium)
*[cartilage](epiglottic)(epiglottic cartilage)
*[epiglottis](epiglottis)
*[epimysium](epimysium)
*[epineurium](neurolemma)
*[growth plates](epiphyseal)(epiphyseal growth plates)
*[epiphysis](epiphysis)
*[foramen](epiploic)(epiploic foramen)
*[epithalamus](epithalamus)
*[epithelium](epithelium)
*[recess](epitympanic)(epitympanic recess)
*[spinae](erector)(erector spinae)
*[plexus](esophageal)(esophageal plexus)
*[sphincter](esophageal)(esophageal sphincter)
*[esophagus](esophagus)
*[tremor](essential)(essential tremor)
*[bone](ethmoid)(ethmoid bone)
*[sinus](ethmoid)(ethmoid sinus)
*[air cells](ethmoidal)(ethmoidal air cells)
*[bulla](ethmoidal)(ethmoidal bulla)
*[Europhiles](Europhiles)
*[tube](eustachian)(eustachian tube)
*[system](excretory)(excretory system)
*[gland](exocrine)(exocrine gland)
*[exophthalmos](exophthalmos)
*[exoskeleton](exoskeleton)
*[exotropia](exotropia)
*[plantar response](extensor)(extensor plantar response)
*[posturing](extensor)(extensor posturing)
*[retinaculum](extensor)(extensor retinaculum (disambiguation))
*[auditory meatus](external)(external auditory meatus)
*[capsule](external)(external capsule)
*[carotid artery](external)(external carotid artery)
*[ear](external)(external ear)
*[iliac artery](external)(external iliac artery)
*[jugular vein](external)(external jugular vein)
*[laryngeal nerve](external)(external laryngeal nerve)
*[medullary lamina](external)(external medullary lamina)
*[nasal nerve](external)(external nasal nerve)
*[occipital protuberance](external)(external occipital protuberance)
*[ophthalmoplegia](external)(external ophthalmoplegia)
*[muscles](extraocular)(extraocular muscles)
*[extraperitoneal](extraperitoneal)
*[motor system](extrapyramidal)(extrapyramidal motor system)
*[signs](extrapyramidal)(extrapyramidal signs)
*[system](extrapyramidal)(extrapyramidal system)
*[capsule](extreme)(extreme capsule)
*[muscle](extrinsic)(extrinsic muscle)
*[eye](Human eye)
*[eyebrow](eyebrow)
*[eyelash](eyelash)
*[eyelid](eyelid)
## F
*[fabella](fabella)
*[face](face)
*[joint](facet)(facet joint)
*[artery](facial)(facial artery)
*[bone](facial)(facial bone)
*[colliculus](facial)(facial colliculus)
*[nerve](facial)(facial nerve)
*[nucleus](facial)(facial nucleus)
*[vein](facial)(facial vein)
*[ligament](falciform)(falciform ligament)
*[tube](Fallopian)(Fallopian tube)
*[vocal cord](false)(false vocal cord)
*[cerebri](falx)(falx cerebri)
*[fascia](fascia)
*[lata](fascia)(fascia lata)
*[fasciculation](fasciculation)
*[lenticularis](fasciculus)(fasciculus lenticularis)
*[nucleus](fastigial)(fastigial nucleus)
*[fastigium](fastigium)
*[fat](fat)
*[fauces](fauces (anatomy))
*[artery](femoral)(femoral artery)
*[neck](femoral)(femoral neck)
*[triangle](femoral)(femoral triangle)
*[femur](femur)
*[fenestra](fenestra (anatomy))
*[cochleae](fenestra)(fenestra cochleae)
*[ovalis](fenestra)(fenestra ovalis)
*[vestibuli](fenestra)(fenestra vestibuli)
*[fetus](fetus)
*[fibre](fibre)
*[fibril](fibril)
*[fibrillation](fibrillation)
*[coat of the eye](fibrous)(fibrous coat of the eye)
*[pericardium](fibrous)(fibrous pericardium)
*[skeleton of the heart](fibrous)(fibrous skeleton of the heart)
*[fibula](fibula)
*[of Forel](fields)(fields of Forel)
*[papillae](filiform)(filiform papillae)
*[filum](filum)
*[terminale](filum)(filum terminale)
*[fimbriae](fimbriae (anatomy))
*[finger](finger)
*[fingernail](fingernail)
*[thoracic ganglion](first)(first thoracic ganglion)
*[fissure](fissure (anatomy))
*[fistula](fistula)
*[paralysis](flaccid)(flaccid paralysis)
*[flaccidity](flaccidity)
*[flank](flank (anatomy))
*[flexion](flexion)
*[retinaculum](flexor)(flexor retinaculum (disambiguation))
*[ribs](floating)(floating ribs)
*[lobe](flocculonodular)(flocculonodular lobe)
*[flocculus](flocculus (cerebellar))
*[aphasia](fluent)(fluent aphasia)
*[foetus](foetus)
*[fontanelle](fontanelle)
*[foot](foot)
*[foramen](foramen)
*[lacerum](foramen)(foramen lacerum)
*[magnum](foramen)(foramen magnum)
*[of Luschka](foramen)(foramen of Luschka)
*[of Magendie](foramen)(foramen of Magendie)
*[of Monro](foramen)(Interventricular foramina (neural anatomy))
*[ovale (heart)](foramen)(foramen ovale (heart))
*[ovale (skull)](foramen)(foramen ovale (skull))
*[rotundum](foramen)(foramen rotundum)
*[spinosum](foramen)(foramen spinosum)
*[major](forceps)(forceps major)
*[forearm](forearm)
*[forebrain](forebrain)
*[forehead](forehead)
*[foreskin](foreskin)
*[formication](formication)
*[fornix](fornix (disambiguation))
*[fossa](fossa (anatomy))
*[trochanter](Fourth)(Fourth trochanter)
*[ventricle](fourth)(fourth ventricle)
*[fovea](Fovea centralis)
*[foveola](foveola)
*[frenulum](frenulum)
*[linguae](frenulum)(frenulum linguae)
*[frenum](frenum)
*[air sinus](frontal)(frontal air sinus)
*[bone](frontal)(frontal bone)
*[eye field](frontal)(frontal eye field)
*[frontalis](frontalis (disambiguation))
*[horn of lateral ventricle](frontal)(frontal horn of lateral ventricle)
*[lobe](frontal)(frontal lobe)
*[nerve](frontal)(frontal nerve)
*[plane](frontal)(frontal plane)
*[pole](frontal)(frontal pole)
*[sinus](frontal)(frontal sinus)
*[duct](frontonasal)(frontonasal duct)
*[ligament](fundiform)(fundiform ligament)
*[fundus](fundus (disambiguation))
*[papillae](fungiform)(fungiform papillae)
*[funiculus](funiculus (disambiguation))
*[furcula](furcula)
*[gyrus](fusiform)(fusiform gyrus)
## G
*[reflex](gag)(gag reflex)
*[aponeurotica](galea)(galea aponeurotica)
*[bladder](gall)(gall bladder)
*[motoneurons](gamma)(gamma motoneurons)
*[ganglion](ganglion)
*[cell](ganglion)(ganglion cell)
*[cell of the retina](ganglion)(ganglion cell of the retina)
*[ganglion](gasserian)(gasserian ganglion)
*[gastrocnemius](gastrocnemius)
*[artery](gastroduodenal)(gastroduodenal artery)
*[junction](gastroesophageal)(gastroesophageal junction)
*[ligament](gastrohepatic)(gastrohepatic ligament)
*[tract](gastrointestinal)(gastrointestinal tract)
*[gemellus](gemellus (disambiguation))
*[ganglion](geniculate)(geniculate ganglion)
*[nucleus](geniculate)(geniculate nucleus (disambiguation))
*[tract](geniculocalcarine)(geniculocalcarine tract)
*[geniculum](geniculum)
*[muscle](genioglossus)(genioglossus muscle)
*[muscle](geniohyoid)(geniohyoid muscle)
*[genitalia](genitalia)
*[of corpus callosum](genu)(genu of corpus callosum)
*[of the internal capsule](genu)(genu of the internal capsule)
*[gill](gill)
*[gingiva](gingiva)
*[gizzard](gizzard)
*[glabella](glabella)
*[gland](gland)
*[glandula](glandula)
*[glans](glans)
*[joint](glenohumeral)(shoulder)
*[fossa](glenoid)(glenoid fossa)
*[glia](glia)
*[nucleus](globose)(globose nucleus)
*[pallidus](globus)(globus pallidus)
*[glomerulus](glomerulus)
*[fold](glossoepiglottic)(glossoepiglottic fold)
*[nerve](glossopharyngeal)(glossopharyngeal nerve)
*[glottis](glottis)
*[maximus](gluteus)(gluteus maximus)
*[medius](gluteus)(gluteus medius)
*[minimus](gluteus)(gluteus minimus)
*[goiter](goitre)
*[apparatus](Golgi)(Golgi apparatus)
*[gonad](gonad)
*[fasciculus](gracile)(gracile fasciculus)
*[nucleus](gracile)(gracile nucleus)
*[tubercle](gracile)(gracile tubercle)
*[muscle](Gracilis)(Gracilis muscle)
*[layer](granular)(granular layer (disambiguation))
*[gravid](gravid)
*[matter](gray)(gray matter)
*[Anatomy](Gray's)(Gray's Anatomy)
*[cerebral vein](great)(great cerebral vein)
*[toe](great)(hallux)
*[auricular nerve](greater)(greater auricular nerve)
*[horn of the hyoid](greater)(greater horn of the hyoid)
*[occipital nerve](greater)(greater occipital nerve)
*[omentum](greater)(greater omentum)
*[palatine artery](greater)(greater palatine artery)
*[palatine canal](greater)(greater palatine canal)
*[palatine foramen](greater)(greater palatine foramen)
*[palatine nerve](greater)(greater palatine nerve)
*[petrosal nerve](greater)(greater petrosal nerve)
*[superficial petrosal nerve](greater)(greater superficial petrosal nerve)
*[trochanter](Greater)(Greater trochanter)
*[wing of sphenoid](greater)(greater wing of sphenoid)
*[groin](groin)
*[gubernaculum](gubernaculum)
*[gums](gingiva)
*[gustatory](gustatory)
*[gyrencephalic](gyrencephalic)
*[gyrus](gyrus)
## H
*[habenula](habenula)
*[nuclei](habenular)(habenular nuclei)
*[haemorrhoid](haemorrhoid)
*[hair](hair)
*[cells](hair)(hair cells)
*[follicle](hair)(hair follicle)
*[hallux](hallux)
*[hamate](hamate bone)
*[hamstrings](hamstrings)
*[of hamate](hamulus)(hamulus of hamate)
*[hand](hand)
*[palate](hard)(hard palate)
*[haustrum](haustrum (anatomy))
*[system](Haversian)(Haversian system)
*[of rib](head)(head of rib)
*[heart](heart)
*[heel](heel)
*[helicotrema](helicotrema)
*[helix](helix (ear))
*[hematoma](hematoma)
*[vein](hemiazygos)(hemiazygos vein)
*[hemiballismus](hemiballismus)
*[hemidiaphragm](hemidiaphragm)
*[hemiparesis](hemiparesis)
*[hemisphere](cerebral hemisphere)
*[hemothorax](hemothorax)
*[hepatic](hepatic)
*[artery](hepatic)(hepatic artery)
*[flexure](hepatic)(hepatic flexure)
*[portal vein](hepatic)(portal vein)
*[veins](hepatic)(hepatic veins)
*[ligament](hepatoduodenal)(hepatoduodenal ligament)
*[ampulla](hepatopancreatic)(hepatopancreatic ampulla) [sphincter](hepatopancreatic)(hepatopancreatic sphincter)
*[hernia](hernia)
*[disk](herniated)(herniated disk)
*[hiatus](hiatus (anatomy))
*[semilunaris](hiatus)(hiatus semilunaris)
*[vessels](hilar)(hilum (disambiguation))
*[law](Hilton's)(Hilton's law)
*[hilum](hilum (anatomy))
*[hindbrain](hindbrain)
*[bone](hip)(hip bone)
*[formation](hippocampal)(hippocampal formation)
*[pyramidal cell](hippocampal)(hippocampal pyramidal cell)
*[sulcus](hippocampal)(hippocampal sulcus)
*[hippocampus](hippocampus)
*[histology](histology)
*[of anatomy](history)(history of anatomy)
*[reflex](Hoffmann's)(Hoffmann's reflex)
*[homologous](homology (biology))
*[hormone](hormone)
*[horn](horn (anatomy))
*[anatomical parts named after people](human)(human anatomical parts named after people)
*[anatomy](human)(human anatomy)
*[body](human)(human body)
*[skeleton](human)(human skeleton)
*[humerus](humerus)
*[humours](four humours)
*[hunchback](kyphosis)
*[cartilage](hyaline)(hyaline cartilage)
*[hymen](hymen)
*[muscle](hyoglossus)(hyoglossus muscle)
*[bone](hyoid)(hyoid bone)
*[muscles](hypaxial)(hypaxial muscles)
*[artery](hypogastric)(hypogastric artery)
*[nerve](hypogastric)(hypogastric nerve)
*[canal](hypoglossal)(hypoglossal canal)
*[nerve](hypoglossal)(hypoglossal nerve)
*[nucleus](hypoglossal)(hypoglossal nucleus)
*[trigone](hypoglossal)(hypoglossal trigone)
*[hypopharynx](hypopharynx)
*[artery](hypophyseal)(Hypophysial artery (disambiguation))
*[fossa](hypophyseal)(hypophyseal fossa)
*[portal system](hypophyseal)(hypophyseal portal system)
*[hypophysis](Pituitary gland)
*[cerebri](hypophysis)(hypophysis cerebri)
*[sulcus](hypothalamic)(hypothalamic sulcus)
*[portal system](hypothalamohypophyseal)(hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system)
*[tract](hypothalamohypophyseal)(hypothalamohypophyseal tract)
*[tract](hypothalamoreticular)(hypothalamoreticular tract)
*[tract](hypothalamospinal)(hypothalamospinal tract)
*[tract](hypothalamotegmental)(hypothalamotegmental tract)
*[hypothalamus](hypothalamus)
*[axon](hypothalmotegmental)(hypothalmotegmental axon)
*[muscles](hypothenar)(hypothenar muscles)
## I
*[vessels](ileal)(ileal vessels)
*[valve](ileocecal)(ileocecal valve)
*[artery](ileocolic)(ileocolic artery)
*[ileum](ileum)
*[crest](iliac)(iliac crest)
*[lymph nodes](iliac)(iliac lymph nodes (disambiguation))
*[region](iliac)(iliac region)
*[spine](iliac)(iliac spine)
*[muscle](iliacus)(iliacus muscle)
*[artery](iliolumbar)(iliolumbar artery)
*[muscle](iliopsoas)(iliopsoas muscle)
*[band](iliotibial)(iliotibial band)
*[ilium](ilium (bone))
*[system](immune)(immune system)
*[ligament](impar)(impar ligament)
*[canal](incisive)(incisive canal)
*[fossa](incisive)(incisive fossa)
*[incisor](incisor)
*[incisura](incisura (disambiguation))
*[incus](incus)
*[finger](index)(index finger)
*[griseum](indusium)(indusium griseum)
*[infarction](infarction)
*[alveolar artery](inferior)(inferior alveolar artery)
*[alveolar nerve](inferior)(inferior alveolar nerve)
*[cerebellar peduncle](inferior)(inferior cerebellar peduncle)
*[cervical sympathetic ganglion](inferior)(inferior cervical sympathetic ganglion)
*[colliculus](inferior)(inferior colliculus)
*[concha](inferior)(inferior concha)
*[frontal gyrus](inferior)(inferior frontal gyrus)
*[gluteal artery](inferior)(inferior gluteal artery)
*[horn](inferior)(inferior horn (disambiguation))
*[meatus](inferior)(inferior meatus)
*[mesenteric artery](inferior)(inferior mesenteric artery)
*[mesenteric vein](inferior)(inferior mesenteric vein)
*[nasal concha](inferior)(inferior nasal concha)
*[oblique muscle](inferior)(inferior oblique muscle)
*[olivary nucleus](inferior)(inferior olivary nucleus)
*[orbital fissure](inferior)(inferior orbital fissure)
*[petrosal sinus](inferior)(inferior petrosal sinus)
*[pharyngeal constrictor muscle](inferior)(inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle)
*[pubic ramus](inferior)(inferior pubic ramus)
*[rectus muscle](inferior)(inferior rectus muscle)
*[sagittal sinus](inferior)(inferior sagittal sinus)
*[salivatory nucleus](inferior)(inferior salivatory nucleus)
*[temporal gyrus](inferior)(inferior temporal gyrus)
*[thyroid artery](inferior)(inferior thyroid artery)
*[thyroid vein](inferior)(inferior thyroid vein)
*[tibiofibular joint](Inferior)(Inferior tibiofibular joint)
*[vena cava](inferior)(inferior vena cava)
*[vestibular nucleus](inferior)(inferior vestibular nucleus)
*[cavity](infraglottic)(infraglottic cavity)
*[strap muscles](infrahyoid)(infrahyoid)
*[canal](infraorbital)(infraorbital canal)
*[foramen](infraorbital)(infraorbital foramen)
*[groove](infraorbital)(infraorbital groove)
*[nerve](infraorbital)(infraorbital nerve)
*[muscle](infraspinatus)(infraspinatus muscle)
*[fossa](infratemporal)(infratemporal fossa)
*[infratentorial](infratentorial)
*[nucleus](infundibular)(infundibular nucleus)
*[infundibulum](infundibulum (disambiguation))
*[inguinal](inguinal (disambiguation))
*[canal](inguinal)(inguinal canal)
*[ligament](inguinal)(inguinal ligament)
*[lymph nodes](inguinal)(inguinal lymph nodes)
*[rings](inguinal)(inguinal rings (disambiguation))
*[triangle](inguinal)(inguinal triangle)
*[inion](inion (anatomy))
*[table of skull](inner)(inner table of skull)
*[innervate](innervate)
*[innominate](innominate (disambiguation))
*[insula](insular cortex)
*[integument](integument)
*[system](integumentary)(integumentary system)
*[septum](interatrial)(interatrial septum)
*[disc](intercalated)(intercalated disc)
*[eminence](intercondylar)(intercondylar eminence)s
*[muscles](intercostal)(intercostal muscles)
*[interdigitation](interdigitation)
*[fissure](interhemispheric)(interhemispheric fissure)
*[horn cell](intermediate)(intermediate horn cell)
*[cell column](intermediolateral)(intermediolateral cell column)
*[nucleus](intermediolateral)(intermediolateral nucleus)
*[acoustic meatus](internal)(internal acoustic meatus)
*[arcuate fiber](internal)(internal arcuate fiber)
*[capsule](internal)(internal capsule)
*[carotid artery](internal)(internal carotid artery)
*[cerebral vein](internal)(internal cerebral vein)
*[ear](internal)(internal ear)
*[iliac artery](internal)(internal iliac artery)
*[iliac vein](internal)(internal iliac vein)
*[jugular vein](internal)(internal jugular vein)
*[laryngeal nerve](internal)(internal laryngeal nerve)
*[medullary lamina](internal)(internal medullary lamina)
*[oblique muscle](internal)(internal oblique muscle)
*[thoracic artery](internal)(internal thoracic artery)
*[thoracic veins](internal)(internal thoracic veins)
*[interneuron](interneuron)
*[internuncial](internuncial)
*[membrane](interosseus)(interosseus membrane)
*[cistern](interpeduncular)(interpeduncular cistern)
*[fossa](interpeduncular)(interpeduncular fossa)
*[interstitial](interstitial (disambiguation))
*[adhesion](interthalamic)(interthalamic adhesion)
*[line](intertrochanteric)(intertrochanteric line)
*[foramen of Monro](interventricular)(Interventricular foramina (neural anatomy))
*[septum](interventricular)(interventricular septum)
*[disc](intervertebral)(intervertebral disc)
*[villus](Intestinal)(Intestinal villus)
*[intestine](intestine)
*[intrafusal](intrafusal)
*[muscle fibers](intrafusal)(intrafusal muscle fibers)
*[thalamic nuclei](intralaminar)(intralaminar thalamic nuclei)
*[intramedullary](intramedullary)
*[adhesion](intrathalamic)(intrathalamic adhesion)
*[intravenous](intravenous)
*[muscles of the tongue](intrinsic)(intrinsic muscles of the tongue)
*[introitus](introitus)
*[ipsilateral](ipsilateral)
*[iris](iris (anatomy))
*[dilator muscle](iris)(iris dilator muscle)
*[sphincter muscle](iris)(iris sphincter muscle)
*[ischemia](ischemia)
*[spine](ischial)(ischial spine)
*[tuberosity](ischial)(ischial tuberosity)
*[fossa](ischiorectal)(ischiorectal fossa)
*[ischium](ischium)
*[of Langerhans](Islets)(Islets of Langerhans)
*[isthmus](isthmus (anatomy))
## J
*[seizure](Jacksonian)(Jacksonian seizure)
*[jaw](jaw)
*[jejunum](jejunum)
*[joint](joint)
*[capsule](joint)(joint capsule)
*[space](joint)(joint space)
*[jugular](jugular)
*[foramen](jugular)(jugular foramen)
*[notch](jugular)(jugular notch)
*[jugum](jugum)
*[apparatus](juxtaglomerular)(juxtaglomerular apparatus)
## K
*[keel](keel (bird))
*[keloid](keloid)
*[keratin](keratin)
*[kidney](kidney)
*[kinesthesia](kinesthesia)
*[kinocilium](kinocilium)
*[knee](knee)
*[jerk reflex](knee)(patellar tendon reflex)
*[kneecap](patella)
*[knuckle](metacarpophalangeal joint)
*[koniocortex](koniocortex)
*[kyphosis](kyphosis)
## L
*[majora](labia)(vulva)
*[minora](labia)(vulva)
*[labium](lip (mouth))
*[labrum](labrum (disambiguation))
*[labyrinth](labyrinth (inner ear))
*[bone](lacrimal)(lacrimal bone)
*[canaliculus](lacrimal)(lacrimal canaliculus)
*[fossa](lacrimal)(lacrimal fossa (disambiguation))
*[gland](lacrimal)(lacrimal gland)
*[nerve](lacrimal)(lacrimal nerve)
*[papilla](lacrimal)(lacrimal papilla)
*[punctum](lacrimal)(lacrimal punctum)
*[sac](lacrimal)(lacrimal sac)
*[lactation](lactation)
*[lacteal](lacteal)
*[duct](lactiferous)(lactiferous duct)
*[lacuna](lacuna (disambiguation))
*[laterales](lacunae)(lacunae laterales)
*[lacrimalis](lacus)(lacus lacrimalis)
*[suture](lambdoid)(lambdoid suture)
*[lamella](lamella (zoology))
*[lamina](lamina (anatomy))
*[papyracea](lamina)(lamina papyracea)
*[terminalis](lamina)(lamina terminalis)
*[laminectomy](laminectomy)
*[center](language)(language center)
*[lanugo](lanugo)
*[intestine](large)(large intestine)
*[inlet](laryngeal)(laryngeal inlet)
*[laryngopharynx](laryngopharynx)
*[larynx](larynx)
*[aperture](lateral)(lateral aperture)
*[cervical muscle](lateral)(lateral cervical muscle)
*[corticospinal tract](lateral)(lateral corticospinal tract)
*[cricoarytenoid muscle](lateral)(lateral cricoarytenoid muscle)
*[cuneate nucleus](lateral)(lateral cuneate nucleus)
*[dorsal nucleus of thalamus](lateral)(lateral dorsal nucleus of thalamus)
*[fissure](lateral)(lateral fissure)
*[funiculus](lateral)(lateral funiculus)
*[geniculate body or nucleus](lateral)(lateral geniculate body or nucleus)
*[horn](lateral)(lateral horn (disambiguation))
*[hypothalamus](lateral)(lateral hypothalamus)
*[lemniscus](lateral)(lateral lemniscus)
*[olfactory stria](lateral)(lateral olfactory stria)
*[posterior nucleus](lateral)(lateral posterior nucleus)
*[pterygoid muscle](lateral)(lateral pterygoid muscle)
*[pterygoid plate](lateral)(lateral pterygoid plate)
*[recess](lateral)(lateral recess) (of the fourth ventricle)
*[rectus muscle](lateral)(lateral rectus muscle)
*[sclerosis](lateral)(lateral sclerosis)
*[semicircular canal](lateral)(lateral semicircular canal)
*[spinothalamic tract](lateral)(lateral spinothalamic tract)
*[striate arteries](lateral)(lateral striate artery)
*[thalamic nucleus](lateral)(lateral thalamic nucleus)
*[ventricles](lateral)(lateral ventricles)
*[vertebral muscle](lateral)(lateral vertebral muscle)
*[vestibular nucleus](lateral)(lateral vestibular nucleus)
*[vestibulospinal tract](lateral)(lateral vestibulospinal tract)
*[dorsi](latissimus)(latissimus dorsi)
*[canal](Laurer's)(Laurer's Canal)
*[atrium](left)(left atrium)
*[colic artery](left)(left colic artery)
*[common carotid artery](left)(left common carotid artery)
*[gastroepiploic artery](left)(left gastroepiploic artery)
*[mainstem bronchi](left)(left mainstem bronchi)
*[marginal artery](left)(left marginal artery)
*[pulmonary artery](left)(left pulmonary artery)
*[ventricle](left)(left ventricle)
*[leg](leg (anatomy))
*[lemniscus](lemniscus (anatomy))
*[lens](lens (vision))
*[nucleus](lenticular)(lenticular nucleus)
*[artery](lenticulostriate)(lenticulostriate artery)
*[lentiform](lentiform)
*[nucleus](lentiform)(lentiform nucleus)
*[leptomeninx](leptomeninx)
*[occipital nerve](lesser)(lesser occipital nerve)
*[omentum](lesser)(lesser omentum)
*[palatine foramen](lesser)(lesser palatine foramen)
*[petrosal nerve](lesser)(lesser petrosal nerve)
*[trochanter](Lesser)(Lesser trochanter)
*[wing of sphenoid](lesser)(lesser wing of sphenoid)
*[muscle](levator)(levator muscle (disambiguation))
*[labii superioris muscle](levator)(levator labii superioris muscle)
*[palpebrae muscle](levator)(levator palpebrae muscle)
*[palpebrae superioris](levator)(levator palpebrae superioris)
*[scapulae muscle](levator)(levator scapulae muscle)
*[velum palatini muscle](levator)(levator velum palatini muscle)
*[ligament](ligament)
*[of Treitz](ligament)(ligament of Treitz)
*[arteriosum](ligamentum)(ligamentum arteriosum)
*[flavum](ligamentum)(ligamentum flavum)
*[teres](ligamentum)(ligamentum teres (disambiguation))
*[reflex](light)(light reflex)
*[system](limbic)(limbic system)
*[insulae](limen)(limen insulae)
*[of Gennari](line)(line of Gennari)
*[alba](linea)(linea alba (disambiguation))
*[aspera](linea)(linea aspera)
*[lingua](tongue)
*[artery](lingual)(lingual artery)
*[nerve](lingual)(lingual nerve)
*[tonsil](lingual)(lingual tonsil)
*[vein](lingual)(lingual vein)
*[lingula](lingula (disambiguation))
*[lip](lip)
*[lipofuscin](lipofuscin)
*[tract](Lissauer's)(Lissauer's tract)
*[lissencephalic](lissencephalic)
*[of human anatomical features](list)(list of human anatomical features)
*[area](Little's)(Little's area)
*[liver](liver)
*[lobule](lobule)
*[coeruleus](locus)(locus coeruleus)
*[loin](loin)
*[bone](long)(long bone)
*[ciliary nerves](long)(long ciliary nerves)
*[fissure](longitudinal)(longitudinal fissure)
*[capitis muscle](longus)(longus capitis muscle)
*[colli muscle](longus)(longus colli muscle)
*[handles](love)(Beerbellies)
*[motor neuron](lower)(lower motor neuron)
*[lumbar](lumbar)
*[artery](lumbar)(lumbar artery)
*[enlargement](lumbar)(lumbar enlargement)
*[spine](lumbar)(lumbar spine)
*[vertebrae](lumbar)(lumbar vertebrae)
*[enlargement](lumbosacral)(lumbosacral enlargement)
*[plexus](lumbosacral)(lumbosacral plexus)
*[lumbrical](lumbrical (disambiguation))
*[lunate](lunate bone)
*[lung](lung)
*[lymph](lymph)
*[nodes](lymph)(lymph nodes)
*[system](lymphatic)(lymphatic system)
*[vessels](lymphatic)(lymphatic vessels)
## M
*[macroscopic](macroscopic)
*[macula](macula)
*[sparing](macular)(macular sparing)
*[nuclei](magnocellular)(magnocellular nuclei)
*[pulmonary artery](main)(main pulmonary artery)
*[duodenal papilla](major)(major duodenal papilla)
*[malleolus](malleolus)
*[malleus](malleus)
*[layer](Malpighian)(Malpighian layer)
*[mammae](mammae)
*[gland](mammary)(mammary gland)
*[mammilla](mammilla (disambiguation))
*[bodies](mammillary)(mammillary bodies)
*[tract](mammillothalamic)(mammillothalamic tract)
*[mammogram](mammogram)
*[mandible](Human mandible)
*[condyles](mandibular)(mandibular condyles)
*[foramen](mandibular)(mandibular foramen)
*[fossa](mandibular)(mandibular fossa)
*[nerve](mandibular)(mandibular nerve)
*[notch](mandibular)(mandibular notch)
*[manubrium](manubrium)
*[intermedia](massa)(massa intermedia)
*[muscle](masseter)(masseter muscle)
*[vessels](masseteric)(masseteric vessels)
*[mastication](mastication)
*[air cells](mastoid)(mastoid air cells)
*[process](mastoid)(mastoid process)
*[matrix](Matrix (biology))
*[maxilla](maxilla)
*[maxillae](maxillae)
*[antrum](maxillary)(maxillary antrum)
*[artery](maxillary)(maxillary artery)
*[nerve](maxillary)(maxillary nerve)
*[sinus](maxillary)(maxillary sinus)
*[meconium](meconium)
*[forebrain bundle](medial)(medial forebrain bundle)
*[geniculate boby](medial)(medial geniculate boby)
*[geniculate nucleus or body](medial)(medial geniculate nucleus or body)
*[lemniscus](medial)(medial lemniscus)
*[longitudinal fasciculus](medial)(medial longitudinal fasciculus)
*[meniscus](medial)(medial meniscus)
*[olfactory stria](medial)(medial olfactory stria)
*[pterygoid plate](medial)(medial pterygoid plate)
*[rectus muscle](medial)(medial rectus muscle)
*[vestibular nucleus](medial)(medial vestibular nucleus)
*[vestibulospinal tract](medial)(medial vestibulospinal tract)
*[aperture](median)(median aperture)
*[eminence](median)(median eminence)
*[neuropathy](median)(median neuropathy)
*[mediastinum](mediastinum)
*[oblongata](medulla)(medulla oblongata)
*[cavity](medullary)(medullary cavity)
*[velum](medullary)(medullary velum)
*[corpuscle](Meissner's)(Meissner's corpuscle)
*[membrane](Biological membrane)
*[urethra](membraneous)(membraneous urethra)
*[labyrinth](membranous)(membranous labyrinth)
*[mengingioma](mengingioma)
*[meninges](meninges)
*[meningiomas](meningiomas)
*[(anatomy)](meniscus)(meniscus (anatomy))
*[foramen](mental)(mental foramen)
*[nerve](mental)(mental nerve)
*[muscle](mentalis)(mentalis muscle)
*[mentum](mentum)
*[reticular formation](mesencephalic)(mesencephalic reticular formation)
*[trigeminal nucleus and tract](mesencephalic)(mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus and tract)
*[mesencephalon](mesencephalon)
*[midbrain](Mesencephalon)
*[mesenchyme](mesenchyme)
*[mesentery](mesentery)
*[mesoderm](germ layer#Mesoderm)
*[mesosalpinx](mesosalpinx)
*[metacarpus](metacarpus)
*[metaphysis](metaphysis)
*[lesion](metastatic)(metastatic lesion)
*[metatarsals](metatarsals)
*[metatarsus](metatarsus)
*[metathalamus](metathalamus)
*[metencephalon](metencephalon)
*[metopic](metopic)
*[loop](Meyer's)(Meyer's loop)
*[microglia](microglia)
*[micturition](micturition)
*[midbrain](midbrain)
*[cerebellar peduncle](middle)(middle cerebellar peduncle)
*[cerebral artery](middle)(middle cerebral artery)
*[cervical sympathetic ganglion](middle)(middle cervical sympathetic ganglion)
*[colic artery](middle)(middle colic artery)
*[concha](middle)(middle concha)
*[cranial fossa](middle)(middle cranial fossa)
*[ear](middle)(middle ear)
*[ear bone complex](middle)(middle ear bone complex)
*[meatus](middle)(middle meatus)
*[meningeal artery](middle)(middle meningeal artery)
*[meningeal vein](middle)(middle meningeal vein)
*[pharyngeal constrictor muscle](middle)(middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle)
*[sacral artery](middle)(middle sacral artery)
*[superior alveolar artery](middle)(middle superior alveolar artery)
*[temporal gyrus](middle)(middle temporal gyrus)
*[nuclei](midline)(midline nuclei)
*[miosis](miosis)
*[cell](mitral)(mitral cell)
*[modiolus](modiolus (disambiguation))
*[molar](molar (tooth))
*[neurons](monaminergic)(monaminergic neurons)
*[multiplex](mononeuropathy)(mononeuropathy multiplex)
*[pubis](mons)(mons pubis)
*[reflex](moro)(moro reflex)
*[morphology](Morphology (biology))
*[morula](morula)
*[fiber ending](mossy)(mossy fiber ending (disambiguation))
*[aphasia](motor)(motor aphasia)
*[cortex](motor)(motor cortex)
*[endplate](motor)(motor endplate)
*[neuron](motor)(motor neuron)
*[unit](motor)(motor unit)
*[mouth](mouth)
*[mucoperiosteum](mucoperiosteum)
*[mucosa](mucous membranes)
*[membranes](mucous)(mucous membranes)
*[multifidus](multifidus)
*[muscle](muscle)
*[fascicle](muscle)(muscle fascicle)
*[spindle](muscle)(muscle spindle)
*[tissue](muscle)(muscle tissue)
*[of the thorax](muscles)(muscles of the thorax)
*[atrophy](muscular)(muscular atrophy)
*[system](muscular)(muscular system)
*[triangle](muscular)(muscular triangle)
*[mydriasis](mydriasis)
*[myelencephalon](myelencephalon)
*[myelin](myelin)
*[myelogram](myelogram)
*[myelomeningocele](myelomeningocele)
*[myelopathy](myelopathy)
*[mylohyoid](mylohyoid (disambiguation))
*[groove](mylohyoid)(mylohyoid groove)
*[line](mylohyoid)(mylohyoid line)
*[muscle](mylohyoid)(mylohyoid muscle)
*[nerve](mylohyoid)(mylohyoid nerve)
*[myocardium](myocardium)
*[myocyte](myocyte)
*[myology](myology)
*[myotome](myotome)
*[myotonia](myotonia)
*[dystrophy](myotonic)(myotonic dystrophy)
## N
*[nape](nape)
*[naris](naris)
*[bone](nasal)(nasal bone)
*[choanae](nasal)(nasal choanae)
*[concha](nasal)(turbinate)
*[septum](nasal)(nasal septum)
*[turbinates](nasal)(turbinate)
*[nasion](nasion)
*[nerve](nasociliary)(nasociliary nerve)
*[canal](nasolacrimal)(nasolacrimal canal)
*[duct](nasolacrimal)(nasolacrimal duct)
*[nerve](nasopalatine)(nasopalatine nerve)
*[nasopharynx](nasopharynx)
*[natal](childbirth)
*[navicular](navicular)
*[neck](neck)
*[neocerebellum](neocerebellum)
*[neocortex](neocortex)
*[neonatal](Infant)
*[neopallium](neopallium)
*[axon](neospinothalamic)(neospinothalamic axon)
*[neostriatum](neostriatum)
*[nephron](nephron)
*[of the pterygoid canal](nerve)(nerve of the pterygoid canal)
*[nerve](nerve)
*[fascicle](nerve)(nerve fascicle)
*[erigentes](nervi)(nervi erigentes)
*[system](nervous)(nervous system)
*[crest cell](neural)(neural crest cell)
*[foramen](neural)(neural foramen)
*[groove](neural)(neural groove)
*[tube defect](neural)(neural tube defect)
*[tube](neural)(neural tube)
*[neural](neural)
*[neuroectoderm](neuroectoderm)
*[neuroglia](neuroglia)
*[neurohypophysis](neurohypophysis)
*[neurolemma](neurolemma)
*[neurology](neurology)
*[junction](neuromuscular)(neuromuscular junction)
*[neuron](neuron)
*[neuropil](neuropil)
*[nevus](nevus)
*[membrane](nictitating)(nictitating membrane)
*[axon](nigrostriatal)(nigrostriatal axon)
*[nipple](nipple)
*[body](Nissl)(Nissl body)
*[nociception](nociception)
*[of Ranvier](nodes)(nodes of Ranvier)
*[ganglion](nodose)(nodose ganglion)
*[nodule](Nodule (medicine))
*[nodulus](nodulus)
*[frontalis](norma)(norma frontalis)
*[lateralis](norma)(norma lateralis)
*[nose](human nose)
*[nostril](nostril)
*[nares](nostril)
*[notochord](notochord)
*[ligament](nuchal)(nuchal ligament)
*[nucleus](nucleus (neuroanatomy))
*[accumbens](nucleus)(nucleus accumbens)
*[ambiguus](nucleus)(nucleus ambiguus)
*[fastigius](nucleus)(nucleus fastigius)
*[of Luys](nucleus)(nucleus of Luys)
*[pulposus](nucleus)(nucleus pulposus)
*[solitarius](nucleus)(nucleus solitarius)
*[pathologic](nystagmus,)(Pathologic nystagmus)
*[physiologic](nystagmus,)(Physiologic nystagmus)
## O
*[obex](obex)
*[muscles](oblique)(oblique muscles (disambiguation))
*[canal](obturator)(obturator canal)
*[externus muscle](obturator)(obturator externus muscle)
*[foramen](obturator)(obturator foramen)
*[internus muscle](obturator)(obturator internus muscle)
*[artery](occipital)(occipital artery)
*[bone](occipital)(occipital bone)
*[horn](occipital)(occipital horn)
*[lobe](occipital)(occipital lobe)
*[muscle](occipitalis)(occipitalis muscle)
*[occiput](occiput)
*[occlusion](occlusion (disambiguation))
*[reflex](oculocephalic)(oculocephalic reflex)
*[oculomotor](oculomotor)
*[complex](oculomotor)(oculomotor complex)
*[nerve](oculomotor)(oculomotor nerve)
*[nucleus](oculomotor)(oculomotor nucleus)
*[oculus](eye)
*[process](odontoid)(odontoid process)
*[oesophagus](oesophagus)
*[process](olecranon)(olecranon process)
*[olfaction](olfaction)
*[association cortex](olfactory)(olfactory association cortex)
*[bulb](olfactory)(olfactory bulb)
*[cortex](olfactory)(olfactory cortex)
*[epithelium](olfactory)(olfactory epithelium)
*[mucosa](olfactory)(olfactory mucosa)
*[nerve](olfactory)(olfactory nerve)
*[striae](olfactory)(olfactory striae)
*[system](olfactory)(olfactory system)
*[tract](olfactory)(olfactory tract)
*[trigone](olfactory)(olfactory trigone)
*[oligodendroglia](oligodendroglia)
*[cells](oligodendroglial)(oligodendroglial cells)
*[olive](olivary body)
*[axon](olivocerebellar)(olivocerebellar axon)
*[degeneration](olivopontocerebellar)(olivopontocerebellar degeneration)
*[bursa](omental)(omental bursa)
*[omentum](omentum (disambiguation))
*[omohyoid](omohyoid)
*[fascia](omohyoid)(omohyoid fascia)
*[muscle](omohyoid)(omohyoid muscle)
*[ontogeny](ontogeny)
*[operculum](Operculum (brain))
*[ophthalmology](ophthalmology)
*[artery](ophthalmic)(ophthalmic artery)
*[canal](optic)(optic canal)
*[chiasm](optic)(optic chiasm)
*[disc](optic)(optic disc)
*[foramen](optic)(optic foramen)
*[nerve](optic)(optic nerve)
*[papilla](optic)(optic papilla)
*[radiation](optic)(optic radiation)
*[recess](optic)(optic recess)
*[tract](optic)(optic tract)
*[serrata](ora)(ora serrata)
*[cavity](oral)(oral cavity)
*[oculi muscle](orbicularis)(orbicularis oculi muscle)
*[oris muscle](orbicularis)(orbicularis oris muscle)
*[orbit](orbit (anatomy))
*[cortex](orbitofrontal)(orbitofrontal cortex)
*[organ](organ (anatomy))
*[of Corti](organ)(organ of Corti)
*[organelle](organelle)
*[orifice](Body orifice)
*[oropharynx](oropharynx)
*[multangulum minus](os)(trapezoid bone)
*[penis](os)(baculum)
*[ossicles](ossicles)
*[ossification](ossification)
*[osteology](osteology)
*[osteon](osteon)
*[ostium](ostium (disambiguation))
*[ganglion](otic)(otic ganglion)
*[otolith](otolith)
*[table of skull](outer)(outer table of skull)
*[window](oval)(oval window)
*[follicle](ovarian)(ovarian follicle)
*[ovary](ovary)
*[ovum](ovum)
## P
*[pachymeninx](pachymeninx)
*[corpuscle](pacinian)(pacinian corpuscle)
*[palate](palate)
*[bone](palatine)(palatine bone)
*[glands](palatine)(palatine glands)
*[process](palatine)(palatine process)
*[tonsils](palatine)(palatine tonsils)
*[arch](palatoglossal)(palatoglossal arch)
*[muscle](palatoglossus)(palatoglossus muscle)
*[arch](palatopharyngeal)(palatopharyngeal arch)
*[muscle](palatopharyngeus)(palatopharyngeus muscle)
*[paleocerebellum](paleocerebellum)
*[paleopallium](paleopallium)
*[axon](paleospinothalamic)(paleospinothalamic axon)
*[paleostriatum](paleostriatum)
*[fiber](pallidothalamic)(pallidothalamic fiber)
*[aponeurosis](palmar)(palmar aponeurosis)
*[reflex](palmomental)(palmomental reflex)
*[palpation](palpation)
*[commissures](palpebral)(palpebral commissures)
*[plexus](pampiniform)(pampiniform plexus)
*[pancreas](pancreas)
*[duct](pancreatic)(pancreatic duct)
*[branches](pancreaticoduodenal)(pancreaticoduodenal branches)
*[panniculus](panniculus)
*[papilla](Papilla (disambiguation))
*[muscles](papillary)(papillary muscles)
*[lymph node](paraaortic)(paraaortic lymph node)s
*[lobule](paracentral)(paracentral lobule)
*[gutters](paracolic)(paracolic gutters)
*[paradidymis](paradidymis)
*[paraesthesia](paraesthesia)
*[nucleus](parafascicular)(parafascicular nucleus)
*[gyrus](parahippocampal)(parahippocampal gyrus)
*[lymph nodes](parailiac)(parailiac lymph nodes)
*[fiber](parallel)(parallel fiber)s
*[paralysis](paralysis)
*[pontine reticular formation](paramedian)(paramedian pontine reticular formation)
*[parametrium](parametrium)
*[paraphasia](paraphasia)
*[pararenal](pararenal)
*[parasagittal](parasagittal)
*[parasternal](parasternal)
*[parasympathetic](parasympathetic)
*[gyrus](paraterminal)(paraterminal gyrus)
*[glands](parathyroid)(parathyroid glands)
*[nucleus](paraventricular)(paraventricular nucleus)
*[parenchyma](parenchyma)
*[paresis](paresis)
*[paresthesia](paresthesia)
*[bones](parietal)(parietal bones)
*[cell](parietal)(parietal cell)
*[lobe](parietal)(parietal lobe)
*[bed](parotid)(parotid bed)
*[duct](parotid)(parotid duct)
*[gland](parotid)(parotid gland)
*[parturition](parturition)
*[papilla](parotid)(parotid papilla)
*[sheath](parotid)(parotid sheath)
*[flaccida](pars)(pars flaccida)
*[opercularis](pars)(pars opercularis)
*[tensa](pars)(pars tensa)
*[neurosecretory nuclei](parvicellular)(parvicellular neurosecretory nuclei)
*[patella](patella)
*[reflex](patellar)(patellar reflex)
*[pubis](pecten)(pecten pubis)
*[pectinate](pectinate (disambiguation))
*[pectineal](pectineal (disambiguation))
*[pectineus](pectineus)
*[pectoral](pectoral (disambiguation))
*[girdle](pectoral)(pectoral girdle)
*[pectoralis](pectoralis (disambiguation))
*[major](pectoralis)(pectoralis major)
*[minor](pectoralis)(pectoralis minor)
*[pedicle](pedicle (disambiguation))
*[peduncle](peduncle (disambiguation))
*[pellucidum](pellucidum)
*[diaphragm](pelvic)(pelvic diaphragm)
*[floor](pelvic)(pelvic floor)
*[inlet](pelvic)(pelvic inlet)
*[outlet](pelvic)(pelvic outlet)
*[pelvis](pelvis)
*[penis](penis)
*[pennate](pennate)
*[pennatus](pennatus)
*[area](periamygdaloid)(periamygdaloid area)
*[cortex](periamygdaloid)(periamygdaloid cortex)
*[perianal](perianal)
*[gray](periaqueductal)(periaqueductal gray)
*[pericardium](pericardium)
*[perichondrium](perichondrium)
*[pericranium](pericranium)
*[perikaryon](perikaryon)
*[perilymph](perilymph)
*[perineum](perineum)
*[perineurium](perineurium)
*[ligament](periodontal)(periodontal ligament)
*[periosteum](periosteum)
*[peripheral](peripheral nervous system)
*[nervous system](peripheral)(peripheral nervous system)
*[cortex](perirhinal)(perirhinal cortex)
*[peristalsis](peristalsis)
*[cavity](peritoneal)(peritoneal cavity)
*[peritoneum](peritoneum)
*[nucleus](periventricular)(periventricular nucleus)
*[artery](peroneal)(peroneal artery)
*[truncus arteriosus](Persistent)(Persistent truncus arteriosus)
*[anserinus](pes)(pes anserinus (disambiguation))
*[hippocampi](pes)(pes hippocampi)
*[ganglion](petrosal)(petrosal ganglion)
*[ridge](petrosal)(petrosal ridge)
*[bone](petrous)(petrous bone)
*[pyramid](petrous)(petrous pyramid)
*[patches](Peyer's)(Peyer's patches)
*[phalanges](phalanges)
*[of the foot](phalanges)(toe)
*[of the hand](phalanges)(finger)
*[phallus](phallus)
*[constrictor muscles](pharyngeal)(pharyngeal constrictor muscles)
*[plexus](pharyngeal)(pharyngeal plexus (disambiguation))
*[recess](pharyngeal)(pharyngeal recess)
*[tonsil](pharyngeal)(pharyngeal tonsil)
*[fascia](pharyngobasilar)(pharyngobasilar fascia)
*[tube](pharyngotympanic)(pharyngotympanic tube)
*[pharynx](pharynx)
*[philtrum](philtrum)
*[phonation](phonation)
*[photoreceptors](Photoreceptor (disambiguation))
*[nerve](phrenic)(phrenic nerve)
*[phylogeny](phylogeny)
*[mater](pia)(pia mater)
*[cell](pilar)(pilar cell)
*[of fauces](pillar)(pillar of fauces)
*[pilomotor](pilomotor)
*[pilus](pilus)
*[body](pineal)(pineal body)
*[gland](pineal)(pineal gland)
*[pinna](pinna (anatomy))
*[piriformis](piriformis)
*[sinus](piriform)(piriform sinus)
*[pisiform](pisiform)
*[gland](pituitary)(pituitary gland)
*[placenta](placenta)
*[aponeurosis](plantar)(plantar aponeurosis)
*[muscle](platysma)(platysma muscle)
*[pleura](pleura)
*[plexus](plexus)
*[semilunaris](plica)(plica semilunaris (disambiguation))
*[pollex](thumb)
*[pollicis](pollicis)
*[pollux](thumb)
*[pons](pons)
*[nuclei](pontine)(pontine nuclei)
*[pontocerebellum](pontocerebellum)
*[artery](popliteal)(popliteal artery)
*[bursa](popliteal)(popliteal bursa)
*[fossa](popliteal)(popliteal fossa)
*[vein](popliteal)(popliteal vein)
*[popliteus](popliteus)
*[vein](portal)(portal vein)
*[gyrus](postcentral)(postcentral gyrus)
*[atlantooccipital membrane](posterior)(posterior atlantooccipital membrane)
*[auricular artery](posterior)(posterior auricular artery)
*[cerebral artery](posterior)(posterior cerebral artery)
*[chamber of eyeball](Posterior)(Posterior chamber of eyeball)
*[clinoid](posterior)(posterior clinoid)
*[column-medial lemniscus tract](posterior)(posterior column-medial lemniscus tract)
*[commissure](posterior)(posterior commissure)
*[communicating artery](posterior)(posterior communicating artery)
*[cranial fossa](posterior)(posterior cranial fossa)
*[cricoarytenoid muscle](posterior)(posterior cricoarytenoid muscle)
*[cruciate ligament](posterior)(posterior cruciate ligament)
*[ethmoidal foramina](posterior)(posterior ethmoidal foramina (disambiguation))
*[funiculus](posterior)(posterior funiculus)
*[hypothalamus](posterior)(posterior hypothalamus)
*[inferior cerebellar artery](posterior)(posterior inferior cerebellar artery)
*[lobe of the cerebellum](posterior)(posterior lobe of the cerebellum)
*[nasal artery](posterior)(posterior nasal artery)
*[septal artery](posterior)(posterior septal artery)
*[spinal arteries](posterior)(posterior spinal arteries)
*[spinocerebellar tract](posterior)(posterior spinocerebellar tract)
*[superior alveolar artery](posterior)(posterior superior alveolar artery)
*[tibial artery](posterior)(posterior tibial artery)
*[triangle of the neck](posterior)(posterior triangle of the neck)
*[fissure](posterolateral)(posterolateral fissure)
*[neuron](Postganglionic)(Postganglionic neuron)
*[posture](Neutral spine)
*[gyrus](precentral)(precentral gyrus)
*[precuneus](precuneus)
*[cortex](prefrontal)(prefrontal cortex)
*[preganglionic](preganglionic)
*[neurons](preganglionic)(preganglionic neurons)
*[parasympathetic neurons](preganglionic)(preganglionic parasympathetic neurons)
*[sympathetic neurons](preganglionic)(preganglionic sympathetic neurons)
*[premolar](premolar)
*[cortex](premotor)(premotor cortex)
*[notch](preoccipital)(preoccipital notch)
*[recess](preoptic)(preoptic recess)
*[region](preoptic)(preoptic region)
*[prepuce](prepuce (disambiguation))
*[cortex](prepyriform)(prepyriform cortex)
*[space](presacral)(presacral space)
*[fascia](prevertebral)(prevertebral fascia)
*[fissure](primary)(primary fissure)
*[olfactory cortex](primary)(primary olfactory cortex)
*[sensory neuron](primary)(primary sensory neuron)
*[somatosensory cortex](primary)(primary somatosensory cortex)
*[proboscis](proboscis)
*[procerus](Procerus muscle)
*[process](Process (anatomy))
*[processus](Process (anatomy))
*[femoris artery](profunda)(profunda femoris artery)
*[profundus](profundus)
*[fibers](projection)(projection fibers)
*[prominens](prominens)
*[promontory](promontory)
*[pronate](pronate)
*[prone](Prone position)
*[proprioception](proprioception)
*[proprioceptive](proprioceptive)
*[proprius](proprius)
*[prosection](prosection)
*[prosector](prosector)
*[prosencephalon](prosencephalon)
*[forebrain](Prosencephalon)
*[prosopagnosia](prosopagnosia)
*[prostate](prostate)
*[urethra](prostatic)(prostatic urethra)
*[protract](protract)
*[protrude](protrude)
*[protuberance](protuberance (disambiguation))
*[proximal](Anatomical terms of location#Proximal and distal)
*[muscle](psoas)(psoas muscle)
*[pterion](pterion)
*[plate](pterygoid)(pterygoid plate)
*[process](pterygoid)(pterygoid process)
*[ligament](pterygomandibular)(pterygomandibular ligament)
*[foramen](pterygopalatine)(pterygopalatine foramen)
*[fossa](pterygopalatine)(pterygopalatine fossa)
*[ganglion](pterygopalatine)(pterygopalatine ganglion)
*[ptosis](ptosis (disambiguation))
*[puberty](puberty)
*[hair](pubic)(pubic hair)
*[symphysis](pubic)(pubic symphysis)
*[pubis](pubis (bone))
*[nerve](pudendal)(pudendal nerve)
*[pulmonary](pulmonary)
*[alveolus](pulmonary)(pulmonary alveolus)
*[trunk](pulmonary)(pulmonary trunk)
*[vein](pulmonary)(pulmonary vein)
*[pulp](dental pulp)
*[pulvinar](pulvinar (disambiguation))
*[punctum](lacrimal punctum)
*[pupil](pupil)
*[dilatation](pupillary)(pupillary dilatation)
*[light reflex](pupillary)(pupillary light reflex)
*[cells](purkinje)(purkinje cells)
*[putamen](putamen)
*[antrum](pyloric)(pyloric antrum)
*[valve](pyloric)(pyloric valve)
*[pylorus](pylorus)
*[pyramid](renal pyramids)
*[cell](pyramidal)(pyramidal cell)
*[system](pyramidal)(pyramidal system)
*[tract](pyramidal)(pyramidal tract)
*[cortex](pyriform)(pyriform cortex)
*[lobe](pyriform)(pyriform lobe)
## Q
*[membrane](quadrangular)(quadrangular membrane)
*[space](quadrangular)(quadrangular space)
*[quadrate](quadrate bone)
*[quadratojugal](quadratojugal)
*[quadriceps](quadriceps)
*[body](quadrigeminal)(quadrigeminal body)
*[plate](quadrigeminal)(quadrigeminal plate)
*[plate cistern](quadrigeminal)(quadrigeminal plate cistern)
*[quadrigeminus](quadrigeminus)
*[quadriplegia](quadriplegia)
## R
*[artery](radial)(radial artery)
*[radius](radius (bone))
*[radula](radula)
*[communicantes](rami)(rami communicantes)
*[ramus](ramus (disambiguation))
*[raphe](raphe)
*[nuclei](raphe)(raphe nuclei)
*[layer of retina](receptor)(receptor layer of retina)
*[rectum](rectum)
*[abdominis muscle](rectus)(rectus abdominis muscle)
*[capitis anterior muscle](rectus)(rectus capitis anterior muscle)
*[capitis lateralis muscle](rectus)(rectus capitis lateralis muscle)
*[femoris muscle](rectus)(rectus femoris muscle)
*[sheath](rectus)(rectus sheath)
*[laryngeal nerve](recurrent)(recurrent laryngeal nerve)
*[nucleus](red)(red nucleus)
*[reflex](reflex)
*[membrane](Reissner's)(Reissner's membrane)
*[fibre](Reissner's)(Reissner's fibre)
*[artery](renal)(renal artery)
*[calices](renal)(renal calices)
*[capsule](renal)(renal capsule)
*[cortex](renal)(renal cortex)
*[hilus](renal)(renal hilus)
*[pyramids](renal)(renal pyramids)
*[system](renal)(kidney)
*[system](reproductive)(reproductive system)
*[system](respiratory)(respiratory system)
*[body](restiform)(restiform body)
*[rete](rete (disambiguation))
*[testis](rete)(rete testis)
*[formation](reticular)(reticular formation)
*[nucleus of thalamus](reticular)(reticular nucleus of thalamus)
*[tract](reticulospinal)(reticulospinal tract)
*[(anatomy)](reticulum)(reticulum (anatomy))
*[retina](retina)
*[retinaculum](retinaculum (disambiguation))
*[artery](retinal)(retinal artery)
*[retinotopic](retinotopic)
*[neuritis](retrobulbar)(retrobulbar neuritis)
*[area](retrogastric)(retrogastric area)
*[vein](retromandibular)(retromandibular vein)
*[space](Retromolar)(Retromolar space)
*[retroperitoneal](retroperitoneal)
*[space](retropharyngeal)(retropharyngeal space)
*[retroversion](retroversion)
*[space](retrovisceral)(retrovisceral space)
*[laminae](Rexed's)(Rexed's laminae)
*[rhinencephalon](rhinencephalon)
*[rhombencephalon](rhombencephalon)
*[fossa](rhomboid)(rhomboid fossa)
*[rib](rib)
*[atrium](right)(right atrium)
*[colic artery](right)(right colic artery)
*[common carotid artery](right)(right common carotid artery)
*[gastroepiploic artery](right)(right gastroepiploic artery)
*[mainstem bronchi](right)(right mainstem bronchi)
*[marginal artery](right)(right marginal artery)
*[pulmonary artery](right)(right pulmonary artery)
*[ventricle](right)(right ventricle)
*[glottidis](rima)(rima glottidis)
*[risorius](risorius)
*[cells](rod)(rod cells)
*[of corpus callosum](rostrum)(rostrum of corpus callosum)
*[cuff](rotator)(rotator cuff)
*[ligament of the uterus](round)(round ligament of the uterus)
*[window](round)(round window)
*[tract](rubrospinal)(rubrospinal tract)
*[rugae](rugae)
## S
*[saccade](saccade)
*[saccule](saccule)
*[ala](sacral)(sacral ala)
*[vertebrae](sacral)(sacral vertebrae)
*[promontory](sacral)(sacral promontory)
*[joint](sacroiliac)(sacroiliac joint)
*[sacrum](sacrum)
*[crest](sagittal)(sagittal crest)
*[suture](sagittal)(sagittal suture)
*[saliva](saliva)
*[gland](salivary)(salivary gland)
*[salpinx](salpinx)
*[vein](saphenous)(saphenous vein (disambiguation))
*[sartorius](Sartorius muscle)
*[cells](satellite)(satellite cells)
*[media](scala)(scala media)
*[tympani](scala)(scala tympani)
*[vestibuli](scala)(scala vestibuli)
*[scalp](scalp)
*[scaphoid](scaphoid)
*[fossa](scaphoid)(scaphoid fossa)
*[scapula](scapula)
*[scar](scar)
*[cell](Schwann)(Schwann cell)
*[nerve](sciatic)(sciatic nerve)
*[sclera](sclera)
*[venous sinus](scleral)(scleral venous sinus)
*[sclerotome](sclerotome)
*[scoliosis](scoliosis)
*[scotoma](scotoma)
*[scrotum](scrotum)
*[scutum](Prussak's space)
*[glands](sebaceous)(sebaceous glands)
*[oocyte](secondary)(secondary oocyte)
*[sensory neuron relay](secondary)(secondary sensory neuron relay)
*[secretion](secretion)
*[turcica](sella)(sella turcica)
*[semen](semen)
*[canal](semicircular)(semicircular canal)
*[semilunaris](semilunaris)
*[semimembranosus](semimembranosus)
*[vesicles](seminal)(seminal vesicles)
*[tubules](seminiferous)(seminiferous tubules)
*[semitendinosus](semitendinosus)
*[cortex](sensorimotor)(sensorimotor cortex)
*[decussation](sensory)(sensory decussation)
*[system](sensory)(sensory system)
*[cartilage](septal)(septal cartilage)
*[nuclei](septal)(septal nuclei)
*[vein](septal)(septal vein)
*[septum](septum)
*[pellucidum](septum)(septum pellucidum)
*[primum](septum)(septum primum)
*[secundum](septum)(septum secundum)
*[serous](serous)
*[membrane](serous)(serous membrane)
*[pericardium](serous)(serous pericardium)
*[bone](sesamoid)(sesamoid bone)
*[organ](sex)(sex organ)
*[fibres](Sharpey's)(Sharpey's fibres)
*[ciliary nerves](short)(short ciliary nerves)
*[shoulder](shoulder)
*[blade](shoulder)(scapula)
*[shin](tibia)
*[sight](Visual perception)
*[colon](sigmoid)(sigmoid colon)
*[sinus](sigmoid)(sigmoid sinus)
*[crease](Simian)(Simian crease)
*[shelf](simian)(simian shelf)
*[node](sinoatrial)(sinoatrial node)
*[sinus](sinus (anatomy))
*[system](skeletal)(skeletal system)
*[skeleton](skeleton)
*[skin](skin)
*[skull](human skull)
*[intestine](small)(small intestine)
*[smegma](smegma)
*[palate](soft)(soft palate)
*[(foot)](sole)(sole (foot))
*[soleus](soleus)
*[nucleus](solitary)(solitary nucleus)
*[tract](solitary)(solitary tract)
*[somatic](somatic (biology))
*[motor nuclei](somatic)(somatic motor nuclei)
*[somite](somite)
*[spasm](spasm)
*[spasticity](spasticity)
*[sensory nucleus of thalamus](specific)(specific sensory nucleus of thalamus)
*[spermatheca](spermatheca)
*[cord](spermatic)(spermatic cord)
*[recess](sphenoethmoidal)(sphenoethmoidal recess)
*[bone](sphenoid)(sphenoid bone)
*[sinus](sphenoidal)(sphenoidal sinus)
*[artery](sphenopalatine)(sphenopalatine artery)
*[foramen](sphenopalatine)(sphenopalatine foramen)
*[sphincter](sphincter)
*[of the bile duct](sphincter)(sphincter of the bile duct)
*[of the pancreatic duct](sphincter)(sphincter of the pancreatic duct)
*[(nematode)](spicule)(spicule (nematode))
*[(sponge)](spicule)(spicule (sponge))
*[bifida](spina)(spina bifida)
*[accessory nucleus](spinal)(spinal accessory nucleus)
*[cord](spinal)(spinal cord)
*[lemniscus](spinal)(spinal lemniscus)
*[nerve](spinal)(spinal nerve)
*[spine](vertebral column)
*[of the scapula](spine)(spine of the scapula)
*[tract](spinocerebellar)(spinocerebellar tract)
*[spinocerebellum](Anatomy of the cerebellum#Phylogenetic and functional divisions)
*[pathway](spinocervical)(spinocervical pathway)
*[tract](spinothalamic)(spinothalamic tract)
*[process](spinous)(spinous process)
*[ganglion](spiral)(spiral ganglion)
*[nerves](splanchnic)(splanchnic nerves)
*[spleen](spleen)
*[artery](splenic)(splenic artery)
*[flexure](splenic)(splenic flexure)
*[vein](splenic)(splenic vein)
*[of the corpus callosum](splenium)(splenium of the corpus callosum)
*[capitis muscle](splenius)(splenius capitis muscle)
*[squamous](squamous)
*[stapedius](stapedius)
*[stapes](stapes)
*[cell](stellate)(stellate cell)
*[ganglion](stellate)(stellate ganglion)
*[stereocilia](stereocilia)
*[stereognosis](stereognosis)
*[articulation](sternoclavicular)(sternoclavicular articulation)
*[muscle](sternocleidomastoid)(sternocleidomastoid muscle)
*[muscle](sternohyoid)(sternohyoid muscle)
*[muscle](sternothyroid)(sternothyroid muscle)
*[sternum](Human sternum)
*[stoma](stoma (medicine))
*[stomach](stomach)
*[sinus](straight)(straight sinus)
*[muscles](strap)(infrahyoid strap muscles)
*[lucidum](Stratum)(Stratum lucidum)
*[zonale](stratum)(stratum zonale)
*[reflex](stretch)(stretch reflex)
*[gravidarum](striae)(striae gravidarum)
*[medullaris thalami](stria)(stria medullaris thalami)
*[terminalis](stria)(stria terminalis)
*[cortex](striate)(striate cortex)
*[nucleus](striate)(striate nucleus)
*[striatum](striatum)
*[stroma](stroma (animal tissue))
*[stylet](stylet (anatomy))
*[muscle](styloglossus)(styloglossus muscle)
*[muscle](stylohyoid)(stylohyoid muscle)
*[process](styloid)(styloid process (disambiguation))
*[muscle](stylopharyngeus)(stylopharyngeus muscle)
*[cisternae](subarachnoid)(subarachnoid cisternae)
*[space](subarachnoid)(subarachnoid space)
*[gyrus](subcallosal)(subcallosal gyrus)
*[artery](subclavian)(subclavian artery)
*[vein](subclavian)(subclavian vein)
*[hematoma](subdural)(subdural hematoma)
*[space](subdural)(subdural space)
*[airway](subglottic)(subglottic airway)
*[subiculum](subiculum)
*[fossa](sublingual)(sublingual fossa)
*[region](sublingual)(sublingual region)
*[salivary gland](sublingual)(sublingual salivary gland)
*[subluxation](subluxation)
*[duct](submandibular)(submandibular duct)
*[ganglion](submandibular)(submandibular ganglion)
*[gland](submandibular)(submandibular gland)
*[triangle](submandibular)(submandibular triangle)
*[triangle](submental)(submental triangle)
*[muscle](suboccipital)(suboccipital muscle)
*[triangle](suboccipital)(suboccipital triangle)
*[muscle](subscapularis)(subscapularis muscle)
*[gelatinosa of Rolando](Substantia)(Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando)
*[innominata](substantia)(substantia innominata)
*[nigra](substantia)(substantia nigra)
*[nucleus](subthalamic)(subthalamic nucleus)
*[succus](succus)
*[sulcus](sulcus (anatomy))
*[limitans](sulcus)(sulcus limitans)
*[arch](superciliary)(superciliary arch)
*[line](superciliary)(superciliary line)
*[cervical muscle](superficial)(superficial cervical muscle)
*[muscular aponeurotic system](superficial)(superficial muscular aponeurotic system)
*[temporal artery](superficial)(superficial temporal artery)
*[alveolar artery](superior)(superior alveolar artery (disambiguation))
*[cerebellar artery](superior)(superior cerebellar artery)
*[cerebellar peduncle](superior)(superior cerebellar peduncle)
*[cervical ganglion](superior)(superior cervical ganglion)
*[colliculus](superior)(superior colliculus)
*[concha](superior)(superior concha)
*[gluteal artery](superior)(superior gluteal artery)
*[jugular bulb](superior)(superior jugular bulb)
*[laryngeal artery](superior)(superior laryngeal artery)
*[laryngeal nerve](superior)(superior laryngeal nerve)
*[meatus](superior)(superior meatus)
*[mesenteric artery](superior)(superior mesenteric artery)
*[mesenteric vein](superior)(superior mesenteric vein)
*[oblique muscle](superior)(superior oblique muscle)
*[olivary nucleus](superior)(superior olivary nucleus)
*[ophthalmic vein](superior)(superior ophthalmic vein)
*[orbital fissure](superior)(superior orbital fissure)
*[petrosal sinus](superior)(superior petrosal sinus)
*[pharyngeal constrictor muscle](superior)(superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle)
*[pubic ramus](superior)(superior pubic ramus)
*[rectus](superior)(superior rectus)
*[rectus muscle](superior)(superior rectus muscle)
*[sagittal sinus](superior)(superior sagittal sinus)
*[salivatory nucleus](superior)(superior salivatory nucleus)
*[temporal gyrus](superior)(superior temporal gyrus)
*[thyroid artery](superior)(superior thyroid artery)
*[thyroid vein](superior)(superior thyroid vein)
*[tibiofibular joint](Superior)(Superior tibiofibular joint)
*[vena cava](superior)(superior vena cava)
*[vesicle artery](superior)(superior vesicle artery)
*[vestibular nucleus](superior)(superior vestibular nucleus)
*[motor cortex](supplementary)(supplementary motor cortex)
*[cell](supporting)(supporting cell)
*[cistern](suprachiasmatic)(suprachiasmatic cistern)
*[nerves](supraclavicular)(supraclavicular nerves)
*[gyrus](supramarginal)(supramarginal gyrus)
*[nucleus](supraoptic)(supraoptic nucleus)
*[artery](supraorbital)(supraorbital artery)
*[foramen](supraorbital)(supraorbital foramen)
*[nerve](supraorbital)(supraorbital nerve)
*[bursa](suprapatellar)(suprapatellar bursa)
*[nerve](sural)(sural nerve)
*[ligament](suspensory)(suspensory ligament (disambiguation))
*[tali](sustentaculum)(sustentaculum tali)
*[suture](suture (anatomy))
*[glands](sweat)(sweat glands)
*[fissure](sylvian)(sylvian fissure)
*[chain ganglion](sympathetic)(sympathetic chain ganglion)
*[nerve](sympathetic)(sympathetic nerve)
*[nervous system](sympathetic)(sympathetic nervous system)
*[trunk](sympathetic)(sympathetic trunk)
*[symphysis](symphysis)
*[synapse](synapse)
*[ synaptic bouton]( synaptic bouton)
*[syncytium](syncytium)
*[syndesmosis](syndesmosis)
*[fluid](synovial)(synovial fluid)
*[joint](synovial)(synovial joint)
*[systole](Systole (medicine))
## T
*[dorsalis](tabes)(tabes dorsalis)
*[coli](taenia)(taenia coli)
*[of pancreas](tail)(tail of pancreas)
*[talus](Talus bone)
*[lucidum](tapetum)(tapetum lucidum)
*[tarsus](tarsus (skeleton))
*[buds](taste)(taste buds)
*[pore](taste)(taste pore)
*[membrane (cochlea)](Tectorial)(Tectorial membrane (cochlea))
*[membrane of atlanto-axial joint](Tectorial)(Tectorial membrane of atlanto-axial joint)
*[tract](tectospinal)(tectospinal tract)
*[tectum](tectum)
*[tympani](tegmen)(tegmen tympani)
*[tegmentum](tegmentum)
*[choroidae](tela)(tela choroidae)
*[telencephalon](telencephalon)
*[artery](temporal)(temporal artery (disambiguation))
*[bone](temporal)(temporal bone)
*[fascia](temporal)(temporal fascia)
*[gyrus](temporal)(temporal gyrus (disambiguation))
*[lobe](temporal)(temporal lobe)
*[pole](temporal)(temporal pole)
*[muscle](temporalis)(temporalis muscle)
*[joint](temporomandibular)(temporomandibular joint)
*[tendon](tendon)
*[tympani muscle](tensor)(tensor tympani muscle)
*[veli palatini](tensor)(tensor veli palatini)
*[incisure](tentorial)(tentorial incisure)
*[notch](tentorial)(tentorial notch)
*[cerebelli](tentorium)(tentorium cerebelli)
*[sulcus (heart)](Terminal)(Terminal sulcus (heart))
*[sulcus of tongue](Terminal)(Terminal sulcus of tongue)
*[vein](terminal)(terminal vein)
*[sensory neuron](tertiary)(tertiary sensory neuron)
*[testicle](testicle)
*[testis](testis)
*[fasciculus](thalamic)(thalamic fasciculus)
*[artery](thalamogeniculate)(thalamogeniculate artery)
*[fibers](thalamostriate)(thalamostriate fibers)
*[thalamotomy](thalamotomy)
*[thalamus](thalamus)
*[eminence](thenar)(thenar eminence)
*[thigh](thigh)
*[bone](thigh)(thigh bone)
*[trochanter](Third)(Third trochanter)
*[ventricle](third)(third ventricle)
*[aorta](thoracic)(thoracic aorta)
*[cavity](thoracic)(thoracic cavity)
*[duct](thoracic)(thoracic duct)
*[spine](thoracic)(thoracic spine)
*[vertebrae](thoracic)(thoracic vertebrae)
*[thorax](thorax)
*[thrombus](thrombus)
*[thymus](thymus)
*[muscle](thyroarytenoid)(thyroarytenoid muscle)
*[trunk](thyrocervical)(thyrocervical trunk)
*[muscle](thyroepiglotticus)(thyroepiglotticus muscle)
*[duct](thyroglossal)(thyroglossal duct)
*[membrane](thyrohyoid)(thyrohyoid membrane)
*[muscle](thyrohyoid)(thyrohyoid muscle)
*[thyroid](thyroid)
*[cartilage](thyroid)(thyroid cartilage)
*[gland](thyroid)(thyroid gland)
*[tibia](tibia)
*[tuberosity](tibial)(tibial tuberosity)
*[toe](toe)
*[tomogram](tomogram)
*[tongue](tongue)
*[tonsil](tonsil)
*[of cerebellum](tonsil)(tonsil of cerebellum)
*[tooth](tooth)
*[herophili](torcular)(torcular herophili)
*[torso](torso)
*[torticollis](torticollis)
*[torus](torus)
*[trabecula](trabecula)
*[meshwork](trabecular)(trabecular meshwork)
*[trachea](Vertebrate trachea)
*[of Lissauer](tract)(tract of Lissauer)
*[solitarius](tractus)(tractus solitarius)
*[tragus](tragus (ear))
*[cervical artery](transverse)(transverse cervical artery)
*[cervical nerve](transverse)(transverse cervical nerve)
*[colon](transverse)(transverse colon)
*[facial artery](transverse)(transverse facial artery)
*[pericardial sinus](transverse)(transverse pericardial sinus)
*[process](transverse)(transverse process)
*[sinus](transverse)(transverse sinus)
*[abdominis muscle](transversus)(transversus abdominis muscle)
*[trapezium](trapezium (bone))
*[trapezius](trapezius)
*[trapezoid](trapezoid bone)
*[body](trapezoid)(trapezoid body)
*[of auscultation](triangle)(triangle of auscultation)
*[of the neck](triangles)(triangles of the neck)
*[triceps](triceps)
*[reflex](triceps)(triceps reflex)
*[valve](tricuspid)(tricuspid valve)
*[ganglion](trigeminal)(trigeminal ganglion)
*[lemniscus](trigeminal)(trigeminal lemniscus)
*[nerve](trigeminal)(trigeminal nerve)
*[of urinary bladder](Trigone)(Trigone of urinary bladder)
*[triquetral](triquetral)
*[cartilage](triticeal)(triticeal cartilage)
*[of humerus](Trochlea)(Trochlea of humerus)
*[of superior oblique](Trochlea)(Trochlea of superior oblique)
*[nerve](trochlear)(trochlear nerve)
*[nucleus](trochlear)(trochlear nucleus)
*[process](Trochlear)(Trochlear process)
*[vocal cords](true)(true vocal cords)
*[arteriosus (embryology)](Truncus)(Truncus arteriosus (embryology))
*[cinereum](tuber)(tuber cinereum)
*[nuclei](tuberal)(tuberal nuclei)
*[region of hypothalamus](tuberal)(tuberal region of hypothalamus)
*[tubercle](Tubercle (anatomy))
*[of rib](tubercle)(tubercle of rib)
*[impar](tuberculum)(tuberculum impar)
*[tract](tuberoinfundibular)(tuberoinfundibular tract)
*[tuberosity](tuberosity)
*[vaginalis testis](tunica)(tunica vaginalis testis)
*[turbinate](turbinate)
*[bone](turbinate)(turbinate bone)
*[cavity](tympanic)(tympanic cavity)
*[membrane](tympanic)(tympanic membrane)
*[plexus](tympanic)(tympanic plexus)
*[tympanum](eardrum)
## U
*[ulna](ulna)
*[artery](ulnar)(ulnar artery)
*[nerve](ulnar)(ulnar nerve)
*[folds](umbilical)(umbilical folds)
*[umbilicus](Navel)
*[umbo](umbo of tympanic membrane)
*[cortex](uncal)(uncal cortex)
*[herniation](uncal)(uncal herniation)
*[process of ethmoid bone](Uncinate)(Uncinate process of ethmoid bone)
*[process of pancreas](Uncinate)(Uncinate process of pancreas)
*[process of vertebra](Uncinate)(Uncinate process of vertebra)
*[processes of ribs](Uncinate)(Uncinate processes of ribs)
*[motor neuron](upper)(upper motor neuron)
*[urachus](urachus)
*[ureter](ureter)
*[urethra](urethra)
*[bladder](urinary)(urinary bladder)
*[system](urogenital)(urogenital system)
*[cavity](uterine)(uterine cavity)
*[tube](uterine)(Fallopian tube)
*[uterus](uterus)
*[utricle](otolith organ)
*[uvea](uvea)
*[uvula](uvula)
## V
*[vagina](vagina)
*[ganglia](vagus)(vagus ganglia)
*[nerve](vagus)(vagus nerve)
*[papillae](vallate)(vallate papillae)
*[vallecula](vallecula)
*[maneuver](Valsalva)(Valsalva maneuver)
*[varicocele](varicocele)
*[deformity](varus)(varus deformity)
*[recta](vasa)(Vasa recta (disambiguation))
*[system](vascular)(vascular system)
*[vein](vein)
*[velum](soft palate)
*[interpositum](velum)(velum interpositum)
*[terminalis](vena)(vena terminalis)
*[venogram](venogram)
*[venter](abdomen)
*[amygdalofugal pathway](ventral)(ventral amygdalofugal pathway)
*[anterior thalamic nucleus](ventral)(ventral anterior thalamic nucleus)
*[cochlear nucleus](ventral)(ventral cochlear nucleus)
*[corticospinal tract](ventral)(ventral corticospinal tract)
*[horn cell](ventral)(ventral horn cell)
*[lateral nucleus of thalamus](ventral)(ventral lateral nucleus of thalamus)
*[posterolateral nucleus](ventral)(ventral posterolateral nucleus)
*[posterolateral thalamus](ventral)(ventral posterolateral thalamus)
*[posteromedial nucleus](ventral)(ventral posteromedial nucleus)
*[root](ventral)(ventral root)
*[spinocerebellar tract](ventral)(ventral spinocerebellar tract)
*[trigeminothalamic tract](ventral)(ventral trigeminothalamic tract)
*[ventricle](Ventricle (heart))
*[nucleus of hypothalamus](ventromedial)(ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus)
*[appendix](vermiform)(vermiform appendix)
*[vertebra](vertebra)
*[artery](vertebral)(vertebral artery)
*[body](vertebral)(vertebral body)
*[canal](vertebral)(vertebral canal)
*[column](vertebral)(vertebral column)
*[vein](vertebral)(vertebral vein)
*[system](vertebrobasilar)(vertebrobasilar system)
*[vertigo](vertigo (medical))
*[vesicle](vesicle (biology))
*[seminales](vesiculae)(vesiculae seminales)
*[folds](vestibular)(vestibular folds)
*[ganglion](vestibular)(vestibular ganglion)
*[membrane](vestibular)(vestibular membrane)
*[nuclei](vestibular)(vestibular nuclei)
*[of the ear](Vestibule)(Vestibule of the ear)
*[fiber](vestibulocerebellar)(vestibulocerebellar fiber)
*[vestibulocerebellum](vestibulocerebellum)
*[nerve](vestibulocochlear)(vestibulocochlear nerve)
*[reflexes](vestibuloocular)(vestibuloocular reflexes)
*[tract](vestibulospinal)(vestibulospinal tract)
*[vibrissae](vibrissae)
*[nerve](vidian)(vidian nerve)
*[(ligament)](vinculum)(vinculum (ligament))
*[viscera](viscera)
*[nuclei](visceromotor)(visceromotor nuclei)
*[viscus](viscus)
*[Human Project](Visible)(Visible Human Project)
*[cortex](visual)(visual cortex)
*[fields](visual)(visual fields)
*[radiation](visual)(visual radiation)
*[body](vitreous)(vitreous body)
*[humor](vitreous)(vitreous humor)
*[folds](vocal)(vocal folds)
*[ligaments](vocal)(vocal ligaments)
*[muscle](vocalis)(vocalis muscle)
*[volvulus](volvulus)
*[vomer](vomer)
*[organ](vomeronasal)(vomeronasal organ)
*[center](vomiting)(vomiting center)
*[vorticosae](vorticosae)
*[vulva](vulva)
## W
*[ring](Waldeyer's)(Waldeyer's ring)
*[area](Wernicke's)(Wernicke's area)
*[duct](Wharton's)(Wharton's duct)
*[jelly](Wharton's)(Wharton's jelly)
*[matter](white)(white matter)
*[reflex](withdrawal)(withdrawal reflex)
*[wrist](wrist)
## X
*[process](xiphoid)(xiphoid process)
## Z
*[incerta](zona)(zona incerta)
*[pellucida](zona)(zona pellucida)
*[zootomy](zootomy)
*[zygapophysis](zygapophysis)
*[zygoma](zygoma)
*[arch](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic arch)
*[bone](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic bone)
*[branches of the facial nerve](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic branches of the facial nerve)
*[major muscle](Zygomaticus)(Zygomaticus major muscle)
*[minor muscle](Zygomaticus)(Zygomaticus minor muscle)
*[nerve](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic nerve)
*[process](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic process)
*[process of frontal bone](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic process of frontal bone)
*[process of maxilla](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic process of maxilla)
*[process of temporal bone](Zygomatic)(Zygomatic process of temporal bone)
*[zygote](zygote)
[ ](Category:Anatomy)
[Anatomy](Category:Biology-related lists)
[topics](Anatomical)(Category:Indexes of science articles)
|
Parkinson's disease
|
parkinson's_disease
|
# Parkinson's disease
*Revision ID: 1159941426 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T14:10:48Z*
---
| alt = Two sketches (one from the front and one from the right side) of a man, with an expressionless face. He is stooped forward and is presumably having difficulty walking.
| field = [Neurology](Neurology)
| symptoms = [Tremor](Tremor), [rigidity](Spasticity), [of movement](slowness)(Hypokinesia#Bradykinesia), [walking](difficulty)(gait abnormality)
| complications = [Dementia](Parkinson's disease dementia), [depression](major depressive disorder), anxiety, eating problems, and sleep problems
| onset = Age over 60
| duration =
| causes = Unknown
| risks = [Pesticide](Pesticide) exposure, [injuries](head)(head injuries)
| diagnosis = Based on symptoms
| differential = [with Lewy bodies](Dementia)(Dementia with Lewy bodies), [supranuclear palsy](progressive)(progressive supranuclear palsy), [tremor](essential)(essential tremor), [antipsychotic](antipsychotic) use
| prevention =
| treatment = Medications, surgery
| medication = [L-DOPA](L-DOPA), [agonist](dopamine)(dopamine agonist)s
| prognosis = [expectancy](Life)(Life expectancy) about 7–15 years
| frequency = 6.2 million (2015)
| deaths = 117,400 (2015)
| named after = [Parkinson](James)(James Parkinson)
}}
'''Parkinson's disease** (**PD**), or simply **Parkinson's''', is a [chronic](chronic condition) [disorder](degenerative)(neurodegeneration) of the [nervous system](central)(central nervous system) that mainly affects the [system](motor)(motor system). The symptoms usually emerge slowly, and as the disease worsens, non-motor symptoms become more common. Early symptoms are [tremor](tremor), [rigidity](Spasticity), [of movement](slowness)(Hypokinesia#Bradykinesia), and [with walking](difficulty)(gait abnormality). Problems may also arise with cognition, behaviour, sleep, and [systems](sensory)(sensory systems). [disease dementia](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease dementia) becomes common in advanced stages of the disease.
The motor symptoms of the disease result from the [of nerve cells](death)(death of cells) in the [nigra](substantia)(substantia nigra), a region of the [midbrain](midbrain) that supplies [dopamine](dopamine) to the [ganglia](basal)(basal ganglia). The cause of this cell death is poorly understood, but involves the aggregation of the protein [alpha-synuclein](alpha-synuclein) into [bodies](Lewy)(Lewy bodies) within the [neuron](neuron)s. Collectively, the main motor symptoms are known as [parkinsonism](parkinsonism) or a parkinsonian syndrome.
The cause of PD is unknown, but a combination of [genetic](Causes of Parkinson's disease#Genetic factors) and [factors](environmental)(Causes of Parkinson's disease#Environmental factors) are believed to play a role. Those with an affected family member are at an increased risk of getting the disease, with certain genes known to be inheritable risk factors. Environmental risks include exposure to [pesticide](pesticide)s, and prior [injuries](head)(Head injury); a history of exposure to [trichloroethylene](trichloroethylene) is also suspected. Conversely, [caffeine](caffeine) and [nicotine](nicotine) appear to be protective.
Diagnosis is mainly based on symptoms, with motor symptoms being the most frequently presented. Tests such as [neuroimaging](neuroimaging) ([resonance imaging](magnetic)(magnetic resonance imaging) or imaging to look at dopamine neuronal dysfunction known as [scan](DaT)(DaT scan)) are used to help rule out other diseases. Parkinson's disease typically occurs in people over the age of 60, of whom about one percent are affected. Males are affected at a ratio of around 3:2 compared with females. When it is seen in people before the age of 50, it is called early-onset PD. By 2015, PD affected 6.2 million people and resulted in about 117,400 deaths globally. The number of people with PD older than fifty is expected to double by 2030. The average [expectancy](life)(life expectancy) following diagnosis is 7–15 years.
No cure for PD is known; treatment aims to reduce the effects of the symptoms. [treatment](Initial)(Management of Parkinson's disease#Medication) is typically with the medications levodopa ([L-DOPA](L-DOPA)), [inhibitors](MAO-B)(Monoamine oxidase inhibitor), or [agonist](dopamine)(dopamine agonist)s. As the disease progresses, these medications become less effective, while at the same time producing a [effect](side)(side effect) marked by [muscle movements](involuntary)(dyskinesia). At that time, medications may be used in combination and doses may be increased. Diet and certain forms of rehabilitation have shown some effectiveness at improving symptoms. [Surgery](Neurosurgery) to place [microelectrode](microelectrode)s for [brain stimulation](deep)(deep brain stimulation) has been used to reduce severe motor symptoms where drugs are ineffective. Evidence for treatments for the nonmovement-related symptoms of PD, such as sleep disturbances and emotional problems, is less strong.
The disease is named after English doctor [Parkinson](James)(James Parkinson), who published the first detailed description in *An Essay on the Shaking Palsy*, in 1817. Public awareness campaigns include [Parkinson's Day](World)(World Parkinson's Day) (on 11 April, the birthday of James Parkinson) and the use of a red [tulip](tulip) as the symbol of the disease. People with PD who have increased the public's awareness of the condition include boxer [Ali](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali), comedian [Connolly](Billy)(Billy Connolly), actor [J. Fox](Michael)(Michael J. Fox), Olympic cyclist [Phinney](Davis)(Davis Phinney), and actor [Alda](Alan)(Alan Alda).
## Classification
Parkinson's disease is the most common form of parkinsonism and is also called *[idiopathic](idiopathic disease) parkinsonism*, meaning that it has [identifiable cause](no)(Idiopathic). The accumulation of a misfolded protein [alpha-synuclein](alpha-synuclein) in the brain, and its spread throughout the brain makes Parkinson's disease a [disease](neurodegenerative)(neurodegenerative disease) classed as a [synucleinopathy](synucleinopathy), and more specifically as an alpha-synucleinopathy (αsynucleinopathy).
Other [syndrome](Parkinson-plus)(Parkinson-plus syndrome)s can have similar movement symptoms but have a variety of associated symptoms. Some of these are also synucleinopathies. [body dementia](Lewy)(Lewy body dementias) involves motor symptoms with early onset of cognitive dysfunction and hallucinations which precede motor symptoms. Alternatively, [systems atrophy](multiple)(Multiple system atrophy) or MSA usually has early onset of autonomic dysfunction (such as orthostasis), and may have autonomic predominance, cerebellar symptom predominance, or Parkinsonian predominance.
Other Parkinson-plus syndromes involve [tau](Tau protein), rather than alpha-synuclein. These include [supranuclear palsy](progressive)(progressive supranuclear palsy) (PSP) and [syndrome](corticobasal)(corticobasal syndrome) (CBS). PSP predominantly involves rigidity, early falls, bulbar symptoms, and vertical gaze restriction; it can be associated with frontotemporal dementia symptoms. CBS involves asymmetric parkinsonism, dystonia, alien limb, and myoclonic jerking. These presentation timelines and associated symptoms can help differentiate these similar movement disorders from idiopathic Parkinson disease.
## Signs and symptoms
The most recognizable symptoms are movement (motor) related, and include tremor, [bradykinesia](bradykinesia), rigidity, and shuffling/stooped gait. Non-motor symptoms, including [autonomic](autonomic nervous system) dysfunction ([dysautonomia](dysautonomia)), [neuropsychiatric](neuropsychiatry) problems (mood, cognition, behavior or thought alterations), and sensory (especially altered sense of smell) and sleep difficulties may be present as well. Patients may have nonmotor symptoms that precede the onset of motor symptoms including constipation, [anosmia](anosmia), and [Behavior Disorder](REM)(REM Behavior Disorder). Generally, symptoms such as dementia, psychosis, orthostasis, and more severe falls occur later. Dysphagia can begin at any time during the course of Parkinson's, and affects more than 80% of patients.
### Motor
Four motor symptoms are considered as [signs](cardinal)(Signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease#Cardinal signs) in PD: tremor, slowness of movement (bradykinesia), rigidity, and postural instability.
The most common presenting sign is a coarse, slow [tremor](tremor) of the hand at rest, which disappears during voluntary movement of the affected arm and in the deeper stages of sleep. It typically appears in only one hand, eventually affecting both hands as the disease progresses. Frequency of PD tremor is between 4–6 [hertz](hertz) (cycles per second). A common characteristic of tremor is pill-rolling, the tendency of the index finger and thumb to touch and perform together with a circular movement. The term derives from the similarity between the movement of people with PD and the early pharmaceutical technique of manually making pills.
Bradykinesia is due to disturbances in [planning](motor)(motor planning) of movement initiation, and associated with difficulties along the whole course of the movement process, from planning to initiation to execution of a movement. Performance of sequential and simultaneous movement is impaired. Bradykinesia is the most handicapping symptom of Parkinson's disease, presenting as difficulties with everyday tasks such as dressing, feeding, and bathing. It leads to particular difficulty in carrying out two independent motor activities at the same time, and can be made worse by emotional stress or concurrent illnesses. Paradoxically, people with PD can ride a bicycle or climb stairs more easily than walk on the level. Although most physicians may readily notice bradykinesia, formal assessment requires persons to do repetitive movements with their fingers and feet.
In parkinsonism, rigidity or hypokinesia can be uniform, known as *lead-pipe rigidity*, or ratcheted, known as *cogwheel rigidity*. The combination of tremor and increased tone is considered to be at the origin of cogwheel rigidity. Rigidity may be associated with joint pain; such pain being a frequent initial manifestation of the disease. In early stages of PD, rigidity is asymmetrical and tends to affect the neck and shoulder muscles before the muscles of the face and extremities. With the progression of the disease, rigidity typically affects the whole body and reduces the ability to move.
[instability](Postural)(Balance disorder) is typical in the later stages of the disease, leading to impaired balance and frequent falls, and secondarily to [fracture](bone)(bone fracture)s, loss of confidence, and reduced mobility. Instability is absent in the initial stages, especially in younger people, especially before the development of bilateral symptoms. Up to 40% of people diagnosed with PD may experience falls, and around 10% may have falls weekly, with the number of falls being related to the severity of PD.
Other recognized motor signs and symptoms include gait and posture disturbances such as [festination](Parkinsonian gait) (rapid shuffling steps and a [posture](forward-flexed)(camptocormia) when walking with no flexed arm swing). Other common signs include freezing of gait (brief arrests when the feet seem to get stuck to the floor, especially on turning or changing direction), a slurred, monotonous, quiet voice, [facial expression](mask-like)(mask-like facial expression), and [that gets smaller and smaller](handwriting)(Micrographia (handwriting)).
### Cognitive
PD causes neuropsychiatric disturbances ranging from mild to severe including disorders of cognition, mood, behavior, and thought. Cognitive disturbances can occur in the early stages or before diagnosis, and increase in prevalence with duration of the disease. The most common cognitive deficit is [dysfunction](executive)(executive dysfunction), which can include problems with planning, [flexibility](cognitive)(cognitive flexibility), abstract thinking, rule acquisition, [inappropriate actions](inhibiting)(Inhibitory control), initiating appropriate actions, [memory](working)(working memory), and [of attention](control)(Attentional control). Other cognitive difficulties include [cognitive processing speed](slowed)(bradyphrenia), impaired [recall](Recall (memory)), and impaired perception and estimation of time. Nevertheless, improvement appears when recall is aided by cues. Visuospatial difficulties are a part of the disease, seen for example when the individual is asked to perform tests of facial recognition and perception of the orientation of drawn lines.
A person with PD has two to six times the risk of dementia compared with the general population. Up to 78% of people with PD have [disease dementia](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease dementia). The prevalence of dementia increases with age, and to a lesser degree, duration of the disease. Dementia is associated with a reduced [of life](quality)(quality of life) in people with PD and their [caregiver](caregiver)s, increased mortality, and a higher probability of needing [home care](nursing)(nursing home care).
### Psychosis
[Psychosis](Psychosis) can be considered a symptom with a prevalence at its widest range from 26 to 83%. [Hallucination](Hallucination)s or [delusion](delusion)s occur in about 50% of people with PD over the course of the illness, and may herald the emergence of dementia. These range from minor hallucinations – sense of passage (something quickly passing beside the person) or sense of presence (the perception of something or someone standing to the side or behind the person) – to full blown vivid, [visual hallucinations](formed)(Positive visual phenomena#Hallucinations) and [paranoid](paranoid) ideation. Auditory hallucinations are uncommon in PD, and are rarely described as voices. Psychosis is believed to be an integral part of the disease. A psychosis with delusions and associated [delirium](delirium) is a recognized complication of anti-Parkinson drug treatment. Urinary tract infections (frequent in the elderly) and underlying brain pathology or changes in neurotransmitters or their receptors (e.g., acetylcholine, serotonin) are thought to play a role in psychosis in PD.
### Neuropsychiatric
Behavior and mood alterations are more common in PD without cognitive impairment than in the general population and are usually present in PD with dementia. The most frequent mood difficulties are depression, [apathy](apathy), and [anxiety](anxiety). Depression impacts an estimated 20% to 35% of patients, and may appear at any stage of the disease. It can manifest with symptoms common to the disease process (fatigue, insomnia, and difficulty with concentration), which makes diagnosis difficult. The imbalance and changes in [dopamine](dopamine), [serotonin](serotonin), and [noradrenergic](Norepinephrine) hormones and functional imparment are causes of depression in PD-affected people. [ideation](Suicidal)(Suicidal ideation) is higher than in the general population, but suicidal attempts themselves are lower. Risk factors for depression include disease onset under age 50, being female, previous history of depression, or severe motor symptoms.
[Anxiety](Anxiety disorder) has been estimated to have a prevalence in PD-affected people usually around 30–40% and up to 60% has been found. Anxiety with PD is complex and consists of symptoms specific to PD. Anxiety can be higher during motor "off" periods (times when medication is ineffective) and is likely to be diagnosed after diagnosis due to dysfunction of [pathways](neurotransmitter)(neurotransmitter pathways). PD-affected people experience panic attacks more frequently compared with the general population. Both anxiety and depression have been found to be associated with decreased quality of life. Symptoms can range from mild and episodic to chronic with potential causes being abnormal [acid](gamma-aminobutyric)(gamma-aminobutyric acid) levels and embarrassment or fear about symptoms or disease. Risk factors for anxiety in PD are disease onset under age 50, women, and off periods. No standard treatment for PD-associated anxiety exists.
[Apathy](Apathy) and [anhedonia](anhedonia) can be defined as a loss of motivation and an impaired ability to experience pleasure and are symptoms classically associated with depression, but differ in PD-affected people in treatment and mechanism. Apathy presents in around 16.5–40%. Symptoms of apathy include reduced initiative/interests in new activities or the world around them, emotional indifference, and loss of affection or concern for others. Apathy is associated with deficits in cognitive functions including executive and verbal memory. Anhedonia occurs in 5–75% of people with PD, depending on the study population assessed and overlap with apathy.
Impulse-control disorders, including pathological gambling, compulsive sexual behavior, binge eating, compulsive shopping, and reckless generosity, can be medication-related, particularly orally active dopamine agonists. The [dysregulation syndrome](dopamine)(dopamine dysregulation syndrome) – with wanting of medication contributing to overuse – is a rare complication of levodopa use.
[Punding](Punding), complicated, repetitive, aimless, [behaviors](stereotyped)(Stereotypy), is another side effect of anti-Parkinson medication.
### Gastrointestinal
Gastrointestinal issues in Parkinson's disease include [constipation](constipation), [stomach emptying](impaired)(Intestinal pseudoobstruction) (gastric dysmotility), and excessive production of saliva can be severe enough to cause discomfort or endanger health. Other upper gastrointestinal symptoms include [impairment](swallowing)(dysphagia) ([dysphagia](Oropharyngeal)(Oropharyngeal dysphagia)) and [intestinal bacterial overgrowth](small)(small intestinal bacterial overgrowth).
Individuals with Parkinson's have alpha-synuclein deposits in the digestive tract as well as the brain. Constipation is one of the symptoms associated with an increased risk of PD and may precede diagnosis of PD.
### Other
[disorder](Sleep)(Sleep disorder)s occur with PD and can be worsened by medications. Symptoms can manifest as daytime [drowsiness](somnolence) (including sudden sleep attacks resembling [narcolepsy](narcolepsy)), disturbances in [eye movement sleep](Rapid)(Rapid eye movement sleep), or [insomnia](insomnia). [behavior disorder](REM)(Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder) may begin years before the development of motor or cognitive elements of PD or [with Lewy bodies](dementia)(dementia with Lewy bodies).
Alterations in the autonomic nervous system can lead to [hypotension](orthostatic)(orthostatic hypotension) (low blood pressure on standing), [skin](oily)(Seborrhea), excessive sweating, [incontinence](urinary)(urinary incontinence), and altered sexual function.
Changes in perception may include an impaired sense of smell, disturbed vision, pain, and [paresthesia](paresthesia) (tingling and numbness). These symptoms can occur years before diagnosis of the disease.
## Causes
None of the proposed risk factors have been conclusively proven. The most frequently replicated relationships are an increased risk in those exposed to pesticides and a reduced risk in smokers. A possible link exists between PD and *[pylori](Helicobacter)(Helicobacter pylori)* infection that can prevent the absorption of some drugs, including levodopa.
### Genetic
[[of parkin.png|thumb|Parkin crystal structure](File:Structure)]
Research indicates that PD results from a complex interaction between genetic and [factor](environmental)(environmental factor)s. Around 15% of diagnosed individuals have a [relative](first-degree)(First-degree relatives) who has the disease, and 5–10% have a [mutation](mutation) in genes. Harboring one of these gene mutations may not lead to the disease; susceptibility factors put them at an increased risk, in combination with other factors, which affect age of onset, severity and progression. At least 11 [dominant](autosomal)(autosomal dominant) and nine [recessive](autosomal)(autosomal recessive) [mutation](gene)(gene mutation)s have been implicated in the development of PD. The autosomal dominant genes include *SNCA*,* [PARK3](PARK3)*, [*UCHL1*](Ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1), *[LRRK2](LRRK2)*, [*GIGYF2*](TNRC15), [*HTRA2*](HtrA serine peptidase 2), [*EIF4G1*](Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma 1), *[TMEM230](TMEM230)*, *[CHCHD2](CHCHD2)*, *[RIC3](RIC3)*, and *[VPS35](VPS35)*. Autosomal recessive genes include *[PRKN](Parkin (ligase)), [PINK1](PINK1), [PARK7](PARK7), [ATP13A2](ATP13A2), [PLA2G6](PLA2G6), [FBXO7](FBXO7), [DNAJC6](Auxilin), [SYNJ1](SYNJ1),* and *[VPS13C](VPS13C)*. Some genes are [X-linked](Sex linkage) or have unknown inheritance pattern; those include *[PARK10](PARK10), [PARK12](PARK12)*, and *[PARK16](PARK16)*. A [22q11](DiGeorge syndrome) deletion is known to be associated with PD. An autosomal dominant form has been associated with mutations in the* [LRP10](LRP10)* gene.
About 5% of people with PD have mutations in the *[GBA1](GBA1)* gene. These mutations are present in fewer than 1% of the unaffected population. The risk of developing PD is increased 20–30-fold if these mutations are present. PD associated with these mutations has the same clinical presentation, but an earlier age of onset and a more rapid cognitive and motor decline. This gene encodes [glucocerebrosidase](glucocerebrosidase). Low levels of this enzyme cause [disease](Gaucher's)(Gaucher's disease).
Alpha-synuclein, a protein encoded by *SNCA* gene mutations, is the main component of the [bodies](Lewy)(Lewy body) that accumulate in the brains of people with PD. Alpha-synuclein activates [telangiectasia mutated](ataxia)(ataxia telangiectasia mutated), a major [damage](DNA)(DNA damage (naturally occurring))-repair signaling [kinase](kinase). In addition, alpha-synuclein activates the [end joining](non-homologous)(non-homologous end joining) [repair](DNA)(DNA repair) pathway. The aggregation of alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies appears to be a link between reduced DNA repair and brain-cell death in PD.
Mutations in some genes, including *SNCA*, *LRRK2*, and *GBA*, have been found to be risk factors for sporadic (nonfamilial) PD. Mutations in the gene *LRRK2* are the most common known cause of familial and sporadic PD, accounting for around 5% of individuals with a family history of the disease and 3% of sporadic PD. A mutation in *GBA* presents the greatest genetic risk of developing Parkinsons disease.
Parkinson-related genes are involved in the function of [lysosome](lysosome)s, organelles that digest cellular waste products. [disorders](Lysosomal)(Lysosomal storage disease) that reduce the ability of cells to break down alpha-synuclein may cause PD.
### Non-genetic
Exposure to [pesticides](pesticides) and head injury have each been linked with PD, but the risks are low. Not drinking caffeinated beverages is associated with small increases in risk. Some toxins can cause parkinsonism, including [manganese](manganese) and [disulfide](carbon)(carbon disulfide).
Medical drugs are implicated in parkinsonism. Drug-induced parkinsonism is normally reversible by stopping the offending agent, such as [phenothiazine](phenothiazine)s (chlorpromazine, promazine, etc.); [butyrophenone](butyrophenone)s (haloperidol, benperidol, etc.); [metoclopramide](metoclopramide) and [Tetrabenazine](Tetrabenazine). [1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine](MPTP) (MPTP) is a drug known for causing irreversible parkinsonism that is commonly used in animal-model research.
Low concentrations of [urate](Uric acid) in the blood are associated with an increased risk.
Other identifiable causes include infections and metabolic derangement. [disorders](Neurodegenerative)(Neurodegenerative disorders) may present with parkinsonism, and are also referred to as *atypical parkinsonism* or *parkinson plus* syndromes (illnesses with parkinsonism plus some other symptoms distinguishing them from PD) including multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, [degeneration](corticobasal)(corticobasal degeneration), and dementia with Lewy bodies. Dementia with Lewy bodies is another synucleinopathy and it has close pathological similarities with PD, especially with the subset of PD with [dementia](dementia) known as Parkinson's disease dementia. The relationship between PD and DLB is complex and incompletely understood. It represents a continuum with variable distinguishing clinical and pathological attributes, or it may prove to be separate diseases.
Vascular parkinsonism is the phenomenon of the presence of Parkinson's disease symptoms combined with findings of vascular events (such as a [stroke](cerebral)(Stroke)). The damaging of the [pathways](dopaminergic)(dopaminergic pathways) is similar in cause for both vascular parkinsonism and idiopathic PD, and so present with similar symptoms. Differentiation can be made with careful bedside examination, history evaluation, and imaging.
## Pathophysiology
[[File:Lewy Body alphaSynuclein.jpg|thumb|right|A [body](Lewy)(Lewy body) (stained brown) in a brain cell of the [nigra](substantia)(substantia nigra) in Parkinson's disease: the brown colour is positive [immunohistochemistry](immunohistochemistry) staining for [alpha-synuclein](alpha-synuclein).|alt=Brain cells stained in blue. The largest one, a neurone, with an approximately circular form, has a brown circular body inside it. The brown body is about 40% the diameter of the cell in which it appears.]]
The main [pathological](Pathology) characteristics of PD are cell death in the brain's [ganglia](basal)(basal ganglia) (affecting up to 70% of the [dopamine-secreting](dopaminergic) neurons in the [nigra](substantia)(substantia nigra) [compacta](pars)(pars compacta) by the end of life). In Parkinson's disease, alpha-synuclein becomes [misfolded](Protein folding) and [together](clump)(Protein aggregation) with other alpha-synuclein. Cells are unable to remove these clumps, and the alpha-synuclein becomes [cytotoxic](Cytotoxicity), damaging the cells. These clumps can be seen in neurons under a microscope and are called Lewy bodies. Loss of neurons is accompanied by the death of [astrocyte](astrocyte)s (star-shaped [glial](neuroglia) cells) and an increase in the number of [microglia](microglia) (another type of glial cell) in the substantia nigra. Severity of progression of the parts of the brain affected by PD can be measured with [staging](Braak)(Braak staging). According to this staging, PD starts in the medulla and the olfactory bulb before moving to the substantia nigra pars compacta and the rest of the midbrain/basal forebrain. Movement symptom onset is associated when the disease begins to affect the substantia nigra pars compacta.
[[File:Journal.pone.0008247.g001.png|thumb|
}}|alt=Composite of three images, one in the top row (referred to in caption as A), two in the second row (referred to as B). Top shows a mid-line [plane](sagittal)(sagittal plane) of the brainstem and [cerebellum](cerebellum). Three circles superimposed along the brainstem and an arrow linking them from bottom to top and continuing upward and forward towards the frontal lobes of the brain. A line of text accompanies each circle: lower is "1. Dorsal Motor X Nucleus", middle is "2. Gain Setting Nuclei" and upper is "3. Substantia Nigra/Amygdala". The fourth line of text above the others says "4. ...". The two images at the bottom of the composite are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, one sagittal and the other transverse, centred at the same brain coordinates (x=-1, y=-36, z=-49). A colored blob marking volume reduction covers most of the brainstem.]]
Five major pathways in the brain connect other brain areas to the basal ganglia. These are known as the [motor](Motor cortex), [oculomotor](Frontal eye fields), [associative](Cerebral cortex#Association areas), [limbic](Limbic system), and [orbitofrontal](Orbitofrontal cortex) circuits. Names indicate the main projection area of each circuit. All are affected in PD, and their disruption causes movement-, attention- and learning-related symptoms of the disease. Scientifically, the motor circuit has been examined the most intensively.
[[pathways.svg|thumb|An illustration of the dopamine pathways throughout the brain](File:Dopaminergic)]
Since 1980, a particular conceptual model of the motor circuit and its alteration with PD has been of influence although some limitations have been pointed out which have led to modifications. In this model, the basal ganglia normally exert a constant inhibitory influence on a wide range of motor systems, preventing them from becoming active at inappropriate times. When a decision is made to perform a particular action, [inhibition](Inhibitory postsynaptic potential) is reduced for the required motor system, thereby releasing it for activation. Dopamine acts to facilitate this release of inhibition, so high levels of dopamine function tend to promote motor activity, while low levels of dopamine function, such as occur in PD, demand greater exertions of effort for any given movement. The end result of dopamine depletion is to produce hypokinesia, an overall reduction in motor output. Drugs that are used to treat PD, conversely, may produce excessive dopamine activity, allowing motor systems to be activated at inappropriate times and thereby producing [dyskinesia](dyskinesia)s.
### Brain cell death
One mechanism causing brain cell death results from abnormal accumulation of the protein alpha-synuclein bound to [ubiquitin](ubiquitin) in damaged cells. This insoluble protein accumulates inside neurons forming [inclusions](Inclusion bodies), known as Lewy bodies. These bodies first appear in the [bulb](olfactory)(olfactory bulb), [oblongata](medulla)(medulla oblongata) and [tegmentum](pontine)(pontine tegmentum); individuals at this stage may be asymptomatic or have early nonmotor symptoms (such as loss of sense of smell or some sleep or automatic dysfunction). As the disease progresses, Lewy bodies develop in the substantia nigra, areas of the [midbrain](midbrain) and basal [forebrain](forebrain), and finally, the [neocortex](neocortex). These brain sites are the main places of neuronal degeneration in PD, but Lewy bodies may be protective from cell death (with the abnormal protein sequestered or walled off). Other forms of alpha-synuclein (eg [oligomer](oligomer)s) that are not aggregated into Lewy bodies and [neurite](Lewy)(Lewy neurite)s, may in fact be the toxic forms of the protein. In people with dementia, a generalized presence of Lewy bodies is common in cortical areas. [tangle](Neurofibrillary)(Neurofibrillary tangle)s and [plaques](senile)(senile plaques), characteristic of Alzheimer's disease, are uncommon unless the person has dementia.
Other mechanisms include [proteasomal](Proteasome) and lysosomal systems dysfunction and reduced [mitochondrial](Mitochondrion) activity. Iron accumulation in the substantia nigra is typically observed in conjunction with the protein inclusions. It may be related to [stress](oxidative)(oxidative stress), protein aggregation, and neuronal death, but the mechanisms are obscure.
### The neuroimmune connection
The neuroimmune interaction is heavily implicated in PD pathology. PD and [disorders](autoimmune)(Autoimmune disease) share genetic variations and molecular pathways. Some autoimmune diseases may even increase one's risk of developing PD, up to 33% in one study. Autoimmune diseases linked to protein expression profiles of [monocyte](monocyte)s and [T cells](CD4+)(T helper cell) are linked to PD. [virus](Herpes)(Herpes simplex) infections can trigger autoimmune reactions to alpha-synuclein, perhaps through molecular mimicry of viral proteins. Alpha-synuclein, and its aggregate form, Lewy bodies, can bind to [microglia](microglia). Microglia can proliferate and be over-activated by alpha-synuclein binding to [receptors](MHC)(Major histocompatibility complex) on [inflammasome](inflammasome)s, bringing about a release of [cytokines](proinflammatory)(proinflammatory cytokines) like IL-1β, IFNγ, and TNFα. Activated microglia influence the activation of astrocytes, converting their neuroprotective phenotype to a neurotoxic one. Astrocytes in healthy brains serve to protect neuronal connections. In PD patients, astrocytes cannot protect the dopaminergic connections in the striatum. Microglia present [antigen](antigen)s via [MHC-I](MHC class I) and [MHC-II](MHC class II) to T cells. CD4+ T cells, activated by this process, are able to cross the [brain barrier](blood)(Blood–brain barrier) (BBB) and release more proinflammatory cytokines, like interferon-γ (IFNγ), TNFα, and IL-1β. Mast cell degranulation and subsequent proinflammatory cytokine release is implicated in BBB breakdown in PD. Another immune cell implicated in PD are peripheral monocytes and have been found in the substantia nigra of PD patients. These monocytes can lead to more dopaminergic connection breakdown. In addition, monocytes isolated from PD patients express higher levels of the PD-associated protein, LRRK2, compared with non-PD individuals via [vasodilation](vasodilation). In addition, high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, can lead to the production of [protein](C-reactive)(C-reactive protein) by the liver, another protein commonly found in PD patients, that can lead to an increase in peripheral inflammation. Peripheral inflammation can affect the [axis](gut-brain)(Gut–brain axis), an area of the body highly implicated in PD. PD patients have altered [microbiota](gut)(gut microbiota) and colon problems years before motor issues arise. Alpha-synuclein is produced in the gut and may migrate via the [nerve](vagus)(vagus nerve) to the brainstem, and then to the substantia nigra. Furthermore, the bacteria *Proteus mirabilis* has been associated with higher levels of alpha-synuclein and an increase of motor symptoms in PD patients. Further elucidation of the causal role of alpha-synuclein, the role of inflammation, the gut-brain axis, as well as an understanding of the individual differences in immune stress responses is needed to better understand the pathological development of PD.
## Diagnosis
Physician's initial assessment is typically based on [history](medical)(medical history) and [examination](neurological)(neurological examination). They access motor symptoms (bradykinesia, rest tremors, etc) using clinical diagnostic criteria. The finding of Lewy bodies in the midbrain on [autopsy](autopsy) is usually considered final proof that the person had PD. The clinical course of the illness over time may diverge from PD, requiring that presentation is periodically reviewed to confirm the accuracy of the diagnosis.
Multiple causes can occur for parkinsonism or diseases that look similar. Stroke, certain medications, and toxins can cause "secondary parkinsonism" and need to be assessed during visit. Parkinson-plus syndromes, such as progressive supranuclear palsy and multiple system atrophy, must be considered and ruled out appropriately to begin a different treatment and disease progression (anti-Parkinson's medications are typically less effective at controlling symptoms in Parkinson-plus syndromes). Faster progression rates, early cognitive dysfunction or postural instability, minimal tremor, or symmetry at onset may indicate a Parkinson-plus disease rather than PD itself.
Medical organizations have created [criteria](diagnostic)(Medical diagnosis#Diagnostic criteria) to ease and standardize the diagnostic process, especially in the early stages of the disease. The most widely known criteria come from the UK Queen Square Brain Bank for Neurological Disorders and the U.S. [Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke](National)(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke). The Queen Square Brain Bank criteria require slowness of movement (bradykinesia) plus either rigidity, resting tremor, or postural instability. Other possible causes of these symptoms need to be ruled out. Finally, three or more of the following supportive symptoms are required during onset or evolution: unilateral onset, tremor at rest, progression in time, asymmetry of motor symptoms, response to levodopa for at least five years, the clinical course of at least ten years and appearance of dyskinesias induced by the intake of excessive levodopa. Assessment of [sudomotor](sudomotor) function through [skin conductance](electrochemical)(electrochemical skin conductance) can be helpful in diagnosing dysautonomia.
When PD diagnoses are checked by autopsy, movement disorders experts are found on average to be 79.6% accurate at initial assessment and 83.9% accurate after refining diagnoses at follow-up examinations. When clinical diagnoses performed mainly by nonexperts are checked by autopsy, the average accuracy is 73.8%. Overall, 80.6% of PD diagnoses are accurate, and 82.7% of diagnoses using the Brain Bank criteria are accurate.
### Imaging
[tomography](Computed)(CT scan) (CT) scans of people with PD usually appear normal. Magnetic resonance imaging has become more accurate in diagnosis of the disease over time, specifically through iron-sensitive [T2*](Relaxation (NMR)#T2* and magnetic field inhomogeneity) and [weighted imaging](susceptibility)(susceptibility weighted imaging) sequences at a magnetic field strength of at least 3T, both of which can demonstrate absence of the characteristic 'swallow tail' imaging pattern in the [dorsolateral](dorsolateral) substantia nigra. In a meta-analysis, absence of this pattern was highly [sensitive](Sensitivity and specificity#Sensitivity) and [specific](Sensitivity and specificity#Specificity) for the disease. A meta-analysis found that [neuromelanin-MRI](MRI sequence#Neuromelanin imaging) can discriminate individuals with Parkinson's from healthy subjects. [MRI](Diffusion)(Diffusion MRI) has shown potential in distinguishing between PD and Parkinson-plus syndromes, as well as between PD motor subtypes, though its diagnostic value is still under investigation. CT and MRI are used to rule out other diseases that can be secondary causes of parkinsonism, most commonly [encephalitis](encephalitis) and [ischemic insults](chronic)(Brain ischemia), as well as less-frequent entities such as [ganglia](basal)(basal ganglia) [tumors](Neoplasm) and [hydrocephalus](hydrocephalus).
The [activity](metabolic)(metabolism) of [transporter](dopamine)(dopamine transporter)s in the basal ganglia can be directly measured with [emission tomography](positron)(positron emission tomography) and [emission computed tomography](single-photon)(single-photon emission computed tomography) scans. It has shown high agreement with clinical diagnoses of PD. Reduced dopamine-related activity in the basal ganglia can help exclude drug-induced Parkinsonism. This finding is nonspecific and can be seen with both PD and Parkinson-plus disorders. In the United States, DaTSCANs are only [FDA](Food and Drug Administration) approved to distinguish PD or Parkinsonian syndromes from [tremor](essential)(essential tremor).
Iodine-123-meta-iodobenzylguanidine [myocardial](myocardium) [scintigraphy](scintigraphy) can help locate denervation of the muscles of the heart which can support a PD diagnosis.
### Differential diagnosis
Secondary parkinsonism – The multiple causes of parkinsonism can be differentiated through careful history, physical examination, and appropriate imaging. This topic is further discussed in the causes section [here](#Causes).
[[cross bun sign.jpg|alt=An MRI finding that is seen commonly in Multiple System atrophy. This occurs on the Pons.|thumb|Hot Cross Bun sign that is commonly found in MRI of multiple system atrophy](File:Hot)]
Parkinson-plus syndrome – Multiple diseases can be considered part of the Parkinson's plus group, including [syndrome](corticobasal)(corticobasal syndrome), [system atrophy](multiple)(multiple system atrophy), [supranuclear palsy](progressive)(progressive supranuclear palsy), and [with Lewy bodies](dementia)(dementia with Lewy bodies). Differential diagnosis can be narrowed down with careful history and physical exam (especially focused on the sequential onset of specific symptoms), progression of the disease, and response to treatment. Some key symptoms:
* [syndrome](Corticobasal)(Corticobasal syndrome) – levodopa-resistance, [myoclonus](myoclonus), [dystonia](dystonia), corticosensory loss, [apraxia](apraxia), and [aphasia](non-fluent)(non-fluent aphasia)
* [with Lewy bodies](Dementia)(Dementia with Lewy bodies) – levodopa resistance, cognitive predominance before motor symptoms, and fluctuating cognitive symptoms, (visual hallucinations are common in this disease)
* [tremor](Essential)(Essential tremor) – This can at first look like parkinsonism, but has key differentiators. In essential tremor, the tremor gets worse with action (improves in PD), a lack of other symptoms is common in PD, and normal DatSCAN is seen.
* [system atrophy](Multiple)(Multiple system atrophy) – levodopa resistance, rapidly progressive, autonomic failure, stridor, present [sign](Babinski)(Plantar reflex), cerebellar ataxia, and specific MRI findings
* [supranuclear palsy](Progressive)(Progressive supranuclear palsy) – levodopa resistance, restrictive vertical gaze, specific MRI findings, and early and different postural difficulties
Other conditions that can have similar presentations to PD include:
* [Arthritis](Arthritis)
* [disease](Creutzfeldt–Jakob)(Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease)
* [Depression](Major depressive disorder)
* [Dystonia](Dystonia)
* [X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome](Fragile)(Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome)
* [dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17](Frontotemporal)(Frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17)
* [disease](Huntington's)(Huntington's disease)
* [basal ganglia calcification](Idiopathic)(Basal ganglia calcification)
* [with brain iron accumulation](Neurodegeneration)(Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation)
* [hydrocephalus](Normal-pressure)(Normal-pressure hydrocephalus)
* Obsessional slowness
* Psychogenic parkinsonism
* [disease](Wilson's)(Wilson's disease)
## Prevention
Exercise in middle age may reduce the risk of PD later in life. [Caffeine](Caffeine) appears protective with a greater decrease in risk occurring with a larger intake of caffeinated beverages such as coffee.
[Antioxidant](Antioxidant)s, such as vitamins [C](Vitamin C) and [E](Vitamin E), have been proposed to protect against the disease, but results of studies have been contradictory and no positive effect has been shown. The results regarding fat and [acid](fatty)(fatty acid)s have been contradictory. Use of [anti-inflammatory drug](nonsteroidal)(nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug)s (NSAIDs) and [channel blocker](calcium)(calcium channel blocker)s may be protective. A 2010 [meta-analysis](meta-analysis) found that NSAIDs (apart from [aspirin](aspirin)), have been associated with at least a 15% (higher in long-term and regular users) reduction in the incidence of the development of PD. meta-analyses have failed to confirm this link. Multiple studies have demonstrated a link between the use of [ibuprofen](ibuprofen) and a decreased risk of Parkinson's development.
## Management
[[treatment of Parkinson's disease.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's disease](File:Pharmacological)]
No cure for Parkinson's disease is known. Medications, surgery, and [treatment](physical)(Physical therapy) may provide relief, improve the quality of a person's life, and are much more effective than treatments for other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, [neuron disease](motor)(motor neuron disease), and Parkinson-plus syndromes. The main families of drugs useful for treating motor symptoms are [levodopa](L-DOPA) always combined with a [decarboxylase inhibitor](dopa)(Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase inhibitor) and with a [inhibitor](COMT)(COMT inhibitor), [agonist](dopamine)(dopamine agonist)s, and [inhibitors](MAO-B)(Monoamine oxidase inhibitor). The stage of the disease and the age at disease onset determine which group is most useful.
Braak staging of PD uses six stages that can identify early, middle, and late stages. The initial stage in which some disability has already developed and requires pharmacological treatment is followed by later stages associated with the development of complications related to levodopa usage, and a third stage when symptoms unrelated to dopamine deficiency or levodopa treatment may predominate.
Treatment in the first stage aims for an optimal [trade-off](trade-off) between symptom control and treatment side effects. The start of levodopa treatment may be postponed by initially using other medications, such as MAO-B inhibitors and dopamine agonists, instead, in the hope of delaying the onset of complications due to levodopa use. Levodopa is still the most effective treatment for the motor symptoms of PD and treatment should be prompt in people when their quality of life is impaired. Levodopa-related dyskinesias correlate more strongly with duration and severity of the disease than duration of levodopa treatment.
In later stages, the aim is to reduce PD symptoms, while controlling fluctuations in the effect of the medication. Sudden withdrawals from medication or its overuse must be managed. When oral medications are inadequate in controlling symptoms, surgery (deep brain stimulation or [focused ultrasound](high-intensity)(high-intensity focused ultrasound)), subcutaneous waking-day [apomorphine](apomorphine) infusion, and [enteral](enteral administration) dopa pumps may be useful. Late-stage PD presents challenges requiring a variety of treatments, including those for psychiatric symptoms particularly depression, orthostatic hypotension, bladder dysfunction, and [dysfunction](erectile)(erectile dysfunction). In the final stages of the disease, [care](palliative)(palliative care) is provided to improve a person's quality of life.
A 2020 Cochrane review found no certain evidence that cognitive training is beneficial for people with Parkinson's disease, dementia or mild cognitive impairment. The findings are based on low certainty evidence of seven studies.
### Medications
|date=October 2020}}
#### Levodopa
Levodopa is usually the first drug of choice when treating Parkinson's disease and has been the most widely used PD treatment since the 1980s. The motor symptoms of PD are the result of reduced dopamine production in the brain's basal ganglia. Dopamine fails to cross the [barrier](blood–brain)(blood–brain barrier) so it cannot be taken as a medicine to boost the brain's depleted levels of dopamine. A [precursor](Precursor (chemistry)) of dopamine, levodopa, can pass through to the brain where it is readily converted to dopamine. Administration of levodopa temporarily diminishes the motor symptoms of PD.
Only 5–10% of levodopa crosses the blood–brain barrier. Much of the remainder is metabolized to dopamine elsewhere in the body, causing a variety of side effects, including [nausea](nausea), vomiting, and orthostatic hypotension. [Carbidopa](Carbidopa) and [benserazide](benserazide) are dopa decarboxylase inhibitors that fail to cross the blood–brain barrier and inhibit the conversion of levodopa to dopamine outside the brain, reducing side effects and improving the availability of levodopa for passage into the brain. One of these drugs is usually taken along with levodopa and is available combined with levodopa in the same pill.
Prlonged use of levodopa is associated with the development of complications, such as involuntary movements (dyskinesias) and fluctuations in the impact of the medication. When fluctuations occur, a person can cycle through phases with good response to medication and reduced PD symptoms (on state), and phases with poor response to medication and increased PD symptoms (off state). Using lower doses of levodopa may reduce the risk and severity of these levodopa-induced complications. A former strategy, called "drug holidays", to reduce levodopa-related dyskinesia and fluctuations was to withdraw levodopa medication for some time which can bring on dangerous side effects such as [malignant syndrome](neuroleptic)(neuroleptic malignant syndrome) and is discouraged. Most people with PD eventually need levodopa and later develop levodopa-induced fluctuations and dyskinesias. Adverse effects of levodopa, including dyskinesias, mistakenly influence patients and providers to delay treatment which reduces potential for optimal results.
Levodopa by itself is available in oral (tablets and capsules), oral inhalation, and infusion form. Inhaled levodopa can be used when oral levodopa therapy has reached a point where "off" periods have increased in length.
#### COMT inhibitors
[[metabolizes levodopa to 3-O-methyldopa. COMT inhibitors help stop this reaction, allowing for more levodopa to cross the blood–brain barrier and become dopamine where it is needed.](File:Wiki-COMT.png|thumb|COMT)]
During the course of PD, affected people can experience a wearing-off phenomenon, where a recurrence of symptoms occurs after a dose of levodopa, but right before their next dose. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is a protein that degrades levodopa before it can cross the blood–brain barrier and these inhibitors allow for more levodopa to cross. They are normally used in the management of later symptoms, but can be used in conjunction with levodopa/carbidopa when a person is experiencing the wearing off-phenomenon with their motor symptoms.
Three COMT inhibitors are used to treat adults with PD and end-of-dose motor fluctuations – [opicapone](opicapone), [entacapone](entacapone), and [tolcapone](tolcapone). Tolcapone has been available for but its usefulness is limited by possible liver damage complications requiring liver-function monitoring. Entacapone and opicapone cause little alteration to liver function. Licensed preparations of entacapone contain entacapone alone or in combination with carbidopa and levodopa. Opicapone is a once-daily COMT inhibitor.
#### Dopamine agonists
Dopamine agonists that bind to dopamine receptors in the brain have similar effects to levodopa. These were initially used as a complementary therapy to levodopa for individuals experiencing levodopa complications (on-off fluctuations and dyskinesias); they are mainly used on their own as first therapy for the motor symptoms of PD with the aim of delaying the initiation of levodopa therapy, thus delaying the onset of levodopa's complications. Dopamine agonists include [bromocriptine](bromocriptine), [pergolide](pergolide), [pramipexole](pramipexole), [ropinirole](ropinirole), [piribedil](piribedil), [cabergoline](cabergoline), [apomorphine](apomorphine), and [lisuride](lisuride).
Though dopamine agonists are less effective than levodopa at controlling PD motor symptoms, they are effective enough to manage these symptoms in the first years of treatment. Dyskinesias due to dopamine agonists are rare in younger people who have PD, but along with other complications, become more common with older age at onset. Thus, dopamine agonists are the preferred initial treatment for younger-onset PD, and levodopa is preferred for older-onset PD.
Dopamine agonists produce side effects, including drowsiness, hallucinations, insomnia, nausea, and constipation. Side effects appear with minimal clinically effective doses giving the physician reason to search for a different drug. Agonists have been related to impulse-control disorders (such as increased sexual activity, eating, gambling, and shopping) more strongly than other antiparkinson medications. They tend to be more expensive than levodopa.
Apomorphine, a dopamine agonist, may be used to reduce off periods and dyskinesia in late PD. It is administered only by intermittent injections or continuous [infusions](subcutaneous)(Hypodermoclysis). Secondary effects such as confusion and hallucinations are common, individuals receiving apomorphine treatment should be closely monitored. Two dopamine agonists administered through skin patches (lisuride and [rotigotine](rotigotine)) are useful for people in the initial stages and possibly to control off states in those in advanced states. Due to an increased risk of cardiac fibrosis with ergot-derived dopamine agonists (bromocriptine, cabergoline, dihydroergocryptine, lisuride, and pergolide), they should only be considered for adjunct therapy to levodopa.
#### MAO-B inhibitors
MAO-B inhibitors ([safinamide](safinamide), [selegiline](selegiline) and [rasagiline](rasagiline)) increase the amount of dopamine in the basal ganglia by inhibiting the activity of [oxidase B](monoamine)(monoamine oxidase B), an enzyme that breaks down dopamine. They have been found to help alleviate motor symptoms when used as monotherapy (on their own); when used in conjunction with levodopa, time spent in the off phase is reduced. Selegiline has been shown to delay the need for beginning levodopa, suggesting that it might be neuroprotective and slow the progression of the disease. An initial study indicated that selegiline in combination with levodopa increased the risk of death, but this has been refuted.
Common side effects are nausea, dizziness, insomnia, sleepiness, and (in selegiline and rasagiline) orthostatic hypotension. MAO-Bs are known to increase serotonin and cause a potentially dangerous condition known as [syndrome](serotonin)(serotonin syndrome).
#### Other drugs
Other drugs such as [amantadine](amantadine) may be useful as treatment of motor symptoms, but evidence for use is lacking. Anticholinergics should not be used for dyskinesia or motor fluctuations but may be considered topically for drooling. A diverse range of symptoms beyond those related to motor function can be treated pharmaceutically. Examples are the use of [quetiapine](quetiapine) or clozapine for psychosis, [inhibitors](cholinesterase)(Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) or memantine for dementia, and [modafinil](modafinil) for [daytime sleepiness](excessive)(excessive daytime sleepiness). In 2016, [pimavanserin](pimavanserin) was approved for the management of PD psychosis. Doxepin and rasagline may reduce physical fatigue in PD.
### Surgery
[[File:Parkinson surgery.jpg|upright|thumb|Placement of an electrode into the brain: the head is stabilised in a frame for [surgery](stereotactic)(stereotactic surgery).]]
Treating motor symptoms with surgery was once a common practice but the discovery of levodopa has decreased the amount of procedures. Studies have led to great improvements in surgical techniques, so surgery can be used in people with advanced PD for who drug therapy is no longer sufficient. Surgery for PD can be divided in two main groups – lesional and [brain stimulation](deep)(deep brain stimulation) (DBS). Target areas for DBS or lesions include the [thalamus](thalamus), [pallidus](globus)(globus pallidus), or [nucleus](subthalamic)(subthalamic nucleus). DBS involves the implantation of a medical device called a [neurostimulator](Neurostimulation), which sends electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain. DBS is recommended for people who have PD with motor fluctuations and tremor inadequately controlled by medication, or to those who are intolerant to medication lacking severe neuropsychiatric problems. Other less common surgical therapies involve intentional formation of lesions to suppress overactivity of specific [subcortical](wikt:subcortical) areas. For example, [pallidotomy](pallidotomy) involves surgical destruction of the globus pallidus to control dyskinesia.
Four areas of the brain have been treated with neural stimulators in PD. These are the globus pallidus interna, thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, and [nucleus](pedunculopontine)(pedunculopontine nucleus). DBS of the globus pallidus interna improves motor function, while DBS of the thalamic DBS improves tremor, but has little impact on bradykinesia or rigidity. DBS of the subthalamic nucleus is usually avoided if a history of depression or neurocognitive impairment is present. DBS of the subthalamic nucleus is associated with a reduction in medication. Pedunculopontine nucleus DBS remains experimental at present. Generally, DBS is associated with 30–60% improvement in motor score evaluations.
### Rehabilitation
Exercise programs are recommended in people with PD. Some evidence shows that speech or mobility problems can improve with rehabilitation, although studies are scarce and of low quality. Regular [exercise](physical)(physical exercise) with or without physical therapy can be beneficial to maintain and improve mobility, flexibility, strength, gait speed, and quality of life. When an exercise program is performed under the supervision of a physiotherapist, more improvements occur in motor symptoms, mental and emotional functions, daily living activities, and quality of life compared with a self-supervised exercise program at home. Clinical exercises may be an effective intervention targeting overall well-being of individuals with Parkinson's. Improvement in motor function and depression may happen.
In improving flexibility and range of motion for people experiencing rigidity, generalized relaxation techniques such as gentle rocking have been found to decrease excessive muscle tension. Other effective techniques to promote relaxation include slow rotational movements of the extremities and trunk, rhythmic initiation, [breathing](diaphragmatic)(diaphragmatic breathing), and [meditation](meditation) techniques. As for gait and addressing the challenges associated with the disease such as hypokinesia, shuffling, and decreased arm swing, physiotherapists have a variety of strategies to improve functional mobility and safety. Areas of interest concerning gait during rehabilitation programs focus on improving gait speed, the base of support, stride length, and trunk and arm-swing movement. Strategies include using assistive equipment (pole walking and treadmill walking), verbal cueing (manual, visual, and auditory), exercises (marching and PNF patterns), and altering environments (surfaces, inputs, open vs. closed). Strengthening exercises have shown improvements in strength and motor function for people with primary muscular weakness and weakness related to inactivity with mild to moderate PD, but reports show an interaction between strength and the time the medications were taken. Therefore, people with PD should perform exercises 45 minutes to one hour after medications when they are capable. Deep diaphragmatic breathing exercises are beneficial in improving chest-wall mobility and vital capacity decreased by a forward flexed posture and respiratory dysfunctions in advanced PD. Exercise may improve constipation. If exercise reduces physical fatigue in PD remains unclear.
[training](Strength)(Strength training) exercise has been shown to increase [dexterity](manual)(manual dexterity) in PD patients after exercising with manual putty. This positively affects everyday life when gripping for PD patients.
The [Silverman voice treatment](Lee)(Lee Silverman voice treatment) (LSVT) is one of the most widely practiced [for speech](treatments)(Speech therapy) disorders associated with PD. Speech therapy and specifically LSVT may improve speech. [therapy](Occupational)(Occupational therapy) (OT) aims to promote health and quality of life by helping people with the disease to participate in a large percentage of their [living activities](daily)(Daily living skills). Few studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of OT, and their quality is poor, although with some indication that it may improve motor skills and quality of life for the duration of the therapy.
### Palliative care
The goal of Palliative care is to improve quality of life for both the patient and family by providing relief from the symptoms and stress of illnesses. As Parkinson's is uncurable, treatments focus on slowing decline and improving quality of life and are therefore palliative.
Palliative care should be involved earlier, rather than later, in the disease course. Palliative care specialists can help with physical symptoms, emotional factors such as loss of function and jobs, depression, fear, and existential concerns.
Along with offering emotional support to both the affected person and family, palliative care addresses goals of care. People with PD may have difficult decisions to make as the disease progresses, such as wishes for [tube](feeding)(feeding tube), [ventilator](noninvasive)(non-invasive ventilation) or [tracheostomy](Tracheotomy), wishes for or against [resuscitation](cardiopulmonary)(cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and when to use [hospice](hospice) care. Palliative-care team members can help answer questions and guide people with PD on these complex and emotional topics to help them make decisions based on values.
Muscles and nerves that control the digestive process may be affected by PD, resulting in constipation and [gastroparesis](gastroparesis) (prolonged emptying of stomach contents). A balanced diet, based on periodical nutritional assessments, is recommended, and should be designed to avoid weight loss or gain and minimize the consequences of gastrointestinal dysfunction. As the disease advances, swallowing difficulties (dysphagia) may appear. Using [agent](thickening)(thickening agent)s for liquid intake and an upright posture when eating may be useful; both measures reduce the risk of choking. [Gastrostomy](Gastrostomy) can be used to deliver food directly into the stomach.
Levodopa and proteins use the same transportation system in the intestine and the blood–brain barrier, thereby competing for access. Taking them together results in reduced effectiveness of the drug. Therefore, when levodopa is introduced, excessive protein consumption is discouraged in favour of a well-balanced [diet](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean diet). In advanced stages, additional intake of low-protein products such as bread or pasta is recommended for similar reasons. To minimize interaction with proteins, levodopa should be taken 30 minutes before meals. At the same time, regimens for PD restrict proteins during breakfast and lunch, allowing protein intake in the evening.
## Prognosis
[[File:Parkinson disease world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Global burden of Parkinson's disease, measured in [life year](disability-adjusted)(disability-adjusted life year)s per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004
]]
PD invariably progresses with time. A severity rating method known as the [Parkinson's disease rating scale](Unified)(Unified Parkinson's disease rating scale) (UPDRS) is the most commonly used metric for a clinical study. A modified version known as the MDS-UPDRS is also used. An older scaling method known as the [and Yahr scale](Hoehn)(Hoehn and Yahr scale) (originally published in 1967), and a similar scale known as the Modified Hoehn and Yahr scale, have been used. The Hoehn and Yahr scale defines five basic stages of progression.
Motor symptoms may advance aggressively in the early stages of the disease and more slowly later. Untreated, individuals are expected to lose independent [ambulation](ambulation) after an average of eight years and be bedridden after 10 years. Medication has improved the prognosis of motor symptoms. In people taking levodopa, the progression time of symptoms to a stage of high dependency from caregivers may be over 15 years. Predicting what course the disease will take for a given individual is difficult. Age is an appropriate predictor of disease progression. The rate of motor decline is greater in those with less impairment at the time of diagnosis, while cognitive impairment is more frequent in those who are over 70 years of age at symptom onset.
Disability is mainly related to nonmotor symptoms of the disease and therapies exist to improve these. Nevertheless, the relationship between disease progression and disability is independent of each other. Disability is initially related to motor symptoms. As the disease advances, disability is more related to motor symptoms that are uncontrollable by medication, such as swallowing and speech difficulties, and gait and balance problems; and to levodopa-induced complications, which appear in up to 50% of individuals after five years of levodopa usage. Finally, after ten years most people with the disease have autonomic disturbances, sleep problems, mood alterations and cognitive decline. These symptoms, especially cognitive decline, greatly increase disability.
The [expectancy](life)(life expectancy) of people with PD is reduced. [ratios](Mortality)(Standardized mortality ratio) are around twice those of unaffected people. Cognitive decline and dementia, old age at onset, a more advanced disease state, and presence of swallowing problems are all mortality [factor](risk)(risk factor)s. A disease pattern mainly characterized by tremor as opposed to rigidity, though, predicts an improved survival. Death from [pneumonia](aspiration)(aspiration pneumonia) is twice as common in individuals with PD as in the healthy population.
In 2016, PD resulted in about 211,000 deaths globally, an increase of 161% since 1990. The overall death rate increased by 19% to 1.81 per 100,000 people during that time.
## Epidemiology
[[disease world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Deaths from PD per million persons in 2012 ](File:Parkinsons)]
PD is the second most common [disorder](neurodegenerative)(neurodegeneration) after [disease](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's disease) and affects approximately seven million people globally and one million people in the United States. The [in a population at a given time](proportion)(prevalence) is about 0.3% in industrialized countries. PD is more common in the elderly and rates rise from 1% in those over 60 years of age to 4% of the population over 80. The mean age of onset is around 60 years, although 5–10% begin between the ages of 20 and 50 is classified as young onset PD. Males are affected at a ratio of around 3:2 compared with females. PD may be less prevalent in those of African and Asian ancestry, although this finding is disputed. The [of new diagnoses per year](number)(incidence (epidemiology)) of PD is between 8–18 per 100,000 person–years.
The age-adjusted rate of Parkinson's disease in Estonia is 28.0/100,000 person–years. The Estonian rate has been stable between 2000 and 2019. The incidence of Parkinson's disease has increased in China. It is estimated that China will have nearly half of the Parkinson's disease population in the world in 2030. By 2040 the number of patients is expected to grow to approximately 14 million people; this growth has been referred to as the ''Parkinson's pandemic.''
## History
[[File:Charcot1893.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[Charcot](Jean-Martin)(Jean-Martin Charcot), who made contributions to the understanding of the disease and proposed its name honoring [Parkinson](James)(James Parkinson)]]
Early sources, including an [Egyptian](Ancient Egypt) [papyrus](papyrus), an [Ayurvedic](ayurveda) medical treatise, the Bible, and [Galen](Galen)'s writings, describe symptoms resembling those of PD.. The article mistakenly refers to Job 34:19 instead of Job 33:19. After Galen, no references unambiguously related to PD appear until the 17th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries, [Sylvius](Franciscus)(Franciscus Sylvius), [David Gaubius](Hieronymus)(Hieronymus David Gaubius), [Hunter](John)(John Hunter (surgeon)) and [François Chomel](Auguste)(Auguste François Chomel) wrote about elements of the disease.
In 1817, [Parkinson](James)(James Parkinson) published his essay reporting six people with paralysis agitans. *An Essay on the Shaking Palsy* described the characteristic resting tremor, abnormal posture and gait, paralysis and diminished muscle strength, and the way that the disease progresses over time. Early neurologists who made further additions to the knowledge of the disease include [Trousseau](Armand Trousseau), [Gowers](William Gowers (neurologist)), [Wilson](Kinnier)(Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson) and [Erb](Wilhelm Heinrich Erb), and [Charcot](Jean-Martin)(Jean-Martin Charcot), whose studies between 1868 and 1881 increased the understanding of the disease. Among other advances, he made the distinction between rigidity, weakness and bradykinesia. He championed the renaming of the disease in honor of James Parkinson.
In 1912, [Lewy](Frederic)(Frederic Lewy) described microscopic particles in affected brains, later named Lewy bodies. In 1919, [Tretiakoff](Konstantin)(Konstantin Tretiakoff) reported that the substantia nigra was the main cerebral structure affected, but this finding was rejected until it was confirmed by further studies published by [Hassler](Rolf)(Rolf Hassler) in 1938. The underlying biochemical changes in the brain were identified in the 1950s, due largely to the work of [Carlsson](Arvid)(Arvid Carlsson) on the neurotransmitter dopamine and [Hornykiewicz](Oleh)(Oleh Hornykiewicz) on its role on PD. In 1997, alpha-synuclein was found to be the main component of Lewy bodies by [Spillantini](Maria Grazia Spillantini), [Trojanowski](John Q. Trojanowski), [Goedert](Michel Goedert) and others.
Anticholinergics and surgery (lesioning of the [pathway](corticospinal)(corticospinal pathway) or some of the basal ganglia structures) were the only treatments until the arrival of levodopa, which reduced their use dramatically. [Levodopa](Levodopa) was first synthesized in 1911 by [Funk](Casimir)(Casimir Funk), but it received little attention until the mid 20th century. It entered clinical practice in 1967 and brought about a revolution in the management of PD. By the late 1980s deep brain stimulation introduced by [Louis Benabid](Alim)(Alim Louis Benabid) and colleagues at [Grenoble](Grenoble), France, emerged as a possible treatment.
## Society and culture
### Cost
[[awareness logo with red tulip symbol](File:Pdtulip-aware3-72dpi.jpg|thumb|125px|Parkinson's)]
The costs of PD to society are high, but methodological issues in research and differences between countries make precise calculations difficult. The largest share of direct cost comes from [care](inpatient)(inpatient care) and nursing homes, while the share coming from medication is substantially lower. Indirect costs are high, due to reduced productivity and the burden on caregivers. In addition to economic costs, PD reduces quality of life of those with the disease and their caregivers.
A study based on 2017 data estimated the US economic PD burden at $51.9 billion, including direct medical costs of $25.4 billion and $26.5 billion in indirect and non-medical costs. The Medicare program bears the largest share of medical costs, as most PD patients are over age 65. The projected total economic burden surpasses $79 billion by 2037. These findings highlight the need for interventions to reduce PD incidence, delay disease progression, and alleviate symptom burden that may reduce the future economic burden of PD. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
### Advocacy
The birthday of James Parkinson, 11 April, has been designated as World Parkinson's Day. A red tulip was chosen by international organizations as the symbol of the disease in 2005; it represents the 'James Parkinson' tulip [cultivar](cultivar), registered in 1981 by a Dutch horticulturalist. Advocacy organizations include the [Parkinson Foundation](National)(National Parkinson Foundation), which has provided more than $180 million in care, research, and support services since 1982, [Disease Foundation](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's Disease Foundation), which has distributed more than $115 million for research and nearly $50 million for education and advocacy programs since its founding in 1957 by William Black; the [Parkinson Disease Association](American)(American Parkinson Disease Association), founded in 1961; and the [Parkinson's Disease Association](European)(European Parkinson's Disease Association), founded in 1992.
### Notable cases
[[File:Muhammad Ali, Davos.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[Ali](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali) at the [Economic Forum](World)(World Economic Forum) in [Davos](Davos), at the age of 64. He had shown signs of parkinsonism from the age of 38 until his death.]]
Actor [J. Fox](Michael)(Michael J. Fox) was 29 when diagnosed with PD, and has used his diagnosis to increase awareness of the disease. Fox embraced his Parkinson's in television roles, sometimes appearing without medication to further illustrate the effects of the condition. He has written four autobiographies in which his fight against the disease plays a major role, and appeared before the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) without medication to illustrate the effects of the disease. [Michael J. Fox Foundation](The)(The Michael J. Fox Foundation) aims to develop a cure for Parkinson's disease. Fox received an honorary doctorate in medicine from [Institutet](Karolinska)(Karolinska Institutet) for his contributions to research in Parkinson's disease.
Professional cyclist and Olympic medalist [Phinney](Davis)(Davis Phinney), who was diagnosed with young-onset Parkinson's at age 40, started the [Phinney Foundation](Davis)(Davis Phinney Foundation) in 2004 to support PD research, focusing on quality of life for people with the disease.
Boxer [Ali](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali) showed signs of PD when he was 38, but was undiagnosed until he was 42, and has been called the "world's most famous Parkinson's patient". Whether he had PD or [related to boxing](parkinsonism)(Dementia pugilistica) is unresolved.
At the time of his suicide in 2014, [Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams), the American actor and comedian, had been diagnosed with PD. According to his widow, his autopsy found diffuse Lewy body disease, while the autopsy used the term *diffuse Lewy body dementia*. Dennis Dickson, a spokesperson for the Lewy Body Dementia Association, clarified the distinction by stating that diffuse Lewy body dementia is more commonly called *diffuse Lewy body disease* and refers to the underlying disease process. [G. McKeith](Ian)(Ian G. McKeith), professor and researcher of Lewy body dementias, commented that Williams' symptoms and autopsy findings were explained by dementia with Lewy bodies.
## Research
, no [drugs](disease-modifying)(Disease-modifying treatment) (drugs that target the causes or damage) are approved for Parkinson's, so this is a major focus of Parkinson's research. Active research directions include the search for new [model](animal)(animal model)s of the disease and studies of the potential usefulness of [therapy](gene)(gene therapy), [cell](stem)(stem cell) transplants, and [neuroprotective](neuroprotective) agents. To aid in earlier diagnosis, research criteria for identifying [prodromal](Prodrome) [biomarkers](biomarker (medicine)) of the disease have been established.
The role of the gut–brain axis and the [flora](gut)(gut flora) in PD are recognized but the mechanism that causes gastrointestinal symptoms is unclear.
### Gene therapy
Gene therapy typically involves the use of a noninfectious virus (i.e., a [vector](viral)(viral vector) such as the [viruses,](adeno-associated)(adeno-associated virus) a subset of small non developed viruses) to shuttle genetic material into a part of the brain. Approaches have involved the expression of growth factors to prevent damage ([Neurturin](Neurturin) – a [GDNF](GDNF family of ligands)-family growth factor), and enzymes such as glutamic acid decarboxylase ([GAD](Glutamate decarboxylase) – the enzyme that produces [GABA](Gamma-Aminobutyric acid)), tyrosine hydroxylase (the enzyme that produces L-DOPA) and [transferase](catechol-O-methyl)(Catechol-O-methyltransferase) (COMT – the enzyme that converts L-DOPA to dopamine). No safety concerns have been reported but the approaches have largely failed in phase two clinical trials. The delivery of GAD showed promise in phase two trials in 2011, but while effective at improving motor function, was inferior to DBS. Follow-up studies in the same cohort have suggested persistent improvement.
### Neuroprotective treatments
A [vaccine](vaccine) that primes the human immune system to destroy alpha-synuclein, PD01A (developed by Austrian company, Affiris), entered clinical trials and a phase one report in 2020 suggested safety and tolerability. In 2018, an antibody, PRX002/RG7935, showed preliminary safety evidence in stage I trials supporting continuation to stage II trials.
### Cell-based therapies
Beginning in the early 1980s, [fetal](fetus), [porcine](pig), [carotid](Common carotid artery) or [retina](retina)l tissues have been used in [transplants](cell)(Cell-based therapies for Parkinson's disease), in which dissociated cells are injected into the substantia nigra in the hope that they will incorporate themselves into the brain in a way that replaces the dopamine-producing cells that have been lost. These sources of tissues have been largely replaced by [pluripotent stem cell](induced)(induced pluripotent stem cell) derived dopaminergic neurons, as this is thought to represent a more feasible source of tissue. Initial evidence showed [mesencephalic](Mesencephalon) dopamine-producing cell transplants being beneficial, but long-term benefit is undetermined. An additional problem was the excess release of dopamine by the transplanted tissue resulting in [dyskinesia](Tardive dyskinesia). In 2020, a first in human clinical trial reported the transplantation of induced pluripotent stem cells into the brain of a person with PD.
### Pharmaceutical
Ventures have been undertaken to explore antagonists of [receptor](adenosine)(adenosine receptor)s (specifically [A2A](Adenosine A2A receptor)) as an avenue for novel drugs for Parkinson's. Of these, [istradefylline](istradefylline) has emerged as the most successful medication and was approved for medical use in the United States in 2019. It is approved as an add-on treatment to the levodopa/carbidopa regime.
## References
}}
## External links
* [Michael J Fox Foundation](https://www.michaeljfox.org/)
* [Parkinson's Foundation](https://www.parkinson.org/)
* [World Parkinson Coalition](https://www.worldpdcoalition.org/)
,
| ICD9 =
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 168600
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000755
| eMedicineSubj = neuro
| eMedicineTopic = 304
| eMedicine_mult = in young rehab
|MeSH=D010300
| GeneReviewsNBK = NBK1223
| GeneReviewsName = Parkinson Disease Overview
}}
[ ](Category:Parkinson's disease)
[diseases](Category:Aging-associated)(Category:Aging-associated diseases)
[of unknown cause](Category:Ailments)(Category:Ailments of unknown cause)
[Category:Geriatrics](Category:Geriatrics)
[disorders](Category:Neurodegenerative)(Category:Neurodegenerative disorders)
[defects](Category:Cytoskeletal)(Category:Cytoskeletal defects)
[medicine articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate)
[neurology articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate)
[named for discoverer](Category:Diseases)(Category:Diseases named for discoverer)
|
List of emoticons
|
list_of_emoticons
|
# List of emoticons
*Revision ID: 1158919455 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T02:19:21Z*
---
[[Smile Face.svg|100px|thumb|alt=A colon, followed by a dash, followed by a closing bracket. They resemble a smiley face.|A simple smiley](File:Emoticon)]
This is a list of notable and commonly used *[emoticon](emoticon)s*, or textual portrayals of a writer's moods or facial expressions in the form of [icon](Computer icon)s. Originally, these icons consisted of [art](ASCII)(ASCII art), and later, [Do not remove the underscore -->Shift JIS art](Shift JIS art) and [art](Unicode)(Unicode art). In recent times, graphical icons, both static and animated, have joined the traditional text-based emoticons; these are commonly known as *[emoji](emoji)*.
Emoticons can generally be divided into three groups: Western (mainly from [America](United States) and [Europe](Europe)) or horizontal (though not all are in that orientation); Eastern or vertical (mainly from east [Asia](Asia)); and [style](2channel)(Emoticon#2channel) (originally used on [2channel](2channel) and other Japanese message boards). The most common explanation for these different styles is that in the East, the eyes play the primary role in facial expressions, while in the West, the whole face tends to be used.
## Western
Western style emoticons are mostly written from left to right as though the head is rotated counter-clockwise 90 degrees. One will most commonly see the eyes on the left, followed by the nose (often not included) and then the mouth. Typically, a colon is used for the eyes of a face, unless winking, in which case a semicolon is used. However, an equals sign, a number 8, or a capital letter B are also used to indicate normal eyes, widened eyes, or those with glasses, respectively. Symbols for the mouth vary, e.g. ")" for a smiley face or "(" for a sad face. One can also add a "}" after the mouth character to indicate a beard.
## Eastern
Eastern emoticons generally are not rotated sideways, and may include non-Latin characters to allow for additional complexity. These emoticons first arose in Japan, where they are referred to as *[kaomoji](kaomoji)* (literally "face characters").
## 2channel emoticons
A number of Eastern emoticons were originally developed on the Japanese discussion site [2channel](2channel). Some of these are wider (made up of more characters) than usual kaomoji, or extend over multiple lines of text. Many use characters from other character sets besides Japanese and Latin.
## Unicode characters
Many emoticons are included as characters in the [Unicode](Unicode) standard, in the [Symbols](Miscellaneous)(Miscellaneous Symbols) block, the [Emoticons](Emoticons (Unicode block)) block, and the [Symbols and Pictographs](Supplemental)(Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs) block.
## References
[lennyfacehub.com](https://lennyfacehub.com). Retrieved 2022-12-18.
[ ](Category:Emoticons)
[art](Category:ASCII)(Category:ASCII art)
[chat](Category:Online)(Category:Online chat)
[memes](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet memes)
[lists](Category:Technology-related)(Category:Technology-related lists)
|
Crips
|
crips
|
# Crips
*Revision ID: 1153426947 | Timestamp: 2023-05-06T07:54:35Z*
---
| founders = [Washington](Raymond)(Raymond Washington) and [Williams](Stanley)(Stanley Williams)
| named_after =
| founding_location = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), California, United States
| years_active = 1969–present
| territory = 41 U.S. states,["Criminal Street Gangs"](https://www.justice.gov/criminal-ocgs/gallery/criminal-street-gangs), [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) (May 12, 2015) CanadaMatt Kwong (January 19, 2015), ["Canada's gang hotspots — are you in one?"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/canada-s-gang-hotspots-are-you-in-one-1.2912442), [Broadcasting Corporation](Canadian)(Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) and [Belize](Belize)
| ethnicity = [American](African)(African Americans), [American](Asian)(Asian Americans), and [Polynesian](Polynesians)
| membership_est = 30,000–35,000
| leaders =
| activities = Drug trafficking, murder, assault, auto theft, burglary, extortion, fraud, robbery
| allies = | [Guerrilla Family](Black)(Black Guerrilla Family) | [Power](Black)(Black Power (New Zealand gang))https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/9400/gilbert_thesis.pdf | [Nation](Folk)(Folk Nation) | [Disciples](Gangster)(Gangster Disciples)Echo Day (December 12, 2019), ["Here's what we know about the Gangster Disciple governor who was sentenced to 10 years in prison"](https://covingtonleader.com/news/courts/gangster-disciple-gov-rob-jones-sentenced-to-10-more-years-in-prison-heres-what-we-know-about-him/), *The Leader* | [Juggalos](Juggalo gangs) | [City Deciples MC](Sin)(Sin City Deciples Motorcycle Club)Michael Roberts (July 10, 2015), ["Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs Recruiting Military? Report Cites Colorado Murder"](https://www.westword.com/news/outlaw-motorcycle-gangs-recruiting-military-report-cites-colorado-murder-6882646), *[Westword](Westword)* | [Rascal Gang](Tiny)(Tiny Rascal Gang)["Los Angeles Gangs and Hate Crimes"](http://www.policemag.com/blog/gangs/story/2008/02/los-angeles-gangs-and-hate-crimes.aspx), *Police Law Enforcement Magazine*, February 29, 2008}}
| rivals = | [Bloods](Bloods)Rhian Daly (May 1, 2019), [Rival gangs Crips And Bloods talk "historic" coming together following Nipsey Hussle's murder"](https://www.nme.com/news/music/rival-gangs-crips-bloods-talk-historic-coming-together-following-nipsey-hussle-murder-2483082), *[NME](NME)* | [13](Florencia)(Florencia 13)Sam Quinones (October 18, 2007), ["Gang rivalry grows into race war"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-oct-18-me-firestone18-story.html), *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* | [Kings](Latin)(Latin Kings (gang))Brad Hamilton (October 28, 2007), ["Gangs of New York"](https://nypost.com/2007/10/28/gangs-of-new-york/), *[York Post](New)(New York Post)* | [Nation](People)(People Nation)["Gang Information"](https://www.bethlehem-pa.gov/getattachment/Police/GangInformation-(1).pdf.aspx?lang=en-US), bethlehem-pa.gov (2019) | [Playboys](Playboys (gang))[*People v. Parsley*](https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/4246341/people-v-parsley-ca28/), *[Listener](Court)(Court Listener)* (August 11, 2016) | [Monica 13](Santa)(Santa Monica 13)Herbert C. Covey (2015), [*Crips and Bloods: A Guide to an American Subculture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=F5RzCQAAQBAJ&dq=santa+monica+13+shoreline+crips+rival&pg=PA158) | [Rascal Gang](Tiny)(Tiny Rascal Gang)["Not on our turf: California gangs create havoc here"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19940728&id=xZhQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JxMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6722,7471615&hl=en),, *[Journal Sentinel](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)*, July 28, 1994. | [Blood Nation](United)(United Blood Nation)["Bloods Gang Members Sentenced to Life in Prison for Racketeering Conspiracy Involving Murder and Other Crimes"](https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/bloods-gang-members-sentenced-life-prison-racketeering-conspiracy-involving-murder-and-other), [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) (October 27, 2020) | [13](Venice)(Venice 13)Ben Ehrenreich (July 21, 1999), ["Ganging up in Venice"](https://www.laweekly.com/ganging-up-in-venice/), *[Weekly](LA)(LA Weekly)*}}
| notable_members = See [:Category:Crips](:Category:Crips)
}}
The **Crips** is an alliance of street [gang](gang)s that is based in the [regions](coastal)(Coastal California) of [California](Southern)(Southern California). Founded in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), California, in 1969, mainly by [Washington](Raymond)(Raymond Washington) and [Williams](Stanley)(Stanley Williams), the Crips were initially a single alliance between two autonomous gangs; it is now a loosely-connected network of individual "sets", often engaged in open warfare with one another. Traditionally, since around 1973, its members have worn blue clothing.
The Crips are one of the largest and most violent associations of [gangs in the United States](street)(street gangs in the United States).U.S. Department of Justice, *Crips*. With an estimated 30,000 to 35,000 members in 2008, the gangs' members have been involved in murders, robberies and drug dealing, among other crimes. They have a long and bitter rivalry with the [Bloods](Bloods).
Some self-identified Crips have been convicted of federal [racketeering](racketeering).
## Etymology
Some sources suggest that the original name for the alliance, "Cribs", was narrowed down from a list of many options and chosen unanimously from three final choices, over the Black Overlords and the Assassins. Cribs was chosen to reflect the young age of the majority of the gang members. The name evolved into "Crips" when gang members began carrying around canes to display their "[pimp](pimp)" status. People in the neighborhood then began calling them cripples, or "Crips" for short. In February 1972 the *Los Angeles Times* used the term.
Another source suggests "Crips" may have evolved from "Cripplers", a 1970s street gang in [Watts](Watts, Los Angeles), of which Washington was a member. The name had no political, organizational, cryptic, or acronymic meaning, though some have suggested it stands for "Common Revolution In Progress", a [backronym](backronym). According to the film *[of the Party](Bastards)(Bastards of the Party)*, directed by a member of the Bloods, the name represented "Community Revolutionary Interparty Service" or "Community Reform Interparty Service".
Retired police officer Sgt. Richard Valdemar has heard allegations that "Crip" was an acronym for "[Revolution](Communist)(Communist revolution) In Progress", though he considers this unlikely to be true.
## History
Gang activity in [Central Los Angeles](South)(South Los Angeles) has its roots in a variety of factors dating to the 1950s, including: post-[War II](World)(World War II) economic decline leading to joblessness and poverty; racial segregation of young [American](African)(African American) men, who were excluded from organizations such as the [Scouts](Boy)(Boy Scouts of America), leading to the formation of black "street clubs"; and the waning of [nationalist](black)(black nationalist) organizations such as the [Panther Party](Black)(Black Panther Party) and the [Power Movement](Black)(Black Power Movement).
Stanley Tookie Williams met Raymond Lee Washington in 1969, and the two decided to unite their local gang members from the west and east sides of [Central Los Angeles](South)(South Central Los Angeles) in order to battle neighboring street gangs. Most of the members were 17 years old. Williams however appears to discount the sometimes-cited founding date of 1969 in his memoir, *Blue Rage, Black Redemption*.Williams, Stanley Tookie; Smiley, Tavis (2007). *Blue Rage, Black Redemption*. Simon & Schuster. pp. xvii–xix, 91–92, 136. .
In his memoir, Williams also refuted claims that the group was a spin-off of the Black Panther Party or formed for a community agenda, writing that it "depicted a fighting alliance against street gangs—nothing more, nothing less." Washington, who attended [High School](Fremont)(John C. Fremont High School), was the leader of the East Side Crips, and Williams, who attended Washington High School, led the West Side Crips.
[[File:Crip handsign.gif|thumb|right|A Crip [signal](gang)(gang signal)]]
Williams recalled that a blue bandana was first worn by Crips founding member Curtis "Buddha" Morrow, as a part of his color-coordinated clothing of blue Levis, a blue shirt, and dark blue suspenders. A blue bandana was worn in tribute to Morrow after he was shot and killed on February 23, 1973. The color then became associated with Crips.
By 1978, there were 45 Crip gangs, called sets, in Los Angeles. They were heavily involved in the production of [PCP](Phenylcyclohexylpiperidine), marijuana and [amphetamines](Substituted amphetamine). On March 11, 1979, Williams, a member of the Westside Crips, was arrested for four murders and on August 9, 1979, Washington was gunned down. Washington had been against Crip infighting and after his death several Crip sets started fighting against each other. The Crips' leadership was dismantled, prompting a deadly gang war between the Rollin' 60 Neighborhood Crips and Eight Tray Gangster Crips that led nearby Crip sets to choose sides and align themselves with either the Neighborhood Crips or the Gangster Crips, waging large-scale war in South Central and other cities. The East Coast Crips (from East Los Angeles) and the Hoover Crips directly severed their alliance after Washington's death. By 1980, the Crips were in turmoil, warring with the Bloods and against each other. The gang's growth and influence increased significantly in the early 1980s when [cocaine](crack)(crack cocaine) hit the streets and Crip sets began distributing the drug. Large profits induced many Crips to establish new markets in other cities and states. As a result, Crips membership grew steadily and the street gang was one of the nation's largest by the late 1980s. In 1999, there were at least 600 Crip sets with more than 30,000 members transporting drugs in the United States.
## Membership
As of 2015, the Crips gang consists of between approximately 30,000 and 35,000 members and 800 sets, active in 221 cities and 41 U.S. states. The states with the highest estimated number of Crip sets are California, Texas, Oklahoma, and Missouri. Members typically consist of young African American men, but can be white, Hispanic, Asian, and Pacific Islander. The gang also began to establish a presence in Canada in the early 1990s; Crip sets are active in the Canadian cities of [Montreal](Montreal) and [Toronto](Toronto).=Alliances, Conflicts, and Contradictions in Montreal's Street Gang Landscape, Karine Descormiers and Carlo Morselli, *[Criminal Justice Review](International)(International Criminal Justice Review)* (October 17, 2020)[Toronto police, numerous other forces, dismantle 'violent street gang' known as Eglinton West Crips](https://globalnews.ca/news/7429993/toronto-police-ontario-project-sunder-eglinton-west-crips-gang/) Jessica Patton, [News](Global)(Global News) (October 29, 2020)
In 1992 the [LAPD](Los Angeles Police Department) estimated 15,742 Crips in 108 sets; other source estimates were 30,000 to 35,000 in 600 sets in California.
Crips [served](have)(Gang presence in the United States military) in the [States armed forces](United)(United States armed forces) and on military bases in the United States and abroad.
## Practices
[[File:BK graffiti.jpg|thumb|"BK" ("blood killer") graffiti, [Virginia](Alexandria,)(Alexandria, Virginia)]]
### Language
Some practices of Crip gang life include [graffiti](graffiti) and substitutions and deletions of particular letters of the alphabet. The letter "b" in the word "blood" is "disrespected" among certain Crip sets and written with a cross inside it because of its association with the enemy. The letters "CK", which are interpreted to stand for "Crip killer", are avoided and replaced by "cc". For example, the words "kick back" are written "kicc bacc", and block is written as "blocc". Many other words and letters are also altered due to symbolic associations.Smith, Debra; Whitmore, Kathryn F. (2006). *Literacy and Advocacy in Adolescent Family, Gang, School, and Juvenile Court Communities*. [Erlbaum Associates](Lawrence)(Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). . Crips traditionally refer to each other as "Cuz" or "Cuzz", which itself is sometimes used as a moniker for a Crip. "Crab" is the most disrespectful epithet to call a Crip, and can warrant fatal retaliation. Crips in prison modules in the 1970s and 1980s sometimes spoke [Swahili](Swahili language) to maintain privacy from guards and rival gangs.
### Criminal rackets and street activities
As with most criminal street gangs, Crips have benefited monetarily from illicit activities such as illegal gambling, drug-dealing, [pimping](Procuring (prostitution)), larceny, and robbery. Crips also profit from extorting local drug dealers who are not members of the gang. Along with profitable [rackets](Criminal racket) such as these, they also participate in vandalism and [crime](property)(property crime), often for gang-pride reasons or simply enjoyment. This can include public graffiti (tagging) and "[joyriding](Joyride (crime))" in stolen vehicles.
The gang's current primary source of income is street-level drug distribution, however many Crip members also make notable amounts of funds from the [market](black)(black market) sale of illicit firearms. The gang's size and power was largely augmented by the profits from the street sale of crack cocaine throughout the 1980s. The gang's initial phase of growth and popularity was due to the explosion [cocaine in the United States during the 1980s](crack)(Crack epidemic in the United States).
## Crip-on-Crip rivalries
The Crips became popular throughout southern Los Angeles as more youth gangs joined; at one point they outnumbered non-Crip gangs by 3 to 1, sparking disputes with non-Crip gangs, including the L.A. Brims, Athens Park Boys, the Bishops, The Drill Company, and the Denver Lanes. By 1971 the gang's notoriety had spread across Los Angeles.
By 1971, a gang on Piru Street in [California](Compton,)(Compton, California), known as the [Street Boys](Piru)(Pirus), formed and associated itself with the Crips as a set. After two years of peace, a feud began between the Pirus and the other Crip sets. It later turned violent as gang warfare ensued between former allies. This battle continued and by 1973, the Pirus wanted to end the violence and called a meeting with other gangs targeted by the Crips. After a long discussion, the Pirus broke all connections to the Crips and started an organization that would later be called the [Bloods](Bloods),Capozzoli, Thomas and McVey, R. Steve (1999). *Kids Killing Kids: Managing Violence and Gangs in Schools*. St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton, Florida, [p. 72](https://books.google.com/books?id=paCVN9ECUc4C&pg=PA72). . a street gang infamous for its rivalry with the Crips.
Since then, other conflicts and feuds were started between many of the remaining Crip sets. As well as feuding with Bloods, they also fight each other — for example, the Rolling 60s Neighborhood Crips and 83 Gangster Crips have been rivals since 1979. In [Watts](Watts, Los Angeles), the [Street Crips](Grape)(Grape Street Watts Crips) and the PJ Watts Crips have feuded so much that the PJ Watts Crips even teamed up with a local Blood set, the [Hunter Bloods](Bounty)(Bounty Hunter Watts Bloods), to fight the Grape Street Crips.["War and Peace in Watts"](http://www.laweekly.com/general/features/war-and-peace-in-watts/455/) (July 14, 2005). *[Weekly](LA)(LA Weekly)*. Retrieved 2007-05-04. In the mid-1990s, the Hoover Crips rivalries and wars with other Crip sets caused them to become independent and drop the Crip name, calling themselves the Hoover Criminals.
## Alliances and rivalries
### Rivalry with the Bloods
The [Bloods](Bloods) are the Crips' main rival. The Bloods initially formed to provide Piru Street Gang members protection from the Crips. The rivalry started in the 1960s when Washington and other Crip members attacked Sylvester Scott and Benson Owens, two students at [High School](Centennial)(Centennial High School (Compton, California)). After the incident, Scott formed the Pirus, while Owens established the West Piru gang. In late 1972, several gangs that felt victimized by the Crips due to their escalating attacks joined the Pirus to create a new federation of non-Crip gangs that later became known as Bloods. Between 1972 and 1979, the rivalry between the Crips and Bloods grew, accounting for a majority of the gang-related murders in southern Los Angeles. Members of the Bloods and Crips occasionally fight each other and, as of 2010, are responsible for a significant portion of gang-related murders in Los Angeles. This rivalry is also believed to be behind the [Sacramento shooting](2022)(2022 Sacramento shooting), where 6 people were killed.
### Alliance with the Folk Nation
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, as many Crip gang members were being sent to various prisons across the country, an alliance was formed between the Crips and the [Nation](Folk)(Folk Nation) in Midwest and Southern U.S. prisons. This alliance was established to protect gang members incarcerated in state and federal prison. It is strongest within the prisons, and less effective outside. The alliance between the Crips and Folks is known as "8-ball". A broken 8-ball indicates a disagreement or "beef" between Folks and Crips.
## See also
* [organized crime](African-American)(African-American organized crime)
* [in Los Angeles](Gangs)(Gangs in Los Angeles)
* [of California street gangs](List)(List of California street gangs)
* [Walk](Crip)(Crip Walk)
* *[and Bloods: Made in America](Crips)(Crips and Bloods: Made in America)*
## References
### Footnotes
### General
* Leon Bing (1991). ''Do or Die: America's Most Notorious Gangs Speak for Themselves''. Sagebrush.
* Yusuf Jah, Sister Shah'keyah, [Ice-T](Ice-T), ''UPRISING : Crips and Bloods Tell the Story of America's Youth In The Crossfire,*
* Capozzoli, Thomas og McVey, R. Steve (1999). *Kids Killing Kids: Managing Violence and Gangs in Schools*. St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton, Florida, side. 72
* Product no. 2002-M0465-001.
* Shakur, Sanyika (1993). *Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member*, Atlantic Monthly Pr,
* Colton Simpson, Ann Pearlman, [Ice-T](Ice-T) (Foreword) (2005). *Inside the Crips : Life Inside L.A.'s Most Notorious Gang* (HB)
* Smith, Debra; Whitmore, Kathryn F. (2006). *Literacy and Advocacy in Adolescent Family, Gang, School, and Juvenile Court Communities*. [Erlbaum Associates](Lawrence)(Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). .
* [Tookie Williams](Stanley)(Stanley Williams) (2005). *Blue Rage, Black Redemption: A Memoir'' (PB)
## External links
* [PBS Independent Lens program on South Los Angeles gangs](https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/cripsandbloods/)
* [Snopes Urban Legend](http://www.snopes.com/language/acronyms/crip.htm) – The origin of the name Crips
[gangs](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American gangs)
[history in Los Angeles](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American history in Los Angeles)
[ ](Category:Crips)
[in Los Angeles](Category:Gangs)(Category:Gangs in Los Angeles)
[established in 1969](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations established in 1969)
[Los Angeles](Category:South)(Category:South Los Angeles)
[gangs](Category:Street)(Category:Street gangs)
[establishments in California](Category:1969)(Category:1969 establishments in California)
|
Dustin Diamond
|
dustin_diamond
|
# Dustin Diamond
*Revision ID: 1159708115 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T01:56:33Z*
---
| birth_place = [Jose, California](San)(San Jose, California), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Coral, Florida](Cape)(Cape Coral, Florida), U.S.
| spouse = }}
| occupation = Actor, director, comedian
| years_active = 1987–2021
}}
**Dustin Neil Diamond** (January 7, 1977 – February 1, 2021) was an American actor and stand-up comedian. He is best known for portraying ["Screech" Powers](Samuel)(Samuel "Screech" Powers) throughout the *[by the Bell](Saved)(Saved by the Bell)* franchise.
## Early life and family
Diamond was born in [Jose, California](San)(San Jose, California), the son of Jaimee and Mark Diamond. His father taught digital electronics for a computer processing firm, and his mother was a computer operator for [Bell](Pacific)(Pacific Bell). Diamond was Jewish and attended Zion Lutheran School.
## Career
Diamond began acting as a child. He became known for playing Samuel "Screech" Powers on the television show *Saved by the Bell*, a role he played for close to thirteen years from its beginning as *[Morning, Miss Bliss](Good)(Good Morning, Miss Bliss)* (1988–89) through its final incarnation, *[by the Bell: The New Class](Saved)(Saved by the Bell: The New Class)* (1994–2000). Continuing the series into college, *[by the Bell: The College Years](Saved)(Saved by the Bell: The College Years)* shows most of the cast transplanted into not only the same college, but also the same college dormitory, where Screech continued his typical misadventures. *The College Years* was canceled after one season. Diamond returned to Bayside High as Principal Belding's assistant in *The New Class* episodes, remaining with the show until its cancellation.
### Appearances after *Saved by the Bell*
Diamond began doing [comedy](stand-up)(stand-up comedy) after the end of *Saved by the Bell* and toured on and off after that. He was also featured on a number of game and reality shows including *[Weakest Link](The)(The Weakest Link)* and *[Boxing 2](Celebrity)(Celebrity Boxing#Second episode)*. Diamond also made several cameo appearances in films, including appearances in *[Made](Made (2001 film))* (2001) and *[Roberts: Former Child Star](Dickie)(Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star)* (2003).
In 2007, Diamond was a cast member of the fifth season of *[Fit Club](Celebrity)(Celebrity Fit Club (U.S. TV series))*. During his run on the show, he came into conflict with former *[Idol](American)(American Idol)* finalist [Locke](Kimberley)(Kimberley Locke), country singer [T. Judd](Cledus)(Cledus T. Judd), rapper [Brat](Da)(Da Brat), the program's host [Ant](Ant (comedian)), and the program's trainer, former USMC sergeant [Walden IV](Harvey)(Harvey Walden IV). During one episode, Diamond mentioned what may have happened if he were to challenge Ant to "physical combat" and after Harvey Walden defended Ant, Diamond subsequently said the same to him, causing Walden to lose his temper.
Following *Celebrity Fit Club*, Diamond played roles as "Alumnus Guy #1" in *[Pie Presents: The Book of Love](American)(American Pie Presents: The Book of Love)* (2009), in a supporting role in the sports comedy *Tetherball: The Movie* (2010), and as Bernardo, the castle guard, in the partially-animated science fiction comedy *[A.D.D.](Hamlet)(Hamlet A.D.D.)* (2014).
### Sex tape
In 2006, Diamond directed and released his own celebrity sex tape, *Screeched – Saved by the Smell*. According to Melanie McFarland's retelling of a press release, Diamond said the tape got out because he and a group of friends had a "monthly gathering" wherein they exchanged such tapes. Several years later, Diamond said in a *[Are They Now?](Where)(Oprah: Where Are They Now?)* interview on the [Winfrey Network](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey Network (U.S. TV channel)) that he was not in the sex tape; rather, a stunt double had his likeness superimposed.
### *Behind the Bell*
In 2009, Diamond published an inside story of the show's cast and crew, from his point of view, titled *Behind the Bell*. The book paints an unflattering portrait of many of Diamond's colleagues and their allegedly sordid backstage behavior. Some of these claims have been repudiated by Diamond's colleagues and questioned by critics. Diamond later commented on the book's content in a December 2013 appearance on an *Oprah: Where Are They Now?* segment on the [Network](OWN)(Oprah Winfrey Network (U.S. TV channel)) in which he stated that the book was [written](ghost)(ghost written) by an author who simply interviewed him and compiled the book from his answers. He claimed that many parts of the book, such as allegations of teen sex and drug use, were fabricated from very minor statements he made during the interviews.
### Other work
Diamond was also a musician and formed an [metal](alternative)(alternative metal) band called Salty The Pocketknife. Diamond played bass and wrote much of the music as well. Shortly after recording their first album, the band split up due to internal disagreements. Diamond also appeared on [truTV](truTV)'s ''[Smoking Gun Presents: World's Dumbest...](The)(The Smoking Gun Presents: World's Dumbest...)'' as a commentator.
He appeared as a host at the 12th annual [of the Juggalos](Gathering)(Gathering of the Juggalos).
In August 2013, Diamond became a housemate on the [series](twelfth)(Celebrity Big Brother (British series 12)) of *[Big Brother](Celebrity)(Celebrity Big Brother (British TV series))* in the UK. He became the fourth housemate to be evicted on Day 16.
Diamond was a spokesperson for the Rockford, Illinois-based insurance company [King](Insurance)(Insurance King). In some [King](Insurance)(Insurance King) commercials he is featured in, he makes several references to [By the Bell](Saved)(Saved by the Bell) (with logos in the commercial saying “Saved By the King”). In other commercials, he is shown to be pulled over, not caring about the already numerous tickets he has because he is “saved by the King!”, being in a Western style standoff, and him being a terrible barber.
## Professional wrestling career
Diamond was a fan of [wrestling](professional)(professional wrestling). He appeared at [Championship Wrestling](Memphis)(Memphis Championship Wrestling) in April 2000. He was a part of a skit with [Kat](The)(Stacy Carter) where was beaten up by Chip Diver, the Fabulous Rocker, and Dannie B.
On September 18, 2002, he appeared on an [NWA-TNA](Impact Wrestling)'s [Asylum](List of Impact Wrestling pay-per-view events) weekly pay-per-view. Billed as Screech, he challenged TNA's bellkeeper, Tiny the Bellkeeper, to a boxing match. Screech won by knockout in 42 seconds.
In 2008, Diamond was a contestant on ''[Hogan](Hulk)(Hulk Hogan)'s [Championship Wrestling](Celebrity)(Hulk Hogan's Celebrity Championship Wrestling)'', broadcast on [CMT](Country Music Television).
Diamond was a special guest referee for a match at Celebrity Big Bang Wrestling, Mistress Devon James vs Susan Finkelstein on July 22, 2010.
On February 11, 2011, Diamond teamed with Jordan McEntrye and Knight Wagner, losing to [MsChif](MsChif), Marion Fontaine and Krotch in an intergender match at AAW in Merrionette Park, Illinois. On March 17, 2011, he teamed with [Luke](Bushwhacker)(Bushwhacker Luke), [Slapawitz](Izzy)(Izzy Slapawitz) and [the Clown](Doink)(Doink the Clown) to beat [Virgil](Virgil (wrestler)), Ashley Sixx, Celine Jean and Sheena at TWE Rethinking Rumble in Vaughan, Ontario. He lost his final match in a tag during the main event of FTW Summer of Synn, in Ronkonkoma, New York, on July 7, 2012.
## Personal life
In 2001, Diamond filed for [bankruptcy](bankruptcy) in California. He moved to [Washington, Wisconsin](Port)(Port Washington, Wisconsin), in 2003. On June 13, 2006, he asked listeners of *[Howard Stern Show](The)(The Howard Stern Show)* to visit his website and purchase a T-shirt, reading "I paid $15.00 to save Screeech's house" (spelling "Screech" with an extra E for copyright reasons). He said he hoped to sell 30,000 shirts in order to raise $250,000 and avoid foreclosure on his house. Diamond moved to Florida in 2018, and put his house in Port Washington up for sale the following year.
He reportedly married longtime girlfriend Jennifer Misner in 2009, separated in 2013 and later divorced, although his death certificate lists him as having never married. They did not have any children.
On December 26, 2014, Diamond was arrested in [County, Wisconsin](Ozaukee)(Ozaukee County, Wisconsin), for possession of a [switchblade](switchblade) knife, which he was alleged to have pulled during a bar altercation in which a man was stabbed. Amanda Schutz, his fiancée, was found guilty of disorderly conduct and fined $500. On May 29, 2015, he was convicted of two [misdemeanor](misdemeanor)s: [a concealed weapon](carrying)(carrying a concealed weapon) and [conduct](disorderly)(disorderly conduct). He was cleared of the most serious charge, recklessly endangering public safety. On June 25, he was sentenced to four months in jail. He served three months and was released on [probation](probation), though his probation agent later determined that he had violated his terms and he was arrested again in May 2016.McKirdy, Evan (May 26, 2016). ["'Saved by the Bell' star Dustin Diamond back in jail after probation violation"](http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/26/entertainment/dustin-diamond-probation-hold/index.html) . CNN.
## Illness and death
In early January 2021, Diamond was diagnosed with extensive stage four [cell carcinoma of the lungs](small)(small-cell carcinoma). Despite completing one round of [chemotherapy](chemotherapy) in [Coral, Florida](Cape)(Cape Coral, Florida), he died from the disease on February 1, 2021, at age 44.
### NASCAR tribute
After Diamond's death, Dan Block, the founder of Insurance King, partnered with [Bilicki](Josh)(Josh Bilicki), driver of the #52 [Ware Racing](Rick)(Rick Ware Racing) [Ford](Ford Motor Company), to run a tribute car for Diamond, finishing 18th in the [Verizon 200 at the Brickyard](2021)(2021 Verizon 200 at the Brickyard). Block and Diamond were close friends, and Block would say of Diamond "Everyone he was surrounded with was because of who he was," Block said. "He had a few people who were around him because of the person. The people who were treating him not like Screech, could talk to him and give him tough love ... he really didn't have many of us around him. It definitely went above and beyond the call of a business relationship."
[[N.jpg|thumb|Bilicki's tribute car to Diamond. On the firesuit, it reads "Dustin N. Diamond 1977-2021".](File:CpHh2UJWgAAfP)]
## Filmography
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1977)(Category:1977 births)
[deaths](Category:2021)(Category:2021 deaths)
[American comedians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American comedians)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male child actors](Category:American)(Category:American male child actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians)
[from California](Category:Comedians)(Category:Comedians from California)
[from lung cancer in Florida](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from lung cancer in Florida)
[directors from California](Category:Film)(Category:Film directors from California)
[directors from Wisconsin](Category:Film)(Category:Film directors from Wisconsin)
[American male actors](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American male actors)
[American male comedians](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American male comedians)
[actors from San Jose, California](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from San Jose, California)
[from San Jose, California](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from San Jose, California)
[in American reality television series](Category:Participants)(Category:Participants in American reality television series)
[from Port Washington, Wisconsin](Category:People)(Category:People from Port Washington, Wisconsin)
[American Jews](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Jews)
|
Jonathan Goldstein _filmmaker
|
jonathan_goldstein__filmmaker
|
# Jonathan Goldstein (filmmaker)
*Revision ID: 1158390377 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T19:53:33Z*
---
| birth_place = [York City](New)(New York City), [York](New)(New York (state)), U.S.
| birth_name = Jonathan Michael Goldstein
|alma_mater=[of Michigan](University)(University of Michigan)[Law School](Harvard)(Harvard Law School)
| occupation = Screenwriter, television writer/producer, film director
| years_active = 1999present
| spouse =
}}
**Jonathan Michael Goldstein** (born September 2, 1968) is an American screenwriter and film director best known for his work on *[& Dragons: Honor Among Thieves](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves)*, *[Night](Game)(Game Night (film))*, *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)*, and *[Bosses](Horrible)(Horrible Bosses)*.
He has worked collaboratively with [Francis Daley](John)(John Francis Daley) as a film-making duo, whom he met on *[Geena Davis Show](The)(The Geena Davis Show)*. Daley and Goldstein's earlier work was predominantly based in the comedy genre where they were co-screenwriters for *[Bosses](Horrible)(Horrible Bosses)* (2011), co-writers for *[Incredible Burt Wonderstone](The)(The Incredible Burt Wonderstone)* (2013), co-story writers for *[Bosses 2](Horrible)(Horrible Bosses 2)* (2014), and also co-wrote/co-directed the fifth film in the [Lampoon's Vacation* film series](*National)(National Lampoon's Vacation (film series)), *[Vacation](Vacation (2015 film))* (2015). The duo received co-writer credits for *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)* (2017) with other screenwriters, which was met with critical and financial success; and they co-directed the 2018 black comedy *[Night](Game)(Game Night (film))*, which also met with critical and financial success.
Prior to his feature film career, Goldstein wrote for numerous situation comedies, including *[PJs](The)(The PJs)* starring [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy), *[Geena Davis Show](The)(The Geena Davis Show)*, *[Morning Miami](Good)(Good Morning Miami)*, *[Kings](Four)(Four Kings)*, and *[New Adventures of Old Christine](The)(The New Adventures of Old Christine)*.
## Personal life
Born in New York City, Goldstein moved to [Ohio](Beachwood,)(Beachwood, Ohio), in 1980, where he graduated from [High School](Beachwood)(Beachwood High School) in 1986. He attended the [of Michigan](University)(University of Michigan) and then [Law School](Harvard)(Harvard Law School), graduating in 1995.[Adena Halpern, Jonathan Goldstein – New York Times](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/fashion/weddings/26halpern.html) He worked for two years as a corporate litigator at the New York office of Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue.[Meet the Guys Behind the "Horrible Bosses" | NBC New York](http://www.nbcnewyork.com/blogs/popcornbiz/Horrible-Bosses-Scribes-125032379.html) Goldstein lives in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) with his wife, novelist [Halpern](Adena)(Adena Halpern), who he married in 2007.[adena halpern – pinch me](http://www.adenahalpern.com/about.html)
## Career
Finding the legal profession less than fulfilling, he moved to Los Angeles in 1998 to pursue a career in comedy writing. Shortly thereafter, he began writing for network television comedies and eventually films.
In 2007, in collaboration with his writing partner, [Francis Daley](John)(John Francis Daley), Goldstein sold his first film script, *The $40,000 Man*, to [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema).[NL assembles '$40,000 Man' – The Hollywood Reporter](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/nl-assembles-40000-man-139427) Since that first sale, Goldstein and Daley have been engaged on a number of other feature projects, including *Hours of Fun*,[Scott Rudin, Disney have 'Fun' – The Hollywood Reporter](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/scott-rudin-disney-have-fun-110839) *[Incredible Burt Wonderstone](The)(The Incredible Burt Wonderstone)*, starring [Carell](Steve)(Steve Carell) and [Carrey](Jim)(Jim Carrey),[Pair to rewrite 'Magician' – The Hollywood Reporter](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/pair-rewrite-magician-117634) *Cal of the Wild* for [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) and *[DreamWorks](DreamWorks Pictures)*,[Writers set for DreamWorks' 'Wild' – Entertainment News, DreamWorks SKG, Media – Variety](https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118004738)[New Line ready for another 'Vacation' – Entertainment News, Los Angeles, Media – Variety](https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118015026) and an adaptation of the documentary *Of All the Things* for [Brothers](Warner)(Warner Bros.), also with Steve Carell set to play the lead. New Line's *[Bosses](Horrible)(Horrible Bosses)* was released on July 8, 2011, and has made over $200 million in worldwide box office.[Scribes tapped for 'Bosses' – The Hollywood Reporter](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/scribes-tapped-bosses-88902) In 2009, the team were hired to rewrite the sequel to the animated film, *[with a Chance of Meatballs](Cloudy)(Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (film))*.[With sequel, 'Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs' looks to continue its rain – latimes.com](http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/movies/2011/07/cloudy-chance-meatballs-sequel-ickles-horrible-bosses-jason-bateman.html)
Goldstein and Daley co-wrote and directed their script for *[Vacation](Vacation (2015 film))*, a follow-up to the 1983 comedy film ''[Lampoon's Vacation](National)(National Lampoon's Vacation)''. [Helms](Ed)(Ed Helms) played the adult Rusty Griswold. The film grossed $104 million in worldwide box office off a budget of $32 million.
Goldstein and Daley wrote the screenplay for the 2017 film *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)*, and were both considered to direct before [Watts](Jon)(Jon Watts) was hired.
Goldstein and Daley directed the 2018 black comedy *[Night](Game)(Game Night (film))*, based on a screenplay by Mark Perez which they rewrote. The film, starring [Bateman](Jason)(Jason Bateman) and [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams), "earned a raft of glowing reviews for its whip-smart script, energetic performances, and deliberate avoidance of modern comedy's ubiquitous tropes," and grossed $117 million at the worldwide box office, versus a $37 million budget. While they did not receive screenwriter credit, they later said they rewrote "almost all of the original script's dialogue, totally overhauled the characters — most notably a creepy cop portrayed by [Plemons](Jesse)(Jesse Plemons) — and comprehensively reworked the original script's third act."
In 2018, it was announced that the filmmaking duo would direct a [adaptation](film)(The Flash (film)) of [Comics](DC)(DC Comics)' [Flash*](*The)(The Flash (Barry Allen)) for the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe), but it was announced in July that they have left the project. Despite this, both Goldstein and Daley received story by credit alongside [Harold](Joby)(Joby Harold)
In 2019, it was announced that Goldstein and Daley were in talks be directing the reboot of *[& Dragons: Honor Among Thieves](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves)* (2023). In January 2020, it was announced that, in addition to directing, they would be writing a new draft of the screenplay. As of May 11, 2023, Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves has grossed $91.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $111.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $203 million.
## Filmography
**Short films**
**Feature films**
**Television**
## References
## External links
*
[male screenwriters](Category:American)(Category:American male screenwriters)
[film directors](Category:Comedy)(Category:Comedy film directors)
[Law School alumni](Category:Harvard)(Category:Harvard Law School alumni)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[births](Category:1968)(Category:1968 births)
[of Michigan alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Michigan alumni)
[from New York City](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from New York City)
[York (state) lawyers](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) lawyers)
[from New York (state)](Category:Screenwriters)(Category:Screenwriters from New York (state))
[Pictures Animation people](Category:Sony)(Category:Sony Pictures Animation people)
|
Reputation Stadium Tour
|
reputation_stadium_tour
|
# Reputation Stadium Tour
*Revision ID: 1158851711 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T16:54:47Z*
---
| album = *[Reputation](Reputation (album))*
| start_date =
| end_date =
| number_of_shows = 53
| support_acts =
| attendance = 2,888,922
| gross = $345.7 million
| last_tour = [1989 World Tour](The)(The 1989 World Tour) (2015)
| this_tour = **Reputation Stadium Tour** (2018)
| next_tour = [Eras Tour](The)(The Eras Tour)(2023)
}}
The **Reputation Stadium Tour** was the fifth [tour](concert)(concert tour) by American singer-songwriter [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift), launched in support of her sixth studio album *[Reputation](Reputation (album))* (2017). The all-[stadium](stadium) tour began on May 8, 2018, in [Arizona](Glendale,)(Glendale, Arizona), and concluded on November 21, 2018, in [Tokyo](Tokyo), consisting of 53 shows. The tour received 2.88 million attendees and grossed $345.7 million in revenue. It marked Swift's most successful tour to-date and broke numerous boxscore records, becoming the [highest-grossing female concert tour of all time](third)(List of highest-grossing concert tours) and the highest-grossing tour ever in the United States and North America.
Reflecting themes of *Reputation*, the concept of the Reputation Stadium Tour incorporated [subculture](Goth)(Goth subculture), [Broadway](Broadway theatre) theatricality and [snake](snake) motifs. It featured a main stage with a wedge-shaped [display](LED display) resembling a [skyscraper](skyscraper) under construction, as well as two smaller B-stages. The tour received universal acclaim from contemporary critics and journalists, who commonly labeled it the best concert tour of 2018 and Swift's best tour yet, praising her stage presence, wardrobe, and versatile performances. They described it as a "hyper-[maximalist](Maximalism)" tour with [high-tech](High tech) production value. The tour received several "Tour of the Year" accolades. [Dayton](Mark)(Mark Dayton), [of Minnesota](Governor)(Governor of Minnesota) (2011–2019), declared August 31, 2018, as "Taylor Swift Day" in the state in honor of Swift's two shows (August 31 and September 1) at the [Bank Stadium](U.S.)(U.S. Bank Stadium) in [Minneapolis](Minneapolis). He remarked that "through her personal and honest music, Taylor Swift has energized and inspired not only Minnesotans, but people all over the world, and is a positive influence on her fans through her example of truthfulness, grace, extensive philanthropy, and strength of character".
The October 6 show at [Stadium](AT&T)(AT&T Stadium) in [Texas](Arlington,)(Arlington, Texas), was recorded and released as a [Netflix](Netflix) original concert film on December 31, 2018.
## Development
In August 2017, *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* reported that Swift would be using [Ticketmaster](Ticketmaster)'s Verified Fan program to prevent [and ticket scalpers](bots)(Ticket resale#Automated scalping bots) from purchasing tickets. The program, named "Taylor Swift Tix", allowed fans to purchase tickets in advance of the public on-sale by participating in boost activities to increase chances of getting a pre-sale access code. On November 13, 2017, Swift's management announced the first round of dates for the tour jointly with Ticketmaster. Tickets went on sale to the general public on December 13, 2017, Swift's 28th birthday.
In late November, Swift announced shows in Manchester, Dublin, and London. Due to overwhelming demand, additional dates were announced for all three cities. Furthermore, the singer also announced extra shows in North America for Pasadena, Chicago, East Rutherford, Foxborough, Toronto, and Atlanta due to popular demand before the pre-sale began. On December 3, Swift announced five dates for Oceania. In January 2018, due to high demand, Swift added second dates in Santa Clara, Landover, Philadelphia, Minneapolis and Arlington and third dates in East Rutherford and Foxborough, totalling 40 shows for the tour's North American leg.
On March 1, 2018, Swift officially announced [Cabello](Camila)(Camila Cabello) and [XCX](Charli)(Charli XCX) as the opening acts for the Reputation Stadium Tour. Cabello was previously speculated as the opening act as the shows for her [Be the Same Tour](Never)(Camila (album)#Tour) did not coincide with Swift's tour dates; [Portland](Portland, Oregon)'s Live 95.5 also announced her in a sweepstake for the concert of June 22, 2018, at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium) in London through a since-deleted post on Twitter, one day before Swift confirmed her as the opening act.
On May 7, 2018, the day before the tour kicked off at [Arizona](Glendale,)(Glendale, Arizona), Swift invited 2,000 foster and adopted children to a private dress rehearsal. The following day, she announced two shows in Tokyo in partnership with [Fujifilm](Fujifilm) [Instax](Instax), with Charli XCX as the opening act. In September, Broods was announced as an opening act for the Oceania leg of the tour.
During the shows, Swift performed "surprise songs" as part of an acoustic segment at different concerts. The songs varied by venue and were taken from Swift's back catalog. A streaming-exclusive compilation playlist, *Reputation Stadium Tour Surprise Song Playlist*, was released to digital music platforms on November 30, 2018.
## Critical reception
Media publications and journalists gave the tour rave reviews and many of them deemed it one of the best tours of 2018. The concerts were complimented for Swift's on-stage persona and intimacy with the audience, the versatile set list and the transition between songs, production value, the stripped-down performances and wardrobe choices, with many commentators noting the [Gothic](Gothic subculture) visuals and costumes and [Broadway](Broadway theatre) theatricality of the show.
[[File:Taylor_Swift_Reputation_Tour_Minneapolis_(43490534145).jpg|thumb|The stage design and aesthetic incorporated prominent [snake](snake) motifs and imagery to reflect Swift's reputation as a "snake".|alt=Stage setting of the Reputation Stadium Tour showing giant snakes as props]]
*[Stereogum](Stereogum)*s Chris DeVille deemed it a "hyper-maximalist" tour and "a perpetual gargantuan flex, a roving musical *[War](Infinity)(Avengers: Infinity War)* that amplifies everything extra about her persona to an exponential scope" and added that it is designed to be "the biggest spectacle in all of summer entertainment". He also described the tour as "an oversized, high-tech touring Broadway production with a mostly tremendous soundtrack" and concluded that "when discussing the biggest artists of her [Swift's] generation, she's undeniably on the shortlist" and that the singer has ascended to the same "rarefied" tier as the "classic rock deities who've echoed across this venue [*[Horseshoe](the)(Ohio stadium)*] before her, able to keep commanding stadium status for the rest of her career". [Sheffield](Rob)(Rob Sheffield) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* named the tour as Swift's "most astounding tour yet" and complimented it for giving "it all the vibe of a mass communion" despite aiming for "maximum [stadium-rock](Stadium Rock) razzle-dazzle bombast". He observed the acoustic performances of Swift's fan-favorite deep cuts and dubbed them "a powerhouse performance that made all the different Taylors sound like part of the same story".
*[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*s Bob Gordon thought that "[for It?](...Ready)(...Ready for It?)" is "an appropriate and compelling opener". He opined that Swift made a "striking entrance" with "no elevation or descent, simply walking out from behind a curtain bathed in brilliant white light, in what was a real 'now I'm here' moment, as [Mercury](Freddie)(Freddie Mercury) would once have put it". Awarding the tour five stars, Roisin O'Connor of *[Independent](The)(The Independent)* lauded the set-list and how it "transitions seamlessly from one song to another, crafted out of some of the best from Swift's canon". Also, she compared the tour to a Broadway show because the stage was "flooded with red lighting and dancers swing from [trapeze](trapeze) with all the splendour of a Broadway show". Lydia Burgham of *[Spinoff](The)(The Spinoff)* defined the tour's Auckland concert a "theatrical, mega-production that somehow also strips down to raw intimate moments". Commenting on the set list, she noted that Swift "had the crowd aching for more with the commencement of every song, thanks to seamless transitions". Burgham highlighted the intimacy of Swift's acoustic guitar and piano performances that proved Swift remained "integral to her singer-songwriter origins". Burgham summarized her review by stating that "there may not be an artist in this lifetime who quite manages to connect to thousands of people on a rainy night as well as Taylor Swift can – and that's the reputation she will be remembered for".
[[File:Taylor_Swift_Reputation_Tour_Minneapolis_(42589295910).jpg|thumb|222x222px|The main stage featured a movable [screen](LED)(LED display), splitting apart vertically and horizontally during different songs.]]
*[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s Chris Willman wrote that the show "had plenty of fierceness, especially in the early going" but also the "pre-decedent Taylor on the line… the guileless Swift we remember from two or three skins ago", and commended Swift for using her two hours on the stage to "paint a rewardingly holistic picture". Willman believed that, despite the huge production, "we're still left not so much with dragons or defensiveness but in the endearingly earnest presence of pop's most approachable superstar". He further remarked that the acoustic performance of "Dancing With Our Hands Tied" proved that *Reputation* worked acoustically as well, without the "[Martin](Max)(Max Martin)-izing". Randy Lewis of *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* wrote that Swift gave "a master class in the constructive use of the modern technology that's allowed her to establish and nurture an exceptionally powerful connection with a massive audience." He underlined the use of [bracelets](light-up)(PixMob) that allowed the attendees "to feel like participants, even collaborators, rather than passive observers" and appreciated the stage's resemblance to "a skyscraper in progress, with six [crane](Crane (machine))-like contraptions stretching up above a wedge-like screen". Lewis summarized the show as "tightly structured for the most part, featuring elaborate production numbers that rely on video projection, eye-popping lighting and [pyrotechnics](pyrotechnics), choreography and precisely coordinated interaction among the star, band, singers and dancers".
Reviewing for [*V*](V (American magazine)) magazine, Greg Krelenstein stated that Swift possesses "a rare gift of turning a stadium spectacle into an intimate setting", with the new persona the singer adopted on *Reputation* album cycle suiting itself "excellently to a show of this magnitude where she appears larger than life". He thought that Swift fully embraced her vast back catalog and praised her command of the stage—"whether plucking a guitar or leading an army of dancers" that showed that Swift's musical and performance evolution is an "absolute success". Krelenstein concluded that the pop star "delivers in every way to a mesmerized and devoted audience, re-defining what the modern stadium tour can be". Ed Masley of *[Arizona Republic](The)(The Arizona Republic)* wrote that "there were many moments in the course Swift's performance that felt like she was playing to the back rows of the stadium by simply sharing with her fans", while complimenting the tour's production and Swift's connection with the crowd. Jim Harrington of *[Mercury News](The)(The Mercury News)* asserted that the singer's vocal work and performance skills have improved over the years, and added that "her game is well-rounded enough that she can excel equally at every different aspect of the show." Chris Tuite of *[San Francisco](CBS)(KPIX-TV)* wrote: "The only thing more prominent than the singer herself during her current costume-change filled spectacle are the massive, vicious looking snakes that symbolically appear throughout the set." Michael Tritsch of *303* magazine raved that the tour "broke new ground and set the bar high for future stadium tours", burning "its way into the history books".
## Commercial performance
[[File:Taylor Swift - Reputation Tour Seattle - Long Live-New Years Day (cropped).jpg|alt=Swift performing on a grand piano|thumb|upright|left|Swift broke many ticket sales and revenue records, including one at [Field](CenturyLink)(CenturyLink Field) in Seattle (*performance pictured*).]]
### Ticket sales
After four days of sales through the Verified Fan platform and three days of sales to the general public that began December 13, the tour had already grossed $180 million from 33 dates in North America alone. *[Pollstar](Pollstar)* reported data supplied by the Gridiron Stadium Network, a consortium of NFL facilities that work together to book concerts at their buildings, which showed at least 35,000 tickets had been sold at ten of the stadiums on the route as of December 18. The tickets sold ranged from 35,419 at [Field](Heinz)(Heinz Field) in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh) to a high of 48,039 at [Financial Field](Lincoln)(Lincoln Financial Field) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia). With more than 47,000 tickets sold, it was reported the May 12, 2018, date at [Stadium](Levi's)(Levi's Stadium) in [Clara](Santa)(Santa Clara, California) was generating close to $9 million in ticket revenue, which prompted the addition of an extra date.
According to [StubHub](StubHub), the tour is the best-selling female tour in the United Kingdom in 2018.
### Boxscore
The first seven shows of the tour grossed $54 million with 390,000 tickets sold, leading Swift to the top of *Billboard*s Hot Tours chart in June 2018. She performed to sold-out crowds of 59,157 in Glendale and 107,550 in Santa Clara (over two nights), grossing $7.21 million and $14 million respectively, while the Pasadena shows combined for a gross of nearly $16.3 million and Seattle accounted more than $8.6 million. The concerts in [Louisville](Louisville, Kentucky) and [Columbus](Columbus, Ohio), reported in July 2018, grossed $11.5 million with around 115,000 tickets sold, with the latter city having the highest gross and most tickets sold, with approximately 63,000 tickets and $6.6 million. These concerts led the singer once again to the top of Hot Tours chart.
## Records
[[File:Taylor Swift Sports Authority Field 05.25.18 (42328420702).jpg|thumb|Swift performing at [Authority Field at Mile High](Sports)(Sports Authority Field at Mile High) in [Colorado](Denver,)(Denver), where she became the first woman to headline a concert at that stadium]]
The tour broke multiple venue attendance and grossing records. The opening show at [of Phoenix Stadium](University)(University of Phoenix Stadium) set new venue records in both gross and attendance, topping [Metallica](Metallica)'s $5.2 million gross from August 2017 by almost $2 million. With 59,157 tickets sold, Swift also broke the attendance record set by [Direction](One)(One Direction) on their [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)) in 2014 by 2,633 seats. With a $14 million take from 107,550 sold tickets at Levi's Stadium, she topped her own gross and attendance counts set during [1989 World Tour](the)(the 1989 World Tour) in 2015. With more than 118,000 fans in attendance at the [Bowl](Rose)(Rose Bowl (stadium)), the two-show run earned $16.2 million and set a new gross record for a single headliner at the venue, surpassing [U2](U2)'s 2017 record by over $467,000. Grossing records previously set by U2 as well were broken at [Seattle](Seattle)'s [Field](CenturyLink)(CenturyLink Field), where she topped their [Tree Tour 2017](Joshua)(The Joshua Tree Tour 2017) gross by $2.4 million, and [Denver](Denver)'s [Authority Field at Mile High](Sports)(Sports Authority Field at Mile High), where she surpassed the $6.6 million gross set by the band in 2011 during their [Tour](360°)(U2 360° Tour) by $1.2 million.
Swift made history by becoming the first ever female artist to headline Dublin's [Park](Croke)(Croke Park) twice, with reportedly 136,000 fans in attendance. Similarly, she became the first woman to headline three consecutive nights at [Stadium](MetLife)(MetLife Stadium) and [Stadium](Gillette)(Gillette Stadium).
Following the 29th show in North America at [Rock Stadium](Hard)(Hard Rock Stadium) in Miami, the tour had grossed $202.3 million in the continent ($191.1 million in the United States and $11.1 million in Canada), thus breaking Swift's own record of the highest-grossing North American tour by a female artist, previously held by the 1989 World Tour, with fewer dates. The tour eventually broke the overall record set by [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones)' [Bigger Bang Tour](A)(A Bigger Bang Tour) to become the highest-grossing tour in US and North American history, grossing $266.1 million, besting the Rolling Stones' $245 million gross. The Rolling Stones achieved their then-record from 70 American shows, while Swift did so with just 38 shows. Additionally, the Reputation Stadium Tour holds the [World Record*](*Guinness)(Guinness World Records) for 2018's highest-grossing tour by a female artist.
## Awards
## Set list
This set list is from the concert on May 8, 2018, in [Arizona](Glendale,)(Glendale, Arizona). It is not intended to represent all shows from the tour.
# "[for It?](...Ready)(...Ready for It?)"
# "[Did Something Bad](I)(I Did Something Bad)"
# "[Gorgeous](Gorgeous (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[Style](Style (Taylor Swift song))" / "[Story](Love)(Love Story (Taylor Swift song))" / "[Belong with Me](You)(You Belong with Me)"
# "[What You Made Me Do](Look)(Look What You Made Me Do)"
# "[Game](End)(End Game (song))"
# "King of My Heart"
# "[Delicate](Delicate (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[It Off](Shake)(Shake It Off)"
# "Dancing with Our Hands Tied"
# “[Too Well](All)(All Too Well (Taylor Swift song))”
# "[Space](Blank)(Blank Space)"
# "Dress"
# "[Blood](Bad)(Bad Blood (Taylor Swift song))" / "[Said No](Should've)(Should've Said No)"
# "[Blame Me](Don't)(Don't Blame Me (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[Live](Long)(Long Live (Taylor Swift song))" / "[Year's Day](New)(New Year's Day (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[Car](Getaway)(Getaway Car (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[It What You Want](Call)(Call It What You Want (Taylor Swift song))"
# "[Are Never Ever Getting Back Together](We)(We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together)" / "This Is Why We Can't Have Nice Things"
### Surprise songs
The following songs were performed by Swift in place of "All Too Well":
* Santa Clara (first show) and Tokyo (second show): "[Dreams](Wildest)(Wildest Dreams (Taylor Swift song))"
* Santa Clara (second show): "[Best Day](The)(The Best Day (Taylor Swift song))"
* Pasadena: "[Red](Red (Taylor Swift song))"
* Seattle: "[Ground](Holy)(Holy Ground (song))"
* Denver: "[on My Guitar](Teardrops)(Teardrops on My Guitar)"
* Chicago (first show): "[Song](Our)(Our Song (Taylor Swift song))"
* Chicago (second show), Foxborough (first show), and Sydney: "[22](22 (Taylor Swift song))"
* Manchester (first show) and Perth: "[Knew You Were Trouble](I)(I Knew You Were Trouble)"
* Manchester (second show): "[Don't Wanna Live Forever](I)(I Don't Wanna Live Forever)"
* Dublin (first show): "[Mean](Mean (song))"
* Dublin (second show): "How You Get the Girl"
* London (first show): "So It Goes..."
* London (second show): "[Fifteen](Fifteen (song))"
* Louisville: "[Mine](Mine (Taylor Swift song))"
* Columbus: "[Fly](Sparks)(Sparks Fly (song))"
* Landover (first show): "[of Grace](State)(State of Grace (Taylor Swift song))"
* Landover (second show): "Haunted"
* Philadelphia (first show): "Never Grow Up"
* Philadelphia (second show): "[Treacherous](Treacherous (Taylor Swift song))"
* Cleveland: "[Babe](Babe (Sugarland song))"
* East Rutherford (first show): "[to New York](Welcome)(Welcome to New York (song))"
* East Rutherford (second show): "[Fearless](Fearless (Taylor Swift song))"
* East Rutherford (third show): "[Enchanted](Enchanted (Taylor Swift song))"
* Foxborough (second show): "[Change](Change (Taylor Swift song))"
* Foxborough (third show): "[Ours](Ours (song))"
* Toronto (first show) and Auckland: "[of the Woods](Out)(Out of the Woods (song))"
* Toronto (second show): "Come Back... Be Here"
* Pittsburgh: "A Place in This World"
* Atlanta (first show): "[Love](This)(This Love (Taylor Swift song))"
* Atlanta (second show): "The Lucky One"
* Tampa: "Invisible"
* Miami Gardens: "[Breathe](Breathe (Taylor Swift song))"
* Nashville: "[Man](Better)(Better Man (Little Big Town song))"
* Detroit: "Jump Then Fall"
* Minneapolis (first show): "[Again](Begin)(Begin Again (Taylor Swift song))"
* Minneapolis (second show): "Tied Together with a Smile"
* Kansas City: "[Story of Us](The)(The Story of Us (song))"
* Indianapolis: "[& Always](Forever)(Forever & Always)"
* St. Louis: "[Stephen](Hey)(Hey Stephen)"
* New Orleans: "[Now](Speak)(Speak Now (song))"
* Houston: "Wonderland"
* Arlington (first show): "[Horse](White)(White Horse (Taylor Swift song))"
* Melbourne: "I'm Only Me When I'm with You"
* Brisbane: "Starlight"
* Tokyo (first show): "I Know Places"
===Notes===
* At the first show in Landover, the second show in Philadelphia, the third show in East Rutherford, the third show in Foxborough, the second show in Minneapolis, the second show in Toronto, and the second show in Tokyo, Swift performed "So It Goes..." in place of "Dancing with Our Hands Tied".
* At the second show in Philadelphia, Swift performed "Our Song" and "Wildest Dreams" *[cappella](a)(a cappella)* after the levitating basket stage used during "Delicate" malfunctioned.
* At the second show in East Rutherford, Swift performed "Clean" before the "Long Live" / "New Year's Day" medley.
### Special guests
On select dates, Swift performed a duet with a special guest.
* May 18, 2018 – Pasadena: "[Nothing Holdin' Me Back](There's)(There's Nothing Holdin' Me Back)" with [Mendes](Shawn)(Shawn Mendes)
* May 19, 2018 – Pasadena: "[My My!](My)(My My My! (Troye Sivan song))" with [Sivan](Troye)(Troye Sivan); "[to Myself](Hands)(Hands to Myself)" with [Gomez](Selena)(Selena Gomez)
* June 22, 2018 – London: "[Hands](Slow)(Slow Hands (Niall Horan song))" with [Horan](Niall)(Niall Horan)
* June 23, 2018 – London: "[Angels](Angels (Robbie Williams song))" with [Williams](Robbie)(Robbie Williams)
* July 26, 2018 – Foxborough: "[Curious](Expectations (Hayley Kiyoko album))" with [Kiyoko](Hayley)(Hayley Kiyoko)
* August 4, 2018 – Toronto: "[of '69](Summer)(Summer of '69)" with [Adams](Bryan)(Bryan Adams)
* August 25, 2018 – Nashville: "[McGraw](Tim)(Tim McGraw (song))" with [McGraw](Tim)(Tim McGraw) and [Hill](Faith)(Faith Hill)
* October 5, 2018 – Arlington: "[Middle](The)(The Middle (Zedd, Maren Morris and Grey song))" with [Morris](Maren)(Maren Morris)
* October 6, 2018 – Arlington: "[Babe](Babe (Sugarland song))" with [Sugarland](Sugarland)
## Concert film
| studio = Taylor Swift Productions
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 125 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
}}
***Taylor Swift: Reputation Stadium Tour*** is a [film](concert)(concert film) directed by Paul Dugdale. Netflix Official Site|website=[Netflix](Netflix)|access-date=September 28, 2019}} It was released on December 31, 2018, exclusively via [Netflix](Netflix). The film follows American singer-songwriter [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift)'s second performance at [Stadium](AT&T)(AT&T Stadium) in [Arlington](Arlington, Texas), Texas on her record-breaking fifth headlining concert tour, the Reputation Stadium Tour.
Swift announced on social media on her birthday, December 13, that the concert film would be released globally in partnership with [Netflix](Netflix) on New Year's Eve. It was filmed on the last day of the North American leg of the tour. For their work on the film, Tamlyn Wright and Baz Halpin were nominated in the category "Variety, Reality or Event Special" at the 24th [Directors Guild](Art)(ADG Excellence in Production Design Award) Annual Excellence in Production Design Awards.
### Critical reception
The film received widespread critical acclaim upon release, with many critics labeling the film as "immortalizing" and "unforgettable". Commentators praised the camerawork from director Paul Dugdale for documenting Swift's "stardom", the crowd's emotions, and the production involved in the concert. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*s Rob Sheffield wrote that the film "immortalizes her best tour yet" and that the film shows off "the stadium-rocking spectacle without toning down any of her songs' one-on-one emotional intimacy". Describing the Netflix special as "the end of an era", Amanda Petrusich of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* opined that the film "will soon either be regarded as a museum piece or as a testament to Swift's era-defying longevity".
*[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*s Denis Warner stated that the film "illuminates the singer's power, dedication, and strength as an artist". He further stated that the film "allows you to get more of a feel of the singer as a performer – and experience just how delicately everything is staged" and appreciated Swift for giving "a gorgeous look into her [Swift's] world as one of today's greatest entertainers". *[Decider](The New York Post)*s Benjamin Smith called the film as an "intimate document of an impersonal event". He further expanded that Swift "will stand the test of time more than her fellow early 21st century pop queens", stating the reason "Taylor Swift is perhaps the only one who has figured out a way to turn her music into something more than mere pop". Complimenting Swift's connection with her fans, Nardin Saad of *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* stated that "the 10-time Grammy-winner's star power is tantamount as evidenced" in the film.
Katie Collins of *[CNET](CNET)* opined that the film "serves as a reminder that no matter what else happens, Swift's stardom is perennial" and praised the film for "the divine showcase of the costumes, the dancing and especially Swift's own barely-contained effervescent joy at being on stage". She further complimented the camerawork, stating "closeups brought new insights" into the show. Nicholas Hautman of *[Weekly](Us)(Us Weekly)* appreciated the camerawork for depicting "the fans hysterically crying and screaming in support of their idol". Writing for *[Uproxx](Uproxx)*, Chloe Gilke labelled the film as a "masterful documentation of the magical energy at a pop show" and as "a love letter to the audience at her shows, and to her fans", while stating that the film "honors the sacred joy of her [Swift's] performance that night, and the people who made it happen". She lauded the camerawork for capturing "the massive scope of the production from every angle," and the audio which "is crystal-clear and beautiful, with the crowd quieted down so viewers at home can hear Swift best."
### Performances
Nineteen songs were performed in the following order in the film:
# "...Ready for It?"
# "I Did Something Bad"
# "Gorgeous"
# "Style" / "Love Story" / "You Belong with Me"
# "Look What You Made Me Do"
# "End Game"
# "King of My Heart"
# "Delicate"
# "Shake It Off"
# "Dancing with Our Hands Tied"
# "All Too Well"
# "Blank Space"
# "Dress"
# "Bad Blood" / "Should've Said No"
# "Don't Blame Me"
# "Long Live" / "New Year's Day"
# "Getaway Car"
# "Call It What You Want"
# "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" / "This Is Why We Can't Have Nice Things"
## Shows
## Notes
## See also
* [of highest-grossing concert tours](List)(List of highest-grossing concert tours)
* [of original films distributed by Netflix](List)(List of original films distributed by Netflix)
## References
## External links
* [Official website Events](https://web.archive.org/web/20171129111407/https://taylorswift.com/events)
[concert tours](Category:2018)(Category:2018 concert tours)
[Swift concert tours](Category:Taylor)(Category:Taylor Swift concert tours)
[tours of North America](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of North America)
[tours of Europe](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Europe)
[tours of Oceania](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Oceania)
[tours of Asia](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Asia)
[tours of the United States](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of the United States)
[tours of the United Kingdom](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of the United Kingdom)
[tours of Ireland](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Ireland)
[tours of Canada](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Canada)
[tours of Australia](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Australia)
[tours of New Zealand](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of New Zealand)
[tours of Japan](Category:Concert)(Category:Concert tours of Japan)
|
Shades of pink
|
shades_of_pink
|
# Shades of pink
*Revision ID: 1153220495 | Timestamp: 2023-05-04T22:59:25Z*
---
}}
Pink colors are usually light or desaturated shades of reds, roses, and magentas which are created on computer and television screens using the RGB color model and in printing with the [color model](CMYK)(CMYK color model). As such, it is an arbitrary classification of color.
Below is a list of some of the common pink colors.
## Computer web color pinks
### Pink
. XFree86. (February 1994). Retrieved on 16 September 2008.[HTML/CSS](HTML color names)
|isccname=Light pink}}
At right is displayed the web color **pink**.
### Light pink
At right is displayed the web color **light pink**. The name of the web color is written as "lightpink" (no space) in HTML for computer display.
Although this color is called "light pink", as can be ascertained by inspecting its [code](hex)(hex code), it is actually a slightly deeper, not a lighter, [tint](tint) of pink than the color pink itself. A more accurate name for it in terms of traditional color nomenclature would therefore be *medium light pink*.
### Hot pink
[[File:Pink triangle up.svg|thumb|left|175px|The [triangle](pink)(pink triangle), always rendered in a tone of hot pink, has been used as an [pride](LGBT)(LGBT pride) and [rights](LGBT)(gay rights) symbol since the early 1970s]]
At right is displayed the web color **hot pink**. The name of the web color is written as "hotpink" (no space) in HTML for computer display. This shade of pink, along with bubblegum pink, was a very popular aesthetic during the 2000s.
### Deep pink
At right is displayed the web color **deep pink**. The name of the web color is written as "deeppink" (no space) in HTML for computer display.
### Pastel pink
In Western culture, **pastel pink** is used to symbolize baby [girl](girl)s just as [blue](baby)(baby blue) is often used to symbolize baby [boy](boy)s.
## Other notable pink colors
### Champagne pink
Displayed at right is the color **champagne pink**, a strongly yellow-hued shade of pink.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #12-1107 TPX—Champagne Pink.
### Pink lace
At right is displayed the color **pink lace**, a very pale purplish pink.
The color name *pink lace* for this pale tone of [rose](Rose (color)) pink has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the [Xona.com Color List](http://xona.com/colorlist/).
This color is suggestive of the color of some women's [lingerie](lingerie).
### Piggy pink
[[File:Sow with piglet.jpg|thumb|left|Many [pig](pig)s are colored pink]]
The color **piggy pink** is displayed at right.
The color *piggy pink* is a representation of the color of a pink [pig](pig).
The color *piggy pink* was formulated by [Crayola](Crayola) in 1998.
The color was originally called **pig pink**, but later the name was changed to "piggy pink".
### Pale pink
At right is displayed the color **pale pink**, a light, desaturated shade of pink.
### Baby pink
At right is displayed the color **baby pink**, a light shade of pink.
The first recorded use of *baby pink* as a color name in English was in 1928.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 190; Color Sample of Baby Pink: Page 25 Plate 1 Color Sample C8
In [culture](Western)(Western culture), *baby pink* is used to symbolize baby girls just as [blue](baby)(baby blue) is often used to symbolize baby boys (but see also the section [in gender*](*Pink)(Pink#Gender) in the main article on [pink](pink).)
### Spanish pink
|isccname=Moderate yellowish pink}}
**Spanish pink** is the color that is called *Rosa* (the Spanish word for "pink") in the *Guía de coloraciones* (*Guide to colorations*) by Rosa Gallego and
Juan Carlos Sanz, a color dictionary published in 2005 that is widely popular in the [Hispanophone](Hispanophone) realm.
### Cameo pink
At right is displayed the color **cameo pink**, a medium light tone of rose pink.
The first recorded use of *cameo pink* as a color name in English was in 1912.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 123; Color Sample of Cameo Pink: Page 25 Plate 50 Color Sample C2
### Orchid pink
Displayed at right is the color **orchid pink**, a pale and soft purplish pink color.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #13-2010 TPX—Orchid Pink.Find a Pantone Color – Quick Online Color Tool
[[File:Pine Pink Orchid (5669986139).jpg|alt=Wild pink orchid|thumb|center|Wild pink [orchid](Orchidaceae)]]
### Fairy Tale
Displayed at the right is the color **Fairy Tale**, a pale and soft purplish pink color resembling typical [fairy](fairy) outfits in fiction. It is similar to orchid pink but slightly paler and more purple-toned.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Cotton eXtended (TCX)" color list, color #13-2802 TCX—Fairy Tale.
### Cherry blossom pink
[[File:Row of sakura, Asuwa River, Fukui.jpg|175px|left|thumb|[blossom](Cherry)(Cherry blossom)s blooming in the spring in Japan]]
At right is displayed the color **cherry blossom pink**, a moderately light pink.
The first recorded use of *cherry blossom pink* as a color name in English was in 1867.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 192; Color Sample of Cherry Blossom Pink: Page 31 Plate 4 Color Sample J4
Cherry blossom pink is an important [in Japanese culture](color)(Traditional colors of Japan). In the spring, the [people](Japanese)(Japanese people) gather to watch the [blossom](cherry)(cherry blossom)s bloom during the [Hanami](Hanami) festival. This custom has spread to the United States with the institution of the [Blossom Festival](Cherry)(National Cherry Blossom Festival) in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)
[[12 34 11 Flowering Cherry along New Jersey Route 29 in Hopewell Township, New Jersey.JPG|alt=Cherry blossoms|thumb|Cherry blossoms](File:2014-05-10)]
Cherry blossom pink colored shirts are often worn to work on 15 September (a day a few days before the beginning of spring in the [Hemisphere](Southern)(Southern Hemisphere)) to celebrate "Cherry Blossom Day" in [Brisbane](Brisbane), Australia.
### Light hot pink
At right is displayed the color **light hot pink**.
This is the color *hot pink light* on the [Xona.com Color List](http://xona.com/colorlist/).
### Lavender pink
At right is displayed the color **Lavender pink**, a moderately light purplish pink.
This pinkish tone of lavender, displayed at right, is the color designated as *lavender* in the [of Crayola crayon colors](list)(list of Crayola crayon colors).
### Cotton candy
The color **cotton candy** is displayed at right, a light purplish pink.
The color *cotton candy* was formulated by [Crayola](Crayola) in 1998.https://www.crayola.com/explore-colors/cotton-candy.aspx
[[File:Pink Cotton Candy.jpg|alt=A tuft of cotton candy.|thumb|upright|center|A tuft of [candy](cotton)(cotton candy)]]
### Carnation pink
Displayed at right is the color **carnation pink**. **Carnation pink** is a color that resembles the [flower](flower) color of a [carnation](Dianthus caryophyllus) [plant](plant). The color as displayed here was formulated by [Crayola](Crayola) in 1903, and appears in Crayola's boxes of 16, 24, 32, 48, 64 and 96 colors.
The first recorded use of *carnation* as a color name in English was in 1535.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 192; Color Sample of Carnation Pink: Page 31 Plate 4 Color Sample I4
[[File:Pink Carnation 3-30-14 (13630328404).jpg|alt=A pink carnation flower|thumb|center|A pink [carnation](Dianthus caryophyllus) flower]]
### Baker-Miller pink
**Baker-Miller Pink** is a tone of [pink](pink) that was originally created by mixing one gallon of pure white indoor latex paint with one pint of red trim semi-gloss outdoor paint. It is named for the two [Navy](U.S.)(United States Navy) officers who first experimented with its use in 1979 at the Naval Correctional Facility in [Seattle](Seattle), Washington at the behest of researcher Alexander Schauss. The color is also known as **Schauss pink**, after Alexander Schauss' extensive research into the effects of the color on emotions and hormones, as well as **P-618** and **Drunk-Tank Pink**.["Colors" by David Byrne *Cabinet Magazine*:](http://cabinetmagazine.org/issues/11/pink.php)
Results of the use of this color to paint the interiors of correctional institutions has been mixed. Some prisoners have been calmed by the color, but others have been agitated and disturbed by it.
### Tickle me pink
The color **tickle me pink** is displayed at right, a bright shade of pink.
The color *tickle me pink* was formulated by [Crayola](Crayola) in 1993. The name was created by Joslyn Davis when she won a Crayola competition.
### Amaranth pink
The color **amaranth pink** is displayed at right. This color is a representation of the color of pink amaranth flowers.
[[File:Globe amaranth.jpg|alt=Pink globe amaranth|thumb|Pink [amaranth](globe)(Gomphrena globosa)]]
The first recorded use of *amaranth pink* as a color name in English was in 1905.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930--McGraw Hill Page 189; Color Sample of Amaranth Pink: Page 121 Plate 49 Color Sample D8
### American pink
At right is displayed the color **American pink**.
### Charm pink
The color **charm pink** is displayed at right, a medium shade of purplish pink.
The color name *charm pink* first came into use in 1948.
The source of this color is the *Plochere Color System*, a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by [designer](interior)(interior designer)s.
"Charm pink" is a medium [roseish](Rose (color)) tone of pink that is used in [design](interior)(interior design).
### China pink
The color **China pink** is displayed at right, a dark purplish pink.
The color name *China pink* first came into use in 1948.
The source of this color is the *Plochere Color System*, a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by [designer](interior)(interior designer)s.
### Mimi Pink
The Color Mimi Pink is displayed at right, a very pale shade of purplish pink.
### Misty rose
**Misty rose** is a pale shade of pink. It is also a [color](web)(List of HTML color names).
### Tango pink
The color **tango pink** is displayed at right, a moderate reddish pink.
Another name for this color is **tango**.
The first recorded use of *tango pink* as a color name in English was in 1925.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 205; color sample of Tango Pink: Page 29 Plate 3 Color Sample J8
The source of this color is the *Plochere Color System*, a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by [designer](interior)(interior designer)s.
### Congo pink
The color **Congo pink** is displayed at right, a moderate yellow-toned shade of pink.
The first recorded use of *Congo pink* as a color name in English was in 1912. Color Sample of Congo Pink: Page 29 Plate 3 Color Sample C10.
"Congo pink" is an [orangeish](Orange (color)) tone of pink.
The [color coordinates](normalized)(Wikipedia:WikiProject Color/Normalized Color Coordinates) for Congo pink are identical to [pink](Coral)(Coral (color)#Coral pink), which was first recorded as a color name in English in 1892.
### Coral pink
The *ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names* is a color dictionary used by stamp collectors to identify the colors of stamps.
|isccname=Deep yellowish pink}}
The color **coral pink** is displayed at right, a [pink](pink)ish color.
The first recorded use of *coral pink* as a color name in English was in 1892. Color Sample of Coral Pink: page 27, plate 2, Color Sample F9.
The [color](complementary)(complementary color) of coral pink is [teal](teal (color)).
The [color coordinates](normalized)(Wikipedia:WikiProject Color/Normalized Color Coordinates) for coral pink are identical to [pink](Congo)(#Congo pink), which was first recorded as a color name in English in 1912.
### New York pink
At right is displayed the color **New York pink**, a dark, desaturated yellow-toned shade of pink.
The color name *New York pink* for this dark tone of pink has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the [Xona.com Color List](http://xona.com/colorlist/).
### Solid pink
At right is displayed the color **solid pink**, a dark reddish pink.
The color name *solid pink* for this extremely dark tone of pink has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the [Xona.com Color List](http://xona.com/colorlist/).
### Silver pink
The color **silver pink** is displayed at right, a grayish shade of pink.
The color name *silver pink* first came into use in 1948.
The source of this color is the *Plochere Color System*, a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by [designer](interior)(interior designer)s.
### Queen pink
The color **queen pink** is displayed at right, a pale shade of pink.
The color name *queen pink* first came into use in 1948.
The source of this color is the *Plochere Color System*, a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by [designer](interior)(interior designer)s.
### Pink lavender
The color **pink lavender** is displayed at right, a light, strongly purplish shade of pink.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #14-3207 TPX—Pink Lavender.
### Mountbatten pink
**Mountbatten pink**, also called **Plymouth pink**, is a [naval](navy) [camouflage](camouflage) color, a [gray](gray)ish tone of [mauve](mauve), invented by [Mountbatten](Louis)(Louis Mountbatten) of the British [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) in autumn 1940 during [War II](World)(World War II).
### Chilean Pink
**Chilean pink** color is a shade of [pink flower](Chilean)(Lapageria) (*Lapageria r.* specie), resembling light pale red-orange, pale vermilion nuance.
### Pale Dogwood
**Pale Dogwood** is a beige-tinted shade of pink.
The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Cotton eXtended (TCX)" color list, color #13-1404 TCX—Pale Dogwood.
### Pink (Pantone)
Displayed at right is the color called *pink* in [Pantone](Pantone).
In Pantone, this color is designated as *Pink U*.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #U—Pink.
### Mexican pink
|isccname =
}}
**Mexican pink** is a color that is used in clothing such as [serape](serape)s and in the [craft](craft) and [art](fine)(fine art) of traditional [culture](Mexican)(Mexican culture).
Mexican pink became known as such through the efforts of the journalist, painter, cartoonist and fashion designer Ramón Valdiosera in the mid-1940s.
### Barbie pink
|isccname=Vivid purplish red}}
The color **Barbie pink** is displayed at right, a deep shade of pink.
[219C](Pantone)(Pantone) is the color used by [Mattel](Mattel)'s [Barbie](Barbie) in logos, packaging, and promotional materials. https://textiles.ncsu.edu/news/2020/01/new-year-new-blue/
### Fandango pink
Displayed at right is the color **fandango pink**, a vivid pink.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #17-2033 TPX—Fandango Pink.
### Paradise pink
Displayed at right is the color **paradise pink**, a bright, reddish pink.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #17-1755 TPX—Paradise Pink.
### Brink pink
The color **brink pink** was formulated by [Crayola](Crayola) in 1998. Since 2005 it is called *pink sherbert*.
### French pink
At right is displayed the color **French pink**, which is the tone of pink that is called *pink* () in the Pourpre.com color list, a color list widely popular in France.
### Bright pink
**Bright pink** is a maximally saturated tone of pink that is another name for the color [rose](Rose (color)).
In most [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages), the color that in English is called *pink* is called *rosa*; therefore, the color that is called *rose* in English is called *bright* rosa in most European and Latin American countries (using whatever adjective in a particular language means *bright* in that language).
### Persian pink
The color **Persian pink** is displayed at right, a bright, purplish pink.
The first recorded use of *Persian pink* as a color name in English was in 1923.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 201; Color Sample of Persian Pink: Page 29 Plate 3 Color Sample H4. Note: The color shown above matches the color sample in this book.
### Rose pink
The color **Rose pink** is displayed at right, a bright, purplish pink.
The first recorded use of *rose pink* as a color name in English was in 1761.Maerz and Paul *A Dictionary of Color* New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 203"
### Light deep pink
At right is displayed the color **light deep pink**, a bright purplish pink.
This is the color *deep pink light* on the [Xona.com Color List](http://xona.com/colorlist/).
### Ultra pink
**Ultra pink** is a [Crayola](Crayola) crayon color formulated in 1972. In 1990, the name was changed in error to *shocking pink*; however, properly speaking, the name *shocking pink* should be reserved for only the original shocking pink formulated by [Schiaparelli](Elsa)(Elsa Schiaparelli) in 1937 (shown below).
### Shocking pink
|isccname=Vivid reddish purple}}
**Shocking pink** is bold and intense. It takes its name from the tone of pink used in the lettering on the box of the [perfume](perfume) called *Shocking*, designed by [Fini](Leonor)(Leonor Fini) for the [Surrealist](Surrealist) fashion designer [Schiaparelli](Elsa)(Elsa Schiaparelli) in 1937.[*Voguepedia: the world of fashion in Vogue*: "Schiaparelli"](http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Elsa_Schiaparelli#cite_ref-2) The color shown at right matches the color of the lettering on the original box. This in turn was inspired by the Tête de Belier (Ram's Head), a 17.27 ct pink diamond from [Cartier](Cartier SA) owned by heiress [Fellowes](Daisy)(Daisy Fellowes), who was one of Schiaparelli's best clients.
Shocking pink kept its name in British English, whereas in North America "This intense [magenta](magenta) was called *shocking pink* in the 1930s, *hot pink* in the 1950s, and *kinky pink* in the 1960s...[it] has appeared in the vanguard of more than one youth revolution...to some it sings, to others it screams".Varley, Helen, editor *Color* London: 1980--Marshall Editions, Ltd. Page 139 This color is now again called "shocking pink" to distinguish it from the web color hot pink (shown above).
[NHRA](NHRA) drag racer [Muldowney](Shirley)(Shirley Muldowney) was famous for driving a shocking pink dragster.
[[File:Hot pink in nature.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A [bougainvillea](bougainvillea) with shocking pink flowers]]
On its way into the German language, shocking pink lost the "shocking" and is called only "Pink"; the color that is called "pink" in English is called "rosa" in German as it is in most other [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages). A similar situation happens in Portuguese, but its nomenclature arrives intact, becoming "rosa-choque" ("shocking pink"). Brazilians also call all darker and hot tones of pink "rosa-pink".
### Super pink
Displayed at right is the color **super pink**, a very purple-toned shade of pink.
The source of this color is the "[Pantone](Pantone) Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color #17-2625 TPX—Super Pink.
### Rose Pompadour
Displayed at right is the color ****, a desaturated, purplish pink.
This color was designed by [Sèvres](Manufacture nationale de Sèvres) for [de Pompadour](Madame)(Madame de Pompadour), in 18th century France.
### Steel pink
The color **steel pink** is displayed at right, a strongly purple-toned shade of pink.
The color *steel pink* was introduced by [Crayola](Crayola) in January 2011, when the Ultra Hot and Super Cool set of Crayola colored pencils was fully introduced.
"Steel pink" is a deep tone of [magenta](magenta).
### Bubblegum pink
The color **Bubblegum pink** is displayed at right.
"Bubblegum pink" is a deep tone of [magenta](magenta). This shade of pink, along with hot pink, were a very popular aesthetic during the 2000s.
### Lusty gallant
The color **Lusty gallant** is displayed at right.
"Lusty gallant" is a light shade of [pink](pink) that originated in Elizabethan England.
## See also
* [of colors](Lists)(Lists of colors)
## References
[ ](Category:Shades of pink)
|
The Gentlemen _2019 film
|
the_gentlemen__2019_film
|
# The Gentlemen (2019 film)
*Revision ID: 1156847532 | Timestamp: 2023-05-24T22:58:47Z*
---
| screenplay = Guy Ritchie
| story =
| starring =
| music = [Benstead](Christopher)(Christopher Benstead)
| cinematography = [Stewart](Alan)(Alan Stewart (cinematographer))
| editing =
| studio = [Miramax](Miramax)
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 113 minutes
| country =
| language = English
| budget = $22 million
| gross = $115.2 million
}}
***The Gentlemen*** is a 2019 [comedy film](action)(action comedy film) written, directed and produced by [Ritchie](Guy)(Guy Ritchie), who developed the story along with Ivan Atkinson and Marn Davies. The film stars [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey), [Hunnam](Charlie)(Charlie Hunnam), [Golding](Henry)(Henry Golding), [Dockery](Michelle)(Michelle Dockery), [Strong](Jeremy)(Jeremy Strong (actor)), [Marsan](Eddie)(Eddie Marsan), [Farrell](Colin)(Colin Farrell), and [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant). It follows an American [cannabis](cannabis) wholesaler in England who is looking to sell his business, setting off a chain of blackmail and schemes to undermine him.
*The Gentlemen* premiered at the [Mayfair Cinema](Curzon)(Curzon Mayfair Cinema) on December 3, 2019,MarketMeets. Film Premieres 2019. [https://markmeets.com/film-premieres-2019/] and was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on January 1, 2020, by [Film Distributors](Entertainment)(Entertainment Film Distributors), and in the United States on January 24, 2020, by [STXfilms](STX Entertainment). It received generally positive reviews from critics and was also a commercial success, grossing $115 million worldwide against its $22 million budget. A spin-off television series is in development at [Netflix](Netflix) with [James](Theo)(Theo James) starring in a lead role, alongside [Jones](Vinnie)(Vinnie Jones), [Scodelario](Kaya)(Kaya Scodelario), [Esposito](Giancarlo)(Giancarlo Esposito), [Ings](Daniel)(Daniel Ings), [Richardson](Joely)(Joely Richardson) and [Serafinowicz](Peter)(Peter Serafinowicz) as the rest of the cast.
## Plot
Big Dave, editor of the *Daily Print* tabloid, is snubbed by cannabis baron Mickey Pearson at a party and hires private investigator Fletcher to investigate Pearson's links to Lord (Charles) Pressfield. Pressfield, a [duke](duke), has a heroin-addicted daughter named Laura. Fletcher offers to sell his findings (typed up as a screenplay entitled *Bush*) to Pearson's right-hand man, Raymond, for £20 million.
Born into poverty in the United States, Pearson won a [Scholarship](Rhodes)(Rhodes Scholarship) to [University](Oxford)(Oxford University), where he began selling marijuana to fellow students before dropping out and building his criminal empire by violence, intellect, and cunning. He now plans to sell his business to American billionaire Matthew Berger for £400m so he can retire peacefully with his wife, Rosalind. Pearson shows Berger one of the labs where he grows his [cannabis](Cannabis (drug)) under the estates of aristocratic landlords, who need cash for the upkeep of their [homes](stately)(English country house). Pearson is later approached by Dry Eye, an underboss for Chinese gangster Lord George. Dry Eye offers to buy out Pearson's business, but he refuses. Pearson's lab is then raided by amateur [MMA](Mixed martial arts) fighters and aspiring YouTubers "The Toddlers" who overpower the lab's guards, steal a vanload of marijuana and upload a [rap](Hip hop music) video of their caper online. The fighters' trainer, known only as Coach, orders them to delete the video and is horrified when he discovers that the cannabis belongs to Pearson.
Following the raid, Pearson begins transferring his cannabis plants out of the estates as a safety precaution, while having Raymond investigate how the Toddlers learned of the lab's location. Also, at the request of Pressfield, he agrees to bring Laura home. Raymond retrieves her from a [estate](council)(council estate) where she is living with several other addicts. However, in a brawl with her flatmates one of Raymond's men accidentally pushes Aslan, a young Russian man, off the balcony to his death. Although Laura is then returned to her parents, she later dies of a heroin overdose.
Coach visits Raymond, apologises for his students' actions, and offers his services as penance. Coach has captured Phuc, a henchman of Dry Eye's who had informed Coach's crew about the lab location, although Phuc gets fatally run over by a train in a botched escape attempt. Pearson threatens Lord George for going after his lab and destroys one of his heroin labs in retaliation. George chastises Dry Eye for his insubordination in attacking Pearson and offering to buy him out; George nods to a henchman to execute Dry Eye, but the man executes George instead.
Unknown to Pearson, Dry Eye is in league with Berger, who had wanted Pearson's business disrupted to reduce the price. Dry Eye has taken Lord George's place and still hopes to take Pearson's empire for himself. Dry Eye tries to kidnap Rosalind, who kills Dry Eye's men before she runs out of bullets in her two-shot [derringer](derringer) given as a gift by Berger at a previous meeting. Raymond kills an assassin sent to kill Pearson; the two rush to Rosalind and Pearson fatally shoots Dry Eye as he is about to rape her. Fletcher ends his story and Raymond orders him to leave his house.
Fletcher has merely confirmed Pearson's suspicions about the link between Dry Eye and Berger. Raymond orders The Toddlers to capture Big Dave. They drug him and film him having sex with a pig, threatening to post it online unless he drops his investigation and publishes nothing. Pearson and Berger meet up again in a frozen fish plant, actually a cover for Pearson's European distribution operation. Berger drops his offer to £130 million, on account of the recent disruptions it has experienced, but Pearson reveals his knowledge of Berger's plan, shows him Dry Eye's frozen body and tells him he is keeping his business. Pearson forces Berger inside a refrigerator, where he will freeze to death unless he transfers £270 million compensation for the blood he now has on his hands and the cost of restoring order. Pearson admits he is not "emotional about the money" but because Rosalind was assaulted and seconds from rape, he demands "a pound of flesh" from Berger's own body, anywhere Berger chooses, as the only compensation for this indiscretion he will accept. He then turns Berger over to his associate Bunny to handle the "payments."
Fletcher approaches Raymond again for his payment, but Raymond reveals that he was tailing Fletcher all along. The Toddlers have stolen his stashes of evidence after Raymond placed a tracker on him during their last encounter. After being locked in a box, Fletcher promises important information to be let out; when he is freed from the box, he reveals that he has also sold info to Aslan's father, a [oligarch](Russian)(Russian oligarch) and former KGB agent. The assassin whom Raymond killed earlier was one of the Russians. Coach kills two Russian hitmen sent to kill Raymond, while Fletcher escapes in the chaos. Pearson is kidnapped by two other Russians, but they are ambushed by Coach's students who want to "solve Coach's problem". They riddle the car with bullets, killing the Russians and allowing Pearson to escape. Later, Fletcher decides to pitch the story as a film to [Miramax](Miramax). After his meeting, he gets into a cab only to realize that Raymond is the driver and that he is trapped in the cab. Upon learning of Fletcher's capture, Pearson and Rosalind return to their cannabis empire and celebrate in each other's company.
## Cast
## Production
It was announced in May 2018 that [Ritchie](Guy)(Guy Ritchie) would write and direct *The Gentlemen*, a film that would be in the same spirit as his earlier *[Stock and Two Smoking Barrels](Lock,)(Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels)* and *[Snatch](Snatch (film))*. The project was unveiled at the [Cannes Film Festival](2018)(2018 Cannes Film Festival) by CAA Media Finance and Rocket Science where [Miramax](Miramax) acquired the distribution rights. Filming was expected to begin in October. In October, [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey), [Beckinsale](Kate)(Kate Beckinsale), [Golding](Henry)(Henry Golding) and [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant) were cast, with [Strong](Jeremy)(Jeremy Strong (actor)), [Wong](Jason)(Jason Wong) and [Farrell](Colin)(Colin Farrell) joining in November. Later, [Dockery](Michelle)(Michelle Dockery) signed on, replacing Beckinsale in her role. In December 2018, [Renée](Lyne)(Lyne Renée) was added as well.
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began in November 2018. Filming locations included [London Film Studios](West)(West London Film Studios), [Studios](Longcross)(Longcross Studios), The [Victoria](Princess)(Princess Victoria (public house)) pub in [Bush](Shepherd's)(Shepherd's Bush) and [Cemetery](Brompton)(Brompton Cemetery).
The original screenplay was written by the actor Mickey O'Hara for the origin story of the specific requirements, but Ritchie rejected the idea of the screenplay, which he given to Marc Davies and Ivan Atkinson for the story credit. After the rejecting O'Hara's screenplay, Ritchie also wrote the screenplay and he replied to O'Hara “the time of the gangster movie was over,” being deposit of film's project development was no longer involvement, which O'Hara was press sharing for $250,000 in the film's profit in the screenplay.
## Release
In February 2019, [Entertainment](STX)(STX Entertainment) acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film from Miramax for $7 million. The film had its world premiere as a VIP special screening at [Mayfair](Curzon)(Curzon Mayfair Cinema) on December 3, 2019. It was theatrically released in the UK on January 1, 2020, and in the US on January 24, 2020. The studio spent around $25 million on promoting the film.
*The Gentlemen* was released on home media and [on demand](video)(video on demand) on March 24, 2020. It was previously set for a home media release on April 7, but was moved up due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). It was released on DVD, [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), and [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on April 21, 2020, by [Studios Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal studios home entertainment).
## Reception
### Box office
*The Gentlemen* grossed $15.9 million in the United Kingdom, $36.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $62.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $115.2 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside *[Turning](The)(The Turning (2020 film))*, and was projected to gross around $10 million from 2,100 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $3.1 million on its first day, including $725,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $10.6 million, finishing fourth at the box office. It then made $6 million in its second weekend, finishing fifth. In its third and fourth weekends the film made a respective $4.2 million and $2.7 million.
### Critical response
On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "It may not win writer-director Guy Ritchie many new converts, but for those already attuned to the filmmaker's brash wavelength, *The Gentlemen* stands tall."|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115204727/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_gentlemen|archive-date=January 15, 2020|url-status=live}} On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while [PostTrak](PostTrak) reported an average 3.5 out of 5 stars, with 48% of people saying they would definitely recommend it.
Writing for *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*, Leah Greenblatt rated the film a "B−" and found it to come up short when compared to Ritchie's previous crime films, stating, "*The Gentlemen* is nothing if not a callback to the *[Locks](Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels)* of yesteryear, star-stacked and defibrillated with enough juice to jolt a gorilla out of cardiac arrest."
The movie was also criticized for racism. Writing for *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, Simran Hans writes "By Ritchie’s logic, white weed kingpins are entrepreneurs with the moral high ground; Asian heroin-pushers are 'the killers of worlds."' Gary M. Kramer, writing for *[Salon](Salon.com)*, said "Ritchie thinks casual racism is funny, and the film's Asian characters are all called the derogatory c-word: '[Chinamen](Chinaman (term)).' Most everyone else on screen is called the other, equally taboo [c-word](Cunt), which is meant to be cheeky, but it is not. It is offensive; cringe-inducing rather than amusing, and one wonders when the juvenile Ritchie is going to grow the f**k up and quit being so conceited about his smartassery."
### Accolades
### Lawsuit
Three years after the film's release, Ritchie was sued by the actor [De Hara](Mickey)(Mickey De Hara) (who had played Turbo in Richie's prior film *[RocknRolla](RocknRolla)* (2008)) for copying (from a De Hara screenplay that Ritchie had rejected) the cast of characters, their characterization and “unique aspects of the plot” (including a protagonist who runs a marijuana empire and an aristocrat with a drug-addicted child). De Hara claimed that when he had tried to address the issue out of court, Ritchie responded, “Mickey, I and my people have tried to contact you for some years now. There was no response. I am happy for us to sit down and have a chat.” De Hara claimed that the most blatant instance of copying was a scene involving the character Coach and "The Toddlers" gang he leads, which was an almost exact match to a scene from De Hara's screenplay with a character Coach leading a group of thugs nicknamed "The Baby Squad."
## Television series
In October 2020, [Television](Miramax)(Miramax Television) started development on a spin-off television series of the film, with Ritchie helming the project. In November 2022, the series was officially greenlit by [Netflix](Netflix). The pilot was written by Guy Ritchie and Matthew Read. Ritchie will direct the first two episodes and serves as executive producer alongside Ivan Atkinson, Marn Davies, and Bill Block. *The Gentleman* will star [James](Theo)(Theo James), alongside [Jones](Vinnie)(Vinnie Jones), [Scodelario](Kaya)(Kaya Scodelario), [Esposito](Giancarlo)(Giancarlo Esposito), [Ings](Daniel)(Daniel Ings), [Richardson](Joely)(Joely Richardson), [Serafinowicz](Peter)(Peter Serafinowicz), [Rodney](Alexis)(Alexis Rodney) and [Cresswell](Chanel)(Chanel Cresswell).
## References
## External links
*
*
[films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 films)
[crime action films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 crime action films)
[crime comedy films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s crime comedy films)
[action comedy films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 action comedy films)
[crime action films](Category:American)(Category:American crime action films)
[gangster films](Category:American)(Category:American gangster films)
[films about cannabis](Category:American)(Category:American films about cannabis)
[crime action films](Category:British)(Category:British crime action films)
[gangster films](Category:British)(Category:British gangster films)
[films about cannabis](Category:British)(Category:British films about cannabis)
[adapted into television shows](Category:Films)(Category:Films adapted into television shows)
[directed by Guy Ritchie](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Guy Ritchie)
[shot in London](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in London)
[set in London](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in London)
[with screenplays by Guy Ritchie](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Guy Ritchie)
[Entertainment films](Category:STX)(Category:STX Entertainment films)
[films](Category:Miramax)(Category:Miramax films)
[produced by Bill Block](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Bill Block)
[about organized crime in the United States](Category:Films)(Category:Films about organized crime in the United States)
[about organised crime in the United Kingdom](Category:Films)(Category:Films about organised crime in the United Kingdom)
[English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films)
[American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
[British films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s British films)
|
Nile
|
nile
|
# Nile
*Revision ID: 1160337398 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:13:24Z*
---
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location= [Aswan](Aswan), Egypt
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg =
| discharge1_max =
| discharge2_location= Cairo, Egypt
| discharge2_min =
| discharge2_avg =
| discharge2_max =
| source1 = [Nile](White)(White Nile)
| source1_coordinates=
| source1_elevation =
| source2 = [Nile](Blue)(Blue Nile)
| source2_location = [Tana](Lake)(Lake Tana), Ethiopia
| source2_coordinates=
| source2_elevation =
| mouth = Mediterranean Sea
| mouth_location = [Delta](Nile)(Nile Delta), Egypt
| mouth_coordinates =
| mouth_elevation = [level](Sea)(Sea level)
| progression =
| river_system =
| basin_size =
| basin_landmarks =
| basin_population =
| tributaries_left =[Nile](White)(White Nile River)
| tributaries_right =[Nile](Blue)(Blue Nile River), [Atbara](Atbara River)
| waterbodies =
| waterfalls =
| bridges =
| ports =
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
|discharge3_location=Nile Delta, Egypt, Mediterranean Sea|discharge3_avg=}}
The **Nile**, , [Bohairic](Bohairic) , , [Nobiin](Nobiin language): Áman Dawū}} is a major north-flowing [river](river) in northeastern [Africa](Africa). It flows into the [Sea](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea). The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the [river in the world](longest)(List of rivers by length), though this has been contested by research suggesting that the [River](Amazon)(Amazon River) is slightly longer.[Amazon Longer Than Nile River, Scientists Say](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-amazon-river.html) Of the world's major rivers, the Nile is one of the smallest, as measured by annual flow in cubic metres of water. About , but reported values lie anywhere between and . The measurements of many rivers' lengths are only approximations and may differ from each other because there are many factors that determine the calculated length of a river, such as the position of the geographical source and the mouth, the scale of measurement, and the technique used to measure length (see also [of rivers by length](List)(List of rivers by length)).}} long, its [basin](drainage)(drainage basin) covers eleven countries: the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo), [Tanzania](Tanzania), [Burundi](Burundi), [Rwanda](Rwanda), [Uganda](Uganda), [Kenya](Kenya), [Ethiopia](Ethiopia), [Eritrea](Eritrea), [Sudan](South)(South Sudan), [of the Sudan](Republic)(Republic of the Sudan), and [Egypt](Egypt). In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan. Additionally, the Nile is an important economic river, supporting agriculture and fishing.
The Nile has two major [tributaries](tributary) – the [Nile](White)(White Nile) and the [Nile](Blue)(Blue Nile). The White Nile is traditionally considered to be the [headwaters](River source) [stream](stream). However, the Blue Nile is the source of most of the water of the Nile downstream, containing 80% of the water and [silt](silt). The White Nile is longer and rises in the [Lakes](Great)(African Great Lakes) region. It begins at [Victoria](Lake)(Lake Victoria) and flows through Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at [Tana](Lake)(Lake Tana) in EthiopiaThe river's outflow from that lake occurs at and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two [meet](rivers)(Confluence) at the Sudanese capital of [Khartoum](Khartoum).
The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the [Desert](Nubian)(Nubian Desert) to [Cairo](Cairo) and its [delta](large)(Nile Delta), and the river flows into the Mediterranean Sea at [Alexandria](Alexandria). [civilization](Egyptian)(History of Egypt) and [kingdoms](Sudanese)(History of Sudan) have depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of the [Dam](Aswan)(Aswan Dam). Nearly all the cultural and historical sites of [Egypt](Ancient)(Ancient Egypt) developed and are found along river banks. The Nile is, with the [Rhône](Rhône) and [Po](Po (river)), one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest [discharge](water)(Discharge (hydrology)).
## Etymology
The standard English names "White Nile" and "Blue Nile" refer to the river's source, derived from [Arabic](Arabic) names formerly applied to only the Sudanese stretches that meet at Khartoum.
In the ancient [language](Egyptian)(Egyptian language), the Nile is called ''Ḥ'pī* (Hapy) or *Iteru*, meaning "river". In [Coptic](Coptic language), the word [ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲟ](wikt:ⲓⲁⲣⲟ), pronounced *piaro* ([Sahidic](Sahidic)) or *phiaro* ([Bohairic](Bohairic)), means "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great"), and comes from the same ancient name. In [Nobiin](Nobiin language) the river is called *Áman Dawū*, meaning "the great water". In [Luganda](Luganda) the river is called *Kiira* or *Kiyira*. In [Runyoro](Runyoro) it is called *Kihiira*. In [Arabic](Egyptian)(Egyptian Arabic), the Nile is called *en-Nīl*, while in [Arabic](Standard)(Standard Arabic) it is called *an-Nīl*. In [Hebrew](Biblical)(Biblical Hebrew), it is , *Ha-Ye'or* or , *Ha-Shiḥor*.
The English name *Nile* and the Arabic names *en-Nîl* and *an-Nîl* both derive from the [Latin](Latin) *'' and the [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) . Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed.An overview is given by: Carles Múrcia (2006). [http://www.aulaorientalis.org/AuOr%20escaneado/AuOr%2025-2007/AuOr%2025-2007-2/2/U-2-5-Murcia-Nil-amazic.pdf] : El nom grec del riu Nil pot ser d'origen amazic? *Aula Orientalis* **24**: 269–292 [Homer](Homer) called the river , *Aiguptos*, but in subsequent periods, Greek authors referred to its lower course as *Neilos*; this term became generalised for the entire river system. Thus, the name may derive from Ancient Egyptian expression *n*ꜣ *r*ꜣ*w-ḥ*ꜣ*w(t)* (lit. 'the mouths of the front parts'), which referred specifically to the branches of the Nile transversing the Delta, and would have been pronounced *ni-lo-he* in the area around [Memphis](Memphis, Egypt) in the 8th century BCE. [Hesiod](Hesiod) at his *[Theogony](Theogony)* refers to [Nilus](Nilus (mythology)) (Νεῖλος) as one of the [Potamoi](Potamoi) (river gods), son of [Oceanus](Oceanus) and [Tethys](Tethys (mythology))."Τηθὺς δ᾽ Ὠκεανῷ Ποταμοὺς τέκε δινήεντας,
Νεῖλόν τ᾽ Ἀλφειόν τε καὶ Ἠριδανὸν βαθυδίνην" (Hesiod, "Theogony", 337–338).
Another derivation of *Nile* might be related to the term *Nil* (; ), which refers to *[tinctoria](Indigofera)(Indigofera tinctoria)*, one of the original sources of [dye](indigo)(indigo dye). |date= January 2023|reason=The etymology is not mantioned in the given source, connection between the name Nile and the Nymphaea caerulea is not clear.}} Another possible etymology derives from the [Semitic](Semitic languages) term *Nahal*, meaning "river". [Libyan](Old)(Proto-Berber language) has the term *lilu*, meaning water (in modern Berber *ilel* ⵉⵍⴻⵍ means *sea*).
## Courses
[[File:Nile_basin_map.png|thumb|left|The Nile's [basin](drainage)(drainage basin)]]
With a total length of about between the region of [Victoria](Lake)(Lake Victoria) and the [Sea](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea), the Nile is among the longest rivers on Earth. The [basin](drainage)(drainage basin) of the Nile covers , about 10% of the area of Africa. Compared to other major rivers, though, the Nile carries little water (5% of that of the [River](Congo)(Congo River), for example). The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the [discharge](Discharge (hydrology)) at any given point along the [stem](main)(main stem) depends on many factors including weather, diversions, [evaporation](evaporation) and [evapotranspiration](evapotranspiration), and [groundwater](groundwater) flow.
Upstream from [Khartoum](Khartoum) (to the south), the river is known as the [Nile](White)(White Nile), a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between [No](Lake)(Lake No) and Khartoum. At Khartoum, the river is joined by the [Nile](Blue)(Blue Nile). The White Nile starts in equatorial [Africa](East)(East Africa), and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the [African Rift](East)(East African Rift).
### Sources
[[of Nile, Spring at Jinja, Lake Victoria.jpg|thumb|Spring at Lake Victoria](File:Source)]
The source of the Blue Nile is [Tana](Lake)(Lake Tana) in the [Abay](Gish)(Gish Abay) region in the [Highlands](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Highlands).
The source of the White Nile, even after centuries of exploration, remains in dispute. The most remote source that is indisputably a source for the White Nile is the [River](Kagera)(Kagera River); however, the Kagera has tributaries that are in contention for the farthest source of the White Nile. Two start in Burundi: the [River](Ruvyironza)(Ruvyironza River) (also known as the Luvironza) and the [River](Rurubu)(Rurubu River). In addition, in 2010, an exploration party in RwandaDescribed in ''[Lumley](Joanna)(Joanna Lumley)'s Nile*, 7 pm to 8 pm, [ITV](ITV (TV network)), 12 August 2011. went to a place described as the source of the [Rukarara](Rukarara River) tributary, and by hacking a path up steep jungle-choked mountain slopes in the [Forest](Nyungwe)(Nyungwe Forest) found (in the [season](dry)(dry season)) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, and found a new source, giving the Nile a length of .
### In Uganda
[[File:White Nile Fishermen (18156464842).jpg|thumb|[Nile](White)(White Nile) in Uganda]]
The White Nile leaves [Victoria](Lake)(Lake Victoria) at [Falls](Ripon)(Ripon Falls) near [Uganda](Jinja,)(Jinja, Uganda), as the "Victoria Nile." It flows north for some to [Kyoga](Lake)(Lake Kyoga). The last part of the approximately river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of [Port](Masindi)(Masindi Port), where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north to [Falls](Karuma)(Karuma Falls). For the remaining part, it flows westerly through the [Falls](Murchison)(Murchison Falls) until it reaches the northern shores of [Albert](Lake)(Lake Albert (Africa)) where it forms a significant river delta. Lake Albert is on the border of the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo), but the Nile is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the [Nile](Albert)(White Nile#Albert Nile).
#### In South Sudan
The White Nile flows into [Sudan](South)(South Sudan) just south of [Nimule](Nimule), where it is known as the *Bahr al Jabal* ("Mountain River"}}). Just south of the town is the [confluence](confluence) with the [River](Achwa)(Achwa River). The [al Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal River), long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called [No](Lake)(Lake No), after which the Nile becomes known as the *Bahr al Abyad'', or the White Nile, from the whitish [clay](clay) suspended in its waters. When the [floods](Nile)(Flooding of the Nile) it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An [anabranch](anabranch) river, the [el Zeraf](Bahr)(Bahr el Zeraf), flows out of the Nile's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.
The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at [Mongalla](Mongalla, South Sudan) is almost constant throughout the year and averages . After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the [Sudd](Sudd) region. More than half of the Nile's water is lost in this swamp to [evaporation](evaporation) and [transpiration](transpiration). The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about . From here it meets with the [River](Sobat)(Sobat River) at [Malakal](Malakal). On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about 15% of the total outflow of the Nile.
The average flow of the White Nile at Lake Kawaki Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is ; the peak flow is approximately in October and minimum flow is about in April. This fluctuation is caused by the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about in March and a peak flow of over in October. During the [season](dry)(dry season) (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70% and 90% of the total discharge from the Nile.
### In Sudan
Below [Renk](Renk, South Sudan), the White Nile enters Sudan, it flows north to Khartoum and meets the Blue Nile.
The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over [groups of cataracts](six)(Cataracts of the Nile), from the sixth at [Sabaloka](Sabaloka Game Reserve) just north of Khartoum northward to [Hamad](Abu)(Abu Hamad). The tectonic uplift of the [Swell](Nubian)(Nubian Swell) diverts the river south-west for over 300 km, following the structure of the [African Shear Zone](Central)(Central African Shear Zone) embracing the [Desert](Bayuda)(Bayuda Desert). At [Dabbah](Al)(Al Dabbah, Sudan) it resumes its northward course towards the first cataract at [Aswan](Aswan) forming the 'S'-shaped Great Bend of the Nile mentioned by [Eratosthenes](Eratosthenes).
In the north of Sudan, the river enters [Nasser](Lake)(Lake Nasser) (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.
#### In Egypt
Below the [Dam](Aswan)(Aswan Dam), at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course. North of [Cairo](Cairo), the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the [Rosetta](Rosetta) Branch to the west and the [Damietta](Damietta) to the east, forming the [Delta](Nile)(Nile Delta).
### Sediment transport
[[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|[Delta](Nile)(Nile Delta) from space]]
The annual sediment transport by the Nile in Egypt has been quantified.
* At [Aswan](Aswan): 0.14 million tonnes of [sediment](suspended)(suspended load) and an additional 28% of [bedload](bed load)
* At [Sweif](Beni)(Beni Sweif): 0.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 20% of bedload
* At [Qena](Qena): 0.27 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 27% of bedload
* At [Sohag](Sohag): 1.5 million tonnes of suspended sediment and an additional 13% of bedload
## Tributaries
### Red Nile
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the [River](Atbarah)(Atbarah River), also known as the Red Nile. Roughly halfway to the sea, it originates in [Ethiopia](Ethiopia) north of [Tana](Lake)(Lake Tana), and is around long. The Atbarah flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up north of [Khartoum](Khartoum).
### Blue Nile
[[File:ET Bahir Dar asv2018-02 img17 Tis Issat.jpg|thumb|left|The [Nile Falls](Blue)(Blue Nile Falls) fed by [Tana](Lake)(Lake Tana) near the city of [Dar](Bahir)(Bahir Dar), [Ethiopia](Ethiopia)]]
[[view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm](File:ISS036-E-011050.jpg|thumb|Annotated)]
The Blue Nile (, *ʿĀbay*[BGN](United States Board on Geographic Names)/[PCGN](Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use). "[Romanization System for Amharic](http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/romanization.html) ". 1967. Hosted at the [Geospatial-Intelligence Agency](National)(National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency), 2013. Accessed 28 February 2014.See also: [[romanization| romanization](BGN/PCGN)].) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile. river, Africa |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Blue-Nile-River |access-date=31 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801185437/https://www.britannica.com/place/Blue-Nile-River |archive-date=1 August 2017 |url-status=live}} Ninety percent of the water and ninety-six percent of the transported sediment carried by the NileMarshall et al., originates in Ethiopia, with fifty-nine percent of the water from the Blue Nile (the rest being from the [Tekezé](Tekezé River), Atbarah, [Sobat](Sobat River), and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian [season](rainy)(Wet season) when rainfall is especially high in the [Highlands](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Highlands); the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts, the Blue Nile dries out completely.
The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as , although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season, the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).
Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about occurred during late April and early May.
### Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River
The [al Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal River) and the [River](Sobat)(Sobat River) are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.
The Bahr al Ghazal's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile's sub-basins, measuring in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about annually, because tremendous volumes of water are lost in the Sudd wetlands.
The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land, , but contributes annually to the Nile. When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile's color.
### Yellow Nile
[[Map Sudan.png|thumb|280px|Map of Nile tributaries in modern Sudan, showing the Yellow Nile](File:Nile)]
The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the [highlands](Ouaddaï)(Ouaddaï highlands) of eastern [Chad](Chad) to the Nile River Valley c. 8000 to c. 1000 BCE. Its remains are known as the [Howar](Wadi)(Wadi Howar). The wadi passes through [Darfur](Gharb)(Gharb Darfur) near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.
## History
[[File:Herodotus world map-en.svg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [Oikoumene](Oikoumene) (inhabited world), an ancient map based on [Herodotus](Herodotus)' description of the world, circa 450 BC]]
The Nile has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the [Age](Stone)(Stone Age), with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt developing along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in [Libya](Libya) and flow into the [of Sidra](Gulf)(Gulf of Sidra). As the sea level rose at the end of the [recent ice age](most)(Last Glacial Period), the stream which is now the northern Nile [captured](Stream capture) the ancestral Nile near [Asyut](Asyut). This change in climate also led to the current extents of the [Sahara](Sahara) desert, around 3400 BCE.Although the ancestral Sahara Desert initially developed at least 7 million years ago, it grew during interglacial periods and shrank during glacial ones. The growth of the current Sahara began about 6,000 [ago](years)(Before Present).
### Khufu branch
The Giza Pyramid Complex originally overlooked a branch of the Nile that no longer exists. This branch was highest during the [Humid Period](African)(African Humid Period).
### Ancient Niles
The existing Nile has five earlier phases;
*i) the Upper Miocenian Eonile, of about 6 million years [BP](Before Present),
*ii) the Upper Pliocenian Paleonile, commencing about 3.32 million years BP, and during the [Pleistocene](Pleistocene), the Nile phases
*iii) Proto-Nile, commencing about 600,000 years BP,
*iv) Pre-Nile, transitioning at about 400,000 years BP to the
*v) Neo-Nile.
Flowing north from the Ethiopian Highlands, [imagery](satellite)(satellite imagery) was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. A canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents the **Eonile** that flowed during 23–5.3 million years before present. The Eonile transported [sediments](clastic)(Clastic rock) to the Mediterranean; several [gas](natural)(natural gas) fields have been discovered within these sediments.
During the late-[Miocene](Miocene) [salinity crisis](Messinian)(Messinian salinity crisis), when the Mediterranean Sea was a [basin](closed)(Endorheic basin) and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and below Cairo. This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment after the Mediterranean was recreated. At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create [Moeris](Lake)(Lake Moeris).
[Tanganyika](Lake)(Lake Tanganyika) drained northwards into the Nile until the [Volcanoes](Virunga)(Virunga Mountains) blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern [Zambia](Zambia). The currently existing Nile first flowed during the former parts of the [glaciation](Würm)(Würm glaciation) period.
### Integrated Nile
There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulates that Egypt supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.Said, R. (1981). *The geological evolution of the River Nile*. [Verlag](Springer)(Springer Verlag).
The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile, the Atbara and the Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into [Tertiary](Tertiary) times.Williams, M.A.J.; Williams, F. (1980). *Evolution of Nile Basin*. In M.A.J. Williams and H. Faure (eds). *The Sahara and the Nile*. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 207–224.
Salama suggests that during the [Paleogene](Paleogene) and [Neogene](Neogene) Periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago) a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: [rift](Mellut)(Melut Basin), [Nile rift](White)(White Nile rift), [Nile rift](Blue)(Blue Nile rift), [rift](Atbara)(Atbara rift) and [El Naam rift](Sag)(Sag El Naam rift).
The Mellut Basin is nearly deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported [tectonic](Tectonics) activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The [Sudd](Sudd) swamp which forms the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift system, although shallower than the [el Arab rift](Bahr)(Bahr el Arab rift), is about deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be . These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them.
The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift systems.Salama, R.B. (1997). *Rift Basins of Sudan. African Basins, Sedimentary Basins of the World. 3.* Edited by R.C. Selley (Series Editor K.J. Hsu) pp. 105–149. ElSevier, Amsterdam. The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The Atbarah overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000–80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago during the [humid period](African)(African humid period).
### Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization
[[File:Vallee fertile du Nil a Louxor.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of [irrigation](irrigation) from the Nile River supporting agriculture in [Egypt](Luxor,)(Luxor)]]
[[File:Dhows on the Nile.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A [felucca](felucca) traversing the Nile near Aswan]]
The Greek historian [Herodotus](Herodotus) wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile". An unending source of sustenance, it played a crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization. Because the river overflowed its banks annually and deposited new layers of silt, the surrounding land was very fertile. The [Egypt](Ancient)(Ancient Egypt)ians cultivated and traded [wheat](wheat), [flax](flax), [papyrus](papyrus) and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine-plagued [East](Middle)(Middle East). This trading system secured Egypt's diplomatic relationships with other countries and contributed to economic stability. Far-reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times. A tune, [to the Nile](Hymn)(Hymn to the Nile), was created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization.
[buffalo](Water)(Water buffalo) were introduced from Asia, and the [Assyrians](Assyrian people) introduced [camel](camel)s in the 7th century BCE. These animals were raised for meat and were domesticated and used for ploughing—or in the camels' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods.
The Nile was also an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. [Hapi](Hapi (Nile god)) was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the [pharaoh](pharaoh) were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god [Ra](Ra), the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the three cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called [Akhet](Season of the Inundation), [Peret](Season of the Emergence), and [Shemu](Season of the Harvest). Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
### European search for the source
[[File:JH Speke.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[John Hanning Speke](John Hanning Speke) . Speke was the [Victorian](Victorian Age) explorer who first reached [Victoria](Lake)(Lake Victoria) in 1858, returning to establish it as the source of the Nile by 1862.]]
Owing to their failure to penetrate the Sudd wetlands of South Sudan, the upper reaches of the White Nile remained largely unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Various expeditions failed to determine the river's source. [Agatharchides](Agatharchides) records that in the time of [II Philadelphus](Ptolemy)(Ptolemy II Philadelphus), a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana. The *[Rogeriana](Tabula)(Tabula Rogeriana)* depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.
Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 14th century when the Pope sent monks as emissaries to [Mongolia](Mongolia) who passed India, the Middle East and Africa, and described being told of the source of the Nile in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) Later in the 15th and 16th centuries, travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Putatively, Paolo Trevisani (circa 1452-1483), a Venetian traveller in Ethiopia, wrote a journal of his travels to the *origin of the Nile* that has since been lost.[Dizionario biografico universale](https://books.google.com/books?id=hg5BAQAAMAAJ), Volume 5, by Felice Scifoni, Publisher Davide Passagli, Florence (1849); page 411.[Ten Centuries of European Progress](https://books.google.com/books?id=l3cvAQAAMAAJ) by Lowis D'Aguilar Jalkson (1893) pages 126-127. Although [Bruce](James)(James Bruce) claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters,[to Discover the Source of the Nile](Travels)(Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile) modern writers give the credit to the [Jesuit](Society of Jesus) [Páez](Pedro)(Pedro Páez). Páez's account of the source of the Nile*History of Ethiopia*, circa 1622 is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, although it was featured in works of Páez's contemporaries, including Baltazar Téllez,*Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta*, 1660 [Kircher](Athanasius)(Athanasius Kircher)*Mundus Subterraneus*, 1664 and by [Michael Vansleb](Johann)(Johann Michael Vansleb).*The Present State of Egypt*, 1678.
Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century, and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the [Issat](Tis)(Blue Nile Falls) Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in [Cicero](Cicero)'s *De Republica*.S. Whiteway, editor and translator, *The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1441–1543*, 1902. (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1967), p. 241. Referring to [Cicero](Cicero), *De Republica*, [6.19](http://www.attalus.org/translate/republic6.html#19). [Lobo](Jerónimo)(Jerónimo Lobo) describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also uses his account.
The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the [River](Niger)(Niger River) represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder) writes that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower [Mauretania](Mauretania)", flowed above ground for "many days" distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the [Masaesyli](Masaesyli), then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians."*[History](Natural)(Natural History (Pliny))*, [5.(10).51](http://www.attalus.org/translate/pliny_hn5a.html#51)
[[map of the Nile , a time when its entire primary course ran through British occupations, condominiums, colonies, and protectorates](File:1911Nile.png|left|thumb|upright|A)]
Modern exploration of the Nile basin began with the [of the northern and central Sudan](conquest)(Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)) by the [Ottoman](Ottoman Empire) viceroy of Egypt, [Ali](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali of Egypt), and his sons from 1821 onward. As a result of this, the Blue Nile was known as far as its exit from the Ethiopian foothills and the White Nile as far as the mouth of the Sobat River. Three expeditions under a Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi, were made between 1839 and 1842, and two got to the point about beyond the present port of [Juba](Juba), where the country rises and rapids make navigation very difficult.
Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when British explorer [Hanning Speke](John)(John Hanning Speke) reached its southern shore while traveling with [Francis Burton](Richard)(Richard Francis Burton) to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water" for the first time, Speke named the lake after [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria). Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of [Tanganyika](Lake)(Lake Tanganyika), was outraged that Speke claimed to have proven his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A quarrel ensued which sparked intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery. British explorer and missionary [Livingstone](David)(David Livingstone) pushed too far west and entered the [River](Congo)(Congo River) system instead. It was ultimately Welsh-American explorer [Morton Stanley](Henry)(Henry Morton Stanley) who confirmed Speke's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at [Falls](Ripon)(Ripon Falls) on the lake's northern shore.
### Since 1950
[[File:KageraRuvubu.jpg|thumb|right|The confluence of the [Kagera](Kagera river) and [Ruvubu](Ruvubu river) rivers near [Falls](Rusumo)(Rusumo Falls), part of the Nile's upper reaches]]
[[File:Nile03(js).jpg|thumb|[Dhows](Dhows) on the Nile]] [[from Cairo Tower 31march2007.jpg|thumb|The Nile passes through Cairo, Egypt's capital city.](File:View)]
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river using sails and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The river's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impedes water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to build the [Canal](Jonglei)(Jonglei Canal) to bypass the swamp.["Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River"](https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA34) . October 1933. *[Science](Popular)(Popular Science)* (short article on top-right of page with map).
Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, [Luxor](Luxor) (Thebes), and the [Giza](Giza)Cairo [conurbation](conurbation). The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as [felucca](felucca)s. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at [Edfu](Edfu) and [Ombo](Kom)(Kom Ombo) along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.
A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro-power of Sudan, during 1955–57D.F. Manzer and M.P. Barnett, *Analysis by Simulation: Programming Techniques for a High-Speed Digital Computer*, in Arthur Maas *et al.*, *Design of Water Resource Systems*, pp. 324–390, [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press), Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962. Morrice was their hydrological adviser, and Allan his predecessor. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on [transport model](hydrology)(hydrology transport model)s, which have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.
Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile river basin. According to a report by the [Foresight Group](Strategic)(Strategic Foresight Group) around 170 million people have been affected by droughts in the last century with half a million lives lost.[Blue Peace for the Nile, 2009](http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/11374Nile%20concise.pdf) ; Report by Strategic Foresight Group From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.
## Water sharing dispute
[[dams in the Nile (plus huge dam under construction in Ethiopia)](File:Nile_hydro_power.jpg|thumb|Hydropower)]
The Nile's water has affected the politics of East Africa and the [of Africa](Horn)(Horn of Africa) for many decades. The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the $4.5 billion [Ethiopian Renaissance Dam](Grand)(Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam) has become a national preoccupation in both countries, stoking patriotism, deep-seated fears and even murmurs of war. Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources. The [Basin Initiative](Nile)(Nile Basin Initiative) promotes a peaceful cooperation among those states.
Several attempts have been made to establish agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. On 14 May 2010 at [Entebbe](Entebbe), Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Tanzania signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile water even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments.
## Modern achievements and exploration
### White Nile
In 1951, American [Goddard](John)(John Goddard (adventurer)) together with two French explorers became the first to successfully navigate the entire Nile from its source in Burundi at the potential headsprings of the Kagera River in Burundi to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of approximately . Their 9-month journey is described in the book *Kayaks down the Nile*.[Geographic](National)(National Geographic Society) wrote an article about this trip in its Magazine issue dated May 1955.
The White Nile Expedition, led by [Africa](South)(South Africa)n national [Coetzee](Hendrik)(Hendrik Coetzee), navigated the White Nile's entire length of approximately . The expedition began at the White Nile's beginning at Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later.[Geographic](National)(National Geographic Society) released a feature film about the expedition in late 2005 entitled *The Longest River*.
### Blue Nile
The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first known people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately journey took 114 days, from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey.They chronicled their adventure with an [IMAX](IMAX) camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film *[of the Nile](Mystery)(Mystery of the Nile)* released in 2005, and in a book of the same title. Although they descended [whitewater](whitewater) manually, the team used [motor](outboard)(outboard motor)s for much of their journey.
On 29 January 2005, Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human-powered transit of Ethiopia's Blue Nile. Their journey of over took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.Mark Tanner, [Paddling the Blue Nile in Flood](http://marktanner.com/niletrip/about.html) . Retrieved 1 November 2014
## Crossings
### Crossings from Khartoum to the Mediterranean Sea
[[File:Kasr Al Nile Bridge.JPG|thumb|View of the Qasr El Nil Bridge in Cairo, with [Island](Gezira)(Gezira Island) in the background]]
[[File:Khartoum, Sudan (32485465841)2.jpg|thumb|[Mek Nimr Bridge](El)(El Mek Nimr Bridge) in Khartoum]]
The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:
* [Nimir Bridge](Mac)(Mac Nimir Bridge)
* [Nile Road & Railway Bridge](Blue)(Blue Nile Road & Railway Bridge)
* [Bridge](Burri)(Burri Bridge)
* [Bridge](Elmansheya)(Elmansheya Bridge)
* [Soba](Soba (city)) Bridge
The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:
* [Nile Bridge](White)(White Nile Bridge)
* [Bridge](Fitayhab)(Fitayhab Bridge)
* [Dabbaseen Bridge](Al)(Al Dabbaseen Bridge) (under construction)
* [Bridge](Omhuraz)(Omhuraz Bridge) (proposed)
The following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North:
* [Bridge](Shambat)(Shambat Bridge)
* [Bridge](Halfia)(Halfia Bridge)
The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum state's three cities
* [Bridge](Khartoum-Tuti)(Tuti Bridge)
* [Suspension Bridge](Omdurman-Tuti)(Omdurman-Tuti Suspension Bridge) (proposed)
* [North-Tuti Bridge](Khartoum)(Khartoum North-Tuti Bridge) (proposed)
Other bridges
* Shandi Bridge, [Shendi](Shendi)
* Atbarah Bridge, [Atbarah](Atbarah)
* [Dam](Merowe)(Merowe Dam), [Merowe](Merowe, Sudan)
* Merowe Bridge, Merowe
* Aswan Bridge, [Aswan](Aswan)
* Luxor Bridge, [Luxor](Luxor)
* Suhag Bridge, [Suhag](Suhag, Egypt)
* Assiut Bridge, [Assiut](Assiut)
* Al Minya Bridge, [Minya](Minya, Egypt)
* Al Marazeek Bridge, [Helwan](Helwan)
* First Ring Road Bridge (Moneeb Crossing), [Cairo](Cairo)
* Abbas Bridge, Cairo
* University Bridge, Cairo
* [al-Nil Bridge](Qasr)(Qasr al-Nil Bridge), Cairo
* [October Bridge](6th)(6th October Bridge), Cairo
* [El Ela Bridge](Abu)(Boulak Bridge), Cairo (removed in 1998)
* New Abu El Ela Bridge, Cairo
* [Bridge](Imbaba)(Imbaba Bridge), Cairo
* Rod Elfarag Bridge, Cairo
* Second Ring Road Bridge, Cairo
* Banha Bridge, Banha
* Samanoud Bridge, Samanoud
* Mansoura 2 Bridges, [Mansoura](Mansoura)
* Talkha Bridge, Talkha
* Shirbine high Bridge
* Shirbine Bridge
* Kafr Sad – Farscor Bridge
* International Coastal Road Bridge
* Damietta high Bridge, [Damietta](Damietta)
* Damietta Bridge, [Damietta](Damietta)
* Kafr El Zayat Bridges, Kafr El Zayat
* Zefta Bridge, Zefta
### Crossings from Jinja, Uganda to Khartoum
* [of the Nile Bridge](Source)(Source of the Nile Bridge), [Jinja](Jinja District), Uganda
* River Nile Railway Bridge, [Jinja](Jinja District), Uganda
* Nalubaale Bridge, [Uganda](Jinja,)(Jinja, Uganda) (Formerly [Falls Bridge](Owen)(Owen Falls))
* Karuma Bridge, [Karuma](Karuma), Uganda
* Pakwach Bridge, Uganda
## See also
* [Hydroelectric Power Station](Bujagali)(Bujagali Hydroelectric Power Station)
* [Public Works](Egyptian)(Egyptian Public Works)
* [Hydroelectric Power Station](Kiira)(Kiira Hydroelectric Power Station)
* [politics in the Nile Basin](Water)(Water politics in the Nile Basin)
* [Dam](Merowe)(Merowe Dam)
* [Hydroelectric Power Station](Nalubaale)(Nalubaale Hydroelectric Power Station)
* [of magnitude](Orders)(Orders of magnitude (length))
* [Flumina](Vid)(Vid Flumina), a river of liquid methane and ethane on Saturn's moon Titan
* *[River War](The)(The River War)* (1899), [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill)'s second book, an account of steaming up the Nile to the [of Omdurman](Battle)(Battle of Omdurman), Sudan, in 1898
## Notes and references
;Notes
;References
;Sources
## Further reading
*
* [Tim](Jeal,)(Tim Jeal) (2011). *Explorers of the Nile: The Triumph and Tragedy of a Great Victorian Adventure*.
* Moorehead, Alan, "The White Nile" (Hamish Hamilton, 1960; revised and illustrated edition, 1971). Abridged illustrated edition, as The Story of the White Nile (Harper & Row, 1967)
* Moorehead, Alan, "The Blue Nile" (Hamish Hamilton, 1962; revised and illustrated edition, 1972). Abridged illustrated edition, as The Story of the Blue Nile (Harper & Row, 1966)
* Tvedt, Terje, ed. *The River Nile in the Post-Colonial Age: Conflict and Cooperation Among the Nile Basin Countries* (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 293 pages; studies of the river's finite resources as shared by multiple nations in the post-colonial era; includes research by scholars from Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.
* Tvedt, Terje, (2004) "The Nile: An Annotated Bibliography", London/New York,
## External links
* [A Struggle Over the Nile](https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/09/25/world/0926NILE.html?ref=world) – slideshow by *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
* [Thesis Analyzing Nile River Negotiations](https://web.archive.org/web/20160110142026/http://nilegov.com/) (archived 10 January 2016)
*
*[Old maps of the Nile](https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,river%20map&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=tlevel,include,online_resources,2&mfacet=topic,include,Nile%20River,3&mfacet=topic,include,Nile%20River%20Delta%20(Egypt),3&lang=en_US&offset=0&came_from=sort), from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The [Library of Israel](National)(National Library of Israel)
[ ](Category:Nile)
[rivers of Africa](Category:International)(Category:International rivers of Africa)
[*](Category:Nile basin)
[of Egypt](Category:Rivers)(Category:Rivers of Egypt)
[of Sudan](Category:Rivers)(Category:Rivers of Sudan)
[of South Sudan](Category:Rivers)(Category:Rivers of South Sudan)
[of Uganda](Category:Rivers)(Category:Rivers of Uganda)
[of ancient Egypt](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of ancient Egypt)
[Bible rivers](Category:Hebrew)(Category:Hebrew Bible rivers)
[parks of Egypt](Category:National)(Category:National parks of Egypt)
[transport in Egypt](Category:Water)(Category:Water transport in Egypt)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[of Africa](Category:Rivers)(Category:Rivers of Africa)
|
Benedict Cumberbatch
|
benedict_cumberbatch
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# Benedict Cumberbatch
*Revision ID: 1159089752 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T05:07:07Z*
---
| image = BCumberbatch Comic-Con 2019.jpg
| caption = Cumberbatch at the 2019 [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con)
| birth_name = Benedict Timothy Carlton Cumberbatch
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Hammersmith](Hammersmith), London, England
| nationality = British
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [Actor](Actor)
| years_active = 1998–present
| works = [list](Full)(List of Benedict Cumberbatch performances)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Benedict Cumberbatch)
| spouse =
| children = 3
| father = [Carlton](Timothy)(Timothy Carlton)
| mother = [Ventham](Wanda)(Wanda Ventham)
| relatives =
| module =
}}
**Benedict Timothy Carlton Cumberbatch** (born 19 July 1976) is an English actor. Known for his work on screen and stage, he has received [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Benedict Cumberbatch), including a [TV Award](BAFTA)(British Academy Television Award), a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) and a [Olivier Award](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Award), in addition to nominations for two [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards), two [Film Awards](BAFTA)(BAFTA Film Awards) and four [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globes). In 2014, *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine named him one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100), and in 2015, he was appointed a CBE at [Palace](Buckingham)(Buckingham Palace) for services to the performing arts and to charity.
Cumberbatch studied drama at the [University of Manchester](Victoria)(Victoria University of Manchester) and obtained a [of Arts](Master)(Master of Arts) in classical acting at the [Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](London)(London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art). He began acting in [Shakespearean](William Shakespeare) theatre productions before making his [End](West)(West End theatre) debut in [Eyre](Richard)(Richard Eyre)'s revival of *[Gabler](Hedda)(Hedda Gabler)* in 2005. Since then, he has starred in [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre) productions of *[the Dance](After)(After the Dance (play))* (2010) and *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein (2011 play))* (2011), winning the [Olivier Award for Best Actor](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor) for the latter. In 2015, he played the [role](title)(Prince Hamlet) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)* at the [Theatre](Barbican)(Barbican Centre).
Cumberbatch's television work includes his performance as [Hawking](Stephen)(Stephen Hawking) in the film *[Hawking](Hawking (2004 film))* (2004). He gained wide recognition for portraying [Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes) in the series *[Sherlock](Sherlock (TV series))* from 2010 to 2017, for which he won a [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie). For playing the [role](title)(Patrick Melrose) in the miniseries *[Melrose](Patrick)(Patrick Melrose (TV series))* (2018), he won the [TV Award for Best Actor](BAFTA)(British Academy Television Award for Best Actor).
In films, he received [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor) nominations for his performances as [Turing](Alan)(Alan Turing) in *[Imitation Game](The)(The Imitation Game)* (2014) and as a volatile rancher in *[Power of the Dog](The)(The Power of the Dog (film))* (2021). He also acted in the dramas *[Grace](Amazing)(Amazing Grace (2006 film))* (2006), *[Atonement](Atonement (2007 film))* (2007), *[Tailor Soldier Spy](Tinker)(Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (film))* (2011), *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))* (2013), *[Current War](The)(The Current War)* (2017), *[1917](1917 (2019 film))* (2019) and *[Courier](The)(The Courier (2020 film))* (2020). He has starred in numerous [blockbuster](blockbuster (entertainment)) films portraying [Khan](Khan Noonien Singh) in *[Trek Into Darkness](Star)(Star Trek Into Darkness)* (2013), and [Smaug](Smaug) and [Sauron](Sauron) in [Hobbit* film series](*The)(The Hobbit (film series)). Since 2016, he has played Dr. [Strange](Stephen)(Stephen Strange (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe), including the films *[Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange (2016 film))* (2016) and *[Strange in the Multiverse of Madness](Doctor)(Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness)* (2022).
## Early life and education
### Antecedents and family tree
In 1728, Benedict Cumberbatch's 7th-great-grandfather, Abraham Cumberbatch of [Andrew, Barbados](Saint)(Saint Andrew, Barbados) (died 1753), acquired properties on the island of [Barbados](Barbados) in the [Indies](West)(West Indies), which used [people](enslaved)(enslaved people) for labour. [Nicholas Abbey](St)(St Nicholas Abbey) was owned by Cumberbatch's ancestors for at least two hundred years.Rita DeMontis: *[Visiting Barbados a feast for your tastebuds](https://www.saltwire.com/nova-scotia/lifestyles/delicious-bajan-experience-visiting-barbados-a-feast-for-your-tastebuds-100800576/)*, 29 November 2022
These properties were passed down through the generations to Benedict's great-great-great-grandfather, Abraham Parry Cumberbatch (died 1840 in [Hellingly](Hellingly), [Sussex](Sussex)). He was an absentee landlord of two estates, Cleland and Lammings, for which he received £5388 as slave compensation (via the [Compensation Act 1837](Slave)(Slave Compensation Act 1837), four years after the [Abolition Act 1833](Slavery)(Slavery Abolition Act 1833) had abolished slavery). The Cleland plantation enslaved 250 people, and was the main source of the Cumberbatch family's considerable wealth at the time; they were one of the richest families in Britain.
There has been media speculation that the Barbados National Task Force on Reparations, which, as part of the wider Caribbean's [Reparations Commission](CARICOM)(CARICOM Reparations Commission), is seeking reparations from wealthy British MP [Drax](Richard)(Richard Drax) for his ancestors' involvement in slavery, might also consider seeking reparations from families such as the Cumberbatches. Benedict Cumberbatch has said that by the time of his birth, most of the money had run out, and he grew up "definitely [class](middle)(middle class)", or [middle class](upper)(upper middle class). The Drax family still owns a large estate in Barbados, and Richard Drax is said to be worth at least £150 million. Barbados′ officials have since rebuked those speculations and called them a "Campaign of deceptive and misleading British ′yellow journalism′".
Abraham Parry Cumberbatch's son (Benedict's great-great-grandfather) [William Cumberbatch](Robert)(Robert William Cumberbatch), was a British consul in Turkey and the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire).[Urbanhistory.org.ua](http://ri-urbanhistory.org.ua/library/British%20Consuls%20in%20Berdyansk_for_website.pdf) Igor Lyman, Victoria Konstantinova. The Ukrainian South as Viewed by Consuls of the British Empire (Nineteenth – Early Twentieth Centuries). Volume 1: British Consuls in the Port City of Berdyansk (Kyiv, 2018), p. 271-287[Lyman Igor](https://www.academia.edu/33853647/BRITISH_CONSUL_IN_BERDYANSK_CUMBERBATCH_GREAT-GREAT-_GRANDFATHER_OF_MODERN_SHERLOCK_HOLMES) , Konstantinova Viktoria. British Consul in Berdyansk Cumberbatch, Great-great-grandfather of Modern Sherlock Holmes, in Scriptorium nostrum, 2017, № 2 (8), p. 195-207. His great-grandfather, [Alfred Cumberbatch](Henry)(Henry Alfred Cumberbatch), was also a diplomat who served as consul in Turkey and Lebanon, and his grandfather, [Carlton Cumberbatch](Henry)(Henry Carlton Cumberbatch), was a submarine officer of both World Wars, and a prominent figure of London [society](high)(high society (group)).
Cumberbatch is [cousin 16 times removed](third)(cousin) of [Richard III](King)(King Richard III), whom he portrayed in *[Hollow Crown](The)(The Hollow Crown (TV series))*. He attended Richard III's [reburial](2015)(Exhumation and reburial of Richard III of England) and read a poem.
### Birth family and schooling
Benedict Timothy Carlton Cumberbatch was born on 19 July 1976 at [Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital](Queen)(Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital) in the [London](London) district of [Hammersmith](Hammersmith), to actors [Carlton](Timothy)(Timothy Carlton) (born Timothy Carlton Congdon Cumberbatch) and [Ventham](Wanda)(Wanda Ventham). He grew up in the borough of [and Chelsea](Kensington)(Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea). He has a half-sister, Tracy Peacock, from his mother's first marriage.
Cumberbatch attended [school](boarding)(boarding school)s from the age of eight, attending [Brambletye](Brambletye School), a [school](prep)(Preparatory school (United Kingdom)) near [Grinstead](East)(East Grinstead), [Sussex](West)(West Sussex). He undertook secondary schooling as an arts scholar at [School](Harrow)(Harrow School). He was a member of the Rattigan Society, Harrow's principal club for the [drama](drama)tic arts, which was named after [Harrovian](Old)(List of Old Harrovians) and playwright Sir [Rattigan](Terence)(Terence Rattigan). He was involved in numerous [Shakespearean](Shakespearean) works at school and made his acting debut as [Titania](Titania (A Midsummer Night's Dream)), Queen of the Fairies, in ''[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream)'' when he was 12. His first leading role was as [Doolittle](Eliza)(Eliza Doolittle) in [Shaw](Bernard)(Bernard Shaw)'s [*Pygmalion*](Pygmalion (play)), in a production by the Head of Classics, [Morwood](James)(James Morwood), who observed that Cumberbatch "acted everyone else off the stage". Cumberbatch's drama teacher, Martin Tyrell, called him "the best schoolboy actor" he had ever worked with. Despite his abilities, Cumberbatch's drama teacher at Harrow warned him against a career in acting, calling it a "tough business".
### Tertiary education
After leaving Harrow, Cumberbatch took a [year](gap)(gap year) to volunteer as an English teacher at a [monastery](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhism) in [Darjeeling](Darjeeling), India. He then attended the [University of Manchester](Victoria)(University of Manchester), where he studied [drama](drama). He continued his training as an actor at the [Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](London)(London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art) (LAMDA), graduating with an [MA](Master of Arts) in [acting](classical)(classical acting). In January 2018, Cumberbatch succeeded [West](Timothy)(Timothy West) as president of LAMDA.
## Performing arts career
### Theatre
[[File:Benedict Cumberbatch 2008.jpg|thumb|left|upright|During rehearsals for *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein (2011 play))*, April 2011]]
Since 2001, Cumberbatch has had major roles in a dozen classic plays at the [Park Open Air](Regent's)(Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park), [Almeida](Almeida Theatre), [Court](Royal)(Royal Court Theatre) and [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre)s. He was nominated for an [Award](Olivier)(Olivier Award) for Best Performance in a Supporting Role for his role as George Tesman in *[Gabler](Hedda)(Hedda Gabler)*, which he performed at the [Theatre](Almeida)(Almeida Theatre) on 16 March 2005 and at the [of York's Theatre](Duke)(Duke of York's Theatre) when it transferred to the [End](West)(West End theatre) on 19 May 2005. This transfer marked his first West End appearance.
In June 2010, Cumberbatch led the revival of Sir [Rattigan](Terence)(Terence Rattigan)'s *[the Dance](After)(After the Dance (play))* directed by [Sharrock](Thea)(Thea Sharrock) at the [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre). He played 1920s aristocrat David Scott-Fowler to commercial and critical success. The play won four [Awards](Olivier)(Olivier Awards) including [Revival](Best)(Laurence Olivier Award for Best Revival). He acted in [Boyle](Danny)(Danny Boyle)'s ''[Children's Monologues](The)(The Children's Monologues)'', a theatrical charity event at London's [Vic Theatre](Old)(Old Vic Theatre) on 14 November 2010 which was produced by [Need](Dramatic)(Dramatic Need).
In February 2011, Cumberbatch began playing, on alternate nights, both Victor Frankenstein and his creature, opposite [Lee Miller](Jonny)(Jonny Lee Miller), in Boyle's stage production of Mary Shelley's *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein (2011 play))* at the Royal National Theatre. *Frankenstein* was broadcast to cinemas as a part of [Theatre Live](National)(National Theatre Live) in March 2011. He achieved the "Triple Crown of London Theatre" in 2011 when he received the Olivier Award, [Standard Award](Evening)(Evening Standard Awards) and [Circle Theatre Award](Critics')(Critics' Circle Theatre Award) for his performance in *Frankenstein*.
Cumberbatch was a part of a cast featuring members of the [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre) Company in *50 Years on Stage*, the Royal National Theatre's landmark event for its 50th anniversary on 2 November 2013. He played [Rosencrantz](Rosencrantz and Guildenstern) in a selected scene from Sir [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard)'s play *[and Guildenstern Are Dead](Rosencrantz)(Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead)*. Royal National Theatre |url=http://50.nationaltheatre.org.uk/at-the-national/special-preview-performance-of-50-years-on-stage |publisher=Royal National Theatre |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319182028/http://50.nationaltheatre.org.uk/at-the-national/special-preview-performance-of-50-years-on-stage |archive-date=19 March 2014}} The show was directed by Sir [Hytner](Nicholas)(Nicholas Hytner) and was broadcast on [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) and in cinemas worldwide as a part of National Theatre Live.
Cumberbatch returned to theatre to play [Shakespeare](Shakespeare)'s [Hamlet](Prince Hamlet) at [London](London)'s [Theatre](Barbican)(Barbican Centre). The production was directed by Lyndsey Turner and produced by [Friedman](Sonia)(Sonia Friedman), which started its 12-week run in August 2015. The performance, co-starring [Brooke](Sian)(Sian Brooke), was broadcast by the [Theatre Company](National)(National Theatre Company) by satellite internationally as *Hamlet in Rehearsal*. He earned his third [Olivier Awards](Laurence)(2016 Laurence Olivier Awards) nomination for the role.
### Television
[[File:Benedict Cumberbatch filming Sherlock cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|Filming *[Sherlock](Sherlock (TV series))* in [Chinatown](Chinatown, London), London, March 2010]]
Cumberbatch's early television roles include two separate guest roles in *[Heartbeat](Heartbeat (UK TV series))* (2000, 2004), Freddy in *[the Velvet](Tipping)(Tipping the Velvet (TV series))* (2002), Edward Hand in *[Spies](Cambridge)(Cambridge Spies)* (2003) and Rory in the [ITV](ITV (TV network)) comedy drama series *[Fortysomething](Fortysomething (TV series))* (2003). He also featured in *[Spooks](Spooks (TV series))* and *[Witness](Silent)(Silent Witness)*. In 2004, he landed his first main part in television as [Hawking](Stephen)(Stephen Hawking) in *[Hawking](Hawking (2004 film))*. He was nominated for the [TV Award for Best Actor](BAFTA)(British Academy Television Award for Best Actor) and won the [Nymph for Television Films – Best Performance by an Actor](Golden)(Festival de Télévision de Monte-Carlo). He later provided Hawking's voice in the first episode of the television series *[Curiosity](Curiosity (TV series))*. He also appeared in the BBC miniseries *[Dunkirk](Dunkirk (TV series))* as Lieutenant Jimmy Langley.
In 2005, Cumberbatch portrayed protagonist Edmund Talbot in the miniseries *[the Ends of the Earth](To)(To the Ends of the Earth (TV series))*, based on Sir [Golding](William)(William Golding)'s trilogy; during filming he said he experienced a terrifying carjacking in South Africa, managing to escape. He made brief appearances in the comedy sketch show *[News](Broken)(Broken News)* and the Channel 4 sitcom *[Barley](Nathan)(Nathan Barley)* in 2005 and featured alongside [Hardy](Tom)(Tom Hardy) in the television adaptation of *[A Life Backwards](Stuart:)(Stuart: A Life Backwards)*, which aired on the BBC in September 2007.
In 2008, Cumberbatch played the lead character in the BBC miniseries drama *[Last Enemy](The)(The Last Enemy (TV series))*, earning a [Award](Satellite)(Satellite Awards 2008) nomination for Best Actor in a Miniseries or TV Film. In 2009, he appeared in ''[Christie's Miss Marple: Murder Is Easy](Agatha)(Murder Is Easy)* as Luke Fitzwilliam. He played Bernard in the TV adaptation of *[Island](Small)(Small Island (TV film))'', earning him a nomination for [Television Award](BAFTA)(British Academy Television Awards) for Best Supporting Actor. Cumberbatch featured in [Dobbs](Michael)(Michael Dobbs)' play, *The Turning Point*, which aired as one of a series of TV plays broadcast live on [Arts](Sky)(Sky Arts). The play depicted an October 1938 meeting between Soviet spy [Burgess](Guy)(Guy Burgess), then a young man working for the BBC, and [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill). Cumberbatch portrayed Burgess; Churchill was played by [Marsh](Matthew)(Matthew Marsh (actor)), who had played a supporting role in *Hawking*. He narrated the 6-part series *[Pacific](South)(South Pacific (TV series))* (US title: *Wild Pacific*), which aired from May to June 2009 on BBC 2.
In 2010, Cumberbatch portrayed [van Gogh](Vincent)(Vincent van Gogh) in *Van Gogh: Painted with Words*. *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* called his performance "[a] treat ... vividly bringing Van Gogh to impassioned, blue-eyed life." In the same year, Cumberbatch began playing [Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes) in the joint [BBC](BBC television)/[PBS](PBS) television series *[Sherlock](Sherlock (TV series))*, to critical acclaim. Classic New Upstairs Downstairs|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/classic/copro.html|publisher=PBS|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227151337/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/classic/copro.html|archive-date=27 December 2013|url-status=live}} The second series began on [Year's Day](New)(New Year's Day) 2012 in the United Kingdom and was broadcast on PBS in the United States in May 2012. The third series aired on PBS over a period of three weeks in January to February 2014. Cumberbatch won an Emmy as [Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie) for the third episode of the third series of the show entitled *His Last Vow*. Cumberbatch has one of the most aggressive fanbases to date, part of the 'Big Three' fandoms on the social media site Tumblr, called SuperWhoLock. In April 2015, Cumberbatch was nominated for his sixth [Academy Television Award](British)(British Academy Television Awards) for Best Leading Actor for the third series of the *Sherlock*. In 2016, he was once again nominated for an Emmy as [Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie), this time for *Sherlock: The Abominable Bride*.
In 2012, he led the BBC and [HBO](HBO) co-produced miniseries ''[End](Parade's)(Parade's End (TV series))'' with [Hall](Rebecca)(Rebecca Hall). An adaptation of the [tetralogy](tetralogy) of [of the same name](novels)(Parade's End) by [Madox Ford](Ford)(Ford Madox Ford), it was filmed as five episodes, directed by [White](Susanna)(Susanna White) and adapted by Sir [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard). His performance earned Cumberbatch his second [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) nomination for Best Actor in Miniseries or TV Movie. In February 2014, Cumberbatch appeared with *[Street](Sesame)(Sesame Street)* characters Murray and [von Count](Count)(Count von Count) for PBS. In 2016, Cumberbatch portrayed Richard III in Shakespeare's [of the same name](play)(Richard III (play)), as part of the second series of films for *[Hollow Crown](The)(The Hollow Crown (TV series))*, which aired in both Britain and the United States. Cumberbatch has also been a brand ambassador for [Dunlop](Dunlop Tyres) and [Jaguar](Jaguar Cars) luxury cars since 2014.
Cumberbatch starred in *[Melrose](Patrick)(Patrick Melrose (TV series))*, a miniseries adaptation of the [St Aubyn](Edward)(Edward St Aubyn) novels, which began airing on [Showtime](Showtime (TV channel)) on 12 May 2018. In 2019 Cumberbatch appeared as British political strategist [Cummings](Dominic)(Dominic Cummings) (who served as the campaign director of [Leave](Vote)(Vote Leave), the official campaign in favour of the [leaving the European Union](UK)(Brexit)) in [HBO](HBO) and [4](Channel)(Channel 4)'s television film *[The Uncivil War](Brexit:)(Brexit: The Uncivil War)*. In 2023 he was confirmed a executive producer and lead role in the miniseries *[Eric](Eric (TV series))* for streaming service [Netflix](Netflix).
### Film
The 2006 film *[for 10](Starter)(Starter for 10 (film))* has been credited with helping launch Cumberbatch's big-screen career. Also in 2006, Cumberbatch played late 18th/early 19th century British parliamentarian [Pitt the Younger](William)(William Pitt the Younger) in *[Grace](Amazing)(Amazing Grace (2006 film))*, a role that garnered him a nomination for the [Film Critics Circle](London)(London Film Critics Circle Awards 2007) "British Breakthrough Acting Award". In *[Atonement](Atonement (2007 film))* (2007), Cumberbatch played what *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* called one of his "small parts in big films", and came to the attention of [Vertue](Sue)(Sue Vertue) and [Moffat](Stephen)(Stephen Moffat), who would later cast him in *Sherlock*.Benedict Cumberbatch: London and Hollywood, By Lynnette Porter, Andrews UK Limited, 2016 In 2008 he had a supporting role in *[Other Boleyn Girl](The)(The Other Boleyn Girl (2008 film))*, and the next year he appeared in the [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) biographical film *[Creation](Creation (2009 film))* as Darwin's friend [Hooker](Joseph)(Joseph Dalton Hooker). In 2010, he appeared in *[Whistleblower](The)(The Whistleblower)* as well as *[Lions](Four)(Four Lions)*. He portrayed [Guillam](Peter)(Peter Guillam), [Smiley](George)(George Smiley)'s right-hand man, in the 2011 adaptation of the [le Carré](John)(John le Carré) novel *[Tailor Soldier Spy](Tinker)(Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (film))*. The film was directed by [Alfredson](Tomas)(Tomas Alfredson) and featured [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman) and [Firth](Colin)(Colin Firth). Cumberbatch played Major Jamie Stewart in [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg)'s *[Horse](War)(War Horse (film))* in 2011.[[Cumberbatch 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Cumberbatch at the premiere of *Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy*, September 2011](File:Benedict)]
In 2012, Cumberbatch provided the voice and [motion-capture](motion-capture) for both [Smaug](Smaug) the Dragon and the [Necromancer](Sauron#The Necromancer of Dol Guldur) in *[Unexpected Journey](An)(The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey)*, the first instalment of [Hobbit* series](*The)(The Hobbit (film series)) based on the [of the same name](novel)(The Hobbit) by [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien). He reprised his roles as Smaug and the Necromancer for *[Desolation of Smaug](The)(The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug)* (2013) and *[Battle of the Five Armies](The)(The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies)* (2014). For the motion-capture aspect of the films, he used a suit and [markers](facial)(facial motion capture) to highlight the dragon's expressions and movements. Cumberbatch told *[Film](Total)(Total Film)* "You just have to lose your shit on a carpeted floor, in a place that looks a little bit like a mundane government building. It was just me as well, with four static cameras and all the sensors."
In 2013, Cumberbatch appeared in [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams)' sequel, *[Trek Into Darkness](Star)(Star Trek Into Darkness)*, as [Khan](Khan Noonien Singh), the film's antagonist. Three of the four films he featured in during the second half of 2013 premiered at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival): *[Fifth Estate](The)(The Fifth Estate (film))*, in which he played [WikiLeaks](WikiLeaks) founder [Assange](Julian)(Julian Assange), *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))*, in which he played [Prince Ford](William)(William Prince Ford), a slave owner, and *[Osage County](August:)(August: Osage County (film))*, in which he played Charles Aiken. August: Osage County|url=http://augustosagecountyfilm.com/#/cast|publisher=August: Osage County Official Website|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502235416/http://augustosagecountyfilm.com/#/cast|archive-date=2 May 2014|url-status=dead}} For the official soundtrack of the latter film, he recorded a song titled "Can't Keep it Inside".
Cumberbatch had a voice role in [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation)'s feature film *[of Madagascar](Penguins)(Penguins of Madagascar)*, which was released in November 2014. He then starred in the historical drama *[Imitation Game](The)(The Imitation Game)* as British [cryptographer](cryptographer) [Turing](Alan)(Alan Turing), also released in November 2014. The role earned him nominations for the Golden Globe, BAFTA, SAG, and [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). In May 2014, he joined the cast of the film *[Mass](Black)(Black Mass (film))* opposite [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) which was distributed by [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures).
[[File:Benedict Cumberbatch on the set of Doctor Strange 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Cumberbatch in [Kathmandu](Kathmandu) on the set of *[Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange (2016 film))*, November 2015]]
Cumberbatch starred as [Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange) in both the [film](eponymous)(Doctor Strange (2016 film)) released in November 2016, in *[Infinity War](Avengers:)(Avengers: Infinity War)* in April 2018, and in *[Endgame](Avengers:)(Avengers: Endgame)* in April 2019. His depiction of Strange also appeared in *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)* (2021) and in *[Strange in the Multiverse of Madness](Doctor)(Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness)* (2022). He starred as electricity titan [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison) in the film *[Current War](The)(The Current War)* in September 2017. In 2018, Cumberbatch voiced the [character](title)(Grinch) in the film *[Grinch](The)(The Grinch (film))*, and provided the voice and did performance capture for the tiger [Khan](Shere)(Shere Khan) in *[Legend of the Jungle](Mowgli:)(Mowgli: Legend of the Jungle)*, [Netflix](Netflix) film adaptation of [Kipling](Rudyard)(Rudyard Kipling)'s *[Jungle Book](The)(The Jungle Book)*, starring alongside [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) and [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett). In 2019, he appeared briefly as British Colonel Mackenzie in [Mendes](Sam)(Sam Mendes)' World War I film *[1917](1917 (2019 film))*.
In 2021, Cumberbatch starred in the drama *[Power of the Dog](The)(The Power of the Dog (film))*, written and directed by [Campion](Jane)(Jane Campion). His performance in the film was acclaimed, and he received nominations for the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award), [Academy Film Award](British)(British Academy Film Award), [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award), and [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for Best Actor. The same year Cumberbatch played [Wain](Louis)(Louis Wain), an eccentric English artist known for drawing [anthropomorphized](anthropomorphism) large-eyed cats, in *[Electrical Life of Louis Wain](The)(The Electrical Life of Louis Wain)*.
Cumberbatch will star as the titular character in [Anderson](Wes)(Wes Anderson)'s *[Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar](The)(The Wonderful Story of Henry_Sugar (film))* (2023), a film adaptation of a [story](short)(The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More) by [Dahl](Roald)(Roald Dahl). He will appear opposite [Fiennes](Ralph)(Ralph Fiennes), [Patel](Dev)(Dev Patel) and [Kingsley](Ben)(Ben Kingsley).
### Radio
Cumberbatch has repeatedly expressed his affection for radio and has done numerous productions for the [BBC](BBC). Among his best-known radio work is the adaptation of [Mortimer](John)(John Mortimer)'s novel *[and the Penge Bungalow Murders](Rumpole)(Rumpole of the Bailey)* in 2009. He played Young Rumpole, and went on to play the part in nine more adaptations of Mortimer's works. Between 2008 and 2014, he played Captain Martin Crieff in the [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4)'s sitcom *[Pressure](Cabin)(Cabin Pressure (radio series))*, alongside [Cole](Stephanie)(Stephanie Cole), [Finnemore](John)(John Finnemore), and [Allam](Roger)(Roger Allam). He then went on to play the Angel Islington in the 2013 [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4) adaptation of [Gaiman](Neil)(Neil Gaiman)'s *[Neverwhere](Neverwhere (radio play))*. In the same year, he led the [Radio 3](BBC)(BBC Radio 3) adaptation of [Frayn](Michael)(Michael Frayn)'s play *[Copenhagen](Copenhagen (play))* wherein he played theoretical physicist [Heisenberg](Werner)(Werner Heisenberg).
For the 70th anniversary of the [landings](Normandy)(Normandy landings), on 6 June 2014 Cumberbatch read the original BBC radio bulletins from June 1944 for [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4).
### Narration
Cumberbatch has narrated numerous documentaries for the [Geographic](National)(National Geographic Channel) and [Discovery](Discovery Channel) channels. He has also read for several [audiobook](audiobook)s, including *[Casanova](Casanova)*, *[Tempest](The)(The Tempest)*, *The Making of Music*, *Death in a White Tie*, *Artists in Crime*, *[and Viv](Tom)(Tom and Viv (play))*, and *Sherlock Holmes: The Rediscovered Railway Mysteries and Other Stories*. He has done voice-overs for several commercials, including for major names [Jaguar](Jaguar Cars), [Sony](Sony), [Pimms](Pimms), and [Google+](Google+), performing the *[Ages of Man](Seven)(Seven Ages of Man)* monologue. For the [London Olympics](2012)(2012 London Olympics), he appeared in a short film on the history of London, which began the BBC coverage of the opening ceremony. He made appearances for two [Festivals](Cheltenham)(Cheltenham Festivals), in July 2012 for Music when he read World War I poetry and prose accompanied by piano pieces and in October 2012 for Literature when he discussed *Sherlock* and ''Parade's End* at The Centaur. In 2012, he lent his voice to a four-part, spoken-word track titled "Flat of Angles" for *[Night Tales](Late)(Late Night Tales)'' based on a story written by author and poet Simon Cleary, the final installment of which was released on 9 May 2014.
In 2012, he provided the voice of [Alighieri](Dante)(Dante Alighieri) in the documentary *[in a Coma](Girlfriend)(Girlfriend in a Coma (film))*. In 2013, Cumberbatch narrated the documentary film *[Jerusalem](Jerusalem (2013 film))* about the ancient city. It was distributed by [Geographic](National)(National Geographic Society) Cinema Ventures in IMAX 3D theatres worldwide. The same year, he appeared as a special guest in a recording of [Getty](Gordon)(Gordon Getty)'s opera *[House](Usher)(The Fall of the House of Usher)*, where he voiced the role of "the visitor", recorded and released by [PENTATONE](Pentatone (record label)).
He narrated the documentary *[Ronaldo: The World at His Feet](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo: The World at His Feet)* about the Portuguese footballer for [Vimeo](Vimeo) and Vision Films in 2014. In August 2014, he recorded the first ever unabridged [audiobook](audiobook) of [Golding](William)(William Golding)'s 1964 novel, *[Spire](The)(The Spire)*, for [Books](Canongate)(Canongate Books).
### Music
On 28 September 2016, Cumberbatch appeared on stage with [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd) member [Gilmour](David)(David Gilmour) during one of the musician's [in London](shows)(Rattle That Lock Tour) held at the [Albert Hall](Royal)(Royal Albert Hall). He sang lead vocals on the song "[Numb](Comfortably)(Comfortably Numb)", singing the verse sections originally sung by [Waters](Roger)(Roger Waters).
### Impressionist
Adept at impersonating others, Cumberbatch was referred to as the "New King of Celebrity Impressionists" by [magazine](*Vulture*)(Vulture (website)). He has imitated celebrities on a number of chat shows, such as *[Graham Norton Show](The)(The Graham Norton Show)* on the BBC, *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)* on NBC, and in general interviews on channels such as [MTV](MTV). His impersonations include [Rickman](Alan)(Alan Rickman), [Connery](Sean)(Sean Connery), [Nicholson](Jack)(Jack Nicholson), [Hiddleston](Tom)(Tom Hiddleston), [Caine](Michael)(Michael Caine), [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken), [Holland](Tom)(Tom Holland), [Bane](Bane (DC Comics)), [Malkovich](John)(John Malkovich), [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey), [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) and [Chewbacca](Chewbacca).
### Production company
Cumberbatch, Adam Ackland, writer-director Patrick Monroe, action coordinator Ben Dillon, and production manager Adam Selves launched a production company, SunnyMarch Ltd., in late 2013.
Their first project under the company's banner was the £87,000 crowd-funded short film *Little Favour*, written and directed by Monroe with Cumberbatch in the lead role. The 30-minute action-thriller became internationally available on iTunes on 5 November 2013. In 2022 filming began on *[End We Start From](The)(The End We Start From)*, an adaptation of the [Hunter](Megan)(Megan Hunter) novel of the same name, the rights to which the company had acquired in 2017.
## Other activities
### Charity
Cumberbatch is an ambassador for [Prince's Trust](The)(The Prince's Trust). He is a supporter and patron of organisations focused on using the arts to help disadvantaged young people including Odd Arts, Anno's Africa and [Need](Dramatic)(Dramatic Need). Since portraying Stephen Hawking in 2004, he has been an ambassador, and in 2015 patron, for the [Neurone Disease Association](Motor)(Motor Neurone Disease Association) and in 2014 did the [Bucket Challenge](Ice)(Ice Bucket Challenge) for the organisation. He also set up a recovery fund for the benefit of [Lateral Sclerosis Association](Amyotrophic)(ALS Association). Cumberbatch has donated artworks for charities and fundraisers including the [Foundation](Willow)(Willow Foundation), and [Coram Foundation for Children](Thomas)(Thomas Coram Foundation for Children).
[[File:The Children's Monologues cast (2010).jpg|thumb|Cumberbatch (sixth from left, standing) and the cast of ''[Children's Monologues](The)(The Children's Monologues)'', at the [Vic Theatre](Old)(Old Vic Theatre) in London, November 2010]]
Together with [Philip](Prince)(Prince Philip), Cumberbatch presented 85 young people with the [of Edinburgh's Award](Duke)(Duke of Edinburgh's Award) at [James's Palace](St)(St James's Palace) on 19 March 2014. "Our ambition is to extend this opportunity to hundreds of thousands across the UK", Cumberbatch said on behalf of the youth awards programme.
In May 2014, he joined [William](Prince)(Prince William) and [Lauren](Ralph)(Ralph Lauren) at [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle) for a cancer awareness and fundraising gala for the benefit of [Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust](the)(the Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust). Cumberbatch stated, "Cancer isn't a disease that needs much awareness, but it does need continued funding for research." In September 2014, he participated in a video campaign for [Up To Cancer](Stand)(Stand Up To Cancer). Cumberbatch posed for photographer [Bell](Jason)(Jason Bell (photographer)) for an exhibition at [Mall](Pall)(Pall Mall, London), London from 16 to 20 September 2014 to mark 10 years of the "Give Up Clothes For Good" charity campaign, which has raised £17 million for [Research UK](Cancer)(Cancer Research UK). In 2014, Cumberbatch publicly backed "[Off](Hacked)(Hacked Off)" and its campaign for UK press self-regulation by "safeguarding the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable." In late 2014, Cumberbatch designed a Sherlock Holmes-themed [Bear](Paddington)(Paddington Bear) statue, one of fifty located around London prior to the release of the film *[Paddington](Paddington (film))*, which was auctioned to raise funds for the [Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children](National)(National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children) (NSPCC).
In a November 2014 cover story for *[Out](Out (magazine))* promoting *[Imitation Game](The)(The Imitation Game)*, Cumberbatch opened up about sexual experimentation during his time in boarding schools stating, "While there was experimentation, it had never occurred to me as, 'Oh, this is that!' It was just boys and their penises, the same way with girls and vaginas and boobs. It wasn't out of desire." [LGBT](LGBT) group [Stonewall](Stonewall (charity)) released a statement praising Cumberbatch's comments, saying, "Seeing someone in the public eye – especially somebody as influential as Benedict – talking positively around [issues](gay)(LGBT rights), is powerful for young lesbian, gay and [bisexual](bisexual) people. It is often difficult for those growing up to find role models who demonstrate that it is equally okay to be gay or [straight](heterosexual)."
Cumberbatch is a founding member of the "Save Soho" campaign which aims "to protect and nurture iconic music and performing arts venues in [Soho](Soho)." In an [letter](open)(open letter) published in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* on 31 January 2015, Cumberbatch, amongst others, asked for pardons of all gay and bisexual men who were convicted under the same now-defunct "indecency" laws as Alan Turing was (whom Cumberbatch portrayed in *The Imitation Game*).
In September 2015, Cumberbatch condemned the UK government's response to the [crisis](migrant)(European migrant crisis) in a speech to theatregoers during a [call](curtain)(curtain call) at a performance of [Hamlet](Hamlet), for which he stars. He also fronted a video campaign to help the charity [The Children](Save)(Save The Children) in its mission to aid young [refugees](Syrian)(Refugees of the Syrian Civil War). He was one of the signatories of an open letter, published in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, criticising the government for its actions regarding the refugee problem. He also gave nightly speeches after his curtain call as *Hamlet* at the Barbican in London, asking for donations to help Syrian refugees. At the end of the run, the audience contributed more than £150,000 for [the Children](Save)(Save the Children). He faced criticism for not taking in refugees himself, responding "I do have a house, but it's empty, it's gutted, there's no electricity or water, so that wouldn't work, and I have a baby in my flat, there are no spare rooms". In 2017 he told *[Big Issue](The)(The Big Issue)* "I understand why some might think I should be housing people instead of complaining about a government not doing it. But I was trying to raise awareness that we can do more as a society [...] But we raised money for children in need. So I don't regret doing it for a second, and I will do it again, even if it does put me in the firing line".
In May 2020, Cumberbatch was among the ten celebrities who read an instalment of [Dahl](Roald)(Roald Dahl)'s children's fantasy novel *[and the Giant Peach](James)(James and the Giant Peach)*. The audio-visual readings were published by Oscar-winning director [Waititi](Taika)(Taika Waititi) in aid of the global-non profit charity [In Health](Partners)(Partners In Health), co-founded by Dahl's daughter [Ophelia](Ophelia Dahl), which had been fighting [COVID-19](COVID-19) in vulnerable areas.
### Politics
In 2003, Cumberbatch joined the [the War Coalition](Stop)(Stop the War Coalition) protest in London against the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War). He addressed activists in a 2010 protest sponsored by the [Union Congress](Trade)(Trade Union Congress) in [Westminster](Westminster) on the suggested risks to the arts due to spending cuts expected in the *[Review](Spending)(Spending Review)*. In 2013, he protested against what he perceived were civil liberties violations by the UK government.
Cumberbatch is a supporter of [rights](LGBT+)(LGBT+ rights) and in July 2013 officiated at the [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) of friends. Through this ordination he officiated the wedding of [Rinder](Robert)(Robert Rinder), best known as [Rinder](Judge)(Judge Rinder), and his partner Seth Cummings. For [Women's Day](International)(International Women's Day) 2014, he was a signatory of [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International)'s letter to the Prime Minister [Cameron](David)(David Cameron) for women's rights in Afghanistan. Cumberbatch identifies as a [feminist](feminism).
In 2016, Cumberbatch was one of over 280 figures from the arts world who backed a vote for the United Kingdom to stay in the [Union](European)(European Union) with regard to the [2016 referendum](June)(2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum) on that issue.
## Awards and honours
Cumberbatch was appointed a [CBE](Order of the British Empire) in the [Birthday Honours](2015)(2015 Birthday Honours) for services to the performing arts and to charity. He received the honour from the Queen at an investiture ceremony at [Palace](Buckingham)(Buckingham Palace) on 10 November 2015.
In February 2016, Cumberbatch was appointed [fellow](visiting)(visiting scholar) at [Margaret Hall](Lady)(Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford), [University](Oxford)(Oxford University).
## Public image and other recognition
Cumberbatch achieved international recognition with the [series](first)(Sherlock (season 1)) of *Sherlock* in 2010. He has since been called "[Thinking Woman's Crumpet](The)(Thinking man's/woman's crumpet)" and has been a mainstay in numerous "Sexiest Man Alive" lists including those of *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* and *[People](People (magazine))*.
[[File:Benedict Cumberbatch figure at Madame Tussauds London.jpg|thumb|upright|Waxwork of Cumberbatch at [Tussauds](Madame)(Madame Tussauds), London]]
*[Tatler](Tatler)* listed Cumberbatch in the "Most Eligible Bachelors in the United Kingdom" in 2012. In the same year, Cumberbatch described a [cyberstalking](cyberstalking) incident in which he discovered that someone had been live-tweeting his movements in his London home. Coming to terms with it, he said, it is "an ongoing process. To think that somebody knew everything I'd done in a day and told the rest of the world in real time!" His photograph taken at the [Club](Garrick)(Garrick Club) by [Moore, 12th Earl of Drogheda](Derry)(Derry Moore, 12th Earl of Drogheda) was the cover of Moore's 2012 book *An English Room*.
In 2013, Cumberbatch was ranked fifth in the *[Tatler](Tatler)*s "Most Fascinating People in Britain" list, higher than the [of Cambridge](Duchess)(Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge) and just below [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Elizabeth II). *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* identified Cumberbatch as one of the "50 Coolest and Most Creative Entertainers" in Hollywood. He has also appeared on the covers of *[GQ](GQ)*, *Time* and *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*s "New A-list" issue.
In 2014, Cumberbatch was included in *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)* "100 Makers of the 21st Century", cited as this generation's [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier)." Film critic [Friedman](Roger)(Roger Friedman) stated that "Cumberbatch may be the closest thing to a real descendant of Sir Laurence Olivier." GQ identified him as one of the "100 Most Connected Men" in the UK in 2014. In the same year, *[Life](Country)(Country Life (magazine))* magazine labelled him as one of its "Gentlemen of the Year".
In April 2014, Cumberbatch was regarded as a British cultural icon, with young adults from abroad naming him among a group of people whom they most associated with UK culture, which included [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare), Queen Elizabeth II, [Beckham](David)(David Beckham), [K. Rowling](J.)(J. K. Rowling), [Beatles](The)(The Beatles), [Chaplin](Charlie)(Charlie Chaplin), [John](Elton)(Elton John) and [Adele](Adele). The same month, *Time* magazine included him in its annual [100](*Time*)(Time 100) as one of the Most Influential People in the World. Cumberbatch was the inspiration and focus of the play *Benedict Cumberbatch Must Die* which, despite its title, was a "love letter" and portrait of the fan obsession surrounding the actor. It premiered in June 2014 at [Theatre](BATS)(BATS Theatre) in New Zealand. The [Aquarium](Tennessee)(Tennessee Aquarium) named one of its [otters](otters) "Benny" in reference to Cumberbatch's first name after a naming contest on the zoo's website.
A wax figure of Cumberbatch has been on display at [Tussauds London](Madame)(Madame Tussauds London) since October 2014. In 2015, he was named one of *[GQ](GQ)*s 50 best dressed British men. In 2018, [PETA](People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) declared Cumberbatch and director [DuVernay](Ava)(Ava DuVernay) to be the Most Beautiful Vegan Celebs of 2018.Brent Furdyk, "Benedict Cumberbatch, Ava DuVernay Named PETA's 'Most Beautiful Vegan Celebs' Of 2018", [ET Canada](https://etcanada.com/news/346447/benedict-cumberbatch-ava-duvernay-named-petas-most-beautiful-vegan-celebs-of-2018/) , 11 July 2018.
## Personal life
[[File:Sophie Hunter and Benedict Cumberbatch July 2015.jpg|thumb|upright|Cumberbatch with his wife [Hunter](Sophie)(Sophie Hunter), July 2015]]
While in [KwaZulu-Natal](KwaZulu-Natal), South Africa, in 2005, Cumberbatch and two friends (Theo and [Black](Denise)(Denise Black))Prince's Trust trading Ltd. (2009). *Inspired* by music*. London: Shoehorn Arts & Culture Books. pp. 20–25. . were abducted, after bursting a tyre, and held at gunpoint by a group of locals. Eventually their abductors drove them into unsettled territory and set them free without explanation. Cumberbatch said of the incident: "It taught me that you come into this world as you leave it, on your own. It's made me want to live a life less ordinary." Before the burst tyre, they had been listening to "[to Disappear Completely](How)(How to Disappear Completely)" by [Radiohead](Radiohead). Following this experience, whenever Cumberbatch hears the song it "reminds [him] of a sense of reality ... [and] a reason for hope".
He subscribes to [philosophy](Buddhist)(Buddhist philosophy) and has expressed affinity for [meditation](meditation) and [mindfulness](mindfulness).
Cumberbatch was in a 12-year-long relationship with actress [Poulet](Olivia)(Olivia Poulet), from his time at Manchester University until 2010.
Cumberbatch is married to English theatre and opera director [Hunter](Sophie)(Sophie Hunter). Their engagement was announced in the "Forthcoming Marriages" section of *[Times](The)(The Times)* on 5 November 2014, after a 17-year friendship. On 14 February 2015, the couple married at the 12th-century [of St. Peter and St. Paul](Church)(St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Mottistone) in [Mottistone](Mottistone) on the [of Wight](Isle)(Isle of Wight) followed by a reception at [Manor](Mottistone)(Mottistone Manor). They have three sons.[Benedict Cumberbatch: 'Joe Biden? I'm going to plead with the guy to shut Guantanamo'](https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/benedict-cumberbatch-interview-mauritanian-b1825194.html) , 3 April 2021, *The Independent*.
## References
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## External links
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*[Benedict Cumberbatch interview](https://www.thetimes.co.uk/magazine/culture/benedict-cumberbatch-interview-patrick-melrose-tv-drama-edward-st-aubyn-vbgnnmkfb): the Sherlock star on playing Patrick Melrose in Edward St Aubyn's masterpiece, *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)*
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Boeing F_A-18E_F Super Hornet
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boeing_f_a-18e_f_super_hornet
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# Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
*Revision ID: 1158954978 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T08:32:08Z*
---
The **Boeing F/A-18E** and **F/A-18F Super Hornet** are [twin-engine](twinjet), [carrier-capable](Carrier-based aircraft), [fighter](multirole)(Multirole combat aircraft) aircraft variants derived from the [Douglas F/A-18 Hornet series](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet). The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced versions of the F/A-18C and D Hornet.
The Super Hornet has an internal 20mm [rotary cannon](M61A2)(M61 Vulcan) and can carry [missile](air-to-air)(air-to-air missile)s, [air-to-surface](Air-to-surface missile) and a variety of other weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five external fuel tanks and the aircraft can be configured as an airborne tanker by adding an external [refueling system](air-to-air)(Aerial refueling).
Designed and initially produced by [Douglas](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas), the Super Hornet first flew in 1995. Low-rate production began in early 1997 with full-rate production starting in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and [Boeing](Boeing) the previous month. The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) in 1999, replacing the [F-14 Tomcat](Grumman)(Grumman F-14 Tomcat), which was retired in 2006; the Super Hornet has served alongside the original Hornet. The [Australian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Australian Air Force) (RAAF), which has operated the F/A-18A as its main fighter since 1984, ordered the F/A-18F in 2007 to replace its aging [Dynamics F-111C](General)(General Dynamics F-111C) fleet. RAAF Super Hornets entered service in December 2010. In February 2023, Boeing announced plans to end production of the Super Hornet in 2025.
## Development
### Origins
[[F-14 F-18 2005.jpg|thumb|VFA-143 "Pukin Dogs" F-14B and F/A-18E in 2005](File:VF-143)]
The Super Hornet is a redesign of the [Douglas F/A-18 Hornet](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet). The wing and tail configuration trace its origin to a [Northrop](Northrop Corporation) prototype aircraft, the [P-530](Northrop P-530), , which began as a rework of the lightweight [F-5](Northrop)(Northrop F-5)E (with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension, or LERX). Later flying as the [YF-17](Northrop)(Northrop YF-17) "Cobra", it competed in the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force)'s [Fighter](Lightweight)(Lightweight Fighter) (LWF) program to produce a smaller and simpler fighter to complement the larger [Douglas F-15 Eagle](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle); the YF-17 lost the competition to the [YF-16](F-16 Fighting Falcon).
The Navy directed that the YF-17 be redesigned into the larger F/A-18 Hornet to meet a requirement for a multi-role fighter to complement the larger and more expensive [F-14 Tomcat](Grumman)(Grumman F-14 Tomcat) serving in fleet defense interceptor and air superiority roles. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius. The concept of an enlarged Hornet was first proposed in the 1980s, which was marketed by McDonnell Douglas as *Hornet 2000*. The Hornet 2000 concept was an advanced F/A-18 with a larger wing and a longer fuselage to carry more fuel and more powerful engines.Jenkins, Dennis R. *F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story*. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. .["F/A-18E/F Super Hornet."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/fa18ef/fa18efmilestones.htm) *Boeing*. Retrieved: 25 July 2011.
The end of the [War](Cold)(Cold War) led to a period of military budget cuts and considerable restructuring. At the same time, U.S. Naval Aviation faced a number of problems. The [Douglas A-12 Avenger II](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II) was canceled in 1991 after the program ran into serious problems; it was intended to replace the obsolete [A-6 Intruder](Grumman)(Grumman A-6 Intruder).Donald 2004, p. 45. The Navy considered updating an existing design as a more attractive approach to a clean-sheet program. As an alternative to the A-12, McDonnell Douglas proposed the "Super Hornet" (initially "*Hornet II*" in the 1980s), an improvement of the successful previous F/A-18 models, which could serve as an alternate replacement for the A-6 Intruder. In addition, the Hornet itself lacked sufficient bringback capability, or the ability to recover unused weapons aboard aircraft carriers.Elward 2001, p. 73. The next-generation Hornet design proved more attractive than [Grumman](Grumman)'s Quick Strike upgrade to the F-14 Tomcat, which was regarded as an insufficient technological leap over existing F-14s.
At the time, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat was the Navy's primary air superiority fighter and fleet defense interceptor. Then-Secretary of Defense [Cheney](Dick)(Dick Cheney) described the F-14 as 1960s technology, and drastically cut back F-14D procurement in 1989 before cancelling production altogether in 1991, in favor of the updated F/A-18E/F.Donald, David. "Northrop Grumman F-14 Tomcat, U.S. Navy today". *Warplanes of the Fleet*. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. . The decision to replace the Tomcat with an all-Hornet Carrier Air Wing was controversial; [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) [ace](Flying ace) and Congressman [Cunningham](Duke)(Duke Cunningham) criticized the Super Hornet as an unproven design that compromised air superiority. In 1992, the Navy canceled the [Advanced Tactical Fighter](Navy)(Advanced Tactical Fighter#Variants) (NATF), which would have been a navalized variant of the Air Force's [Martin F-22 Raptor](Lockheed)(Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor). As a cheaper alternative to NATF, Grumman proposed substantial improvements to the F-14 beyond Quick Strike, but Congress rejected them as too costly and reaffirmed its commitment to the less expensive F/A-18E/F.Donald 2004, pp. 13, 15.
### Testing and production
[[Boeing F-A-18F Super Hornet & A21-16 McDonnell Douglas F-A-18A Hornet RAAF (7017164337).jpg|thumb|F/A-18F Super Hornet (left) and a F/A-18A Hornet (right)](File:A44-204)]
The Super Hornet was first ordered by the U.S. Navy in 1992. The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk "derivative", though the Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft. The Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, [seat](ejection)(ejection seat)s, [radar](radar), armament, mission computer software, and maintenance/operating procedures. The initial F/A-18E/F retained most of the avionics systems from the F/A-18C/D's configuration at the time. The design would be expanded in the Super Hornet with an empty weight slightly greater than the F-15C.
The Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995. Flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/F's first carrier landing in 1997. Low-rate production began in March 1997 with full production beginning in September 1997. Testing continued through 1999, finishing with sea trials and aerial refueling demonstrations. Testing involved 3,100 test flights covering 4,600 flight hours. The Super Hornet underwent U.S. Navy operational tests and evaluations in 1999, and was approved in February 2000.Nathman, John, Rear Admiral U.S. Navy. ["DoD Special Briefing on "Super Hornet" Operation Evaluation Results."](http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=1013) *Defenselink.mil,* 15 September 2000. Retrieved: 8 July 2011.
[[File:Four Super Hornets.jpg|thumb|upright|Four F/A-18Fs of [VFA-41](VFA-41) "Black Aces" in a trail formation. The first and third aircraft have [ATFLIR](AN/ASQ-228)(AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR) pods, and the last aircraft has a [store](buddy)(buddy store) tank]]
With the retirement of the F-14 in 2006, all of the Navy's combat jets have been Hornet variants until the [Lightning II](F-35C)(Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II) entered service. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F two-seat aircraft took the place of the F-14 Tomcat, A-6 Intruder, [S-3 Viking](Lockheed)(Lockheed S-3 Viking), and [KA-6D](Grumman A-6 Intruder#KA-6D) aircraft. An electronic warfare variant, the [Growler](EA-18G)(EA-18G Growler), replaces the [Prowler](EA-6B)(Grumman EA-6 Prowler). The Navy calls this reduction in aircraft types a "neck-down". During the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) era, the Super Hornet's roles were performed by a combination of the [A-1](Douglas A-1 Skyraider)/[A-4](Douglas A-4 Skyhawk)/A-7 (light attack), A-6 (medium attack), [F-8](Vought F-8 Crusader)/F-4 (fighter), [RA-5C](North American A-5 Vigilante) (recon), [KA-3](A-3 Skywarrior)/KA-6 (tanker), and EA-6 (electronic warfare). It was anticipated that $1 billion in fleetwide annual savings would result from replacing other types with the Super Hornet. The Navy considers the Super Hornet's acquisition a success, meeting cost, schedule, and weight (400 lb, 181 kg) below requirements.["F/A-18 fact file."](http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=1100&tid=1200&ct=1) *U.S. Navy,* 13 October 2006. Retrieved: 25 July 2011.
### Improvements and changes
The Block II Super Hornet incorporates an improved [electronically scanned array](active)(active electronically scanned array) (AESA) radar, larger displays, the joint helmet mounted cueing system, and several other avionics replacements. Avionics and weapons systems that were under development for the prospective production version of the [X-32](Boeing)(Boeing X-32) were used on the Block II Super Hornet.Reed, John. ["Boeing: F-35 hasn’t yet won in Japan."](http://www.dodbuzz.com/2011/12/16/boeing-f-35-hasnt-yet-won-in-japan/) *DoD Buzz*, 16 December 2011. New-build aircraft received the [APG-79](AN/APG-79) AESA radar beginning in 2005.Ozburn, Marguerite. ["F/A-18E/F Block II upgrades add to Super Hornet's potent arsenal."](http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2005/june/i_ids8.html) *Boeing Frontiers*, June 2005. Retrieved: 25 July 2011. In January 2008, it was announced that 135 earlier production aircraft were to be retrofitted with AESA radars.Jennings, Faith. ["Raytheon to Provide Revolutionary AESA Capabilities to 135 F/A-18s."](http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=902&pagetemplate=release) *Raytheon*, 23 January 2008. Retrieved: 25 July 2011.
In 2008, Boeing discussed the development of a Super Hornet Block III with the U.S. and Australian military, featuring additional stealth capabilities and extended range.Fulghum, David. A. ["Boeing Plans Sixth Generation Fighter With Block 3 Super Hornet"](https://aviationweek.com/boeing-plans-sixth-generation-fighteralong-block-3-super-hornet) . *[Week](Aviation)(Aviation Week)*, 30 January 2008. Retrieved: 17 February 2008. In 2010, Boeing offered prospective Super Hornet customers the "International Roadmap", which included conformal fuel tanks, enhanced engines, an enclosed weapons pod (EWP), a next-generation cockpit, a new missile warning system, and an internal [search and track](infrared)(infrared search and track) (IRST) system.Tournade, Sara. ["Boeing well positioned for future strike-fighter market."](http://www.boeing.com/Features/2011/06/bds_pas_future_strike_mkt_06_21_11.html) *Boeing*, 21 June 2011. Retrieved: 18 December 2011.Minnick, Wendell. ["Boeing Unveils New Hornet Options at Aero India"](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110209074533/http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=5653656). Defense News, 8 February 2011. The EWP has four internal stations for munitions, a single aircraft can carry a total of three EWPs, housing up to 12 AMRAAMs and 2 Sidewinders.Nativi, Andy. ["Boeing Reveals Details Of International F-18."](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/asd/2011/11/04/02.xml) *Aviation Week*, 4 November 2011.Barrie, Douglas, Amy Butler and Robert Wall. ["Manufacturers Vie To Close Fighter Gap."](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/awst/2010/07/26/AW_07_26_2010_p37-242845.xml) *Aviation Week*, 30 July 2010. Retrieved: 25 July 2011. The next-generation cockpit features a 19 x 11-inch touch-sensitive display.["Testing the next-generation Super Hornet."](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/07/12/359262/testing-the-next-generation-super-hornet.html) *Flight International*, 12 July 2011. Retrieved: 25 July 2011. In 2011, Boeing received a US Navy contract to develop a new mission computer.["Boeing Receives US Navy Contract to Develop New Mission Computer for Super Hornet and Growler."](http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Boeing_Receives_US_Navy_Contract_to_Develop_New_Mission_Computer_for_Super_Hornet_and_Growler_999.html) *Space Media Network*, 15 November 2011.
[[F/A-18F named "Green Hornet", during a supersonic test flight in 2010](File:US_Navy_100420-N-XXXXG-068_An_F-A-18F_Super_Hornet_retusche.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|An)]
In 2007, Boeing stated that a passive Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor would be an available future option. The sensor, mounted in a modified centerline fuel tank, detects long wave IR emissions to spot and track targets such as aircraft;Frost, Patricia. ["Boeing Selects Supplier for Super Hornet Block II Infrared Search and Track Capability."](http://boeing.mediaroom.com/2007-07-02-Boeing-Selects-Supplier-for-Super-Hornet-Block-II-Infrared-Search-and-Track-Capability) Boeing, 2 July 2007. combat using the IRST and [AIM-9X](AIM-9X) Sidewinder missiles is immune to radar jamming. In May 2009, [Martin](Lockheed)(Lockheed Martin) announced its selection by Boeing for the IRST's technology development phase, and a contract followed in November 2011. , a basic IRST would be fielded in 2016 and a longer-range version in 2019; [cuts in 2013](sequestration)(Budget sequestration in 2013) could cause two years of delays. An F/A-18F performed a flight equipped with the IRST system in February 2014, and Milestone C approval authorizing [initial production](low-rate)(Low rate initial production) (LRIP) was granted in December 2014.
#### Advanced Super Hornet and planned end of production
Boeing and Northrop Grumman self-funded a prototype of the Advanced Super Hornet. The prototype features a 50% reduction in frontal radar cross-section (RCS), [fuel tank](conformal)(conformal fuel tank)s (CFT), and an enclosed weapons pod.[Boeing to demo Super Hornet enhancements in summer](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-to-demo-super-hornet-enhancements-in-summer-384367/) Flightglobal.com, 9 April 2013 Features could also be integrated onto the [Growler](EA-18G)(Boeing EA-18G Growler): using CFTs on the EA-18G fleet was speculated as useful for relieving underwing space and lowering the drag margin for the [Generation Jammer](Next)(Next Generation Jammer).["Boeing shows off advanced Super Hornet demonstrator."](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-shows-off-advanced-super-hornet-demonstrator-389930/) *Flight International*, 28 August 2013. Flight tests of the Advanced Super Hornet began on 5 August 2013 and continued for three weeks, testing the performance of CFTs, the enclosed weapons pod (EWP), and signature enhancements.["Advanced Super Hornet Demonstrates Significant Stealth, Range Improvements."](http://www.deagel.com/news/Advanced-Super-Hornet-Demonstrates-Significant-Stealth-Range-Improvements_n000011848.aspx) *Deagel*, 28 August 2013. The U.S. Navy was reportedly pleased with the Advanced Super Hornet's flight test results, and hopes it will provide future procurement options.["Navy pleased with "Advanced" Super Hornet tests, wants more Growlers."](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/navy-pleased-with-quotadvancedquot-super-hornet-tests-wants-more-397927/) *Flight International*, 7 April 2014.
In 2013, the U.S. Navy was considering the widespread adoption of CFTs, which would allow the Super Hornet to carry of additional fuel. Budgetary pressures from the F-35C Lightning II and Pacific region operations were cited as reasons supporting the use of CFTs. Flight testing demonstrated CFTs could slightly reduce drag while expanding the combat range by .Norris, Guy. ["Future Options: Conformal fuel tank attracts Navy interest as part of possible Super Hornet upgrade"](http://www.aviationweek.com/awin/ArticlesStory.aspx?&id=/article-xml/AW_12_16_2013_p28-645490.xml) . [Week and Space Technology](Aviation)(Aviation Week and Space Technology), 16 December 2013, pp. 28-29. The prototype CFT weighed , while production CFTs are expected to weigh . Boeing stated that the CFTs do not add any cruise drag but acknowledged a negative impact imposed on transonic acceleration due to increased wave drag. [Electric](General)(General Electric)'s enhanced performance engine (EPE), increasing the F414-GE-400's power output from of thrust per engine, was suggested as a mitigating measure.[US Navy may add conformal fuel tanks to F/A-18E/F Super Hornet fleet](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/us-navy-may-add-conformal-fuel-tanks-to-fa-18ef-super-hornet-fleet-383701/) Flightglobal.com, 20 March 2013. In 2021, the U.S. Navy halted plans to fit CFTs as standard on all Block III Super Hornets due to cost, schedule, and performance issues.
In 2009, development commenced on several engine improvements, including greater resistance to [object damage](foreign)(foreign object damage), reduced fuel burn rate, and potentially increased thrust of up to 20%.Norris, Guy. ["GE Eyes More Powerful Engine For Super Hornets, Growlers."](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=mro&id=news/ge5149.xml) *Aviation Week*, 14 May 2009. Retrieved: 25 July 2011.Trimble, Stephen. ["Boeing's Super Hornet seeks export sale to launch 20% thrust upgrade."](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/05/12/326376/boeings-super-hornet-seeks-export-sale-to-launch-20-thrust.html) *Flight International*, 12 May 2009. In 2014, Boeing revealed a Super Hornet hybrid concept, equipped with the EA-18G Growler's electronic signal detection capabilities to allow for targets engagement using the receiver; the concept did not include the ALQ-99 jamming pod. Growth capabilities could include the addition of a long-range infrared search and track sensor and new air-to-air tracking modes.["Boeing plots hybrid Super Hornet/Growler future."](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-plots-hybrid-super-hornetgrowler-future-400766/) *Flight International*, 25 June 2014.
In 2019, Boeing received a $4 billion contract to deliver 78 Block III Super Hornets for the Navy through fiscal 2021. The Navy plans to sign year to year contracts to convert all of its Block II aircraft to Block III variants through 2033. On 23 February 2023, Boeing announced plans to end Super Hornet production in 2025 due to declining interest in the jet and competition from the [F-35](Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II).
## Design
### Overview
[[File:F-18F refueling F-18E.jpg|thumb|An F/A-18F refueling an F/A-18E over the [of Bengal](Bay)(Bay of Bengal), 2007|alt=Two aircraft flying high above clouds, transferring fuel through a pipe to which the lower aircraft is connected.]]
The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, heavier empty weight, and heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the "Legacy" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about less than that of the F-14 Tomcat which it replaced, while approaching, but not matching, the F-14's payload and range. Being significantly heavier than the legacy Hornet, the catapult and [arresting](arrestor cables) systems must be set differently. To aid safe flight operations and prevent confusion in radio calls, the Super Hornet is informally referred to as the "Rhino" to distinguish it from earlier Hornets. (The "Rhino" nickname was previously applied to the [Douglas F-4 Phantom II](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II), which was retired from US Navy combat use in 1987.)
The Super Hornet, unlike the previous Hornet, can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role the Navy had lost with the retirement of the [KA-6D](Grumman A-6 Intruder#KA-6D) and [S-3B Viking](Lockheed)(Lockheed S-3 Viking) tankers. The ARS includes an external tank with hose reel on the centerline, along with four external tanks and internal tanks, for a total of of fuel on the aircraft.Donald 2004, p. 76. On typical missions a fifth of the air wing is dedicated to the tanker role, which consumes aircraft fatigue life expectancy faster than other missions. It most commonly uses JP-4 jet fuel.
### Airframe changes
[[File:Hornet vs Superhornet.jpg|thumb|Oval Hornet air intakes vs Rectangular Super Hornet [ramp](intake)(intake ramp)|alt=Comparisons between rectangular and oval jet engine intakes]]
The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%,Donald 2004, pp. 49–52. yet the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet.["F/A-18E/F Super Hornet – maritime strike attack aircraft."](http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/fa18-super-hornet/) *naval-technology.com*. Retrieved: 9 September 2011. The [Electric F414](General)(General Electric F414) engine, developed from the Hornet's [F404](General Electric F404), has 35% additional thrust over most of the [envelope](flight)(flight envelope).Elward 2001, p. 77. The Super Hornet can return to an [carrier](aircraft)(aircraft carrier) with a larger load of unspent fuel and munitions than the Hornet; this ability is known as "bringback", which for the Super Hornet is in excess of .
Other differences include [ramp](intake)(intake ramp)s for the engines and two extra wing hard points for payload (for a total of 11), retaining previous hardpoints on the bottom centerline, wingtips, and two conformal fuselage positions.Elward 2001, pp. 74–75. Among the most significant aerodynamic changes are the enlarged [edge extension](leading)(leading edge extension)s (LEX) that provide improved vortex lifting characteristics in high [of attack](angle)(angle of attack) maneuvers, and [the static stability margin](reduce)(relaxed stability) to enhance pitching characteristics. This modification results in pitch rates in excess of 40 degrees per second, and high resistance to departure from controlled flight.["F/A-18E/F Super Hornet."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/fa18ef/index.htm) Boeing. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.
### Radar signature reduction measures
[[File:Boeing F-A-18F Super Hornet, United States - US Navy (USN) JP7509785.jpg|thumb|The [S-duct](S-duct)-like air intake partially conceals engine blades from radar waves.]]
Survivability is a key feature of the Super Hornet. The U.S. Navy took a "balanced approach" to survivability in its design.Gaddis, Capt. "BD". ["F/A-18 & EF-18G Program brief."](http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2007psa_apr/gaddis.pdf) *U.S. Navy,* 24 April 2007. It does not rely primarily on low-observability technology, but rather adopts improvements to its radar signature alongside other innovations; incorporating more advanced electronic warfare capabilities, reduced ballistic vulnerability, and greater employment of standoff weapons to collectively enhance crew and aircraft safety.["F/A-18-E/F Super Hornet... Leading Naval Aviation into the 21st Century."](http://www.navy.mil/navydata/aircraft/fa18/shornet.html) *U.S. Navy,* 17 August 2009. While the F/A-18E/F is not a [stealth](stealth aircraft) fighter like the F-22, it does have a frontal [cross-section](radar)(radar cross-section) (RCS) an order of magnitude smaller than prior generation fighters. Additional changes for reducing RCS can be installed on an as-needed basis.
The F/A-18E/F's RCS is reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section. The alignment of the leading edges of the engine inlets is designed to scatter radiation to the sides. Fixed fanlike reflecting structures in the inlet tunnel divert radar energy away from the rotating fan blades.Donald 2004, pp. 50–51, 56. The Super Hornet also makes considerable use of panel joint serration and edge alignment to direct reflected waves away from the aircraft in uniformly narrow angles. Considerable attention is paid to the removal or filling of unnecessary surface join gaps and resonant cavities. Where the F/A-18A-D used grilles to cover various accessory exhaust and inlet ducts, the F/A-18E/F uses perforated panels that appear opaque to radar waves at the frequencies used.
### Avionics
[[File:F-A-18F Super Hornet Cockpit (51613522112).jpg|thumb|Aboard , a mechanic performs system checks from the cockpit of a U.S. Navy F/A-18F with three [display](multifunction)(multifunction display)s.]]
Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time. Differences include an up-front [touchscreen](touchscreen) control display; a large multipurpose color [display](liquid-crystal)(liquid-crystal display); and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital [fly-by-wire](fly-by-wire) system,Winchester 2006, p. 166. as well as a digital flight-control system that detects and corrects for battle damage. Initial production models used the [APG-73](AN/APG-65 radar family) radar, later replaced by the [AN/APG-79](AN/APG-79) [electronically scanned array](active)(active electronically scanned array) (AESA). The [ATFLIR](AN/ASQ-228)(AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR) (Advanced Targeting Forward Looking InfraRed), is the main electro-optical sensor and [designator](laser)(laser designator) pod for the Super Hornet. The communications equipment consist of an [AN/ARC-210](AN/ARC-210) VHF/UHF radio and a [MIDS](Multifunctional Information Distribution System)-JTRS low volume terminal for [QUICK](HAVE)(HAVE QUICK), [SINCGARS](SINCGARS) and [16](Link)(Link 16) connectivity.
The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the [AN/ALR-67](AN/ALR-67)(V)3 [warning receiver](radar)(radar warning receiver), the [AN/ALE-47](AN/ALE-47) [countermeasure](countermeasure)s dispenser, the [AN/ALE-50](AN/ALE-50) towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the [AN/ALQ-214](AN/ALQ-214) Integrated Defensive Countermeasures (IDECM) system, consisting of internally mounted threat receivers and optional self-protection jammers. Interior and exterior lighting on the Block II was changed to allow the use of [vision device](night)(night vision device)s. The older ALE-50 decoys are being replaced by [towed decoys](ALE-55)(AN/ALE-55 Fiber-Optic Towed Decoy), which can transmit jamming signals based on data received from the IDECM. The improved AN/ALQ-214 jammer was added on Block II aircraft.Fulghum, David A. ["Navy Details New Super Hornet Capabilities."](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/aw022607p2.xml) *Aviation Week and Space Technology*, 25 February 2007. Retrieved: 256 July 2011.
Block II aircraft were fitted with the [AN/APG-79](AN/APG-79) AESA radar, capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges.["New APG-79 AESA Radars for Super Hornets."](http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/new-apg79-aesa-radars-for-super-hornets-0411/) *Defense Industry Daily*, 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 8 July 2011. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles"New U.S. Navy Radar Detects Cruise Missiles." *Aviation Week and Space Technology,* 30 April 2007. and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles. [VFA-213](VFA-213), the first squadron to fly AESA-equipped Super Hornets, became "safe for flight" (independently fly and maintain the F/A-18F) on 27 October 2006. The first Super Hornet upgraded with the [Helmet Mounted Cueing System](Joint)(Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System) (JHMCS) was delivered to VFA-213 on 18 May 2007.["Boeing Dual-Cockpit Cueing System Introduced to U.S. Navy Squadron."](http://www.defense-aerospace.com/cgi-bin/client/modele.pl?session=dae.26033479.1179869744.1P9yyH8AAAEAABZmbDoAAAAB&manuel_call_cat=3&manuel_call_prod=82407&manuel_call_mod=release&modele=jdc_inter) *defense-aerospace.com*. Retrieved 16 August 2010. The JHMCS provides multi-purpose situational awareness, which includes high-off-[boresight](Gun harmonisation) missile cuing. The Shared Reconnaissance Pod (SHARP) is a high-resolution, digital tactical [reconnaissance](aerial)(aerial reconnaissance) system that features advanced day/night and all-weather capability.Clemons, John. ["Raytheon Awarded Navy Contract to Increase SHARP System Capability."](http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=575&pagetemplate=release) *Raytheon*, 4 October 2006. The [Information Distribution System](Multifunctional)(Multifunctional Information Distribution System) low volume communication terminal is being upgraded with the [MIDS-JTRS](Joint Tactical Radio System#Multifunctional Information Distribution System (MIDS) JTRS) system,Rosenberg-Macaulay, Barry. ["MIDS JTRS systems poised to bring IP networking to the aerial tier."](http://defensesystems.com/microsites/2010-jtrs/mids.aspx) defensesystems.com, 2011. Retrieved: 12 February 2011. which will allow a tenfold increase in [bandwidth](bandwidth (signal processing)) as well as compatibility with the [Tactical Radio System](Joint)(Joint Tactical Radio System) standards.
Development of Block III avionics upgrades has been underway as of April 2019.
## Operational history
### United States Navy
[[landing 06-10304cr.jpg|thumb|right|F/A-18E Super Hornet launching from the ](File:F-18E)]
In 1999, the Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy. It achieved [operating capability](initial)(initial operating capability) (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 ([VFA-115](VFA-115)) at [Air Station Lemoore](Naval)(Naval Air Station Lemoore), California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18s into combat. On 6 November 2002, two F/A-18Es conducted a "Response Option" strike in support of [Southern Watch](Operation)(Operation Southern Watch) on two [missile](surface-to-air)(surface-to-air missile) launchers at [Kut](Al)(Al Kut), [Iraq](Iraq) and an air defense command and control bunker at [Tallil](Tallil) air base. One of the pilots dropped [JDAM](JDAM) bombs from the Super Hornet for the first time during combat.Holmes 2004, p. 11.
In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom ([War](Iraq)(Iraq War)), [VFA-14](VFA-14), [VFA-41](VFA-41) and [VFA-115](VFA-115) flew [air support](close)(close air support), strike, escort, [SEAD](SEAD) and aerial refueling sorties. Two F/A-18Es from VFA-14 and two F/A-18Fs from VFA-41 were forward deployed to . The VFA-14 aircraft flew mostly as aerial refuelers and the VFA-41 fighters as [Air Controller (Airborne)](Forward)(Forward air controller) or FAC(A)s. On 6 April 2005, [VFA-154](VFA-154) and [VFA-147](VFA-147) (the latter squadron then still operating F/A-18Cs) dropped two laser-guided bombs on an enemy insurgent location east of [Baghdad](Baghdad).
On 8 September 2006, [VFA-211](VFA-211) F/A-18Fs expended [GBU-12](GBU-12) and [GBU-38](GBU-38) bombs against [Taliban](Taliban) fighters and Taliban fortifications west and northwest of [Kandahar](Kandahar). This was the first time the unit had participated in an active combat capacity using the Super Hornet.["Strikes Continue: ISAF Air Component Commander Visits Big E."](https://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=25504) *U.S. Navy,* 9 November 2006. Retrieved: 9 September 2011.["USS Enterprise aircraft deliver lethal sting of bombs to enemy in Afghanistan"](https://www.stripes.com/news/uss-enterprise-aircraft-deliver-lethal-sting-of-bombs-to-enemy-in-afghanistan-1.55370) , *Stars and Stripes*, 13 October 2006.
[[operation uss carl vinson.ogg|thumb|left|F/A-18F take-off, in-flight refueling and landing on the ](File:F18)]
During the 2006–2007 cruise with , [VFA-103](VFA-103) and [VFA-143](VFA-143) supported Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and operations off the Somali coast. Alongside "Legacy Hornet" squadrons, [VFA-131](VFA-131) and [VFA-83](VFA-83), they dropped 140 precision guided weapons and performed nearly 70 strafing runs.Moore, Lt. Shannon. ["CVW-7 Sailors Complete an Eight-Month Deployment."](https://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=29568) *U.S. Navy,* 22 May 2007. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. The Super Hornet can operate from the French nuclear [carrier](aircraft carrier) [de Gaulle* (R91)](*Charles)(French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (R91)).
In 2007, Boeing proposed additional F/A-18E/Fs to the U.S. Navy in a multi-year contract. By October 2008, Boeing had delivered 367 Super Hornets to the U.S. Navy.Brett, Mary Ann and Philip Carder. ["Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet a Finalist in Brazil Fighter Aircraft Competition."](https://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=20295&item=417) Boeing, 1 October 2008. On 6 April 2009, Defense Secretary [Gates](Robert)(Robert Gates) announced that the [of Defense](Department)(United States Department of Defense) (DOD) intended to acquire 31 F/A-18s in FY2010. Congress requested the DoD study a further multi-year contract so that a projected fighter shortfall could be averted;["Navy F/A-18E/F and EA-18G Aircraft Procurement and Strike Fighter Shortfall: Background and Issues for Congress."](http://opencrs.com/document/RL30624) *opencrs.com*. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. in 2006, the Navy was 60 fighters below its validated requirement.Tilghman, Andrew. ["Gates: Fighter gap ignores real-world demand."](http://www.navytimes.com/news/2010/06/navy_fighter_gap_060710w/) *navytimes.com*, 8 June 2006. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. The FY2010 budget bill authorized a multiyear purchase agreement for additional Super Hornets.Shalal-Esa, Andrea. ["US defense compromise authorizes F/A-18 multiyear deal."](https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2009/10/07/afx6977215.html) *Forbes*. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.Tilghman, Andrew. ["Bill would give go-ahead to buy Super Hornets."](http://www.navytimes.com/news/2009/06/navy_fighter_gap_062409w/) *navytimes.com*, 25 June 2009. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. A multi-year contract was finalized on 28 September 2010, reported as saving $600 million over individual yearly contracts, for 66 Super Hornets and 58 Growlers to mitigate a four-year delay in the F-35 program.Leiser, Ken. ["Boeing lands $5.3 billion fighter jet contract with Navy."](https://stltoday.com/business/article_ee32802a-e06a-51fc-ae02-b49a003b2375.html) *stltoday.com*, 29 September 2010. Retrieved: 29 September 2010.
On 7 August 2014, U.S. defense officials announced they had been authorized to launch bombing missions upon [State](Islamic)(Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) (IS) forces in northern Iraq. The decision to take direct action was made to protect U.S. personnel in the city of [Irbil](Irbil, Iraq) and to ensure the safety of transport aircraft making airdrops to [Yazidi](Yazidi) civilians. Early on 8 August, two Super Hornets took off from and dropped 500 lb laser-guided bombs on a "mobile artillery piece" the militants had been using to shell [forces](Kurdish)(Kurds) defending the city.[U.S. fighters pound militants in northern Iraq](http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20140807/NEWS08/308070083/U-S-fighters-pound-militants-northern-Iraq) - Militarytimes.com, 7 August 2014[USN carries out air strike on Iraqi militants](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/usn-carries-out-air-strike-on-iraqi-militants-402536/) - Flightglobal.com, 8 August 2014 Later that day, four more aircraft struck a seven-vehicle convoy and a mortar position.[Naval Power Bolsters U.S. Airstrikes in Iraq](http://defensetech.org/2014/08/08/naval-power-bolsters-u-s-airstrikes-in-iraq/) - Defensetech.org, 8 August 2014
[[File:US Navy 090429-N-9062E-001 An F-A-18F Super Hornet from the.jpg|thumb|F/A-18F being refueled over [Afghanistan](Afghanistan) in 2009]]
On 18 June 2017, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E [down](shot)(Ja'Din shootdown incident) a [Air Force](Syrian)(Syrian Air Force) [Su-22](Su-22) fighter-bomber that allegedly had bombed a position held by U.S.-supported [Democratic Forces](Syrian)(Syrian Democratic Forces) (SDF) near Tabqa; the Syrian government claimed the Su-22 was bombing an IS position. This was the first aerial kill of a crewed aircraft by an American fighter since 1999, the first by the Navy since the 1991 [Gulf War](Persian)(Persian Gulf War), the first kill by a Super Hornet, and the third kill by an F/A-18.["US F/A-18E Shoots Down Syrian Su-22 in Air-to-Air Kill"](http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/06/18/us-navy-fa18e-shoots-down-su22-over-syria.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm) . Military.com, 18 June 2017. An [Sentry](E-3)(E-3 Sentry) issued several warnings to the Su-22 and, after it dropped bombs near SDF fighters, the F/A-18E, piloted by [Commander](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant commander (United States)) Michael "MOB" Tremel, a pilot assigned to [Fighter Squadron 87](Strike)(Strike Fighter Squadron 87) aboard the carrier *George H.W. Bush*, independently chose to shoot it down based on established rules of engagement. The F/A-18E first missed with an [Sidewinder](AIM-9X)(AIM-9X Sidewinder), then hit the Su-22 with an [AMRAAM](AIM-120)(AIM-120 AMRAAM); the encounter lasted eight minutes.[Report: Navy Pilot Breaks Silence About Shooting Down Syrian Fighter](http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/07/31/report-navy-pilot-breaks-silence-shooting-down-syrian-fighter.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm) - Military.com, 31 July 2017
In 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for [Angels](Blue)(Blue Angels) use; these are to be completed by 2021.
### Royal Australian Air Force
On 3 May 2007, the [Government](Australian)(Government of Australia) signed an A$2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs as an interim replacement for the [Australian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Australian Air Force)'s (RAAF) aging [F-111](General Dynamics F-111C)s.["Super Hornet Acquisition Contract Signed."](https://archive.today/20120802173822/http://www.defence.gov.au/media/DepartmentalTpl.cfm?CurrentId=6619) *defence.gov.au,* 5 March 2007. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. It was reported that the order would also address any difficulties that might be caused by a need to quickly replace the RAAF's existing fleet of classic F/A-18A/B Hornets in the event of delays to the [F-35](F-35) program.Baker, Richard. ["The Hornet's nest."](http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/the-hornets-nest/2007/07/08/1183833340924.html) *The Age*, 9 July 2007. The total cost of the purchase, with training and support over 10 years, was expected to be A$6 billion (US$4.6 billion).
[[File:F-111 F-A-18F.jpg|thumb|An F-111C (at left) with one of the RAAF's first two F/A-18Fs["Acceptance for Super Hornets A44-202 and A44-204."](http://www.defence.gov.au/media/download/2010/Feb/20100226b/index.htm) *Defence.gov.au,* 26 February 2010. Retrieved: 16 June 2011.]]
The order was controversial; [Vice Marshal](Air)(Air Vice Marshal) (retired) Peter Criss, said that he was "absolutely astounded" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft,["The 7.30 Report: Nelson stands by fighter jet decision."](http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/s1873007.htm) *Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)*, 15 March 2007. and cited the US Senate Armed Services Committee, to the effect that the "[power](excess)(Flight envelope)" of the Block I Super Hornet was inferior to that of the [MiG-29](Mikoyan MiG-29) and [Su-30](Sukhoi Su-30), both of which were being operated by, or were on order for, air forces in South East Asia.Criss, Peter. ["There is nothing super about this Hornet."](https://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/there-is-nothing-super-about-this-hornet/2007/03/14/1173722557984.html?page=fullpage) *The Sydney Morning Herald*, 15 March 2007. Retrieved: 9 May 2007. Another former senior RAAF officer, [Commodore](Air)(Air Commodore) (ret.) Ted Bushell stated that the F/A-18F could not perform the strategic deterrent/strike role of the F-111C and the latter could continue to operate until 2020 at least. On 31 December 2007, the new [Labor government](Australian)(First Rudd Ministry) announced a review of the RAAF's aircraft procurement plans citing suitability concerns, the lack of a proper review process, and beliefs that an interim fighter was not needed.Allard, Tom. ["Axe set to fall on Nelson's fighters."](https://www.smh.com.au/news/national/axe-to-fall-on-fighter-jets/2007/12/30/1198949675365.html) *The Sydney Morning Herald*, 31 December 2007.
On 17 March 2008, the Government announced that it would proceed to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs.["Govt to keep Super Hornets."](http://news.theage.com.au/national/govt-to-keep-super-hornets-20080317-1zwr.html) *The Age*, 17 March 2008. Defence Minister [Fitzgibbon](Joel)(Joel Fitzgibbon) called the Super Hornet an "excellent aircraft", and indicated that costs and logistical factors contributed to the decision: the F-111's retirement was "irreversible"; "only" the F/A-18F could meet the timeframe and that termination involved "significant financial penalties and create understandable tensions between the contract partners."["Government clears Super Hornets deal."](http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/government-clears-super-hornets-deal/2008/03/17/1205602284435.html) *The Age*, 17 March 2008.Dunlop, Tim. ["Super Hornets are go."](http://blogs.news.com.au/news/blogocracy/index.php/news/comments/super_hornets_are_go/) *news.com.au,* 18 March 2008. The Block II aircraft offered include installed engines and six spares, APG-79 AESA radars, Link 16 connectivity, [LAU-127](LAU-127) guided missile launchers, [fiber optic towed decoys](AN/ALE-55)(AN/ALE-55 Fiber-Optic Towed Decoy) and other equipment. On 27 February 2009, Fitzgibbon announced that 12 of the 24 F/A-18Fs would be wired on the production line for future modification as [EA-18G Growler](Boeing)(Boeing EA-18G Growler)s at an additional cost of A$35 million. The final decision on the EA-18G conversion, at a cost of A$300 million, would be made in 2012.Smith, Jack. ["Super Hornets wired for future upgrades."](http://www.defence.gov.au/minister/70tpl.cfm?CurrentId=8817) *Department of Defence*, 27 February 2009. Retrieved: 9 September 2011.
[[Super Hornet Brisbane Festival 2019 Practice Run - AndrewMercer - DSC00174.jpg|thumb|F/A-18F at the 2019 Brisbane Festival](File:FA-18F)]
The first RAAF F/A-18F made its first flight from Boeing's factory in [Louis](St.)(St. Louis), [Missouri](Missouri), on 21 July 2009.Carder, Phillip. ["Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet for Australia Takes Flight."](http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=754) Boeing, 21 July 2009. RAAF crews began training in the U.S. in 2009. The first five F/A-18Fs arrived at their home base, [Base Amberley](RAAF)(RAAF Base Amberley) in Queensland, on 26 March 2010;["Super Hornets arrive in south-east Queensland."](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-03-26/super-hornets-arrive-in-south-east-queensland/381726) *ABC News*, 26 March 2010. Retrieved: 15 July 2011. and were joined by six more aircraft on 7 July 2010.Hurst, Daniel. ["Pilots buzzing as Super Hornets arrive."](http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/technology/pilots-buzzing-as-super-hornets-arrive-20100706-zyhk.html) *The Brisbane Times*, 6 July 2010. After four more aircraft arrived in December 2010, the first RAAF F/A-18F squadron was declared operational on 9 December 2010.Waldron, Greg. ["Australia’s first F/A-18F squadron declared operational."](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/12/09/350707/picture-australias-first-fa-18f-squadron-declared-operational.html) *Flight International*, 9 December 2010.
In 2008, U.S. export approval was sought for EA-18G Growlers. In December 2012, Australia sought cost information on acquiring a further 24 F/A-18Fs, which may be bought to avoid a capability gap due to F-35 delays.["Joint Media Release: Australia’s future Air Combat Capability."](http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/2012/12/13/minister-for-defence-and-minister-for-defence-materiel-joint-media-release-australias-future-air-combat-capability/) *Minister for Defence and Minister for Defence Materiel* (Australian Government Department of Defence), 13 December 2012. In February 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia for up to 12 F/A-18E/Fs and 12 EA-18Gs with associated equipment, training and logistical support.Taylor, Charles and Paul Ebner. ["F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler Aircraft".](http://www.dsca.mil/sites/default/files/mas/australia_13-05_0.pdf) *Defense Security Cooperation Agency*, 28 February 2013. In May 2013, Australia announced the order of 12 new EA-18Gs instead of converting any F/A-18Fs.["Australia plans to buy 12 EA-18G Growlers."](http://washingtonexaminer.com/australia-plans-to-buy-12-ea-18g-growler-aircraft/article/feed/2095246) *Washingtonexaminer.com*, 3 May 2013. In June 2014, Boeing received a contract for 12 EA-18Gs; the first was rolled out on 29 July 2015.
On 24 September 2014, eight RAAF F/A-18Fs, along with a [KC-30A](KC-30A) tanker, an early warning aircraft, and 400 personnel arrived in the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates) to take part in [operations](2014 military intervention against ISIS) against [State](Islamic)(Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) (IS) militants. On 5 October 2014, the RAAF officially started combat missions over Iraq using a pair of F/A-18Fs armed with GPS guided bombs, they returned safely to base without attacking targets. On 8 October 2014, an RAAF F/A-18F conducted its first attack, dropping two bombs on an ISIL facility in northern Iraq.[Australia launches first airstrike in Iraq](http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20141008/NEWS08/310080066/Australia-launches-first-airstrike-Iraq) - Militarytimes.com, 8 October 2014 In 2017, EA-18Gs replaced [6 Squadron RAAF](No.)(No. 6 Squadron RAAF)'s F/A-18Fs, which were then transferred to [1 Squadron RAAF](No.)(No. 1 Squadron RAAF).
On 8 December 2020, F/A-18F A44-223 rolled into a ditch while attempting to take off at [Base Amberley](RAAF)(RAAF Base Amberley), the crew ejected. An eyewitness reportedly observed smoke from one of the engines. A day after the incident, the RAAF grounded the fleet of 24 Super Hornets and 11 Growlers while the incident was investigated. The cause was determined to be pilot error.
### Kuwait Air Force
In May 2015, the [Air Force](Kuwait)(Kuwait Air Force) was reportedly planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015, it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the [Typhoon](Eurofighter)(Eurofighter Typhoon) and the F/A-18E/F.[Kuwait, Italy Discuss Eurofighter Buy](http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/air-force/2015/06/04/kuwait-eurofighter-italy-talks-alenia-aermacchi-rafale-egypt-qatar/28494435/). Defense News, On 11 September 2015, Kuwait signed an agreement for 28 Eurofighters. In November 2016, a proposed Kuwaiti sale of 32 F/A-18E and 8 F/A-18F fighters, armaments, and associated equipment was approved by the [State Department](U.S.)(United States Department of State).["Kuwait, Qatar Deals Move Forward, Likely Putting Boeing Fighter Jet Production Into the 2020s"](http://www.defensenews.com/articles/kuwait-qatar-fighter-jet-deals-move-forward-likely-putting-boeing-fighter-jet-production-into-the-2020s). Defense News, 17 November 2016.
In June 2018, the [Government](Kuwaiti)(Government of Kuwait) ordered 22 F/A-18Es and 6 F/A-18Fs via a US$1.5 billion contract. All aircraft were scheduled to be delivered by January 2021, but were later rescheduled to be delivered in 2021 due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
### Potential operators
[[18 Super Hornet at Aero India 2011 (8th edition of Aero India).jpg|thumb|F/A-18F taxis to the runway for takeoff at Aero India 2011](File:F)]
Boeing has pitched the F/A-18E/F to numerous countries, particularly those that operate the legacy Hornet as it was supposed to be a "logical progression from the Hornet to the [Hornet](Super), with its logistics, weaponry and training commonalities". So far only the US Navy, Australia, and Kuwait have ordered and received the Super Hornet.
#### Malaysia
Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the [Su-30MKM](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-30MKM) instead; Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the [Malaysian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Malaysian Air Force) (RMAF) indicated that the air force had not planned to end the Super Hornet buy, stating that such fighters were needed.["Super Hornets, Awacs may feature in RMAF modernisation plans"](http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/arkib.asp?y=2004&dt=0416&pub=utusan_express&sec=special%5Freport&pg=sr_02.htm&arc=hive) . *Utusan Malaysia*, 16 April 2007. Retrieved: 5 September 2008. Separately, the Super Hornet is a contender for the MRCA program, under which the RMAF seek to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighters with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to US$2.46 billion). Other competitors are the Eurofighter Typhoon, [Rafale](Dassault)(Dassault Rafale) and [JAS 39 Gripen](Saab)(Saab JAS 39 Gripen).
#### India
For India's [competition](MMRCA)(Indian MRCA Competition), Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included [Raytheon](Raytheon)'s [APG-79](APG-79) AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal detailing partnerships with companies in India. The [Air Force](Indian)(Indian Air Force) (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Hornet, including field trials in August 2009.["F-18 comes in first, trials begin"](http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-08-18/bangalore/28174992_1_test-trials-iaf-fighter-aircraft) . *Times of India*, 18 August 2009. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. However, in April 2011, the IAF eliminated the F/A-18IN from the competition which was eventually won by the Dassault Rafale.Bajaj, Vikas. ["U.S. Loses Bids to Supply Jets to India"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/29/business/global/29india.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss) . *The New York Times*, 28 April 2011. Retrieved: 11 May 2011.
In October 2016, India reportedly received three unsolicited bids, including one from Boeing for the Super Hornet, to replace its [MiG-21](MiG-21) and [MiG-27](MiG-27) aircraft. In February 2018, the [Naval Air Arm](Indian)(Indian Naval Air Arm) was reportedly interested in the Super Hornet as the main carrier-based strike fighter of the in-development [*Vishal*-class](INS Vishal) aircraft carrier. In December 2020, Boeing announced the successful launched of the aircraft from a ski-jump, emphasizing its compatibility with the Indian Navy's [STOBAR](STOBAR) carriers. In May 2022, two Super Hornets were sent to Goa to showcase compatibility with Indian aircraft carriers. There are technical aspects that would make the Rafale difficult to implement for the , and would favor the Super Hornet over the Rafale.
The aircraft is now competing with six others in a fresh tender, referred as [2.0](MMRCA)(Indian MRCA competition), for the procurement of 114 multi-role combat aircraft for the IAF.
### Failed bids
#### Belgium
On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper *[Morgen](De)(De Morgen)* reported that Boeing is in talks with the [Ministry of Defence](Belgian)(Ministry of Defence (Belgium)) about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging [F-16](General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon) fleet.["Wordt dit de vervanger van de Belgische F-16's?"](https://archive.today/20140313095030/http://www.demorgen.be/dm/nl/989/Binnenland/article/detail/1810530/2014/03/12/Wordt-dit-de-vervanger-van-de-Belgische-F-16-s.dhtml) *[Morgen](De)(De Morgen)*, 12 March 2014. Retrieved: 13 March 2014. In April 2017, Boeing announced it would not compete in the competition, citing it "does not see an opportunity to compete on a truly level playing field". On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34 F-35As to replace its fleet of around 54 F-16s.
#### Brazil
Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the [government](Brazilian)(Federal government of Brazil) in response to an initial requirement for 36 aircraft, with a potential total purchase of 120 examples. In October 2018, the Super Hornet was reportedly selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition.Trimble, Stephen. ["Brazil names three finalists for F-X2 contract, rejects three others"](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/10/06/316814/brazil-names-three-finalists-for-f-x2-contract-rejects-three.html) . *Flight International*, 6 October 2008. However, news of [Security Agency](National)(National Security Agency) spying on Brazilian leaders caused animosity between Brazil and the US. Brazil eventually dropped the Super Hornet from its final list and selected the Saab JAS 39 Gripen in December 2013.
#### Canada
The Super Hornet was a contender to replace the [Hornet](CF-18)(CF-18 Hornet), a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the [Canadian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Canadian Air Force). Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor's main deficiency while commonalities enable a straightforward transition. In 2010, Canada decided on [source selection](sole)(Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Canadian procurement) of the F-35A. Boeing claimed that Canada had ignored the Super Hornet's radar cross-section characteristics during evaluation. By April 2012, Canada was reportedly reviewing its F-35 procurement.Campion-Smith, Bruce. ["Ottawa to overhaul purchase of F-35 fighter jets in wake of Auditor General’s report"](https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1155603--ottawa-to-overhaul-purchase-of-f-35-fighter-jets-in-wake-of-auditor-general-s-report?bn=1). *Toronto Star*, 2 April 2012. In September 2013, Boeing provided Canada with data on its Advanced Super Hornet, suggesting that 65 aircraft would cost $1.7 billion less than an F-35 fleet. The US Navy buys Super Hornets for $52 million per aircraft, while the advanced model costs $6–$10 million more per aircraft, dependent on options selected.["Competition heats up as Ottawa reviews options to procure costly F-35 fighter jets"](http://www.hilltimes.com/news/politics/2013/09/05/competition-heats-up-as-ottawa-reviews-options-to-costly-fighter-jets/35816) . Hilltimes.com, 5 September 2013
The [Liberal](Liberal Party of Canada) government elected in 2015 indicated that it would launch a competition to replace the CF-18 fleet. During the election, Liberal Leader [Trudeau](Justin)(Justin Trudeau) stated that his government would not buy the F-35.Berthiaume, Lee; Ivison, John. ["Liberals planning to buy Super Hornet fighter jets before making final decision on F-35s, sources say"](http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/canadian-politics/liberals-planning-to-buy-super-hornet-fighter-jets-before-making-final-decision-on-f-35s-sources-say) . *National Post*, 5 June 2016. On 22 November 2016, the government announced its intention to acquire 18 Super Hornets on an interim basis. In September 2017, the U.S State Department granted Canada permission to buy 10 F/A-18Es and 8 F/A-18Fs (or EA-18Gs) along with supporting equipment, spares, and armaments; the agreed cost totaled [CA$](CA$)1.5 billion, or about CA$83.3 million per aircraft, adding the supporting equipment, training, spares, and weapons increased the acquisition cost to CA$6.3 billion. However, Canadian [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister) [Trudeau](Justin)(Justin Trudeau) warned that the pending Super Hornet sale, along with a possible sale of another 70, was adversely affected by Boeing's actions against [Aerospace](Bombardier)(Bombardier Aerospace), such as a [complaint](CSeries dumping petition by Boeing) to the US government over the sale of CSeries airliners to [Air Lines](Delta)(Delta Air Lines) at unduly low prices; in September 2017, the [Department of Commerce](U.S.)(U.S. Department of Commerce) proposed a 219% tariff on CSeries imported into the US. In January 2018, the USITC commissioners unanimously ruled against Boeing that the U.S. industry is not threatened and no duties will be imposed.
In late 2017, the Canadian Government agreed with Australia to purchase [used F/A-18 Hornets](18)(McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet in Australian service) as an interim measure. Boeing confirmed its bid for the Advanced Fighter Program, likely offering a mix of 88 F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornets (Block III) and [EA-18G Growler](Boeing)(Boeing EA-18G Growler)s. On 25 November 2021, Reuters reported that Boeing is out of the competition since its fighter proposal does not meet requirements with the F-35 and Saab JAS 39 Gripen remaining in competition.
#### Denmark
In 2008, the [Danish Air Force](Royal)(Royal Danish Air Force) was offered the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs.Warwick, Graham. ["Boeing Submits Danish Super Hornet Proposal"](http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/FA18082808.xml&headline=Boeing%20Submits%20Danish%20Super%20Hornet%20Proposal). *Aviation Week*, 28 August 2008. Brett, Mary Ann and Philip Carder. ["Boeing, US Navy Offer Super Hornet for Denmark Fighter Competition"](http://boeing.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=20295&item=315) Boeing, 27 August 2008. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The final selection was originally planned for mid-2015 where 24 to 30 fighters were expected. In April 2014, the [Ministry of Defence](Danish)(Ministry of Defence (Denmark)) handed over a Request for Binding Information (RBI) that specifically listed the F/A-18F two-seat variant.defense-aerospace.com [Denmark Starts Fighter Evaluation Process to Replace F-16](http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/153219/denmark-launches-fighter-competition.html) 12 April 2014 In December 2015, the decision was postponed to 2016, with the final order's details pending negotiations. In May 2016, the Danish government recommended to [parliament](Folketing) that 27 F-35As should be procured instead of 38 Super Hornets.
In September 2016, Boeing indicated that they would take legal action against the Danish F-35A buy, indicating that flawed data was used. In March 2018, Boeing lost the case with the court stating "The court has found that the authorities' decisions on refusal of access to the documents are legal and valid."
#### Finland
In June 2015, a working group set up by the [MoD](Finnish)(Ministry of Defence (Finland)) proposed starting the [Fighter Program](HX)(HX Fighter Program) to replace the [Air Force's](Finnish)(Finnish Air Force) current fleet of [Hornets](F/A-18C/D)(McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet), which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognised five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. In May 2016, the DOD announced that Boeing (with the Super Hornet) and Lockheed Martin (with the F-35) would respond to the information request. This request was sent in early 2016 with five responses received in November 2016. A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021.
In February 2020, three Super Hornets (a single-seat F/A-18E, a twin-seat F/A-18F and an EA-18G) arrived at the Tampere-Pirkkala Airbase in Finland for final flight evaluations. The evaluations concluded on 28 February 2020. The Finnish newspaper *[Iltalehti](Iltalehti)* reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces recommendation of the F-35, citing its capability and expected long lifespan as key reasons. Finland ordered the F-35 in February 2022.
#### Germany
Germany requires a replacement for its aging [Tornado](Panavia)(Panavia Tornado) fleet, including both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the Lockheed Martin F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, and the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler. In April 2020, Germany's defense secretary announced a replacement plan for a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18Gs and 55 Typhoons.Perry, Dominic. ["Germany picks Super Hornet and more Eurofighters for Tornado replacement"](https://www.flightglobal.com/fixed-wing/germany-picks-super-hornet-and-more-eurofighters-for-tornado-replacement/138003.article). Flight Global, 21 April 2020. However, the Defense Ministry states this is not finalized and it is being debated. As of March 2020, the Super Hornet is not certified for the [nuclear bomb](B61)(B61 nuclear bomb)s, but Dan Gillian, Super Hornet program head, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements..."
With increased tensions in Europe, due to the [invasion of Ukraine](Russian)(Russian invasion of Ukraine) beginning 24 February 2022, Germany scrambled to accelerate defense spending priorities. Newly elected [Chancellor](Chancellor of Germany) [Scholz](Olaf)(Olaf Scholz) pledged a €100 billion military upgrade, which included selecting the F-35 instead of the Super Hornet for the nuclear role and Eurofighter ECR/SEAD instead of the Growler.
#### Poland
During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the [Air Force](Polish)(Polish Air Force)'s fleet of [Su-22M4](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-17) ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighters. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22 December 2017, five entities expressed interest in participating in the market analysis phase of the procurement, referred to as *"Harpia"* (harpy eagle); they included Saab (Gripen NG), Lockheed Martin (F-35), Boeing (F/A-18), Leonardo (Eurofighter Typhoon) and Fights-On Logistics (second-hand F-16). On 28 May 2019, the [Defense Ministry](Polish)(Ministry of National Defence (Poland)) formally requested to buy 32 F-35As.
#### Switzerland
Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the [Air Force](Swiss)(Swiss Air Force) as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008.["Boeing withdraws Super Hornet from Swiss contract race"](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/boeing-withdraws-super-hornet-from-swiss-contract-race-223401/) . Flightglobal.com, 30 April 2008. Retrieved: 16 August 2013. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was [by Swiss voters in 2014](blocked)(2014 Swiss referendums#May referendums). In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget of but includes not only combat aircraft but also ground-based air defense systems. In October 2018, it was reported by Jane's that the Swiss Air Force may be limited to purchasing a single-engine fighter due to cost. The F/A-18E/F performed demonstrations for Swiss personnel at [Air Base](Payerne)(Payerne Air Base) in April 2019, which was contrasted to flights performed by other bidders.
On 30 June 2021, the [Federal Council](Swiss)(Federal Council (Switzerland)) proposed buying 36 F-35As to [Parliament](Federal Assembly (Switzerland)) at a cost of up to 6 billion [franc](Swiss)(Swiss franc)s (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost and combat effectiveness. The anti-military group [GSoA](GSoA) intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported by the [Party of Switzerland](Green)(Green Party of Switzerland) and the [Democratic Party of Switzerland](Social)(Social Democratic Party of Switzerland) (which previously acted to block the Gripen). In August 2022, they registered the initiative, with 120,000 people having signed in less than a year (with 100,000 required). On 26 November 2021, it was announced that Armasuisse had agreed terms with the US government for 36 F-35As for CHF 6.035 billion. The order was then subject to parliamentary approval and the [initiative](popular)(Popular initiative in Switzerland) not proceeding or failing. A parliamentary inquiry found the purchase worrisome but legal. The government did not wait for the popular initiative to proceed, which was legally permitted. On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal. The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030.
#### Spain
By 2018, Spain sought 68-72 fighters to replace its F/A-18A/B Hornets; tender participants included the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet, and Lockheed F-35 Lightning II. On 22 June 2022, Spain ordered 20 Tranche 4 Typhoons to replace the 20 ex-USN F/A-18s based at the Canary Islands.
#### United States Marine Corps
The [States Marine Corps](United)(United States Marine Corps) (USMC) avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any purchased F/A-18s would be at the cost of the F-35B [STOVL](STOVL) fighters that they intend to operate from amphibious ships. Resistance is so high that they would rather fly former Navy F/A-18Cs.Cavas, Christopher P. ["Navy: Super Hornet rep for problems untrue"](http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2007/06/marine_superhornet_070617/). marinecorpstimes.com, 17 June 2010. Retrieved: 16 August 2010. In 2011, the USMC agreed to eventually equip five Marine fighter-attack squadrons (VMFA) with the F-35C carrier variant to continue to augment Navy carrier air wings as they do with the F/A-18C.Butler, Amy. ["Marines Sign on for F-35C"](http://aviationweek.com/awin/marines-commit-f-35c-buy) . *Aviation Week*, 15 March 2011. Retrieved: 18 April 2018.
#### Others
[[F-18 Super Hornet (1336474682).jpg|thumb|An F/A-18F during transonic flight](File:USN)]
On 10 March 2009, Boeing offered the Super Hornet for Greece's Next-Generation Fighter Program.
On 1 August 2010, *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)* reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the [F-35B](F-35B) and buying the Super Hornet instead for its s, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults.Clark, Colin, ["UK May Borrow F-18s For Carriers: F-35Bs May Be Scrapped"](http://www.dodbuzz.com/2010/08/31/uk-may-borrow-f-18s-for-carriers-f-35bs-may-be-scrapped/) . dodbuzz.com, 31 August 2010. Retrieved: 1 September 2010. In the end, the UK opted for a STOVL aircraft carrier equipped with F-35Bs.
The United Arab Emirates was reported to have asked for information on the Super Hornet in 2010.Tran, Philip. ["UAE May Ditch Rafale: Hornet a Surprise Competitor for $10B Deal"](https://archive.today/20120723212412/http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=4775556&c=FEA&s=CVS). defensenews.com, 13 September 2010. Retrieved: 11 May 2011.
In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet.["Bulgarian Defense Chief Gets Saab Offer on Gripen Fighter Jets"](http://novinite.info/view_news.php?id=124921). *Novinite*, 4 February 2011. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expected by July 2018. In December 2018, the [Ministry of Defence](Bulgarian)(Ministry of Defence (Bulgaria)) selected the offer for 8 [F-16V](General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants#F-16V Viper) from the United States for an estimated 1.8 billion lev ($1.05 billion) as the preferred option, and recommended the government to start talks with the US.
In 2012, Norway received an offer for at least one squadron of F/A-18s, noting its suitability to Northern Norwegian conditions.
In 2014, Boeing worked with [Airlines](Korean)(Korean Airlines) to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the [of Korea Air Force](Republic)(Republic of Korea Air Force) as an alternative to their [fighter program](KF-X)(KAI KF-X). Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it would from developing a new fighter.[Boeing Still Interested In South Korea’s KF-X](http://aviationweek.com/defense/boeing-still-interested-south-korea-s-kf-x) - Aviationweek.com, 11 December 2014
## Variants
***F/A-18E Super Hornet**: single seat variant.
***F/A-18F Super Hornet**: two-seat variant.
***NEA-18G**: Two F/A-18Fs modified as prototypes of the EA-18G Growler.
***[Growler](EA-18G)(EA-18G Growler)**: Electronic warfare variant of the F/A-18F to replace the U.S. Navy's [Grumman EA-6B Prowler](Northrop)(Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler).
***Advanced Super Hornet**: Variant of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFT) and has a further reduced radar cross section (RCS), with the option of a stealthy enclosed weapons pod and built-in IRST21 sensor system.
## Operators
[[Super Hornet Operators.png|thumb|300px|F/A-18E/F Super Hornet operators 2010](File:FA-18EF)]
[[VFA-11 F/A-18F performing evasive maneuvers during an air power demonstration|alt=Bottom view of jet fighter in-flight releasing bright orange flares](File:FA-18F-USN-RedRippers-20070406.jpg|thumb|A)]
[[vapor over wings 1.jpg|thumb|A VFA-122 F/A-18F pulling a high-g maneuver at the NAS Oceana "In Pursuit of Liberty" air show, 2004](File:FA-18F)]
[[File:F18F Super Hornet - RIAT 2010 (4831365273).jpg|thumb|U.S. Navy F/A-18F at [RIAT](RIAT), 2010]]
[[Navy 101209-N-9693M-009 Two F-A-18E Super Hornets prepare for a catapult assisted launch as an F-A-18E Super Hornet taxis toward the aft of USS.jpg|thumb|Super Hornets prepare for a catapult assisted launch on the .](File:US)]
; Australia
*[Australian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Australian Air Force)
**[1 Squadron](No.)(No. 1 Squadron RAAF) (F/A-18F)
**[6 Squadron](No.)(No. 6 Squadron RAAF) (EA-18G)
**[82 Wing Training Flight](No.)(No. 82 Wing Training Flight RAAF) (F/A-18F)
; Kuwait
* [Air Force](Kuwait)(Kuwait Air Force) – 22 single-seat F/A-18Es and 6 twin-seat F/A-18Fs on order
; United States
*[States Navy](United)(United States Navy)
** Pacific Fleet squadrons
***[VFA-2](VFA-2) "Bounty Hunters" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-14](VFA-14) "Tophatters" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-22](VFA-22) "Fighting Redcocks" (F/A-18F)Buliavac, Joseph M. ["The aircrew of an F/A-18F Super Hornet, assigned to the "Fighting Redcocks" of Strike Fighter Squadron (VFA) 22, wait to launch from Catapult 3 during night flight operations."](http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=53453) *navy.mil*, 2 December 2007. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.
***[VFA-25](VFA-25) "Fist of the Fleet" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-27](VFA-27) "Royal Maces" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-41](VFA-41) "Black Aces" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-86](VFA-86) "Sidewinders" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-94](VFA-94) "Mighty Shrikes" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-102](VFA-102) "Diamondbacks" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-113](VFA-113) "Stingers" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-115](VFA-115) "Eagles" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-122](VFA-122) "Flying Eagles" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F)["CSFWP Link."](http://www.lemoore.navy.mil/vfa-122/) *lemoore.navy.mil*. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.
***[VFA-136](VFA-136) "Knighthawks" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-137](VFA-137) "Kestrels" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-146](VFA-146) "Blue Diamonds" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-151](VFA-151) "Vigilantes" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-154](VFA-154) "Black Knights" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-192](VFA-192) "Golden Dragons" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-195](VFA-195) "Dambusters" (F/A-18E)
** Atlantic Fleet squadrons
***[VFA-11](VFA-11) "Red Rippers" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-31](VF-31) "Tomcatters" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-32](VFA-32) "Swordsmen" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-34](VFA-34) "Blue Blasters" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-37](VFA-37) "Ragin Bulls" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-81](VFA-81) "Sunliners" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-83](VFA-83) "Rampagers" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-87](VFA-87) "Golden Warriors" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-103](VFA-103) "Jolly Rogers" (F/A-18F)
***[VFA-105](VFA-105) "Gunslingers" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-106](VFA-106) "Gladiators" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18A/B/C/D/E/F)
***[VFA-131](VFA-131) "Wildcats" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-143](VFA-143) "Pukin' Dogs" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-211](VFA-211) "Fighting Checkmates" (F/A-18E)
***[VFA-213](VFA-213) "Black Lions" (F/A-18F)
**Test and Evaluation squadrons
***[VX-9](VX-9) "Vampires" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
***[VX-23](VX-23) "Salty Dogs" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
***[VX-31](VX-31) "Dust Devils" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
**Warfighting Development Centers
***[NAWDC](NSAWC) (Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
**Flight Demonstration squadrons
***U.S. Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron / [Angels](Blue)(Blue Angels) (F/A-18E/F)
Each U.S. Navy deployable "Fleet" VFA squadron has a standard unit establishment of 12 aircraft.
## Notable accidents
* On 6 April 2011, a U.S. Navy F/A-18F from [VFA-122](VFA-122) Tactical Demonstration team crashed, killing both crew members. The crash occurred when the crew attempted to perform a loaded roll with too much speed and insufficient angle-of-attack. The loaded roll has since been removed from the Navy's F/A-18F flight demonstration routine.
* On 31 July 2019, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E from [VFA-151](VFA-151) crashed into the side of [Wars Canyon"]("Star)(Rainbow Canyon (California)) in California, killing the pilot and injuring seven French civilian sightseers at the [Crowley Vista Point](Father)(Fr. John J. Crowley) 40 feet above the impact point. The crash was attributed to flying "too fast and too low with respect to the surrounding terrain". Military training within the canyon has since been suspended, with standing instructions to stay above the rim of the canyon.
* On 8 July 2022, a U.S. Navy F/A-18 assigned to [Air Wing One](Carrier)(Carrier Air Wing One) aboard (CVN-75) blew overboard due to unexpected heavy weather in the Mediterranean Sea.
## Specifications (F/A-18E/F)
[[EA-18G Schematics.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Boeing F/A-18F schematics](File:Boeing)]
[[Navy 070204-N-7780S-106 An F-A-18F Super Hornet assigned to the.jpg|alt=Jet aircraft with landing gear extended flying in a nose-high attitude.|thumb|F/A-18F at landing on ](File:US)]
[[File:Super Hornet on flight deck.jpg|thumb|An F/A-18F parked on the flight deck of aircraft carrier , as the ship operates in the [Sea](Arabian)(Arabian Sea), December 2006]]
*Aerospaceweb.org*. Retrieved: 16 August 2010.
|crew= F/A-18E: 1 (pilot), F/A-18F: 2 (pilot and [systems officer](weapon)(weapon systems officer))
|length ft=60
|length in=1.25
|length m=18.31
|span ft=44
|span in=8.5
|span m=13.62
|height ft=16
|height m=4.88
|wing area sqft=500
|wing area sqm=46.5
|empty weight lb=32,081
|empty weight kg=14,552
|gross weight lb=47,000
|gross weight kg=21,320
|gross weight note=(equipped as fighter)
|max takeoff weight lb=66,000
|max takeoff weight kg=29,937
|more general= ***Internal fuel capacity:** F/A-18E: 14,700 lb (6,667 kg), F/A-18F: 13,760 lb (6,241 kg)
* **External fuel capacity:** Up to 4 × 480 gal (1,800 L) tanks, totaling 13,040 lb (5,914 kg), option for 2x 515 gal (1,949 L) conformal fuel tanks totaling an additional 7,000 lb (3,175 kg) on Block III
|eng1 name=[Electric F414-400](General)(General Electric F414#F414-GE-400)
|eng1 type=[turbofan](turbofan)s
|eng1 number=2
|eng1 lbf=13,000
|eng1 kn=62.3
|eng1 lbf-ab=22,000
|eng1 kn-ab=97.9
|max speed mach=1.6
|max speed mph=1,190
|max speed kmh=1,915
|max speed note=at 40,000 ft (12,190 m)
|ceiling ft=52,300
|ceiling m=15940
|range nmi=1,275
|range km=2,346
|range note=with armament of two AIM-9s
|combat range nmi=444
|combat range miles=511
|combat range km=822
|combat range note=combat radius for interdiction with 4 x bombs, 2x AIM-9s, and 2x 480-gallon drop tanks
|ferry range nmi=1,800
|ferry range miles=2,070
|ferry range km=3,330
|climb rate ftmin= 44,882["F/A-18F Super Hornet"](http://www.fighterworld.com.au/az-of-fighter-aircraft/series-3/super-hornet) *Fighterworld*. Retrieved: 20 February 2013
|climb rate ms= 228
|wing loading lb/sqft= 94.0
|wing loading kg/m2= 459
|wing loading note= at max takeoff weight 127.0 lb/sqft, 620 kg/m2
|thrust/weight= 0.931.1 with loaded weight & 50% internal fuel
|more performance=***Design load factor:** 7.5 g
|guns= 1× [mm (0.787 in)](20)(20 mm caliber) [Vulcan](M61A2)(M61 Vulcan), 412 rounds[*NATOPS A1-F18EA-NFM-200*](https://info.publicintelligence.net/F18-EF-200.pdf) summary of store drag index numbers, p. 39.
|hardpoints= 11 (2× wingtips, 6× under-wing, and 3× under-fuselage)
|hardpoint capacity= Max payload: 17,750 lb (8,050 kg). Carrier bringback payload: F/A-18E: 9,900 lb (4,491 kg), F/A-18F: 9,000 lb (4,082 kg)
|hardpoint missiles=
***[missile](Air-to-air)(Air-to-air missile)s
****4× [Sparrow](AIM-7)(AIM-7 Sparrow)
****4× [Sidewinder](AIM-9)(AIM-9 Sidewinder)
****12× [AMRAAM](AIM-120)(AIM-120 AMRAAM)
****12× [JATM](AIM-260)(AIM-260 JATM) (To be integrated)
***[missile](Air-to-surface)(Air-to-surface missile)s
****6× [Maverick](AGM-65E/F)(AGM-65 Maverick)
****4× [SLAM-ER](AGM-84H/K)(AGM-84H/K SLAM-ER)
****6× [HARM](AGM-88)(AGM-88 HARM)
****4x [JASSM](AGM-158)(AGM-158 JASSM)
****4× [Joint Standoff Weapon](AGM-154)(AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon) - glide bomb
***[missile](Anti-ship)(Anti-ship missile)s
****4× [Harpoon](AGM-84)(AGM-84 Harpoon)
****4× [LRASM](AGM-158C)(AGM-158C LRASM)
**** [Strike Missile](Joint)(Joint Strike Missile) (To be integrated)
|hardpoint bombs=
***[JDAM](Joint Direct Attack Munition) bombs (up to 10× GBU-32/35/38/54 or 4× GBU-31)
***[Paveway](Paveway) series of [bomb](laser-guided)(laser-guided bomb)s
***[80 series](Mk)(Mark 80) unguided bombs
***[Gator mine system](CBU-78)(GATOR mine system)
***[20 Rockeye II cluster bomb](Mk)(CBU-100 Cluster Bomb)
***Mk-62/63/65 Quick Strike [mine](Naval)(Naval mine)
|hardpoint other=
***SUU-42A/A [decoy](Flares/infrared)(Flare (countermeasure)) dispenser pod and [chaff](chaff (radar countermeasure)) pod
***[towed decoy system](AN/ALE-50)(AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system) pod
***[ATFLIR](AN/ASQ-228)(AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR) or [Litening](AN/AAQ-28(V))(Litening) [pod](targeting)(targeting pod)s
***up to 4× [tank](drop)(drop tank)s and 1× A/A42R-1 Aerial Refueling Store pod for aerial refueling.
***12× [TALD](ADM-141C)(ADM-141 TALD) decoys
***AWW-13 Advanced data link pod
|avionics=
*[Hughes](Hughes Aircraft) [APG-73](APG-73) *or* [Raytheon](Raytheon) [APG-79](APG-79) Radar
*[Grumman](Northrop)(Northrop Grumman)/[ITT](ITT Corporation#ITT Avionics) ALQ-165 self-protection jammer system *or* [L3Harris](L3Harris) [AN/ALQ-214](AN/ALQ-214) integrated defensive electronic countermeasures system
*Raytheon [AN/ALE-50](AN/ALE-50) *or* BAE Systems [AN/ALE-55](AN/ALE-55) towed decoy
*Raytheon [AN/ALR-67(V)3](AN/ALR-67) radar warning receiver
*[LVT](MIDS)(Multifunctional Information Distribution System) *or* [JTRS](MIDS)(Joint Tactical Radio System) datalink transceiver
}}
## See also
## References
### Notes
### Citations
### Bibliography
* Donald, David. "Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet", *Warplanes of the Fleet*. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc, 2004. .
* Elward, Brad. *Boeing F/A-18 Hornet* (WarbirdTech, Vol. 31). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. .
* Elward, Brad. *The Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet & EA-18G Growler: A Developmental and Operational History*. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. 2013. .
* Holmes, Tony. *US Navy Hornet Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom*. London: Osprey Publishing, 2004. .
* Jenkins, Dennis R. *F/A-18 Hornet: A Navy Success Story*. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. .
* Winchester, Jim. *The Encyclopedia of Modern Aircraft*. San Diego: Thunder Bay Press, 2006. .
## External links
*
*[F/A-18 U.S. Navy fact file](http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=1100&tid=1200&ct=1) , and [F/A-18 Navy history page](https://web.archive.org/web/20141217024406/http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/fa18.htm)
*[Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet page](http://www.boeing.com/defense/fa-18-super-hornet/) and [Super Hornet Aero India briefing](https://web.archive.org/web/20110627182024/http://www.boeing.com/AeroIndia2011/pdf/Aero_India_Super_Hornet_Briefing.pdf) on Boeing.com
[A-18E F Super Hornet](F)(Category:Boeing military aircraft)
[refueling](Category:Air)(Category:Air refueling)
[first flown in 1995](Category:Aircraft)(Category:Aircraft first flown in 1995)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[aircraft](Category:Carrier-based)(Category:Carrier-based aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Mid-wing)(Category:Mid-wing aircraft)
[Category:Twinjets](Category:Twinjets)
[United States attack aircraft](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s United States attack aircraft)
[United States fighter aircraft](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s United States fighter aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Attack)(Category:Attack aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Fighter)(Category:Fighter aircraft)
[aviation](Category:Naval)(Category:Naval aviation)
[jet fighter](Category:Fourth-generation)(Category:Fourth-generation jet fighter)
[jet fighters](Category:4.5-generation)(Category:4.5-generation jet fighters)
|
Jerry Garcia
|
jerry_garcia
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# Jerry Garcia
*Revision ID: 1160308187 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T17:06:17Z*
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| death_place = [Knolls](Forest)(Lagunitas-Forest Knolls, California), California, U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 1960–1995
| spouse =
| children = 4
| module =
| instruments =
| label =
| past_member_of =
| website =
}}
}}
**Jerome John Garcia** (August 1, 1942 – August 9, 1995) was an American musician best known for being the principal songwriter, lead guitarist, and a vocalist with the rock band [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead), which he co-founded and which came to prominence during the [of the 1960s](counterculture)(counterculture of the 1960s).: "Jerome John Garcia, ("JERRY"), U.S. musician (born Aug. 1, 1942, San Francisco, Calif.—died Aug. 9, 1995, Forest Knolls, Calif.), personified the hippie counterculture for three decades as the mellow leader of the rock band the Grateful Dead. Garcia was the singer, songwriter, and lead guitarist of the San Francisco-based group that emerged from the Haight-Ashbury psychedelic-drug-and-music scene in the mid-1960s.": "Guitarist, singer, and songwriter Jerry Garcia was best known as a founding member of the Grateful Dead, the rock band for which he served as de facto leader for 30 years, from 1965 until his death in 1995. [...] In addition to his musical efforts, Garcia was viewed as an icon and spokesman for the hippie movement of the 1960s, the counterculture fueled by psychedelic drugs and rock & roll that the Grateful Dead embodied for their fervent fans, the Deadheads, as well as to the public at large." Although he disavowed the role, Garcia was viewed by many as the leader of the band. He was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in 1994 as a member of the Grateful Dead.
As one of its founders, Garcia performed with the Grateful Dead for the band's entire 30-year career (1965–1995). Garcia also founded and participated in a variety of side projects, including the Saunders–Garcia Band (with longtime friend [Saunders](Merl)(Merl Saunders)), the [Garcia Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Band), [& In the Way](Old)(Old & In the Way), the Garcia/[Grisman](David Grisman) and Garcia/[Kahn](John Kahn) acoustic duos, [of Mary](Legion)(Legion of Mary (band)), and [Riders of the Purple Sage](New)(New Riders of the Purple Sage) (which he co-founded with [Dawson](John)(John Dawson (musician)) and [Nelson](David)(David Nelson (musician))). He also released several solo albums, and contributed to a number of albums by other artists over the years as a [musician](session)(session musician). He was well known for his distinctive guitar playing, and was ranked 13th in *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*s "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time" cover story in 2003. In the 2015 version of the list he was ranked at #46.
Garcia was renowned for his musical and technical ability, particularly his ability to play a variety of instruments and sustain long improvisations. Garcia believed that improvisation took stress away from his playing and allowed him to make spur of the moment decisions that he would not have made intentionally. In a 1993 interview with *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*, Garcia noted that "my own preferences are for improvisation, for making it up as I go along. The idea of *picking*, of eliminating possibilities by deciding, that's difficult for me". Originating from the days of the "[Tests](Acid)(Acid Tests)", these improvisations were a form of exploration rather than playing a song already written.
Later in life, Garcia struggled with [diabetes](diabetes). In 1986, he went into a [coma](diabetic)(diabetic coma) that nearly cost him his life. Although his overall health improved somewhat after the incident, he continued to struggle with obesity, smoking, and long-standing [heroin](heroin) and [cocaine](cocaine) addictions. He was staying in a California [rehabilitation](drug)(drug rehabilitation) facility when he died of a heart attack on August 9, 1995 at age 53.: "JERRY Garcia, white-bearded leader of the 1960s cult rock band the Grateful Dead, died yesterday in a drug rehabilitation centre. The 53-year-old erstwhile hippie who founded the band 30 years ago was discovered dead by a counsellor at Serenity Knowles, a residential drug treatment centre near his home in Marin County, California."
## Early life
Garcia's ancestors on his father's side were from [Galicia](Galicia (Spain)) in northwest Spain. His mother's ancestors were Irish and Swedish.: "The Romans conquered the territory, which they called Galicia, in the second century B.C. The city now known as La Coruña was a small but important trading post for the Romans for several centuries. [...] If you were to scour the streets and alleys of La Coruña, you might well encounter a Garcia who can trace the lineage of Jerry's family back many centuries. But in the United States, where two branches of the Garcias settled in the second decade of this century, we must rely on the memories of the lone surviving sibling from the original transatlantic voyage, Leonor Garcia Ross — still spry at ninety — and on family lore passed along to Jerry's brothers and cousins. [...] Though Leonor considers La Coruña the family's ancestral home, the Garcias who emerge from the family's oral history in the mid-nineteenth century actually came from a nearby coastal fishing village called Sada, on an inlet called the Ría de Betanzos." He was born in the [District](Excelsior)(Excelsior District) of San Francisco, California, on August 1, 1942, to Jose Ramon "Joe" Garcia and Ruth Marie "Bobbie" (née Clifford) Garcia, who was herself born in San Francisco.: "Sometime in 1934 Joe met the woman of his dreams, a twenty-four-year-old nurse at San Francisco General Hospital named Ruth Marie Clifford. Ruth also had deep immigrant roots stretching back even further than the Garcias': Her grandfather Patrick Clifford was born in Ireland in the middle of the nineteenth century and emigrated to California, where he married another Irish expatriate named Ellen Callahan. Ruth's father, William Henry Clifford, was born in San Francisco in 1883. In his twenties he got involved in the laundry business and married nineteen-year-old Tillie May Olsen, whose ancestors had sailed to California from Sweden around the time of the Gold Rush. Shortly after they were married, Bill and Tillie bought a newly built home on the fringes of the Excelsior district. The house at 87 Harrington Street, where Jerry would spend much of his youth, was built in 1907. In June 1910 Jerry's mother, Ruth, was born at that address. She lived there until she married Joe Garcia." His parents named him after composer [Kern](Jerome)(Jerome Kern).The unusual name came about because of his father's fondness for the great Broadway musical composer Jerome Kern}}McNally, p. 7 Jerome John was their second child, preceded by Clifford Ramon "Tiff", who was born in 1937.McNally, p. 6 Shortly before Clifford's birth, their father and a partner leased a building in downtown San Francisco and turned it into a bar, partly in response to Jose being blackballed from a musicians' union for [moonlighting](Unreported employment).Joe and his partner opened their business in the summer of 1937}}}}
Garcia was influenced by music at an early age, taking piano lessons for much of his childhood. His father was a retired professional musician and his mother enjoyed playing the piano. His father's extended family—which had immigrated from Spain in 1919—would often sing during reunions.
In 1946, two-thirds of four-year-old Garcia's right middle finger was cut off by his brother in a wood splitting accident, while the family was vacationing in the [Cruz Mountains](Santa)(Santa Cruz Mountains).McNally, p. 8"Garcia, Jerry." Encyclopedia of Popular Music, 4th ed.. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed September 29, 2014. Garcia later confessed that he often used it to his advantage in his youth, showing it off to other children in his neighborhood.
Less than a year after this incident his father died in a fly fishing accident when the family was vacationing near [Arcata](Arcata, California) in Northern California. He slipped after entering the [River](Trinity)(Trinity River (California)), part of the [Rivers National Forest](Six)(Six Rivers National Forest), and drowned before other fishermen could reach him. Although Garcia claimed he saw the incident, Dennis McNally, author of the book *A Long Strange Trip: The Inside Story of the Grateful Dead*, argues Garcia formed the memory after hearing others repeat the story. Blair Jackson, who wrote *Garcia: An American Life*, notes that a local newspaper article describing Jose's death did not mention Jerry being present when he died.
### Excelsior District
Following his father's death, Garcia's mother Ruth took over her husband's bar, buying out his partner for full ownership. She began working full-time there, sending Jerry and his brother to live nearby with her parents, Tillie and William Clifford. During the five-year period in which he lived with his grandparents, Garcia enjoyed a large amount of autonomy and attended Monroe Elementary School. At the school, Garcia was greatly encouraged in his artistic abilities by his third grade teacher: through her, he discovered that "being a creative person was a viable possibility in life." According to Garcia, it was around this time that he was opened up to country and [music](bluegrass)(bluegrass music) by his grandmother, whom he recalled enjoyed listening to the [Ole Opry](Grand)(Grand Ole Opry). His elder brother, Clifford, however, staunchly believed the contrary, insisting that Garcia was "fantasizing all [that] ... she'd been to Opry, but she didn't listen to it on the radio." It was at this point that Garcia started playing the banjo, his first stringed instrument.
### Menlo Park
In 1953, Garcia's mother married Wally Matusiewicz.McNally, p. 10 Subsequently, Garcia and his brother moved back home with their mother and new stepfather. However, due to the roughneck reputation of their neighborhood at the time, Garcia's mother moved their family to [Park](Menlo)(Menlo Park, California). During their stay in Menlo Park, Garcia became acquainted with racism and [antisemitism](antisemitism), things he disliked intensely. The same year, Garcia was also introduced to [and roll](rock)(rock and roll) and [and blues](rhythm)(rhythm and blues) by his brother, and enjoyed listening to [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles), [Lee Hooker](John)(John Lee Hooker), [B. King](B.)(B. B. King), [Ballard](Hank)(Hank Ballard), and, later, [Berry](Chuck)(Chuck Berry). Clifford often memorized the vocals for his favorite songs, and would then make Garcia learn the harmony parts, a move to which Garcia later attributed much of his early [training](ear)(ear training).
In mid-1957, Garcia began smoking cigarettes and was introduced to [marijuana](Cannabis (drug)). Garcia would later reminisce about the first time he smoked marijuana: "Me and a friend of mine went up into the hills with two joints, the San Francisco foothills, and smoked these joints and just got so high and laughed and roared and went skipping down the streets doing funny things and just having a helluva time". During this time, Garcia also studied at what is now the [Francisco Art Institute](San)(San Francisco Art Institute). At San Francisco Art Institute, Garcia was taught by [Hedrick](Wally)(Wally Hedrick), an artist who came to prominence during the 1960s. During the classes, he often encouraged Garcia to draw and paint, noting that Garcia had skill in both areas.McNally, p. 14 Hedrick also introduced Garcia to the fiction of [Kerouac](Jack)(Jack Kerouac), whom Garcia later cited as a major influence.
### San Francisco
In June, Garcia graduated from the local Menlo Oaks school. He then moved with his family back to San Francisco, where they lived in an apartment above the family bar, a newly built replacement for the original, which had been torn down to make way for a freeway entrance.McNally, p. 12 Two months later, on Garcia's fifteenth birthday, his mother bought an accordion for him, to his great disappointment. Garcia had long been captivated by many rhythm and blues artists, especially Chuck Berry and [Diddley](Bo)(Bo Diddley), leaving him craving an electric guitar. After some pleading, his mother exchanged the accordion for a [Danelectro](Danelectro) with a small amplifier at a local pawnshop. Garcia's stepfather, who was somewhat proficient with instruments, helped tune his guitar to an unusual [tuning](open)(open tuning).McNally, p. 13
### Cazadero
After a short stint at Denman Junior High School, Garcia attended tenth grade at [High School](Balboa)(Balboa High School (San Francisco, California)) in 1958, where he often got into trouble for skipping classes and fighting.McNally, p. 15 Consequently, in 1959, Garcia's mother again moved the family to a safer environment, to [Cazadero](Cazadero, California), a small town in [County](Sonoma)(Sonoma County), north of San Francisco. This turn of events did not sit well with Garcia, who had to travel by bus to [High School](Analy)(Analy High School) in [Sebastopol](Sebastopol, California), the nearest school. Garcia did, however, join a band at his school known as the Chords. After performing in and winning a contest, the band's reward was recording a song. They chose "[Raunchy](Raunchy (instrumental))" by [Justis](Bill)(Bill Justis).McNally, p. 16
## Recording career
### Relocation and band beginnings
[[File:San Francisco CA, Haight Ashbury 1.jpg|thumb|The corner of [and Ashbury](Haight)(Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco, California), center of the San Francisco neighborhood where the Grateful Dead shared a house at 710 Ashbury from fall 1966 to spring 1968.]]
Garcia stole his mother's car in 1960 and was given the option of joining the [Army](U.S.)(United States Army) in lieu of prison. He received basic training at [Ord](Fort)(Fort Ord). After training, he was transferred to Fort Winfield Scott in the [of San Francisco](Presidio)(Presidio of San Francisco). Garcia spent most of his time in the army at his leisure, missing roll call and accruing many counts of being [AWOL](Desertion).McNally, p. 17 As a result, Garcia was given a [discharge](general)(Military discharge) on December 14, 1960.McNally, p. 21
In January 1961, Garcia drove to [Palo Alto](East)(East Palo Alto) to see Laird Grant, an old friend from middle school.McNally, p. 22 He had purchased a 1950 Cadillac sedan from a cook in the army, which barely made it to Grant's residence before it broke down. Garcia spent the next few weeks sleeping where friends would allow, eventually using his car as a home. Through Grant, Garcia met Dave McQueen in February, who, after hearing Garcia perform some blues music, introduced him to local people and to the Chateau, a rooming house located near [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) which was then a popular hangout.McNally, p. 23
On February 20, 1961, Garcia got into a car with Paul Speegle, a sixteen-year-old artist and acquaintance of Garcia; Lee Adams, the house manager of the Chateau and driver of the car; and Alan Trist, a companion of theirs. After speeding past the Palo Alto Veterans Hospital, the driver encountered a curve and, speeding around , crashed into the guard rail, sending the car rolling turbulently.McNally, p. 24 Garcia was hurled through the windshield of the car into a nearby field with such force that he was literally dislodged from his shoes and later unable to recall the ejection. Lee Adams, the driver, and Alan Trist, who was seated in the back, were thrown from the car as well, resulting in abdominal injuries and a spine fracture, respectively. Garcia escaped with a broken collarbone, while Speegle, still in the car, was fatally injured.
Lee's reckless driving and crash served as an awakening for Garcia, who later said, "That's where my life began. Before then I was always living at less than capacity. I was idling. That was the slingshot for the rest of my life. It was like a second chance. Then I got serious". It was at this time that Garcia began to realize that he needed to begin playing the guitar in earnest—a move which meant giving up his love of drawing and painting.McNally, p. 25
In April 1961, Garcia first met [Hunter](Robert)(Robert Hunter (lyricist)), who would become a long-time friend of and lyricist for the [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead), collaborating principally with Garcia. The two involved themselves in the South Bay and San Francisco art and music scenes, sometimes playing at Menlo Park's [Books](Kepler's)(Kepler's Books). Garcia performed his first concert with Hunter, each earning five dollars. Garcia and Hunter also played in bands (the Wildwood Boys and the Hart Valley Drifters) with [Nelson](David)(David Nelson (musician)), who would later play with Garcia in the New Riders of the Purple Sage and contribute to several Grateful Dead album songs.
In 1962, Garcia met [Lesh](Phil)(Phil Lesh), the eventual bassist of the Grateful Dead, during a party in Menlo Park's bohemian Perry Lane neighborhood (where author [Kesey](Ken)(Ken Kesey) lived). Lesh would later write in his autobiography that Garcia reminded him of pictures he had seen of the composer [Debussy](Claude)(Claude Debussy), with his "dark, curly hair, goatee, Impressionist eyes". While attending another party in Palo Alto, Lesh approached Garcia to suggest they record Garcia on Lesh's tape recorder and produce a radio show for the progressive, community-supported Berkeley radio station [KPFA](KPFA). Using an old [Wollensak](Wollensak) tape recorder, they recorded "[Groves](Matty)(Matty Groves)" and "[Long Black Veil](The)(The Long Black Veil)", among several other tunes. The recordings became a central feature of a 90-minute KPFA special broadcast, "The Long Black Veil and Other Ballads: An Evening with Jerry Garcia". The link between KPFA and the Grateful Dead continues to this day, having included many fundraisers, interviews, live concert broadcasts, taped band performances and all-day or all-weekend "Dead-only" marathons.
Garcia soon began playing and teaching [guitar](acoustic)(Steel-string acoustic guitar) and [banjo](banjo). One of Garcia's students was Bob Matthews, who later engineered many of the Grateful Dead's albums. Matthews attended [High School](Menlo-Atherton)(Menlo-Atherton High School) and was friends with [Weir](Bob)(Bob Weir), and on New Year's Eve 1963, he introduced Weir and Garcia.
Between 1962 and 1964, Garcia sang and performed mainly bluegrass, [old-time](Old-time music), and [music](folk)(folk music). One of the bands Garcia performed with was the Sleepy Hollow Hog Stompers, a bluegrass act. The group consisted of Garcia on guitar, banjo, vocals, and harmonica, Marshall Leicester on banjo, guitar, and vocals, and Dick Arnold on fiddle and vocals. Soon after this, Garcia, Weir, ["Pigpen" McKernan](Ron)(Ron "Pigpen" McKernan), and several of their friends formed a [band](jug)(jug band) called Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions. Around this time, the psychedelic drug [LSD](Lysergic acid diethylamide) was gaining popularity. Garcia first began using LSD in 1964; later, when asked how it changed his life, he remarked: "Well, it changed everything [...] the effect was that it freed me because I suddenly realized that my little attempt at having a straight life and doing that was really a fiction and just wasn't going to work out. Luckily I wasn't far enough into it for it to be shattering or anything; it was like a realization that just made me feel immensely relieved."
In 1965, Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions evolved into the Warlocks, with the addition of Phil Lesh on bass guitar and [Kreutzmann](Bill)(Bill Kreutzmann) on [percussion](Drum kit). However, the band discovered that another group (which would later become the [Underground](Velvet)(Velvet Underground)) had recently selected the same name. In response, Garcia came up with "Grateful Dead" by opening a [& Wagnalls](Funk)(Funk & Wagnalls) dictionary to an entry for "[dead](Grateful)(Grateful dead (folklore))".:Lesh describes the dictionary as being "Britannica World Language Dictionary". The definition for "Grateful dead" was "a dead person, or his angel, showing gratitude to someone who, as an act of charity, arranged their burial".Stories about the "Grateful Dead" appear in many cultures. The band's first reaction was disapproval. Garcia later explained the group's reaction: "I didn't like it really, I just found it to be really powerful. [Bob] Weir didn't like it, [Bill] Kreutzmann didn't like it and nobody really wanted to hear about it." Despite their dislike of the name, it quickly spread by word of mouth, and soon became their official title.
### Career with the Grateful Dead
[[Garcia 1968.jpg|thumb|upright|Jerry Garcia in 1969](File:Jerry)]
Garcia served as lead guitarist and one of the principal vocalists and songwriters of the Grateful Dead for the band's entire career. Garcia composed songs such as "[John's Band](Uncle)(Uncle John's Band)", "[Star](Dark)(Dark Star (song))", "Franklin's Tower", and "[Begonias](Scarlet)(Scarlet Begonias)", among many others. Robert Hunter, an ardent collaborator with the band, wrote the lyrics to all but a few of Garcia's songs.
Garcia was known for his "soulful extended guitar improvisations", which would frequently feature interplay between him and his fellow band members. His fame, as well as the band's, arguably rested on their ability to never play a song the same way twice. Often, Garcia would take cues from rhythm guitarist Bob Weir, remarking that "there are some [...] kinds of ideas that would really throw me if I had to create a harmonic bridge between all the things going on rhythmically with two drums and Phil [Lesh's] innovative bass playing. Weir's ability to solve that sort of problem is extraordinary. [...] Harmonically, I take a lot of my solo cues from Bob."
When asked to describe his approach to soloing, Garcia commented: "It keeps on changing. I still basically revolve around the melody and the way it's broken up into phrases as I perceive them. With most solos, I tend to play something that phrases the way the melody does; my phrases may be more dense or have different value, but they'll occur in the same places in the song. [...]"
Garcia and the band toured almost constantly from their formation in 1965 until Garcia's death in 1995. Periodically, there were breaks due to exhaustion or health problems, often due to Garcia's drug use. During their three-decade span, the Grateful Dead played 2,314 shows.
[[File:Jerry-Mickey at Red Rocks taken 08-11-87.jpg|thumb|left|Garcia and Mickey Hart in 1987 at [Rocks Amphitheatre](Red)(Red Rocks Amphitheatre)]]
Garcia's guitar-playing was eclectic. He melded elements from the various kinds of music that influenced him. Echoes of bluegrass playing (such as [Smith](Arthur)(Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith) and [Watson](Doc)(Doc Watson)) could be heard. There was also early [rock](Rock and roll#Early North American rock and roll (1953-1963)) (like [Mack](Lonnie)(Lonnie Mack), [Burton](James)(James Burton), and Chuck Berry), contemporary [blues](Blues#History) ([King](Freddie)(Freddie King) and [Fulsom](Lowell)(Lowell Fulsom)), [and western](country)(country music) ([Nichols](Roy)(Roy Nichols) and [Rich](Don)(Don Rich)), and [jazz](jazz) ([Christian](Charlie)(Charlie Christian) and [Reinhardt](Django)(Django Reinhardt)) to be heard in Garcia's style. Don Rich was the sparkling country guitar player in [Owens](Buck)(Buck Owens)'s "[Buckaroos](the)(the Buckaroos)" band of the 1960s, but besides Rich's style, both Garcia's [steel guitar](pedal)(pedal steel guitar) playing (on Grateful Dead records and others) and his standard electric guitar work, were influenced by another of Owens's Buckaroos of that time, pedal steel player [Brumley](Tom)(Tom Brumley). And as an improvisational soloist, [Coltrane](John)(John Coltrane) was one of his greatest personal and musical influences.
Garcia later described his playing style as having "descended from barroom rock and roll, country guitar. Just 'cause that's where all my stuff comes from. It's like that blues instrumental stuff that was happening in the late Fifties and early Sixties, like Freddie King." Garcia's style could vary with the song being played and the instrument he was using, but his playing had a number of so-called "signatures". Among these were lead lines based on rhythmic triplets (examples include the songs "Good Morning Little School Girl", "New Speedway Boogie", "Brokedown Palace", "Deal", "Loser", "[Truckin'](Truckin')", "That's It for the Other One", "U.S. Blues", "[Sugaree](Sugaree)", and "Don't Ease Me In").
### Side projects
In addition to the Grateful Dead, Garcia participated in numerous musical side projects, including the [Garcia Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Band). He was also involved with various acoustic projects such as [& In the Way](Old)(Old & In the Way) and other bluegrass bands, including collaborations with noted bluegrass mandolinist [Grisman](David)(David Grisman). The documentary film *[Dawg](Grateful)(Grateful Dawg)*, co-produced by Gillian Grisman and former NBC producer Pamela Hamilton chronicles the deep, long-term friendship between Garcia and Grisman. When Garcia and Grisman released Not For Kids Only, Hamilton produced their interview and concert for NBC. After several years of producing stories on the Grateful Dead and band members' side projects, Hamilton interviewed Bob Weir for a feature on Garcia's death marking the end of an era.
Other groups in which Garcia participated at one time or another include the Black Mountain Boys, photo at eyecandypromo.com. Retrieved April 12, 2013. [of Mary](Legion)(Legion of Mary (band)), [Reconstruction](Reconstruction (band)), and the [Garcia Acoustic Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Acoustic Band). Garcia was also a fan of jazz artists and [improvisation](Jazz#Improvisation): he played with jazz keyboardists [Saunders](Merl)(Merl Saunders) and [Wales](Howard)(Howard Wales) for many years in various groups and jam sessions, and he appeared on saxophonist [Coleman](Ornette)(Ornette Coleman)'s 1988 album, *[Beauty](Virgin)(Primetime (musical ensemble))*. His collaboration with Merl Saunders and [Booker](Muruga)(Muruga Booker) on the world music album *Blues From the Rainforest* launched the [Band](Rainforest)(Rainforest Band).
Garcia spent a lot of time in the recording studio helping out fellow musician friends in session work, often adding guitar, vocals, pedal steel, sometimes banjo and piano and even producing. He played on over 50 studio albums, the styles of which were eclectic and varied, including bluegrass, rock, folk, blues, country, jazz, electronic music, gospel, funk, and reggae. Artists who sought Garcia's help included the likes of [Airplane](Jefferson)(Jefferson Airplane) (most notably *[Pillow](Surrealistic)(Surrealistic Pillow)*, Garcia being listed as their "spiritual advisor"). Garcia himself recalled in a mid-1967 interview that he'd played the high lead on "Today," played on "Plastic Fantastic Lover" and "Comin' Back to Me" on that album. Others include [Fogerty](Tom)(Tom Fogerty), [Bromberg](David)(David Bromberg), Robert Hunter (*Liberty*, on Relix Records), [Pena](Paul)(Paul Pena), [Rowan](Peter)(Peter Rowan), [Zevon](Warren)(Warren Zevon), [Joe McDonald](Country)(Country Joe McDonald), [Sears](Pete)(Pete Sears), [Nordine](Ken)(Ken Nordine), Ornette Coleman, [Hornsby](Bruce)(Bruce Hornsby), [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan), [a Beautiful Day](It's)(It's a Beautiful Day), and many more. In 1995 Garcia played on three tracks for the CD *[Incantation](Blue)(Blue Incantation)* by guitarist [Mishra](Sanjay)(Sanjay Mishra (musician)), making it his last studio collaboration.
Throughout the early 1970s, Garcia, Lesh, Grateful Dead drummer [Hart](Mickey)(Mickey Hart), and [Crosby](David)(David Crosby) collaborated intermittently with [MIT](Massachusetts Institute of Technology)-educated composer and biologist [Lagin](Ned)(Ned Lagin) on several projects in the realm of early [music](ambient)(ambient music); these include the album *[Seastones](Seastones)* (released by Ned Lagin on the [Records](Round)(Grateful Dead Records) subsidiary) and *L*, an unfinished dance work composed by Ned Lagin. In 1970, Garcia participated in the soundtrack for the film *[Point](Zabriskie)(Zabriskie Point (film))*.
Garcia also played pedal steel guitar for fellow-San Francisco musicians [Riders of the Purple Sage](New)(New Riders of the Purple Sage) from their initial dates in 1969 to October 1971, when increased commitments with the Dead forced him to opt out of the group. He appears as a band member on their debut album *[Riders of the Purple Sage](New)(New Riders of the Purple Sage (album))*, and produced *Home, Home on the Road*, a 1974 live album by the band. He also contributed pedal steel guitar to the enduring hit "Teach Your Children" by [Stills, Nash, & Young](Crosby,)(Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young). Garcia also played steel guitar licks on [& Shipley](Brewer)(Brewer & Shipley)'s 1970 album *[Tarkio](Tarkio (album))*. Despite considering himself a novice on the pedal steel, Garcia routinely ranked high in player polls. After a long lapse from playing the pedal steel, he played it once more during several of the Dead's concerts with Bob Dylan in the summer of 1987.
In 1988, Garcia agreed to perform at several major benefits including the "Soviet American Peace Walk" concert at the Band Shell, in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, that drew 25,000 people. He was asked to play by longtime friend and fellow musician, Pete Sears, who played piano with all the bands that day, and also procured all the other musicians. Garcia, Mickey Hart and Steve Parish played the show, then were given a police escort to a Grateful Dead show across the bay later that night. Garcia also played with [Gravenites](Nick)(Nick Gravenites) and Pete Sears at a benefit given for Vietnam Veteran and peace activist [Willson](Brian)(Brian Willson), who lost both legs below the knee when he attempted to block a train carrying weapons to military dictatorships in El Salvador.
Having previously studied at the San Francisco Art Institute as a teenager, Garcia embarked on a second career in the visual arts in the late 1980s. He created a number of drawings, [etchings](etchings), and [colors](water)(water colors). Garcia's artistic endeavors were represented by the Weir Gallery in [California](Berkeley,)(Berkeley, California) from 1989 to 1996. During this period, Roberta Weir (unrelated to Garcia's bandmate Bob Weir) provided Garcia with new art techniques to use, sponsored his first solo show in 1990, and prepared blank etching plates for him to draw on.S.F.Chronicle, December 9, 1992 These would then be processed and printed by gallery staff and brought back to Garcia for approval and signature, usually with a passing of stacks of paper backstage at a Dead show. His annual shows at the Weir Gallery garnered much attention, leading to further shows in New York and other cities. Garcia was an early adopter of [art](digital)(digital art) media; his artistic style was as varied as his musical output, and he carried small notebooks for pen and ink sketches wherever he toured. Roberta Weir continues to maintain an archive of the artwork of Jerry Garcia. Perhaps the most widely seen pieces of Jerry Garcia's art are the many editions of men's neckties produced by Stonehenge Ltd. and Mulberry Neckware. Some began as etchings, other designs came from his drawings, paintings, and digital art. Garcia's artwork has since expanded into everything from hotel rooms, wet suits, men's sport shirts, a women's wear line, boxer shorts, hair accessories, cummerbunds, silk scarves and wool rugs.
## Personal life
Garcia met his first wife, Sara Ruppenthal, in 1963. She was working at the coffee house in the back of [Books](Kepler's)(Kepler's Books), where Garcia, Hunter, and Nelson regularly performed. They married on April 23, 1963, and on December 8 of that year their daughter Heather was born.
[Adams](Carolyn)(Carolyn Adams), a [Prankster](Merry)(Merry Prankster) also known as "Mountain Girl" or "M.G.," had a daughter, Sunshine, with Ken Kesey. Mountain Girl married another Prankster, George Walker, but they soon separated. She and Sunshine then moved into 710 Ashbury with Garcia in late 1966 where they would ultimately live together until 1975. In 1994, Carolyn and Jerry officially divorced after a long separation. Adams gave birth to Garcia's second and third daughters, Annabelle Walker Garcia (February 2, 1970) and Theresa Adams "Trixie" Garcia (September 21, 1974).
In August 1970, Garcia's mother Ruth was involved in a car crash near [Peaks](Twin)(Twin Peaks (San Francisco)) in San Francisco. Garcia, who was recording the album *[Beauty](American)(American Beauty (album))* at the time, often left the sessions to visit his mother with his brother Clifford. She died on September 28, 1970.
In the midst of a March 1973 Grateful Dead engagement at Long Island's [Coliseum](Nassau)(Nassau Coliseum), Garcia met Deborah Koons, an aspiring filmmaker from a wealthy [Ohio](Cincinnati,)(Cincinnati)-based family who would much later marry him and become his widow.: "What M.G. didn't know was that Jerry was falling in love with another woman, an aspiring filmmaker named Deborah Koons. She was a few years younger than Jerry, the daughter of wealthy Cincinnati professionals — John Fletcher Koons III was a successful businessman and his wife, Patricia Boyle, was a lawyer." After a brief correspondence, he began his relationship with her in mid-1974. This gradually strained his relationship with Adams and culminated in Garcia leaving Adams for Koons in late 1975. The end of his relationship with Koons in 1977 precipitated a brief reconciliation with Adams, including the reestablishment of their household. However, she did not agree with the guitarist's persistent use of narcotics and moved with the children to the [Oregon](Eugene,)(Eugene, Oregon) area, living near Kesey, in 1978.
Following Adams' departure, Garcia had an affair with Amy Moore. She was a [Kentucky](Kentucky)-born member of the extended "Grateful Dead family", and the mistress of Texas oil heir Roy Cullen. Their affair lasted circa 1980–1981, and inspired the Garcia-Hunter song "Run for the Roses."
Adams and Garcia were married on December 31, 1981, largely as a result of mutual tax exigencies. Despite the legal codification of their union, she remained in Oregon, while Garcia continued to live near the Grateful Dead's offices in [Rafael, California](San)(San Rafael, California). Garcia lived with a variety of housemates, including longtime Grateful Dead employee and Jerry Garcia Band manager [Scully](Rock)(Rock Scully). Scully, who co-managed the Grateful Dead throughout the mid-to-late 1960s before serving as the band's "advance man" and publicist, was dismissed by the group in 1984 for enabling Garcia's addictions and for allegedly embezzling the Garcia Band's profits. Another housemate was Nora Sage, a Deadhead who became Garcia's housekeeper while studying at the [Gate University School of Law](Golden)(Golden Gate University School of Law). The exact nature of their relationship remains unclear, although it is believed to have been platonic due to Garcia's addictions. She later became his art representative.
While they would briefly reunite following his diabetic coma, Garcia and Adams ultimately divorced in 1994. Phil Lesh has subsequently stated that he rarely saw Adams on any of the band tours. In a 1991 *Rolling Stone* interview, Garcia stated that "we haven't really lived together since the Seventies".
During the autumn of 1978, Garcia developed a friendship with [College](Shimer)(Shimer College) student Manasha Matheson, an artist and music enthusiast. They remained friends over the following nine years before initiating a romantic relationship in [Connecticut](Hartford,)(Hartford, Connecticut) on the Grateful Dead's spring 1987 tour. Jerry and Manasha became parents with the birth of their daughter, Keelin Noel Garcia, on December 20, 1987. On August 17, 1990, Jerry and Manasha married at their [Anselmo, California](San)(San Anselmo, California) home in a spiritual ceremony free of legal convention."Art of Jerry Garcia, Mickey Hart and Roberta Weir". Weir Gallery. Retrieved July 8, 2015. In 1991, Garcia expressed his delight in finding the time to "actually be a father" to Keelin in contrast to his past relationships with his children. A year later, Garcia dedicated his first art book, *Paintings, Drawings and Sketches*, "For Manasha, with love, Jerry."J. Garcia: *Paintings, Drawings and Sketches*. Pub. Celestial Arts, Berkeley 1992
In January 1993, Barbara "Brigid" Meier, a former girlfriend from the early 1960s, reentered Garcia's life for a brief period. Meier claimed that Garcia had considered her to be the "love of his life" and proposed to her during a Hawaiian vacation shortly after their relationship recommenced. Garcia's "love of his life" sentiment was not reserved for one lover, as he expressed the same feelings to several other women in his life. At Garcia's 1995 funeral, Koons declared that she was "the love of his life" while paying her final respects, whereupon Meier and Ruppenthal, who were both in attendance, simultaneously exclaimed, "He said that to me!"
The affair with Meier marked the breakup of Jerry's family life with Manasha and Keelin. Garcia ended the affair with Meier forty-five days later while on tour in Chicago with the Grateful Dead after she confronted him about his drug use.Garcia's relationship with Barbara Meier[...]fell apart during[...]the Dead's first tour stop in Chicago[...]Barbara learned that Jerry was using heroin again and confronted him about it.}}
Shortly thereafter, Garcia renewed his acquaintance with Deborah Koons in the spring of 1993. They married on February 14, 1994, in [Sausalito](Sausalito, California), California. Garcia and Koons were married at the time of his death.
### Lifestyle and health
Because of their public profile, Garcia and his collaborators were occasionally singled out in the American government's [on drugs](war)(war on drugs). On October 2, 1967, 710 Ashbury Street in San Francisco (where the Grateful Dead had taken up residence the year before) was raided after a police [tip-off](Informant). Grateful Dead members Phil Lesh, Bob Weir, and Ron "Pigpen" McKernan were apprehended on marijuana charges which were later dropped, although Garcia himself was not arrested. The following year, Garcia's picture was used in a defamatory context in a campaign commercial for [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon).["Youth"](http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1968/youth), Nixon campaign ad (at 0:12)
Most of the band were arrested again in January 1970, after they flew to New Orleans from Hawaii. After returning to their hotel from a performance, the band checked into their rooms, only to be quickly raided by police. Approximately fifteen people were arrested on the spot, including many of the road crew, management, and nearly all of the Grateful Dead except for Garcia, who arrived later, outgoing keyboardist [Constanten](Tom)(Tom Constanten), who abstained from all drugs as a member of the [of Scientology](Church)(Church of Scientology), and McKernan, who eschewed illegal drugs in favor of alcohol.
According to Bill Kreutzmann, the band's use of [cocaine](cocaine) accelerated throughout the early 1970s. After using heroin in a brothel in 1974 (likely on the band's second European tour), Garcia was introduced to a smokeable form of the drug (initially advertised as refined [opium](opium)) colloquially known as "Persian" or "Persian Base" during the group's 1975 hiatus. Influenced by the stresses of creating and releasing *[Grateful Dead Movie](The)(The Grateful Dead Movie)* and the acrimonious collapse of the band's independent record labels over the next two years, Garcia became increasingly dependent upon both substances. These factors, combined with the alcohol and drug abuse of several other members of the Grateful Dead, resulted in a turbulent atmosphere. By 1978, the band's chemistry began "cracking and crumbling",The music was also showing signs of this pernicious influence - standing onstage during any number of performances I could see our chemistry cracking and crumbling}} resulting in poor group cohesion. As a result, Keith and [Jean Godchaux](Donna)(Donna Jean Godchaux) left the band in February 1979.After saying goodbye to their performing roots, the Grateful Dead also bid adieu to Keith and Donna Godchaux, who were asked to leave the band in February 1979, after seven years with the group}}
With the addition of keyboardist/vocalist [Mydland](Brent)(Brent Mydland) that year amid the ongoing coalescence of the [Deadhead](Deadhead) subculture, the band reached new commercial heights as a touring group on the American arena circuit in the early 1980s, enabling them to forsake studio recording for several years. Nevertheless, this was offset by such factors as the band's atypically large payroll and Garcia's $700-a-day () drug addiction, resulting in the guitarist taking on a frenetic slate of solo touring outside of the Grateful Dead's rigorous schedule, including abbreviated acoustic duo concerts with Jerry Garcia Band bassist John Kahn that were widely rumored to be a funding conduit for their respective addictions.
Though things seemed to be getting better for the band, Garcia's health was declining. By 1983, Garcia's demeanor onstage had appeared to change. Despite still playing the guitar with great passion and intensity, there were times that he would appear disengaged; as such, shows were often inconsistent. Years of heavy tobacco smoking had affected his voice, and he gained considerable weight. By 1984, he would often rest his chin on the microphone during performances. The so-called "endless tour"—the result of years of financial risks, drug use, and poor business decisions—had taken its toll.
Garcia's decade-long heroin addiction culminated in the rest of the band holding an [intervention](Intervention (counseling)) in January 1985. Given the choice between the band or the drugs, Garcia agreed to check into a rehabilitation center in Oakland, California. A few days later in January, before the start of his program in Oakland, Garcia was arrested for [possession](drug)(drug possession) in [Gate Park](Golden)(Golden Gate Park); he subsequently attended a drug diversion program. Throughout 1985, he tapered his drug use on tour and at home with the assistance of Nora Sage; by the spring of 1986, he was completely abstinent.
Precipitated by an unhealthy weight, dehydration, bad eating habits, and a recent relapse on the Grateful Dead's first stadium tour, Garcia collapsed into a diabetic coma in July 1986, waking up five days later. He later spoke about this period of unconsciousness as surreal: "Well, I had some very weird experiences. My main experience was one of furious activity and tremendous struggle in a sort of futuristic, space-ship vehicle with insectoid presences. After I came out of my coma, I had this image of myself as these little hunks of [protoplasm](protoplasm) that were stuck together kind of like stamps with perforations between them that you could snap off." Garcia's coma had a profound effect on him: it forced him to have to relearn how to play the guitar, as well as other, more basic skills. Within a handful of months, he had recovered, playing with the Jerry Garcia Band and the Grateful Dead again later that year.
After Garcia's recovery, the band released a comeback album *[the Dark](In)(In the Dark (Grateful Dead album))* in 1987, which became their best-selling studio album. Inspired by Garcia's improved health, a successful album and the continuing emergence of Mydland as a third frontman, the band's energy and chemistry reached a new peak in the late 1980s.
Amid a litany of personal problems, Mydland died of a [speedball](Speedball (drug)) overdose in July 1990. His death greatly affected Garcia, leading him to believe that the band's chemistry would never be the same. Before beginning the fall tour, the band acquired keyboardists [Welnick](Vince)(Vince Welnick) and Bruce Hornsby. The power of Hornsby's performances drove Garcia to new heights on stage. However, as the band continued through 1991, Garcia became concerned with the band's future. He was exhausted from five straight years of touring. He thought a break was necessary, mainly so that the band could come back with fresh material. The idea was put off by the pressures of management, and the touring continued. Garcia began using heroin again after several years of intermittent prescription opiate use. Though his relapse was brief, the band was quick to react. Soon after the last show of the tour in Denver, Garcia was confronted by the band with another intervention. After a disastrous meeting, Garcia invited Phil Lesh over to his home in San Rafael, California, where he explained that after the meeting he would start attending a [methadone](methadone) clinic. Garcia said that he wanted to clean up in his own way, and return to making music.
After returning from the band's 1992 summer tour, Garcia became sick, a throwback to his diabetic coma in 1986. Manasha Garcia nursed Jerry back to health and organized a team of health professionals which included [acupuncturist](Acupuncture) Yen Wei Choong and Randy Baker, MD, a holistic family physician to treat him at home. Garcia recovered over the following days, despite the Grateful Dead having to cancel their fall tour to allow him time to recuperate. Garcia reduced his cigarette smoking and began losing weight. He also became a vegetarian.
Despite these improvements, Garcia's physical and mental condition continued to decline throughout 1993 and 1994. He began to use narcotics again to dull the pain.
In light of his second drug relapse and current condition, Garcia checked himself into the [Ford Center](Betty)(Betty Ford Center) during July 1995. His stay was limited, lasting only two weeks. Motivated by the experience, he then checked into the Serenity Knolls treatment center in [Knolls](Forest)(Lagunitas-Forest Knolls, California), California, where he died.
## Death
Garcia died in his room at the rehabilitation clinic on August 9, 1995. The cause of death was a heart attack. Garcia had long struggled with [addiction](drug)(drug addiction), weight problems, [apnea](sleep)(sleep apnea), heavy smoking, and diabetes—all of which contributed to his physical decline. Lesh remarked that, upon hearing of Garcia's death, "I was struck numb. I had lost my oldest surviving friend, my brother." Garcia's funeral was held on August 12, at St. Stephen's Episcopal Church in [Belvedere](Belvedere, California). It was attended by his family, the remaining Grateful Dead members, and their friends, including former pro basketball player [Walton](Bill)(Bill Walton) and musician Bob Dylan. Deborah Koons barred two of Garcia's former wives from the ceremony.
On August 13, about 25,000 people attended a municipally sanctioned public memorial at the Polo Fields of San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. Crowds produced hundreds of flowers, gifts, images, and a [bagpipe](Great Highland bagpipe) rendition of "[Grace](Amazing)(Amazing Grace)" in remembrance. In the Haight, a single white rose was reportedly tied to a tree near the Dead's former Haight-Ashbury house, where a group of followers gathered to mourn.
On the morning of April 4, 1996, after a total [eclipse](lunar)(lunar eclipse) earlier that day, Weir and Deborah Koons accompanied by Sanjay Mishra, spread half of Garcia's ashes into the [Ganges](Ganges) at the holy city of [India](Rishikesh,)(Rishikesh),: "The ashes of Grateful Dead lead guitarist Jerry Garcia were scattered in India's holy Ganges River after last week's lunar eclipse, London's Independent newspaper reported yesterday. [...] Deborah Garcia, the musician's fourth wife, and Bob Weir, his best friend, acted in secret at dawn last Thursday nearly eight months after Garcia's fatal heart attack. [...] They were accompanied by Washingtonian Sanjay Mishra, a classical guitarist who recorded his "Blue Incantation" CD at the Dead's Club Front studio in San Francisco last year.": "Grateful Dead lead guitarist Jerry Garcia has made his last trip. His remains were sprinkled in a secret ceremony into India's Ganges River, the Independent newspaper reports. The British newspaper said Garcia's widow, Deborah, and fellow Dead player Bob Weir waded into India's [river](holy)(holy river) near the town of Rishikesh just after Thursday's lunar eclipse to sprinkle the musician's ashes." a site sacred to Hindus. The remaining ashes were poured into the [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay). Koons did not allow former wife Carolyn Garcia to attend the spreading of the ashes.:Then, on a cloudy day, windswept day in late April, we gathered on a boat dock in [Sausalito](Sausalito, California) to commit what remained of Jerry's ashes to the deep, as per his last wishes. Deborah refused to allow M.G. to board the boat, even after Bobby begged her to reconsider.
## Musical equipment
[[Dead - Jerry Garcia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Garcia in 1978 at the Veterans Memorial Coliseum](File:Grateful)]
Garcia played many guitars during his career, which ranged from student and budget models to custom-made instruments. During his thirty-five year career as a professional musician, Garcia used about 25 guitars.
In 1965, when Garcia was playing with the Warlocks, he used a [Starfire](Guild)(Guild Guitar Company), which he also used on the [album](début)(The Grateful Dead (album)) of the [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead). Beginning in late 1967 and ending in 1968, Garcia played black or gold mid-1950s [Les Paul](Gibson)(Gibson Les Paul) guitars with [P-90](P-90) pickups. In 1969, he picked up the [SG](Gibson)(Gibson SG) and used it for most of that year and 1970, except for a small period in between where he used a [sunburst](Sunburst (finish)) [Stratocaster](Fender)(Fender Stratocaster).
During Garcia's "pedal steel flirtation period" (as Bob Weir referred to it in *[to Beauty](Anthem)(Anthem to Beauty)*), from approximately 1969 to 1972, he initially played a Fender instrument before upgrading to the ZB Custom D-10, especially in his earlier public performances. Although this was a double neck guitar, Garcia used the "E9 neck and the three pedals to raise the tone and two levers to lower it." He employed an Emmons D-10 at the Grateful Dead's and New Riders of the Purple Sage's final appearances at the [East](Fillmore)(Fillmore East) in April 1971.
In 1969, Garcia played pedal steel on three notable outside recordings: the track "The Farm" on the [Airplane](Jefferson)(Jefferson Airplane) album *[Volunteers](Volunteers (Jefferson Airplane album))*, the track "Oh Mommy" by [and Shipley](Brewer)(Brewer and Shipley) and the [single](hit)(hit single) "[Your Children](Teach)(Teach Your Children)" by [Stills, Nash & Young](Crosby,)(Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young) from their album *[Vu](Déjà)(Déjà Vu (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young album))*, released in 1970. Garcia played on the latter album in exchange for harmony lessons for the Grateful Dead, who were at the time recording ''[Dead](Workingman's)(Workingman's Dead)*.
In 1971, Garcia began playing a sunburst Les Paul. In March and April 1971 – the time period during which the Grateful Dead recorded its second live album, [Dead*](''Grateful)(Grateful Dead (album)) – Garcia played the "Peanut," a guitar he had received from Rick Turner, who had custom built the guitar's body and incorporated the neck, pickups, and hardware from an early '60s Les Paul.
In May, Garcia began using a 1955 natural finish Stratocaster that had been given to him by [Nash](Graham)(Graham Nash) in 1969. Garcia added an alligator sticker to the pickguard in the fall of 1971, and the thusly-named "Alligator" would remain Garcia's principal electric guitar until August 1973.
In the summer of 1971, Garcia also played a double-cutaway [Paul TV Junior](Les)(Gibson Les Paul Junior).
While Alligator was in the shop in the summer of 1972, he briefly reverted to the sunburst Stratocaster; this can be seen in *[Daydream](Sunshine)(Sunshine Daydream)*.
In late 1972, Garcia purchased the first guitar ("Eagle") made by Alembic luthier [Irwin](Doug)(Doug Irwin) for $850 (). Enamored of Irwin's talents, he immediately commissioned his own custom instrument. This guitar, nicknamed "Wolf" for a memorable sticker Garcia added below the tailpiece, was delivered in May 1973 and replaced Alligator on stage in September. It cost $1,500 (), an extremely high price for the era.
Wolf was made with an [ebony](ebony) [fingerboard](fingerboard) and featured numerous embellishments like alternating grain designs in the [headstock](headstock), [ivory](ivory) inlays, and fret marker dots made of [silver](sterling)(sterling silver). The body was composed of western maple wood which had a core of [purpleheart](purpleheart). Garcia later had Irwin (who ultimately left Alembic to start his own business) replace the electronics inside the guitar, at which point he added his own logo to the headstock alongside the Alembic logo. The system included two interchangeable plates for configuring pickups: one was made for strictly [coil](single)(single coil)s, while the other accommodated [humbucker](humbucker)s. Shortly after receiving the modified instrument, Garcia commissioned another custom guitar from Irwin with one caveat: "Don't hold back."
During the Grateful Dead's [European tour](1974)(Dick's Picks Volume 7), Wolf was dropped on several occasions, one of which caused a minor crack in the headstock. Following filming of *The Grateful Dead Movie* (in which the guitar is prominently visible) a month later, Garcia returned it to Irwin for repairs. Throughout its absence, Garcia predominantly played several [Bean](Travis)(Travis Bean) guitars, including the TB1000A (1975) and the TB500 (1976-1977). On September 28, 1977, Irwin delivered the refurbished Wolf back to Garcia. The wolf sticker which gave the guitar its name had now been inlaid into the instrument; it also featured an effects loop between the pick-ups and controls (so inline effects would "see" the same signal at all times) which was bypassable. Irwin also put a new face on the headstock with only his logo (he later claimed to have built the guitar himself, though pictures through time clearly show the progression of logos, from Alembic, to Alembic & Irwin, to only Irwin).
Nearly seven years after he commissioned it, Garcia received his second custom guitar ("[Tiger](Tiger (guitar))") from Irwin in the summer of 1979.
He first employed the instrument in concert at a Grateful Dead performance at the [Auditorium Arena](Oakland)(Oakland Auditorium Arena) on August 4, 1979. Its name was derived from the inlay on the preamp cover.
The body of Tiger was of rich quality: the top layer was [cocobolo](cocobolo), with the preceding layers being maple stripe, vermilion, and [maple](flame)(flame maple), in that order. The neck was made of western maple with an ebony fingerboard. The pickups consisted of a single coil [DiMarzio](DiMarzio) SDS-1 and two humbucker DiMarzio Super IIs which were easily removable due to Garcia's preference for replacing his pickups every year or two. The electronics were composed of an effects bypass loop, which allowed Garcia to control the sound of his effects through the tone and volume controls on the guitar, and a preamplifier/buffer which rested behind a plate in the back of the guitar. Fully outfitted, Tiger weighed . This was Garcia's principal guitar for the next eleven years, and most played.
In the late 1980s Garcia, Weir and CSN (along with many others) endorsed Alvarez Yairi acoustic guitars. There are many photographs circulating (mostly promotional) of Garcia playing a DY99 Virtuoso Custom with a Modulus Graphite neck. He opted to play with the less decorated model but the promotional photo from the Alvarez Yairi catalog has him holding the "tree of life" model. This hand-built guitar was notable for the collaboration between Japanese [luthier](luthier) Kazuo Yairi and Modulus Graphite of San Rafael. As with most things Garcia, with his passing, the DY99 model is highly valued among collectors.
In 1990, Irwin completed "Rosebud", Garcia's fourth custom guitar. It was similar to his previous guitar Tiger in many respects, but featured different inlays and electronics, tone and volume controls, and weight. Rosebud, unlike Tiger, was configured with three humbuckers; the neck and bridge pickups shared a tone control, while the middle had its own. Atop the guitar was a Roland GK-2 pickup which fed the controller set inside the guitar. The GK2 was used in junction with the Roland GR-50 rack mount synthesizer. The GR-50 synthesizer in turn drove a Korg M1R synthesizer producing the [MIDI](Musical Instrument Digital Interface) effects heard during live performances of this period as heard on the Grateful Dead recording *[a Net](Without)(Without a Net)*. Sections of the guitar were hollowed out to bring the weight down to . The inlay, a dancing skeleton holding a [rose](rose), covers a plate just below the [bridge](Bridge (instrument)). The final cost of the instrument was $11,000 ().
In 1993, carpenter-turned-luthier Stephen Cripe tried his hand at making an instrument for Garcia. After researching Tiger through pictures and films, Cripe set out on what would soon become known as "Lightning Bolt", again named for its inlay.
The guitar used Brazilian rosewood for the fingerboard and East Indian rosewood for the body, which, with admitted irony from Cripe, had been taken from a 19th-century bed used by opium smokers. Built purely from guesswork, Lightning Bolt was a hit with Garcia, who began using the guitar exclusively. Soon after, Garcia requested that Cripe build a backup of the guitar. Cripe, who had not measured or photographed the original, was told simply to "wing it."
Cripe later delivered the backup, which was known by the name "Top Hat". Garcia bought it from him for $6,500, making it the first guitar that Cripe had ever sold. However, infatuated with Lightning Bolt, Garcia rarely used the backup.
After Garcia's death, the ownership of Wolf and Tiger came into question. According to Garcia's will, his guitars were bequeathed to Doug Irwin, who had constructed them.
The remaining Grateful Dead members disagreed – they considered his guitars to be property of the band, leading to a lawsuit between the two parties. In 2001, Irwin won the case. However, nearly having been left destitute from a traffic accident in 1998, he decided to place the guitars up for auction in hopes of being able to start another guitar workshop.
On May 8, 2002, Wolf and Tiger, among other memorabilia, were placed for auction at [54](Studio)(Studio 54) in New York City. Tiger was sold for $957,500, and Wolf for $789,500. Together, the pair sold for $1.74 million, setting a new world record. Wolf went into in the private collection of [Pritzker](Daniel)(Daniel Pritzker) who kept it in a secure climate controlled room in a private residence at Utica, N.Y. Tiger went to the private collection of [Colts](Indianapolis)(Indianapolis Colts) owner [Irsay](Jim)(Jim Irsay).
In May 2017, Wolf was again auctioned, but this time for charity. Pritzker decided to sell the guitar and donate all proceeds to the [Alabama](Montgomery,)(Montgomery, Alabama) based [Poverty Law Center](Southern)(Southern Poverty Law Center).
[Halligan](Brian)(Brian Halligan) placed the winning bid totaling $1.9M.
For the majority of 2019 Wolf and Tiger were included in the *Play it Loud* exhibit at the [Museum of Art](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Museum of Art) in New York City. On June 23, 2019 [Mayer](John)(John Mayer) played Wolf with Dead & Co. at [Field](Citi)(Citi Field).
## Legacy
Garcia was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) as a member of the Grateful Dead in 1994. He declined to attend the ceremony; the band jokingly brought a cardboard cutout of Garcia out on stage in his absence.
In 1987, Vermont ice cream maker [& Jerry's](Ben)(Ben & Jerry's) introduced their Cherry Garcia flavor dedicated to him. It was the first ice cream flavor dedicated to a musician.
In 2003, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked Jerry Garcia 13th in their list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time".
According to fellow Bay Area guitar player [Kaiser](Henry)(Henry Kaiser (musician)), Garcia is "the most recorded guitarist in history. With more than 2,200 Grateful Dead concerts, and 1,000 Jerry Garcia Band concerts captured on tape – as well as numerous studio sessions – there are about 15,000 hours of his guitar work preserved for the ages."Kaiser, Henry. ["Jerry Garcia Live!"](http://www.guitarplayer.com/article/jerry-garcia-live/oct-07/32077), *Guitar Player*, October 2007
On July 30, 2004, [Seals](Melvin)(Melvin Seals) was the first Jerry Garcia Band (JGB) member to headline an outdoor music and camping festival called "The Grateful Garcia Gathering". Jerry Garcia Band drummer [Kemper](David)(David Kemper) joined Melvin Seals and JGB in 2007. Other musicians and friends of Garcia include Donna Jean Godchaux, [Siegel](Mookie)(Mookie Siegel), Pete Sears, [Smith](G.E.)(G.E. Smith), [Hammer](Chuck)(Chuck Hammer), [Sless](Barry)(Barry Sless), [Greene](Jackie)(Jackie Greene), Brian Lesh, Sanjay Mishra, and [Karan](Mark)(Mark Karan).
On July 21, 2005, the San Francisco Recreation and Park Commission passed a resolution to name the amphitheater in [Park](McLaren)(John McLaren Park) "The [Garcia Amphitheater](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Amphitheater)." The amphitheater is located in the [District](Excelsior)(Excelsior District, San Francisco), where Garcia grew up. The first show to happen at the Jerry Garcia Amphitheater was Jerry Day 2005 on August 7, 2005. Jerry's brother, Tiff Garcia, was the first person to welcome everybody to the "Jerry Garcia Amphitheater." Jerry Day is an annual celebration of Garcia in his childhood neighborhood. The dedication ceremony (Jerry Day 2) on October 29, 2005, was officiated by mayor [Newsom](Gavin)(Gavin Newsom).
On September 24, 2005, the *Comes a Time: A Celebration of the Music & Spirit of Jerry Garcia* tribute concert was held at the [Greek Theatre](Hearst)(Hearst Greek Theatre) in Berkeley, California. The concert featured Bob Weir, Bill Kreutzmann, Mickey Hart, Bruce Hornsby, [Anastasio](Trey)(Trey Anastasio), [Haynes](Warren)(Warren Haynes), [Herring](Jimmy)(Jimmy Herring), [Kang](Michael)(Michael Kang (musician)), [Lane](Jay)(Jay Lane), [Chimenti](Jeff)(Jeff Chimenti), Mark Karan, [Sylvester](Robin)(Robin Sylvester), Kenny Brooks, Melvin Seals, Merl Saunders, Marty Holland, Stu Allen, [Jones](Gloria)(Gloria Jones), and Jackie LaBranch.
Georgia-based composer Lee Johnson released an orchestral tribute to the music of the Grateful Dead, recorded with the Russian National Orchestra, entitled "Dead Symphony: Lee Johnson Symphony No. 6." Johnson was interviewed on [NPR](NPR) on the July 26, 2008 broadcast of *[Edition](Weekend)(Weekend Edition)*, and gave much credit to the genius and craft of Garcia's songwriting. A live performance with the [Symphony Orchestra](Baltimore)(Baltimore Symphony Orchestra), conducted by Johnson himself, was held Friday, August 1.
In 2010 the [Barbara Bowl](Santa)(Santa Barbara Bowl) in California opened Jerry Garcia Glen along the walk up to the venue. There is a statue of Garcia's right hand along the way.
Seattle rock band [Soundgarden](Soundgarden) wrote and recorded the instrumental song "Jerry Garcia's Finger", dedicated to the singer, which was released as a b-side with their single "[Noose](Pretty)(Pretty Noose)".
Numerous music festivals across the United States and Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK hold annual events in memory of Jerry Garcia.
On May 14, 2015, an all-star lineup held a tribute concert for Garcia at [Post Pavilion](Merriweather)(Merriweather Post Pavilion) in Columbia, Maryland. The event was called "Dear Jerry".
In 2015, Hunter and Garcia were inducted into the [Hall of Fame](Songwriters)(Songwriters Hall of Fame). Hunter accepted the award along with Garcia's daughter, Trixie Garcia, who accepted on behalf of her father.
In 2015, Jerry Garcia's wife, Manasha Garcia and their daughter, Keelin Garcia launched The Jerry Garcia Foundation, a nonprofit charity that supports projects for artistic, environmental, and humanitarian causes. The Foundation's Board members are Bob Weir, Peter Shapiro, Glenn Fischer, Irwin Sternberg, Daniel Shiner, [Studios](TRI)(TRI Studios) CEO, Christopher McCutcheon and [Music Foundation](Fender)(Fender Music Foundation) Executive Director,
Lynn Robison. Keelin Garcia said, "It is a tremendous honor to participate in nonprofit work that is in accordance with my father's values."
In 2017 Garcia's music was featured in *Red Roses, Green Gold*, an [off-Broadway](off-Broadway) musical featuring the music of Garcia and [Hunter](Robert)(Robert Hunter (lyricist)), with additional music by [Lesh](Phil)(Phil Lesh), [Weir](Bob)(Bob Weir), [Hart](Mickey)(Mickey Hart), and Hunter's longtime collaborator [Anton](Greg)(Greg Anton). The production was directed and choreographed by Rachel Klein, featured a book by Michael Norman Mann, had [Chimenti](Jeff)(Jeff Chimenti) serving as music supervisor, and was performed at the [Lane Theatre](Minetta)(Minetta Lane Theatre) in New York City.
In 2018, Jerry Garcia family members, Keelin Garcia and Manasha Garcia launched the Jerry Garcia Music Arts independent music label.
On November 18, 2021, it was announced [Hill](Jonah)(Jonah Hill) would portray Garcia in a forthcoming Grateful Dead biopic written by [Alexander and Larry Karaszewski](Scott)(Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski) directed by [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese) for [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+).
## Discography
* *[Riders of the Purple Sage](New)(New Riders of the Purple Sage (album))* – [Riders of the Purple Sage](New)(New Riders of the Purple Sage) – 1971
* *[Hooteroll?](Hooteroll?)* – [Wales](Howard)(Howard Wales) and Jerry Garcia – 1971
* *[Garcia](Garcia (album))* – Jerry Garcia – 1972
* *[at Keystone](Live)(Live at Keystone)* – [Saunders](Merl)(Merl Saunders), Jerry Garcia, [Kahn](John)(John Kahn), [Vitt](Bill)(Bill Vitt) – 1973
* *[Compliments](Compliments (album))* – Jerry Garcia – 1974
* *[& In the Way](Old)(Old & In the Way (album))* – [& In the Way](Old)(Old & In the Way) – 1975
* *[Reflections](Reflections (Jerry Garcia album))* – Jerry Garcia – 1976
* *[Under the Stars](Cats)(Cats Under the Stars)* – [Garcia Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Band) – 1978
* *[for the Roses](Run)(Run for the Roses (album))* – Jerry Garcia – 1982
* *[NRPS](Vintage)(Vintage NRPS)* – New Riders of the Purple Sage – 1986
* *[Encores](Keystone)(Keystone Encores)* – Merl Saunders, Jerry Garcia, John Kahn, Bill Vitt – 1988
* *[Acoustic](Almost)(Almost Acoustic)* – [Garcia Acoustic Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Acoustic Band) – 1988
* *[Garcia / David Grisman](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia / David Grisman)* – Jerry Garcia and [Grisman](David)(David Grisman) – 1991
* *[Garcia Band](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia Band (album))* – Jerry Garcia Band – 1991
* *[for Kids Only](Not)(Not for Kids Only)* – Jerry Garcia and David Grisman – 1993
## Notes
Jerry's mom, Ruth (also known as "Bobbie" to her family)...}}
}}
## References
## Sources
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## External links
* [The official homepage of Jerry Garcia](http://jerrygarcia.com/)
* [Annotated Grateful Dead Lyrics](http://arts.ucsc.edu/gdead/agdl)
* [Jerry Garcia on Fretbase](https://archive.today/20130123174213/http://www.fretbase.com/artists/110-jerry-garcia)
* [The Jerry Site](https://web.archive.org/web/20080516035813/http://www.thejerrysite.com/)
* [Official Grateful Dead website](http://www.dead.net)
* [Jerry Garcia discography at deaddisc.com](http://www.deaddisc.com/GDFD_JGPerformer.htm)
* [Jerry Garcia autopsy](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033831/http://www.chickenhead.com/stuff/jerry/index.html)
* [Jerry Day: A Civic and Cultural Celebration of Jerry Garcia held in San Francisco](http://www.jerryday.org/)
* [FBI Records: The Vault - Jerry Garcia](http://vault.fbi.gov/Jerry%20Garcia) at [vault.fbi.gov](vault.fbi.gov)
* [Jerry Garcia's Army personnel file](http://catalog.archives.gov/id/40932531) at the [Archives](National)(National Archives and Records Administration)
* [Replica Wolf](http://www.alembic.com/prod/further.html) Guitar and [Replica Rosebud](http://www.alembic.com/prod/tribute.html) by original maker, Alembic
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Canibus
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canibus
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# Canibus
*Revision ID: 1160254788 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:04:39Z*
---
}}
| birth_place = [Kingston](Kingston, Jamaica), Jamaica
| origin = [Bronx, New York](The)(The Bronx, New York), U.S.
| genre = [Coast hip hop](East)(East Coast hip hop), [hip hop](hardcore)(hardcore hip hop)
| occupation = Rapper, actor
| years_active = 1993–present
| label =
| associated_acts = }}
**Canibus** is the stage name of American rapper **Germaine Williams** (born December 9, 1974). He gained fame in the 1990s for his ability to freestyle, and released his debut album [Can-I-Bus](Can-I-Bus) in 1998. Canibus has released 13 solo studio albums, as well as multiple collaboration albums and EPs with other rappers as a member of [Four Horsemen](the)(The Four Horsemen (rap group)), [Camp All-Stars](Refugee)(Refugee Camp All-Stars), Sharpshooterz, Cloak N Dagga, the Undergods and one-half of T.H.E.M.
[About.com](About.com) placed him at number 32 on their list of the "Top 50 MCs of Our Time (1987–2007)", while in 2012 *[Source](The)(The Source (magazine))* placed him number 44 on their list of the Top 50 Lyricists of All Time.
## Early life
Germaine Williams was born on December 9, 1974, in [Jamaica](Kingston,)(Kingston, Jamaica). He is of Jamaican descent.[allmusic ((( Canibus > Biography )))](). Allmusic. Accessed February 22, 2008.Parker, Lyndsey (August 7, 2000). [Exclusive LAUNCH Artist Chat](http://music.yahoo.com/read/interview/12026742). Yahoo! Music. Accessed February 22, 2008. His father, [Williams](Basil)(Basil Williams (cricketer)), was a [Jamaican](Jamaican cricket team) and [Indian](West)(West Indian cricket team) [cricket](cricket)er.[Canibus : Rap, Hip-Hop Interview](http://www.riotsound.com/hip-hop/rap/interviews/canibus/index.php) . Riot Sound. Accessed February 22, 2008. The family moved frequently, living in [Bronx](The)(The Bronx); [New Jersey](Newark,)(Newark, New Jersey); [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.); [Atlanta](Atlanta); [Miami](Miami); [Buffalo](Buffalo, New York); and [London](London)Millner, Denene (September 18, 1998). [The Canndy Canibus Rapper's No Dope, As Rep Goes From Bad To Verser With Release of his First Solo Album](http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/entertainment/1998/09/08/1998-09-08_the_canny_canibus____rapper_.html) . The *Daily News*. Accessed February 22, 2008. due to his mother's career requiring constant relocation. Canibus stated that he was an [introverted](extraversion and introversion) child growing up.Johnson Jr, Billy (February 16, 1999). [A World Wide Phenomenon](http://music.yahoo.com/read/interview/12048009). Yahoo! Music. Accessed February 22, 2008.
After completing high school in 1992, he spent a year working for [Corporation](AT&T)(AT&T Corporation) and another year as a [analyst](data)(data analyst) for the [Department of Justice](U.S.)(U.S. Department of Justice). He studied [science](computer)(computer science) at [College](DeKalb)(Georgia Perimeter College) in Atlanta.Strauss, Neil (May 10, 1998). [POP/JAZZ; A Rising Rap Star Puts Content Ahead of Style](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/10/arts/pop-jazz-a-rising-rap-star-puts-content-ahead-of-style.html). *The New York Times*. Accessed February 22, 2008.
## Career
### Early career (1992–1996)
He began rhyming in the early 1990s and by 1992 under the name *Canibus Sativa*, and formed a duo called T.H.E.M. (The Heralds of Extreme Metaphors) with Atlanta rapper Webb (now called C.I., also known as Central Intelligence). In 1996, T.H.E.M. split and Canibus teamed with businessman Charles Suitt. That same year Charles Suitt introduced Canibus to platinum producer [Cutlass](Frankie)(Frankie Cutlass) and the two collaborated on a song. Canibus also appeared on the [Makes Me High](Music)(Music Makes Me High) remix by the [Boyz](Lost)(Lost Boyz) featuring [Dogg Pound](Tha)(Tha Dogg Pound) making it Canibus' first official appearance on a record.
In December 1997, Canibus first publicly discussed a verbal confrontation with LL Cool J in an interview with Tourè for *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)*. Also attending the interview was [Forté](John)(John Forté), DMX, [Pun](Big)(Big Pun), [Def](Mos)(Mos Def) and Mic Geronimo. The roundtable discussion was recorded by Kurt Nice and featured in Shades of Hip Hop compilation *Hot 2 Def* in 1998 and re-released in 2004 on *Shades of Hip Hop: The Cypher*.
### Debut album (1997–1998)
Canibus' debut album *[Can-I-Bus](Can-I-Bus)* was released on September 8, 1998. The song "[Round K.O.](Second)(Second Round K.O.)", produced by [Jean](Wyclef)(Wyclef Jean), was a success, with the video featuring Wyclef and a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) by [boxer](boxing) [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson). Despite eventually being certified [Gold](RIAA certification).
The album contained a lot of socially-conscious material, such as corruption within the U.S. government, [AIDS](HIV/AIDS), and violence in modern America.
Canibus had a feud with [Cool J](LL)(LL Cool J) over a verse that Canibus gave on LL's track "[4,3,2,1](4, 3, 2, 1 (LL Cool J song))" from his album *[Phenomenon](Phenomenon (LL Cool J album))*. The track featured Canibus, [Man](Method)(Method Man), [Redman](Redman (rapper)), and [DMX](DMX (rapper)). Canibus's verse began with the line "Yo LL, is that a mic on your arm? Let me borrow that," referring to the microphone tattoo on LL Cool J's arm which LL Cool J interpreted as Canibus insulting him. When the final cut of the song came out it featured LL Cool J's verse after Canibus's, mocking an unspecified person believed to be Canibus.https://www.vibe.com/news/entertainment/canibus-questionable-lyrics-ll-cool-j-diss-1234736658/https://news.yahoo.com/ll-cool-j-takes-blame-144533591.html
### Wyclef feud, second album (1999–2000)
Because Wyclef produced the majority of the tracks on *Can-I-Bus*, Williams blamed him for the general dissatisfaction with *Can-I-Bus* and cut ties with him, going as far as to diss Wyclef on the title track of his second album *[B.C.](2000)(2000 B.C. (album))* ("You mad at the last album? I apologize for it / Yo, I can't call it, motherfucking Wyclef spoiled it!").
*2000 B.C.* featured the first collaboration between Canibus and [Kurupt](Kurupt), [Kass](Ras)(Ras Kass) and [Priest](Killah)(Killah Priest), a rap [supergroup](Supergroup (music)) collectively known as [Hrsmn](the)(the Hrsmn) (referring to the [Horsemen of the Apocalypse](Four)(Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse)), on the track "Horsementality". Though following *2000 B.C.*'s release it had been announced that the group would be releasing an album, these plans never materialized, with only an [EP](Extended play) of [outtake](outtake)s from 2001 entitled *[Horsemen Project](The)(The Horsemen Project)* released by Killah Priest's management in 2003. Since 2000, however, the members of the group have worked together on various songs and rumors of a full-length HRSMN album have persisted and include speculation about collaborations with [Monch](Pharoahe)(Pharoahe Monch), [Common](Common (rapper)) and [Rakim](Rakim), among others.
Wyclef Jean would respond to Canibus's earlier remark on the track "However You Want It" from his album, *[Ecleftic: 2 Sides II a Book](The)(The Ecleftic: 2 Sides II a Book)*.
Though much bitterness between Canibus and Wyclef Jean remained for a period of time, the two artists finally settled their differences at the end of 2004; they have since worked together on two [remix](remix)es of the [Montano](Machel)(Machel Montano) song "Carnival Survivors". In an interview with HipHopsite.com conducted in November 2005, Williams revealed that he had recorded five songs with Wyclef and ['Wonder' Duplessis](Jerry)(Jerry 'Wonder' Duplessis) at Platinum Studios in New York for the upcoming Fugees reunion album. Whether or not those recordings will appear on the album has not been determined yet.
### *C True Hollywood Stories* (2001)
In 2001, Canibus released his third album, *[True Hollywood Stories](C)(C True Hollywood Stories)*. It was released on Archives Music, an [label](independent)(independent label) owned by Williams' future business partner, Louis Lombard III.
In an interview conducted in 2005, Williams' former promoter, Pak-Man, who worked on over half of the album with the rapper, spoke on the record, with his explanation leaning toward the album being intended as satire: "At that time Canibus was in the studio recording a lot of songs and [I] mean a lot, but he didn't want to make the fans wait no more so he did* C True Hollywood Stories *and he wanted to have fun wit, so thats what we did we had fun wit". In an interview on AllHipHop.com posted on April 8, 2005, Williams was asked what direction he was trying to take with that album; in his response, he stated "That album depicts the state of affairs in my life at the time – nothing more, nothing less".
### *Mic Club: The Curriculum* and *Rip the Jacker* (2002–2003)
His fourth full-length album *[Club: The Curriculum](Mic)(Mic Club: The Curriculum)* was released in 2002. Although the production was handled almost entirely by little-known producers, some of them from [Europe](Europe), the record proved to be a greater critical success than the previous year's release. *Mic Club* also saw Canibus return to a more complex rapping style, with a number of concept tracks and few songs with a [chorus](refrain). The album was released on Mic Club Music, Canibus' own label, but failed to chart, selling relatively few copies.
Following the release of *Mic Club: The Curriculum*, it was announced that Williams decided to join the [States Army](United)(United States Army). Before commencing his work with the military, however, he recorded a number of tracks which he intended to be released on his next album, entitled *[the Jacker](Rip)(Rip the Jacker)*. [the Enemy of Mankind](Stoupe)(Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind) was given the task of producing the entire record, equipped solely with Canibus' pre-recorded vocals. Due to his military obligations, Canibus himself only managed to review the album after having acquired a copy.
Upon release, *Rip the Jacker* received rave reviews from the majority of critics, who noted that Williams' largely scientific lyrics and distinctive, rough delivery was finally matched by equally fine production, as Canibus had a history of working with badly selected producers. Unlike *Mic Club*, *Rip the Jacker* charted on both *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*'s R&B/hip-hop charts and the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200), peaking at #34 and #197.
Critics highlighted various aspects of *Rip the Jacker*'s originality, both in terms of beats and lyrics; Stoupe had employed a large number of samples from often obscure compositions, while Canibus himself undertook a variety of topics from various perspectives. Of note was the inclusion of "Poet Laureate II", a song exceeding seven minutes in length and lacking a chorus, with several changes of beat throughout; the track was frequently singled out as one of the strongest in Canibus' career and the album as a whole convinced listeners and the industry alike that the rapper had not lost his potential.
### *Mind Control*, Cloak n Dagga and *Hip-Hop for Sale* (2005–2006)
Following *Rip the Jacker* and Canibus' subsequent discharge from the army, an album entitled *[Control](Mind)(Mind Control (Canibus album))* (2005) was released to negative reviews. Canibus had never planned for it to be compiled as a separate record, but agreed to release it through the independent Gladiator Music label as part of a contractual agreement; most of the vocals for *Mind Control* had been recorded prior to the release of *C True Hollywood Stories*. A collection of previously recorded material (with only three of the songs being unreleased) produced entirely by Mark Sparks, the album failed to chart and is rarely considered an official Canibus release by the rapper's fans.
Also in 2005, a collaboration between Williams and [rapper](underground)(underground hip hop) Phoenix Orion, who had also been known for scientific lyrics, yielded the album *[Con Zero](Def)(Cloak and Dagga: Def Con Zero)*, released on the independent Head Trauma Records label, owned by [K-1](K-1) kickboxer [Cooper](Dewey)(Dewey Cooper). The record featured guest appearances from [G Rap](Kool)(Kool G Rap), [K-Solo](K-Solo), and former [& Park](106)(106 & Park) host [Free](Free (rapper)), among others. As Cloak N Dagga, the duo briefly toured the United States promoting the release.
The following month, after numerous delays, Canibus' seventh solo album, *[for Sale](Hip-Hop)(Hip-Hop for Sale)*, was released, but was panned by critics, who dismissed it as yet another failed attempt to gain mainstream recognition. Additionally, due to the earlier release of *Mind Control* and the leaking of most of the material in the form of a [mixtape](mixtape) entitled *The Vitruvian Man*, the release date had been pushed back to November, the original date having been May. The production on *Hip-Hop for Sale* was handled in part by [Virginia](Virginia)-based producer [Nottz](Nottz), with several relatively unknown producers handling the remaining tracks after Nottz had cut ties with Canibus due to the appearance of *The Vitruvian Man*. The day of *Hip-Hop for Sale*'s release, *Mic Club Master Volume One*, a separate mixtape, appeared in stores, many of the songs receiving more praise than those present on the full-length album.
### *For Whom the Beat Tolls* (2007)
[[at Amager Bio 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Canibus performing in 2007](File:Canibus)]
In January 2007, it was announced that Canibus would release new material in 2007 exclusively on his own imprint, Mic Club Music, in a joint venture with Legion Entertainment and distributed via his former major label, [Music Group](Universal)(Universal Music Group). A pair of mixtapes, titled *Nothing to Prove* and *Nothing to Lose*, were slated for release in March 2007, but were eventually scrapped; instead, Canibus decided to use the best material from each mixtape to create a new full-length album entitled *[Whom the Beat Tolls](For)(For Whom the Beat Tolls)*.
When the record was originally announced in March, there was only one confirmed track – the third installment in Canibus' "[Laureate](Poet)(Poet Laureate)" series, "Poet Laureate Infinity". The track has 1,000 bars, in the form of five 200 bar verses, and is layered in such a way that "when you mix it and spread it throughout five channels, [have the ability](you) to mix the track differently every time".Heinzelman, Bill (March 19, 2007). [Canibus My Life](http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=8450) . *XXL* magazine. Accessed March 24, 2008.
"For Whom the Beat Tolls" was originally set for release in May 2007, but was pushed back one month, and a released on June 12, 2007 (though it was not distributed by Universal as previously reported). The album has 16 tracks and includes contributions from [Priest](Killah)(Killah Priest) and [Paz](Vinnie)(Vinnie Paz), among others, and featured two personally made mixes of the "Poet Laureate Infinity" track ("Poet Laureate Infinity v003" and "Poet Laureate Infinity v004").
Following the release of "For Whom the Beat Tolls", Canibus went on a sporadic tour in the U.S. to promote the record. In August 2007, Canibus made an announcement on his Myspace page that he had cut ties with his business partner Louis Lombard: "*To my friends, family and fans, Just wanted everybody to know I no longer do business with Louis Lombard, III & Mic Club Music*.
### *Melatonin Magik* (2010)
In December 2009, it was announced that Canibus was in the process of releasing his 9th studio album *[Magik](Melatonin)(Melatonin Magik)*. *Melatonin Magik* was released on February 9, 2010, to relatively positive reviews, being regarded as one of his most focused efforts yet. The album included several guest appearances (DZK~PR~ & Warbux), a marked contrast to many of his previous albums in which he kept features at a minimum.
### *C of Tranquility* (2010)
*[of Tranquility](C)(C of Tranquility)* was released on October 5, 2010. Producers include [Premier](DJ)(DJ Premier), [One](Jake)(Jake One), [Jones](Scram)(Scram Jones), [Bizness](Tha)(Tha Bizness) and [J-Zone](J-Zone). Originally recorded in 2008, it was sent to [Media](Interdependent)(Interdependent Media) for track mastery and release. Many of the beats were changed, and a few of the tracks were shortened.
### *Lyrical Law* (2011)
Originally intended to be a Melatonin Magik remix album, as more and more guests were invited to feature, Canibus decided to also record new material for the album, and it quickly evolved into an official solo album. In April 2011, it was announced that he would be selling the album through his new website, canibuscatalogue.com in order to have more control over promotion and sale.
A track entitled "Spring Training" was released by Joe Budden two days after "Lyrical Law VS Joey Cupcakes" containing lines directed towards Canibus. To many, the track appears to be a response. This is untrue however, as the track was recorded prior to having a conflict with Canibus. As of June 2011, an official response from either Royce or Budden (aside from brief messages on Twitter) has yet to surface.
### Canibus vs Dizaster (2012)
Canibus completed his first rap battle for [of the Dot](King)(King of the Dot) on June 9, 2012. Canibus participated in the first two rounds before pulling out a notepad to read his bars during the third round, after admitting defeat and wishing to recite what he said were "30 pages of rhymes" that he had failed to memorize.[CANNIBUS' Line Of Twitter Disses](http://musikreform.com/blog4/2012/06/11/cannibus-line-of-twitter-disses-from-saigon-alchemist-freddie-gibbs-more/)[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9KjsBIsr2g] The battle was part of King of the Dot's Fresh Coast division in L.A.
An fake open letter, attributed to Canibus appeared on [Tumblr](Tumblr), though it was later debunked by his manager.. Canibus later released an official statement on his [Facebook](Facebook) page. About the battle itself, Canibus commented that "Sometimes people need laughter and entertainment at the expense of others embarrassment but hip hop means so much to me I don't care."
## Personal life
In 2002, Canibus signed up for the [States Army](United)(United States Army). In a 2005 interview, Canibus stated "I enlisted because I wanted to get away from the music... I wanted to do something that gave me a separate definition from what I had done all through my teens and twenties. I was 28 when I enlisted." In 2004, he was caught [cannabis](smoking)(Cannabis smoking) and was subsequently discharged.
## Discography
### Albums
**Solo**
* *[Can-I-Bus](Can-I-Bus)* (1998)
* *[B.C. (Before Can-I-Bus)](2000)(2000 B.C. (Before Can-I-Bus))* (2000)
* *[True Hollywood Stories](C!)(C! True Hollywood Stories)* (2001)
* *[Club: The Curriculum](Mic)(Mic Club: The Curriculum)* (2002)
* *[the Jacker](Rip)(Rip the Jacker)* (2003) (produced by [the Enemy of Mankind](Stoupe)(Stoupe the Enemy of Mankind))
* *[Control](Mind)(Mind Control (Canibus album))* (2005)
* *[for Sale](Hip-Hop)(Hip-Hop for Sale)* (2005)
* *[Whom the Beat Tolls](For)(For Whom the Beat Tolls)* (2007)
* *[Magik](Melatonin)(Melatonin Magik)* (2010)
* *[of Tranquility](C)(C of Tranquility)* (2010)
* *[Law](Lyrical)(Lyrical Law)* (2011)
* *[Accompli](Fait)(Fait Accompli (album))* (2014)
* *Time Flys, Life Dies... Phoenix Rise* (2015) (produced by Bronze Nazareth)
* *Kaiju* (2021) (produced by Body Bag Ben)
* *One Step Closer to Infinity* (2022)
**Collaborations**
* *[Horsemen Project](The)(The Horsemen Project)* (2003) (with [Priest](Killah)(Killah Priest), [Kurupt](Kurupt) & [Kass](Ras)(Ras Kass), as [Four Horsemen](The)(HRSMN))
* *[Con Zero](Def)(Def Con Zero)* (2005) (with Phoenix Orion, as Cloak N Dagga)
* *In Gods We Trust – Crush Microphones to Dust* (2011) (with [Murray](Keith)(Keith Murray), as The Undergods)
* *[Warfare](Lyrical)(Lyrical Warfare)* (2011) (with Webb, as T.H.E.M.; recorded from 1993 to 1995)
* *The 2nd Coming* (2013) (with Bronze Nazareth, [Cappadonna](Cappadonna), M-Eighty, Nino Grave & [Asia](Planet)(Planet Asia), as Almighty)
* *The Last Ride* (2021) (with Killah Priest, Kurupt & Ras Kass, as [HRSMN](HRSMN))
* *Microphone Land* (2021) (with Jaximus)
### EPs
* *Canibus & Keith Murray Are The Undergods* (2009) (with Keith Murray, as The Undergods)
* *Historic EP* (2014) (with Killah Priest, Kurupt & Ras Kass, as HRSMN)
* *Full Spectrum Dominance* (2018)
* *Full Spectrum Dominance 2* (2018)
* *Matrix Theory I* (2018) (with Marty McKay)
* *Full Spectrum Dominance 3* (2019)
* *Matrix Theory II* (2019) (with Marty McKay)
* *Full Spectrum Dominance: Repolarization* (2019)
* *Matrix Theory III* (2019) (with Marty McKay)
* *Matrix Theory IV* (2020) (with Marty McKay)
* *Matrix Theory V* (2021) (with Marty McKay)
* *C* (2022) (with [Rock](Pete)(Pete Rock))
## Filmography
* *Eyes on Hip Hop* (1995) – self
* *[Bamboozled](Bamboozled)* (2000) – Mo Blak
* *[II](Beef)(Beef II)* (2004) – self
* *The MC: Why We Do It* (2005) – self
## References
## External links
*
* [Epic Canibus Interview (CWR Radio)](http://conspiracyworldwide.podomatic.com/entry/eg/2009-02-25T15_18_02-08_00/)
[births](Category:1974)(Category:1974 births)
[rappers of Jamaican descent](Category:American)(Category:American rappers of Jamaican descent)
[male rappers](Category:American)(Category:American male rappers)
[people](Category:AT&T)(Category:AT&T people)
[Coast hip hop musicians](Category:East)(Category:East Coast hip hop musicians)
[College at Georgia State University alumni](Category:Perimeter)(Category:Perimeter College at Georgia State University alumni)
[hip hop artists](Category:Hardcore)(Category:Hardcore hip hop artists)
[emigrants to the United States](Category:Jamaican)(Category:Jamaican emigrants to the United States)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from New York City](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from New York City)
[from the Bronx](Category:Rappers)(Category:Rappers from the Bronx)
[States Army soldiers](Category:United)(Category:United States Army soldiers)
[rappers](Category:Underground)(Category:Underground rappers)
[American rappers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American rappers)
[American male musicians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male musicians)
[Hrsmn members](Category:The)(Category:The Hrsmn members)
|
The Elephant Man _film
|
the_elephant_man__film
|
# The Elephant Man (film)
*Revision ID: 1143902758 | Timestamp: 2023-03-10T16:02:09Z*
---
#REDIRECT [Elephant Man (film)](The)(The Elephant Man (film))
}}
|
Nick DiGiovanni
|
nick_digiovanni
|
# Nick DiGiovanni
*Revision ID: 1160341708 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:46:39Z*
---
| birth_place = [Rhode Island](Providence,)(Providence, Rhode Island), U.S.
| occupation =
| title =
| parents =
| education =
| known_for = [YouTube](YouTube) videos
| height = 1.905 m
| agent =
| awards =
}}
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| module2 =
| channels =
| subscribers = 10.1 million
| views = 4.91 billion
| years active = 2019–present
| associated_acts =
| silver_button = yes
| silver_year = 2020
| stats_update = June 3, 2023
| gold_button = yes
| gold_year = 2021
| diamond_button = yes
| diamond_year = 2023
}}
| website =
}}
**Nicholas Channing DiGiovanni** (born May 19, 1996) is an American [chef](celebrity)(celebrity chef), [personality](internet)(Internet celebrity), and [entertainer](entertainer). As of March 2023, DiGiovanni has over 25 million followers across his [media](social)(social media) accounts, including YouTube, Twitter, and Instagram.
He is one of the youngest ever finalists on *[MasterChef](MasterChef (American TV series))*, placing third when he competed at 22 years old.
## Early life
DiGiovanni was born on May 19, 1996, in [Rhode Island](Barrington,)(Barrington, Rhode Island), to Chris and Susan DiGiovanni (née Naimi). He is of [Italian](Italians), [German](Germans), [English](English people) and [Persian](Persians) descent. Drew's Cookbook Club |url=https://www.thedrewbarrymoreshow.com/videos/tiktok-star-nick-digiovanni-shows-drew-how-to-make-scalloped-scallops-drews-cookbook-club |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=www.thedrewbarrymoreshow.com |language=en}} He is the oldest of four brothers. He developed a passion for food at a young age by watching his grandmother and great-grandmother cook meals for the family.
## Education
DiGiovanni attended high school at [Academy](Milton)(Milton Academy), where he graduated *[laude](cum)(Latin honors)*. He served as co-head of the Milton Academy Community Service program.
After graduating from high school, DiGiovanni went to [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) in Massachusetts. At Harvard, DiGiovanni created his own concentration called "Food and Climate". As part of his coursework, he attended lectures taught by [Bottura](Massimo)(Massimo Bottura), [Achatz](Grant)(Grant Achatz) and [Andrés](José)(José Andrés).
For his senior thesis, DiGiovanni analyzed data on carbon emissions in 36 global restaurants from Singapore to San Francisco. His thesis was advised by American author and journalist [Pollan](Michael)(Michael Pollan).
DiGiovanni got accepted to attend [Business School](Harvard)(Harvard Business School) through the 2+2 deferral program. In January 2023, he announced he was moving on from that dream and let Harvard know he was not planning to matriculate.
## Career
### Television
During his senior year of college, DiGiovanni attended a casting call for season 10 of *MasterChef*. He was selected to compete on the show and finished in third place. To film the show, DiGiovanni reportedly left in the middle of the term at Harvard without informing his professors. He returned the next season as a mentor for finalists.
### Social media
After completing *MasterChef* and graduating from Harvard, DiGiovanni began to post cooking videos on [YouTube](YouTube). In his first-ever YouTube video, DiGiovanni cooked the dessert he would have made in the *MasterChef* finale, which has over 2.9 million views as of March 2022. He then began to regularly post videos of him cooking different foods. His YouTube channel has over 10 million subscribers as of May 2023.
DiGiovanni has partnered with brands including [Instacart](Instacart) and [Bueno](Kinder)(Kinder Bueno).
### Philanthropy
DiGiovanni is the Lead Ambassador for The Farmlink Project. The Farmlink Project |url=https://www.farmlinkproject.org/meet-the-team |website=www.farmlinkproject.org |access-date=2 December 2022}} Additionally, in 2021, DiGiovanni participated in the [#TeamSeas](Team Seas) campaign founded by YouTuber [MrBeast](MrBeast), which raised $30 million to clean up 30 million pounds of trash in the ocean.
## Accolades
DiGiovanni has been featured in several publications, including *[Today](Today (American TV program))*, *[Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America)*, and ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)*. Food Diaries: Bite Size BAZAAR |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NhiOt9SkJk |language=en |access-date=2022-04-13}} DiGiovanni was named to the *[Forbes](Forbes)'' [Under 30](30)(Forbes 30 Under 30) list for Food and Drink. In 2021, DiGiovanni won YouTube's [Award](Streamy)(Streamy Awards) for Food, an award recognizing the world's top food creator of the year. He was a [Award](Webby)(Webby Awards) recipient in 2022.
In November 2021, DiGiovanni (with Lynja) broke the [World Record](Guinness)(Guinness World Records) for the largest ever cake pop, which weighed 97 pounds and 8.52 ounces.
In June 2022, he broke another Guinness World Record for the largest ever chicken nugget, which weighed 20.96 kilograms. In August, he visited the most fast food restaurants in 24 hours (69 restaurants). In October, he beat [Ramsay's](Gordon)(Gordon Ramsay) record for the fastest time to fillet a 10 lb fish by 5 seconds; completing it in 1 minute exactly. On the same day he constructed the world's largest sushi roll, which measured at 2.15 meters in diameter. In November, he created the largest fortune cookie at 1.47 kilograms and made the largest donation of turkey in 24 hours (64,463.44 kg - roughly 7,620 turkeys).
On May 11 2023, DiGiovanni, alongside Gordon Ramsay, broke the Guinness World Record for the largest [wellington](beef)(Beef Wellington), which weighed 25.76 kilograms (56.79 pounds). This was his 8th Guinness World Record and was broken in partnership with celebrity chefs: Gordon Ramsay, Max the Meat Guy, Guga Foods and The Golden Balance.
## Filmography & Bibliography
### Filmography
### Bibliography
## References
## External links
*
*
* [YouTube channel](https://www.youtube.com/c/NickDiGiovanni)
[TikTokers](Category:American)(Category:American TikTokers)
[YouTubers](Category:American)(Category:American YouTubers)
[births](Category:1996)(Category:1996 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[Academy alumni](Category:Milton)(Category:Milton Academy alumni)
[University alumni](Category:Harvard)(Category:Harvard University alumni)
[from Providence, Rhode Island](Category:People)(Category:People from Providence, Rhode Island)
[television chefs](Category:American)(Category:American television chefs)
[from Massachusetts](Category:Chefs)(Category:Chefs from Massachusetts)
[people of Italian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Italian descent)
[people of Iranian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Iranian descent)
[male sailors (sport)](Category:American)(Category:American male sailors (sport))
[Crimson athletes](Category:Harvard)(Category:Harvard Crimson athletes)
[Crimson sailing](Category:Harvard)(Category:Harvard Crimson sailing)
[World Records](Category:Guinness)(Category:Guinness World Records)
[Award winners](Category:Streamy)(Category:Streamy Award winners)
[from Rhode Island](Category:Chefs)(Category:Chefs from Rhode Island)
[from Rhode Island](Category:YouTubers)(Category:YouTubers from Rhode Island)
|
Phil McGraw
|
phil_mcgraw
|
# Phil McGraw
*Revision ID: 1159424727 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T06:59:45Z*
---
| birth_place = [Oklahoma](Vinita,)(Vinita, Oklahoma), U.S.
| education =
| occupation =
| networth =
| spouse = }}|}}
| children = 2, including [Jay](Jay McGraw)
| website =
}}
**Phillip Calvin McGraw** (born September 1, 1950), better known as ** Dr. Phil**, is an American [personality](television)(Celebrity) and author best known for [host](Television presenter)ing the talk show *[Phil](Dr.)(Dr. Phil (talk show))*. He holds a doctorate in [psychology](clinical)(clinical psychology), though he ceased renewing his license to practice [psychology](psychology) in 2006.
McGraw rose to fame with appearances on *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)* in the late 1990s. [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) then helped McGraw launch his own program, *Dr. Phil*, in September 2002. The show is formatted as an advice show.
## Early life and education
McGraw was born in [Vinita](Vinita, Oklahoma), [Oklahoma](Oklahoma), on September 1, 1950, the son of Joseph J. McGraw Jr. and his wife, Anne Geraldine "Jerry" (*née* Stevens). He grew up with two older sisters, Deana and Donna, and younger sister Brenda in the oilfields of [Texas](North)(North Texas) where his father was an equipment supplier. At age 13, he worked at an [Root Beer](A&W)(A&W Root Beer) stand and a local chain called Pizza Planet in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City).
McGraw moved to Kansas with his father as his father pursued his lifelong goal of becoming a [psychologist](psychologist). There he attended [Mission North High School](Shawnee)(Shawnee Mission North High School) in [Park](Overland)(Overland Park, Kansas), Kansas. He played linebacker on the high school football team and in 1968 earned a football scholarship to the [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa), where he played middle linebacker under coach [Dobbs](Glenn)(Glenn Dobbs). He later transferred to [State University](Midwestern)(Midwestern State University) in [Falls](Wichita)(Wichita Falls, Texas), Texas.
McGraw graduated in 1975 from [State University](Midwestern)(Midwestern State University) with a [B.A.](Bachelor of Arts) in [psychology](psychology). He went on to earn an [M.A.](Master of Arts) in [psychology](experimental)(experimental psychology) in 1976, and a [Ph.D.](Doctor of Philosophy) degree in [psychology](clinical)(clinical psychology) in 1979 at North Texas State University (now the [of North Texas](University)(University of North Texas)), where his [dissertation](dissertation) was titled "Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Psychological Intervention." He did a year of post-doctoral training in [psychology](forensic)(forensic psychology) at the Wilmington Institute. McGraw's doctoral advisor was Frank Lawlis, who later became the primary contributing psychologist for the *Dr. Phil* television show.
## Early career
After obtaining his doctorate, McGraw rejoined his father in [Falls, Texas](Wichita)(Wichita Falls, Texas), where the elder McGraw had established his private psychology practice.
In 1985, McGraw and his father partnered with Thelma Box, a Texas businesswoman, in presenting "Pathways" self-help seminars. Six years after joining Box, in October 1991 McGraw sold his share in the company for $325,000.
In 1990, McGraw co-founded Courtroom Sciences, Inc. (CSI), a [consulting](trial)(trial consulting) firm, with lawyer Gary Dobbs. CSI would perform "dry runs" of court cases in simulated courtrooms, and McGraw would offer advice about what parts of the lawyer's case worked and what parts did not. McGraw is no longer an officer or director of the company. The TV show *[Bull](Bull (2016 TV Series))* is based on McGraw's experience as a trial consultant, and he is credited as one of the creators of the series. McGraw began working with [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) through CSI.
## Television career
[[File:Phil 1.jpg|thumb|McGraw photographed for the cover of *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* magazine by [Avenaim](Jerry)(Jerry Avenaim)]]
### Oprah Winfrey and the *Dr. Phil* show
In 1995, [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) hired McGraw's legal consulting firm CSI to prepare her for the [Texas beef trial](Amarillo)(Food libel laws). Winfrey was so impressed with McGraw that she thanked him for her victory in that case, which ended in 1998. Soon after, she invited him to appear on her show. His appearance proved so successful that he began appearing weekly as a relationship and life strategy expert on Tuesdays starting in April 1998.
In September 2002, McGraw formed Peteski Productions and launched his own [syndicated](TV syndication) daily television show, *[Phil](Dr.)(Dr. Phil (TV series))*, produced by Winfrey's [Studios](Harpo)(Harpo Productions). *Dr. Phil* is an advice show, in which McGraw tackles a different topic on each show, offering advice to his guests. He signed a five-year extension of his syndication deal with his show's distributors, [World Productions](King)(King World Productions), Inc. The deal was to pay McGraw $15 million per year and keep the show in production through the 2013–2014 television season.
On May 21, 2007, *Dr. Phil* was ranked fourth by [Media Research](Nielsen)(Nielsen Media Research), with 6.69 million viewers. About one year later, on May 12, 2008, the show was ranked sixth with 5.69 million viewers. In May 2008 the only talk show more popular than *Dr. Phil* was *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)*. In 2007 McGraw was 30th on the [Celebrity 100](*Forbes*)(Forbes Celebrity 100) list. On December 11, 2018 *Dr. Phil* was the top syndicated show with a "2.9 live-plus-same-day" national Nielsen rating, ranking first among talk shows for the 117th consecutive week. His ranking improved, and by 2020 he was in the 22nd spot on the same *Forbes* list with earnings of $65.5 million.
### Spin-off shows
In 2005, Jay McGraw and Phil McGraw formed [29 Productions](Stage)(Stage 29 Productions), and a week later, announced a new show called *Moochers* (similar to ABC's *Kicked Out*). Ultimately, the show was not produced.
In 2006, the *Dr. Phil House* (similar to CBS's *[Brother](Big)(Big Brother (TV series))*) began airing as part of the *Dr. Phil* television show. Following a protest by neighbors, the house in Los Angeles was shut down, and production resumed on a sound stage on a studio back lot.
Stage 29 launched *Decision House* in September 2007. It was executive produced by [McGraw](Jay)(Jay McGraw). featured Judge [Toler](Lynn)(Lynn Toler) (from *[Court](Divorce)(Divorce Court)*) on [MyNetworkTV](MyNetworkTV). The show produced 13 episodes during one season and ran until May 24, 2008.
Late in 2007, McGraw began promoting the *Dr. Phil Show* spinoff series *[Doctors](The)(The Doctors (2008 TV series))*. The show, which first aired in 2008, is hosted by television personality and ER physician [Stork](Travis)(Travis Lane Stork). McGraw's eldest son, Jay McGraw, was executive producer of the show. *The Doctors* debuted on September 8, 2008, and, as of November 10, 2008, had a 2.0 rating. The show won a [Emmy Award](Daytime)(Daytime Emmy Award) as Outstanding Talk Show/Informative in 2010 and was nominated 8 times between 2009 and 2013. The show was renewed for its 12th season in 2019.
*Daily Mail TV*, executive produced by Phil and Jay McGraw along with producers Martin Clarke, Carla Pennington, and Jeffrey Wilson, won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding News Program in 2019.
In August 2021, the reality television series *[Calls with Dr. Phil](House)(House Calls with Dr. Phil)* aired on [CBS](CBS). In the series, McGraw visits various families at home and offers advice on their home life.
## Doctor on Demand
In 2012, McGraw founded the [telehealth](telehealth) company Doctor On Demand, an online platform which allowed individuals to schedule virtual appointments with a network of physicians and therapists. The company launched a web and mobile service in 2014. The platform focuses on services related to preventative care, medication management, wellness and mental health. According to [News](ABC)(ABC News), the company had a network of around 11,000 board certified physicians as of 2015. In March 2020, during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), the company expanded its bandwidth and increased its pool of therapists in order to deal with the increasing volume of patients seeking virtual consultations and care.
## Controversies and lawsuits
### 1988–2008
On October 21, 1988, the Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists determined that McGraw had hired a former patient for "part-time temporary employment". Specifically, the board cited "a possible failure to provide proper separation between termination of therapy and the initiation of employment", issued a letter of reprimand and imposed administrative penalties. The board also investigated claims made by the patient of inappropriate contact initiated by McGraw, but the "Findings of Fact" document issued by the board on October 21, 1988, at the end of its investigation includes no reference to any physical contact of any kind. It specifically identified "the therapeutic and business relationships" as constituting McGraw's sole issue with the board. McGraw fulfilled all terms of the board's requirements, and the board closed its complaint file in June 1990. McGraw stopped renewing his Texas license to practice psychology in 2006. McGraw has never had a license in California, where his show is taped. In 2002, the California Board of Psychology determined that because McGraw's television show was more about entertainment than psychology, McGraw did not need a license.
In 2003, McGraw lent his name and image to a line of nutritional supplements, including vitamin packets, meal replacement drinks, and power bars under the brand name Shape Up, under a licensing agreement with CSA Nutraceuticals, a Texas start-up. The deal stipulated that a certain percentage of sales would be given to the Dr. Phil Foundation, a Dallas charity that works on issues like [obesity](childhood)(childhood obesity). CSA Nutraceuticals stopped producing the supplements in 2004, after the [Trade Commission](Federal)(Federal Trade Commission) began investigating it for false advertising. Three disappointed consumers filed a lawsuit in 2004, claiming that it made false or unproven claims. In 2006 a $10.5 million settlement was reached.
In 2003, *The Making of Dr. Phil*, an [biography](unauthorized)(unauthorized biography) by Sophia Dembling and Lisa Gutierrez, was published by [Wiley and Sons](John)(John Wiley and Sons). The book covers McGraw's personal and professional life, including allegations of abuse and unethical practices, with interviews of his childhood friends and former classmates.
In 2006, McGraw was named a co-defendant, along with Paramount, [CBS](CBS) Television, and others in a 2006 lawsuit filed in relation to the [of Natalee Holloway](disappearance)(disappearance of Natalee Holloway). The lawsuit was filed by [Kalpoe](Deepak)(Deepak Kalpoe) and his brother [Kalpoe](Satish)(Satish Kalpoe), who claimed that an interview they did with McGraw, aired in September 2005, was "manipulated and later broadcast as being accurate, and which portrays Deepak Kalpoe and Satish Kalpoe 'as engaging in criminal activity against Natalee Holloway and constitutes defamation.'" On March 17, 2015, the lawsuit against McGraw and CBS was dismissed. The court records disclosed the lawsuit by Deepak and Satish Kalpoe was rejected one week before the civil trial was set to begin.
Another contentious case arose in January 2008, when McGraw visited pop star [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears) in her hospital room. The visit by McGraw drew criticism from the Spears family and from mental health professionals. The visit appeared to be part of an attempt at getting Spears and her parents to take part in an "intervention" on the *Dr. Phil* television show. Immediately after the visit, McGraw issued public statements about Spears' situation that Spears' family spokeswoman Lou Taylor said violated their family trust in McGraw. "This is another example of a trust being betrayed", Taylor told *[Today](Today (NBC program))* co-host [Vieira](Meredith)(Meredith Vieira). "Rather than helping the family's situation, the celebrity psychologist caused additional damage", she said. Several mental health care professionals criticized McGraw for his actions, but fellow television psychologist [Brothers](Joyce)(Joyce Brothers) defended McGraw. It was reported that a psychologist filed a complaint with the California Board of Psychology (BOP), alleging that McGraw had practiced psychology without a license and had violated doctor-patient privilege by discussing Spears' case with the media. A copy of the complaint appeared in the media, but there is no way to verify whether or not it was actually submitted to BOP as it does not disclose that information unless an investigation is opened. Martin Greenberg, a former BOP president, said on the *Today Show* that this incident was not a matter that the law covers or would be concerned about.
Later in 2008, McGraw was sued by [Riccio](Thomas)(Thomas Riccio (auction owner)), the memorabilia collector responsible for taping the Las Vegas robbery that led to [J. Simpson](O.)(O. J. Simpson)'s conviction. Riccio sued McGraw in Los Angeles Superior Court for defamation, and other complaints stemming from an interview he did on the *Dr. Phil Show* which aired on October 8, 2008. The claims were dismissed, with the judge finding that it was protected speech under the First Amendment.
### 2016–present
In 2016, McGraw and his wife filed a $250 million defamation lawsuit against [Media Inc.](American)(American Media Inc.), a publishing company that owns the *[Enquirer](National)(National Enquirer)* and [Online](Radar)(Radar Online), due primarily to them publishing an interview from a former patient who had accused McGraw of sexually assaulting her in the 1980s while under his care. McGraw had denied the sexual abuse allegations since they were first made against him in 2003. The lawsuit was later dropped on mutual terms.
In February 2022, around a dozen current and former employees of *Dr. Phil* alleged that they experienced "verbal abuse in a workplace that fosters fear, intimidation, and racism." Seven current employees also claimed that the show's guests are often manipulated and treated unethically. Attorneys for McGraw and his co-producer, Carla Pennington, categorically denied every allegation made.
McGraw was criticized for an interview featuring former actress [Duvall](Shelley)(Shelley Duvall) which aired in 2016. [Kubrick](Vivian)(Vivian Kubrick) described McGraw's behavior towards Duvall as "exploitative" and "appallingly cruel," and called for a boycott of the show.
A former guest on *Dr. Phil*, Danielle Bregoli, also known as [Bhabie](Bhad)(Bhad Bhabie), criticized the methods of Turn-About Ranch, an [Utah](Escalante,)(Escalante, Utah)-based therapeutic horse ranch for troubled youth that McGraw had endorsed. McGraw, [Viacom](Viacom (2005–2019)) and [CBS](CBS) were later sued by Bregoli and Hannah Archuleta, another former guest, in 2022 for recommending their parents send them to Turn-About Ranch. Afterwards, McGraw ceased the recommendation of Turn-About Ranch on *Dr. Phil*.
## Writing career
In 1999, McGraw published his first book, *Life Strategies*. In the next six years, McGraw published three additional relationship books, *Relationship Rescue*, *Self Matters*, and *Family First*. American psychologist |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Phil-McGraw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806050737/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Phil-McGraw |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |access-date=2020-07-19 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}} Since 2022, McGraw and physician John Whyte have co-written a series of columns for [WebMD](WebMD) and *[Today](USA)(USA Today)*. He has also written [op-eds](op-eds) for *[Sportico](Sportico)* and [Hill*](*The)(The Hill (newspaper)).
### Selected works
*
*
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*
*
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*
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## Approach to psychology
[[in May 2013](File:PhilMcGrawHWOFMay2013.jpg|thumb|McGraw)]
McGraw's advice and methods have drawn criticism from both fellow psychotherapists as well as non-experts. McGraw's critics regard advice given by him to be at best simplistic and at worst ineffective or harmful. The [Alliance on Mental Illness](National)(National Alliance on Mental Illness) called McGraw's conduct in one episode of his television show "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". McGraw said in a 2001 *[Sun-Sentinel](Sun-Sentinel)* interview that he never liked traditional one-on-one counseling, and that "I'm not the Hush-Puppies, pipe and 'Let's talk about your mother' kind of psychologist."Lavin, Cheryl. "Dr. Tell it Like it Is." *South Florida Sun Sentinel*, July 3, 2001, p. 1E.
McGraw frequently advises individuals to seek professional help, particularly [psychotherapy](psychotherapy). A 2016 study at [State University](Ohio)(Ohio State University) found that viewers were more likely to seek professional mental health care for themselves and their children after seeing McGraw deal with similar issues on the *Dr. Phil* show. The study attributed this phenomenon to viewers' tendency to form a [bond](parasocial)(parasocial interaction) with McGraw through watching the show, and have increased belief in their ability to seek help.
## Awards and recognition
McGraw was inducted into the Broadcasting & Cable Hall of Fame in 2015. In 2020 he received a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame). McGraw was invited to give the presidential address at the 2006 annual convention of the [Psychological Association](American)(American Psychological Association), where he received the APA's Presidential Citation for "highlighting mental health issues" to "more Americans than any other living psychologist."
## Personal life
[[with wife Robin in May 2013](File:PhilRobinMcGrawHWOFMay2013.jpg|thumb|right|McGraw)]
McGraw married his first wife, Debbie Higgins McCall, in 1970, when he was 20 years old. According to her, McGraw was domineering and would not allow her to participate in the family business. She claimed that she was confined to domestic duties and instructed to begin lifting weights to improve her bustline. McCall also claimed that infidelity had ended their marriage.
During the process of annulling the marriage in 1973, McGraw met and began dating Robin Jo Jameson, whom he married in 1976. The couple have two children together, [McGraw](Jay)(Jay McGraw) and Jordan McGraw.
McGraw is a private pilot, with an [rating](instrument)(instrument rating), flying single-engine airplanes. He is a [Christian](Christians).[Interview with Dr. Phil McGraw. CNN.](http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0512/06/lkl.01.html) I believe that it's each to his own. I mean, it's Christmas in my house. You know, we're a Christian home and raising a Christian family. For those who haven't been, do what works for you. I think you got to all get along He launched a charity, Dr. Phil Foundation, in October, 2003.
## Filmography
## Discography
### Guest appearances
## References
## External links
*
* [Official biography](https://web.archive.org/web/20100225151500/http://www.drphil.com/shows/page/bio)
*
[births](Category:1950)(Category:1950 births)
[American non-fiction writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[American non-fiction writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers)
[family and parenting writers](Category:American)(Category:American family and parenting writers)
[health and wellness writers](Category:American)(Category:American health and wellness writers)
[American psychologists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American psychologists)
[American psychologists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American psychologists)
[self-help writers](Category:American)(Category:American self-help writers)
[television talk show hosts](Category:American)(Category:American television talk show hosts)
[doctors](Category:Celebrity)(Category:Celebrity doctors)
[food advocates](Category:Diet)(Category:Diet food advocates)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from Oklahoma](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Oklahoma)
[from Wichita Falls, Texas](Category:People)(Category:People from Wichita Falls, Texas)
[from Vinita, Oklahoma](Category:People)(Category:People from Vinita, Oklahoma)
[psychology](Category:Popular)(Category:Popular psychology)
[Golden Hurricane football players](Category:Tulsa)(Category:Tulsa Golden Hurricane football players)
[of North Texas alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of North Texas alumni)
[of Tulsa alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Tulsa alumni)
[from Oklahoma](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Oklahoma)
[State University alumni](Category:Midwestern)(Category:Midwestern State University alumni)
[American male writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male writers)
[Christians](Category:American)(Category:American Christians)
[male non-fiction writers](Category:American)(Category:American male non-fiction writers)
[American male writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male writers)
|
Torrent file
|
torrent_file
|
# Torrent file
*Revision ID: 1154732424 | Timestamp: 2023-05-14T09:31:53Z*
---
}}
| mime = application/x-bittorrent
| standard = BEP-0003 (v1), BEP-0052 (v2)
}}
In the [BitTorrent](BitTorrent) file distribution system, a **torrent file** or **meta-info file** is a [file](computer)(computer file) that contains [metadata](metadata) about files and folders to be distributed, and usually also a list of the network locations of [tracker](BitTorrent tracker)s, which are computers that help participants in the system find each other and form efficient distribution groups called *swarms*. A torrent file does not contain the content to be distributed; it only contains information about those files, such as their names, [structure](folder)(Directory structure), sizes, and [hash values](cryptographic)(cryptographic hash function) for verifying file integrity. Torrent files are normally named with the [extension](filename extension) ".torrent".
A torrent file acts like a [of contents](table)(table of contents) (index) that allows computers to find information through the use of a BitTorrent client. With the help of a torrent file, one can download small parts of the original file from computers that have already downloaded it. These "peers" allow for downloading of the file in addition to, or in place of, the [server](primary)(Server farm).
The BitTorrent system has been created to ease the load on central servers, as instead of having individual clients fetch files from the server, BitTorrent can crowd-source the bandwidth needed for the file transfer and reduce the time needed to download large files. Many free/freeware programs and operating systems, such as the various [distributions](Linux)(Linux distribution) offer a torrent download option for users seeking the aforementioned benefits. Other large downloads, such as media files, are often torrented as well.
## Background
Typically, Internet access is asymmetrical, supporting greater download speeds than upload speeds, limiting the bandwidth of each download, and sometimes enforcing bandwidth caps and periods where systems are not accessible. This creates inefficiency when many people want to obtain the same set of files from a single source; the source must always be online and must have massive outbound bandwidth. The BitTorrent protocol addresses this by decentralizing the distribution, leveraging the ability of people to network "[peer-to-peer](peer-to-peer)", among themselves.
Each file to be distributed is divided into small [chunks](information)(Chunk (information)) called *pieces*. Downloading peers achieve high download speeds by requesting multiple pieces from different computers simultaneously in the swarm. Once obtained, these pieces are usually immediately made available for download by others in the swarm. In this way, the burden on the network is spread among the downloaders, rather than concentrating at a central distribution hub or cluster. As long as all the pieces are available, peers (downloaders and uploaders) can come and go; no one peer needs to have all the chunks or to even stay connected to the swarm in order for distribution to continue among the other peers.
A small torrent file is created to represent a file or folder to be shared. The torrent file acts as the key to initiating downloading of the actual content. Someone interested in receiving the shared file or folder first obtains the corresponding torrent file, either by directly downloading it or by using a [link](magnet)(magnet URI scheme). The user then opens that file in a BitTorrent client, which automates the rest of the process. In order to learn the internet locations of peers who may be sharing pieces, the client connects to the trackers named in the torrent file, and/or achieves a similar result through the use of [hash table](distributed)(distributed hash table)s. Then the client connects directly to the peers in order to request pieces and otherwise participate in a swarm. The client may also report progress to trackers, to help the tracker with its peer recommendations.
When the client has all the pieces, the BitTorrent client assembles them into a usable form. They may also continue sharing the pieces, elevating their status to that of *seeder* rather than an ordinary peer.
## File structure
A torrent file contains a list of files and integrity metadata about all the pieces, and optionally contains a large list of trackers.
A torrent file is a [bencode](bencode)d [dictionary](Associative array) with the following keys (the keys in any bencoded dictionary are [ordered](lexicographically)(Lexicographical order)):
* —the URL of the tracker
* —this maps to a dictionary whose keys are dependent on whether one or more files are being shared:
** —a list of dictionaries each corresponding to a file (only when multiple files are being shared). Each dictionary has the following keys:
*** —size of the file in bytes.
*** —a list of strings corresponding to subdirectory names, the last of which is the actual file name
** —size of the file in bytes (only when one file is being shared though)
** —suggested filename where the file is to be saved (if one file)/suggested directory name where the files are to be saved (if multiple files)
** —number of bytes per piece. This is commonly 28 KiB = 256 KiB = 262,144 B.
** —a [list](hash)(hash list), i.e., a concatenation of each piece's [SHA-1](SHA-1) hash. As SHA-1 returns a 160-bit hash, will be a string whose length is a multiple of 20 bytes. If the torrent contains multiple files, the pieces are formed by concatenating the files in the order they appear in the dictionary (i.e., all pieces in the torrent are the full piece length except for the last piece, which may be shorter).
All strings must be [UTF-8](UTF-8) encoded, except for , which contains binary data.
A torrent is uniquely identified by an *infohash*, a [SHA-1](SHA-1) hash calculated over the contents of the dictionary in [bencode](bencode) form. Changes to other portions of the torrent does not affect the hash. This hash is used to identify the torrent to other peers via DHT and to the tracker. It is also used in [links](magnet)(magnet links).
### BitTorrent v2
The BitTorrent v2 protocol (BEP-0052) introduces a new definition of the torrent file. The basic structure is:
* —the URL of the tracker
* —this maps to a dictionary whose keys are dependent on whether one or more files are being shared:
** —suggested directory name where the files are to be saved
** —number of bytes per piece. This is commonly 28 KiB = 256 KiB = 262,144 B. In v2, it must be a power of 2.
** —number, "2".
** —a tree of dictionaries. Each key represents a directory name or a file name. The file is
*** —size of the file in bytes (only when one file is being shared though)
*** —For non-empty files this is the root hash of a merkle tree with a branching factor of 2, constructed from 16KiB blocks of the file.
*—A dictionary of strings, containing the new type of merkle root hashes for each piece.
The new format uses [SHA-256](SHA-256) in both the piece-hashing and the *infohash*, replacing the broken [SHA-1](SHA-1) hash. The "btmh" magnet link would contain the full 32-byte hash, while communication with trackers and on the DHT uses the 20-byte truncated version to fit into the old message structure. It is possible to construct a torrent file with only updated new fields for a "v2" torrent, or with both the old and new fields for a "hybrid" format. However, as a torrent would have different infohashes in v1 and v2 networks, two swarms would form, requiring special handling by the client to merge the two. In addition, as v2 adds keys to , there can be no
A core feature of the new format is its application of [tree](merkle)(merkle tree)s, allowing for 16KiB blocks of a piece to be individually verified and re-downloaded. Each file now always occupy whole piece sizes and have an independent merkle root hash, so that it's possible to find duplicate files across unrelated torrent files of any piece length. The file size is not reduced (assuming piece size stays the same; v2's tree structure allows larger pieces with fewer ill effects), but the dictionary required for magnet links are (only in v2-only torrents).
## Extensions
A torrent file can also contain additional metadata defined in extensions to the BitTorrent specification. These are known as "BitTorrent Enhancement Proposals." Examples of such proposals include metadata for stating who created the torrent, and when.
### Accepted extensions
These [extensions](Software extension) have been deployed in one or more implementations as well as having been proven useful through consistent and widespread use. While they may require minor revisions, they are largely considered to be complete, only awaiting the blessing of [Cohen](Bram)(Bram Cohen) in order to be elevated to the status of Final/Active Process.
#### Distributed hash tables
BEP-0005 extends BitTorrent to support [hash table](distributed)(distributed hash table)s, specifically [DHT](Mainline)(Mainline DHT).
A trackerless torrent dictionary does not have an key. Instead, a trackerless torrent has a key:
{
# ...
'nodes': [[]("",), []("",), ...],
# ...
}
For example,
'nodes': [[6881]("127.0.0.1",), [4804]("your.router.node",)],
The specification recommends that "should be set to the K closest nodes in the torrent generating client's routing table. Alternatively, the key could be set to a known good node such as one operated by the person generating the torrent."
#### Multiple trackers
BEP-0012 extends BitTorrent to support multiple trackers.
A new key, , is placed in the top-most dictionary (i.e., with and )
{
# ...
'announce-list': [['']['']],
# ...
}
#### HTTP seeds
BEP-0019 is one of two extensions allowing HTTP seeds to be used in BitTorrent.
In BEP-0019, a new key , is placed in the top-most list. The client uses the links to assemble ordinary HTTP URLs – no server-side support is required. This feature is very commonly used by [source](open)(open source) projects offering software downloads. Web seeds allow smart selection and simultaneous use of [site](mirror)(mirror site)s, P2P or HTTP(S), by the client. Doing so reducing the load on the project's servers while maximizing download speed. automatically generates torrents with web seeds.
#### Private torrents
BEP-0027 extends BitTorrent to support private torrents.
A new key, , is placed in the dictionary. This key's value is 1 if the torrent is private:
{
# ...
'info': {
# ...
'private': 1,
# ...
},
# ...
}
Private torrents are to be used with a *private tracker*. Such a tracker restricts access to torrents it tracks by checking the peer's IP, refusing to provide a peer list if the IP is unknown. The peer itself is usually registered to the tracker via a gated online community; the private tracker typically also keep statistics of data transfer for use in the community.
Decentralized methods like DHT, PeX, are disabled to maintain the centralized control. A private torrent can be manually edited to remove the private flag, but doing so will change the info-hash (deterministically), forming a separate "swarm" of peers. On the other hand, changing the tracker list will not change the hash. The flag does not offer true privacy, instead operating as a [agreement](gentlemen's)(gentlemen's agreement).
### Draft extensions
These extensions are under consideration for standardization. Most are already widely adopted as *de facto* standards.
#### HTTP seeds
BEP-0017 extends BitTorrent to support HTTP seeds, later more commonly termed "web seeds" to be inclusive of [HTTPS](HTTPS).
In BEP-0017, a new key, , is placed in the top-most list (i.e., with and ). This key's value is a list of web addresses where torrent data can be retrieved. Special server support is required. It remains at Draft status.
{
# ...
'httpseeds': ['http://www.site2.com/source2.php']('http://www.site1.com/source1.php',),
# ...
}
#### Merkle trees
BEP-0030 extends BitTorrent to support [trees](Merkle)(Merkle trees) (originally implemented in [Tribler](Tribler)). The purpose is to reduce the [size](file)(file size) of torrent files, which reduces the burden on those that serve torrent files.
A torrent file using Merkle trees does not have a key in the list. Instead, such a torrent file has a key in the list. This key's value is the root hash of the Merkle hash:
{
# ...
'info': {
# ...
'root hash': ,
# ...
},
# ...
}
BitTorrent v2 uses a different type of Merkel tree.
## Examples
### Single file
A de-bencoded torrent file (with 256 KiB = 262,144 bytes) for a file (whose size is 678 301 696 bytes) might look like:
{
'announce': 'http://bttracker.debian.org:6969/announce',
'info':
{
'length': 678301696,
'name': 'debian-503-amd64-CD-1.iso',
'piece length': 262144,
'pieces':
}
}
Note: here would be a 51 KiB value ([{\color{Black} \frac \mathtt{length} \mathtt{piece\ length}} \right\rceil} \times 160 = 414080\ \mathrm{bits}]({\color{Blue}\left\lceil)(Floor and ceiling functions)).
### Multiple files
A de-bencoded torrent file (with 256 KiB = 262144 B) for two files, and , might look like:
{
'announce': 'http://tracker.example.com/announce',
'info':
{
'files':
[
{'length': 111, 'path': ['111.txt']},
{'length': 222, 'path': ['222.txt']}
],
'name': 'directoryName',
'piece length': 262144,
'pieces':
}
}
### Hybrid, multiple files
## See also
* [of BitTorrent terms](Glossary)(Glossary of BitTorrent terms)
* [links](Magnet)(Magnet links)
## References
## External links
* [Official BitTorrent Specification](http://www.bittorrent.org/beps/bep_0003.html)
* [BitTorrent Definition](https://techobservatory.com/what-are-torrents-and-how-do-they-work/#tobs-bittorrent)
[Category:BitTorrent](Category:BitTorrent)
[file formats](Category:Computer)(Category:Computer file formats)
|
Richard Linklater
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richard_linklater
|
# Richard Linklater
*Revision ID: 1147782455 | Timestamp: 2023-04-02T04:18:18Z*
---
| birth_place = [Houston](Houston), [Texas](Texas), U.S.
| occupation = [Director](Film director), [producer](Film producer), [writer](screenwriter)
| partner = Christina Harrison
| children = 3, including [Lorelei](Lorelei Linklater)
| years_active = 1985–present
| notable_works = *[Boyhood](Boyhood (2014 film))*, *[and Confused](Dazed)(Dazed and Confused (film))*, *[trilogy](Before)(Before trilogy)*, *[of Rock](School)(School of Rock)*, *[Life](Waking)(Waking Life)*, *[Slacker](Slacker (film))*
| website =
}}
**Richard Stuart Linklater** (; born July 30, 1960)According to the State of Texas. *Texas Birth Index, 1903–1997*. At Ancestry.com is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter. He is known for films that revolve mainly around [culture](suburban)(Suburb) and the effects of the [of time](passage)(Time). His films include the comedies *[Slacker](Slacker (film))* (1990) and *[and Confused](Dazed)(Dazed and Confused (film))* (1993); the [trilogy](*Before*)(Before trilogy) of [romance](Romance film) films, *[Sunrise](Before)(Before Sunrise)* (1995), *[Sunset](Before)(Before Sunset)* (2004), and *[Midnight](Before)(Before Midnight (2013 film))* (2013); the music-themed comedy *[of Rock](School)(School of Rock)* (2003); the [animated](adult)(adult animated) films *[Life](Waking)(Waking Life)* (2001), *[Scanner Darkly](A)(A Scanner Darkly (film))* (2006), and *[10 1⁄2: A Space Age Childhood](Apollo)(Apollo 10 1⁄2: A Space Age Childhood)* (2022); the coming-of-age drama *[Boyhood](Boyhood (2014 film))* (2014); and the comedy film *[Wants Some!!](Everybody)(Everybody Wants Some!! (film))* (2016).
Linklater is known to have a distinct style and method of filmmaking. Many of his films are noted for their loosely structured narrative. The *Before* trilogy and *Boyhood* both feature the same actors filmed over an extended period of years. He has received several [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards) nominations and won the [Bear for Best Director](Silver)(Silver Bear for Best Director) at the [International Film Festival](Berlin)(Berlin International Film Festival) for his work on *Before Sunrise*. He also won a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Director) for directing *Boyhood*. In 2015, Linklater was included on the annual [100 list of the most influential people in the world](*Time*)(Time 100).
## Early life
Linklater was born in [Texas](Houston,)(Houston, Texas), the son of Diane Margaret (née Krieger), who taught at [Houston State University](Sam)(Sam Houston State University), and Charles W. Linklater, III. He attended [High School](Huntsville)(Huntsville High School (Texas)) in [Texas](Huntsville,)(Huntsville, Texas), during grades 9–11, where he played football for [Clements](Joe)(Joe Clements (American football)) as a backup quarterback for the #1 ranked team in the state. For his senior year, he moved to [High School](Bellaire)(Bellaire High School (Bellaire, Texas)) in [Texas](Bellaire,)(Bellaire, Texas) because he was better at baseball than football and Bellaire had a better baseball coach. As a teen, Linklater won a [Art and Writing Award](Scholastic)(Scholastic Art and Writing Awards).Scholastic Inc., Newsroom, [America's Most Creative Teens Named as National 2016 Scholastic Art & Writing Awards Recipients](http://mediaroom.scholastic.com/press-release/america-s-most-creative-teens-named-national-2016-scholastic-art-writing-awards-recipi)
Linklater studied at [Houston State University](Sam)(Sam Houston State University) (where he also played baseball),Sam Houston State University Facebook. ["Throwing back to the 1980 #SHSU Baseball team in which writer, director and producer Richard Linklater was a member of. #TBT"](https://www.facebook.com/samhoustonstate/photos/a.84460031618.90890.25099076618/10153369928906619/?type=3&theater). 6 April 2016. until dropping out to work on an [oil rig](offshore)(offshore oil rig) in the [of Mexico](Gulf)(Gulf of Mexico). He frequently read novels on the rig, and upon returning to land, developed a love of film through repeated visits to a [cinema](repertory)(repertory cinema) in Houston. At this point, Linklater realized he wanted to be a filmmaker. He used his savings to buy a [Super-8](Super 8 mm film) camera, a projector, and editing equipment, and moved to [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas).
## Career
### 1985–2000: Early directing
Linklater founded the [Film Society](Austin)(Austin Film Society) in 1985 with his college professor Chale Nafus, [of Texas](University)(University of Texas at Austin) professor Charles Ramirez-Berg, [SXSW](South by Southwest) founder [Black](Louis)(Louis Black), and his frequent collaborator [Daniel](Lee)(Lee Daniel). One of the mentors for the Film Society was former New York City critic for the *[Weekly News](SoHo)(SoHo Weekly News)* George Morris, who had relocated to Austin and taught film there.
For several years, Linklater made many short films that were exercises and experiments in film techniques. He finally completed his first feature, ''[Impossible to Learn to Plow by Reading Books](It's)(It's Impossible to Learn to Plow by Reading Books)* (which is available in [Criterion Collection](The)(The Criterion Collection) edition of his second feature, *[Slacker](Slacker (film))*), a Super-8 feature that took a year to shoot and another year to edit.
Linklater created Detour Filmproduction (an homage to the [low budget](1945)(Detour (1945 film)) [noir](film)(film noir) by [G. Ulmer](Edgar)(Edgar G. Ulmer)), and subsequently made *Slacker* for only $23,000. It went on to gross more than $1.25 million. The film shows an aimless day in the life of the city of Austin, Texas showcasing its more eccentric characters.
While gaining a cult following in the [film](independent)(independent film) world, he made his third film, *[and Confused](Dazed)(Dazed and Confused (film))*, based on his years at Huntsville High School and the people he encountered there. The film garnered critical praise and grossed $8 million in the United States while becoming a hit on VHS. This film was also responsible for the breakout of fellow Texas native [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey).
In 1995, Linklater won the [Bear for Best Director](Silver)(Silver Bear for Best Director) for the film *[Sunrise](Before)(Before Sunrise)* at the [Berlin International Film Festival](45th)(45th Berlin International Film Festival). His next feature, *[subUrbia](subUrbia (film))*, had mixed reviews critically, and did very poorly at the box office. In 1998, he took on his first Hollywood feature, *[Newton Boys](The)(The Newton Boys)*, which received mixed reviews while tanking at the box office.
### 2001–2013: Wider recognition
With the [rotoscope](rotoscope) films *[Life](Waking)(Waking Life)* and *[Scanner Darkly](A)(A Scanner Darkly (film))*, and his mainstream comedies, *[of Rock](School)(School of Rock)* and the remake of *[News Bears](Bad)(Bad News Bears)*, he gained wider recognition.
In 2003, he wrote and directed a pilot for [HBO](HBO) with [Rothman](Rodney)(Rodney Rothman) called *$5.15/hr*, about several [wage](minimum)(minimum wage) restaurant workers. The pilot deals with themes later examined in *[Food Nation](Fast)(Fast Food Nation (film))*.
The British television network Channel 4 produced a documentary about Linklater, in which the filmmaker discussed the personal and philosophical ideas behind his films. *St Richard of Austin* was presented by Ben Lewis and directed by [Ashraf](Irshad)(Irshad Ashraf) and broadcast on Channel 4 in December 2004 in the UK.
Linklater was nominated for an [Award for Best Adapted Screenplay](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) for his film *[Sunset](Before)(Before Sunset)*.
*Waking Life* and *A Scanner Darkly'' both used [rotoscoping](rotoscoping) animation techniques. Working with [Sabiston](Bob)(Bob Sabiston) and Sabiston's program [Rotoshop](Rotoshop) to create this effect, Linklater shot and edited both movies completely as live-action features, then employed a team of artists to "trace over" individual frames. The result is a distinctive "semi-real" quality, praised by such critics as [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) (in the case of *Waking Life*) as being original and well-suited to the aims of the film.
*Fast Food Nation* (2006) is an adaptation of the best selling book that examines the local and global influence of the United States fast food industry. The film was entered into the [Cannes Film Festival](2006)(2006 Cannes Film Festival) before being released in North America on November 17, 2006 and in Europe on March 23, 2007. The film received mixed reviews.
Linklater fared better with the critics with *A Scanner Darkly* (released in the same year), *[and Orson Welles](Me)(Me and Orson Welles)* (2009), and *[Bernie](Bernie (2011 film))* (2011).
He was nominated for an [Award for Best Adapted Screenplay](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) for *[Midnight](Before)(Before Midnight (2013 film))*, the third film in the *Before...* trilogy.
### 2014–present: *Boyhood* and other works
In 2014 he released the film *[Boyhood](Boyhood (2014 film))*, which had been 12 years in the making. *Boyhood* received overwhelming critical acclaim. Linklater won the [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globes), [Choice Movie Awards](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Awards), and [BAFTA](British Academy Film Awards)s for Best Director and Best Picture. He also received his first nomination for the [Award for Best Director](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Director), along with nominations for [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) and [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture).
For a while Linklater was attached to direct a remake of *[Incredible Mr. Limpet](The)(The Incredible Mr. Limpet)* for [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) However, he dropped the project in favor of working on a spiritual successor to *Dazed and Confused*, titled *[Wants Some!!](Everybody)(Everybody Wants Some!! (film))*, with backing from [Pictures](Annapurna)(Annapurna Pictures) and [Paramount](Paramount Pictures) distributing the film in North America. The film was released in March 2016 and was well received by critics, but it failed to recoup its budget of 10 million dollars, grossing only 4.6 million.
In the second half of the 2010s, Linklater wrote and directed the drama film *[Flag Flying](Last)(Last Flag Flying)*, starring [Cranston](Bryan)(Bryan Cranston), [Fishburne](Laurence)(Laurence Fishburne), and [Carell](Steve)(Steve Carell). A sequel to [Ashby](Hal)(Hal Ashby)'s 1973 film *[Last Detail](The)(The Last Detail)*, it began filming in November 2016, and was released on November 3, 2017. Linklater then directed ''[You Go, Bernadette](Where'd)(Where'd You Go, Bernadette (film))'', based on the novel by [Semple](Maria)(Maria Semple) and produced by [Pictures](Annapurna)(Annapurna Pictures).
Linklater was attached to direct an adaptation of [Simsion](Graeme)(Graeme Simsion)'s novel *[Rosie Project](The)(The Rosie Project)* that would have starred [Lawrence](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lawrence) in the lead role, but he dropped out of directing when Lawrence dropped out of the project.
In 2019, it was announced that Linklater would be filming an adaptation of [Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim)'s musical *[We Roll Along](Merrily)(Merrily We Roll Along (musical))*. Like *Boyhood*, it will be filmed over the course of several years, but, like the musical and [play it is based on](the)(Merrily We Roll Along (play)), will be presented in [chronology](reverse)(reverse chronology).
### Directorial style
Inspiration for Linklater's work was largely based on his experience viewing the film *[Bull](Raging)(Raging Bull)*.
It made me see movies as a potential outlet for what I was thinking about and hoping to express. At that point I was an unformed artist. At that moment, something was simmering in me, but *Raging Bull* brought it to a boil.Linklater, Richard. Interview by Robert K. Elder. The Film That Changed My Life. By Robert K. Elder. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2011. N. p197. Print.
He was also influenced by [Bresson](Robert)(Robert Bresson), [Ozu](Yasujirō)(Yasujirō Ozu), [Werner Fassbinder](Rainer)(Rainer Werner Fassbinder), [Rohmer](Eric)(Eric Rohmer), [Truffaut](François)(François Truffaut), [Von Sternberg](Josef)(Josef Von Sternberg), and [Theodor Dreyer](Carl)(Carl Theodor Dreyer).
Many of Linklater's films, including *Slacker*, *Dazed and Confused*, *Tape*, and all three installments of the *Before Trilogy*, take place in a single day. They are less plot driven and more about human interactions.
[Hawke](Ethan)(Ethan Hawke) and [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey) have appeared in many of his films. Other actors who have appeared in more than one film include [Black](Jack)(Jack Black), [Delpy](Julie)(Julie Delpy), [Coltrane](Ellar)(Ellar Coltrane), [Goldberg](Adam)(Adam Goldberg), [Posey](Parker)(Parker Posey), [Powell](Glen)(Glen Powell), [Cochrane](Rory)(Rory Cochrane), [Kinnear](Greg)(Greg Kinnear), [Arquette](Patricia)(Patricia Arquette), and [Fishburne](Laurence)(Laurence Fishburne).
## Personal life
Linklater lives in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas) and refuses to live or work in Hollywood for any extended period of time.
Linklater has been partnered with Christina Harrison since the 1990s. In 1994 they had a daughter, and twin girls in 2004. The oldest, [Linklater](Lorelei)(Lorelei Linklater), co-starred in *Boyhood* as the sister of the main character.
Linklater has been a [vegetarian](vegetarian) since his early 20s. In 2015, he explained the dietary lifestyle in a *Boyhood*-style documentary for [for the Ethical Treatment of Animals](People)(People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals).Robert Philpot, "[Richard Linklater Does ‘Veghood’ for PETA](http://www.star-telegram.com/living/article10554395.html#)," *Star-Telegram*, 17 February 2015.
## Filmography
### Feature films
#### Acting roles
### Short films
### Television
### Other works
## Reception
### Critical reception
### Box office
## Awards and nominations
**[Slacker](Slacker (film))* (1991) was nominated for Best Director at the Independent Spirit Awards.
**[Sunrise](Before)(Before Sunrise)* (1995) won the Silver Bear for Best Director at the Berlin International Film Festival.
**[Life](Waking)(Waking Life)* (2001) was nominated for Best Director and Best Screenplay at the Independent Spirit Awards.
**[Sunset](Before)(Before Sunset)* (2004) was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and Best Screenplay at the Independent Spirit Awards.
**[Scanner Darkly](A)(A Scanner Darkly (film))* (2006) – Named Best Austin Film by the [Film Critics Association](Austin)(Austin Film Critics Association).
**[and Orson Welles](Me)(Me and Orson Welles)* (2008) – Named Best Austin Film by the [Film Critics Association](Austin)(Austin Film Critics Association).
**[Bernie](Bernie (2011 film))* (2011) – Named Best Austin Film by the [Film Critics Association](Austin)(Austin Film Critics Association).
**[Midnight](Before)(Before Midnight (2013 film))* (2013) was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and Best Screenplay at the Independent Spirit Awards.
**[Boyhood](Boyhood (2014 film))'' (2014) was nominated for [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture), [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director), [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay), [Film Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Film Editing), [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor), and [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and won [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for Patricia Arquette. It also won Golden Globes for Best Director and Best Motion Picture – Drama, as well as the [Bear for Best Director](Silver)(Silver Bear for Best Director) at the [Berlin International Film Festival](64th)(64th Berlin International Film Festival).["Richard Linklater"](https://www.allmovie.com/artist/richard-linklater-p99850/awards). allmovie.com. Retrieved June 28, 2013. Received Best Film and Best Director honors from [Angeles Film Critics Association](Los)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association), [Society of Film Critics](Boston)(Boston Society of Film Critics), [York Film Critics Circle](New)(New York Film Critics Circle), [D.C. Area Film Critics Association](Washington)(Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association) and [York Film Critics Online](New)(New York Film Critics Online).
*Linklater was made Honorary Associate of [Film School](London)(London Film School).
## References
## External links
*
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1960)(Category:1960 births)
[male screenwriters](Category:American)(Category:American male screenwriters)
[directors from Texas](Category:Film)(Category:Film directors from Texas)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Austin, Texas](Category:Artists)(Category:Artists from Austin, Texas)
[High School (Bellaire, Texas) alumni](Category:Bellaire)(Category:Bellaire High School (Bellaire, Texas) alumni)
[Director BAFTA Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Director BAFTA Award winners)
[Director Golden Globe winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Director Golden Globe winners)
[of Austin, Texas](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture of Austin, Texas)
[producers from Texas](Category:Film)(Category:Film producers from Texas)
[who won the Best Film BAFTA Award](Category:Filmmakers)(Category:Filmmakers who won the Best Film BAFTA Award)
[Globe Award-winning producers](Category:Golden)(Category:Golden Globe Award-winning producers)
[Spirit Award for Best Director winners](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Director winners)
[from Huntsville, Texas](Category:People)(Category:People from Huntsville, Texas)
[Houston State University alumni](Category:Sam)(Category:Sam Houston State University alumni)
[Houston Bearkats baseball players](Category:Sam)(Category:Sam Houston Bearkats baseball players)
[from Texas](Category:Screenwriters)(Category:Screenwriters from Texas)
[Bear for Best Director recipients](Category:Silver)(Category:Silver Bear for Best Director recipients)
[from Austin, Texas](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Austin, Texas)
[from Houston](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Houston)
[filmmakers](Category:Postmodernist)(Category:Postmodernist filmmakers)
|
Damian Lewis
|
damian_lewis
|
# Damian Lewis
*Revision ID: 1160205207 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T01:39:41Z*
---
| image = Damian Lewis Berlin 2015.jpg
| caption = Lewis in 2015
| birth_name = Damian Watcyn Lewis
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [John's Wood](St)(St John's Wood), [London](London), England
| occupation =
| years_active = 1993–present
| alma_mater = [School of Music and Drama](Guildhall)(Guildhall School of Music and Drama)
| spouse =
| children = 2
}}
**Damian Watcyn Lewis** (born 11 February 1971) is a British actor, presenter and producer. He is best known for portraying U.S. Army Major [Winters](Richard)(Richard Winters) in the [HBO](HBO) miniseries *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (miniseries))*. He won a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) and a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for his portrayal of U.S. Marine Gunnery Sergeant [Brody](Nicholas)(Nicholas Brody) in the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) series *[Homeland](Homeland (TV series))*, and nominations for both for his performance as [VIII of England](Henry)(Henry VIII of England) in *[Hall](Wolf)(Wolf Hall (TV series))*. He portrayed Bobby Axelrod in the Showtime series *[Billions](Billions (TV series))* in the first five seasons, and appeared in *[Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood)* (2019) as actor [McQueen](Steve)(Steve McQueen).
## Early life and education
Lewis was born on 11 February 1971 in [John's Wood](St)(St John's Wood), [London](London), the eldest son of Charlotte Mary (*[née](née)* Bowater) and John Watcyn Lewis, a [City](City of London) insurance broker with [Lloyd's](Lloyd's of London).Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage, 1990, ed. Charles Kidd, pg 759[Interview with *The Sunday Express*](https://www.damian-lewis.com/2003/05/25/20377.php), 25 May 2003; accessed 22 December 2008. His paternal grandparents were Welsh,Mottram, James. [Damian Lewis interview with *Marie Claire*](http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/celebrity/interviews/184270/damian-lewis-interview.html), 25 February 2008. accessed 14 January 2009. and he says he considers himself "London Welsh". His maternal grandfather was [Lieutenant-Colonel](Lieutenant Colonel (United Kingdom)) [Ian Bowater](Sir)(Ian Bowater), [Mayor of London](Lord)(Lord Mayor of London), and his maternal grandmother's ancestors include [Viscount Dawson of Penn](Bertrand,)(Bertrand Dawson, 1st Viscount Dawson of Penn) (a doctor to the [Family](Royal)(British Royal Family)) and the eminent naval shipbuilder and philanthropist [Alfred Yarrow](Sir)(Sir Alfred Yarrow), 1st [Baronet](Baronet) (see [Shipbuilders](Yarrow)(Yarrow Shipbuilders)), who was of partial
[Jewish](Sephardic)(Sephardic Jewish) descent. Lewis has said that he "went to English boarding schools and grew up around people very much like [character](his) Soames and in a *[milieu](milieu)* very much like [Forsytes](the)(The Forsyte Saga (2002 miniseries)).
As a child, Lewis made several visits to the US to visit relatives during summer breaks.Iannotti, Lauren. "Esquire Style". *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))*, April 2003, **139** (4):120.["Fighting Talk"](http://www.damian-lewis.com/press/interviews/991100-new-woman-fighting-talk/). *New Woman*, November 1999. republished at Damian-Lewis.com. accessed 22 December 2008. He first decided to become an actor at the age of 16.
He was educated at the independent [House School](Ashdown)(Ashdown House, East Sussex) in [Row](Forest)(Forest Row), [Sussex](East)(East Sussex), and at [College](Eton)(Eton College). He graduated from the [School of Music and Drama](Guildhall)(Guildhall School of Music and Drama) in 1993, after which he worked as an actor with the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company).
During his time with the RSC, he played Borgheim in [Noble](Adrian)(Adrian Noble)'s production of [Ibsen](Henrik)(Henrik Ibsen)'s *[Eyolf](Little)(Little Eyolf)* and Posthumus in [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare)'s *[Cymbeline](Cymbeline)*. He also starred in another of Ibsen's plays, as Karsten Bernick in *[of the Community](Pillars)(The Pillars of Society)* at the National Theatre in November 2005.
## Career
Lewis once worked as a [telemarketer](telemarketer) selling car alarms, a job he detested.Prato, Alison. ["Out on the Town with This Season's Breakout Stars"](http://www.damian-lewis.com/press/interviews/20081000-maxim-out-on-the-town-with-this-seasons-breakout-stars), *Maxim* (October 2008); accessed 15 December 2008. His first television appearance was as a medical student in "Hickory Dickory Dock", an episode of *Poirot*, broadcast in 1995. He also appeared as a rakish student in an early episode of the drama series *[Touch of Frost](A)(A Touch of Frost)* (1996). He appeared in *[Crusoe](Robinson)(Robinson Crusoe (1997 film))* (1997) as Patrick Conner. He appeared in [Kent](Jonathan)(Jonathan Kent (director))'s production of *[Hamlet](Hamlet)*, playing [Laertes](Laertes (Hamlet)). This production was seen by [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg), who later cast Lewis as [Winters](Richard)(Richard Winters) in *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (miniseries))* (2001), the first role of several that required him to have a credible American accent.
He was in the 2000 series called *Hearts and Bones* as the love interest of Dervla Kirwan. Subsequently, Lewis portrayed Soames Forsyte in the [ITV](ITV (TV network)) series *[Forsyte Saga](The)(The Forsyte Saga (2002 TV series))*, which earned him positive reviews.Kelleher, Terry (14 October 2002), "The Forsyte Saga". *People*. **58** (16):36 He returned to the US to star in *[Dreamcatcher](Dreamcatcher (2003 film))*, a [Kasdan](Lawrence)(Lawrence Kasdan) film about a man who becomes possessed by an evil alien. The character is American but when possessed he takes on a British accent. On the heels of this role, he starred in *[Keane](Keane (film))* as a Manhattanite with a fragile mental state who is searching for his missing daughter. Despite the film's poor box-office, Lewis's performance in the role was very well reviewed.Rozen, Leah (19 September 2005), "Keane". *People*. **64** (12):40Kauffmann, Stanley (19 September 2005), "Heights and Depths". *New Republic*. **233** (12):28–29[Peter](Travers,)(Travers, Peter) (6 October 2005) "Keane". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. (984):164
He played [Archer](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Archer) in the TV special *Jeffrey Archer: The Truth*. Since 2004, he has appeared in a number of films, as well as the 2005 [TV](BBC)(BBC TV) adaptation of the Shakespeare comedy *[Ado About Nothing](Much)(Much Ado About Nothing)*, as part of the *[ShakespeaRe-Told](ShakespeaRe-Told)* season. Lewis played the role of [Gregorovich](Yassen)(Yassen Gregorovich) in the film *[Stormbreaker](Stormbreaker (film))*. In 2006, he appeared in [Poliakoff](Stephen)(Stephen Poliakoff)'s [BBC](BBC) drama *[and Crocodiles](Friends)(Friends and Crocodiles)*. He has appeared on BBC's *[I Got News for You](Have)(Have I Got News for You)* as guest host several times; on 10 November 2006, 1 May 2009, 18 November 2010, 27 April 9 November 2012 and 31 October 2014.
In 2008, Lewis starred as the main character Charlie Crews in the American television series *[Life](Life (NBC TV series))* on [NBC](NBC). The show premiered in the US on 26 September 2007 and was affected by the [Writers Guild of America strike](2007–08)(2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike). Only half of the first season's shows were produced. Regardless, the show won a [AFI Award](2008)(American Film Institute Awards 2008) for best television series. Although the show received critical acclaim, when it returned the following television season, it was shuffled from night to night, and eventually cancelled by NBC to clear its time slot for *[Jay Leno Show](The)(The Jay Leno Show)*.
Lewis appeared the following year in the lead role in *[Baker](The)(The Baker (film))*, a film directed by his brother, Gareth. Damian took a supporting role of Rizza in *[Escapist](The)(The Escapist (2008 film))*, which he also helped produce. He led the cast in [Crimp](Martin)(Martin Crimp)'s version of [Molière](Molière)'s comedy, *[Misanthrope](The)(Le Misanthrope)*, which opened in December 2009 at the [Theatre, London](Comedy)(Comedy Theatre, London). Other cast members included [Fitzgerald](Tara)(Tara Fitzgerald), [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley) and [Rowan](Dominic)(Dominic Rowan).
Lewis played [Tory](Tory) Prime Minister Simon Laity in two seasons of *[10](Number)(Number 10 (drama series))* on [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4).
He played Gareth, the father of an 11-year-old [F.C.](Liverpool)(Liverpool F.C.) fan, in the 2011 film *[Will](Will (2011 film))*.
From 2011 to 2013, Lewis had a starring role as [Sergeant Nicholas Brody](Gunnery)(Nicholas Brody) in the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) series *[Homeland](Homeland (TV series))*. In 2013, he narrated poetry for *The Love Book App*, an "interactive anthology of love literature developed by [Byrne Esiri](Allie)(Allie Byrne Esiri)".
In 2016 he began starring as billionaire [fund](hedge)(hedge fund) manager Bobby Axelrod in the Showtime series *[Billions](Billions (TV series))*. He left the show in 2021 after five seasons, but is scheduled to return for half of season 7.
On 14 April 2023, Lewis released his debut single "Down On the Bowery".
## Other activities
In 2009 Lewis featured in *Inspired By Music*, a book commissioned by [Prince's Trust](The)(The Prince's Trust), written and photographed by celebrity photographer [Jones](Cambridge)(Cambridge Jones), and sponsored by [Starbucks](Starbucks). It features personal reflections by 36 celebrities as well as four ordinary people helped by The Prince's Trust, about musical lyrics that inspired them. Lewis' photo portrait also featured in Jones' exhibition *Talking Pictures*, featuring famous people of Welsh descent, that toured the world from 2010.
In 2010, Lewis became a trade justice ambassador for the charity [Aid](Christian)(Christian Aid). In May 2006 and June 2018, he played for England in [Aid](Soccer)(Soccer Aid), and played golf for Europe in the *[Cup](All*Star)(All*Star Cup)* in August 2006, both shown on [ITV](ITV (TV network)).
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom), Lewis and his wife [McCrory](Helen)(Helen McCrory) supported [NHS](Feed)(Feed NHS), a fundraiser to give food from high street restaurants to [NHS](National Health Service) staff. By April 2020, they had raised £1m for the charity. The initiative started in London, but following its success, plans were announced to roll it out to other cities in the UK.
## Recognition
### Honours
Lewis was appointed [of the Order of the British Empire](Officer)(Officer of the Order of the British Empire) (OBE) in the [Birthday Honours](2014)(2014 Birthday Honours) for services to drama and [of the Order of the British Empire](Commander)(Commander of the Order of the British Empire) (CBE) in the [Birthday Honours](2022)(2022 Birthday Honours) for services to drama and charity.
### Awards and nominations
Lewis' portrayal of U.S. Army Major [Winters](Richard)(Richard Winters) in the [HBO](HBO) miniseries *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (miniseries))* earned him a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nomination.
Lewis' performance as U.S. Marine Gunnery Sergeant [Brody](Nicholas)(Nicholas Brody) in the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) series *[Homeland](Homeland (TV series))* earned him a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) and a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) in 2012.
His performance as [VIII of England](Henry)(Henry VIII of England) in *[Hall](Wolf)(Wolf Hall (TV series))* earned him his third Primetime Emmy nomination and fourth Golden Globe nomination.
## Personal life
[[File:Damian Lewis and Helen McCrory (8464894420).jpg|thumb|right|[McCrory](Helen)(Helen McCrory) and Lewis at the [British Academy Film Awards](2013)(66th British Academy Film Awards)]]
Lewis suffered a period of [depression](Depression (mood)) following a motorcycle accident in [London](North)(North London) in 1998.
Having previously dated [Razzall](Katie)(Katie Razzall), [Davis](Kristin)(Kristin Davis) and [Myles](Sophia)(Sophia Myles), Lewis married actress [McCrory](Helen)(Helen McCrory) on 4 July 2007. They have a daughter, Manon (born 2006) and a son, Gulliver (born 2007). McCrory died of cancer on 16 April 2021, aged 52.
Lewis and his family left the UK in 2007 to live in Los Angeles while he worked on the [NBC-TV](NBC-TV) crime drama *[Life](Life (NBC TV series))*. After completion of that series' final episode in 2009, they returned to the UK to live in a [Victorian](Victorian architecture) townhouse in [Park](Tufnell)(Tufnell Park), north London.Collins, Lauren (2016). "Blue Blood, Blue Collar: Damian Lewis's transformations," [*The New Yorker*](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/01/18/blue-blood-blue-collar), 18 January 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2017. they also had a house near [Sudbury](Sudbury, Suffolk) in [Suffolk](Suffolk).
Lewis is a supporter of [F.C.](Liverpool)(Liverpool F.C.)
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Stage
## Discography
### Singles
## References
## External links
*
* [Interview with Charlie Rose](https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223936/http://charlierose.com/watch/60321792)—A compilation of Rose's interviews with Claire Danes and Damian Lewis, the stars of the hit drama *Homeland*. 2 January 2014.
}}
[births](Category:1971)(Category:1971 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[English male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century English male actors)
[English male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English male actors)
[of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama)
[Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners)
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[male radio actors](Category:English)(Category:English male radio actors)
[male Shakespearean actors](Category:English)(Category:English male Shakespearean actors)
[male stage actors](Category:English)(Category:English male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:English)(Category:English male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:English)(Category:English male voice actors)
[people of German-Jewish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of German-Jewish descent)
[people of Spanish-Jewish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Spanish-Jewish descent)
[people of Welsh descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Welsh descent)
[actors from London](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from London)
[of the Order of the British Empire](Category:Commanders)(Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire)
[Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners)
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[educated at Eton College](Category:People)(Category:People educated at Eton College)
[from St John's Wood](Category:People)(Category:People from St John's Wood)
[Shakespeare Company members](Category:Royal)(Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members)
|
World population
|
world_population
|
# World population
*Revision ID: 1155880025 | Timestamp: 2023-05-20T04:39:05Z*
---
[[population growth from 10,000 BCE to 2021|thumb|World population growth from 10,000 BCE to 2021](File:World-population-1750-2015-and-un-projection-until-2100.png|alt=World)]
[[Population Prospects.svg|thumb|High, medium, and low projections of the future human world population](File:World)]
In [demographics](demography), the **world population** is the total number of [human](human)s currently living. It was estimated by the [Nations](United)(United Nations) to have exceeded eight billion in mid-November 2022. It took over 200,000 years of human [prehistory](prehistory) and [history](human history) for the human population to reach one [billion](billion) and only 219 years more to reach 8 billion.
The human population has experienced [growth](continuous)(Population growth) following the [Famine of 1315–1317](Great)(Great Famine of 1315–1317) and the end of the [Death](Black)(Black Death) in 1350, when it was nearly 370,000,000.Jean-Noël Biraben (1980), "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution". *Population*, Selected Papers. Vol. 4. pp. 1–13. Original paper in French:(b) Jean-Noël Biraben (1979)."Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes". *Population*. Vol. 34 (no. 1). pp. 13–25. The highest global [growth rates](population)(List of countries by population growth rate), with increases of over 1.8% per year, occurred between 1955 and 1975, peaking at 2.1% between 1965 and 1970. The growth rate declined to 1.1% between 2015 and 2020 and is projected to decline further in the 21st century. The global population is still increasing, but there is significant uncertainty about its long-term trajectory due to changing fertility and mortality rates. The [Department of Economics and Social Affairs](UN)(UN Department of Economics and Social Affairs) projects between 9 and 10 billion people by 2050 and gives an 80% [interval](confidence)(confidence interval) of 10–12 billion by the end of the 21st century, with a growth rate by then of zero. Other demographers predict that the human population will begin to decline in the second half of the 21st century.
The total number of births globally is currently (2015–2020) 140 million/year, which is projected to peak during the period 2040–2045 at 141 million/year and then decline slowly to 126 million/year by 2100. The total number of deaths is currently 57 million/year and is projected to grow steadily to 121 million/year by 2100.
The [age](median)(median age) of human beings is 31 years.
## History
[[of contemporary and past human populations Our World in Data.png|thumb|Visual comparison of the world population in past and present](File:Illustration)]
Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of [modernity](modernity), possible only since the [of Discovery](Age)(Age of Discovery). Early estimates for the population of the worldthe [compound](English compound) "world population" becomes common from c. the 1930s, adapted from early 20th-century "world's population"; pre-20th century authors use "population of the world". date to the 17th century: [Petty](William)(William Petty), in 1682, estimated the world population at 320 million (current estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with current estimates)."The population of the world, which Sir W. P. in 1682, stated at only 320 millions, has been estimated by some writers at about 730 million, by others, at upwards of 900 million; Mr. Wallace, of Edinburgh, conjectured it might amount to 1 billion, and this number has since generally been adopted who have noticed the subject;" *The Monthly Magazine* 4 (July–December 1797), [p. 167](https://books.google.com/books?id=0S0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA167). More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 million to 1 billion in the early 1800s and 800 million to 1 billion in the 1840s.600 million: Simon Gray, *The Happiness of States* (1818), [p. 356](https://books.google.com/books?id=ue5eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA356) .
800 million: Gordon Hall, Samuel Newell, *The Conversion of the World* (1818), [p. 10](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA10) .
800 to 1000 million: John Redman Coxe, *Considerations Respecting the Recognition of Friends in Another World* (1845), [p. 21](https://archive.org/details/60340180R.nlm.nih.gov/page/n28) (footnote with references).
It is difficult for estimates to be better than rough approximations, as even current population estimates are fraught with uncertainties from 3% to 5%.
### Ancient and post-classical history
Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million.Ralph Thomlinson, 1975, Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control, 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, . Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BC, according to the now largely discredited [catastrophe theory](Toba)(Toba catastrophe theory). By contrast, it is estimated that around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire) in the 4th century AD.
The [of Justinian](Plague)(Plague of Justinian) caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between the 6th and 8th centuries AD. The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340. From 1340 to 1400, the world's population fell from an estimated 443 million to 350–375 million, with the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent) suffering the most tremendous loss and Europe suffering the [Death](Black)(Black Death) [pandemic](pandemic); it took 200 years for European population figures to recover. The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393, presumably from a combination of [Mongol](Mongol Empire) invasions, famine, and plague.
Starting in AD 2, the [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty) of [China](ancient)(ancient China) kept consistent family registers to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household.Nishijima, Sadao (1986), "The economic and social history of Former Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael, ''Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 595–96. In that year, the population of [Han](Western)(Western Han) was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by AD 146, towards the [of the Han dynasty](end)(end of the Han dynasty). From 200 to 400, the world population fell from an estimated 257 million to 206 million, with China suffering the greatest loss. At the founding of the [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty) in 1368, China's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million. England's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500. New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth. Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, [maize](maize) and [cassava](cassava) have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important [food](staple)(staple food) crops grown on the continent.
The [pre-Columbian](Pre-Columbian era) population of the Americas is uncertain; historian David Henige called it "the most unanswerable question in the world." By the end of the 20th century, scholarly consensus favored an estimate of roughly 55 million people, but numbers from various sources have ranged from 10 million to 100 million. Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local [epidemics](List of epidemics) of extraordinary virulence. According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90% of the [American population](Native)(Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas) of the [World](New)(New World) died of [World](Old)(Old World) diseases such as [smallpox](smallpox), [measles](measles), and [influenza](influenza). Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.
### Modern history
[[showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006. Only 3% of the world's population lived in urban areas in 1800; this proportion had risen to 47% by 2000, and reached 50.5% by 2010. By 2050, the proportion may reach 70%.](File:2006megacities.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Map)]
During the European [Agricultural](British Agricultural Revolution) and [Revolution](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution)s, the [expectancy](life)(life expectancy) of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who [before the age of five](died)(infant mortality) decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829. Between 1700 and 1900, Europe's population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million. Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36% of the world's population in 1900.
Population growth in the [world](Western)(Western world) became more rapid after the introduction of [vaccination](vaccination) and other improvements in medicine and [sanitation](sanitation). Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century. The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006. The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010.
The first half of the 20th century in [Russia](Imperial)(Russian Empire) and the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) was marked by a succession of major wars, [famine](famine)s and other disasters which caused large-scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's population declined significantly – from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012 – but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.
Many countries in the [world](developing)(developing world) have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953, and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent), which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941; today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about + + ) / 1e9 round 2}}}} billion people. [Java](Java), an island in [Indonesia](Indonesia), had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; it had a population of over 139 million in 2020. In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1% of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3% of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010. Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million.
### Milestones by the billions
The UN estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960. Thereafter, it took 14 years for the global population to reach four billion in 1974, 13 years to reach five billion in 1987, 12 years to reach six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, 13 years to reach seven billion in March 2012. The number on this page is automatically updated daily. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011.
According to the UN, the global population reached eight billion in November 2022, but because the growth rate is slowing, it will take another 15 years to reach around 9 billion by 2037 and 20 years to reach 10 billion by 2057. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion.*
*
*
*
* Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the [fertility](fertility) and [mortality](Mortality rate) variables. Long-range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario", to "high scenarios" of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52.
There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion" on 11 July 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on 12 October 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "[of Seven Billion](Day)(Day of Seven Billion)" to be 31 October 2011. The United Nations marked the birth of the [billionth person](eight)(Vinice Mabansag) on 15 November 2022.["World population to reach 8 billion this year, as growth rate slows"](https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1122272) , UN News, 11 July 2022.
## Global demographics
[[of life.svg|thumb|400px|
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}} 2015 map showing average life expectancy by country in years. In 2015, the World Health Organization estimated the average global life expectancy as 71.4 years.](File:Expectancy)]
As of 2012, the global [ratio](sex)(Human sex ratio) is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. Approximately 26.3% of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9% is aged 15–64 and 7.9% is aged 65 or over. The median age of the world's population is estimated to be 31 years in 2020, and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050.
According to the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization), the global average [expectancy](life)(List of countries by life expectancy) is 73.3 years as of 2020, with women living an average of 75.9 years and men approximately 70.8 years. In 2010, the global [rate](fertility)(fertility rate) was estimated at 2.44 children per woman. In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth's human population as approximately , with the average person weighing around .
The [IMF](International Monetary Fund) estimated nominal 2021 [world product](gross)(gross world product) at US$94.94 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US$12,290. Around 9.3% of the world population live in [poverty](extreme)(extreme poverty), subsisting on less than US$1.9 per day; Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY|access-date=1 November 2021|publisher=World Bank}} around 8.9% are [malnourished](Malnutrition).[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, *The State of Food Insecurity in the World*](http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3027e/i3027e02.pdf) . WorldHunger.org. 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2012. 87% of the world's over-15s are considered [literate](literacy rate). As of April 2022, there were about 5 billion global Internet users, constituting 63% of the world population.
The [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese) are the world's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19% of the global population in 2011.["World’s Most Typical Person: Han Chinese Man"](https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2011/03/04/worlds-most-typical-person-han-chinese-man/) . *Wall Street Journal*. 4 March 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011. The world's most-spoken languages are [English](English language) (1.132B), [Chinese](Mandarin)(Mandarin Chinese) (1.117B), [Hindi](Hindi) (615M), [Spanish](Spanish language) (534M) and [French](French language) (280M). More than three billion people speak an Indo-European language, which is the largest language family by number of speakers. Standard Arabic is a language with no native speakers, but the total number of speakers is estimated at 274 million people.
The largest religious categories in the world as of 2020 are estimated as follows: [Christianity](Christianity) (31%), [Islam](Islam) (25%), [Unaffiliated](Irreligion) (16%) and [Hinduism](Hinduism) (15%).
## Population by region
Six of the Earth's seven [continent](continent)s are permanently inhabited on a large scale.
Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.64 billion inhabitants accounting for 60% of the world population. The world's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 36% of the world's population.
Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1.34 billion people, or 17% of the world's population.
Europe's 747 million people make up 10% of the world's population as of 2020,
while the [American](Latin)(Latin American) and [Caribbean](Caribbean) regions are home to around 653 million (8%). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 368 million (5%),
and [Oceania](Oceania), the least populated region, has about 42 million inhabitants (0.5%). [Antarctica](Antarctica) only has a very small, fluctuating population of about 1200 people based mainly in polar [stations](science)(Research stations in Antarctica).
[[File:Population pyramid of the world in continental groupings 2023.svg|thumb|300x300px|[pyramid](Population)(Population pyramid) of the world in continental groupings in 2023]]
## Largest populations by country
[[File:Global population cartogram.png|thumb|300px|[Cartogram](Cartogram) showing the distribution of the world population, each square represents half a million people.]]
[[Population.svg|thumb|right|300px|A map of world population in 2019](File:World)]
[[5 Country Population Graph 1901 to 2021.svg|thumb|right|300px|1901 to 2021 population graph of the five countries with the highest current populations](File:Top)]
### Ten most populous countries
Approximately 4.5 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 56% of the world's population as of July 2022.
The UN estimates that by 2023 India will have overtaken China in having the largest population.
### Most densely populated countries
The tables below list the world's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations, as of November 2022. All areas and populations are from *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*, unless otherwise noted.
[[Density, v4.11, 2020 (48009093621).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Population density (people per km2) map of the world in 2020. Red areas denote regions of highest population density](File:Population)]
## Fluctuation
[[File:World population (UN).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Estimates of population evolution in different [continent](continent)s between 1950 and 2050, according to the United Nations. The vertical axis is [logarithmic](Logarithmic scale) and is in millions of people.]]
Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth has been the long-standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000 as the whole world entered the early phases of what has come to be called the "[transition](demographic)(demographic transition)". Some of the key factors contributing to this increase included the lessening of the [rate](mortality)(mortality rate) in many countries by improved sanitation and [advances](medical)(History of medicine#Modern medicine), and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the [Revolution](Green)(Green Revolution). By 2000, there were approximately [times as many people](ten)(#Past population) on Earth as there had been in 1700.
However, this rapid growth did not last. During the period 2000–2005, the United Nations estimates that the world's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.3% (equivalent to around 80 million people), down from a peak of 2.1% during the period 1965–1970. Globally, although the population [rate](growth)(population growth) has been steadily declining from its peak in 1968, growth [remains high](still)(Projections of population growth#Growth regions) in [Africa](Sub-Saharan)(Sub-Saharan Africa).
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the [Reference Bureau](Population)(Population Reference Bureau)
]]
[[File:World population counter, Eureka, Halifax, West Yorkshire (27th August 2022) 001.jpg|thumb|right|A world population clock in August 2022 at [Eureka!](Eureka! (museum)) in [Halifax](Halifax, West Yorkshire), [Yorkshire](West)(West Yorkshire).]]
In fact, during the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to [in population](reduce)(population decline), due to [fertility](sub-replacement)(sub-replacement fertility) rates.
In 2019, the United Nations reported that the rate of population growth continues to decline due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2100, concurrent with a world population plateau of 10.9 billion. However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion. An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers' "most likely scenario" reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline. Adrian Raftery, a [of Washington](University)(University of Washington) professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world's agenda, remains a very important issue."[World population to keep growing this century, hit 11 billion by 2100](http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/09/18/world-population-to-keep-growing-this-century-hit-11-billion-by-2100/) . UWToday. 18 September 2014
File:Population curve.svg|Estimated world population figures, [10,000 BC](10th millennium BC)–AD 2000
File:World population growth (lin-log scale).png|Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC–AD 2000 (in [y scale](log)(logarithmic scale))
File:World population history.svg|World population figures, 1950–2017
### Annual population growth
### Population growth by region
The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions. The availability of historical population figures varies by region.
### Past population
The following table gives estimates, in millions, of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion", [Table 2](https://web.archive.org/web/20160101220025/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf) whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet.. Linked to at [Download Files](https://web.archive.org/web/20151225073428/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/), where it states that the figures are for 1 July of the given year.
Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was:
* World: +420 million
* Africa: +142 million
* Asia: +223 million
* Europe: +3 million
* Latin America and Caribbean: +35 million
* Northern America: +14 million
* Oceania: +2.9 million
### Projections
Long-term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates – according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011, while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012. Since 1951 the UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on 14 March 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million.
Complicating the UN's and others’ attempts to project future populations is the fact that average global [rate](birth)(birth rate)s, as well as [rate](mortality)(mortality rate)s, are declining rapidly, as the nations of the world progress through the stages of the demographic transition, but both vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates and mortality rates are often low) and developing countries (where birth and mortality rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Both of these can change rapidly due to [epidemics](disease)(Infectious disease#Mortality from infectious diseases), [wars](List of wars) and other mass catastrophes, or [in medicine](advances)(Life extension) and [health](public)(public health).
The UN's first report in 1951 showed that during the period 1950–55 the [birth rate](crude)(Birth rate) was 36.9/1,000 population and the [death rate](crude)(Mortality rate) was 19.1/1,000. By the period 2015–20 both numbers had dropped significantly to 18.5/1,000 for the crude birth rate and 7.5/1,000 for the crude death rate. UN projections for 2100 show a further decline in the crude birth rate to 11.6/1,000 and an increase in the crude death rate to 11.2/1,000.,
The total number of births globally is currently (2015–20) 140 million/year, is projected to peak during the period 2040–45 at 141 million/year and thereafter decline slowly to 126 million/year by 2100. The total number of deaths is currently 57 million/year and is projected to grow steadily to 121 million/year by 2100.
2012 United Nations projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady decline in population growth rate; the global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050. 2003 [Population Division](UN)(United Nations Population Division) population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion. One of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate, while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter. The 2019 Revision of the UN estimates gives the "medium variant" population as; nearly 8.6 billion in 2030, about 9.7 billion in 2050 and about 10.9 billion in 2100. In December 2019, the [Foundation for World Population](German)(German Foundation for World Population) projected that the global population will reach 8 billion by 2023 as it increases by 156 every minute. In a modeled future projection by the [for Health Metrics and Evaluation](Institute)(Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation) the global population was projected to peak in 2064 at 9.73 billion people and decline to 8.79 billion in 2100. Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the [pressures on the environment](growing)(Human impact on the environment), global food supplies, and energy resources.
## Mathematical approximations
In 1975, [von Hoerner](Sebastian)(Sebastian von Hoerner) proposed a formula for population growth which represented [growth](hyperbolic)(hyperbolic growth) with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second-order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the [capacity](carrying)(carrying capacity) of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on.[*Introduction to Social Macrodynamics*](http://urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?cp=&page=Book&id=37484&lang=en&blang=en&list=14). . [Korotayev](Andrey)(Andrey Korotayev) et al. For a rigorous mathematical analysis of this issue, see ["A Compact Mathematical Model of the World System Economic and Demographic Growth, 1 CE – 1973 CE"](https://arxiv.org/abs/1206.0496). . The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition.
According to the Russian demographer [Kapitsa](Sergey)(Sergey Kapitsa), the world population grew between 67,000 BC and 1965 according to the following formula:
: N = \frac{C}{\tau} \arccot \frac{T_0 - T}{\tau},
where
: *N* is current population,
: *T* is the current year,
: *C* = (1.86 ± 0.01)·1011,
: *T*0 = 2007 ± 1,
: \tau = 42 ± 1.
### Years for world population to double
According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of [population estimates](UNDESA)(Estimates of historical world population), the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the [millennium](2nd)(2nd millennium), each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century.
[[chart showing the periods of time the world population has taken to double, from 1700 to 2000](File:Population-doubling.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Historic)]
## Number of humans who have ever lived
The total number of humans who have ever lived is estimated to be approximately [100 billion](1E11). Such estimates can only be rough approximations, as even modern population estimates are subject to uncertainty of around 3% to 5%."[E]ven recent demographic data is accurate only from 3 to 5%, although in demography traditionally more digits are indicated than those having a meaning. This is partially due to the ethical difficulty in rounding off numbers that supposedly represent real people, officially counted during a census". Sergei P. Kapitza, "The phenomenological theory of world population growth", *Physics-Uspekhi* 39(1) 57–71 (1996). Kapitsa (1996) cites estimates ranging between 80 and 150 billion.Sergei P. Kapitza, "The phenomenological theory of world population growth", *Physics-Uspekhi* 39(1) 57–71 (1996), citing K. M. Weiss, *Human Biology* 56637 (1984) and N. Keyfitz, *Applied Mathematical Demography* (New York: Wiley, 1977). The [PRB](Population Reference Bureau) puts the figure at 117 billion as of 2020, estimating that the current world population is 6.7% of all the humans who have ever lived. Haub (1995) prepared another figure, updated in 2002 and 2011; the 2011 figure was approximately 107 billion. *Note: text of paper publication slightly different from text of on-line publication*. Haub characterized this figure as an estimate that required "selecting population sizes for different points from antiquity to the present and applying assumed birth rates to each period".
Robust population data only exist for the last two or three centuries. Until the late 18th century, few governments had ever performed an accurate census. In many early attempts, such as in [Egypt](Ancient)(Census in Egypt) and the [Empire](Persian)(Achaemenid Empire), the focus was on counting merely a subset of the population for purposes of taxation or military service.Kuhrt, A. (1995). *The Ancient Near East, c. 3000–330 BCE*. Vol. 2. London: Routledge. p. 695. Thus, there is a significant margin of error when estimating ancient global populations.
Pre-modern [mortality](infant)(infant mortality) rates are another critical factor for such an estimate; these rates are very difficult to estimate for ancient times due to a lack of accurate records. Haub (1995) estimates that around 40% of those who have ever lived did not survive beyond their first birthday. Haub also stated that "[expectancy at birth](life)(life expectancy at birth) probably averaged only about ten years for most of human history", which is not to be mistaken for the life expectancy after reaching adulthood. The latter equally depended on period, location and social standing, but [calculations](Life expectancy#Variation over time) identify averages from roughly 30 years upward.
## See also
## Explanatory notes
## References
### Sources
*
## Further reading
*
* ["World Population Prospects, the 2012 Revision"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150816232627/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm). [Nations Population Division](United)(United Nations Population Division). Retrieved 19 May 2014.
* ["World Population Prospects, the 2010 Revision"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150816232627/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm). [Nations Population Division](United)(United Nations Population Division). Retrieved 25 June 2013.
* ["World Population History Graph"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150816232627/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm) World population graph 10000 BC – AD 1950.
* ["Symptoms of The Global Demographic Decline"](http://demographia.ru/eng/articles/index.html?idR=67&idArt=1815). Demographia.ru. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
* "[World](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/)". *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*. US [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA). Retrieved 6 November 2012.
* ["The World in Balance"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3108_worldbal.html) (transcript). Two-part PBS *Nova* episode on world population. 20 April 2004. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
* ["The Environmental Politics of Population and Overpopulation"](https://berkeley.academia.edu/OzzieZehner/Papers/911571/The_Environmental_Politics_of_Population_and_Overpopulation/). [of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley). 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
* ["Global population: Faces of the future"](https://www.economist.com/news/international/21579817-lot-more-people-faces-future). *The Economist*. 22 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
* ["Creating new life – and other ways to feed the world"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23253917). [News](BBC)(BBC News). 23 July 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
* [World Population Growth](https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth/) (Oct 2016), Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser, [OurWorldInData](OurWorldInData).org
*
## External links
**Organizations**
* [The Day of 6 Billion](http://www.unfpa.org/press/six-billion-growing-population-and-sustainable-development-will-population-issues-undermine) and [7 Billion](https://web.archive.org/web/20130718121104/http://7billionactions.org/) – Official homepages maintained by UNFPA
* [Population Reference Bureau](http://www.prb.org/) – News and issues related to population
* [Berlin Institute for Population and Development](http://www.berlin-institut.org/index.php?id=48)
**Statistics and maps**
* [HiveGroup.com – World population statistics presented in a treemap interface](http://www.hivegroup.com/gallery/worldpop/)
* [Win.tue.nl – World countries mapped by population size](http://www.win.tue.nl/~speckman/Cartograms/WorldCarto.html)
**Population clocks**
* [U.S. and World Population Clock (US Census Bureau)](https://www.census.gov/popclock/)
* [World Population Clock – Worldometer](https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/)
}}
[ ](Category:World population)
[globalization](Category:Cultural)(Category:Cultural globalization)
[overpopulation](Category:Human)(Category:Human overpopulation)
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Moose
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moose
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# Moose
*Revision ID: 1160216767 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T03:29:44Z*
---
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =
| image = Moose superior.jpg
| image_caption = A bull (male) moose with antlers in Minnesota, USA
| image2 = Alce (Alces alces), Potter marsh, Alaska, Estados Unidos, 2017-08-22, DD 139.jpg
| image2_caption = A cow (female) moose in Alaska, USA
| taxon = Alces alces
| parent_authority = [Gray](John Edward Gray), 1821
| display_parents = 2
| authority = ([Linnaeus](Carl Linnaeus), [1758](10th edition of Systema Naturae))
| range_map = Moose distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Moose range map
| synonyms = :*Cervus alces*
}}
The **moose** ([[plural|]]: moose; used in North America) or **elk** (: elk or elks; used in Eurasia) (***Alces alces***) is the [species](only)(monotypic taxon) in the genus ***Alces***. It is the [largest](Largest cervids) and heaviest [extant](extant taxon) [species](species) of [deer](deer). Most adult male moose have distinctive broad, palmate ("open-hand shaped") [antler](antler)s; most other members of the deer family have antlers with a dendritic ("twig-like") configuration. Moose typically inhabit [forest](boreal)(boreal forest)s and [broadleaf and mixed forest](temperate)(temperate broadleaf and mixed forest)s of the [Hemisphere](Northern)(Northern Hemisphere) in [temperate](temperate) to [climate](subarctic)(subarctic climate)s. [Hunting](Hunting) and other human activities have caused a reduction in the size of the moose's range over time. It has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats. Currently, most moose occur in [Canada](Canada), [Alaska](Alaska), [England](New)(New England) (with [Maine](Maine) having the most of the [48 states](lower)(lower 48 states)), [York State](New)(New York State), [Fennoscandia](Fennoscandia), the [states](Baltic)(Baltic states), [Poland](Poland), [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), and [Russia](Russia).
Its diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. Predators of moose include [wolves](gray wolf), [bear](Ursus (genus))s, [human](human)s, [wolverine](wolverine)s (rarely), and [orca](orca)s (while feeding underwater). Unlike most other deer species, moose do not form herds and are [animal](solitary)(solitary animal)s, aside from calves who remain with their mother until the cow begins estrus (typically at 18 months after birth of the calf), at which point the cow chases them away. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive, and move quickly if angered or startled. [mating season](Their)(Rut (mammalian reproduction)#Moose) in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female.
## Etymology and naming
*Alces alces* is called a "moose" in North American English, but an "elk" in British English. The word "elk" in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, *Cervus canadensis*, also called the [wapiti](wapiti). A mature male moose is called a bull, a mature female a cow, and an immature moose of either sex a calf.
According to the *[English Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford English Dictionary)*, the etymology of the species is "of obscure history". In [Antiquity](Classical)(Classical Antiquity), the animal was known as *álkē*. in [Greek](Greek language) and in [Latin](Latin), words probably borrowed from a [language](Germanic)(Germanic language) or another language of northern Europe. By the 8th century, during the [Middle Ages](Early)(Early Middle Ages), the species was known as derived from the [Proto-Germanic](Proto-Germanic language): **elho-*, **elhon-* and possibly connected with the . Later, the species became known in [English](Middle)(Middle English) as *elk*, *elcke*, or *elke*, appearing in the Latinized form *alke*, with the spelling *alce* borrowed directly from . Noting that *elk* "is not the normal phonetic representative" of the Old English *elch*, the *Oxford English Dictionary* derives *elk* from , itself from .
The word "elk" has [cognate](cognate)s in other [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages), e.g. *elg* in [Danish](Danish language)/[Norwegian](Norwegian language); *älg* in [Swedish](Swedish language); *alnis* in [Latvian](Latvian language); *eland* in [Dutch](Dutch language)/[Frisian](West Frisian language); *Elch* in [German](German language); and *łoś* in [Polish](Polish language). In the continental European languages, these forms of the word "elk" always refer to *Alces alces*.
The youngest elk bones in [Britain](Great)(Great Britain) were found in Scotland and are roughly 3,900 years old.[Rewilding the Land, the Sea, and Human Life*](*Feral:)(Feral (Monbiot book)) By [Monbiot](George)(George Monbiot). [of Chicago Press](University)(University of Chicago Press). 2014. . p. 124. This says "youngest" because the time of extinction is relevant here. The elk was probably extinct on the island before 900 AD. The word "elk" remained in usage because of English-speakers' familiarity with the species in [Europe](Continental)(Continental Europe); however, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague, and by the 17th century "elk" had a meaning similar to "large deer". Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described "elk" as a deer that was "as large as a horse".Bailey, Nathan (1731). *An Universal Etymological English Dictionary* Royal Exchange. Page EL--EM.
Confusingly, the word "elk" is used in North America to refer to a different animal, *[canadensis](Cervus)(Cervus canadensis)*, which is also called by the [Algonquian](Algonquian languages) indigenous name, "wapiti". The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names. The wapiti appeared very similar to the [deer](red)(red deer) of Europe (which itself was then almost extinct in Southern Britain) although it was much larger and was not red; the two species are indeed closely related, though distinct behaviorally and [genetically](Genetic divergence). The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, and they often adopted local names for both. In the early days of American colonization, the wapiti was often called a gray moose and the moose was often called a black moose, but early accounts of the animals varied wildly, adding to the confusion.Royal Society (Great Britain) (1736). *Philosophical Transactions and Collections, Volume 9.* p.84.
The word "moose" had first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the [languages](Algonquian)(Algonquian languages) (compare the [Narragansett](Narragansett language) *moos* and [Abenaki](Eastern)(Eastern Abenaki language) *mos*; according to early sources, these were likely derived from *moosu*, meaning "he strips off"), and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The [Proto-Algonquian](Proto-Algonquian language) form was **mo·swa*.
Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti "elk" because of its size and resemblance to familiar-looking deer like the red deer.*The Book of Animal Ignorance: Everything You Think You Know Is Wrong* By John Mitchinson, John Lloyd -- Harmony Books 2007 Page 141 The moose resembled the "German elk" (the moose of continental Europe), which was less familiar to the British colonists. For a long time neither species had an official name, but were called a variety of things. Eventually, in North America the wapiti became known as an elk while the moose retained its indigenous name. In 1736, [Dale](Samuel)(Samuel Dale (physician)) wrote to the Royal Society of Great Britain:
The common light-grey moose, called by the Indians, Wampoose, and the large or black-moose, which is the beast whose horns I herewith present. As to the grey moose, I take it to be no larger than what Mr. John Clayton, in his account of the Virginia Quadrupeds, calls the Elke ... was in all respects like those of our red-deer or stags, only larger ... The black moose is (by all that have hitherto writ of it) accounted a very large creature. ... The stag, buck, or male of this kind has a palmed horn, not like that of our common or fallow-deer, but the palm is much longer, and more like that of the *German elke.**Philosophical Transactions and Collections Volume 9* By Royal Society (Great Britain) 1736 Page 85
## Description and anatomy
[[File:Moose Skull sideview.jpg|thumb|[Skull](Skull) of a moose]]
### Antlers
[[File:Alces alces 8492.JPG|thumb|Growing [antler](antler)s are covered with a soft, furry covering called "[velvet](velvet antler)". Blood vessels in the velvet transport nutrients to support antler growth.]]
Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family. The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age; symmetry reflects health. Size and symmetry in the number of antler points signals bull moose quality; cows may select mates based on antler size and symmetry. Bull moose use dominant displays of antlers to discourage competition and will spar or fight rivals.
The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. Most moose have antlers that are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge. Within the ecologic range of the moose in Europe, those in northerly locales display the palmate pattern of antlers, while the antlers of European moose over the southerly portion of its range are typically of the cervina dendritic pattern and comparatively small, perhaps due to evolutionary pressures of hunting by humans, who prize the large palmate antlers. European moose with antlers intermediate between the palmate and the dendritic form are found in the middle of the north–south range.Nygrén, Tuire, Jyrki Pusenius, Raisa Tiilikainen, and Jan Korpelainen. "Moose Antler Type Polymorphism: Age and Weight Dependent Phenotypes and Phenotype Frequencies in Space and Time." Annales Zoologici Fennici 44, no. 6 (2007): 445-61. Accessed May 2, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/23736846 or https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/15167953.pdf#page=22. Moose with antlers have more acute hearing than those without antlers; a study of trophy antlers using a microphone found that the palmate antler acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying sound at the moose's ear.
*
The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than . By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry. The widest spread recorded was across. An Alaskan moose also holds the record for the heaviest weight at .
Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age. In North America, moose (*A. a. americanus*) antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly. Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side. In the North Siberian moose (*A. a. bedfordiae*), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common moose (*A. a. alces*) this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a [Scandinavia](Scandinavia)n breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals. The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in the typical Scandinavian moose.
[[alces.jpg|thumb|Young female (*A. a. americana*) in early June.](File:alces)]
After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter. A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring. Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs. Antler growth is "nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it a 'velvet' texture." This requires intense grazing on a highly-nutritious diet. By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers. Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring. Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for the nutrients.
If a bull moose is [castrated](Castration), either by accidental or [means](chemical)(Chemical castration), he will shed his current set of antlers within two weeks and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again; similarly deformed antlers can result from a deficiency of testosterone caused by [cryptorchidism](cryptorchidism) or old age. These deformed antlers are composed of living bone which is still growing or able to grow, since testosterone is needed to stop antler growth; they may take one of two forms. "Cactus antlers" or velericorn antlers usually retain the approximate shape of a normal moose's antlers but have numerous pearl-shaped [exostoses](exostoses) on their surface; being made of living bone, they are easily broken but can grow back. Perukes () are constantly growing, tumor-like antlers with a distinctive appearance similar to coral. Like [deer](roe)(roe deer), moose are more likely to develop perukes, rather than cactus antlers, than the more developed cervine deer, but unlike roe deer, moose do not suffer fatal decalcification of the skull as a result of peruke growth,Geist, Valerius (1998)* [Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology](https://books.google.com/books?id=bcWZX-IMEVkC&pg=PA244). *. Stackpole Books. p. 244. but rather can support their continued growth until they become too large to be fully supplied with blood. The distinctive-looking perukes (often referred to as "devil's antlers") are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of [Inuit](Inuit) as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America.
In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers. This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance.[It's a Bull Moose…No a Cow…](http://www.alaskapublic.org/2009/10/19/it%E2%80%99s-a-bull-moose%E2%80%A6no-a-cow%E2%80%A6/) Joe Viechnicki, KFSK – Petersburg 10-19-09
### Proboscis and olfaction
The moose proboscis is distinctive among the living cervids due to its large size; it also features nares that can be sealed shut when the moose is browsing aquatic vegetation. The moose proboscis likely evolved as an adaptation to aquatic browsing, with loss of the [rhinarium](rhinarium), and development of a superior olfactory column separate from an inferior respiratory column.Pagano, Anthony Santino, Jeffrey T. Laitman, Kurt Albertine, and Samuel Marquez. "Evolution of the proboscis in the moose, Alces alces: Evidence from Morphology and Ecology." The FASEB Journal 33, no. 1_supplement (2019): 767-19. This separation contributes to the moose's keen sense of smell, which they employ to detect water sources, to find food under snow, and to detect mates or predators.Márquez, Samuel, Anthony S. Pagano, Carrie S. Mongle, Kurt H. Albertine, and Jeffrey T. Laitman. "The Nasal Complex of a Semiaquatic Artiodactyl, the Moose (Alces alces): Is it a Good Evolutionary Model for the Ancestors of Cetaceans?." The Anatomical Record 302, no. 5 (2019): 667-692.
### Hooves
[[legs allow moose to wade easily through deep water or snow.](File:Tracksdeepsnow.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Long)]
As with all members of the order Artiodactyla ([ungulates](even-toed)(even-toed ungulates)), moose feet have two large keratinized hooves corresponding to the third and fourth toe, with two small posterolateral [dewclaw](dewclaw)s (vestigial digits), corresponding to the second and fifth toe. The hoof of the fourth digit is broader than that of the third digit, while the inner hoof of the third digit is longer than that of the fourth digit. This foot configuration may favor striding on soft ground.Keller, Anna, Marcus Clauss, Evelyne Muggli, and Karl Nuss. "Even-toed but uneven in length: the digits of artiodactyls." Zoology 112, no. 4 (2009): 270-278. The moose hoof splays under load, increasing surface area, which limits sinking of the moose foot into soft ground or snow, and which increases efficiency when swimming. The body weight per footprint surface area of the moose foot is intermediate between that of the [pronghorn](pronghorn) foot, (which have stiff feet lacking dewclaws—optimized for high-speed running) and the [caribou](caribou) foot (which are more rounded with large dewclaws, optimized for walking in deep snow). The moose's body weight per surface area of [footprint](footprint) is about twice that of the caribou.Lundmark, Caroline. Morphological and behavioral adaptations of moose to climate, snow, and forage. Vol. 2008, no. 67. 2008.Telfer, Edmund S., and John P. Kelsall. "Adaptation of some large North American mammals for survival in snow." Ecology 65, no. 6 (1984): 1828-1834.
On firm ground, a bull moose leaves a visible impression of the dewclaws in its footprint, while a cow moose or calf does not leave a dewclaw impression. On soft ground or mud, bull, cow, and calf footprints may all show dewclaw impressions.
### Skin and fur
Moose skin is typical of the [family](deer)(Cervidae). Moose fur consists of four types of hair: eyelashes, vibrissae, guard hairs and wool hairs. Hair length and hair density varies according to season, age, and body region. The coat has two layers—a top layer of long guard hairs and a soft wooly undercoat. The guard hairs are hollow and filled with air for better insulation, which also helps them stay afloat when swimming.
### Dewlap
Both male and female moose have a [dewlap](dewlap) or bell, which is a fold of skin under the chin. Its exact function is unknown, but some morphologic analyses suggest a cooling (thermoregulatory) function. Other theories include a fitness signal in mating, as a visual and olfactory signal, or as a dominance signal by males, as are the antlers.
### Tail
The tail is short (6 cm to 8 cm in length) and vestigial in appearance; unlike other ungulates the moose tail is too short to swish away insects.
### Size
[[crossing river in yellowstone.jpg|thumb|upright|Crossing a river](File:Moose)]
On average, an adult moose stands high at the shoulder, which is more than higher than the next-largest deer on average, the [wapiti](Cervus canadensis). Males (or "bulls") normally weigh from and females (or "cows") typically weigh , depending on racial or clinal as well as individual age or nutritional variations.Franzmann, A. W. (1981). *Alces alces*. Mammalian Species, 1-7. The head-and-body length is , with the vestigial tail adding only a further .Nowak, Ronald W., ''Walker's Mammals of the World*. The Johns Hopkins University Press (1999), The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies (*A. a. gigas*), which can stand over at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of and averages in males and in females. Typically, however, the antlers of a mature bull are between . The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the [River](Yukon)(Yukon River) in September 1897 that weighed and measured high at the shoulder.Wood, *The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats''. Sterling Pub Co Inc. (1983), There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull killed in 2004 that weighed , and a bull that reportedly scaled , but none are authenticated and some may not be considered reliable. Among extant terrestrial animal species in [America](North)(North America), [Europe](Europe), and [Siberia](Siberia), the moose is dwarfed only by two species of [bison](bison).
## Ecology and biology
### Diet
The moose is a [herbivore](browsing)(Browsing (herbivory)) and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume per day to maintain its body weight.[US Dept. of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service - Report of the Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit 1971](https://books.google.com/books?id=Uj8lAQAAMAAJ&dq=moose+calories+needed&pg=PA96) Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of [forb](forb)s and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as [willow](willow) and [birch](birch). As these terrestrial plants are rather low in [sodium](sodium), as much as half of their diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including [lilies](Nymphaeaceae) and [pondweed](Elodea),[Moose diet](http://www.mooseworld.com/diet.htm) Mooseworld. Retrieved on January 9, 2011. which while lower in energy content, provides the moose with its sodium requirements.*Biology by numbers: an encouragement to quantitative thinking* By Richard F. Burton – Cambridge University Press 1998 Page 84-85 In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter.*Journey to New England* By Patricia Harris, David Lyon – Patricia Harris-David Lyon 1999 Page 398 A typical moose, weighing , can eat up to of food per day.
Moose lack upper front [teeth](teeth), but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation. Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food. A moose's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and is [prehensile](prehensile), for grasping their food. In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling [forbs](forbs), like [dandelion](dandelion)s, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all.*Seasons of the Moose* By Jennie Promack, Thomas J. Sanker -- Gibbs Smith 1992 Page 21 A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from [tree](deciduous)(deciduous tree)s with a high sugar content, such as white birch, [aspen](trembling)(Populus tremuloides) and [maple](striped)(striped maple), among many others.[Moose diet](http://www.mooseworld.com/diet.htm) . Mooseworld. Retrieved on January 9, 2011. To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body. For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to or higher above the ground.*North American big-game animals* by Byron Dalrymple -- Stoeger Publishing 1983 Page 84*The Land and Wildlife of North America* By Peter Farb -- California State department of Education 1966 Page 177
Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of [flies](black)(Black fly). Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive over to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.*Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology* By Valerius Geist -- Stackpole Books 1998 Page 237 As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose. Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow.
Moose are not [grazing](grazing) animals but [browsers](browsing (herbivory)) (concentrate selectors). Like [giraffe](giraffe)s, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients. Thus, the moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet. Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals ([ruminant](ruminant)s), moose cannot digest [hay](hay), and feeding it to a moose can be fatal.*Comparative Animal Nutrition and Metabolism* By Peter R. Cheeke, Ellen Sue Dierenfeld -- CABI 2010 Page 24 The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated.
File:Alces alces bark stripping.jpg|left|[Bark](Bark (botany)) stripping
File:Bull moose close up feeding on fireweed.JPG|Bull moose eating a [fireweed](fireweed) plant
File:Moose 983 LAB.jpg|Bull moose browses a [beaver](beaver) pond
### Natural predators
[[File:Moose Tiger.jpg|thumb|left|[Age](Iron)(Iron Age) saddle from [Siberia](Siberia), depicting a moose being hunted by a [tiger](Siberian)(Siberian tiger).]]
[[attack moose 2012-04-12 001 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Moose attacked by wolves](File:Wolves)]
A full-grown moose has few enemies except [tiger](Siberian)(Siberian tiger)s (*Panthera tigris tigris*) which regularly prey on adult moose,[Tigris Foundation dedicated to the survival of the Amur tiger and leopard in the wild : UK HOME](http://www.tigrisfoundation.nl/cms/publish/content/showpage.asp?pageid=25) . Tigrisfoundation.nl (November 13, 1999). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.Hayward, M. W., Jędrzejewski, W., & Jedrzejewska, B. (2012). *Prey preferences of the tiger Panthera tigris*. Journal of Zoology, 286(3), 221-231. but a pack of [wolves](gray)(Gray wolf) (*Canis lupus*) can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves. [bear](Brown)(Brown bear)s (*Ursus arctos*) are also known to prey on moose of various sizes and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America. However, brown bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own.Opseth, O. (1998). *Brown bear (Ursus arctos) diet and predation on moose (Alces alces) calves in the southern taiga zone in Sweden*. Cand Sci Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.Mattson, D. J. (1997). *Use of ungulates by Yellowstone grizzly bears Ursus arctos*. Biological Conservation, 81(1), 161-177. [bears](Black)(American black bear) (*Ursus americanus*) and [cougar](cougar)s (*Puma concolor*) can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls). [Wolverine](Wolverine)s (*Gulo gulo*) are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions.Scrafford, Matthew A., and Mark S. Boyce. "Temporal patterns of wolverine (Gulo gulo luscus) foraging in the boreal forest." Journal of Mammalogy 99, no. 3 (2018): 693-701. [Orca](Orca)s (*Orcinus orca*) are the moose's only confirmed marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast, however, there is at least one recorded instance of a moose preyed upon by a [shark](Greenland)(Greenland shark) (*Somniosus microcephalus*).
[[mom with calves and a bear, Deanli National Park.png|thumb|Moose with calves being approached by a brown bear, Denali National Park, Alaska](File:Moose)]
In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of , occasionally at a distance of . Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and [perineum](perineum), causing massive [loss](blood)(blood loss). Occasionally, a wolf may immobilise a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can [paralyze](paralysis) a moose. Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose. Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves. Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose.*Carnivores of the World* by Dr. Luke Hunter. Princeton University Press (2011),
Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.Berger, Joel; Swenson, Jon E.; Persson, Inga-Lill [Recolonizing Carnivores and Naive Prey: Conservation Lessons from Pleistocene Extinctions.](https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211113/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-70741145.html) *Science* September 2, 2001
Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism. In northern Europe, the [botfly](moose)(Cephenemyia ulrichii) is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading.
### Parasites
Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally. Parasitosis is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators.
#### Ectoparasites
[Ectoparasites](Ectoparasites) of moose include the [nose bot fly](moose)(Cephenemyia ulrichii), and [ticks](winter)(Dermacentor albipictus).
#### Endoparasites
[Endoparasites](Endoparasites) of moose include [tapeworm](dog)(Echinococcus granulosus), [worm](meningeal)(Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), lungworm, and roundworm.
### Social structure and reproduction
[[File:Riddle of the racks.jpg|thumb|Display at the [National Wildlife Refuge](Kenai)(Kenai National Wildlife Refuge) of the skulls of two bulls who apparently died after their antlers became locked during a fight.]]
Moose are mostly [diurnal](Diurnality). They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season.
Rutting and mating occurs in September and October. During the [rut](Rut (mammalian reproduction)), mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows.Miquelle, Dale G. "Why don't bull moose eat during the rut?." [Ecology and Sociobiology](Behavioral)(Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology) 27, no. 2 (1990): 145-151. The males are [and will seek several females to breed with](polygynous)(lek mating). During this time both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to away, while females produce wail-like sounds. Males will fight for access to females. Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers.
Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful, in May or June. Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born. The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years. Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age. With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion.
File:Moose calves nursing.jpg|(newborn)Calves nursing in spring.
File:Cowcalflyingdown.JPG|(3 months)Calves stay near their mothers at all times.
File:Ninemomoose.JPG|(9 months)This calf is almost ready to leave its mother.
File:Mainstmoose.JPG|(10–11 months)This yearling was probably recently chased away by its pregnant mother.
### Aggression
Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened. Moose attack more people than [bear](bear)s and [wolves](Gray wolf) combined, but usually with only minor consequences. In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal; worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more.Adventure Guide Inside Passage & Coastal Alaska By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson -- Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 49 When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a [dog](dog), moose may charge. Also, as with bears or any wild animal, moose accustomed to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food. During the fall mating season, bulls may be aggressive toward humans. Cows are protective of young calves and will attack humans who come close, especially if they come between mother and calf. Moose are not territorial, and do not view humans as food, and usually will not pursue humans who run away.
[[File:Bull moose growing new antlers and shedding fur.JPG|thumb|A bull, disturbed by the photographer, lowers its head and raises its [hackles](hackles).]]
Moose are unpredictable. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely. A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passers-by. Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs. Unlike other large, hooved mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions including sideways. Thus, there is no safe side from which to approach. Moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying aggression by means of body language. Maintained eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a sign of agitation. When the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders ([hackles](hackles)) stand up, a charge is usually imminent. The [Anchorage](Anchorage) Visitor Centers warn tourists that "...a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear."*Adventure Guide Alaska Highway* By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson -- Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 416''Explorer's Guide 50 Hikes Around Anchorage* By Lisa Maloney -- The Countryman Press 2010 Page 16*Field & Stream* Aug 2002 -- Page 75--77*Wilderness Camping & Hiking* By Paul Tawrell -- Exxa Nature 2007 Page 161
Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males. This attracts the attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males. This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.US Fed News Service, [Female moose moans provoke bull fights, females have more choice in picking mates, concludes Idaho state university study](https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211143/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2416873911.html) March 8, 2011
Moose often show aggression to other animals as well; especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves.Weaver, J.L., C. Arvidson, and P. Wood. 1992. Two Wolves, *Canis lupus*, killed by a Moose, *Alces alces'', in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 106(1): 126-127. A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals.
## Habitat, range, and distribution
### Habitat
[[image of a cow moose during winter.jpg|thumb|Thermal image of a cow moose in the winter. Its thick, coarse fur with hollow hairs only measures an average of 8.3 °C above the ambient temperature of -23 °C, showing low heat-loss.](File:Thermal)]
Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e.g., pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather. Moose travel among different habitats with the seasons to address these requirements. Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance. Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water. In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds. When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive the winter. Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain. Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover. Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose. Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites.
Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases the risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility. Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth.Dussault, Christian, Jean‐Pierre Ouellet, Réhaume Courtois, Jean Huot, Laurier Breton, and Hélène Jolicoeur. "Linking moose habitat selection to limiting factors." Ecography 28, no. 5 (2005): 619-628. With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose. However, this does not appear to be a problem. Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early winter. In late winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes.
### North America
After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s. Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly. This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common. This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to the population decline of moose.
In [America](North)(North America), the moose range includes almost all of [Canada](Canada) (excluding the [arctic](arctic) and [Island](Vancouver)(Vancouver Island)), most of [Alaska](Alaska), northern [England](New)(New England) and upstate New York, the upper [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains), northern [Minnesota](Minnesota), northern [Wisconsin](Wisconsin), [Michigan](Michigan)'s [Peninsula](Upper)(Upper Peninsula), and [Royale](Isle)(Isle Royale) in [Superior](Lake)(Lake Superior). This massive range, containing diverse habitats, contains four of the six North American subspecies. In the West, moose populations extend across Canada ([Columbia](British)(British Columbia) and [Alberta](Alberta)). Isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of [Utah](Utah) and [Colorado](Colorado) and as far west as the [Wenatchee](Lake)(Lake Wenatchee) area of the [Cascades](Washington)(Cascade Mountains). In the northwestern US, the range includes [Wyoming](Wyoming), [Montana](Montana), [Idaho](Idaho), and smaller areas of [Washington](Washington (state)), and [Oregon](Oregon). Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in [National Park](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone National Park) in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the [Mountains](Uinta)(Uinta Mountains) in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century. This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States. In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400.
In northeastern North America, the [moose](Eastern)(Eastern moose)'s history is very well documented: moose meat was often a staple in the diet of indigenous peoples for centuries. The common name "moose" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal [Island](Rhode)(Rhode Island). The indigenous
people often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in [pemmican](pemmican), a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys.
The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the [River](Hudson)(Hudson River) in the south. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within of present-day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained.
Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources, abandonment of farmland, better land management, clean-up of pollution, and natural dispersal from the [Maritimes](Canadian)(Canadian Maritimes) and [Quebec](Quebec). South of the Canada–US border, [Maine](Maine) has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose. Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in [Vermont](Vermont) and [Hampshire](New)(New Hampshire), notably near bodies of water and as high up as above sea level in the mountains. In [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950. Moose reestablished populations in eastern [York](New)(New York (state)) and [Connecticut](Connecticut) and appeared headed south towards the [Mountains](Catskill)(Catskill Mountains), a former habitat.[Living With Moose](http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_moose.htm) . Mass.gov (September 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.[Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife – Moose Hunting Permits](http://www.maine.gov/ifw/licenses_permits/lotteries/moose/index.htm) . Maine.gov. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.[Connecticut Wildlife Sep/Oct 2004](http://www.ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/wildlife/pdf_files/outreach/connecticut_wildlife_magazine/cwso04.pdf) . (PDF). Retrieved on January 9, 2011.[Moose are on the Loose - Connecticut Public Broadcasting Network](http://www.cpbn.org/article/moose-are-loose) . Cpbn.org. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.[Forests lure moose to Massachusetts](https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0214/p13s02-sten.html) . The Christian Science Monitor (February 14, 2007). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.
In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper [Lakes](Great)(Great Lakes) region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa. For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest.
Moose were successfully introduced on [Newfoundland](Newfoundland (island)) in 1878 and 1904, where they are now the dominant [ungulate](ungulate), and somewhat less successfully on [Island](Anticosti)(Anticosti Island) in the [of Saint Lawrence](Gulf)(Gulf of Saint Lawrence).
File:Alaskan moose pair (6862339335).jpg|Cow and bull moose
File:Cow moose.jpg|Cow moose
File:Alces alces (juvenile).jpg|Moose calf
#### Decline in population
Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of [temperate](Temperate climate) North America, although they remain stable in [Arctic](Arctic) and [subarctic](subarctic) regions. The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and [parasite](parasite)s from [deer](white-tailed)(white-tailed deer) to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as [fluke](liver)(liver fluke)s, [worms](brain)(Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) and [tick](winter)(winter tick) infestations. Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant.Brockman, Christopher J., William B. Collins, Jeffery M. Welker, Donald E. Spalinger, and Bruce W. Dale. "Determining kill rates of ungulate calves by brown bears using neck-mounted cameras." *Wildlife Society Bulletin* **41**, no. 1 (2017): 88-97. Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation. An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, nonhunting declines in moose populations at the southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of [climate change](human-induced)(Global warming). Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between . However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11 °C (1.5–2 °F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America. The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200 from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont. Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off. Locals call them ghost moose. Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter.Samuel, W. M. "Grooming by moose (*Alces alces*) infested with the winter tick, Dermacentor albipictus (Acari): a mechanism for premature loss of winter hair." *Canadian Journal of Zoology* **69**, no. 5 (1991): 1255-1260.
### Europe and Asia
[[(Alces alces) calf Biebrzanski.jpg|thumb|*A. a. alces* calfBiebrzański Park Narodowy, Poland](File:Elk)]
[[File:Jakt på utstoppet elg.jpg|thumb|Staged picture of a moose hunt in [Norway](Norway), date unknown]]
In [Europe](Europe), moose are currently found in large numbers throughout [Norway](Norway), [Sweden](Sweden), [Finland](Finland), [Latvia](Latvia), [Estonia](Estonia), [Poland](Poland), with more modest numbers in the southern [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic), [Belarus](Belarus), and northern [Ukraine](Ukraine). They are also widespread through [Russia](Russia) on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the [River](Yenisei)(Yenisei River) in [Siberia](Siberia). The European moose was native to most temperate areas with suitable habitat on the continent and even [Scotland](Scotland) from the end of the last Ice Age, as Europe had a mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest. Up through Classical times, the species was certainly thriving in both Gaul and [Germania](Magna)(Magna Germania), as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age. However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of [Charlemagne](Charlemagne), the moose disappeared from [France](France), where its range extended from Normandy in the north to the Pyrenees in the south. Farther east, it survived in [Alsace](Alsace) and the [Netherlands](Netherlands) until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former. It was gone from [Switzerland](Switzerland) by the year 1000, from the western Czech Republic by 1300, from [Mecklenburg](Mecklenburg) in [Germany](Germany) by c. 1600, and from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively.
By the early 20th century, the last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and [Lithuania](Lithuania). The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into [National Park](Kampinos)(Kampinos National Park) and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited the ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range. Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful. At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the [Biebrza](Biebrza) river valley, Kampinos, and in [Forest](Białowieża)(Białowieża Forest). It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany. Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in [Poland](Poland), [Belarus](Belarus), [Ukraine](Ukraine), [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic), and [Slovakia](Slovakia), it appears to be having more success migrating south into the [Caucasus](Caucasus). It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.[Alces alces (Eurasian Elk, Moose, Elk, Eurasian Moose, European Elk, Siberian Elk)](http://oldredlist.iucnredlist.org/details/41782/0) . Iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on January 9, 2011."[Wayward elk 'Knutschi' found dead – The Local](http://www.thelocal.de/society/20091002-22315.html) ". Thelocal.de. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.
In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the [Highlands](Scottish)(Scottish Highlands) in [Wilderness Reserve](Alladale)(Alladale Wilderness Reserve). The moose disappeared as a breeding species from Denmark about 4,500 years ago (in the last century, a very small number have lived for periods in [Zealand](Zealand) without establishing a population after swimming across the [Øresund](Øresund) from Sweden), but in 2016-17 ten were introduced to [Vildmose](Lille)(Lille Vildmose) from Sweden. In 2020, this population had increased to about 25 animals.
The East Asian moose populations confine themselves mostly to the territory of [Russia](Russia), with much smaller populations in [Mongolia](Mongolia) and Northeastern [China](China). Moose populations are relatively stable in [Siberia](Siberia) and increasing on the [Peninsula](Kamchatka)(Kamchatka Peninsula). In Mongolia and China, where poaching took a great toll on moose, forcing them to near extinction, they are protected, but enforcement of the policy is weak and demand for traditional medicines derived from deer parts is high. In 1978, the Regional Hunting Department transported 45 young moose to the center of Kamchatka. These moose were brought from [Chukotka](Chukchi Peninsula), home to the largest moose on the planet. Kamchatka now regularly is responsible for the largest trophy moose shot around the world each season. As it is a fertile environment for moose, with a milder climate, less snow, and an abundance of food, moose quickly bred and settled along the valley of the [River](Kamchatka)(Kamchatka River) and many surrounding regions. The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2,900 animals.
The size of the moose varies. Following [rule](Bergmann's)(Bergmann's rule), population in the south (*A. a. cameloides*) usually grow smaller, while moose in the north and northeast (*A. a. buturlini*) can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose (*A. a. gigas*) and are prized by trophy hunters.
### New Zealand
In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the [Hokitika](Hokitika) area failed; then in 1910 ten moose (four bulls and six cows) were introduced into [Fiordland](Fiordland). This area is considered a less than suitable habitat, and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills have led to some presumption of this population's failure. The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952. However, a moose antler was found in 1972, and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose. There has been extensive searching, and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing, and antler marks.
## Evolutionary history
[[File:Libracles gallicus.JPG|thumb|An artist's rendition of *[gallicus](Libralces)(Libralces)*]]
[[File:Cervalces latifrons Tubingen.JPG|thumb|Antlers of *[latifrons](Cervalces)(Cervalces latifrons)*]]
[[File:Cervalces scotti - MUSE.JPG|thumb|Replica of an American [stag-moose](Stag moose) skeleton]]
Moose are members of the subfamily [Capreolinae](Capreolinae). Members of the moose lineage extend back into the [Pliocene](Pliocene)-[Pleistocene](Early)(Early Pleistocene). Some scientists, group the moose and all its extinct relatives into one genus, *Alces*, while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, restrict *Alces* to the living species, placing the fossil species into the genera *[Cervalces](Cervalces)* (stag moose) and *Libralces*.
The earliest known species in the moose lineage is *[gallicus](Libralces)(Libralces)*, which lived in the [Pliocene](Pliocene)-[Pleistocene](Early)(Early Pleistocene). *Libralces gallicus* came from the warm savannas of Pliocene Europe, with the best-preserved skeletons being found in southern France. *L. gallicus* was 1.25 times larger than the Alaskan moose in linear dimensions, making it nearly twice as massive. *L. gallicus* had many striking differences from its modern descendants. It had a longer, narrower snout and a less-developed nasal cavity, more resembling that of a modern deer, lacking any sign of the modern moose-snout. Its face resembled that of the modern [wapiti](wapiti). However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet. Its antlers consisted of a horizontal bar long, with no tines, ending in small palmations. Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high-speed impacts, much like the [sheep](Dall)(Dall sheep), rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat. Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain.*Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and ecology* By Valerius Geist - Page 244-250*Morphological Change in Quaternary Mammals of North America* by Robert Allen Martin, [D. Barnosky](Anthony)(Anthony David Barnosky) - Cambridge University Press 1993 Page 178-181
*Libralces gallicus* was followed by *[carnutorum](Cervalces)(Cervalces carnutorum)* during the first half of the [Pleistocene](Early)(Early Pleistocene). *Cervalces carnutorum* was soon followed by a much larger species called *[latifrons](Cervalces)(Cervalces latifrons)* (broad-fronted stag-moose), which first appeared during the late Early Pleistocene. Many fossils of *Cervalces latifrons* have been found across Eurasia. Like its descendants, it inhabited mostly northern latitudes, and was probably well-adapted to the cold. *C. latifrons* was the largest deer known to have ever existed, standing more than tall at the shoulders. This is bigger than even the [elk](Irish)(Irish elk), which was tall at the shoulders. Its antlers were smaller than the Irish elk's, but comparable in size to those of *L. gallicus*. However, the antlers had a shorter horizontal bar and larger palmations, more resembling those of a modern moose. Probably sometime in the [Pleistocene](Middle)(Middle Pleistocene), *Cervalces latifrons* migrated into North America, giving rise to the stag moose (*[scotti](Cervalces)(Cervalces scotti)*). The modern moose is thought to have evolved from *Cervalces latifrons* at around the end of the [Pleistocene](Middle)(Middle Pleistocene) to the beginning of the [Pleistocene](Late)(Late Pleistocene), probably somewhere in East Asia, with the earliest fossils of the species in Europe dating to the early Late Pleistocene. The modern moose only arrived in North America around 15,000 years ago, at the end of the Late Pleistocene.
## Populations
**North America:**
* *In Canada*: There are an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 moose, with 150,000 in Newfoundland in 2007 descended from just four that were introduced in the 1900s.
* *In United States*: There are estimated to be around 300,000:
** Alaska: The state's Department of Fish and Game estimated 200,000 in 2011.[Interior Alaska Moose News (Fall 2011)](http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/species/speciesinfo/moose/pdfs/interior_moose_news_fall_2011.pdf) , p. 6, "How Do Scandinavia and Alaska Compare?"
** Northeast: A wildlife ecologist estimated 50,000 in New York and New England in 2007, with expansion expected.
** Rocky Mountain states: Wyoming is said to have the largest share in its six-state region, and its Fish and Game Commission estimated 7,692 in 2009.["Wyoming moose numbers fall short"](http://billingsgazette.com/news/state-and-regional/wyoming/article_eef704f1-9b7f-5812-b219-31b57a917a31.html) , *Billings Gazette*, May 28, 2009
** Upper Midwest: Michigan 2000 on Isle Royale (2019) and an estimated 433 (in its [Peninsula](Upper)(Upper Peninsula)) in 2011,[Isle Royale: Wolf & Moose Populations](https://www.nps.gov/isro/learn/nature/wolf-moose-populations.htm), National Park Service Wisconsin, 20–40 (close to its border with Michigan) in 2003, Minnesota 5600 in its northeast in 2010, and under 100 in its northwest in 2009; North Dakota closed, due to low moose population, one of its moose-hunting geographic units in 2011, and issued 162 single-kill licenses to hunters, each restricted to one of the remaining nine units.["Big Game Hunting: Moose Season Information"](http://gf.nd.gov/hunting/biggame/bsem/moose.html) , North Dakota Game and Fish Department
**Europe and Asia**:
* *Finland*: In 2009, there was a summer population of 115,000.[RiistaWeb](http://riistaweb.riista.fi/riistatiedot/riistatietohaku.mhtml) . Riistaweb.riista.fi. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.
* *Norway*: In 2009, there were a winter population of around 120,000. In 2015 31,131 moose were shot. In 1999, a record number of 39,422 moose were shot.
* *Latvia*: in 2015, there were 21,000.
* *Estonia*: 13,260["Põtrade arvukust tahetakse oluliselt vähendada"](http://www.ilmajaam.ee/1281638/potrade-arvukust-tahetakse-oluliselt-vahendada). *[Postimees](Postimees)* June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
* *Lithuania*: around 14,000 in 2016[*Lietuvą pamėgo meškėnai, o rudiesiems lokiams vietos čia per mažai*, lrt.lt, 2017.02.10](https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/lietuvoje/2/163091/lietuva-pamego-meskenai-o-rudiesiems-lokiams-vietos-cia-per-mazai)
* *Poland*: 28,000
* *Czech Republic*: maximum of 50
* *Russia*: In 2007, there were approximately 600,000.
* *Sweden*: Summer population is estimated to be 300,000–400,000. Around 100,000 are shot each fall.[salenalgen.se Om älgar](http://www.salenalgen.se/Älginformation.htm) About 10,000 are killed in traffic accidents yearly.
### Subspecies
## Relationship with humans
### History
[[moose with reflection in Grand Teton NP.jpg|thumb|A moose and its reflection](File:A)]
[[muddy moose yearlings.jpg|thumb|Two young moose wearing radio tracking collars](File:Collared)]
European [drawings](rock)(rock drawings) and [painting](cave)(cave painting)s reveal that moose have been hunted since the [Age](Stone)(Stone Age). Excavations in [Sweden](Alby,)(Alby, Öland), adjacent to the [Alvaret](Stora)(Stora Alvaret) have yielded moose antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest moose hunting in northern Europe. In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of [pit](trapping)(trapping pit)s used for hunting moose. These pits, which can be up to in area and deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves. They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the moose to escape once it fell in. The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the moose's regular paths and stretching over several km. Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat. In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3700 BC. Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method. As early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use; nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century.
The earliest recorded description of the moose is in [Caesar](Julius)(Julius Caesar)'s *[de Bello Gallico](Commentarii)(Commentarii de Bello Gallico)*, where it is described thus:
There are also [animals], which are called *[alces](alces)* (moose). The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them.
In book 8, chapter 16 of [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder)'s *[History](Natural)(Natural History (Pliny))* from 77 CE, the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus:
... there is, also, the moose, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the moose, but has no joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness. Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up.
### As food
[[File:Alces alces elan trophee chateau Tanlay.jpg|thumbnail|Moose [head](trophy)(Trophy hunting)]]
[[File:Snowpoop.JPG|left|thumb|Moose [scat](Feces) is commonly found on trails. Some souvenir shops sell bags of it, sealed with [shellac](shellac) and labeled with humorous names.]]
Moose are hunted as a [game](game (hunting)) species in many of the countries where they are found. Moose meat tastes, wrote [David Thoreau](Henry)(Henry David Thoreau) in "The Maine Woods", "like tender beef, with perhaps more flavour; sometimes like [veal](veal)". While the flesh has [protein](protein) levels similar to those of other comparable [meat](red)(red meat)s (e.g. [beef](beef), [deer](deer) and [wapiti](wapiti)), it has a low [fat](fat) content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of [fat](polyunsaturated)(polyunsaturated fat)s than [fat](saturated)(saturated fat)s.
Dr. [Geist](Valerius)(Valerius Geist), who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book *Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation*:
Boosting moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e.g., Craig Medred: "A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to [survival of](the) 1488 moose or 2976 [caribou](Caribou (North America)) or some combination thereof".[adn.com](http://www.adn.com/news/alaska/wildlife/wolves/story/410461.html/) Some scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole. This is because studies have shown that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations.[Aerial Hunting FAQs](http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/policy_and_legislation/aerial_hunting_q_and_a.pdf) , Defenders of Wildlife - Protect America's Wildlife (PAW) Act - Aerial hunting FAQs
#### Consumption of offal
[Cadmium](Cadmium) levels are high in Finnish moose [liver](liver) and [kidney](kidney)s, with the result that consumption of these organs from moose more than one year old is prohibited in Finland. As a result of a study reported in 1988, the [Ontario](Ontario) [of Natural Resources](Ministry)(Ministry of Natural Resources) recommended against the consumption of moose and deer kidneys and livers. Levels of cadmium were found to be considerably higher than in Scandinavia. The [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick) [of Natural Resources](Department)(Department of Natural Resources) advises hunters not to consume cervid [offal](offal).
Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of moose meat, though the meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake. However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse [effects](health)(health effects).Vahteristo, L., Lyytikäinen, T., Venäläinen, E. R., Eskola, M., Lindfors, E., Pohjanvirta, R., & Maijala, R. (2003). Cadmium intake of moose hunters in Finland from consumption of moose meat, liver and kidney. *Food Additives and Contamination, 20*, 453–463.
### Vehicle collisions
The [of mass](center)(center of mass) of a moose is above the hood of most [cars](passenger)(Sedan (automobile)). In a collision, the impact crushes the front roof beams and individuals in the front seats. Collisions of this type are frequently fatal; [belt](seat)(seat belt)s and [airbag](airbag)s offer little protection.[Traffic Management for a Sustainable Environment](https://web.archive.org/web/20080529203439/http://www.vti.se/nordic/2-04mapp/annosv.html) Number 2, 2004, of Nordic Road & Transport Research. Annotations Sweden In collisions with higher vehicles (such as trucks), most of the deformation is to the front of the vehicle and the passenger compartment is largely spared. Moose collisions have prompted the development of a vehicle test referred to as the "[test](moose)(moose test)" (, ). A Massachusetts study found that moose–vehicular collisions had a very high human fatality rate and that such collisions caused the death of 3% of the Massachusetts moose population annually.
Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal. The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with imageless generic warning signs in some regions. "[Älgsafari lockar tusentals turister](http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/algsafari-lockar-tusentals-turister-1.560803)", *[Nyheter](Dagens)(Dagens Nyheter)*, August 12, 2007. Accessed November 6, 2009."
In Ontario, Canada, an estimated 265 moose die each year as a result of collision with trains. Moose–train collisions were more frequent in winters with above-average snowfall.Hamr, Joe, Mike Hall, and Jesse N. Popp. "AN ASSESSMENT OF MOOSE AND ELK TRAIN COLLISIONS IN ONTARIO, CANADA." Alces: A Journal Devoted to the Biology and Management of Moose 55 (2019): 1-12. In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper *[Aftenposten](Aftenposten)* estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000. The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million [krone](Norwegian)(Norwegian krone)r to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow-free feeding places for the animals elsewhere.
In the Canadian province of [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick), collisions between automobiles and moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, as has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden. A demonstration project, Highway 7 between [Fredericton](Fredericton) and [John](Saint)(Saint John, New Brunswick), which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed.[Moose-Vehicle Collision Information](http://www.gnb.ca/0113/moose/alert-e.asp) , New Brunswick Department of Transportation[More wildlife fencing to be installed on Route 7 in 2008](http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/tran/2008e0411tr.htm) , Communications New Brunswick, April 8, 2008 [and Labrador](Newfoundland)(Newfoundland and Labrador) recommended that motorists use caution between dusk and dawn because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions. Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas. An electronic "moose detection system" was installed on two sections of the [Highway](Trans-Canada)(Trans-Canada Highway) in Newfoundland in 2011, but the system proved unreliable and was removed in 2015.
In Sweden, a road will not be fenced unless it experiences at least one moose accident per km per year. [Många viltolyckor – inget görs – Mellerud](http://ttela.se/start/mellerud/1.595186-manga-viltolyckor-inget-gors?NewUrl=null) . www.ttela.se (December 21, 2010). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.
In eastern Germany, where the scarce population is slowly increasing, there were two road accidents involving moose since 2000.
File:NO road sign 146.1.svg|Norwegian road sign.
File:Moosecrossingkenaiak.JPG|[sign](Warning)(Warning sign) in Alaska where trees and brush are trimmed along high moose crossing areas so that moose can be seen as they approach the road.
File:Moose crossing a road.jpg|Moose (*A. a. gigas*) crossing a road in Alaska.
File:Moose crossing warning sign.jpg|Canadian road sign.
### Domestication
[[File:MSU V1 - Alces alces pack animals 2.png|thumb|Moose kept as pack animals, [Nature Reserve](Pechora-Ilych)(Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve), December 1952]]
Domestication of moose was investigated in the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) before [War II](World)(World War II). Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at [Nature Reserve](Pechora-Ilych)(Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve) in 1949, a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at [breeding](selective)(selective breeding) of animals on the basis of their behavioural characteristics. Since 1963, the program has continued at [Moose Farm](Kostroma)(Kostroma Moose Farm), which had a herd of 33 [tame](Domestication) moose as of 2003. Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of [milk](moose)(moose milk) and from visiting tourist groups. Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the [physiology](physiology) and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal [domestication](domestication).
In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal. Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a [cavalry](moose-mounted)(Moose cavalry). Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose that was deregulated in the 1790s nearly drove it to extinction. While there have been documented cases of individual moose being used for riding and/or pulling carts and sleds, Björklöf concludes no wide-scale usage has occurred outside fairy tales.Björklöf, Sune. (1995). ["Har älgar tämjts till kavalleri?"](http://www.nordicacademicpress.com/o.o.i.s?id=52&vid=123) , *Populär Historia*, no 5. Visited May 17, 2010.
### Heraldry
[[File:Hirvensalmi.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright=0.6|A moose in the coat of arms of [Hirvensalmi](Hirvensalmi), Finland]]
As one of the Canadian national symbols, the moose occurs on several Canadian coats of arms, including [and Labrador](Newfoundland)(Newfoundland and Labrador), and [Ontario](Ontario). Moose is also a common coat of arms in Europe as well; for example, in Finland, it appears on the coats of arms of [Hirvensalmi](Hirvensalmi) and [Mäntsälä](Mäntsälä) municipalities. The [of Michigan](Seal)(Seal of Michigan) features a moose.
## See also
* [Stolta](Älgen)(Älgen Stolta), a rare example of a domesticated moose
## References
}}
## Further reading
* *[Alces: A journal devoted to the biology and management of moose (Alces alces)](http://alcesjournal.org/)* Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research.
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
* [A moose in the National Nature Park "Losinyj Ostrov" ("Moose" or "Elk" Island) in Russia](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xwik_lSyW1A)
* from the [Museum of Natural History](National)(National Museum of Natural History)
[ ](Category:Moose)
[fauna](Category:Holarctic)(Category:Holarctic fauna)
[of Asia](Category:Mammals)(Category:Mammals of Asia)
[of Europe](Category:Mammals)(Category:Mammals of Europe)
[of North America](Category:Mammals)(Category:Mammals of North America)
[described in 1758](Category:Mammals)(Category:Mammals described in 1758)
[named by Carl Linnaeus](Category:Taxa)(Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus)
[of Alaska](Category:Symbols)(Category:Symbols of Alaska)
[Category:Alceini](Category:Alceini)
|
Richmond, Virginia
|
richmond,_virginia
|
# Richmond, Virginia
*Revision ID: 1160259158 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:47:58Z*
---
| image_flag = Flag of Richmond, Virginia.jpg
| image_seal = Seal of Richmond, Virginia.png
| nickname = "RVA",Per www.richmondgov.com & [*The Free Dictionary*](https://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/RVA) . "River City"*City Connection*, Office of the Press Secretary to the Mayor. [Richmondgov.com](http://www.richmondgov.com/PressSecretaryMayor/documents/CityConnection.pdf#page=2) . January–March 2010 edition. Retrieved February 8, 2010.
| motto = (Thus do we reach the stars)
| image_map =
| mapsize = 250 px
| map_caption = Location within Virginia
| pushpin_map = Virginia#USA
| pushpin_label = Richmond
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Virginia##Location within the contiguous United States
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [State](U.S. state)
| subdivision_name1 = [Virginia](Virginia)
| established_date = 1742|
| named_for = [United Kingdom](Richmond,)(Richmond, London)
| government_type =
| leader_title = [Mayor](List of mayors of Richmond, Virginia)
| leader_name = [Stoney](Levar)(Levar Stoney) ([D](Democratic Party (United States)))
| total_type = City
| area_total_sq_mi = 62.57
| area_land_sq_mi = 59.92
| area_water_sq_mi = 2.65
| elevation_m = 65
| elevation_ft = 213
| population_rank = [100th](List of United States cities by population) in the United States [4th](List of cities in Virginia) in Virginia
| population_total = 226610
| population_as_of = [2020](2020 United States Census)
| population_density_sq_mi = 3782
| population_urban = 1,059,150 ([44th](US:)(List of United States urban areas))
| population_density_urban_km2 = 798.2
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,067.3
| population_metro = 1,263,617 ([44th](US:)(Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas))
| population_demonym = Richmonder
| postal_code_type = [Code](ZIP)(ZIP Code)s
| postal_code = 23173, 23218–23242, 23249–23250, 23255, 23260–23261, 23269, 23273–23274, 23276, 23278–23279, 23282, 23284–23286, 23288–23295, 23297–23298
| area_code = [804](Area code 804)
| area_code_type = [code](Area)(North American Numbering Plan)
| website =
| footnotes =
Prior to 1071 – [Richemont](Richemont, Seine-Maritime): a town in Normandy, France.1071 to 1501 – [Richmond](Richmond, North Yorkshire): a castle town in Yorkshire, UK.1501 to 1742 – [Richmond](Richmond, London), a palace town in London, UK.1742 to present – Richmond, Virginia.
| timezone = [EST](Eastern Time Zone)
| utc_offset = −5
| timezone_DST = [EDT](Eastern Time Zone)
| utc_offset_DST = −4
| blank_name = [code](FIPS)(Federal Information Processing Standard)
| blank_info = 51-67000
| blank1_name = [GNIS](Geographic Names Information System) feature ID
| blank1_info = 1499957
| pop_est_as_of =
| pop_est_footnotes =
| population_est =
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 162.05
| area_land_km2 = 155.20
| area_water_km2 = 6.85
| population_density_km2 = 1484.75
| elevation_footnotes =
}}
**Richmond** ( ) is the [city](capital)(capital city) of the [Commonwealth](Commonwealth (U.S. state)) of [Virginia](Virginia) in the United States. Incorporated in 1742, Richmond has been an [city](independent)(independent city (United States)) since 1871. The city's population in the 2020 census was 226,610, up from 204,214 in 2010, making it Virginia's [populous city](fourth-most)(List of cities in Virginia). The [metropolitan area](Richmond)(Greater Richmond Region ), with 1,260,029 people, is the Commonwealth's [populous.](third-most)(Virginia statistical areas)
Richmond is located at the [River's fall line](James)(Atlantic Seaboard fall line), west of [Williamsburg](Williamsburg, Virginia), east of [Charlottesville](Charlottesville, Virginia), east of [Lynchburg](Lynchburg, Virginia) and south of [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) Surrounded by [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia) and [Chesterfield](Chesterfield County, Virginia) counties, Richmond is at the intersection of [95](Interstate)(Interstate 95 in Virginia) and [64](Interstate)(Interstate 64 in Virginia) and encircled by [295](Interstate)(Interstate 295 (Virginia)), [State Route 150](Virginia)(Virginia State Route 150) and [State Route 288](Virginia)(Virginia State Route 288). Major suburbs include [Midlothian](Midlothian, Virginia) to the southwest, Chesterfield to the south, [Varina](Varina, Virginia) to the southeast, [Sandston](Sandston, Virginia) to the east, [Allen](Glen)(Glen Allen, Virginia) to the north and west, [Pump](Short)(Short Pump, Virginia) to the west, and [Mechanicsville](Mechanicsville, Virginia) to the northeast.
Richmond was an important village in the [Confederacy](Powhatan)(Powhatan Confederacy) and was briefly settled by English colonists from [Jamestown](Jamestown, Virginia) from 1609 to 1611. Founded in 1737, it replaced Williamsburg as the capital of the [and Dominion of Virginia](Colony)(Colony and Dominion of Virginia) in 1780. During the [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolution) period, several notable events occurred in the city, including [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry)'s "[me liberty, or give me death!](Give)(Give me liberty or give me death)" speech in 1775 at [John's Church](St.)(St. John's Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia)) and the passage of the [Statute for Religious Freedom](Virginia)(Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom) written by [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson). During the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War), Richmond was the [Confederacy](Confederate States of America)'s capital. The [Ward](Jackson)(Jackson Ward) neighborhood is the city's traditional hub of [African-American](African-American) commerce and culture, once known as the "Black Wall Street of America" and the "Harlem of the South." At the beginning of the 20th century, Richmond had one of the world's first successful electric [streetcar](streetcar) systems.
Law, finance, and government primarily drive Richmond's economy. The [area](downtown)(Downtown Richmond, Virginia) is home to federal, state, and local governmental agencies as well as notable legal and banking firms. The greater metropolitan area includes several [500](*Fortune*)(Fortune 500) companies: [Food Group](Performance)(Performance Food Group), [Altria](Altria), [CarMax](CarMax), [Energy](Dominion)(Dominion Energy), [Markel](Markel Corporation), [and Minor](Owens)(Owens and Minor), [Financial](Genworth)(Genworth Financial), and [Corp](ARKO)(GPM_Investments). Greater Richmond Partnership Virginia USA |url=https://www.grpva.com/news/greater-richmond-now-home-to-8-fortune-500-headquarters/ |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en-US}} The city is home to the [Court of Appeals](U.S.)(United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit) for the 4th Circuit and a [Reserve Bank](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond) (one of 13 [courts](such)(United States courts of appeals) and one of 12 [banks](such)(Federal Reserve System), respectively).
## History
### Colonial era
[[File:William Byrd II.jpg|thumb|[Byrd II](William)(William Byrd II), considered the founder of Richmond]]
After the first permanent English-speaking settlement was established at [Virginia](Jamestown,)(Jamestown, Virginia), in April 1607, [Christopher Newport](Captain)(Christopher Newport) led explorers northwest up the [River](James)(James River (Virginia)) to an inhabited area in the [Powhatan](Powhatan) Nation.
In 1611, the first European settlement in Central Virginia was established at [Henricus](Henricus), where the [Creek](Falling)(Falling Creek (James River tributary)) empties into the James River. In 1619, early [Company](Virginia)(Virginia Company) settlers established the [Creek Ironworks](Falling)(Falling Creek Ironworks) there. [of conflicts between the Powhatan and the settlers followed](Decades)(Anglo-Powhatan Wars), including the [of Bloody Run](Battle)(Battle of Bloody Run (1656)), fought near Richmond in 1656, after tensions arose from an influx of [Manahoac](Manahoac)s and [Nahyssans](Nahyssans) from the North. Nonetheless, the James Falls area saw more White settlement in the late 1600s and early 1700s.
In early 1737, planter [Byrd II](William)(William Byrd II) commissioned [William Mayo](Major)(William Mayo (civil engineer)) to lay out the original town grid, completed in April. Byrd named the city after the English town of [Richmond](Richmond, London) near (and now part of) London, because the view of the James River's bend at the fall line was similar to that of the [Thames](River)(River Thames) from [Hill](Richmond)(Richmond Hill, London), named after [VII](Henry)(Henry VII of England)'s ancestral home in [North Yorkshire](Richmond,)(Richmond, North Yorkshire)."Richmond", in *[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica)*, (9th edition, 1881), *s.v.* In 1742, the settlement was incorporated as a town.
### American Revolution
In 1775, [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry) delivered his famous "[me liberty, or give me death](Give)(Give me liberty, or give me death!)" speech in Richmond's [John's Church](St.)(Saint John's Church, Richmond, Virginia), greatly influencing Virginia's participation in the [Continental Congress](First)(First Continental Congress) and the course of the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution).Grafton, John. "[The Declaration of Independence and Other Great Documents of American History: 1775–1864](https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfaag5M6zSIC&dq=give+me+liberty+or+give+me+death&pg=PA1) ." **2000**, Courier Dover Publications, pp. 1–4. On April 18, 1780, the state capital was moved from [Williamsburg](Williamsburg, Virginia) to Richmond, providing a more centralized location for Virginia's increasing western population and theoretically isolating the capital from a British attack from the coast."[April dates in Virginia history](http://www.vahistorical.org/education/april.htm) ." *[Virginia Historical Society](http://www.vahistorical.org/) .* Retrieved on July 11, 2007. In 1781, [troops](Loyalist)(Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution) led by [Arnold](Benedict)(Benedict Arnold) led a [on Richmond](raid)(raid on Richmond) and burnt it, leading Governor [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) to flee while the [militia](Virginia)(Virginia militia), led by [Mathews](Sampson)(Sampson Mathews), unsuccessfully defended the city.
### Early United States
[[File:Patrick Henry Rothermel.jpg|thumb|upright|[Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry) delivered his "Liberty or Death" speech at [John's Church](St.)(Saint John's Church, Richmond, Virginia) in Richmond, helping to ignite the American Revolution.]]
Richmond recovered quickly from the war, thriving within a year of its burning.Morrissey, Brendan. "[Yorktown 1781: The World Turned Upside Down](https://books.google.com/books?id=r--9D24q4ncC&dq=1781+benedict+arnold+richmond&pg=PA14) ." Published 1997, Osprey Publishing, pp. 14–16. In 1786, the [Statute for Religious Freedom](Virginia)(Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom), drafted by [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), was enacted, separating church and state and advancing the legal principle for [of religion](freedom)(freedom of religion) in the United States.Peterson, Merrill D.; Vaughan, Robert C. *[The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom: Its Evolution and Consequences in American History](https://books.google.com/books?id=I9v9aVcsfJ8C&dq=virginia+statute+for+religious+freedom&pg=PP1) .* Published 1988, Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on July 11, 2007. In 1788, the [State Capitol](Virginia)(Virginia State Capitol), designed by Jefferson and [Clérisseau](Charles-Louis)(Charles-Louis Clérisseau) in the [Revival style](Greek)(Greek Revival architecture), was completed.
To bypass Richmond's rapids on the upper James River and provide a water route across the [Mountains](Appalachian)(Appalachian Mountains) to the [River](Kanawha)(Kanawha River), which flows westward into the [River](Ohio)(Ohio River), which converges with the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River), [Washington](George)(George Washington) helped design the [River and Kanawha Canal](James)(James River and Kanawha Canal). The canal started in [Westham](Westham, Virginia) and cut east to Richmond, facilitating the transfer of cargo from flat-bottomed [River bateau](James)(James River bateau)x above the fall line to the ocean-faring ships below. The canal boatmen legacy is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag.
Because of the canal and the [hydropower](hydropower) the falls generated, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center after the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War) (1775–1783). It became home to some of the largest manufacturing facilities, including iron works and flour mills, in [South](the)(Southeastern United States) and the country.
By 1850, Richmond was connected by the [and Petersburg Railroad](Richmond)(Richmond and Petersburg Railroad) to [Walthall](Port)(Port Walthall), where ships carrying over 200 tons of cargo could connect to [Baltimore](Baltimore, Maryland) or [Philadelphia](Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Passenger liners could reach [Virginia](Norfolk,)(Norfolk, Virginia), through the [Roads](Hampton)(Hampton Roads) harbor. In the 19th century, Richmond was connected to the North by the [Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad](Richmond,)(Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad), later replaced by [CSXT](CSXT).
The railroad also was used by some to escape slavery in the mid-19th century. In 1849, ["Box" Brown](Henry)(Henry Box Brown) famously had himself nailed into a small box and shipped from Richmond to abolitionists in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) through [Baltimore](Baltimore)'s [Street Station](President)(President Street Station) on the [Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad](Philadelphia,)(Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad), often used by the [Railroad](Underground)(Underground Railroad) to assist escaping disguised slaves reach the free state of [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania).Switala, William J. "[The Underground Railroad in Pennsylvania](https://books.google.com/books?id=WPFYoBL6bGsC&dq=Henry+%22box%22+brown&pg=PA1) ." Published 2001, Stackpole Books. pp. 1–4.
### American Civil War
Five days after the Confederate attack on [Sumter](Fort)(Fort Sumter), the Virginia legislature voted to secede from the United States and join the newly-created [States of America](Confederate)(Confederate States of America) on April 17, 1861. The action became official in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its national capital to Richmond from [Alabama](Montgomery,)(Montgomery, Alabama).
Richmond held local, state and national Confederate government offices, hospitals, a railroad hub, and one of the largest slave markets. It also had the largest Confederate arms factory, the [Iron Works](Tredegar)(Tredegar Iron Works). The factory produced artillery and other munitions, including heavy [ordnance](Ordnance ammunition) machinery and the 723 tons of armor plating that covered the [*Virginia*](CSS)(CSS Virginia), the world's first [ironclad](ironclad) ship used in war.Time-Life Books. *[quote=CSS Virginia Tredegar Iron Works 723 tons. --> The Blockade: Runners and Raiders]( Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact]([[File:Statue of Thomas J. Jackson - Capitol Square - Virginia State House - Richmond - Virginia - USA (46876104255).jpg|thumb|Statue of [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson) in front of the Virginia General Assembly Building.]]
Between 1963 and 1965, there was a "downtown boom" that led to the construction of more than 700 buildings. In 1968, [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University) was created by the merger of the [College of Virginia](Medical)(Medical College of Virginia) and the [Professional Institute](Richmond)(Richmond Professional Institute)."[About VCU](http://www.vcu.edu/about/) ." *[Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University).* Retrieved on July 11, 2007.
On January 1, 1970, Richmond's borders expanded south by and its population increased by 47,000 after several years of court cases in which [County](Chesterfield)(Chesterfield County, Virginia) unsuccessfully fought annexation."[City of Richmond v. United States, 422 U.S. 358](http://supreme.justia.com/us/422/358/) ." **1975.** *[States Supreme Court](United)(United States Supreme Court).* Retrieved on July 11, 2007.
In 1995, a multimillion-dollar [wall](flood)(flood wall) was completed, protecting the city's low-lying areas from the oft-rising James River. Consequently, the River District businesses grew rapidly, bolstered by the creation of a Canal Walk along the city's former industrial canals."[River District History](http://www.richmondriverdistrict.com/main.cfm?action=history) ." *[Richmond River District](http://www.richmondriverdistrict.com/) .* Retrieved on July 11, 2007."[The Canal Walk](https://archive.today/20090804050555/http://www2.richmond.com/content/2009/jul/31/canal-walk/)." *[Richmond.com](http://www.richmond.com/).* July 31, 2009. Retrieved on January 20, 2010. Today the area is home to much of Richmond's entertainment, dining, and nightlife activity.
In 1996, racial tensions grew amid controversy about adding the statue of African American Richmond native and tennis star [Ashe](Arthur)(Arthur Ashe) to the series of statues of Confederate generals on [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue).Edds, Margaret; Little, Robert. "Why Richmond voted to Honor Arthur Ashe on Monument Avenue. The Final, Compelling Argument for Supporters: A Street Reserved for Confederate Generals had no Place in this City." *[Virginian-Pilot](The)(The Virginian-Pilot).* July 19, 1995. After several months of controversy, Ashe's bronze statue was finally completed and installed facing north, the opposite direction from the Confederate generals, on July 10, 1996.Staff Writer. "[Arthur Ashe Statue Set Up in Richmond at Last](https://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/05/us/arthur-ashe-statue-set-up-in-richmond-at-last.html) ." *[York Times](New)(New York Times).* July 5, 1996. Retrieved on January 20, 2010.
## Geography
[[File:Richmond Virginia by Sentinel-2.jpg|thumb|The Richmond area, seen from the [Sentinel-2](Sentinel-2) satellite in mid-August 2022.]]
Richmond is located at (37.538, −77.462). According to the [States Census Bureau](United)(United States Census Bureau), the city has a total area of , of which is land and (4.3%) is water. The city is in the [region of Virginia](Piedmont)(Piedmont region of Virginia), at the James River's highest navigable point. The Piedmont region is characterized by relatively low, rolling hills, and lies between the low, flat [Tidewater](Tidewater region of Virginia) region and the [Ridge Mountains](Blue)(Blue Ridge Mountains). Significant bodies of water in the region include the [River](James)(James River (Virginia)), the [River](Appomattox)(Appomattox River), and the [River](Chickahominy)(Chickahominy River).
The [Richmond-Petersburg](Richmond-Petersburg) [Statistical Area](Metropolitan)(United States metropolitan area) (MSA), the [largest](44th)(List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population) in the United States, includes the independent cities of Richmond, [Heights](Colonial)(Colonial Heights, Virginia), [Hopewell](Hopewell, Virginia), and [Petersburg](Petersburg, Virginia), and the counties of [City](Charles)(Charles City County, Virginia), [Chesterfield](Chesterfield County, Virginia), [Dinwiddie](Dinwiddie County, Virginia), [Goochland](Goochland County, Virginia), [Hanover](Hanover County, Virginia), [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia), [Kent](New)(New Kent County, Virginia), [Powhatan](Powhatan County, Virginia), and [George](Prince)(Prince George County, Virginia)."[The Richmond-Petersburg MSA at a Glance](http://www.richmondregional.org/Publications/Data/RIPE_Jan_06.pdf) ." *[Richmond Regional Planning District Commission](http://www.richmondregional.org/) .* January 2006. Retrieved on July 12, 2007. On July 1, 2009, the Richmond—Petersburg [MSA](Metropolitan Statistical Area)'s population was 1,258,251.
Richmond is located 21.69 miles north of [Virginia](Petersburg,)(Petersburg, Virginia), 66.10 miles southeast of [Virginia](Charlottesville,)(Charlottesville, Virginia), 79.24 miles northwest of [Virginia](Norfolk,)(Norfolk, Virginia), 96.87 miles south of [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), and 138.72 miles northeast of [North Carolina](Raleigh,)(Raleigh, North Carolina).
### Cityscape
[[File:RichmondNSEW.png|thumb|Richmond is often subdivided into the [Side](North)(North Side (Richmond Virginia)), [Southside](Southside (Richmond, Virginia)), [End](East)(East End (Richmond, Virginia)), and [End](West)(The West End (Richmond, Virginia)).]]
Richmond's original street grid, laid out in 1737, included the area between what are now Broad, 17th, and 25th Streets and the James River. Modern [Richmond](Downtown)(Downtown Richmond) is slightly farther west, on the slopes of Shockoe Hill. Nearby neighborhoods include [Bottom](Shockoe)(Shockoe Bottom), the historically significant and low-lying area between Shockoe Hill and [Hill](Church)(Church Hill, Richmond, Virginia), and Monroe Ward, which contains the [Hotel](Jefferson)(Jefferson Hotel (Richmond, Virginia)). Richmond's East End includes neighborhoods like the rapidly gentrifying [Hill](Church)(Church Hill, Richmond, Virginia), home to [John's Church](St.)(St. John's Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia), poorer areas like [Fulton](Fulton Hill), Union Hill, and Fairmont, and public housing projects like [Court](Mosby)(Mosby Court), Whitcomb Court, Fairfield Court, and Creighton Court closer to [64](Interstate)(Interstate 64).
The area between Belvidere Street, [195](Interstate)(Interstate 195 (Virginia)), [95](Interstate)(Interstate 95 in Virginia), and the river, which includes [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University), is socioeconomically and architecturally diverse. North of Broad Street, the Carver and Newtowne West neighborhoods are demographically similar to neighboring [Ward](Jackson)(Jackson Ward).Carver has seen some gentrification due to its proximity to VCU. The affluent area between the [Boulevard](Boulevard (Richmond, Virginia)), Main Street, Broad Street, and VCU, known as the [Fan](Fan district), is home to [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue), an outstanding collection of [architecture](Victorian)(Victorian architecture), and many students. West of the Boulevard is the Museum District, which contains the [Historical Society](Virginia)(Virginia Historical Society) and the [Museum of Fine Arts](Virginia)(Virginia Museum of Fine Arts). South of the [Expressway](Downtown)(Downtown Expressway) are [Park](Byrd)(Byrd Park), [Maymont](Maymont), [Cemetery](Hollywood)(Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia)), the predominantly black working-class Randolph neighborhood, and white working-class [Hill](Oregon)(Oregon Hill). Cary Street between Interstate 195 and the [Boulevard](Boulevard (Richmond, Virginia)) is a popular commercial area called [Carytown](Carytown, Richmond, Virginia).
Richmond's Northside is home to numerous listed historic districts. Neighborhoods such as [Hill-Plateau](Chestnut)(Chestnut Hill-Plateau Historic District (Richmond, VA)) and Barton Heights began to be developed at the end of the 19th century when the new streetcar system made it possible for people to live on the city's outskirts and commute downtown. Other prominent Northside neighborhoods include Azalea, Barton Heights, Bellevue, Chamberlayne, Ginter Park, Highland Park, and Rosedale.
Farther west is the affluent, suburban [End](West)(The West End (Richmond, Virginia)). Windsor Farms is among its best-known sections. The West End also includes middle- to low-income neighborhoods, such as Laurel, Farmington, and the areas around the Regency Mall. More affluent areas include Glen Allen, Short Pump, and the areas of Tuckahoe away from Regency Mall, all north and northwest of the city. The [of Richmond](University)(University of Richmond) and the [Club of Virginia](Country)(Country Club of Virginia) are located on this side of town near the Richmond-Henrico border.
The portion of the city south of the James River is known as the Southside. Southside neighborhoods range from the affluent and middle-class suburban Westover Hills, Forest Hill, Southampton, Stratford Hills, Oxford, Huguenot Hills, Hobby Hill, and Woodland Heights to the impoverished [Manchester](Manchester, Virginia) and Blackwell areas, the Hillside Court housing projects, and the ailing Jefferson Davis Highway commercial corridor. Other Southside neighborhoods include Fawnbrook, Broad Rock, Cherry Gardens, Cullenwood, and Beaufont Hills. Much of Southside developed a suburban character as part of [County](Chesterfield)(Chesterfield County, Virginia) before being annexed by Richmond, most notably in 1970.
### Climate
[[File:Richmond After the Flood (7790622530).jpg|thumb|Flooding of Old Manchester during [Agnes](Hurricane)(Hurricane Agnes), 1972]]
Richmond has a [subtropical climate](humid)(humid subtropical climate) ([Köppen](Köppen climate classification): *Cfa*), with hot, humid summers and moderately cold winters. The [classification](Trewartha)(Trewartha climate classification) defines Richmond as Temperate Oceanic Climate due to winter chill. [mountains to the west](The)(Appalachian Mountains) act as a partial barrier to outbreaks of cold, continental air in winter. Arctic air is delayed long enough to be modified and further warmed as it subsides in its approach to Richmond. The open waters of the [Bay](Chesapeake)(Chesapeake Bay) and Atlantic Ocean contribute to the humid summers and cool winters. The coldest weather normally occurs from late December to early February, and the January daily mean temperature is , with an average of 6.0 days with highs at or below the freezing mark. Richmond's Downtown and areas south and east of downtown are in USDA [zone](Hardiness)(Hardiness zone)s 7b. Surrounding suburbs and areas to the north and west of Downtown are in Hardiness Zone 7a. Temperatures seldom fall below , with the most recent subzero reading on January 7, 2018, when the temperature reached . The July daily mean temperature is , and high temperatures reach or exceed approximately 43 days a year; temperatures are not uncommon but do not occur every year.". "[Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](National)(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)." Extremes in temperature have ranged from on January 19, 1940, to on August 6, 1918.}} The record cold maximum is , set on [11 and 12, 1899](February)(Great Blizzard of 1899#Arctic cold). The record warm minimum is , set on July 12, 2011.
[Precipitation](Precipitation (meteorology)) is rather uniformly distributed throughout the year. Dry periods lasting several weeks sometimes occur, especially in autumn, when long periods of pleasant, mild weather are most common. There is considerable variability in total monthly precipitation amounts from year to year, so no one month can be depended to be normal. Snow has been recorded during seven of the 12 months. Falls of or more within 24 hours occur once a year on average. Annual snowfall is usually moderate, averaging per season. Snow typically remains on the ground for only one or two days, but it remained for 16 days in 2010 (January 30 to February 14). Ice storms (freezing rain or glaze) are not uncommon, but they are seldom severe enough to cause considerable damage.
The [River](James)(James River) reaches tidewater at Richmond, where flooding may occur in any month of the year, most frequently in March and least in July. [Hurricanes](Hurricanes) and [storms](tropical)(tropical storms) have been responsible for most flooding during the summer and early fall months. Hurricanes passing near Richmond have produced record rainfalls. In 1955, three hurricanes, including [Connie](Hurricane)(Hurricane Connie) and [Diane](Hurricane)(Hurricane Diane), which brought heavy rains five days apart, produced record rainfall in a six-week period. In 2004, the downtown area suffered extensive flood damage after the remnants of [Gaston](Hurricane)(Hurricane Gaston) dumped up to of rain."[Flooding devastates historic Richmond, VA](http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5851220) ." * [News](NBC)(NBC News).* September 1, 2004.
Damaging storms occur mainly from snow and [rain](freezing)(freezing rain) in winter, and from hurricanes, tornadoes, and severe thunderstorms in other seasons. Damage can come from wind, flooding, rain, or a combination of the three. [Tornadoes](Tornadoes) are infrequent, but some notable ones have been observed in the Richmond area.
Downtown Richmond averages 84 days of nighttime frost annually. Nighttime frost is more common in areas north and west of Downtown and less common south and east of downtown. From 1981 to 2010, the average first temperature at or below freezing was on October 30 and the average last one on April 10.
extremes 1887–present)
|single line=Y
|collapsed=Y
|Jan record high F=81
|Feb record high F=83
|Mar record high F=94
|Apr record high F=96
|May record high F=100
|Jun record high F=104
|Jul record high F=105
|Aug record high F=107
|Sep record high F=103
|Oct record high F=99
|Nov record high F=86
|Dec record high F=81
|year record high F=107
|Jan avg record high F=70.1
|Feb avg record high F=72.6
|Mar avg record high F=80.5
|Apr avg record high F=87.7
|May avg record high F=91.5
|Jun avg record high F=96.6
|Jul avg record high F=98.6
|Aug avg record high F=96.7
|Sep avg record high F=92.9
|Oct avg record high F=86.4
|Nov avg record high F=77.1
|Dec avg record high F=71.7
|year avg record high F=99.6
|Jan high F=47.8
|Feb high F=51.6
|Mar high F=59.6
|Apr high F=70.4
|May high F=77.8
|Jun high F=85.6
|Jul high F=89.5
|Aug high F=87.5
|Sep high F=81.2
|Oct high F=70.9
|Nov high F=60.4
|Dec high F=51.5
|year high F=69.5
|Jan mean F=38.3
|Feb mean F=41.0
|Mar mean F=48.4
|Apr mean F=58.4
|May mean F=66.7
|Jun mean F=75.0
|Jul mean F=79.4
|Aug mean F=77.5
|Sep mean F=71.2
|Oct mean F=60.0
|Nov mean F=49.6
|Dec mean F=41.8
|year mean F=58.9
|Jan low F=28.8
|Feb low F=30.4
|Mar low F=37.2
|Apr low F=46.4
|May low F=55.7
|Jun low F=64.5
|Jul low F=69.2
|Aug low F=67.6
|Sep low F=61.1
|Oct low F=49.0
|Nov low F=38.8
|Dec low F=32.1
|year low F=48.4
|Jan avg record low F=11.1
|Feb avg record low F=16.0
|Mar avg record low F=21.6
|Apr avg record low F=31.9
|May avg record low F=42.1
|Jun avg record low F=53.4
|Jul avg record low F=60.9
|Aug avg record low F=59.3
|Sep avg record low F=48.8
|Oct avg record low F=34.4
|Nov avg record low F=24.3
|Dec avg record low F=18.2
|year avg record low F=9.1
|Jan record low F=−12
|Feb record low F=−10
|Mar record low F=10
|Apr record low F=19
|May record low F=31
|Jun record low F=40
|Jul record low F=51
|Aug record low F=46
|Sep record low F=35
|Oct record low F=21
|Nov record low F=10
|Dec record low F=−2
|year record low F=-12
|precipitation colour=green
|Jan precipitation inch=3.23
|Feb precipitation inch=2.61
|Mar precipitation inch=4.00
|Apr precipitation inch=3.18
|May precipitation inch=4.00
|Jun precipitation inch=4.64
|Jul precipitation inch=4.37
|Aug precipitation inch=4.90
|Sep precipitation inch=4.61
|Oct precipitation inch=3.39
|Nov precipitation inch=3.06
|Dec precipitation inch=3.51
|year precipitation inch=45.50
|Jan snow inch=3.7
|Feb snow inch=2.2
|Mar snow inch=1.1
|Apr snow inch=0.0
|May snow inch=0.0
|Jun snow inch=0.0
|Jul snow inch=0.0
|Aug snow inch=0.0
|Sep snow inch=0.0
|Oct snow inch=0.0
|Nov snow inch=0.0
|Dec snow inch=1.8
|year snow inch=8.8
|unit precipitation days=0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days=10.0
|Feb precipitation days=9.0
|Mar precipitation days=10.8
|Apr precipitation days=10.5
|May precipitation days=11.1
|Jun precipitation days=10.6
|Jul precipitation days=11.4
|Aug precipitation days=9.4
|Sep precipitation days=9.3
|Oct precipitation days=8.1
|Nov precipitation days=8.4
|Dec precipitation days=10.0
|year precipitation days=118.6
|unit snow days=0.1 in
|Jan snow days=1.9
|Feb snow days=1.7
|Mar snow days=1.0
|Apr snow days=0.6
|May snow days=0.0
|Jun snow days=0.0
|Jul snow days=0.0
|Aug snow days=0.0
|Sep snow days=0.0
|Oct snow days=0.0
|Nov snow days=0.1
|Dec snow days=0.9
|year snow days=5.6
|Jan humidity=67.9
|Feb humidity=65.6
|Mar humidity=63.0
|Apr humidity=60.8
|May humidity=69.5
|Jun humidity=72.2
|Jul humidity=74.8
|Aug humidity=77.2
|Sep humidity=77.0
|Oct humidity=73.8
|Nov humidity=69.1
|Dec humidity=68.9
|year humidity=70.0
|Jan sun=172.5
|Feb sun=179.7
|Mar sun=233.3
|Apr sun=261.6
|May sun=288.0
|Jun sun=306.4
|Jul sun=301.4
|Aug sun=278.9
|Sep sun=237.9
|Oct sun=222.8
|Nov sun=183.5
|Dec sun=163.0
|Jan percentsun=56
|Feb percentsun=59
|Mar percentsun=63
|Apr percentsun=66
|May percentsun=65
|Jun percentsun=69
|Jul percentsun=67
|Aug percentsun=66
|Sep percentsun=64
|Oct percentsun=64
|Nov percentsun=60
|Dec percentsun=55
|year percentsun=64
| Jan dew point C=-4.0
| Feb dew point C=−3.1
| Mar dew point C=0.9
| Apr dew point C=5.3
| May dew point C=12.3
| Jun dew point C=17.2
| Jul dew point C=19.8
| Aug dew point C=19.6
| Sep dew point C=15.9
| Oct dew point C=9.1
| Nov dew point C=3.4
| Dec dew point C=−1.4
| Jan uv=2
| Feb uv=3
| Mar uv=5
| Apr uv=7
| May uv=8
| Jun uv=9
| Jul uv=9
| Aug uv=9
| Sep uv=7
| Oct uv=5
| Nov uv=3
| Dec uv=2
|source 1=[NOAA](National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) (relative humidity and sunshine hours 1961–1990)
|source 2=Weather Atlas
}}
## Demographics
1790–1960 1900–19901990–20002010–2020
}}
Richmond's population is approximately 226,000. As an independent city, Richmond is surrounded by [County](Henrico)(Henrico County, Virginia), which has a population of about 334,000. The [Richmond region](Greater)(Greater Richmond Region) has an estimated population of about 1.3 million.
### 2020 census
>U.S. Census Bureau (2014-2018). Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https://censusreporter.org >
|titlebar=#ddd |left1=Origin |right1=percent |float=right
|bars=
}}
### 2010 Census
As of the [United States Census](2010)(2010 United States Census), there were 204,214 people living in the city. 50.6% were [or African American](Black)(African American), 40.8% [White](White American), 2.3% [Asian](Asian American), 0.3% [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States), 0.1% [Islander](Pacific)(Pacific Islands American), 3.6% of some other race and 2.3% [two or more races](of)(Multiracial American). 6.3% were [or Latino](Hispanic)(Hispanic and Latino Americans) (of any race).
[[and ethnicity 2010- Richmond (5560433168).png|thumb|left|Map of racial distribution in Richmond, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: ](File:Race)]
As of the census of 2000, there were 197,790 people, 84,549 households, and 43,627 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 92,282 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 57.2% [American](African)(African American (U.S. Census)), 38.3% [White](White (U.S. Census)), 0.2% [American](Native)(Native American (U.S. Census)), 1.3% [Asian](Asian (U.S. Census)), 0.1% [Islander](Pacific)(Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)), 1.5% from [races](other)(Race (United States Census)), and 1.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](Hispanic (U.S. Census)) or [Latino](Latino (U.S. Census)) of any race were 2.6% of the population.
There were 84,549 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.1% were married couples living together, 20.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.4% were non-families. 37.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.95.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.8% under the age of 18, 13.1% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $31,121, and the median income for a family was $38,348. Males had a median income of $30,874 versus $25,880 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,337. About 17.1% of families and 21.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.9% of those under age 18 and 15.8% of those age 65 or over.
### Crime
Richmond experienced a spike in overall crime, particularly in the [rate](murder)(murder rate), during the 1980s, 1990s, and the early 2000s, when it was consistently ranked as one of the most dangerous cities in the United States.
Since the late 2000s, various forms of crime have significantly decreased in the city. Its major crime rate, including violent and property crimes, decreased 47 percent between 2004 and 2009 to its lowest level in more than a quarter of a century. In 2008, Richmond had fallen to 49th on a [Quitno Press](Morgan)(Morgan Quitno Press) ranking of the most dangerous cities in the United States, and the city recorded its lowest homicide rate since 1971. By 2012, Richmond was no longer in the top 200.
In recent years, Richmond, like other cities, has had a slight increase in homicides, although violent and other forms of crime remain below the national average.Rockett, Ali (January 14, 2017). ["61 people were slain in Richmond in 2016. Here are their stories."](http://www.richmond.com/news/local/city-of-richmond/article_4742e8b1-e2de-5c72-9b47-a373924014d2.html) *Richmond Times-Dispatch.* Retrieved January 15, 2017.
### Religion
In 1786, the Virginia General Assembly adopted the [Statute for Religious Freedom](Virginia)(Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom), which [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), wrote in 1779. The [Freedom Center](First)(First Freedom Center) now commemorates the site.
Richmond has several historic churches, including several prominent Anglican/Episcopal ones from before the Revolutionary War, [Church](Monumental)(Monumental Church), [Paul's Episcopal Church](St.)(St. Paul's Episcopal Church of Richmond, Virginia), and [John's Episcopal Church](St.)(Saint John's Church, Richmond, Virginia). Methodists and Baptists built subsequent early Richmond churches. The first, [Baptist Church of Richmond](First)(First Baptist Church (Richmond, Virginia)), was established in 1780. The First Presbyterian Church, organized on June 18, 1812, was the city's first [church](Reformed)(Reformed church). The [Presbyterian Church of Richmond](Second)(Second Presbyterian Church (Richmond, Virginia)), founded February 5, 1845, where [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson) worshiped, was Richmond's first [Gothic](Gothic architecture) building and [gas-lit](gas lighting) church."[History of Second Presbyterian Church, Richmond](http://2presrichmond.org/?page_id=232) ." *Second Presbyterian Church.* Retrieved on January 20, 2010. [Peter's Church](St.)(St. Peter's Church (Richmond, Virginia)), dedicated May 25, 1834, was the first Catholic church. The [of the Sacred Heart](Cathedral)(Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Richmond), dedicated 72 years later, is the [Catholic Diocese of Richmond's](Roman)(Roman Catholic Diocese of Richmond) [church](mother)(mother church).
[[File:Cathedral of the Sacred Heart Richmond.jpg|thumb|[of the Sacred Heart](Cathedral)(Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Richmond), dedicated in 1906]]
The [Jewish congregation](first)(Oldest synagogues in the United States) in Richmond, and the sixth in the United States, was Kahal Kadosh Beth Shalom. By 1822, Beth Shalom members worshipped in Virginia's first synagogue. Eventually, the congregation merged with its offshoot, [Beth Ahabah](Congregation)(Congregation Beth Ahabah). Richmond has two Orthodox Synagogues, Keneseth Beth Israel and Chabad of Virginia. An Orthodox [Yeshivah](Yeshivah) K–12 school system, Rudlin Torah Academy, includes a post high-school program. The city also is home to two Conservative synagogues, Beth El and Or Atid; and two Reform synagogues, Beth Ahabah and Or Ami. Other Jewish charitable, educational, and social service institutions serving Richmond include the Weinstein Jewish Community Center, Jewish Family Services, Jewish Community Federation of Richmond, and the [Jewish Foundation](Richmond)(Richmond Jewish Foundation).
[Immigrants](Immigrants) brought their religions to Richmond and built churches. Germans formed [John's German Evangelical church](St.)(St. John's United Church of Christ, Richmond, Virginia) in 1843. Greeks held Saints Constantine and Helen Greek Orthodox Cathedral's first worship service in 1917 in a rented room at 309 North 7th Street. The cathedral relocated to 30 Malvern Avenue in 1960. It is one of two Eastern Orthodox churches in Richmond and home to the annual Richmond Greek Festival.[Richmond Greek Festival](http://www.greekfestival.com/33/index.html) . Retrieved on January 20, 2010.
There are seven [masjid](masjid)s in the Greater Richmond area, with three more in construction to accommodate the growing Muslim population. The first was Masjid Bilal."[History of Local Masajid](http://www.isgr.org/mas26inf.pdf) ." *[Islamic Society of Greater Richmond](http://www.isgr.org/) .* February 2006. Retrieved on February 22, 2007. In the 1950s, Muslims from the East End organized under Nation of Islam (NOI), meeting in Temple No. 24 on North Avenue. After the 1975 NOI split, Muslims who joined mainstream Islam started meeting at Shabaaz Restaurant on Nine Mile Road. By 1976, the Muslims met in a rented church they unsuccessfully tried to buy. Ultimately, the congregation bought an old grocery store on Chimbarazoo Boulevard, where Masjid Bilal is now located. Initially called "Masjid Muhammad No. 24," it was given its current name in 1990. The next masjid was the Islamic Center of Virginia, ICVA, established in 1973 as a non-profit, tax-exempt organization. After successful fundraising, ICVA bought land on Buford Road and began constructing the new masjid in the early 1980s. The other five masjids in the Richmond area are Islamic Center of Richmond (ICR) in the West End; Masjid Umm Barakah on 2nd Street, Downtown; Islamic Society of Greater Richmond (ISGR) in the West End end; Masjidullah in the north side; and Masjid Ar-Rahman in the East End.
[[File:WattsHallUnionPresbyterianSeminary.JPG|thumb|Watts Hall at [Presbyterian Seminary](Union)(Union Presbyterian Seminary)]]
Some 6,000 Indian families resided in the Richmond region as of 2011. [Hinduism](Hinduism) is actively practiced at several temples and cultural centers. The two best known are the Cultural Center of India (CCI), off Iron Bridge Road in Chesterfield County, and the Hindu Center of Virginia, in Henrico County, which won national acclaim as Virginia's first [certified](LEED)(LEED certified) religious facility.
[Seminaries](seminary) in Richmond include [Union University](Virginia)(Virginia Union University)'s school of theology, [Presbyterian Seminary](Union)(Union Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education), and the [Theological Seminary at Richmond](Baptist)(Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond). The [Theological Seminary](McCollough)(McCollough Theological Seminary) of the [House of Prayer For All People](United)(United House of Prayer For All People) is in the [Hill](Church)(Church Hill, Richmond, Virginia) neighborhood.
Bishops sitting in Richmond include those of the Episcopal Diocese of Virginia, the denomination's largest; the Richmond Area of the United Methodist Church (Virginia Annual Conference), the second-largest and one of the oldest in the nation. The Presbytery of the James—Presbyterian Church (USA) – also is in the Richmond area.
The [Catholic Diocese of Richmond](Roman)(Roman Catholic Diocese of Richmond) was canonically erected by [Pius VII](Pope)(Pope Pius VII) on July 11, 1820, and today has 235,816 members in 146 parishes. The city of Richmond is [of the Sacred Heart](Cathedral)(Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Richmond) is home to the current bishop, Most Reverend [C. Knestout](Barry)(Barry C. Knestout), appointed by [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) on December 15, 2017.
[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](The)(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) has three stakes, or organizational units of multiple congregations, in the greater Richmond area. At year-end 2017, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints reported 95,379 members in 200 congregations in 22 stakes [Virginia](across)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Virginia)). In April 2018, church president [M. Nelson](Russell)(Russell M. Nelson) announced a new [temple](Temple (LDS Church)) to be built in Virginia. The church's first temple in the state is in Glen Allen, northwest of Richmond.
## Economy
[[Warehouse Interior, Richmond, Virginia.jpg|thumb|Richmond tobacco warehouse c. 1910s](File:Tobacco)]
Richmond's strategic location on the [River](James)(James River) at the rocky [line](fall)(Atlantic Seaboard fall line) separating Virginia's [Piedmont](Piedmont region of Virginia) and [region](Tidewater)(Tidewater region)s made it a natural development point for commerce. For centuries and three modes of transportation — boats, with the Great Turning Basin; railroad, with the world's only [crossing](triple)(Triple Crossing) of rail lines; and cars, with two intersecting major interstates— the downtown has always been a natural hub.
Law and finance have long been driving forces in the economy. Richmond is home to the Virginia Supreme Court; one of the four courts in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia; one of the four divisions of the United States Bankruptcy Court for the Eastern District of Virginia; and the [States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit), one of thirteen such [courts](appeals)(United States courts of appeals). Richmond is headquarters to three of the largest law firms in the United States: [& Williams](Hunton)(Hunton & Williams), [McGuireWoods](McGuireWoods), and [Mullen](Williams)(Williams Mullen). [Sanders](Troutman)(Troutman Sanders), which merged with Richmond-based Mays & Valentine LLP in 2001, also has a significant presence
The city also is home to the [Reserve Bank of Richmond](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond), one of twelve such [banks](Federal Reserve System), with many large financial and other companies having significant offices, like [Financial](Genworth)(Genworth Financial), [One](Capital)(Capital One), [Morris USA](Philip)(Philip Morris USA), and several banks and brokerages.
Since the 1960s, Richmond has been a prominent hub for advertising agencies and related businesses. One of the most notable Richmond-based agencies, [Martin Agency](The)(The Martin Agency), was founded in 1965 and employs 500. With local advertising agency support, [VCU](VCU)'s graduate advertising school (VCU Brandcenter) has consistently ranked as the best graduate advertising program in the country.[The Top 5](http://www.adcenter.vcu.edu/html/news/articles/adschoolreview05.pdf). *[Creativity](Creativity Magazine)*. March 2005.
Richmond is home to the rapidly developing Virginia BioTechnology Research Park, which opened in 1995 as a biotechnology and pharmaceutical incubator. Located adjacent to the Medical College of Virginia (MCV) Campus of [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University), the park has over of research, laboratory, and office space for a diverse tenant mix of companies, research institutes, government laboratories, and non-profit organizations. The [Network for Organ Sharing](United)(United Network for Organ Sharing), which maintains the nation's [transplant](organ)(organ transplant) waiting list, occupies one building in the park. [Morris USA](Philip)(Philip Morris USA) opened a $350 million research and development facility in the park in 2007. Once fully developed, park officials expect the site to employ roughly 3,000 scientists, technicians and engineers.
[[of the James, Downtown Richmond, Virginia, 2008.JPG|thumb|The James River](File:Falls)]
Richmond's revitalized downtown includes the Canal Walk, a new Greater Richmond Convention Center, and expansion on both [VCU](VCU) campuses. A new performing arts center, [CenterStage](Richmond)(Richmond CenterStage), opened on September 12, 2009.Ruggieri, Melissa. "[Richmond CenterStage opens its doors Saturday](https://archive.today/20120829200054/http://www2.timesdispatch.com/rtd/entertainment/theatre_arts/article/W-CENT10_20090909-192201/291639/)." *[Times-Dispatch](Richmond)(Richmond Times-Dispatch).* September 9, 2009. Retrieved on January 20, 2010. The complex included a renovation of the Carpenter Center and construction of a new multipurpose hall, community playhouse, and arts education center in parts of the old Thalhimers department store.Jones, Will. "[Showtime's set](https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/timesdispatch/access/1195513501.html?dids=1195513501:1195513501&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jan+14%2C+2007&author=WILL+JONES&pub=Richmond+Times+-+Dispatch&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=At+last%2C+showtime%27s+set)." "[Times-Dispatch](Richmond)(Richmond Times-Dispatch)". January 14, 2007. Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
[beer](Craft)(Microbrewery), [cider](cider), and [liquor](liquor) production is also growing in the River City, with twelve micro-breweries in the city. The oldest is Legend Brewery, founded in 1994. Two cideries, Buskey Cider and Blue Bee Cider, are located in the popular beverage neighborhood of [Addition](Scott's)(Scott's Addition Historic District), which has nine breweries, one meadery, and one distillery. Richmond's three [distilleries](Distillation) are Reservoir Distillery, founded in 2010; Belle Isle Craft Spirits, started in 2013; and James River Distillery, established in 2014.
Richmond is attracting film and television industry attention. Several high-profile films have been shot in the metro region, including the major motion picture *[Lincoln](Lincoln (2012 film)),* for which [Day-Lewis](Daniel)(Daniel Day-Lewis) won his third Oscar; *[Kennedy](Killing)(Killing Kennedy (film))* with [Lowe](Rob)(Rob Lowe), airing on the [Geographic Channel](National)(National Geographic Channel); and ''[Turn](Turn: Washington's Spies)*, starring [Bell](Jamie)(Jamie Bell) and airing on [AMC](AMC (TV channel)). Richmond was the main filming location for the [PBS](PBS) drama series *Mercy Street'', which premiered in Winter 2016. Several organizations, including the Virginia Film Office and the Virginia Production Alliance, and events, like the Richmond International Film Festival and French Film Festival, continue to draw film and media professionals to the region.
### Fortune 500 companies and other large corporations
[[File:City of Richmond Business District.jpg|thumb|Six [500](Fortune)(Fortune 500) companies are headquartered in the Richmond area.]]
Greater Richmond was named the third-best city for business by [MarketWatch](MarketWatch) in September 2007, ranking behind Minneapolis and Denver and above Boston. The area is home to six [500](Fortune)(Fortune 500) companies: electric utility [Energy](Dominion)(Dominion Energy); [CarMax](CarMax); [& Minor](Owens)(Owens & Minor); [Financial](Genworth)(Genworth Financial); [MeadWestvaco](MeadWestvaco)/ [WestRock](WestRock); and [Group](Altria)(Altria Group). Dominion Energy is the only headquartered in the city of Richmond. The others are located in neighboring [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia) and [Hanover](Hanover County, Virginia) counties. In February 2006, [MeadWestvaco](MeadWestvaco) announced a 2008 move from [Connecticut](Stamford,)(Stamford, Connecticut), to Richmond with assistance from the Greater Richmond Partnership, a regional economic development organization that also helped locate [Birla Minacs](Aditya)(Aditya Birla Minacs), [Amazon.com](Amazon.com), and [International](Honeywell)(Honeywell International) to the region. In 2008, Altria moved its corporate HQ from New York City to Henrico County. In July 2015, MeadWestvaco merged with Georgia-based Rock-Tenn Company creating [WestRock](WestRock) Company.
Other [500](Fortune)(Fortune 500) companies without headquarters but with a significant presence in the Richmond area include [Banks](SunTrust)(SunTrust Banks) (based in [Atlanta](Atlanta)), [One](Capital)(Capital One) (officially based in [Virginia](McLean,)(McLean, Virginia), but founded in and with its operations center and most employees in the Richmond area), and medical and pharmaceutical giant [Corporation](McKesson)(McKesson Corporation) (based in Las Colinas, Texas). Capital One and Philip Morris USA are two of the largest private Richmond-area employers. [DuPont](DuPont) maintains a production facility in South Richmond known as the Spruance Plant. [Freight](UPS)(UPS Freight), the less-than-truckload division of [Parcel Service](United)(United Parcel Service) has its corporate headquarters in Richmond.
Other companies based in Richmond include engineering specialists [Consultants](CTI)(CTI Consultants); chemical company [NewMarket](NewMarket Corporation); [Brink's](Brink's), the security and armored car company; [Express Lines](Estes)(Estes Express Lines), a freight carrier; [Corporation](Universal)(Universal Corporation), a tobacco merchant; [Telephone](Cavalier)(Cavalier Telephone and TV), now Windstream, a telephone, internet, and digital television provider formed in Richmond in 1998; [Bekaert & Holland](Cherry)(Cherry Bekaert & Holland), a top 30 accounting firm serving the [Southeast](Southeastern United States); the law firm of [McGuireWoods](McGuireWoods); [Insurance](Elephant)(Elephant Insurance), an insurance company subsidiary of [Group](Admiral)(Admiral Group); and [General](Media)(Media General), a company specializing in broadcast media.
### Poverty
As of 2016, 24.8% of Richmond residents live below the [poverty line](federal)(federal poverty line), the second-highest among the 30 largest cities and counties in Virginia.Sarah Kleiner, [Richmond's poverty rate is second-highest in Virginia](http://www.richmond.com/news/virginia/richmond-s-poverty-rate-is-second-highest-in-virginia/article_379d6968-ea24-5239-8f7b-5d4cc3e66394.html) , *Richmond Times-Dispatch* (September 15, 2016). An [E. Casey Foundation](Annie)(Annie E. Casey Foundation) report issued in 2016 also determined that Richmond had a [poverty](child)(child poverty) rate of 39%, more than double Virginia's overall rate.Sarah Kleiner & Katie Demeria, [Richmond's 39 percent child poverty rate is more than twice that of all Virginia, according to study](http://www.richmond.com/news/virginia/richmond-s-percent-child-poverty-rate-is-more-than-twice/article_81ddabbe-f84d-5ef0-aa35-d7a2aed3a19d.html) , *Richmond Times-Dispatch* (June 20, 2016). As of 2016, Richmond had the second-highest rate of [eviction](eviction) filings and judgments of any American city with a population of 100,000 or more (in states where complete data was available).Emily Badger & Quoctrung Bui, [In 83 Million Eviction Records, a Sweeping and Intimate New Look at Housing in America](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/04/07/upshot/millions-of-eviction-records-a-sweeping-new-look-at-housing-in-america.html) , *New York Times* (April 7, 2018). Some Richmond neighborhoods, such as the [Court](Creighton)(Creighton Court) public-housing complex, have high concentrations of poverty.Tina Grieg, [Trying to make it in a neighborhood with a 70 percent poverty rate](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/storyline/wp/2014/10/31/trying-to-make-it-in-a-neighborhood-with-a-70-percent-poverty-rate/) , *Washington Post* (October 31, 2014).Mark Robinson, [To Live and Die in Creighton Court](http://richmondmagazine.com/news/features/creighton-court/) , *Richmond Mag* (July 28, 2016).
## Arts and culture
### Museums and monuments
[[File:Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (historic entrance).JPG|thumb|1936 entrance to the [Museum of Fine Arts](Virginia)(Virginia Museum of Fine Arts)]]
[[File:Statue Robert E. Lee Richmond (cropped).JPG|thumb|A focal point of [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue), the [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee) Monument. It was graffitied by protesters in 2020 and then removed by the [Stoney](Levar Stoney) government]]
Several of the city's large general museums are located on or near the Boulevard, the so-called Museum District. The [Historical Society](Virginia)(Virginia Historical Society) and the [Museum of Fine Arts](Virginia)(Virginia Museum of Fine Arts) are on the Boulevard. Nearby is the [Museum of Virginia](Science)(Science Museum of Virginia), housed on Broad Street in the [neoclassical](neoclassicism) former 1919 Broad Street Union Station. Immediately adjacent is the [Museum of Richmond](Children's)(Children's Museum of Richmond), and two blocks away is the [Center for Architecture](Virginia)(Virginia Center for Architecture). Downtown has the [of Virginia](Library)(Library of Virginia) and the [Richmond History Center](Valentine)(Valentine Richmond History Center). The city also has the [Holocaust Museum](Virginia)(Virginia Holocaust Museum) and the [Dominion Railway Museum](Old)(Old Dominion Railway Museum).
Richmond is home to several American Civil War museums and battlefields. The [National Battlefield Park](Richmond)(Richmond National Battlefield Park) Visitors Center and the [Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar](American)(American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar) are near the riverfront, both housed in the former buildings of the [Iron Works](Tredegar)(Tredegar Iron Works), where much of the South's war ordnance was produced. In [End](Court)(Court End), near the [State Capitol](Virginia)(Virginia State Capitol), is the [of the Confederacy](Museum)(Museum of the Confederacy) and the Davis Mansion, also known as the Confederacy's White House. Both feature a wide variety of objects and material from the era. The temporary home of [Robert E. Lee](General)(General Robert E. Lee) still stands Downtown on Franklin Street.
The history of slavery and emancipation are increasingly being represented in the city. There is a former slave trail along the river that leads to Ancarrow's Boat Ramp and Historic Site, which has been developed with interpretive signage. In 2007, the Reconciliation Statue was placed in Shockoe Bottom, with corresponding statues installed in [Liverpool](Liverpool) and [Benin](Benin) representing points in the [Trade](Triangle)(Triangle Trade). Most of the statues honoring Confederate leaders on [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue) were removed during or after the racial justice protests of June 2020 following the killing of George Floyd by Minneapolis police. Contemporaneously, protestors also toppled the monument to Christopher Columbus, whose reputation has suffered for his treatment of indigenous people, throwing it in Fountain Lake on June 9, 2020. The city removed the last Confederate statue, honoring [A. P. Hill](General)(A. P. Hill), on December 12, 2022.Gregory S. Schneider. Washington Post reporter. ( 2 January 2023). "White contractors wouldn't remove Confederate statues. So a Black man did it.". [MSN website](https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/white-contractors-wouldn-t-remove-confederate-statues-so-a-black-man-did-it/ar-AA15T0tX) Retrieved 3 January 2023. The only statue remaining on Memorial Avenue is of Arthur Ashe, the pioneering Black tennis player. The ["Bojangles" Robinson](Bill)(Bill Robinson) monument in Jackson Ward was untouched during the protests and remains in place.
Other historical points of interest include [John's Church](St.)(St. John's Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia), the site of [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry)'s famous "[me liberty or give me death](Give)(Give me liberty or give me death)" speech, and the [Allan Poe Museum](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe Museum (Richmond)) features many of his writings and other artifacts of his life, particularly when he lived in the city as a child, student, and successful writer. The [Marshall](John)(John Marshall) House, home of the former [Justice of the United States](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States), is also Downtown and features many of his writings and objects from his life. [Cemetery](Hollywood)(Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia)) is where two [Presidents](U.S.)(President of the United States) and many Civil War officers and soldiers are buried. [Ahabah Museum and Archives](Beth)(Beth Ahabah Museum & Archives) collects, preserves, and exhibits materials that focus on Jewish history and culture specifically connected to Richmond.
Located near Byrd Park is the famous [War I Memorial Carillon](World)(World War I Memorial Carillon), a 56-bell [carillon](carillon) tower. Dedicated in 1956, the [War Memorial](Virginia)(Virginia War Memorial) is located on Belvedere overlooking the river, and is a monument to Virginians who died in battle in [War II](World)(World War II), the [War](Korean)(Korean War), the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War), the [War](Gulf)(Gulf War), the [in Afghanistan](War)(War in Afghanistan (2001–present)), and the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War).
[Hall](Agecroft)(Agecroft Hall) is a [Tudor](Tudor period) [house](manor)(manor house) and estate located on the James River in the [Farms](Windsor)(Windsor Farms) neighborhood of Richmond. The manor house was built in the late 15th century, and was originally located in the [Agecroft](Agecroft) area of [Pendlebury](Pendlebury), in the [county](historic)(Historic counties of England) of [Lancashire](Lancashire) in [England](England).
### Visual and performing arts
Musicians of note associated with Richmond include [Mraz](Jason)(Jason Mraz), [Dean](Jimmy)(Jimmy Dean), [of Good Roots](Agents)(Agents of Good Roots), [Mann](Aimee)(Aimee Mann), [Thunderpussy](Alabama)(Alabama Thunderpussy), [Avail](Avail), [Broadside](Broadside (band)), [Leaf](Carbon)(Carbon Leaf), [Corpse](Cannabis)(Cannabis Corpse), [Cracker](Cracker (band)), [D'Angelo](D'Angelo), [Denali](Denali (band)), [to Nothing](Down)(Down to Nothing), [Down](Engine)(Engine Down), [Walls Falling](Four)(Four Walls Falling), [Reagan](Iron)(Iron Reagan), [of God](Lamb)(Lamb of God (band)), [Ugly Mane](Lil)(Lil Ugly Mane), [Dacus](Lucy)(Lucy Dacus), [Waste](Municipal)(Municipal Waste), [F](Nickelus)(Nickelus F), [City High](River)(River City High), [Sparklehorse](Sparklehorse), [Anywhere](Strike)(Strike Anywhere), [Brown](Chris)(Chris Brown), [Stanley](Eric)(Eric Stanley (violinist)), [Omens](Bad)(Bad Omens), and [Gravity](Fighting)(Fighting Gravity (band)).Wayne Melton, [10 Richmond musicians who got noticed](https://www.styleweekly.com/richmond/10-richmond-musicians-who-got-noticed/Content?oid=1384442) , *Style Weekly* (October 16, 2002). Richmond is also home of [GWAR](GWAR), a [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music) [collective](art)(art collective) based in a [Addition](Scott's)(Scott's Addition Historic District) warehouse.[Gwar Inc. How the most vile, disgusting, offensive group of musicians in town became Richmond's most famous musical export.](http://www.styleweekly.com/richmond/gwar-inc/Content?oid=1691436) *Style Weekly*, March 27, 2012
#### Murals
With the Richmond Mural Project (RMP), sponsored by RVA Mag and Art Whino, and 2013's RVA Street Art Festival, the city quickly gained more than 100 murals created by international mural artists, such as Aryz, Roa, [English](Ron)(Ron English), and Natalia Rak. While the RMP focused on international talent, the RVA Street Art Festival, led by long-time local mural artist Ed Trask, focused mainly on regional artists, although it was responsible for PoseMSK, [Soto](Jeff)(Jeff Soto), and [Jenkins](Mark)(Mark Jenkins (artist)). After some criticism, the RMP included its first local artist, Nils Westergard, who already was on the international circuit, and then another, Jacob Eveland. The two festivals were unrelated, and the RMP is now defunct. The RVA Street Art Festival occurs as funding permits. In response to the George Floyd protests of the summer of 2020, local artist Hamilton Glass spearheaded the Mending Walls Project, featuring walls by pairs of local artists. Many of the murals, however, are unrelated to the project and done at the artists' impetus.
#### Professional performing companies
From their earliest days, Virginia and Richmond welcomed live theatrical performances. [Hallam](Lewis)(Lewis Hallam) staged early Shakespeare productions in Williamsburg, and Richmond became a prominent colonial and early 19th century performance place for celebrated American and English actors, like William Macready, Edwin Forrest,Macready, William, *The diaries of William Charles Macready, 1833–1851, Volume 2*, p. 416 and the Booth family. In the 20th century, Richmond had many amateur troupes and regular touring professional productions. The growth of professional dinner theaters and the Virginia Museum's support of theater in the 1960s led to two significant developments in the 1970s. First, a resident Equity company was established at the Virginia Museum Theater (now the Leslie Cheek). Second, Theatre IV was created, continuing to this day as the Virginia Repertory Theatre.
* [Repertory Theatre](Virginia)(Virginia Repertory Theatre) is Central Virginia's largest professional theatre organization. It is led by Artistic Director Bruce Miller and Managing Director Phil Whiteway. It was created in 2012, when Barksdale Theatre and Theatre IV merged after sharing one staff member for over a decade. With an annual budget of over $5 million, the theatre employs over 240 artists and presents a season at the November Theatre and Theatre Gym at Virginia Rep Center, with productions at the Hanover Tavern and The Children's Theatre in The Shops at Willow Lawn. The historic November Theatre opened in 1911 as the Empire Theatre, offering stock and vaudeville performances. In 1915, it changed its name to the Strand, operating until 1927, when fire damaged. It reopened in 1933 as the "Booker T," and during segregation was Richmond's leading black movie house. It closed in 1974 and sat idle until real estate developer Mitchell Kambis rescued and renovated it, restoring the Empire name. In 1979, he leased it to Keith Fowler, artistic director of the American Revels Company, which restored live professional theater to Downtown. Theatre IV succeeded Revels in 1984. On its 100th anniversary in 2011, the theatre was further restored when Sara Belle and Neil November gifted $2 million to Theatre IV and Barksdale.[1] The November now serves as Virginia Repertory's headquarters, anchoring the Arts District.
* [Ballet](Richmond)(Richmond Ballet), founded in 1957.
* [Triangle Players](Richmond)(Richmond Triangle Players), founded in 1993, delivers theater programs exploring themes of equality, identity, affection and family across sexual orientation and gender spectrums.
* [Symphony](Richmond)(Richmond Symphony).
* [Opera](Virginia)(Virginia Opera), the Official Opera Company of the Commonwealth of Virginia, was founded in 1974. Presents eight main-stage performances annually at the [Theater](Carpenter)(Carpenter Theater).
#### Other venues and companies
[[Theatre Richmond Va.JPG|thumb|upright|The Carpenter Theatre](File:Carpenter)]
Other venues and companies include:
* The [Theater](Altria)(Altria Theater) is the city-owned [house](opera)(opera house).
* The [Cheek Theater](Leslie)(Leslie Cheek Theater). After lying dormant for eight years, it re-opened in 2011 in the heart of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts at 200 N. Boulevard. The elegant 500-seat proscenium stage, constructed in 1955, matched then-museum director Leslie Cheek's vision of having a theater worthy of a fine arts institution. Operating for years as the Virginia Museum Theater (VMT), it supported an amateur community theater under Robert Telford's direction. When Cheek retired, he advised trustees on the 1969 appointment of [Fowler](Keith)(Keith Fowler) as head of the theater arts division and VMT's artistic director. Fowler's leadership resulted in the city's first resident [Equity](Actors)(Actors Equity)\[LORT](LORT) theater, which added major foreign authors and new American work premieres. Under his leadership, VMT reached a "golden age," gaining international recognitionKass, Carole, "Play Prompts Praise..." in Richmond Times-Dispatch, February 9, 1975 and over doubling its subscriptions. Successive artistic administrations changed its name to "TheatreVirginia." Deficits caused TheatreVirginia to close its doors in 2002. Now, renovated and renamed for Leslie Cheek, live performance has been restored to VMFA. While not sponsoring a resident company, the Leslie Cheek Theater is available for special theatrical and performance events.
* The [Theater](National)(National Theater (Richmond, Virginia)) is Richmond's premier music venue. It holds 1500 people and has shows regularly throughout the week. Built in 1923, it reopened in the winter of 2007 and features a state-of-the-art V-DOSC sound system, only the sixth installed in the country and only the third installed on the East Coast.
* [Arts Center of Richmond](Visual)(Visual Arts Center of Richmond), a not-for-profit organization founded in 1963, is one of the largest nongovernmental arts learning centers in [Virginia](Virginia). It serves 28,000 individuals annually.
* Richmond CenterStage, a performing arts center that opened in Downtown in 2009 as part of an expansion of earlier facilities. The complex includes the renovated 1,700-seat [Theater](Carpenter)(Carpenter Theater) and a new multipurpose hall, community playhouse, and arts education center in the old Thalhimers department store's location.
* The [Theatre](Byrd)(Byrd Theatre) in [Carytown](Carytown, Richmond, Virginia) is a 1920s [palace](movie)(movie palace) that features second-run movies and hosts the [Film Festival](French)(French Film Festival).
* [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University) School of the Arts is consistently ranked as one of the best in the nation."[Top-ranked Graduate and First Professional Programs](http://www.vcu.edu/ranking/) ." *[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report).* March 31, 2006. Retrieved on February 22, 2007.
* [Dell](Dogwood)(Dogwood Dell) is an amphitheatre in [Park](Byrd)(Byrd Park) where the Richmond Department of Recreation and Parks presents an annual Festival of the Arts.
* [of the Performing Arts in the Richmond Community](School)(School of the Performing Arts in the Richmond Community) (School of the Performing Arts in the Richmond Community). SPARC was founded in 1981, training children to become "triple threats," meaning equally versed in singing, acting, and dancing. SPARC has become the largest community-based theater arts education program in Virginia, and it offers classes to every age group during the summer and throughout the year.
* [Amphitheatre at Strawberry Hill](Classic)(Classic Amphitheatre at Strawberry Hill) is the former summer concert venue located at [International Raceway](Richmond)(Richmond International Raceway).
Commercial art galleries include Metro Space Gallery and [5](Gallery)(Gallery 5) in a newly designated arts district. Not-for-profit galleries include Visual Arts Center of Richmond, 1708 Gallery, and Artspace.
In 2008, a new Gay Community Center opened on the city's north side. It hosts meetings of many kinds and includes a large art gallery space.
### Literary arts
Richmond has long been a hub for literature and writers. [Allan Poe](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe) grew up in the city, and the city's oldest stone house is a museum to his life and works. *[Southern Literary Messenger](The)(The Southern Literary Messenger)*, which included his writing, is one of many notable publications started in Richmond. Other noteworthy authors who have called Richmond home include Pulitzer-winning [Glasgow](Ellen)(Ellen Glasgow), controversial figure [Branch Cabell](James)(James Branch Cabell), [Medina](Meg)(Meg Medina), [King](Dean)(Dean King), [L. Robbins](David)(David L. Robbins (Virginia writer)), and MacArthur Fellow [Marshall](Paule)(Paule Marshall). [Wolfe](Tom)(Tom Wolfe) was born in Richmond, as was *[Bad](Breaking)(Breaking Bad)* creator [Gilligan](Vince)(Vince Gilligan). [Baldacci](David)(David Baldacci) graduated from [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University), where the creative writing faculty has included Marshall, [Emerson](Claudia)(Claudia Emerson), [Graber](Kathleen)(Kathleen Graber), [R. Hummer](T.)(T. R. Hummer), [Smith](Dave)(Dave Smith (poet)), [Wojahn](David)(David Wojahn), and [Cokal](Susann)(Susann Cokal). Notable graduates include [Reynolds](Sheri)(Sheri Reynolds), [Pineda](Jon)(Jon Pineda), [Journey](Anna)(Anna Journey) and [Poteat](Joshua)(Joshua Poteat). A community-based organization, **James River Writers**, serves the Greater Richmond Region. It sponsors many writer programs for all career stages, and an annual writers' conference that draws attendees from near and far.
### Architecture
Richmond is home to many significant structures, including some designed by notable architects. The city contains diverse styles and has excellent examples of Georgian, Federal, Greek Revival, Neoclassical, Egyptian Revival, Romanesque Revival, Gothic Revival, Tudor Revival, Italianate, Queen Anne, Colonial Revival, Art Deco, Modernist, International, and Postmodern architecture.
Many of Richmond's historic properties are documented in books and 1970s-era black and white photographs by [G. Zehmer](John)(John G. Zehmer), an architectural historian and preservationist.
The 1865 Evacuation Fire destroyed about 25% of Richmond's early buildings.Hansen, Harry. "The Civil War: A History." Published 2002, Signet Classic. Fewer remain due to redevelopment and construction occurring since [Reconstruction](Reconstruction era of the United States). Nonetheless, Richmond has many historically significant buildings and districts. From the colonial period, there are the [House](Patteson-Schutte)(Patteson-Schutte House) and the [Allan Poe Museum (Richmond, Virginia)](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe Museum (Richmond, Virginia)), both built before 1750.
[[File:Egyptian Building.JPG|thumb|right|[Commonwealth University's](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University) [Building](Egyptian)(Egyptian Building) (1845)]]
Architectural classicism is represented in all city districts, particularly Downtown and in the Fan and the Museum District. Several notable classical architects have designed buildings in Richmond. [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) and [Clérisseau](Charles-Louis)(Charles-Louis Clérisseau) designed the Virginia State Capitol in 1785. It is the second-oldest U.S. statehouse in continuous use (Maryland's is the oldest), and the first U.S. government building built in the [neo-classical](Neoclassical architecture) style, setting the trend for other state houses and federal buildings, including the [House](White)(White House) and [Capitol](The)(United States Capitol) in Washington, D.C."[Jefferson & The Capital Of Virginia](http://www.lva.virginia.gov/exhibits/capitol/) ." An Exhibition at the [of Virginia](Library)(Library of Virginia); January 7 – June 15, 2002. Retrieved on January 20, 2010. Robert Mills designed [Church](Monumental)(Monumental Church) on Broad Street, abutted by the 1845 [Building](Egyptian)(Egyptian Building), one of the few [Revival](Egyptian)(Egyptian Revival) buildings in the U.S.
[[File:Science Museum - Broad Street Station (2256100684).jpg|thumb|The [Museum of Virginia](Science)(Science Museum of Virginia), housed in [Street Station](Broad)(Broad Street Station (Richmond)), designed by [Russell Pope](John)(John Russell Pope)]]
The firm of [Russell Pope](John)(John Russell Pope) designed [Street Station](Broad)(Broad Street Station (Richmond)), or Union Station, in the [Beaux-Arts](Beaux-Arts architecture) style, and it now is home to the [Museum of Virginia](Science)(Science Museum of Virginia). The firm also designed [House](Branch)(Branch House) on [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue) as a Tudor private residence, which now is the Branch Museum of Architecture and Design. Wilson, Harris, and Richards designed [Street Station](Main)(Main Street Station (Richmond)), now used for its intended purpose. The classically trained Beaux-Arts architects, Carrère and Hastings, designed both the Jefferson Hotel and the Commonwealth Club. [Adams Cram](Ralph)(Ralph Adams Cram), renowned for the Princeton University Chapel and the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, designed many buildings at the [of Richmond](University)(University of Richmond), including Jeter and Ryland Halls.
Richmond's position as a center of iron production helped to fuel the popularity of its [architecture](cast-iron)(cast-iron architecture). The city is home to a unique collection of cast iron porches, balconies, fences, and finials, second only to [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) in cast-iron concentration. At the height of production in the 1890s, 25 foundries operated in Richmond, employing nearly 3,500 metal workers. This number is seven times the number of general construction workers employed at the time, illustrating the importance of iron exports to the city.Robert P. Winthrop, Cast and Wrought: The Architectural Metalwork of Richmond, Virginia, (Richmond, Virginia: Valentine Museum, 1980), 93. Porches and fences in urban neighborhoods, such as Jackson Ward, Church Hill, and Monroe Ward, are particularly elaborate, often featuring ornate iron casts never replicated outside of Richmond. In some cases, casts were made for a single residential or commercial application.
Another unique architectural feature to Richmond is outdoor lighting. Former mayor [C. Jones](Dwight)(Dwight Clinton Jones) called the city the tacky light capital of the world.
Richmond is home to several notable buildings designed by modernist masters. [Yamasaki](Minoru)(Minoru Yamasaki) designed the Federal Reserve Building, which dominates the downtown skyline. The [firm](architectural)(architectural firm) of [Owings & Merrill](Skidmore,)(Skidmore, Owings & Merrill), home to [Bunshaft](Gordon)(Gordon Bunshaft), designed the [of Virginia](Library)(Library of Virginia) and the General Assembly Offices at the Eighth and Main Building. [Johnson](Philip)(Philip Johnson) designed the [Building](WRVA)(WRVA Building). [Neutra](Richard)(Richard Neutra) designed [House](Rice)(Rice House (Richmond, Virginia)), a residence on a private James River island, is Richmond's only true International Style home. Famed early modern architect and member of the [Five](Harvard)(Harvard Five),"The Harvard Five in New Canaan", William D. Earls AIA, W. W Norton and Co., 2006 [Gores](Landis)(Landis Gores), designed the W.G. Harris residence in Richmond. [Holl](Steven)(Steven Holl) designed the VCU [for Contemporary Art](Institute)(Institute for Contemporary Art, Richmond), opened in 2018. Other notable architects to have worked in the Richmond area include Rick Mather and [Pei](I.M.)(I.M. Pei).
Richmond's urban residential neighborhoods, largely single use town homes with mixed full retail/dining establishments, are keys the city's character. The Fan, the Museum District, Jackson Ward, Carver, Carytown, Oregon Hill, and Church Hill are districts anchored by large streets, such as Franklin Street, Cary Street, the Boulevard, and Monument Avenue. The city's recent population growth mainly has been concentrated in these areas.
### Historic districts
Richmond's City Code provides for the creation of old and historic districts to "recognize and protect the historic, architectural, cultural, and artistic heritage of the City".[City Code of Richmond, Virginia, Section 30-930.2](https://www2.municode.com/library/va/richmond/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=CORIVI_CH30ZO_ARTIXOVDI_DIV4OLHIDI_S30-930.2PU) Pursuant to that authority, the city has designated 45 districts.[City Code of Richmond, Virginia, Section 30-930.5](https://www2.municode.com/library/va/richmond/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=CORIVI_CH30ZO_ARTIXOVDI_DIV4OLHIDI_S30-930.5ESPAOLHIDI) Most districts also are listed in the [Landmarks Register](Virginia)(Virginia Landmarks Register) ("VLR") and the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places) ("NRHP").
Fifteen districts represent broad sections of the city:Detailed descriptions of these districts are provided by the city in [Old & Historic Districts of Richmond, Virginia, Handbook and Design Review Guidelines (1st Edition, December, 2006, updated January, 2015), p. 11](http://www.richmondgov.com/CommissionArchitecturalReview/documents/Old_Historic_Dist.pdf)
[[File:Monument avenue richmond virginia.jpg|thumb|[Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue)]]
[[File:Jefferson Hotel Richmond VA.jpg|thumb|The [Hotel](Jefferson)(Jefferson Hotel (Richmond, Virginia))]]
The remaining thirty districts are limited to an individual building or group of buildings throughout the city:
### Food
Richmond has been recognized in recent years as a "[foodie](foodie) city," particularly for its modern renditions of traditional [cuisine](Southern)(cuisine of the Southern United States). The city also claims the invention of the [sandwich](sailor)(sailor sandwich), which includes [pastrami](pastrami), [knockwurst](knockwurst), [cheese](Swiss)(Swiss cheese (North America)) and [mustard](mustard (condiment)) on [bread](rye)(rye bread). Richmond is where [beer](canned)(Drink can#History) was first made commercially available in 1935.
## Sports
Richmond does not have a major league professional sports team. Since 2013, however, the [Commanders](Washington)(Washington Commanders) of the [Football League](National)(National Football League) have held their [training camp](summer)(Training camp (National Football League)) in the city. The city has several [league](minor)(minor league) sports franchises, including the [Kickers](Richmond)(Richmond Kickers) of [League One](USL)(USL League One) and the [Flying Squirrels](Richmond)(Richmond Flying Squirrels) of the Class AA [Northeast](Double-A)(Double-A Northeast) of [League Baseball](Minor)(Minor League Baseball), a [Francisco Giants](San)(San Francisco Giants) affiliate. The Kickers began playing in Richmond in 1993, making them the oldest continually operated professional club in the United States. The club now plays home matches at [Stadium](City)(City Stadium (Richmond)). In 2018, the Richmond Kickers left the USL to be founders in Division 3 Soccer. The Squirrels opened their first season at [Diamond](The)(The Diamond (Richmond, Virginia)) on April 15, 2010. From 1966 through 2008, the city was home to the [Braves](Richmond)(Richmond Braves), a [AAA](Triple-A (baseball)) affiliate of the [Braves](Atlanta)(Atlanta Braves) of [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball), until the franchise relocated to [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)).
[[kayaker classIV.jpg|thumb|Richmond is the only city in the United States with class IV rapids](File:Whitewater)]
Richmond is home to the [Black Widows](Richmond)(Richmond Black Widows), the city's first women's football team, founded in 2015 by [Schkeeper](Sarah)(Sarah Schkeeper). The team is in the [Football Alliance](Women's)(Women's Football Alliance), which preseason begins in January and regular season in April.
A significant city sports venue is the 6,000-seat [Ashe Athletic Center](Arthur)(Arthur Ashe Athletic Center), a multi-purpose arena named for tennis great and Richmond resident [Ashe](Arthur)(Arthur Ashe). This facility hosts local sporting events, concerts, and other activities. [Tennis](Tennis) is popular in Richmond. In 2010, the [States Tennis Association](United)(United States Tennis Association) named Richmond the third "Best Tennis Town," after [South Carolina](Charleston,)(Charleston, South Carolina), and [Georgia](Atlanta,)(Atlanta, Georgia).
Auto racing is also popular in the area. The [Raceway](Richmond)(Richmond Raceway) (RR) has hosted [Cup Series](NASCAR)(NASCAR Cup Series) races since 1953, and the Capital City 400 from 1962 to 1980. RR also hosted IndyCar's [Indy Challenge](SunTrust)(SunTrust Indy Challenge) from 2001 to 2009. Another track, [Speedway](Southside)(Southside Speedway), has operated since 1959 and sits just southwest of Richmond in [County](Chesterfield)(Chesterfield County, Virginia). This oval short-track is known as the "Toughest Track in the South" and "The Action Track," featuring weekly [car racing](stock)(stock car racing) Friday nights. Southside Speedway has seen many NASCAR champions, including [Petty](Richard)(Richard Petty), [Allison](Bobby)(Bobby Allison), and [Waltrip](Darrell)(Darrell Waltrip). It is the home track of NASCAR superstar [Hamlin](Denny)(Denny Hamlin).
Richmond hosted the [UCI Road World Championships](2015)(2015 UCI Road World Championships), which had cyclists from 76 countries and an estimated beneficial $158.1 million economic impact on the [Richmond Region](Greater)(Greater Richmond Region) from event staging and visitor spending. The championship course was the first real-world location to be recreated within the indoor cycle training application, [Zwift](Zwift). The application has subsequently added two other [UCI](Union Cycliste Internationale) world championships courses, [Innsbruck](Innsbruck) from 2018 and [Harrogate](Harrogate) from 2019
Richmond also has seen recent men's and women's [basketball](college)(college basketball) success in the [10 Conference](Atlantic)(Atlantic 10 Conference). The [of Richmond Spiders](University)(Richmond Spiders) play at the [Center](Robins)(Robins Center) and the [Rams](VCU)(VCU Rams) play at the [C. Siegel Center](Stuart)(Stuart C. Siegel Center).
## Parks and recreation
[[File:botanicalgarden.jpg|thumb|[Ginter Botanical Garden](Lewis)(Lewis Ginter Botanical Garden)]]
The city operates one of the country's oldest municipal park systems. In 1851, the City Council voted to acquire , now known as [Park](Monroe)(Monroe Park). Monroe Park is adjacent to the [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University) campus, and is one of over 40 parks totaling more than .
Several parks are along the James River, and the James River Parks System offers bike trails, hiking and nature trails, and many scenic overlooks. The trails are used for the Xterra East Championship running and mountain biking courses of the off-road triathlon.
Parks exist on two major islands in the James River, [Isle](Belle)(Belle Isle (Virginia)) and [Island](Brown's)(Brown's Island). Belle Isle, a former Powhatan fishing village, colonial-era horse race track, and Civil War prison camp, is the larger of the two. It contains many bike trails and a small cliff used for [climbing](rock)(rock climbing) instruction. The island still has many remnants of the Civil War prison camp, including an arms storage room and a gun emplacement used to quell prisoner riots. Brown's Island is smaller and a popular venue for many spring and summer free outdoor concerts and festivals, such as the weekly Friday Cheers concert series and the James River Beer and Seafood Festival.
[[File:MaymontPark JapaneseGarden.jpg|thumb|Japanese Garden at [Maymont](Maymont)]]
Two other major city parks along the river are [Park](Byrd)(Byrd Park) and [Maymont](Maymont), located near the Fan District. Byrd Park features a running track, with exercise stops, a public [park](dog)(dog park), and a number of small lakes for small boats, as well as two monuments, Buddha house and an amphitheater. The [War I Memorial Carillon](World)(Carillon), built in 1926, features prominently in the park. Maymont, adjacent to Byrd Park, is a [Victorian](Victorian architecture) estate with a museum, formal gardens, native wildlife exhibits, nature center, [carriage](carriage) collection, and [farm](children's)(Children's Farm). Other city parks include [Bryan Park Azalea Garden](Joseph)(Joseph Bryan Park Azalea Garden), Forest Hill Park (former site of the Forest Hill Amusement Park), and [Park](Chimborazo)(Chimborazo Park) (site of the National Battlefield Headquarters).
The James River through Richmond is one of the best urban white-water rafting/canoeing/kayaking sites in the country, and several rafting companies provide related services. The city also has several easily accessed riverside areas for rock-hopping, swimming, and picnicking.
[Ginter Botanical Garden](Lewis)(Lewis Ginter Botanical Garden) is in adjacent Henrico County. Founded in 1984, Lewis Ginter Botanical Garden is , one of only two independent public botanical gardens in Virginia, and designated a state botanical garden. A public place for the display and scientific study of plants, it features a glass conservatory, rose garden, healing garden, and accessible-to-all children's garden.
Several [park](theme)(theme park)s are located near the city, including [Dominion](Kings)(Kings Dominion) to the north, and [Gardens](Busch)(Busch Gardens) to the east, near [Williamsburg](Williamsburg, Virginia).
## Government
[[City Hall (2988924475).jpg|thumb|upright|Richmond City Hall](File:Richmond)]
}}
Richmond city government consists of a [council](city)(city council) with representatives from nine districts serving in a [legislative](legislative) and oversight capacity, as well as a popularly elected, at-large mayor serving as head of the [branch](executive)(executive branch). Citizens in each of the nine districts elect one council representative each to serve a four-year term. Beginning with the November 2008 election Council terms was lengthened to 4 years. The city council elects from among its members one member to serve as Council President and one to serve as Council Vice President. The city council meets at City Hall, located at 900 E. Broad St., 2nd Floor, on the second and fourth Mondays of every month, except August.
In 1977, a federal district court ruled in favor of [Holt Jr.](Curtis)(Curtis Holt Jr.) who had claimed the council's existing election process — an at large voting system — was racially biased. The verdict required the city to rebuild its council into nine distinct wards. Within the year the city council switched from majority white to majority black, reflecting the city's populace. This new city council elected Richmond's first black mayor, [L. Marsh](Henry)(Henry L. Marsh).
Richmond's government changed in 2004 from a [council-manager](council-manager) form of government with a mayor elected by and from the council to an at-large, popularly elected mayor. Unlike most major cities, in order to be elected, a mayoral candidate must win a plurality of the vote in five of the city's nine council districts. If no one crosses that threshold, a runoff is held between the two top finishers in the first round. This was implemented as a compromise in order to address concerns that better-organized and wealthier white voters could have undue influence. In a landslide election, incumbent mayor Rudy McCollum was defeated by [Douglas Wilder](L.)(Douglas Wilder), who previously served Virginia as the first elected African American governor in the United States since [Reconstruction](Reconstruction era of the United States). The current mayor of Richmond is [Stoney](Levar)(Levar Stoney) who was elected in 2016. The mayor is not a part of the Richmond City Council.
, the Richmond City Council consisted of:
* Andreas D. Addison, 1st District (West End)
* Katherine Jordan, 2nd District (North Central)
* Ann-Frances Lambert, 3rd District (Northside)
* Kristen Nye, 4th District (Southwest)
* Stephanie A. Lynch, 5th District (Central)
* Ellen F. Robertson, 6th District (Gateway), Council Vice President
* Cynthia I. Newbille, 7th District (East End), Council President
* Reva M. Trammell, 8th District (Southside)
* Michael J. Jones, 9th District (South Central)
## Education
[[File:Robins School of Business, University of Richmond.jpg|thumb|The [of Richmond](University)(University of Richmond) School of Business]]
### Public schools
The City of Richmond operates 28 elementary schools, nine [school](middle)(middle school)s, and eight high schools, serving a total student population of 24,000. The city has one Governor's School, the [L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies](Maggie)(Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies). In 2008, it was named one of [Newsweek](Newsweek) magazine's 18 "public elite" high schools, and rated 16 of America's best high schools in 2012. Richmond's public school district also runs one of Virginia's four public [school](charter)(charter school)s, the Patrick Henry School of Science and Arts, founded in 2010. The 2020 class had an on-time graduation rate of 71.6%, at least 20 percentage points behind most other school divisions, making it the worst in the state.
### Private schools
As of 2008, there were 36 private schools serving grades one or higher in the City of Richmond. Some of these schools include: Banner Christian School; St. Bridget School; [Road Academy](Brook)(Brook Road Academy);[School](Collegiate)(Collegiate School (Richmond, Virginia)); Grace Christian School; Grove Christian School; Guardian Christian Academy; [Christopher's School](St.)(St. Christopher's School, Richmond); [Catherine's School](St.)(St. Catherine's School, Richmond, Virginia); [Baptist Christian School](Southside)(Southside Baptist Christian School); [Academy](Northstar)(Northstar Academy (Richmond, Virginia)); [Steward School](The)(The Steward School); [Episcopal School](Trinity)(Trinity Episcopal High School); The New Community School; and Veritas School.
The city's only Catholic high school is Cristo Rey Richmond High School, after [College Preparatory](Benedictine)(Benedictine College Preparatory) and [Gertrude High School](St.)(Saint Gertrude High School) relocated to a combined campus in [Goochland.](Goochland, Virginia)
### Colleges and universities
The Richmond area has many major institutions of higher education, including [Commonwealth University](Virginia)(Virginia Commonwealth University) (public), [of Richmond](University)(University of Richmond) (private), [Union University](Virginia)(Virginia Union University) (private), [University](South)(South University)–Richmond (private, for-profit), [Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education](Union)(Union Theological Seminary & Presbyterian School of Christian Education) (private), and the Baptist Theological Seminary in Richmond (BTSR—private). Several community colleges are in the metro area, including [Sargeant Reynolds Community College](J.)(J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College) and [Community College](Brightpoint)(Brightpoint Community College) ([County](Chesterfield)(Chesterfield County, Virginia)). Several technical colleges are in Richmond, including ITT Technical Institute, [College of Technology](ECPI)(ECPI College of Technology), and Centura College. The same is true of vocational colleges, including Fortis College and Bryant Stratton College.
[State University](Virginia)(Virginia State University) is located about south of Richmond, in [Ettrick](Ettrick, Virginia), just outside [Petersburg](Petersburg, Virginia). [College](Randolph-Macon)(Randolph-Macon College) is located about north of Richmond, in [Ashland](Ashland, Virginia).
## Media
The *[Times-Dispatch](Richmond)(Richmond Times-Dispatch),* owned by [Enterprises, Inc.](Lee)(Lee Enterprises), is the local daily newspaper, with a Sunday circulation of 120,000. *[Weekly](Style)(Style Weekly),* an online alternative local publication owned by [Media Corporation](VPM)(VPM Media Corporation), covers popular culture, arts, and entertainment. [Magazine](RVA)(RVA Magazine) is the city's only independent art music and culture publication. Originally a quarterly, it now is a monthly. The *[Free Press](Richmond)(Richmond Free Press)* and the *Voice* cover the news from an African-American perspective.
The Richmond metro area is served by many local television and radio stations. , the Richmond-Petersburg [market area](designated)(designated market area) (DMA) is the 58th largest in the U.S. with 553,950 homes according to Nielsen Market Research. The major network television affiliates are [WTVR-TV](WTVR-TV) 6 ([CBS](CBS)), [WRIC-TV](WRIC-TV) 8 ([ABC](American Broadcasting Company)), [WWBT](WWBT) 12 ([NBC](NBC)), [WRLH-TV](WRLH-TV) 35 ([Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)), and [WUPV](WUPV) 65 ([CW](The CW)). [PBS](PBS) stations include [WCVE-TV](WCVE-TV) 23 and [WCVW](WCVW) 57. There also are a wide variety of radio stations in the Richmond area, catering to many different interests, including news, [radio](talk)(talk radio), and sports, as well as an eclectic mix of musical interests. Richmond enjoys a [power FM Station](low)(Low-power broadcasting#United States), [WRIR](WRIR), which features all-volunteer community supported radio at all hours.
## Infrastructure
### Transportation
The Greater Richmond area is served by the [International Airport](Richmond)(Richmond International Airport) , located in [Sandston](Sandston, Virginia), southeast of Richmond and within an hour drive of historic [Virginia](Williamsburg,)(Williamsburg, Virginia). Richmond International is served by ten passenger and four cargo airlines, with over 200 daily flights providing non-stop service to major domestic destinations and connecting flights to worldwide destinations. A record 3.3 million passengers used Richmond International Airport in 2006, a 13% increase over 2005.
Richmond is a major hub for intercity [bus](bus) company [Lines](Greyhound)(Greyhound Lines), which has its terminal at 2910 N Boulevard. Multiple daily runs connect directly with Washington, D.C., New York, Raleigh, and elsewhere. Direct trips to New York take approximately 7.5 hours. Discount carrier [Megabus](Megabus (North America)) provides curbside service from Main Street Station. Direct service is available to Washington, D.C., [Roads](Hampton)(Hampton Roads), [Charlotte](Charlotte), [Raleigh](Raleigh, North Carolina), [Baltimore](Baltimore), and [Philadelphia](Philadelphia). Connections to Megabus-served cities, such as New York, are made from Washington, D.C.
The [Richmond Transit Company](Greater)(Greater Richmond Transit of Richmond, Virginia) (GRTC) provides [transit](transit (transportation)) and [paratransit](paratransit) bus service in Richmond and [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia) and [Chesterfield](Chesterfield County, Virginia) counties. The GRTC, however, serves only small parts of the suburban counties. The far West End, Innsbrook and Short Pump, and almost all of Chesterfield County have no public transportation, despite dense housing, retail, and office development. According to a 2008 GRTC operations analysis report, a majority of GRTC riders use their services because they do not have available alternatives, such as a private vehicle. In 2014, U.S. Department of Transportation granted Richmond and the surrounding metropolitan area a roughly $25 million grant for the [Pulse](GRTC)(GRTC Pulse) [rapid transit](bus)(bus rapid transit) system, which opened in June 2018, running along Broad Street from Willow Lawn to Landing.
The Richmond area has two railroad stations served by [Amtrak](Amtrak). Each station receives regular service from north of Richmond, including Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and New York. The region's main station, [Mill Road Station](Staples)(Richmond Staples Mill Road (Amtrak station)), is located just outside the city on a major north–south freight line that receives service to and from all points south, including [Raleigh](Raleigh, North Carolina), [Durham](Durham, North Carolina), [Charlotte](Charlotte, North Carolina), [Savannah](Savannah, Georgia), [News](Newport)(Newport News, Virginia), [Norfolk](Norfolk, Virginia) and Florida. The historic [Street Station](Main)(Main Street Station (Richmond)), renovated in 2004, is the only railway station in the City of Richmond. As of 2010, it only receives trains headed to and from Newport News due to track layout.
Richmond also benefits from an excellent interstate highway position, lying at the junction of east–west [64](Interstate)(Interstate 64) and north–south [95](Interstate)(Interstate 95 in Virginia), two of the most heavily traveled highways in the state. As the state capital, Richmond has great state highway access.
### Major highways
*
*
* (Beltline Expy)
*
* (Brook Rd, Azelea Ave, Chamberlayne Ave, Belvedere St, Cowardin Ave, Jefferson Davis Hwy)
* (Staples Mill Rd, Broad St)
*
* ([Street](Broad)(Broad Street (Richmond, Virginia)))
* (Chamberlayne Ave, Belvedere St, Cowardin Ave, Jefferson Davis Hwy)
* (Hull St Rd; Hull St; N 14th St; joins US 60 Main St; WB 17th St [Hill Way](Oliver), EB W 18th St; Mechanicsville Tnpk)
* (E Main St; N 25th St)
* (Kensington Ave, Patterson Ave)
* (Broad Rock Blvd)
*
*
* (Connector to VA-195)
* (Cary St [after I-195](EB), W Main St [after I-195](WB), Cary St Rd, River Rd, Huguenot Rd [of the James River](S))
*
* (Hermitage Rd, The Boulevard, Park Dr, Blanton Ave, Westover Hills Blvd, Belt Blvd, Bells Rd)
* (toll route) (Downtown Expy)
* (Malvern Ave, Westwood Ave, Saunders Ave, W Laburnum Ave)
* (Entrance to the Grounds of the Virginia Commonwealth University)
*
### Utilities
[Energy](Dominion)(Dominion Energy) supplies the Richmond Metro area's [electricity](Electric power). Headquartered in Richmond, it is one of the nation's largest producers of energy, serving retail energy customers in nine states. Electricity for the Richmond area is primarily produced at the [Anna Nuclear Generating Station](North)(North Anna Nuclear Generating Station), [Nuclear Generating Station](Surry)(Surry Nuclear Generating Station), and a coal-fired station in [Virginia](Chester,)(Chester, Virginia). These three plants provide a total of 4,453 [megawatts](megawatts) of power. Several other natural gas plants provide extra power during peak demands, including facilities in [Chester](Chester, Virginia), and [Surry](Surry, Virginia), and two in Richmond, Gravel Neck and Darbytown.[Dominion Energy](https://www.dominionenergy.com/)
Richmond's Department of Public Utilities provides the Richmond Metro area's natural gas, including portions of [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia) and [Chesterfield](Chesterfield County, Virginia) counties. It also supplies water to the city and surrounding area through wholesale contracts with [Henrico](Henrico County, Virginia), [Chesterfield](Chesterfield County, Virginia), and [Hanover](Hanover County, Virginia) counties. The DPU is one of Virginia's largest water producers, providing water to approximately 500,000 people, including 62,000 city customers, through a distribution system of water mains, pumping stations, storage facilities, and a modern plant that can treat up to 132 million gallons daily from the [River](James)(James River (Virginia)).
The [wastewater](wastewater) treatment plant is on the James River's south bank. It can treat up to 70 million gallons of water per day of sanitary sewage and stormwater before returning it to the river. The wastewater utility also operates and maintains of sanitary sewer and pumping stations, of intercepting sewer lines, and the Shockoe Retention Basin, a 44-million-gallon stormwater reservoir used during heavy rains.
## Sister cities
Richmond's [cities](sister)(Sister city) are:
* [upon Thames](Richmond)(London Borough of Richmond upon Thames), United Kingdom
* [Saitama](Saitama (city)), Japan
* [Ségou](Ségou), Mali
* [Windhoek](Windhoek), Namibia
* [Zhengzhou](Zhengzhou), China
## See also
* [of Virginia](Culture)(Culture of Virginia)
* [Police Department](Richmond)(Richmond Police Department (Virginia))
* [*Richmond*](USS)(USS Richmond), 3 ships
* [from Richmond, Virginia](:Category:People)(:Category:People from Richmond, Virginia)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* Ash, Stephen V. *Rebel Richmond: Life and Death in the Confederate Capital* (UNC Press, 2019).
* Bill, Alfred Hoyt. *The Beleaguered City: Richmond, 1861–1865* (1946).
* Calcutt, Rebecca Barbour. ''Richmond's Wartime Hospitals* (Pelican Publishing, 2005).
* Chesson, Michael B. *Richmond after the war, 1865–1890* (Virginia State Library, 1981).
*
* Furgurson, Ernest B. *Ashes of glory: Richmond at war* (1996).
* Hoffman, Steven J. *Race, Class and Power in the Building of Richmond, 1870-1920* (McFarland, 2004).
* Mustian, Thomas F. *Facts and Legends of Richmond Area Streets.* (Richmond, VA: Dementi Milestone Publishing, 2007).
* Thomas, Emory M. *The Confederate State of Richmond: A Biography of the Capital* (LSU Press, 1998).
* Trammell, Jack. *The Richmond Slave Trade: The Economic Backbone of the Old Dominion* (The History Press, 2012).
* Wright, Mike. *City Under Siege: Richmond in the Civil War* (Rowman & Littlefield, 1995)
## External links
*
* [ChamberRVA](https://www.chamberrva.com/), the regional chamber of commerce for Greater Richmond
* [Richmond Metropolitan Convention & Visitors Bureau](http://www.visitrichmondva.com/)
* [Richmond, Virginia](http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/richmond/index.html), a National Park Service *Discover Our Shared Heritage'' travel itinerary
*
[ ](Category:Richmond, Virginia)
[in Virginia](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Virginia)
[Richmond Region](Category:Greater)(Category:Greater Richmond Region)
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[places established in 1737](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in 1737)
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Duran Duran
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duran_duran
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# Duran Duran
*Revision ID: 1160245463 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T08:38:12Z*
---
| spinoffs = * [Arcadia](Arcadia (band))
* [Power Station](The)(The Power Station (band))
* [Outsiders](Neurotic)(Neurotic Outsiders)
* [Devils](The)(The Devils (band))
* [Mania](TV)(TV Mania)
| website =
| current_members = * [Le Bon](Simon)(Simon Le Bon)
* [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes)
* [Taylor](John)(John Taylor (bass guitarist))
* [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer))
| past_members =
* [Duffy](Stephen)(Stephen Duffy)
* Simon Colley
* Andy Wickett
* Alan Curtis
* Jeff Thomas
*[Taylor](Andy)(Andy Taylor (guitarist))
* [Cuccurullo](Warren)(Warren Cuccurullo)
* [Campbell](Sterling)(Sterling Campbell)
}}
**Duran Duran** () are an English [rock](Rock music) band formed in [Birmingham](Birmingham) in 1978 by singer and bassist [Duffy](Stephen)(Stephen Duffy), keyboardist [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes), and guitarist/bassist [Taylor](John)(John Taylor (bass guitarist)). With the addition of drummer [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer)) the following year, the band went through numerous personnel changes before May 1980, when they settled on their most famous line-up by adding guitarist [Taylor](Andy)(Andy Taylor (guitarist)) and lead vocalist [Le Bon](Simon)(Simon Le Bon).
When Duran Duran emerged they were generally considered part of the [Romantic](New)(New Romantic) scene. Innovators of the [video](music)(music video), Duran Duran were catapulted into the mainstream with the introduction of the 24-hour music channel [MTV](MTV). The group was a leading band in the MTV-driven [British Invasion](Second)(Second British Invasion) of the US in the 1980s. Photographer [O'Regan](Denis)(Denis O'Regan), who captured the band during their 1984 tour, commented "Duran Duran in America was like [Beatlemania](Beatlemania)." The band's first major hit was "[on Film](Girls)(Girls on Film)" (1981), from their [debut album](self-titled)(Duran Duran (1981 album)), the popularity of which was enhanced by a controversial music video. A heavily edited form played in rotation on MTV. The band's breakthrough second album was *[Rio](Rio (Duran Duran album))* (1982), which peaked at number six in the US, number two in the United Kingdom, and number one in Australia and Canada. The songs "[Like the Wolf](Hungry)(Hungry Like the Wolf)" and "[Rio](Rio (song))" featured cinematic music videos directed by Australian film maker [Mulcahy](Russel)(Russel Mulcahy) and became two of their biggest hits. "Hungry Like the Wolf" won the inaugural [Award for Best Music Video](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Music Video) in 1984. Their follow-up third album, *[and the Ragged Tiger](Seven)(Seven and the Ragged Tiger),* became their only UK number one album and featured the US and UK number one single "[Reflex](The)(The Reflex)". In 1985, the band topped the US charts with the single "[View to a Kill](A)(A View to a Kill (song))" from the soundtrack of the [Bond](James)(James Bond) [of the same name](film)(A View to a Kill).
Andy and Roger left the band before the recording of their fourth album, *[Notorious](Notorious (Duran Duran album))* (1986), which yielded the top ten [track](title)(Notorious (Duran Duran song)). The band spent the rest of the 1980s and early 1990s continuing to release albums and singles, to only moderate success. Their comeback album, 1993's *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1993 album))* (commonly called *The Wedding Album*), featured two top-ten worldwide hits "[World](Ordinary)(Ordinary World (song))" and "[Undone](Come)(Come Undone (Duran Duran song))". After John Taylor left in 1997, the band released a number of albums and singles which underperformed on the sales charts. A full reunion of the line-up of Le Bon, Rhodes, and all three Taylors in 2001 led to a number of highly successful concert tours and the 2004 album *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))*, which reached number 3 in the UK and top 40 in numerous other countries. The album's lead single "[Up for The) Sunrise]((Reach)((Reach Up for The) Sunrise)" was an international dance hit, and reached number five in the UK. Andy left again in 2006, and the band have released four additional albums, with the most recent being *[Past](Future)(Future Past (Duran Duran album))* in 2021.
According to *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine)), *Duran Duran have sold over 100 million records. They achieved 30 top 40 singles in the [Singles Chart](UK)(UK Singles Chart) (14 of them top 10) and 21 top 40 singles in the US [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100). The band have won numerous [awards](List of awards and nominations received by Duran Duran) throughout their career: two [Awards](Brit)(Brit Awards) including the 2004 award for Outstanding Contribution to Music, two [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s, an [Video Music Award](MTV)(MTV Video Music Award) for [Achievement](Lifetime)(Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award), and a [Visionary Award](Video)(MTV Europe Music Award for Global Icon) from the [Europe Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Europe Music Awards). They were also awarded a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame). The band was inducted into the [& Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock & Roll Hall of Fame) as part of the class of 2022.
## History
### 1978–1980: Formation and early years
[Taylor](John)(John Taylor (bass guitarist)) and [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes) formed Duran Duran in 1978 in [Birmingham](Birmingham), England, with Taylor's art school friend [Duffy](Stephen)(Stephen Duffy), naming their band after "Dr. Durand Durand", [O'Shea](Milo)(Milo O'Shea)'s character from the science fiction film *[Barbarella](Barbarella (film))* (1968), the day after the film was broadcast on BBC on 20 October 1978. The three of them (Taylor on guitar and vocals, Rhodes on synthesizer and tapes, Duffy on vocals and bass) played their first gig on 5 April 1979 at the [Polytechnic](Birmingham)(Birmingham Polytechnic). Soon after, they were joined by Simon Colley on clarinet and bass. John (then Nigel) Taylor was the guitarist at this point. After a few gigs, including a performance at [Barbarella's](Barbarella's) in Birmingham opening for the band [Fashion](Fashion (band)) (with [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer)) in the audience) Duffy and Colley left the band in June 1979.
Taylor and Rhodes then recruited lead vocalist Andy Wickett (formerly frontman of *TV Eye*) and decided that they needed a live drummer. [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer)) who had previously been in a few local bands (most recently *The Scent Organs* who also played at Barbarella's) came on board, while John Taylor switched to bass guitar. In September 1979 this incarnation of the band recorded a four-track demo including an early version of "[on Film](Girls)(Girls on Film)" co-written by Andy Wickett. Soon afterwards Alan Curtis was recruited as lead guitarist. After a few gigs with this line-up Wickett left the band in late 1979.
Wickett was replaced by Roger Taylor's friend and former singer of *The Scent Organs* Jeff Thomas. In early 1980 they became the resident band at the city's [Runner](Rum)(Rum Runner (nightclub)) nightclub. They were doing jobs at the club, and began rehearsing and regularly playing at the venue. Curtis was however unhappy with the Rum Runner club scene and left the band to form [Juz](Dif)(Dif Juz) with his brother. Soon afterwards Jeff Thomas was ousted from the band after disagreements and repeated arguments and the remaining three members started to look for a new lead vocalist and guitarist.
In April 1980, guitarist [Taylor](Andy)(Andy Taylor (guitarist)) came from [upon Tyne](Newcastle)(Newcastle upon Tyne) to audition after responding to an advertisement in *[Maker](Melody)(Melody Maker)*. Taylor already had a lot of experience from playing with [band](cover)(cover band)s for years and although he came from a totally different [music](rock)(rock music) background his versatile playing style was seen as a perfect complement to the band. In May 1980, London vocalist and drama student [Le Bon](Simon)(Simon Le Bon) was recommended to the band by an ex-girlfriend who worked at the [Runner](Rum)(Rum Runner (nightclub)). The band were immediately impressed by Le Bon and soon completed their first composition with the new line-up, "Sound of Thunder" featuring lyrics by Le Bon. Duran Duran's first performance with the lineup of Le Bon, Rhodes and the three Taylors was on 16July 1980 at the Rum Runner.
The owners of the club, brothers Paul and Michael Berrow, became the band's management, paying them to work as doormen, disc jockeys (DJs) and barmen when they were not rehearsing, and also formed the Tritec Music company.
Duran Duran spent the next months writing, developing and [demoing](Demo (music)) their songs and performed in clubs around [Birmingham](Birmingham) and London. In September 1980 they had written all of what would become their debut album. Touring as an opening act for [O'Connor](Hazel)(Hazel O'Connor), the band attracted critical attention, resulting in a bidding war between the record companies [EMI](EMI Records) and [Phonogram](Phonogram Inc.). "A certain patriotism" toward the label of [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) led them to sign with EMI in December. A week later, the first article about Duran Duran in a national magazine appeared in *[Sounds](Sounds (magazine))*. The members of Duran Duran had noticed that Betty Page (pen name for Beverley Glick) was writing about a new movement called [Romantic](New)(New Romantic) that would fit the band perfectly and invited her to meet them at the Rum Runner.
Shortly after signing the [contract](recording)(recording contract) with EMI Duran Duran went to London to record their debut album with producer [Thurston](Colin)(Colin Thurston) and initial plans for an independent release of the songs "[Earth](Planet)(Planet Earth (Duran Duran song))" and "Is There Anyone Out There?" on the Tritec Music label was scrapped.
### 1981–1982: Self-titled debut, *Rio*, and Second British Invasion
The band's debut album, *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1981 album))*, was released on the EMI label in June 1981. The first single, "[Earth](Planet)(Planet Earth (Duran Duran song))", had reached the United Kingdom's top 20 at no. 12 in February. A follow-up, "[Memories](Careless)(Careless Memories)", released in April, stalled at no. 37. However, it was their third single, "[on Film](Girls)(Girls on Film)" released in July 1981, that attracted the most attention. The song went to no. 5 in the UK. The video, featuring topless women [wrestling](mud)(mud wrestling), [fight](pillow)(pillow fight)ing and stylised depictions of other [fetish](sexual)(sexual fetish)es, was made with directing duo [& Creme](Godley)(Godley & Creme) in August. The video was filmed just two weeks after MTV was launched in the United States. The band expected the "[on Film](Girls)(Girls on Film)" video to be played in the newer nightclubs that had video screens or on [TV](pay)(pay TV) channels like the [Channel](Playboy)(Playboy Channel). [Godley](Kevin)(Kevin Godley) explained the thinking behind it:
We were very explicitly told by Duran Duran's management to make a very sensational and erotic piece that would be for clubs, where it would get shown uncensored just to make people take notice and talk about it.
The video was heavily edited for MTV (Music Television). The album peaked in the UK top twenty at number 3. Later in 1981 the band embarked on their first United States club tour followed by more dates in Germany and the UK. This second tour of Britain coincided with a wave of riots sparked by unemployment and racial tension, including those of [Side](Moss)(1981 Moss Side riot) and [Toxteth](1981 Toxteth riots). The band played Birmingham the day after the [riots](Handsworth)(1981 Handsworth riots). The band also began writing and demoing songs for a new album. In November 1981 they released a new single, the [disco](disco music)-influenced "[Own Way](My)(My Own Way (song))", that reached no. 14 in the UK, followed in early 1982 by the recording of their second album at [Studios](AIR)(AIR Studios) in London.
In May 1982 Duran Duran released their second album, *[Rio](Rio (Duran Duran album))*, which entered the UK albums chart at no. 4 and peaked at no. 2 the following week. The band scored three UK top 10 hits on the singles chart from the album with "[Like the Wolf](Hungry)(Hungry Like the Wolf)" at no. 5 in June, "[a Prayer](Save)(Save a Prayer)" at no. 2 in September, and the title song "[Rio](Rio (song))" at no. 9 in December, while the earlier top 20 hit "[Own Way](My)(My Own Way (song))" was included in a re-recorded version on the album,
With the album Duran Duran also began to achieve worldwide recognition. A headlining tour of Australia, Japan, and the US was followed by a stint supporting [Blondie](Blondie (band)) during that band's final American tour. [Princess of Wales](Diana,)(Diana, Princess of Wales) declared Duran Duran her favourite band, and the band were dubbed "the Fab Five" by the British press, comparing them to [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) whose nickname was the Fab Four.
At first, the *Rio* album did not do well in the United States. EMI in the UK had promoted Duran Duran as a New Romantic band, but the New Romantic movement was barely known in the US, and EMI's American subsidiary [Records](Capitol)(Capitol Records) was at a loss about how to sell them. After *[Carnival](Carnival (Duran Duran EP))* (an [EP](Extended play) of *Rio* dance remixes) became popular with DJs in the fall, the band arranged to have most of the album remixed by [Kershenbaum](David)(David Kershenbaum). In June 1982, Duran Duran appeared for the first time on American television, performing "Hungry Like the Wolf" and "Rio" on ''[on Air](Dancin')(Dancin' on Air)*, the forerunner to the national hit show *[Party USA](Dance)(Dance Party USA)*.
Now promoted as a dance album, *Rio* was re-released in the US in November, and began to climb the American charts six months after its European success. MTV placed "Hungry Like the Wolf" and several other Duran Duran videos into heavy rotation, pushing the single and album into the US top twenty in early 1983. The ballad "Save a Prayer" also did well. "The band was a natural for music television," noted *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine. "They may be the first rock group to ride in on a video wave." The album ultimately peaked at number 6 in the US and remained on the charts there for 129 weeks. In 2003 *Rio* was listed at number 65 in the *[NME](NME)* 100 Greatest Albums of All Time list.
Duran Duran was among the earliest bands to work on their own [remix](remix)es. Before the days of digital synthesizer and easy [sampling](audio)(sampling (music)), they created multi-layered arrangements of their singles, sometimes recording entirely different extended performances of the songs in the studio. These "night versions" were generally available only on [vinyl](gramophone record) as [b-sides](A-side and B-side) to 45 rpm singles or on 12-inch club singles until the release of the compilation *[Versions: The Essential Duran Duran](Night)(Night Versions: The Essential Duran Duran)'' in 1998. |publisher=[AllMusic](AllMusic)}}
### 1983–1985: The "Fab Five", Side projects and Live Aid
The band began 1983 by playing the MTV New Year's Eve Rock 'n' Roll Ball with "Hungry Like the Wolf" still climbing the charts in the US, and the American reissue of the "Rio" single to follow in March. To satisfy America's appetite for their music, the band re-released their eponymous first album in the US in the middle of the year with the addition of the new single "[There Something I Should Know?](Is)(Is There Something I Should Know?)". Upon its release, this song entered the chart at number 1 in the UK (a rarity then and their first [chart-topper](chart-topper) in their home country) and reached number 4 on the American charts. During the promotion of this album, Rhodes and Le Bon were MTV guest [VJs](VJ (media personality)) for a show, during which artist and admirer [Warhol](Andy)(Andy Warhol) dropped by to greet them. "Our first gigs in the United States were crazy and culty", Rhodes said later, "But when we came back after 'Hungry' was a hit, it was mayhem. It was [Beatlemania](Beatlemania). We were doing a signing of the 'Girls on Film' video at a store in [Square](Times)(Times Square). We couldn't get out of the store. The cops sealed off the streets." Also in 1983, keyboardist Nick Rhodes produced the UK number 1 and US number 5 hit "[Shy](Too)(Too Shy)" for English band [Kajagoogoo](Kajagoogoo) and Andy Taylor became the first member of Duran Duran to get married.
The band spent the next year as [exile](tax)(tax exile)s, writing songs at a [château](château) in France where *[Tube](The)(The Tube (TV series))* with [Holland](Jools)(Jools Holland) filmed a documentary with the band in May 1983 before they flew to [Montserrat](Montserrat) and then Sydney to record and mix their third album. During the summer, they returned to the UK to perform two concerts, the first on 20 July in front of the Prince and Princess of Wales at the [Theatre](Dominion)(Dominion Theatre), and the second, [charity concert at Aston Villa's home ground](a)(Duran Duran's charity concert at Villa Park 1983). The band were under pressure to follow up the success of *Rio* (1982), and the recording process took over six months as different band members went through bouts of perfectionism and insecurity. A newly decadent lifestyle and [abuse](substance)(substance abuse) issues for some members added complications. In the documentary film *Extraordinary World*, filmed a decade later, Rhodes described the effect on their sound as "barely controlled hysteria, scratching beneath the surface".*Extraordinary World* documentary film, Picture Music International, UK 1993. (PMI MVN4911463)
The new album, *[and the Ragged Tiger](Seven)(Seven and the Ragged Tiger)* (1983), included the late 1983 hit "[of the Snake](Union)(Union of the Snake)" (with the soprano saxophone solo by [Hamilton](Andy)(Andy Hamilton (pop saxophonist))). With "Hungry Like the Wolf", "Rio", "Save a Prayer" and "Is There Something I Should Know?", Duran Duran now had five US Top Twenty hits from three different albums in a single year. The band made music headlines by deciding to release the "Union of the Snake" video to MTV a full week before the single was released to radio. They followed up with "[Moon on Monday](New)(New Moon on Monday)", which reached Number 9 in the UK. Their next single "[Reflex](The)(The Reflex)", taken from *Seven and the Ragged Tiger* and given a significant remix overhaul by [Rodgers](Nile)(Nile Rodgers) of [Chic](Chic (band)) fame, became their first number one hit in the United States. "The Reflex" was also their second and final [number one](UK)(List of number-one singles (UK)) and was successful in numerous other countries around the world.
The band embarked on a global tour that continued throughout the first four months of 1984 including their first major stadium dates in America. A film crew led by director Russell Mulcahy followed the band closely, leading to the documentary film *[Blue Silver](Sing)(Sing Blue Silver)* and the accompanying [film](concert)(concert film) *[Arena](Arena (An Absurd Notion))*. The live album *[Arena](Arena (Duran Duran album))* was also recorded during the tour and was released with the new single "[Wild Boys](The)(The Wild Boys (song))", which went to number 2 on both sides of the [Atlantic](Atlantic Ocean). In February 1984, the band appeared on the cover of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine and won two [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s in the brand-new [Form](Long)(Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video) and [Form](Short)(Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video) music video categories. Meanwhile, "[a Prayer](Save)(Save a Prayer)" gained momentum in North America, and a special US remix of the song became a single in January 1985. It peaked at No. 16 on the *Billboard* Hot 100 in March. A live version of the song was used for the single's B-side, taken from the concert video footage for *Arena* / *[the Lights Go Down](As)(As the Lights Go Down)*.
During this period, all of the band members became heartthrobs for many of their young teenage fans. After the tour, Roger Taylor was married in [Naples](Naples), Italy, and Nick Rhodes wed in London, wearing a pink velvet tuxedo and top hat. At the end of 1984, the group featured on the [Aid](Band)(Band Aid (band)) benefit single "[They Know It's Christmas?](Do)(Do They Know It's Christmas?)" along with other popular British and Irish musical acts. Le Bon sang fourth on the song, after [Young](Paul)(Paul Young), [George](Boy)(Boy George) and [Michael](George)(George Michael) sing their lines.
Even with Duran Duran on hold, band members were soon anxious to record new music, leading to a supposedly temporary split into two side projects. John Taylor and Andy Taylor wanted to break away from the Duran Duran sound and pursue hard rock material; they collaborated with lead vocalist [Palmer](Robert)(Robert Palmer (singer)) and [Chic](Chic (band))'s drummer [Thompson](Tony)(Tony Thompson (drummer)) to form the rock/[funk](funk) supergroup [Power Station](the)(The Power Station (band)), which released two Top 10 singles. Simon Le Bon and Nick Rhodes wanted to further explore Duran Duran's atmospheric aspect and formed [Arcadia](Arcadia (band)), who released one album (*[Red the Rose](So)(So Red the Rose)*) from which the single "[Day](Election)(Election Day (song))" was released. Contributors to that album included guitarist [Tsuchiya](Masami)(Masami Tsuchiya), bassist [Egan](Mark)(Mark Egan), percussionist [Van Tieghem](David)(David Van Tieghem), drummer [Jordan](Steve)(Steve Jordan (musician)), [Sting](Sting (musician)), [Hancock](Herbie)(Herbie Hancock), and [Gilmour](David)(David Gilmour) of [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd). Roger Taylor was a drummer for Arcadia as well as contributing percussion to the Power Station album. Duran Duran were never the same after this break. According to Rhodes, the two side projects "were commercial suicide... But we've always been good at that." The band was still off balance when they regrouped to contribute "[View to a Kill](A)(A View to a Kill (song))" to the 1985 [Bond](James)(James Bond) movie [the same name](of)(A View to a Kill). This single was the first [theme](Bond)(James Bond music) to go to number 1 on the US charts, and was at the time the joint highest-placed Bond theme on the UK chart where it reached number 2. It was the last single the band recorded as the original five-piece for close to twenty years.
As a follow-up to the Christmas 1984 Band Aid single, Duran Duran performed in front of 90,000 people (and an estimated 1.5 billion TV viewers) at the [Aid](Live)(Live Aid) charity concert at [F. Kennedy Stadium](John)(John F. Kennedy Stadium) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), Pennsylvania, on 13 July 1985 while their Bond song held the top spot on the American charts. It was not intended to be a farewell performance—the band planned only to take a break after four years of non-stop touring and public appearances—but the original five did not play live together again until July 2003. During their Live Aid set, Le Bon inadvertently hit an off-key [falsetto](falsetto) note in the chorus of "A View to a Kill", an error that was trumpeted by numerous media outlets as "The Bum Note Heard Round the World" (in contrast to [Mercury](Freddie)(Freddie Mercury)'s "Note Heard Round the World" at the [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium) Live Aid show). Le Bon later described the moment as the most embarrassing of his career.
### 1986–1989: Le Bon, Rhodes and John Taylor trio
[[Duran 1986.jpg|thumb|250px|Duran Duran as a trio, in 1986](File:Duran)]
After releasing three studio albums and one live album in five years, each accompanied by heavy media promotion and lengthy concert tours, the band lost two of its core members to fatigue and tension in 1986. After Live Aid and Arcadia, drummer Roger Taylor retired to the English countryside, suffering from exhaustion. This was originally announced as a one-year [sabbatical](sabbatical), but it soon became clear that he would not be returning to the band. An official press release was issued in April 1986 confirming his departure. In a 2004 interview with LiveDaily, Roger Taylor confirmed his reasons for leaving: "I was burned out. I think I was just exhausted. It was a very intense five years. We didn't stop. It was constant touring, constant writing, recording. We broke internationally, as well—instantly, pretty well. It's a nonstop schedule, really. I had lost myself somewhere."
Guitarist Andy Taylor led the remaining members to believe he would return to work on a new Duran Duran album, even as he was signing a solo recording contract in Los Angeles with [Records](MCA)(MCA Records), eventually releasing a solo album in 1986 called *[Thunder](Thunder (Andy Taylor album))*. The band resorted to legal measures to get him into the studio but after numerous delays they let him go at last. He played on only a few songs on the next album, including "A Matter of Feeling", whilst the disagreements were being settled.
Without a guitarist or a drummer, the three remaining members, Le Bon, Rhodes, and John Taylor had producer (and former Chic guitarist) [Rodgers](Nile)(Nile Rodgers) play a few tracks on guitar, and hired [Ferrone](Steve)(Steve Ferrone) to play drums while they searched for replacements. Finally in September 1986, [Cuccurullo](Warren)(Warren Cuccurullo) (formerly of [Persons](Missing)(Missing Persons (band)) and [Zappa](Frank)(Frank Zappa)'s band) was hired as a session guitarist. With Le Bon, Rhodes, and Taylor, he recorded the rest of the *[Notorious](Notorious (Duran Duran album))* album, which was released in October 1986. The black-and-white documentary film *Three to Get Ready* chronicled the recording of the album, legal tensions, and preparations for the tour.
Although the song "[Notorious](Notorious (Duran Duran song))" went to number 2 in the US, number 7 in the UK, the album was a relative failure globally with the album peaking in the UK at No. 16 and spending one week in the top 50 album chart and consequently the band found they had lost much of the momentum and hysteria they had left behind in 1985. In the three years between the release of *Seven and the Ragged Tiger* and *Notorious*, many of their teenage fans had grown up and the music was funkier, more mature, and less "pop", given the added experience of their work on Arcadia and Power Station and with other musicians. "[Trade](Skin)(Skin Trade (song))" and "[El Presidente](Meet)(Meet El Presidente)", the two subsequent singles, made the charts but fared poorly compared to the band's earlier successes. Finally in late 1987, [Campbell](Sterling)(Sterling Campbell) was hired as a session drummer.
Subsequently, Duran Duran struggled to escape the [idol](teen)(teen idol) image and gain respect among critics with more complex music. The new serious image was not accepted at first and their popularity began to wane. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* said, "In their search for musical maturity, the surviving Durans have lost a good deal of their identity." In contrast the *New York Times* said, "Duran Duran's newfound disillusionment may mark a step toward maturity...they managed to catch a trend on the upswing, perhaps "Notorious" suggests that for late 1980s grit and pessimism is coming into style." Another factor was the band's dismissal of early managers, the Berrow brothers. There was no announcement of the reasons for the decision, but disagreements over money, and the brothers' involvement in Le Bon's yachting adventures (they were co-owners of *[Drum](Drum (yacht))*) were thought to have played a part. Whatever the reason, Duran Duran switched managers frequently and undertook periods of self-management in the later stages of their career. In addition, EMI fired its president and went through a major corporate restructuring that summer and seemed to have lost interest in promoting the band. According to Nick Rhodes the band needed to break up in order to come back together stronger.
The next album *[Thing](Big)(Big Thing (Duran Duran album))* (1988) yielded the singles "[Don't Want Your Love](I)(I Don't Want Your Love)" (number 4 in the US), and "[She Wants Is](All)(All She Wants Is)" (the last top ten hit in the UK until 1993). The record was experimental, mixing influences from [music](house)(house music) and [rave](rave)s with Duran's atmospheric [synth-pop](synth-pop) and the creative guitar work of Cuccurullo (now a full band member), as well as more mature lyrics.
### 1989–1991: Five again, *Decade* and *Liberty*
By the end of 1989 and at the start of the 1990s, the popularity of synth-pop was fading and losing fans to other momentum-gaining music genres at the time, such as [hop](hip)(Hip hop music), [techno](techno) and [rock](alternative)(alternative rock). After touring for the album finished, the band regained a five-man membership as guitarist Warren Cuccurullo and tour drummer [Campbell](Sterling)(Sterling Campbell) were made full members of Duran Duran.
The compilation album *[Decade](Decade (Duran Duran album))* was released late in 1989, along with the [megamix](megamix) single "[the Ground](Burning)(Burning the Ground)", which consisted of woven snippets of the band's hits from the previous ten years, created and produced with John Jones, who began working with the band after the release of the band's fifth album *[Thing](Big)(Big Thing (Duran Duran album))* (1988). The single came and went with little fanfare, but the album became another major seller for the band. However, the 1990 release *[Liberty](Liberty (Duran Duran album))* (a retreat from the experimentation of *[Thing](Big)(Big Thing (Duran Duran album))*) failed to capitalise on any regained momentum. The album entered the UK album chart in the top ten, but faded away quickly. The singles "[of Summer (Love's Taking Over)](Violence)(Violence of Summer)" and "[Serious](Serious (Duran Duran song))" were only mildly successful. For the first time, Duran Duran did not tour in support of an album, performing on only a handful of club dates and TV shows. Sterling Campbell left the band early in 1991, going on to work with [Asylum](Soul)(Soul Asylum) and [Bowie](David)(David Bowie). The quartet of Le Bon, Rhodes, Taylor, and Cuccurullo would remain intact for six more years.
### 1992–1996: Quartet line-up and a brief comeback
In 1993, the band released a second self-titled album: this *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1993 album))* album is known as *The Wedding Album* (for [Egan](Nick)(Nick Egan)'s cover art featuring the wedding photos of the band members' parents) to distinguish it from the 1981 release, and was produced and recorded with John Jones. The release of this first "comeback" album was delayed, with then manager at Left Bank, Tommy Manzi, later telling [HitQuarters](HitQuarters) that this was due to industry resistance to the revival of the band, who he said would rather focus on "the next hip band". Listener demand for leaked single "[World](Ordinary)(Ordinary World (song))" forced it onto radio playlists months earlier than planned; it reached number 3 on the US chart and number 6 in the UK and won a prestigious [Novello Award](Ivor)(Ivor Novello Award) for song writing.
"[Undone](Come)(Come Undone (Duran Duran song))", primarily written by Cuccurullo, with lyrics by Le Bon, made number 7 in the US and number 13 in the UK. Both the band and the record label seemed to be caught by surprise by the album's critical and commercial success (No. 4 in the UK, No. 7 in the US). Bassist John Taylor had been considering leaving the band but changed his mind. The band's largest tour ever, which included stops in the Middle East, the then recently de-embargoed South Africa, and South America, was halted after seven months when Le Bon suffered from strained [cords](vocal)(vocal cords). After six weeks' recuperation, the band performed intermittently for another five months, including appearances in Israel, Thailand, and Indonesia.
In 1995, the band released the cover album *[You](Thank)(Thank You (Duran Duran album))*. Songs from *Thank You* included covers of [Reed](Lou)(Lou Reed)'s "[Day](Perfect)(Perfect Day (Lou Reed song))" and [Mel](Melle)(Melle Mel)'s "[Lines (Don't Don't Do It)](White)(White Lines (Don't Don't Do It))" (with backing vocals from the original artists). The album also marked the temporary return of former drummer Roger Taylor, who joined the band in studio to play drums on "[the Detectives](Watching)(Watching the Detectives (song))" and "Perfect Day" (as well as a cover of "[Jeepster](Jeepster (song))" by [Rex](T.)(T. Rex (band)) that did not appear on the album). In a video interview provided with the album's [press kit](electronic)(electronic press kit), Reed said he considered Duran Duran's version the best cover ever done of one of his songs, and they received praise from [Plant](Robert)(Robert Plant) and [Page](Jimmy)(Jimmy Page) for their cover of [Zeppelin](Led)(Led Zeppelin)'s "[You](Thank)(Thank You (Led Zeppelin song))".
### 1997–2000: John Taylor's departure and second trio
After the promo tour for *Thank You* was completed, John Taylor co-founded the B5 Records label, recorded a solo album, founded and toured with the [supergroup](Supergroup (music)) [Outsiders](Neurotic)(Neurotic Outsiders), and reunited the Power Station, though the project proceeded without him when he had to withdraw to deal with his divorce. Finally, after struggling for months to record the next album, *[Medazzaland](Medazzaland)*, in January 1997, Taylor announced at the DuranCon [convention](fan)(fan convention) that he was leaving the band "for good". His departure reduced the band to two long time members (Le Bon and Rhodes) and Cuccurullo, who decided to continue recording under the name Duran Duran.
Freed from some internal writing conflicts, the band returned to the studio to rewrite and re-record many of the songs on *Medazzaland*. (Taylor's work remains on only four tracks.) This album marked a return to the layered experimentation of *Big Thing* (1988), with intricate guitar textures and processed vocals. The track "[of My Mind](Out)(Out of My Mind (Duran Duran song))" was used as the theme song for the movie *[Saint](The)(The Saint (1997 film))* (1997), but the only true single to be released in the United States was the quirky "[Barbarella](Electric)(Electric Barbarella)", which is one of the first singles ever to be sold online. The music video for this single, featuring a sexy robot purchased and played with by band members, had to be censored before airing on MTV, but there was little of the controversy that had surrounded "Girls on Film". "Barbarella" peaked at No. 52 in the US in October 1997. Although *Medazzaland* was released in the US in October 1997, the album was never released in the UK. "Barbarella" was later released in the UK as a single from the 1998 *[Greatest](Greatest (Duran Duran))* compilation album and peaked at No. 23 on the UK chart in January 1999. The group played a set at the Princess Diana Tribute Concert on 27 June 1998 by special request of her family.
Duran Duran parted ways with Capitol/EMI in 1999, although the label has since used Duran Duran's back catalogue to release several compilations of remixes and rare vinyl-only B-sides. The band then signed what was intended to be a three-album contract with [Music Group](Disney)(Disney Music Group)'s [Records](Hollywood)(Hollywood Records), but it lasted only through the poorly received 2000 album *[Trash](Pop)(Pop Trash)*. This slow-paced and heavy album seemed out-of-keeping with earlier band material. Rhodes' intricate production and Cuccurullo's songwriting and experimentation with guitar sounds and time signatures were not enough to hook the public, and the album did not perform well. The dreamy single "[Else Not Me](Someone)(Someone Else Not Me)" lasted barely two weeks on the radio, although its video was noted as the first to be produced entirely with [Flash](Adobe Flash) animation. While supporting *Medazzaland* and *Pop Trash*, Duran Duran toured with bassist [Wehmiller](Wes)(Wes Wehmiller) and drummer Joe Travers.
### 2001–2005: Reunion
[[File:Duran Duran.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Duran Duran performing live at [Arena](Scotiabank)(Scotiabank Arena) in [Toronto](Toronto), Canada, 2005]]
In 2000, Le Bon approached John Taylor with a proposal to reform Duran Duran's classic line-up. They agreed to part company with Cuccurullo after completing the *Pop Trash* tour. Cuccurullo then announced on his website that he was leaving Duran Duran to resume work with his 1980s band [Persons](Missing)(Missing Persons (band)). This announcement was confirmed the next day by Duran Duran's website, followed a day later by the news that John, Roger, and Andy Taylor had rejoined. To fulfill contractual obligations, Cuccurullo played three Duran Duran concerts in Japan in June 2001, ending his tenure in the band.
Throughout 2001, 2002 and 2003, the band worked on writing new material, initially renting a house in [Saint-Tropez](Saint-Tropez) where audio engineer [Tinley](Mark)(Mark Tinley) built a recording studio for their first serious writing session. They then returned to London to do some self-financed work with various producers (including old friend Nile Rodgers) and search for a new record deal. It proved difficult to find a record label willing to gamble on the band's comeback, so Duran Duran went on tour to prove the drawing power of the reunited band. The response of the fans and the media exceeded expectations. The band played a handful of 25th-anniversary dates across 2003, starting with two arena dates in Tokyo filled to capacity. Tickets sold out for each show within minutes, and celebrities turned out *en masse* for reunion dates. Amongst these were a number of shows at smaller venues that the band had played on both sides of the pond when they first got together in the early 1980s. In August, the band were booked as presenters at the [MTV Video Music Awards](2003)(2003 MTV Video Music Awards), only to be surprised with a [Achievement Award](Lifetime)(MTV Video Vanguard Award). They also received a Lifetime Achievement award from *[Q](Q (magazine))* magazine in October, and the equivalent Outstanding Contribution award at the [Awards](BRIT)(BRIT Awards) in February 2004.
[[Duran NYC 2005.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Duran Duran in New York City, 2005](File:Duran)]
The pace picked up with a sold-out tour of America, Australia and New Zealand. The band played a full concert at a private tailgate party at [Bowl XXXVIII](Super)(Super Bowl XXXVIII), their performance of "The Wild Boys" broadcast to millions during the pre-game show. A [remix](remix) of the new track "[Up for the) Sunrise]((Reach)((Reach Up for the) Sunrise)" was released on many TV shows in February while magazines hailed (the modern "Fab Five") Duran Duran as one of the greatest bands of all time. Duran Duran then celebrated their homecoming to the UK with fourteen stadium dates in April 2004, including five sold-out nights at [Arena](Wembley)(Wembley Arena). The British press, traditionally hostile to the band, accorded the shows some very warm reviews. Duran Duran brought along band [Goldfrapp](Goldfrapp) and the [Sisters](Scissor)(Scissor Sisters) as alternating opening acts for this tour. The last two shows were filmed, resulting in the concert DVD *[Duran: Live from London](Duran)(Live from London (Duran Duran))* which was released in November.
Finally, with more than thirty-five songs completed, the band signed a two-album contract with [Records](Epic)(Epic Records) in June, and completed the new album, now titled *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))*. The album was released in October 2004 and entered the UK charts at number 3 and the US charts at number 17. The first single was "[Up for the) Sunrise]((Reach)((Reach Up for the) Sunrise)", which reached number 1 on the *Billboard* US Dance chart in November and peaked at number 5 on the UK Singles Chart, Duran Duran's highest chart position since "A View to a Kill" in 1985. A second single, "[Happens Tomorrow](What)(What Happens Tomorrow)", debuted at No. 11 on the UK chart in February. A 5.1 mix of *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))* was created by Jeremy Wheatley for the dual-disc release of *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))*. The CD side contains the album as-is and the DVD side contains the 5.1 mix of the album in DVD Audio format along with some DVD footage and videos.
After a world tour in early 2005, Duran Duran were presented with the PRS Outstanding Contribution to British Music at the 2005 Ivor Novello Awards. Later that summer, the band headlined the massive [8 concert, Rome](Live)(Live 8 concert, Rome) on 2 July 2005 in the [Maximus](Circus)(Circus Maximus).
### 2006–2008: *Red Carpet Massacre* and Andy Taylor's second departure
[[File:Duran Duran Bogota 2008.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Duran Duran in [Bogotá](Bogotá), Colombia, 2008]]
In early 2006, Duran Duran covered [Lennon](John)(John Lennon)'s song "[Karma!](Instant)(Instant Karma!)" for the *Make Some Noise* campaign sponsored by [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International). Their version later appeared on *[Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur](Instant)(Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur)* as an [iTunes](iTunes) exclusive bonus track. They also performed at two high-profile events – the [Prize Awards](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) and the [Winter Olympics](2006)(2006 Winter Olympics). After a couple of weeks of songwriting in Northern California, the band began working with producer [Patterson](Michael)(Michael Patterson (producer)) in London, and continued intermittently for the next several months. At one point, they reported having had fifteen tracks nearly complete for an album tentatively titled *[Reportage](Reportage (album))*, but no further news emerged from the band for months afterward. In September, the band held meetings in New York City with [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake) and producer [Timbaland](Timbaland) with an eye to a potential collaboration and were soon reported to have completed three songs with the producer, including a song with [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake).
On 25 October 2006, Duran Duran parted company with Andy Taylor once again. In an official announcement on their website, the band stated that an "unworkable gulf" had developed between them and Taylor and that "we can no longer effectively function together". It was noted by Andy Taylor in his book *Wild Boy* that tensions had arisen between the group's management and himself, and he was also diagnosed with clinical depression connected with the death of his father. [Brown](Dom)(Dominic Brown), who had previously toured with the band, again took over guitar duties and has been performing with them since. After Taylor's departure, the band scrapped the *Reportage* album. They wrote and recorded a new album titled *[Carpet Massacre](Red)(Red Carpet Massacre)* (2007), which included the Timbaland tracks. Dom Brown is the featured guitarist on the album.
In July 2007, the band performed twice at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium). Their first appearance at the stadium was the [for Diana](Concert)(Concert for Diana) which celebrated the life of [Diana](Princess)(Diana, Princess of Wales) almost 10 years after her death. The band performed "[Up for the) Sunrise]((Reach)((Reach Up for the) Sunrise)", "[Boys](Wild)(Wild Boys (song))" and "[Rio](Rio (song))". Their second appearance was at [Earth concert, London](Live)(Live Earth concert, London). On 25 September, the Timberlake collaboration "[Down](Falling)(Falling Down (Duran Duran song))" was released as a download single on [iTunes](iTunes), and the band announced that they would play nine shows at the [Barrymore Theatre](Ethel)(Ethel Barrymore Theatre) on Broadway to launch the *Red Carpet Massacre* album. The album launch was later extended to incorporate a show in London on 3 December 2007 and one in Dublin on 5 December 2007.
In May 2008, they toured the US leg of their 2008 world tour and were supported by the British band [Vegas](Your)(Your Vegas). In June 2008, they played the [Louvre](Louvre) in Paris in a fundraising effort that contributed to the restoration of a [XV](Louis)(Louis XV) drawing room. Guests dined, privately viewed some of the museum's artworks, then attended a performance by the band in the [Pei](I.M.)(I.M. Pei)-designed [du Louvre](Pyramid)(Louvre Pyramid). The group's performance marked a first for the 18th-century museum which had never before allowed a rock concert to occur anywhere within the grounds or buildings and another groundbreaker for Duran Duran.
On 2 July 2008, in Paris, [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson) performed a unique live set with Duran Duran for an exclusive, invitation-only performance. Together, they showcased specially re-worked versions of some of Duran Duran's classic hits re-created by Ronson, along with tracks from *Red Carpet Massacre*. Simon Le Bon also performed songs from Ronson's latest album, *[Version](Version (album))* (2007), as one of Ronson's featured guest vocalists. Unlike the band's previous album *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))* (2004), *Red Carpet Massacre* sold poorly and received mixed responses from the music press. In 2008, *[Rio](Rio (Duran Duran album))* was included in the *[Albums](Classic)(Classic Albums)* series.
### 2009–2012: *All You Need Is Now*
[[File:Duran Duran (6874514374).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Duran Duran performing live at the [Entertainment Centre](Sydney)(Sydney Entertainment Centre), Australia, 2012]]
The band departed from Epic Records in 2009, after releasing just two albums. In early 2010, it was revealed that the band would be contributing a cover of "[Keep Swinging](Boys)(Boys Keep Swinging)" to a tribute/charity record for [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) called *[Were So Turned On](We)(We Were So Turned On: A Tribute to David Bowie)* from which all profits go to [Child](War)(War Child (charity)). Other contributing artists included [Bruni](Carla)(Carla Bruni), [Banhart](Devendra)(Devendra Banhart), [Sharpe & the Magnetic Zeros](Edward)(Edward Sharpe & the Magnetic Zeros), and [Warpaint](Warpaint (band)). The album was released on 14 September 2010 on [Vinyl](Manimal)(Manimal Vinyl) Records. A limited edition split 7-inch single with Duran Duran and [Bruni](Carla)(Carla Bruni) was also released on [Vinyl](Manimal)(Manimal Vinyl) in December 2010.
On 21 December 2010, Duran Duran's thirteenth album, titled *[You Need Is Now](All)(All You Need Is Now)*, produced by the [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)-winning [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson) and mixed by [Stent](Spike)(Spike Stent), was released exclusively on [iTunes](iTunes) and hit the No. 1 spot on download charts in 15 countries (including the UK). The first single from the record, title track "All You Need Is Now", was free to download worldwide on 8 December 2010 exclusively in iTunes. Guitarist and songwriter [Brown](Dom)(Dominic Brown) co-wrote all but two songs on the album.
The expanded physical album, including various format special packages, was released in March 2011, only weeks after the 30th anniversary of the band's first release "Planet Earth". The CD features fourteen tracks, including five tracks not included with the original digital release: "Mediterranea", "Other People's Lives", "Too Bad You're So Beautiful", "Diamond in the Mind", and "Return to Now". The album entered the UK chart at No. 11 and the *Billboard* chart at No. 29.
On 25 February 2011, while in Milan, Duran Duran received a Style Icons of the 20th Century Award and a key to the city, presented by the city's mayor [Moratti](Letizia)(Letizia Moratti).
In March 2011 the band embarked on a world tour in support of the album. After a warm-up show in London, the tour officially began 16 March 2011 in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas). On 23 March, the band performed live at the [Theater](Mayan)(Mayan Theater) in Los Angeles as the start of the second season of *[An Original Series from American Express](Unstaged:)(Unstaged: An Original Series from American Express)*. The concert was directed by [Lynch](David)(David Lynch) and [live-streamed](Streaming media) on YouTube. The band was joined onstage by [Way](Gerard)(Gerard Way) of [Chemical Romance](My)(My Chemical Romance), [Ditto](Beth)(Beth Ditto) of [Gossip](Gossip (band)), and [Kelis](Kelis). On 17 April 2011, Duran Duran performed at the [Music Festival](Coachella)(Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival) located at Empire Polo Grounds, in Indio, California. In May 2011, Le Bon contracted [laryngitis](laryngitis) leading to either cancellation or rescheduling of most of the European dates for the *All You Need Is Now* World Tour.
On 27 July 2012, Duran Duran headlined the London [Olympics 2012](Summer)(2012 Summer Olympics) Opening Ceremony celebration in [Park](Hyde)(Hyde Park, London). They represented England, along with [Patrol](Snow)(Snow Patrol) for Northern Ireland, [Stereophonics](Stereophonics) for Wales, and [Nutini](Paolo)(Paolo Nutini) for Scotland. At the end of August 2012, with one week left of their 18-month world tour, the band were forced to cancel the rest of the North American leg of the tour as Nick Rhodes had become ill with a viral infection.
### 2013–2018: *Paper Gods*
On 4 March 2013, the band returned to the studio to work on their fourteenth album, and continued during the week beginning 23 September. They reconvened 13 to 18 December. On 31 December 2013, the band posted a mixtape curated by John Taylor as a New Year's "thank you" to their fans. On 10 February 2014, John Taylor and Roger Taylor worked with the [Chamber Choir](Voce)(Voce Chamber Choir) and London Youth Chamber Choir on vocals for use on some Duran Duran tracks.
Then former [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers) guitarist [Frusciante](John)(John Frusciante) worked with the band on the new album.
On 11 September 2015, the album *[Gods](Paper)(Paper Gods)* was released. The single "Pressure Off" was also released the same week, first via [Microsoft](Microsoft)'s [Music](Xbox)(Groove Music). The song subsequently appeared on [Play Music](Google)(Google Play Music). The album debuted at number 10 on the *Billboard* 200, the band's highest debut in 22 years. The album also reached number 2 in Italy, number 4 in the Netherlands, and number 5 in the UK.
In 2016, the artist [MNDR](MNDR) stood in for [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes) during part of the third leg of the [Gods](Paper)(Paper Gods) tour in the United States, while he returned to the UK in order to attend to an urgent family matter. Rhodes was quoted as saying, "I will be back as soon as I can but know, in the meantime, that I am leaving both the band and fans in great hands, with the fabulous MNDR." Also, several remixes of their song "Last Night in the City" were released in digital form in that year.
In December 2016, the original band members Le Bon, Rhodes, Andy Taylor, John Taylor and Roger Taylor lost a case in the British [Court](High)(High Court of Justice) after they attempted to reclaim the U.S. copyright on their first three albums from Gloucester Place Music, part of [Music Publishing](EMI)(EMI Music Publishing). Rhodes commented, "We signed a publishing agreement as unsuspecting teenagers, over three decades ago, when just starting out and when we knew no better... if left untested, this judgment sets a very bad precedent for all songwriters of our era." In March 2020, Duran Duran signed with the [Music](Warner/Chappell)(Warner/Chappell Music) publisher, covering their post-1986 catalogue.
The band spent 2017 touring the American continent and playing a handful of festival dates in Europe and Asia.
### 2019–present: *Future Past* and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction
[[(38 of 64) (52208829704).jpg|thumb|250px|Duran Duran performing at BST Hyde Park 2022, with Nile Rodgers](File:DuranBSTHyde100722)]
In 2019, Duran Duran was working on a new album with Ronson, [Alkan](Erol)(Erol Alkan), and [Moroder](Giorgio)(Giorgio Moroder) handling production duties, and [Coxon](Graham)(Graham Coxon) and [Li](Lykke)(Lykke Li) being confirmed as collaborators. Nick Rhodes described the content and sound of a possible first single to be "very different for us." Initially planned for release in 2020, the recording of the album was put on hold in March 2020 due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
On 8 January 2021, a cover of "[Years](Five)(Five Years (David Bowie song))" by [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) was released for the fifth anniversary of his death.
On 13 January 2021, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* included the album at number 50 on their "54 Most Anticipated Albums of 2021" list. Le Bon said that the album is "quite naked, raw. The grass is slightly sharp and twinkly rather than smooth," and is "groovy (and) modern and very honest. The lyrics are quite something.” On 18 May, the album title was announced as *[Past](Future)(Future Past (Duran Duran album))*.
On 19 May, the first single from the album "Invisible" was released along with a music video, and features Coxon as a guitarist and co-writer.
On 9 July, the band premiered a second song from the album titled "Give It All Up" on [NBC](NBC)'s *[Today](Today (American TV program))* show. On 5 August, Duran Duran released the album's second single "More Joy!", featuring further collaboration with Coxon, Erol Alkan and also Japanese rock band [Chai](Chai (band)). On 12 August, the band appeared on *[Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon)* performing "Invisible".
On 31 August, Duran Duran released the album's third single "Anniversary", followed by the fourth single, "Tonight United", on 24 September.
On 14 and 15 September, the band played two sold-out gigs at Birmingham's [Institute](O2)(Digbeth Institute). That was the first time they played live since their last live gig in 2019. Along with their hit songs, they performed three tracks from *Future Past*—"Invisible", "Anniversary" and "Tonight United". XS Noize Online Music Magazine |url=https://www.xsnoize.com/live-review-duran-duran-at-o2-institute-birmingam-14th-september-2021 |website=www.xsnoize.com |date=16 September 2021 |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922034033/https://www.xsnoize.com/live-review-duran-duran-at-o2-institute-birmingam-14th-september-2021/ |url-status=live }} The band headlined the Isle of Wight festival on 19 September.
On 22 October 2021, *[Past](Future)(Future Past (Duran Duran album))* was released. The album entered the UK Album Chart at number 3, the band's highest peak since 2004's *Astronaut*. This also earned the band the distinction of having UK Top 5 albums in each of the five decades they had been releasing music (1980s–2020s).
On 22 January 2022, Duran Duran premiered on [City Limits](Austin)(Austin City Limits).
In June 2022, Duran Duran performed at the [Party at the Palace](Platinum)(Platinum Party at the Palace). In July 2022, the band returned to the city of their origin, Birmingham to headline the opening ceremony of [2022 Commonwealth Games](Birmingham)(Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games) playing to a capacity [Stadium](Alexander)(Alexander Stadium).
In 2022, the band topped the fan vote for induction into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) for the class of 2022, and in May of that year were announced as one of the seven inductees in the "Performer" category. Rock & Roll Hall of Fame |url=https://www.rockhall.com/duran-duran |website=www.rockhall.com}} The ceremony was held on 5 November 2022, where [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) inducted the band. [Taylor](John)(John Taylor (bass guitarist)), [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer)), [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes) and [Le Bon](Simon)(Simon Le Bon) each attended the induction ceremony and performed "Girls on Film", "Hungry Like the Wolf" and "Ordinary World" along with longtime touring guitarist [Brown](Dom)(Dominic Brown). During the acceptance speech, Simon Le Bon read from a letter written by Andy Taylor, who was absent from the ceremony, that revealed he has been privately fighting stage IV metastic [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer) for the past four years and was "massively disappointed" he couldn't attend.
On 20 March 2023, Duran Duran took to their Instagram to announce they are working on a new musical project, set for release in late 2023. The work will feature a collaboration with former bandmate [Taylor](Andy)(Andy Taylor (guitarist)).
## Influences
Although they began their career as "a group of art school, experimental, post punk rockers," the band's quick rise to stardom, polished good looks and embrace of the teen press almost guaranteed disfavour from music critics. During the 1980s, Duran Duran were considered the quintessential manufactured, throw-away pop group. However, according to the *[Herald](Sunday)(Sunday Herald)*, "To describe them, as some have, as the first [band](boy)(boy band), misrepresents their appeal. Their weapons were never just their looks, but self-penned songs." [Moby](Moby) said of the band in his website diary in 2003: "... they were cursed by what we can call the '[Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees)' curse, which is: 'write amazing songs, sell tons of records, and consequently incur the wrath or disinterest of the rock obsessed critical establishment.'"
Influences on Duran Duran included [Bowie](David)(David Bowie), [Music](Roxy)(Roxy Music), [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) and [Doors](the)(the Doors), the electronic music of [Kraftwerk](Kraftwerk) and [Moroder](Giorgio)(Giorgio Moroder), glam rock and American rock such as [Rex](T.)(T. Rex (band)), [Pop](Iggy)(Iggy Pop), [Reed](Lou)(Lou Reed) and [Sparks](Sparks (band)), British punk and post-punk bands such as [Clash](the)(the Clash), [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) and [and the Banshees](Siouxsie)(Siouxsie and the Banshees), the [disco](disco)/funk band [Chic](Chic (band)) and contemporary [synth-pop](synth-pop) bands such as [Japan](Japan (band)), as well as the Japanese [electro-pop](electro-pop) band [Magic Orchestra](Yellow)(Yellow Magic Orchestra). Other electronic peers, such as [Foxx](John)(John Foxx)'s [Ultravox](Ultravox), [Manoeuvres in the Dark](Orchestral)(Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark) (OMD) and [Human League](the)(the Human League), became fixtures in Rhodes's 1980 DJ sets at the Rum Runner club, and were influential on the fledgling Duran Duran.
Several of the band's contemporaries including [Bangles](the)(the Bangles), [John](Elton)(Elton John), [Minogue](Kylie)(Kylie Minogue), [Young](Paul)(Paul Young) and even [Monkees](the)(the Monkees), have named themselves fans of the band's music. Le Bon described the group as "the band to dance to when the bomb drops".De Graaf & Garret (1982), p. 19. Successors like [Ladies](Barenaked)(Barenaked Ladies), [Beck](Beck), [Davis](Jonathan)(Jonathan Davis) of [Korn](Korn), [Bravery](the)(the Bravery), [Stefani](Gwen)(Gwen Stefani) and [Pink](Pink (singer)) have all cited Duran Duran as a key band in their formative years. [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake) is a fan of the band and presented them with the Outstanding Contribution award at the [Brit Awards](2004)(Brit Awards 2004). The most recent crop of performers to name Duran Duran as an influence include [Dido](Dido (singer)), [Ferdinand](Franz)(Franz Ferdinand (band)), [at the Disco](Panic!)(Panic! at the Disco), [Goldfrapp](Goldfrapp) and [Flowers](Brandon)(Brandon Flowers) of [Killers](the)(the Killers), who said, "Nick Rhodes is an absolute hero of mine—their records still sound fresh, which is no mean feat as far as synths are concerned."
Nick Rhodes has directly lent his production techniques to [Kajagoogoo](Kajagoogoo) debut album *[Feathers](White)(White Feathers)* (1983) and its number one single "[Shy](Too)(Too Shy)", and to [Dandy Warhols](the)(the Dandy Warhols) fourth album *[to the Monkey House](Welcome)(Welcome to the Monkey House (album))* (2003). The band's music has been used by several [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) artists, most notably [Notorious B.I.G.](the)(the Notorious B.I.G.), who sampled Duran Duran's 1986 single "Notorious". Numerous bands have covered their music on record and in concert.
In video game culture, bassist John Taylor was the model for Dante, the protagonist of the hit [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2) game *[May Cry](Devil)(Devil May Cry (video game))*. Dante mirrors John Taylor's looks with his long rocker hairstyle, clothing, and mannerisms.
## Videos
The [MTV](MTV) cable channel and the band were launched at about the same time, and each had a hand in propelling the other to greater heights.. "Duran Duran became multimedia stars because MTV, to paraphrase bassist John Taylor, could not get videos of 'Stairway to Heaven'" MTV needed showcase videos with charismatic performers. [Garland](Les)(Les Garland), senior executive vice-president at MTV, said "I remember our director of talent and artist relations came running in and said, "You have got to see this video that's come in". Duran Duran were getting zero radio airplay at the time, and MTV wanted to try to break new music. "Hungry Like the Wolf" was the greatest video I'd ever seen". The band's video work was influential in several ways. First, Duran Duran filmed in exotic locales like [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka) and [Antigua](Antigua), creating memorable images that were radically different from the then-common low budget "band-playing-on-a-stage" videos. Second, rather than simply playing their instruments, the band participated in mini-storylines (often taking inspiration from contemporary movies: "Hungry Like the Wolf" riffs on 1981's *[of the Lost Ark](Raiders)(Raiders of the Lost Ark)*, "The Wild Boys" on 1981's *[Max 2](Mad)(Mad Max 2)*), etc. Videos were obviously headed in this direction already, but Duran Duran led the trend with a style, featuring quick editing, arresting graphic design, and surreal-to-nonsensical image inserts, that drew attention from commentators and spawned a wealth of imitators.
Duran Duran were among the first bands to have their videos shot with a professional movie camera on 35mm film, rather than on videotape, making them look superior to many of the quickly shot videos which had been MTV staples until then. MTV provided Duran Duran with access to American radio markets that were unfriendly to British music, new wave music, or "anything with synthesisers". Because MTV was not available everywhere in the United States at first, it was easy to see a pattern: where MTV went, listener demand for Duran Duran, [for Fears](Tears)(Tears for Fears), [Leppard](Def)(Def Leppard) and other European bands with interesting videos went through the roof. The band's sun-drenched videos for "Rio", "Hungry Like the Wolf" and "Save a Prayer", and the surreal "Is There Something I Should Know?" were filmed by future movie director [Mulcahy](Russell)(Russell Mulcahy), who made eleven videos for the band. Duran Duran have always sought out innovative directors and techniques, even in their later years when MTV gave them little airplay. In addition to Mulcahy, they have had videos filmed by influential photographers [Chamberlain](Dean)(Dean Chamberlain) and [von Unwerth](Ellen)(Ellen von Unwerth), Chinese director [Kaige](Chen)(Chen Kaige), documentary filmmaker [Temple](Julien)(Julien Temple), and the [Brothers](Polish)(Polish Brothers), among others. According to Nick Rhodes, "Video is to us like stereo was to [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd)."
In 1984, Duran Duran introduced video technology into their live stadium shows by being among the first acts to provide video screens above the stage. They have recorded concerts using [IMAX](IMAX) and 360-degree panoramic "immersive video" cameras, with 10.2 channel audio. In 2000, they experimented with augmented reality technology, which allowed three-dimensional computer-generated images to appear on stage with the band. They appeared on several century-end video countdowns: The MTV "100 Greatest Videos Ever Made" featured "Hungry Like the Wolf" at No. 11 and "Girls on Film" at No. 68, and the "VH1: 100 Greatest Videos" listed "Hungry" at No. 31 and "Rio" at No. 60. MTV named "Hungry" the 15th of their most played videos of all time.
The band has released several video compilations, starting with the self-titled "video album" *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1983 video))* (1983), for which they won a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award), up to the 2004 two-disc DVD release *[Greatest](Greatest (Duran Duran)#DVD)*, which included alternative versions of several popular videos as [eggs](Easter)(Easter egg (virtual)). In addition to *Greatest*, the documentary *[Blue Silver](Sing)(Sing Blue Silver)*, and the concert film *[Arena](Arena (An Absurd Notion))* (both from 1984) were released on DVD in 2004. *[from London](Live)(Live from London (Duran Duran))*, a concert video from one of their sold-out 2004 reunion shows at Wembley Arena, was released in the fall of 2005.
Other video collections, concert films, and documentaries remain available only on videotape, and Duran Duran have not yet released a collection which includes all their videos. The band has said that a huge amount of unreleased concert and documentary footage has been filmed over the years, which they hope can be edited and released in some form in the near future. The video for "Falling Down" was released in October 2007. The Nick Egan-directed video for the lead single and title track from *All You Need Is Now* was premiered via Yahoo Music on 20 December 2010. The second video from *[You Need Is Now](All)(All You Need Is Now)*, "Girl Panic", was released on 8 November 2011. It features some of the world's most famous supermodels, such as [Le Bon](Yasmin)(Yasmin Le Bon), [Crawford](Cindy)(Cindy Crawford), [Campbell](Naomi)(Naomi Campbell), [Herzigová](Eva)(Eva Herzigová) and [Christensen](Helena)(Helena Christensen), playing the band. The video was directed by [Akerlund](Jonas)(Jonas Akerlund), and during the filming, an editorial was made for ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)* magazine.
## Visual style
[[File:Duran Duran 2011.jpg|thumb|Duran Duran at [SXSW](South by Southwest) in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas), 2011]]
From the beginning of their career, all the members had a keen sense of visual style. They worked with stylist Perry Haines and fashion designers such as [& Bell](Kahn)(Kahn & Bell) and [Price](Antony)(Antony Price) to build a sharp and elegant image, soon outgrowing the ruffles and sashes of the pirate-flavoured early New Romantic look that had been popularised by [Ant](Adam)(Adam Ant) during 1980–81. They have continued to present fashion as part of their package throughout their career. In the 1990s they worked with [Westwood](Vivienne)(Vivienne Westwood) and in the 2000s with [Armani](Giorgio)(Giorgio Armani). The band retained creative control of their visual presentation having worked closely with graphic designer [Garrett](Malcolm)(Malcolm Garrett) and many others over the years to create album covers, tour programs and other materials.
Teen and music magazines in the UK latched onto their good looks quickly, and the USA soon followed. It was a rare month in the early 1980s when there was not at least one picture of the band members in [magazine](teen)(teen magazine)s such as *[Hits](Smash)(Smash Hits)* or *[Beat](Tiger)(Tiger Beat)''. John Taylor once remarked that the band was "like a box of [Street](Quality)(Quality Street (confection)) [chocolates]; everyone is someone's favourite"De Graaf & Garret (1982), p. 15. Duran Duran later came to regret this early pin-up exposure, but at the time it helped attract national attention. In an interview with Rock Fever Superstars Magazine in early 1988, John Taylor stated:
We used to be a very chi-chi name to drop in '79, but then the Fab Five hype started and something went wrong. Something went really wrong. That wasn't what I wanted. [...] Not that I didn't like being screamed at. At one point I really did".Sprague, David: *The Death of Duran Duran*. Rock Fever Superstars, issue January 1988, p.21
## Band members
### Current members
* [Rhodes](Nick)(Nick Rhodes) – keyboards, synthesizers, vocal effects, backing vocals (1978–present); electronic percussion (1978–1979)
* [Le Bon](Simon)(Simon Le Bon) – lead vocals (1980–present)
* [Taylor](John)(John Taylor (bass guitarist)) – bass (1979–1997; 2001–present), backing vocals (1978–1997; 2001–present), guitars (1978–1979)
* [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (Duran Duran drummer)) – drums, percussion (1979–1985, 2001–present; session 1994)
### Former members
* [Duffy](Stephen)(Stephen Duffy) – lead vocals, drums (1978–1979); bass (1978)
* Simon Colley – bass (1978–1979)
* Andy Wickett – lead vocals (1979–1980)
* Alan Curtis – guitars (1979–1980)
* Jeff Thomas – lead vocals (1980)
* [Taylor](Andy)(Andy Taylor (guitarist)) – guitars, backing vocals (1980–1986, 2001–2006; session 2023)
* [Cuccurullo](Warren)(Warren Cuccurullo) – guitars, backing vocals (1989–2001; session/touring 1986–1989)
* [Campbell](Sterling)(Sterling Campbell) – drums (1989–1991; session/touring 1988–1989)
### Touring members
* [Brown](Dom)(Dom Brown) – guitars, backing vocals (2006-present)
* [Coxon](Graham)(Graham Coxon) – guitars (2021)
### Timeline
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy
Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3
ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1978
Scaleminor = increment:1 start:1979
Colors =
id:Lvocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals
id:Bvocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals
id:Guitar value:green legend:Guitar
id:Keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:Bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:Perc value:claret legend:Percussion
id:Album value:black legend:Studio_album
id:Live value:gray(0.7) legend:Live_album
id:bars value:gray(0.95)
BackgroundColors = bars:bars
LineData =
at:15/06/1981 color:album layer:back
at:10/05/1982 color:album layer:back
at:21/11/1983 color:album layer:back
at:12/11/1984 color:live layer:back
at:24/11/1986 color:album layer:back
at:18/10/1988 color:album layer:back
at:20/08/1990 color:album layer:back
at:11/02/1993 color:album layer:back
at:27/03/1995 color:album layer:back
at:14/10/1997 color:album layer:back
at:19/06/2000 color:album layer:back
at:11/10/2004 color:album layer:back
at:25/10/2005 color:live layer:back
at:01/04/2006 color:album layer:back
at:19/11/2007 color:album layer:back
at:21/09/2009 color:live layer:back
at:21/12/2010 color:album layer:back
at:10/07/2012 color:live layer:back
at:11/09/2015 color:album layer:back
at:22/10/2021 color:album layer:back
BarData =
bar:Duffy text:"Stephen Duffy"
bar:Wickett text:"Andy Wickett"
bar:Jeff text:"Jeff Thomas"
bar:LeBon text:"Simon Le Bon"
bar:John text:"John Taylor"
bar:Alan text:"Alan Curtis"
bar:Andy text:"Andy Taylor"
bar:Warren text:"Warren Cuccurullo"
bar:Rhodes text:"Nick Rhodes"
bar:Simon text:"Simon Colley"
bar:Roger text:"Roger Taylor"
bar:Campbell text:"Sterling Campbell"
PlotData=
width:11
bar:Duffy from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1979 color:Lvocals
bar:Duffy from:01/01/1978 till:01/05/1978 color:Bass width:7
bar:Duffy from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1979 color:Drums width:3
bar:Wickett from:01/01/1979 till:01/03/1980 color:Lvocals
bar:Jeff from:01/03/1980 till:01/06/1980 color:Lvocals
bar:LeBon from:01/06/1980 till:end color:Lvocals
bar:John from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1980 color:Guitar
bar:John from:01/01/1978 till:01/05/1997 color:Bvocals width:3
bar:John from:01/01/1980 till:01/05/1997 color:Bass
bar:John from:15/06/2001 till:end color:Bass
bar:John from:15/06/2001 till:end color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1980 till:01/04/1980 color:Guitar
bar:Andy from:01/04/1980 till:01/07/1986 color:Guitar
bar:Andy from:01/04/1980 till:01/07/1986 color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Andy from:15/06/2001 till:25/10/2006 color:Guitar
bar:Andy from:15/06/2001 till:25/10/2006 color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Andy from:15/03/2023 till:end color:Guitar width:7
bar:Andy from:15/03/2023 till:end color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Warren from:01/07/1986 till:01/01/1989 color:Guitar width:7
bar:Warren from:01/07/1986 till:15/06/2001 color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Warren from:01/01/1989 till:15/06/2001 color:Guitar
bar:Warren from:01/05/1997 till:15/06/2001 color:Bass width:7
bar:Rhodes from:01/01/1978 till:end color:Keys
bar:Rhodes from:01/01/1978 till:end color:Bvocals width:3
bar:Rhodes from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1979 color:Perc width:7
bar:Simon from:01/05/1978 till:01/01/1980 color:Bass
bar:Roger from:01/01/1979 till:01/01/1985 color:Drums
bar:Roger from:01/01/1979 till:01/01/1985 color:Perc width:3
bar:Roger from:01/01/1994 till:31/12/1994 color:Drums width:7
bar:Roger from:01/01/1994 till:31/12/1994 color:Perc width:3
bar:Roger from:15/06/2001 till:end color:Drums
bar:Roger from:15/06/2001 till:end color:Perc width:3
bar:Campbell from:01/01/1988 till:01/01/1989 color:Drums width:3
bar:Campbell from:01/01/1989 till:01/01/1991 color:Drums
}}
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1981 album))* (1981)
* *[Rio](Rio (Duran Duran album))* (1982)
* *[and the Ragged Tiger](Seven)(Seven and the Ragged Tiger)* (1983)
* *[Notorious](Notorious (Duran Duran album))* (1986)
* *[Thing](Big)(Big Thing (Duran Duran album))* (1988)
* *[Liberty](Liberty (Duran Duran album))* (1990)
* *[Duran](Duran)(Duran Duran (1993 album))* (1993)
* *[You](Thank)(Thank You (Duran Duran album))* (1995)
* *[Medazzaland](Medazzaland)* (1997)
* *[Trash](Pop)(Pop Trash)* (2000)
* *[Astronaut](Astronaut (Duran Duran album))* (2004)
* *[Carpet Massacre](Red)(Red Carpet Massacre)* (2007)
* *[You Need Is Now](All)(All You Need Is Now)* (2010)
* *[Gods](Paper)(Paper Gods)* (2015)
* *[Past](Future)(Future Past (Duran Duran album))* (2021)
## Awards and nominations
## Tours
* 1981: The Faster Than Light Tour
* 1981: The Careless Memories Tour
* 1982: The Rio Tour
* 1983–1984: The Sing Blue Silver Tour
* 1987–1988: The Strange Behaviour Tour
* 1988: The Secret Caravan Club Tour
* 1988–1989: The Big Live Thing Tour (also known as The Electric Theatre Tour)
* 1993: An Acoustic Evening with Duran Duran
* 1993–1994: The Dilate Your Mind Tour
* 1995: The Thank You Tour
* 1997: The Ultra Chrome, Latex and Steel Tour
* 1998: The Greatest and Latest Tour
* 1999: The Let It Flow Tour
* 2000: The Pop Trash Tour
* 2001: The Up Close and Personal Tour
* 2003–2004: The Reunion Tour
* 2005–2006: The Astronaut Tour
* 2007–2008: The Red Carpet Massacre Tour
* 2009: The Summer Tour
* 2011–2012: [You Need Is Now](All)(All You Need Is Now (concert tour))
* 2015: 2015 Tour
* 2015–2017: [Gods on Tour](Paper)(Paper Gods on Tour)
* 2022–2023: [Past Tour](Future)(Future Past (Duran Duran album)#Tour)
## See also
* [of artists who reached number one in the United States](List)(List of artists who reached number one in the United States)
* [of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart](List)(List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart)
* [of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart](List)(List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart)
* [of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame](List)(List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame)
## Explanatory notes
## Citations
## General and cited references
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[ ](Category:Duran Duran)
[establishments in England](Category:1978)(Category:1978 establishments in England)
[which contain graphical timelines](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines)
[Award winners](Category:Brit)(Category:Brit Award winners)
[synth-pop new wave groups](Category:British)(Category:British synth-pop new wave groups)
[Records artists](Category:Capitol)(Category:Capitol Records artists)
[musical groups](Category:Dance-rock)(Category:Dance-rock musical groups)
[new wave musical groups](Category:English)(Category:English new wave musical groups)
[synth-pop groups](Category:English)(Category:English synth-pop groups)
[Records artists](Category:Epic)(Category:Epic Records artists)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[Records artists](Category:Hollywood)(Category:Hollywood Records artists)
[Novello Award winners](Category:Ivor)(Category:Ivor Novello Award winners)
[Europe Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Europe Music Award winners)
[groups established in 1978](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1978)
[groups from Birmingham, West Midlands](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Birmingham, West Midlands)
[quartets](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical quartets)
[artists](Category:Parlophone)(Category:Parlophone artists)
[British Invasion artists](Category:Second)(Category:Second British Invasion artists)
[Records artists](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Records artists)
|
118th United States Congress
|
118th_united_states_congress
|
# 118th United States Congress
*Revision ID: 1160324935 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:29:16Z*
---
[[USA pin.png|thumb|175px|alt=A small pin held onto an article of clothing with a Congressional seal on it|118th Congress House Member pin](File:118)]
The **118th United States Congress** is the current meeting of the legislative branch of the [States](United)(United States) federal government, composed of the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) and the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives). It convened in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025, taking place during the final two years of [President](President of the United States) [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden)'s [term](initial)(Presidency of Joe Biden).
In the [midterm elections](2022)(2022 United States elections), the [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States)) won control of the House for the first time since the , while the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)) gained one seat in the Senate, giving them a 51–49 majority (with a caucus of 48 Democrats and three independents). This marks the first split Congress since the , and the first Republican House–Democratic Senate split since the . With Republicans winning the House, the 118th Congress ended the federal [trifecta](government)(government trifecta) Democrats held in the [117th](117th United States Congress).
This congress also features the first female [president pro tempore](Senate)(President pro tempore of the United States Senate) ([Murray](Patty)(Patty Murray)), the first Black party leader ([Jeffries](Hakeem)(Hakeem Jeffries)) in congressional history, and the longest serving Senate party leader ([McConnell](Mitch)(Mitch McConnell)). Additionally, it began with a multi-ballot [for Speaker of the House](election)(2023 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election), which had not happened since the [Congress](68th)(68th United States Congress) in 1923. [McCarthy](Kevin)(Kevin McCarthy) was eventually elected speaker on the 15th ballot.
## Major events
[[File:P20230207AS-2002 (52681156504).jpg|thumb|President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) during his [State of the Union Address](2023)(2023 State of the Union Address) with Vice President [Harris](Kamala)(Kamala Harris) and House Speaker [McCarthy](Kevin)(Kevin McCarthy)]]
* January 3, 2023, 12:00 p.m. [EST](Eastern Time Zone): Congress convened. Members-elect of the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) were sworn in, but members-elect of the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives) could not be sworn as the House adjourned for the day without electing a speaker.
* January 3–7, 2023: [election for the House speakership](The)(2023 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election) took 15 ballots. [McCarthy](Kevin)(Kevin McCarthy) was ultimately elected as speaker, but only after six representatives-elect voted "[present](Abstention)", lowering the threshold to be elected from 218 to 215.
* February 2, 2023: House voted 218–211 to remove Representative [Omar](Ilhan)(Ilhan Omar) of Minnesota from the Committee on Foreign Affairs.
* February 7, 2023: [President](President of the United States) [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) delivered the [State of the Union Address](2023)(2023 State of the Union Address).
* June 3, 2023: The [debt-ceiling crisis](2023)(2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis) ends with the [Responsibility Act of 2023](Fiscal)(Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023).
## Major legislation
### Enacted
[[File:President Joe Biden signs the bipartisan budget agreement into law.jpg|thumb|President Biden signed the [Responsibility Act of 2023](Fiscal)(Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023) into law, June 3, 2023]]
*March 20, 2023: [Origin Act of 2023](COVID-19)(COVID-19 Origin Act of 2023),
*June 3, 2023: [Responsibility Act of 2023](Fiscal)(Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023),
*June 3, 2023: NOTAM Improvement Act of 2023,
### Proposed (but not enacted)
; House bills
*: Lower Energy Costs Act *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Parents Bill of Rights Act *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion and Abortion Insurance Full Disclosure Act of 2023
*: Strategic Production Response Act *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Protecting America's Strategic Petroleum Reserve from China Act *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: [and Small Business Taxpayer Protection Act](Family)(Family and Small Business Taxpayer Protection Act) *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: [FairTax](FairTax) Act of 2023
*: [Abortion Survivors Protection Act](Born-Alive)(Born-Alive Abortion Survivors Protection Act) *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Prosecutors Need to Prosecute Act
*: Illegal Alien NICS Alert Act
*: Border Safety and Security Act of 2023
*: [D.C., Admission Act](Washington,)(Washington, D.C., Admission Act)
*: Regulations from the Executive in Need of Scrutiny Act *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Protection of Women and Girls in Sports Act of 2023 *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Limit, Save, Grow Act of 2023 *(incorporated into Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023)*
; Senate bills
*: A bill to repeal the authorizations for use of military force against Iraq. *(awaiting action in the House)*
*: [Act](RESTRICT)(RESTRICT Act)
*: Fire Grants and Safety Act *(awaiting action in the House)*
## Major resolutions
### Adopted
*: Adopting the Rules of the House of Representatives for the One Hundred Eighteenth Congress, and for other purposes.
*: Establishing the [Committee on the Strategic Competition Between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party](Select)(United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party).
*: Establishing a [Subcommittee on the Weaponization of the Federal Government](Select)(United States House Judiciary Select Subcommittee on the Weaponization of the Federal Government) as a select investigative subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary.
*: Removing [Omar](Ilhan)(Ilhan Omar) from the [Foreign Affairs Committee](House)(United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs).
*: Terminating the national emergency concerning [COVID-19](COVID-19) declared by the President on March 13, 2020.
*: Disapproving the action of the [of Columbia Council](District)(Council of the District of Columbia) in approving the Revised Criminal Code Act of 2022.
### Proposed
*: Expressing the sense of Congress condemning the recent attacks on pro-life facilities, groups, and churches. *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
*: Denouncing the horrors of socialism. *(awaiting action in the Senate)*
### Vetoed
*: Providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Department of Defense and the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Revised Definition of 'Waters of the United States'".
*: Providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Department of Labor relating to "Prudence and Loyalty in Selecting Plan Investments and Exercising Shareholder Rights".
*: Disapproving the rule submitted by the Department of Commerce relating to "Procedures Covering Suspension of Liquidation, Duties and Estimated Duties in Accord With Presidential Proclamation 10414".
*: Disapproving the action of the [of Columbia Council](District)(District of Columbia Council) in approving the Comprehensive Policing and Justice Reform Amendment Act of 2022.
*: Providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Department of Education relating to "Waivers and Modifications of Federal Student Loans".
*: Providing for congressional disapproval under chapter 8 of title 5, United States Code, of the rule submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency relating to "Control of Air Pollution From New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards".
## Party summary
: *Resignations and new members are discussed in the [in membership" section]("Changes)(#Changes in membership):*
### Senate
### House of Representatives
## Leadership
Note: Democrats refer to themselves as a "Caucus"; Republicans refer to themselves as a "Conference".
### Senate
#### Presiding
* [President](President of the United States Senate): [Harris](Kamala)(Kamala Harris) (D)
* [pro tempore](President)(President pro tempore of the United States Senate): [Murray](Patty)(Patty Murray) (D)
#### Majority (Democratic)
* [Leader](Majority)(Party leaders of the United States Senate)/[Chair](Senate Democratic Caucus#Chairs of the Senate Democratic Caucus) of the [Democratic Caucus](Senate)(Senate Democratic Caucus): [Schumer](Chuck)(Chuck Schumer) ([NY](List of United States senators from New York))
* [Whip](Majority)(Assistant party leaders of the United States Senate): [Durbin](Dick)(Dick Durbin) ([IL](List of United States senators from Illinois))
* Chair of the [Policy & Communications Committee](Democratic)(Senate Democratic Policy Committee): [Stabenow](Debbie)(Debbie Stabenow) ([MI](List of United States senators from Michigan))
* Chair of the [Steering Committee](Democratic)(United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee): [Klobuchar](Amy)(Amy Klobuchar) ([MN](List of United States senators from Minnesota))
* [Chairs](Vice)(Vice Chairman of the Democratic Caucus), [Democratic Caucus](Senate)(Senate Democratic Caucus): [Warner](Mark)(Mark Warner) ([VA](List of United States senators from Virginia)) & [Warren](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Warren) ([MA](List of United States senators from Massachusetts))
* Chair of the [Outreach Committee](Democratic)(United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee): [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders) ([VT](List of United States senators from Vermont))
* [Secretary](Senate Democratic Caucus#Caucus Secretary) of the [Democratic Caucus](Senate)(Senate Democratic Caucus): [Baldwin](Tammy)(Tammy Baldwin) ([WI](List of United States senators from Wisconsin))
* Vice Chairs of the [Policy & Communications Committee](Democratic)(Senate Democratic Policy Committee): [Manchin](Joe)(Joe Manchin) ([WV](List of United States senators from West Virginia)) & [Booker](Cory)(Cory Booker) ([NJ](List of United States senators from New Jersey))
* Chair of the [Senatorial Campaign Committee](Democratic)(Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee): [Peters](Gary)(Gary Peters) ([MI](List of United States senators from Michigan))
* Vice Chair of the [Steering Committee](Democratic)(United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee): [Shaheen](Jeanne)(Jeanne Shaheen) ([NH](List of United States senators from New Hampshire))
* Vice Chair of the [Outreach Committee](Democratic)(United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee): [Cortez Masto](Catherine)(Catherine Cortez Masto) ([NV](List of United States senators from Nevada))
* Deputy Secretary of the [Democratic Caucus](Senate)(Senate Democratic Caucus): [Schatz](Brian)(Brian Schatz) ([HI](List of United States senators from Hawaii))
* Senate Democratic Chief Deputy Whip: [Merkley](Jeff)(Jeff Merkley) ([OR](List of United States senators from Oregon))
* Vice Chairs of the [Senatorial Campaign Committee](Democratic)(Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee): [Smith](Tina)(Tina Smith) ([MN](List of United States senators from Minnesota)) & [Padilla](Alex)(Alex Padilla) ([CA](List of United States senators from California))
#### Minority (Republican)
* [Leader](Minority)(Party leaders of the United States Senate): [McConnell](Mitch)(Mitch McConnell) ([KY](List of United States senators from Kentucky))
* [Whip](Minority)(Assistant party leaders of the United States Senate): [Thune](John)(John Thune) ([SD](List of United States senators from South Dakota))
* [Chairman](Senate Republican Conference#List of conference chairman and chairwomen) of the [Republican Conference](Senate)(Senate Republican Conference): [Barrasso](John)(John Barrasso) ([WY](List of United States senators from Wyoming))
* [Chairwoman](United States Senate Republican Policy Committee#List of Chairs) of the [Policy Committee](Republican)(United States Senate Republican Policy Committee): [Ernst](Joni)(Joni Ernst) ([IA](List of United States senators from Iowa))
* [Chair](Vice)(Senate Republican Conference#List of Secretary and Vice Chairman) of the [Republican Conference](Senate)(Senate Republican Conference): [Moore Capito](Shelley)(Shelley Moore Capito) ([WV](List of United States senators from West Virginia))
* [Chairman](National Republican Senatorial Committee) of the [Republican Senatorial Campaign Committee](National)(National Republican Senatorial Committee): [Daines](Steve)(Steve Daines) ([MT](List of United States senators from Montana))
* Chair of the Senate Republican Steering Committee: [Lee](Mike)(Mike Lee) ([UT](List of United States senators from Utah))
### House of Representatives
#### Presiding
* [Speaker](Speaker of the United States House of Representatives): [McCarthy](Kevin)(Kevin McCarthy) (R) ()
#### Majority (Republican)
* [Leader](Majority)(Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives): [Scalise](Steve)(Steve Scalise) ()
* [Whip](Majority)(Party whips of the United States House of Representatives): [Emmer](Tom)(Tom Emmer) ()
* [Chair](Conference)(Republican Conference Chairman of the United States House of Representatives): [Stefanik](Elise)(Elise Stefanik) ()
* [Vice Chair](Conference)(Republican Conference Vice-Chairman of the United States House of Representatives): [Johnson](Mike)(Mike Johnson (Louisiana politician)) ()
* [Secretary](Conference)(Republican Conference Secretary of the United States House of Representatives): [McClain](Lisa)(Lisa McClain) ()
* [Committee Chairman](Campaign)(National Republican Congressional Committee): [Hudson](Richard)(Richard Hudson (American politician)) ()
* [Chief Deputy Whip](Majority)(Party whips of the United States House of Representatives): [Reschenthaler](Guy)(Guy Reschenthaler) ()
#### Minority (Democratic)
* [Leader](Minority)(Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives): [Jeffries](Hakeem)(Hakeem Jeffries) ()
* [Whip](Minority)(Party whips of the United States House of Representatives): [Clark](Katherine)(Katherine Clark) ()
* [Chairman](Caucus)(Democratic Caucus Chairman of the United States House of Representatives): [Aguilar](Pete)(Pete Aguilar) ()
* [Vice Chairman](Caucus)(Democratic Caucus Vice-Chairman of the United States House of Representatives): [Lieu](Ted)(Ted Lieu) ()
* [Senior Chief Deputy Whip](Minority)(Party whips of the United States House of Representatives): [Schakowsky](Jan)(Jan Schakowsky) ()
* Chair of the [Congressional Campaign Committee](Democratic)(Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee): [DelBene](Suzan)(Suzan DelBene) ()
* [Democratic Leader](Assistant)(Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives#Assistant party leaders): [Clyburn](Jim)(Jim Clyburn) ()
* Chair of the Democratic Policy and Communications Committee: [Neguse](Joe)(Joe Neguse) ()
* Chair of the House Democratic Policy and Communications Committee: [Escobar](Veronica)(Veronica Escobar) ()
* House Democratic Freshman Class Leadership Representative: [Crockett](Jasmine)(Jasmine Crockett) ()
## Members
### Senate
The numbers refer to their [classes](Senate)(Classes of United States senators). All class 3 seats were contested in the [2022 elections](November)(2022 United States Senate elections). In this Congress, class 3 means their term commenced in 2023, requiring [in 2028](re-election)(2028 United States Senate elections); class 1 means their term ends with this Congress, requiring [in 2024](re-election)(2024 United States Senate elections); and class 2 means their term began in the last Congress, requiring [in 2026](re-election)(2026 United States Senate elections).
#### [Alabama](List of United States senators from Alabama)
: 2. [Tuberville](Tommy)(Tommy Tuberville) (R)
: 3. [Britt](Katie)(Katie Britt) (R)
#### [Alaska](List of United States senators from Alaska)
: 2. [Sullivan](Dan)(Dan Sullivan (U.S. senator)) (R)
: 3. [Murkowski](Lisa)(Lisa Murkowski) (R)
#### [Arizona](List of United States senators from Arizona)
: 1. [Sinema](Kyrsten)(Kyrsten Sinema) (I)
: 3. [Kelly](Mark)(Mark Kelly) (D)
#### [Arkansas](List of United States senators from Arkansas)
: 2. [Cotton](Tom)(Tom Cotton) (R)
: 3. [Boozman](John)(John Boozman) (R)
#### [California](List of United States senators from California)
: 1. [Feinstein](Dianne)(Dianne Feinstein) (D)
: 3. [Padilla](Alex)(Alex Padilla) (D)
#### [Colorado](List of United States senators from Colorado)
: 2. [Hickenlooper](John)(John Hickenlooper) (D)
: 3. [Bennet](Michael)(Michael Bennet) (D)
#### [Connecticut](List of United States senators from Connecticut)
: 1. [Murphy](Chris)(Chris Murphy) (D)
: 3. [Blumenthal](Richard)(Richard Blumenthal) (D)
#### [Delaware](List of United States senators from Delaware)
: 1. [Carper](Tom)(Tom Carper) (D)
: 2. [Coons](Chris)(Chris Coons) (D)
#### [Florida](List of United States senators from Florida)
: 1. [Scott](Rick)(Rick Scott) (R)
: 3. [Rubio](Marco)(Marco Rubio) (R)
#### [Georgia](List of United States senators from Georgia)
: 2. [Ossoff](Jon)(Jon Ossoff) (D)
: 3. [Warnock](Raphael)(Raphael Warnock) (D)
#### [Hawaii](List of United States senators from Hawaii)
: 1. [Hirono](Mazie)(Mazie Hirono) (D)
: 3. [Schatz](Brian)(Brian Schatz) (D)
#### [Idaho](List of United States senators from Idaho)
: 2. [Risch](Jim)(Jim Risch) (R)
: 3. [Crapo](Mike)(Mike Crapo) (R)
#### [Illinois](List of United States senators from Illinois)
: 2. [Durbin](Dick)(Dick Durbin) (D)
: 3. [Duckworth](Tammy)(Tammy Duckworth) (D)
#### [Indiana](List of United States senators from Indiana)
: 1. [Braun](Mike)(Mike Braun) (R)
: 3. [Young](Todd)(Todd Young) (R)
#### [Iowa](List of United States senators from Iowa)
: 2. [Ernst](Joni)(Joni Ernst) (R)
: 3. [Grassley](Chuck)(Chuck Grassley) (R)
#### [Kansas](List of United States senators from Kansas)
: 2. [Marshall](Roger)(Roger Marshall (politician)) (R)
: 3. [Moran](Jerry)(Jerry Moran) (R)
#### [Kentucky](List of United States senators from Kentucky)
: 2. [McConnell](Mitch)(Mitch McConnell) (R)
: 3. [Paul](Rand)(Rand Paul) (R)
#### [Louisiana](List of United States senators from Louisiana)
: 2. [Cassidy](Bill)(Bill Cassidy) (R)
: 3. [Kennedy](John)(John Kennedy (Louisiana politician)) (R)
#### [Maine](List of United States senators from Maine)
: 1. [King](Angus)(Angus King) (I)
: 2. [Collins](Susan)(Susan Collins) (R)
#### [Maryland](List of United States senators from Maryland)
: 1. [Cardin](Ben)(Ben Cardin) (D)
: 3. [Van Hollen](Chris)(Chris Van Hollen) (D)
#### [Massachusetts](List of United States senators from Massachusetts)
: 1. [Warren](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Warren) (D)
: 2. [Markey](Ed)(Ed Markey) (D)
#### [Michigan](List of United States senators from Michigan)
: 1. [Stabenow](Debbie)(Debbie Stabenow) (D)
: 2. [Peters](Gary)(Gary Peters) (D)
#### [Minnesota](List of United States senators from Minnesota)
: 1. [Klobuchar](Amy)(Amy Klobuchar) (DFL)
: 2. [Smith](Tina)(Tina Smith) (DFL)
#### [Mississippi](List of United States senators from Mississippi)
: 1. [Wicker](Roger)(Roger Wicker) (R)
: 2. [Hyde-Smith](Cindy)(Cindy Hyde-Smith) (R)
#### [Missouri](List of United States senators from Missouri)
: 1. [Hawley](Josh)(Josh Hawley) (R)
: 3. [Schmitt](Eric)(Eric Schmitt) (R)
#### [Montana](List of United States senators from Montana)
: 1. [Tester](Jon)(Jon Tester) (D)
: 2. [Daines](Steve)(Steve Daines) (R)
#### [Nebraska](List of United States senators from Nebraska)
: 1. [Fischer](Deb)(Deb Fischer) (R)
: 2. [Sasse](Ben)(Ben Sasse) (R)
:: [Ricketts](Pete)(Pete Ricketts) (R)
#### [Nevada](List of United States senators from Nevada)
: 1. [Rosen](Jacky)(Jacky Rosen) (D)
: 3. [Cortez Masto](Catherine)(Catherine Cortez Masto) (D)
#### [Hampshire](New)(List of United States senators from New Hampshire)
: 2. [Shaheen](Jeanne)(Jeanne Shaheen) (D)
: 3. [Hassan](Maggie)(Maggie Hassan) (D)
#### [Jersey](New)(List of United States senators from New Jersey)
: 1. [Menendez](Bob)(Bob Menendez) (D)
: 2. [Booker](Cory)(Cory Booker) (D)
#### [Mexico](New)(List of United States senators from New Mexico)
: 1. [Heinrich](Martin)(Martin Heinrich) (D)
: 2. [Ray Luján](Ben)(Ben Ray Luján) (D)
#### [York](New)(List of United States senators from New York)
: 1. [Gillibrand](Kirsten)(Kirsten Gillibrand) (D)
: 3. [Schumer](Chuck)(Chuck Schumer) (D)
#### [Carolina](North)(List of United States senators from North Carolina)
: 2. [Tillis](Thom)(Thom Tillis) (R)
: 3. [Budd](Ted)(Ted Budd) (R)
#### [Dakota](North)(List of United States senators from North Dakota)
: 1. [Cramer](Kevin)(Kevin Cramer) (R)
: 3. [Hoeven](John)(John Hoeven) (R)
#### [Ohio](List of United States senators from Ohio)
: 1. [Brown](Sherrod)(Sherrod Brown) (D)
: 3. [D. Vance](J.)(J. D. Vance) (R)
#### [Oklahoma](List of United States senators from Oklahoma)
: 2. [Mullin](Markwayne)(Markwayne Mullin) (R)
: 3. [Lankford](James)(James Lankford) (R)
#### [Oregon](List of United States senators from Oregon)
: 2. [Merkley](Jeff)(Jeff Merkley) (D)
: 3. [Wyden](Ron)(Ron Wyden) (D)
#### [Pennsylvania](List of United States senators from Pennsylvania)
: 1. [Casey Jr.](Bob)(Bob Casey Jr.) (D)
: 3. [Fetterman](John)(John Fetterman) (D)
#### [Island](Rhode)(List of United States senators from Rhode Island)
: 1. [Whitehouse](Sheldon)(Sheldon Whitehouse) (D)
: 2. [Reed](Jack)(Jack Reed (Rhode Island politician)) (D)
#### [Carolina](South)(List of United States senators from South Carolina)
: 2. [Graham](Lindsey)(Lindsey Graham) (R)
: 3. [Scott](Tim)(Tim Scott) (R)
#### [Dakota](South)(List of United States senators from South Dakota)
: 2. [Rounds](Mike)(Mike Rounds) (R)
: 3. [Thune](John)(John Thune) (R)
#### [Tennessee](List of United States senators from Tennessee)
: 1. [Blackburn](Marsha)(Marsha Blackburn) (R)
: 2. [Hagerty](Bill)(Bill Hagerty) (R)
#### [Texas](List of United States senators from Texas)
: 1. [Cruz](Ted)(Ted Cruz) (R)
: 2. [Cornyn](John)(John Cornyn) (R)
#### [Utah](List of United States senators from Utah)
: 1. [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney) (R)
: 3. [Lee](Mike)(Mike Lee) (R)
#### [Vermont](List of United States senators from Vermont)
: 1. [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders) (I)
: 3. [Welch](Peter)(Peter Welch) (D)
#### [Virginia](List of United States senators from Virginia)
: 1. [Kaine](Tim)(Tim Kaine) (D)
: 2. [Warner](Mark)(Mark Warner) (D)
#### [Washington](List of United States senators from Washington)
: 1. [Cantwell](Maria)(Maria Cantwell) (D)
: 3. [Murray](Patty)(Patty Murray) (D)
#### [Virginia](West)(List of United States senators from West Virginia)
: 1. [Manchin](Joe)(Joe Manchin) (D)
: 2. [Moore Capito](Shelley)(Shelley Moore Capito) (R)
#### [Wisconsin](List of United States senators from Wisconsin)
: 1. [Baldwin](Tammy)(Tammy Baldwin) (D)
: 3. [Johnson](Ron)(Ron Johnson) (R)
#### [Wyoming](List of United States senators from Wyoming)
: 1. [Barrasso](John)(John Barrasso) (R)
: 2. [Lummis](Cynthia)(Cynthia Lummis) (R)
### House of Representatives
All 435 seats were filled by [in November 2022](election)(2022 United States House of Representatives elections). Additionally, [non-voting members](six)(Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives) were elected from the [territories](American)(American territories) and [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)
The numbers refer to the [district](congressional)(List of United States congressional districts) of the given state in this Congress. Eight new congressional districts were created or re-created, while eight others were eliminated, as a result of the [United States census](2020)(2020 United States census).; ; ; ; ; . The districts re-created were: ; .}}; ; ; ; ; ; ; .}}
#### [Alabama](List of United States representatives from Alabama)
: . [Carl](Jerry)(Jerry Carl) (R)
: . [Moore](Barry)(Barry Moore (Alabama politician)) (R)
: . [Rogers](Mike)(Mike Rogers (Alabama politician)) (R)
: . [Aderholt](Robert)(Robert Aderholt) (R)
: . [Strong](Dale)(Dale Strong) (R)
: . [Palmer](Gary)(Gary Palmer (politician)) (R)
: . [Sewell](Terri)(Terri Sewell) (D)
#### [Alaska](List of United States representatives from Alaska)
: . [Peltola](Mary)(Mary Peltola) (D)
#### [Arizona](List of United States representatives from Arizona)
: . [Schweikert](David)(David Schweikert) (R)
: . [Crane](Eli)(Eli Crane) (R)
: . [Gallego](Ruben)(Ruben Gallego) (D)
: . [Stanton](Greg)(Greg Stanton) (D)
: . [Biggs](Andy)(Andy Biggs) (R)
: . [Ciscomani](Juan)(Juan Ciscomani) (R)
: . [Grijalva](Raúl)(Raúl Grijalva) (D)
: . [Lesko](Debbie)(Debbie Lesko) (R)
: . [Gosar](Paul)(Paul Gosar) (R)
#### [Arkansas](List of United States representatives from Arkansas)
: . [Crawford](Rick)(Rick Crawford (politician)) (R)
: . [Hill](French)(French Hill (politician)) (R)
: . [Womack](Steve)(Steve Womack) (R)
: . [Westerman](Bruce)(Bruce Westerman) (R)
#### [California](List of United States representatives from California)
: . [LaMalfa](Doug)(Doug LaMalfa) (R)
: . [Huffman](Jared)(Jared Huffman) (D)
: . [Kiley](Kevin)(Kevin Kiley (politician)) (R)
: . [Thompson](Mike)(Mike Thompson (California politician)) (D)
: . [McClintock](Tom)(Tom McClintock) (R)
: . [Bera](Ami)(Ami Bera) (D)
: . [Matsui](Doris)(Doris Matsui) (D)
: . [Garamendi](John)(John Garamendi) (D)
: . [Harder](Josh)(Josh Harder) (D)
: . [DeSaulnier](Mark)(Mark DeSaulnier) (D)
: . [Pelosi](Nancy)(Nancy Pelosi) (D)
: . [Lee](Barbara)(Barbara Lee) (D)
: . [Duarte](John)(John Duarte (politician)) (R)
: . [Swalwell](Eric)(Eric Swalwell) (D)
: . [Mullin](Kevin)(Kevin Mullin) (D)
: . [Eshoo](Anna)(Anna Eshoo) (D)
: . [Khanna](Ro)(Ro Khanna) (D)
: . [Lofgren](Zoe)(Zoe Lofgren) (D)
: . [Panetta](Jimmy)(Jimmy Panetta) (D)
: . [McCarthy](Kevin)(Kevin McCarthy) (R)
: . [Costa](Jim)(Jim Costa) (D)
: . [Valadao](David)(David Valadao) (R)
: . [Obernolte](Jay)(Jay Obernolte) (R)
: . [Carbajal](Salud)(Salud Carbajal) (D)
: . [Ruiz](Raul)(Raul Ruiz (politician)) (D)
: . [Brownley](Julia)(Julia Brownley) (D)
: . [Garcia](Mike)(Mike Garcia (politician)) (R)
: . [Chu](Judy)(Judy Chu) (D)
: . [Cárdenas](Tony)(Tony Cárdenas) (D)
: . [Schiff](Adam)(Adam Schiff) (D)
: . [Napolitano](Grace)(Grace Napolitano) (D)
: . [Sherman](Brad)(Brad Sherman) (D)
: . [Aguilar](Pete)(Pete Aguilar) (D)
: . [Gomez](Jimmy)(Jimmy Gomez) (D)
: . [Torres](Norma)(Norma Torres) (D)
: . [Lieu](Ted)(Ted Lieu) (D)
: . [Kamlager-Dove](Sydney)(Sydney Kamlager-Dove) (D)
: . [Sánchez](Linda)(Linda Sánchez) (D)
: . [Takano](Mark)(Mark Takano) (D)
: . [Kim](Young)(Young Kim) (R)
: . [Calvert](Ken)(Ken Calvert) (R)
: . [Garcia](Robert)(Robert Garcia (California politician)) (D)
: . [Waters](Maxine)(Maxine Waters) (D)
: . [Barragán](Nanette)(Nanette Barragán) (D)
: . [Steel](Michelle)(Michelle Steel) (R)
: . [Correa](Lou)(Lou Correa) (D)
: . [Porter](Katie)(Katie Porter) (D)
: . [Issa](Darrell)(Darrell Issa) (R)
: . [Levin](Mike)(Mike Levin) (D)
: . [Peters](Scott)(Scott Peters (politician)) (D)
: . [Jacobs](Sara)(Sara Jacobs) (D)
: . [Vargas](Juan)(Juan Vargas) (D)
#### [Colorado](List of United States representatives from Colorado)
: . [DeGette](Diana)(Diana DeGette) (D)
: . [Neguse](Joe)(Joe Neguse) (D)
: . [Boebert](Lauren)(Lauren Boebert) (R)
: . [Buck](Ken)(Ken Buck) (R)
: . [Lamborn](Doug)(Doug Lamborn) (R)
: . [Crow](Jason)(Jason Crow) (D)
: . [Pettersen](Brittany)(Brittany Pettersen) (D)
: . [Caraveo](Yadira)(Yadira Caraveo) (D)
#### [Connecticut](List of United States representatives from Connecticut)
: . [B. Larson](John)(John B. Larson) (D)
: . [Courtney](Joe)(Joe Courtney (politician)) (D)
: . [DeLauro](Rosa)(Rosa DeLauro) (D)
: . [Himes](Jim)(Jim Himes) (D)
: . [Hayes](Jahana)(Jahana Hayes) (D)
#### [Delaware](List of United States representatives from Delaware)
: . [Blunt Rochester](Lisa)(Lisa Blunt Rochester) (D)
#### [Florida](List of United States representatives from Florida)
: . [Gaetz](Matt)(Matt Gaetz) (R)
: . [Dunn](Neal)(Neal Dunn) (R)
: . [Cammack](Kat)(Kat Cammack) (R)
: . [Bean](Aaron)(Aaron Bean) (R)
: . [Rutherford](John)(John Rutherford (Florida politician)) (R)
: . [Waltz](Michael)(Michael Waltz) (R)
: . [Mills](Cory)(Cory Mills) (R)
: . [Posey](Bill)(Bill Posey) (R)
: . [Soto](Darren)(Darren Soto) (D)
: . [Frost](Maxwell)(Maxwell Frost) (D)
: . [Webster](Daniel)(Daniel Webster (Florida politician)) (R)
: . [Bilirakis](Gus)(Gus Bilirakis) (R)
: . [Paulina Luna](Anna)(Anna Paulina Luna) (R)
: . [Castor](Kathy)(Kathy Castor) (D)
: . [Lee](Laurel)(Laurel Lee) (R)
: . [Buchanan](Vern)(Vern Buchanan) (R)
: . [Steube](Greg)(Greg Steube) (R)
: . [Franklin](Scott)(Scott Franklin (politician)) (R)
: . [Donalds](Byron)(Byron Donalds) (R)
: . [Cherfilus-McCormick](Sheila)(Sheila Cherfilus-McCormick) (D)
: . [Mast](Brian)(Brian Mast) (R)
: . [Frankel](Lois)(Lois Frankel) (D)
: . [Moskowitz](Jared)(Jared Moskowitz) (D)
: . [Wilson](Frederica)(Frederica Wilson) (D)
: . [Wasserman Schultz](Debbie)(Debbie Wasserman Schultz) (D)
: . [Díaz-Balart](Mario)(Mario Díaz-Balart) (R)
: . [Elvira Salazar](María)(María Elvira Salazar) (R)
: . [A. Giménez](Carlos)(Carlos A. Giménez) (R)
#### [Georgia](List of United States representatives from Georgia)
: . [Carter](Buddy)(Buddy Carter) (R)
: . [Bishop](Sanford)(Sanford Bishop) (D)
: . [Ferguson](Drew)(Drew Ferguson (politician)) (R)
: . [Johnson](Hank)(Hank Johnson) (D)
: . [Williams](Nikema)(Nikema Williams) (D)
: . [McCormick](Rich)(Rich McCormick) (R)
: . [McBath](Lucy)(Lucy McBath) (D)
: . [Scott](Austin)(Austin Scott (politician)) (R)
: . [Clyde](Andrew)(Andrew Clyde) (R)
: . [Collins](Mike)(Mike Collins (politician)) (R)
: . [Loudermilk](Barry)(Barry Loudermilk) (R)
: . [Allen](Rick)(Rick Allen (politician)) (R)
: . [Scott](David)(David Scott (Georgia politician)) (D)
: . [Taylor Greene](Marjorie)(Marjorie Taylor Greene) (R)
#### [Hawaii](List of United States representatives from Hawaii)
: . [Case](Ed)(Ed Case) (D)
: . [Tokuda](Jill)(Jill Tokuda) (D)
#### [Idaho](List of United States representatives from Idaho)
: . [Fulcher](Russ)(Russ Fulcher) (R)
: . [Simpson](Mike)(Mike Simpson) (R)
#### [Illinois](List of United States representatives from Illinois)
: . [Jackson](Jonathan)(Jonathan Jackson (Illinois politician)) (D)
: . [Kelly](Robin)(Robin Kelly) (D)
: . [Ramirez](Delia)(Delia Ramirez) (D)
: . [García](Chuy)(Chuy García) (D)
: . [Quigley](Mike)(Mike Quigley (politician)) (D)
: . [Casten](Sean)(Sean Casten) (D)
: . [Davis](Danny)(Danny Davis (Illinois politician)) (D)
: . [Krishnamoorthi](Raja)(Raja Krishnamoorthi) (D)
: . [Schakowsky](Jan)(Jan Schakowsky) (D)
: . [Schneider](Brad)(Brad Schneider) (D)
: . [Foster](Bill)(Bill Foster (politician)) (D)
: . [Bost](Mike)(Mike Bost) (R)
: . [Budzinski](Nikki)(Nikki Budzinski) (D)
: . [Underwood](Lauren)(Lauren Underwood) (D)
: . [Miller](Mary)(Mary Miller (politician)) (R)
: . [LaHood](Darin)(Darin LaHood) (R)
: . [Sorensen](Eric)(Eric Sorensen (politician)) (D)
#### [Indiana](List of United States representatives from Indiana)
: . [J. Mrvan](Frank)(Frank J. Mrvan) (D)
: . [Yakym](Rudy)(Rudy Yakym) (R)
: . [Banks](Jim)(Jim Banks) (R)
: . [Baird](Jim)(Jim Baird (politician)) (R)
: . [Spartz](Victoria)(Victoria Spartz) (R)
: . [Pence](Greg)(Greg Pence) (R)
: . [Carson](André)(André Carson) (D)
: . [Bucshon](Larry)(Larry Bucshon) (R)
: . [Houchin](Erin)(Erin Houchin) (R)
#### [Iowa](List of United States representatives from Iowa)
: . [Miller-Meeks](Mariannette)(Mariannette Miller-Meeks) (R)
: . [Hinson](Ashley)(Ashley Hinson) (R)
: . [Nunn](Zach)(Zach Nunn) (R)
: . [Feenstra](Randy)(Randy Feenstra) (R)
#### [Kansas](List of United States representatives from Kansas)
: . [Mann](Tracey)(Tracey Mann) (R)
: . [LaTurner](Jake)(Jake LaTurner) (R)
: . [Davids](Sharice)(Sharice Davids) (D)
: . [Estes](Ron)(Ron Estes) (R)
#### [Kentucky](List of United States representatives from Kentucky)
: . [Comer](James)(James Comer (politician)) (R)
: . [Guthrie](Brett)(Brett Guthrie) (R)
: . [McGarvey](Morgan)(Morgan McGarvey) (D)
: . [Massie](Thomas)(Thomas Massie) (R)
: . [Rogers](Hal)(Hal Rogers) (R)
: . [Barr](Andy)(Andy Barr (American politician)) (R)
#### [Louisiana](List of United States representatives from Louisiana)
: . [Scalise](Steve)(Steve Scalise) (R)
: . [Carter](Troy)(Troy Carter (politician)) (D)
: . [Higgins](Clay)(Clay Higgins) (R)
: . [Johnson](Mike)(Mike Johnson (Louisiana politician)) (R)
: . [Letlow](Julia)(Julia Letlow) (R)
: . [Graves](Garret)(Garret Graves) (R)
#### [Maine](List of United States representatives from Maine)
: . [Pingree](Chellie)(Chellie Pingree) (D)
: . [Golden](Jared)(Jared Golden) (D)
#### [Maryland](List of United States representatives from Maryland)
: . [Harris](Andy)(Andy Harris (politician)) (R)
: . [Ruppersberger](Dutch)(Dutch Ruppersberger) (D)
: . [Sarbanes](John)(John Sarbanes) (D)
: . [Ivey](Glenn)(Glenn Ivey) (D)
: . [Hoyer](Steny)(Steny Hoyer) (D)
: . [Trone](David)(David Trone) (D)
: . [Mfume](Kweisi)(Kweisi Mfume) (D)
: . [Raskin](Jamie)(Jamie Raskin) (D)
#### [Massachusetts](List of United States representatives from Massachusetts)
: . [Neal](Richard)(Richard Neal) (D)
: . [McGovern](Jim)(Jim McGovern (American politician)) (D)
: . [Trahan](Lori)(Lori Trahan) (D)
: . [Auchincloss](Jake)(Jake Auchincloss) (D)
: . [Clark](Katherine)(Katherine Clark) (D)
: . [Moulton](Seth)(Seth Moulton) (D)
: . [Pressley](Ayanna)(Ayanna Pressley) (D)
: . [Lynch](Stephen)(Stephen Lynch (politician)) (D)
: . [Keating](Bill)(Bill Keating (politician)) (D)
#### [Michigan](List of United States representatives from Michigan)
: . [Bergman](Jack)(Jack Bergman) (R)
: . [Moolenaar](John)(John Moolenaar) (R)
: . [Scholten](Hillary)(Hillary Scholten) (D)
: . [Huizenga](Bill)(Bill Huizenga) (R)
: . [Walberg](Tim)(Tim Walberg) (R)
: . [Dingell](Debbie)(Debbie Dingell) (D)
: . [Slotkin](Elissa)(Elissa Slotkin) (D)
: . [Kildee](Dan)(Dan Kildee) (D)
: . [McClain](Lisa)(Lisa McClain) (R)
: . [James](John)(John James (Michigan politician)) (R)
: . [Stevens](Haley)(Haley Stevens) (D)
: . [Tlaib](Rashida)(Rashida Tlaib) (D)
: . [Thanedar](Shri)(Shri Thanedar) (D)
#### [Minnesota](List of United States representatives from Minnesota)
: . [Finstad](Brad)(Brad Finstad) (R)
: . [Craig](Angie)(Angie Craig) (DFL)
: . [Phillips](Dean)(Dean Phillips) (DFL)
: . [McCollum](Betty)(Betty McCollum) (DFL)
: . [Omar](Ilhan)(Ilhan Omar) (DFL)
: . [Emmer](Tom)(Tom Emmer) (R)
: . [Fischbach](Michelle)(Michelle Fischbach) (R)
: . [Stauber](Pete)(Pete Stauber) (R)
#### [Mississippi](List of United States representatives from Mississippi)
: . [Kelly](Trent)(Trent Kelly) (R)
: . [Thompson](Bennie)(Bennie Thompson) (D)
: . [Guest](Michael)(Michael Guest (politician)) (R)
: . [Ezell](Mike)(Mike Ezell) (R)
#### [Missouri](List of United States representatives from Missouri)
: . [Bush](Cori)(Cori Bush) (D)
: . [Wagner](Ann)(Ann Wagner) (R)
: . [Luetkemeyer](Blaine)(Blaine Luetkemeyer) (R)
: . [Alford](Mark)(Mark Alford (politician)) (R)
: . [Cleaver](Emanuel)(Emanuel Cleaver) (D)
: . [Graves](Sam)(Sam Graves) (R)
: . [Burlison](Eric)(Eric Burlison) (R)
: . [Smith](Jason)(Jason Smith (American politician)) (R)
#### [Montana](List of United States representatives from Montana)
: . [Zinke](Ryan)(Ryan Zinke) (R)
: . [Rosendale](Matt)(Matt Rosendale) (R)
#### [Nebraska](List of United States representatives from Nebraska)
: . [Flood](Mike)(Mike Flood (politician)) (R)
: . [Bacon](Don)(Don Bacon) (R)
: . [Smith](Adrian)(Adrian Smith (politician)) (R)
#### [Nevada](List of United States representatives from Nevada)
: . [Titus](Dina)(Dina Titus) (D)
: . [Amodei](Mark)(Mark Amodei) (R)
: . [Lee](Susie)(Susie Lee) (D)
: . [Horsford](Steven)(Steven Horsford) (D)
#### [Hampshire](New)(List of United States representatives from New Hampshire)
: . [Pappas](Chris)(Chris Pappas (politician)) (D)
: . [Kuster](Annie)(Annie Kuster) (D)
#### [Jersey](New)(List of United States representatives from New Jersey)
: . [Norcross](Donald)(Donald Norcross) (D)
: . [Van Drew](Jeff)(Jeff Van Drew) (R)
: . [Kim](Andy)(Andy Kim (politician)) (D)
: . [Smith](Chris)(Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)) (R)
: . [Gottheimer](Josh)(Josh Gottheimer) (D)
: . [Pallone](Frank)(Frank Pallone) (D)
: . [Kean Jr.](Thomas)(Thomas Kean Jr.) (R)
: . [Menendez](Rob)(Rob Menendez) (D)
: . [Pascrell](Bill)(Bill Pascrell) (D)
: . [Payne Jr.](Donald)(Donald Payne Jr.) (D)
: . [Sherrill](Mikie)(Mikie Sherrill) (D)
: . [Watson Coleman](Bonnie)(Bonnie Watson Coleman) (D)
#### [Mexico](New)(List of United States representatives from New Mexico)
: . [Stansbury](Melanie)(Melanie Stansbury) (D)
: . [Vasquez](Gabe)(Gabe Vasquez) (D)
: . [Leger Fernandez](Teresa)(Teresa Leger Fernandez) (D)
#### [York](New)(List of United States representatives from New York)
: . [LaLota](Nick)(Nick LaLota) (R)
: . [Garbarino](Andrew)(Andrew Garbarino) (R)
: . [Santos](George)(George Santos) (R)
: . [D'Esposito](Anthony)(Anthony D'Esposito) (R)
: . [Meeks](Gregory)(Gregory Meeks) (D)
: . [Meng](Grace)(Grace Meng) (D)
: . [Velázquez](Nydia)(Nydia Velázquez) (D)
: . [Jeffries](Hakeem)(Hakeem Jeffries) (D)
: . [Clarke](Yvette)(Yvette Clarke) (D)
: . [Goldman](Dan)(Dan Goldman (politician)) (D)
: . [Malliotakis](Nicole)(Nicole Malliotakis) (R)
: . [Nadler](Jerry)(Jerry Nadler) (D)
: . [Espaillat](Adriano)(Adriano Espaillat) (D)
: . [Ocasio-Cortez](Alexandria)(Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez) (D)
: . [Torres](Ritchie)(Ritchie Torres) (D)
: . [Bowman](Jamaal)(Jamaal Bowman) (D)
: . [Lawler](Mike)(Mike Lawler) (R)
: . [Ryan](Pat)(Pat Ryan (politician)) (D)
: . [Molinaro](Marc)(Marc Molinaro) (R)
: . [Tonko](Paul)(Paul Tonko) (D)
: . [Stefanik](Elise)(Elise Stefanik) (R)
: . [Williams](Brandon)(Brandon Williams (politician)) (R)
: . [Langworthy](Nick)(Nick Langworthy) (R)
: . [Tenney](Claudia)(Claudia Tenney) (R)
: . [Morelle](Joseph)(Joseph Morelle) (D)
: . [Higgins](Brian)(Brian Higgins) (D)
#### [Carolina](North)(List of United States representatives from North Carolina)
: . [Davis](Don)(Don Davis (North Carolina politician)) (D)
: . [Ross](Deborah)(Deborah Ross (politician)) (D)
: . [Murphy](Greg)(Greg Murphy (politician)) (R)
: . [Foushee](Valerie)(Valerie Foushee) (D)
: . [Foxx](Virginia)(Virginia Foxx) (R)
: . [Manning](Kathy)(Kathy Manning) (D)
: . [Rouzer](David)(David Rouzer) (R)
: . [Bishop](Dan)(Dan Bishop) (R)
: . [Hudson](Richard)(Richard Hudson (American politician)) (R)
: . [McHenry](Patrick)(Patrick McHenry) (R)
: . [Edwards](Chuck)(Chuck Edwards) (R)
: . [Adams](Alma)(Alma Adams) (D)
: . [Nickel](Wiley)(Wiley Nickel) (D)
: . [Jackson](Jeff)(Jeff Jackson (politician)) (D)
#### [Dakota](North)(List of United States representatives from North Dakota)
: . [Armstrong](Kelly)(Kelly Armstrong) (R)
#### [Ohio](List of United States representatives from Ohio)
: . [Landsman](Greg)(Greg Landsman) (D)
: . [Wenstrup](Brad)(Brad Wenstrup) (R)
: . [Beatty](Joyce)(Joyce Beatty) (D)
: . [Jordan](Jim)(Jim Jordan (American politician)) (R)
: . [Latta](Bob)(Bob Latta) (R)
: . [Johnson](Bill)(Bill Johnson (Ohio politician)) (R)
: . [Miller](Max)(Max Miller (politician)) (R)
: . [Davidson](Warren)(Warren Davidson) (R)
: . [Kaptur](Marcy)(Marcy Kaptur) (D)
: . [Turner](Mike)(Mike Turner) (R)
: . [Brown](Shontel)(Shontel Brown) (D)
: . [Balderson](Troy)(Troy Balderson) (R)
: . [Sykes](Emilia)(Emilia Sykes) (D)
: . [Joyce](David)(David Joyce (politician)) (R)
: . [Carey](Mike)(Mike Carey (politician)) (R)
#### [Oklahoma](List of United States representatives from Oklahoma)
: . [Hern](Kevin)(Kevin Hern) (R)
: . [Brecheen](Josh)(Josh Brecheen) (R)
: . [Lucas](Frank)(Frank Lucas (Oklahoma politician)) (R)
: . [Cole](Tom)(Tom Cole) (R)
: . [Bice](Stephanie)(Stephanie Bice) (R)
#### [Oregon](List of United States representatives from Oregon)
: . [Bonamici](Suzanne)(Suzanne Bonamici) (D)
: . [Bentz](Cliff)(Cliff Bentz) (R)
: . [Blumenauer](Earl)(Earl Blumenauer) (D)
: . [Hoyle](Val)(Val Hoyle) (D)
: . [Chavez-DeRemer](Lori)(Lori Chavez-DeRemer) (R)
: . [Salinas](Andrea)(Andrea Salinas) (D)
#### [Pennsylvania](List of United States representatives from Pennsylvania)
: . [Fitzpatrick](Brian)(Brian Fitzpatrick (American politician)) (R)
: . [Boyle](Brendan)(Brendan Boyle) (D)
: . [Evans](Dwight)(Dwight Evans (politician)) (D)
: . [Dean](Madeleine)(Madeleine Dean) (D)
: . [Gay Scanlon](Mary)(Mary Gay Scanlon) (D)
: . [Houlahan](Chrissy)(Chrissy Houlahan) (D)
: . [Wild](Susan)(Susan Wild) (D)
: . [Cartwright](Matt)(Matt Cartwright) (D)
: . [Meuser](Dan)(Dan Meuser) (R)
: . [Perry](Scott)(Scott Perry (politician)) (R)
: . [Smucker](Lloyd)(Lloyd Smucker) (R)
: . [Lee](Summer)(Summer Lee) (D)
: . [Joyce](John)(John Joyce (American politician)) (R)
: . [Reschenthaler](Guy)(Guy Reschenthaler) (R)
: . [Thompson](Glenn)(Glenn Thompson (politician)) (R)
: . [Kelly](Mike)(Mike Kelly (Pennsylvania politician)) (R)
: . [Deluzio](Chris)(Chris Deluzio) (D)
#### [Island](Rhode)(List of United States representatives from Rhode Island)
: . [Cicilline](David)(David Cicilline) (D)
:: *Vacant*
: . [Magaziner](Seth)(Seth Magaziner) (D)
#### [Carolina](South)(List of United States representatives from South Carolina)
: . [Mace](Nancy)(Nancy Mace) (R)
: . [Wilson](Joe)(Joe Wilson (American politician)) (R)
: . [Duncan](Jeff)(Jeff Duncan (politician)) (R)
: . [Timmons](William)(William Timmons (politician)) (R)
: . [Norman](Ralph)(Ralph Norman) (R)
: . [Clyburn](Jim)(Jim Clyburn) (D)
: . [Fry](Russell)(Russell Fry (politician)) (R)
#### [Dakota](South)(List of United States representatives from South Dakota)
: . [Johnson](Dusty)(Dusty Johnson) (R)
#### [Tennessee](List of United States representatives from Tennessee)
: . [Harshbarger](Diana)(Diana Harshbarger) (R)
: . [Burchett](Tim)(Tim Burchett) (R)
: . [Fleischmann](Chuck)(Chuck Fleischmann) (R)
: . [DesJarlais](Scott)(Scott DesJarlais) (R)
: . [Ogles](Andy)(Andy Ogles) (R)
: . [Rose](John)(John Rose (Tennessee politician)) (R)
: . [Green](Mark)(Mark Green (Tennessee politician)) (R)
: . [Kustoff](David)(David Kustoff) (R)
: . [Cohen](Steve)(Steve Cohen (politician)) (D)
#### [Texas](List of United States representatives from Texas)
: . [Moran](Nathaniel)(Nathaniel Moran) (R)
: . [Crenshaw](Dan)(Dan Crenshaw) (R)
: . [Self](Keith)(Keith Self) (R)
: . [Fallon](Pat)(Pat Fallon) (R)
: . [Gooden](Lance)(Lance Gooden) (R)
: . [Ellzey](Jake)(Jake Ellzey) (R)
: . [Fletcher](Lizzie)(Lizzie Fletcher) (D)
: . [Luttrell](Morgan)(Morgan Luttrell) (R)
: . [Green](Al)(Al Green (politician)) (D)
: . [McCaul](Michael)(Michael McCaul) (R)
: . [Pfluger](August)(August Pfluger) (R)
: . [Granger](Kay)(Kay Granger) (R)
: . [Jackson](Ronny)(Ronny Jackson) (R)
: . [Weber](Randy)(Randy Weber) (R)
: . [De La Cruz](Monica)(Monica De La Cruz) (R)
: . [Escobar](Veronica)(Veronica Escobar) (D)
: . [Sessions](Pete)(Pete Sessions) (R)
: . [Jackson Lee](Sheila)(Sheila Jackson Lee) (D)
: . [Arrington](Jodey)(Jodey Arrington) (R)
: . [Castro](Joaquin)(Joaquin Castro) (D)
: . [Roy](Chip)(Chip Roy) (R)
: . [Nehls](Troy)(Troy Nehls) (R)
: . [Gonzales](Tony)(Tony Gonzales) (R)
: . [Van Duyne](Beth)(Beth Van Duyne) (R)
: . [Williams](Roger)(Roger Williams (Texas politician)) (R)
: . [C. Burgess](Michael)(Michael C. Burgess) (R)
: . [Cloud](Michael)(Michael Cloud) (R)
: . [Cuellar](Henry)(Henry Cuellar) (D)
: . [Garcia](Sylvia)(Sylvia Garcia) (D)
: . [Crockett](Jasmine)(Jasmine Crockett) (D)
: . [Carter](John)(John Carter (Texas politician)) (R)
: . [Allred](Colin)(Colin Allred) (D)
: . [Veasey](Marc)(Marc Veasey) (D)
: . [Gonzalez](Vicente)(Vicente Gonzalez (politician)) (D)
: . [Casar](Greg)(Greg Casar) (D)
: . [Babin](Brian)(Brian Babin) (R)
: . [Doggett](Lloyd)(Lloyd Doggett) (D)
: . [Hunt](Wesley)(Wesley Hunt) (R)
#### [Utah](List of United States representatives from Utah)
: . [Moore](Blake)(Blake Moore) (R)
: . [Stewart](Chris)(Chris Stewart (politician)) (R) : [Stewart](Chris)(Chris Stewart (politician)) (R) will resign on September 15, 2023 due to his wife's health issues.}}
:: *Vacant*
: . [Curtis](John)(John Curtis (Utah politician)) (R)
: . [Owens](Burgess)(Burgess Owens) (R)
#### [Vermont](List of United States representatives from Vermont)
: . [Balint](Becca)(Becca Balint) (D)
#### [Virginia](List of United States representatives from Virginia)
: . [Wittman](Rob)(Rob Wittman) (R)
: . [Kiggans](Jen)(Jen Kiggans) (R)
: . [Scott](Bobby)(Bobby Scott (politician)) (D)
: . [McClellan](Jennifer)(Jennifer McClellan) (D)
: . [Good](Bob)(Bob Good) (R)
: . [Cline](Ben)(Ben Cline) (R)
: . [Spanberger](Abigail)(Abigail Spanberger) (D)
: . [Beyer](Don)(Don Beyer) (D)
: . [Griffith](Morgan)(Morgan Griffith) (R)
: . [Wexton](Jennifer)(Jennifer Wexton) (D)
: . [Connolly](Gerry)(Gerry Connolly) (D)
#### [Washington](List of United States representatives from Washington)
: . [DelBene](Suzan)(Suzan DelBene) (D)
: . [Larsen](Rick)(Rick Larsen) (D)
: . [Gluesenkamp Perez](Marie)(Marie Gluesenkamp Perez) (D)
: . [Newhouse](Dan)(Dan Newhouse) (R)
: . [McMorris Rodgers](Cathy)(Cathy McMorris Rodgers) (R)
: . [Kilmer](Derek)(Derek Kilmer) (D)
: . [Jayapal](Pramila)(Pramila Jayapal) (D)
: . [Schrier](Kim)(Kim Schrier) (D)
: . [Smith](Adam)(Adam Smith (Washington politician)) (D)
: . [Strickland](Marilyn)(Marilyn Strickland) (D)
#### [Virginia](West)(List of United States representatives from West Virginia)
: . [Miller](Carol)(Carol Miller (politician)) (R)
: . [Mooney](Alex)(Alex Mooney) (R)
#### [Wisconsin](List of United States representatives from Wisconsin)
: . [Steil](Bryan)(Bryan Steil) (R)
: . [Pocan](Mark)(Mark Pocan) (D)
: . [Van Orden](Derrick)(Derrick Van Orden) (R)
: . [Moore](Gwen)(Gwen Moore) (D)
: . [Fitzgerald](Scott)(Scott Fitzgerald (politician)) (R)
: . [Grothman](Glenn)(Glenn Grothman) (R)
: . [Tiffany](Tom)(Tom Tiffany) (R)
: . [Gallagher](Mike)(Mike Gallagher (American politician)) (R)
#### [Wyoming](List of United States representatives from Wyoming)
: . [Hageman](Harriet)(Harriet Hageman) (R)
#### Non-voting members
: : [Coleman Radewagen](Amata)(Amata Coleman Radewagen) (R)
: : [Holmes Norton](Eleanor)(Eleanor Holmes Norton) (D)
: : [Moylan](James)(James Moylan) (R)
: : [Sablan](Gregorio)(Gregorio Sablan) (D)
: : [González](Jenniffer)(Jenniffer González) (R-PNP)
: : [Plaskett](Stacey)(Stacey Plaskett) (D)
[[of the 118th United States House of Representatives.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|
}}](File:Members)]
[[US Congress House.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|House seats by party holding majority in state, as of December 12, 2022.
](File:118th)]
## Changes in membership
### Senate changes
|-
! [Nebraska](List of United States senators from Nebraska)(2)
| | (R)
| data-sort-value="January 2023" | Incumbent resigned January 8, 2023, to become the president of the [of Florida](University)(University of Florida).Successor was appointed January 12, 2023.}}
| | (R)
| align=center | January 23, 2023
|-
|}
### House of Representatives changes
|-
!
| data-sort-value="Aaaaa" | Vacant
| data-sort-value="January 3, 2023" | Incumbent [McEachin](Donald)(Donald McEachin) (D) died November 28, 2022, before the beginning of this Congress. A [election](special)(2023 Virginia's 4th congressional district special election) was held on February 21, 2023.
| |[McClellan](Jennifer)(Jennifer McClellan)(D)
| March 7, 2023
|-
!
| | (D)
| data-sort-value="May 31, 2023" | Incumbent resigned May 31, 2023, to become CEO of the Rhode Island Foundation.A [election](special)(2023 Rhode Island's 1st congressional district special election) will be held on November 7, 2023.
| colspan=2 align=center |TBD
|-
!
| | (R)
| data-sort-value="September 2023" | Incumbent will resign September 15, 2023, due to his wife's health issues.A [election](special)(2023 Utah's 2nd congressional district special election) will be held on November 21, 2023.
| colspan=2 align=center |TBD
|}
## Committees
**Section contents:** [Senate](#Senate committees), [House](#House of Representatives committees), [Joint](#Joint committees)
### Senate committees
#### Standing committees
#### Select, permanent select and special committees
### House of Representatives committees
### Joint committees
## Officers and officials
### Congressional officers
* [of the Capitol](Architect)(Architect of the Capitol): [Blanton](Brett)(Brett Blanton) (until February 23rd, 2023)
* [Physician](Attending)(Attending Physician of the United States Congress): [P. Monahan](Brian)(Brian P. Monahan)
### Senate officers
* [Chaplain](Chaplain of the United States Senate): [Black](Barry)(Barry Black) ([Adventist](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church))
* [Curator](Curator of the United States Senate): Melinda Smith
* [Historian](Historian of the United States Senate): [Koed](Betty)(Betty Koed)
* [Librarian](United States Senate Librarian): [I. Faust](Leona)(Leona I. Faust)
* [Parliamentarian](Parliamentarian of the United States Senate): [MacDonough](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth MacDonough)
* [Secretary](Secretary of the United States Senate): [Berry](Sonceria)(Sonceria Berry)
* [at Arms and Doorkeeper](Sergeant)(Sergeant at Arms of the United States Senate): [ Karen Gibson](Karen Gibson (Sergeant at Arms))
### House of Representatives officers
* [Chaplain](Chaplain of the United States House of Representatives): [G. Kibben](Margaret)(Margaret G. Kibben) ([Presbyterian](Presbyterianism))
* [Administrative Officer](Chief)(Chief Administrative Officer of the United States House of Representatives): Catherine Szpindor
* [Clerk](Clerk of the United States House of Representatives): [Johnson](Cheryl)(Cheryl Johnson)
* [Historian](Historian of the United States House of Representatives): [Wasniewski](Matthew)(Matthew Wasniewski)
* [Parliamentarian](Parliamentarian of the United States House of Representatives): Jason Smith
* [Clerks](Reading)(Reading Clerk of the United States House of Representatives): Tylease Alli (D) and Susan Cole (R)
* [at Arms](Sergeant)(Sergeant at Arms of the United States House of Representatives): William McFarland
## See also
* [of new members of the 118th United States Congress](List)(List of new members of the 118th United States Congress)
* [United States elections](2022)(2022 United States elections) (elections leading to this Congress)
** [United States Senate elections](2022)(2022 United States Senate elections)
** [United States House of Representatives elections](2022)(2022 United States House of Representatives elections)
* [United States elections](2024)(2024 United States elections) (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
** [United States Senate elections](2024)(2024 United States Senate elections)
** [United States House of Representatives elections](2024)(2024 United States House of Representatives elections)
## Notes
## References
[ ](Category:118th United States Congress)
|
Larry Fink
|
larry_fink
|
# Larry Fink
*Revision ID: 1159792440 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T15:22:58Z*
---
|birth_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
|title = Chairman and CEO, [BlackRock](BlackRock)
|education = [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles)
|party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
|children = 3
}}
**Laurence Douglas Fink** (born November 2, 1952) is an American [billionaire](billionaire) businessman. He is the current chairman and CEO of [BlackRock](BlackRock), an American multinational [management](investment)(investment management) corporation. BlackRock is the largest money-management firm in the world with more than trillion in [under management](assets)(assets under management).Suzanna Andrews: [Larry Fink's $12 Trillion Shadow](http://www.vanityfair.com/business/features/2010/04/fink-201004), *Vanity Fair*, April 2010 In April 2022, Fink's net worth was estimated at billion according to [Magazine](Forbes)(Forbes). He sits on the boards of the [on Foreign Relations](Council)(Council on Foreign Relations) and [Economic Forum](World)(World Economic Forum).["Board of Trustees"](https://www.weforum.org/about/leadership-and-governance), World Economic Forum["Board of Directors"](https://www.cfr.org/board-directors), Council on Foreign Relations
## Early life and education
Fink was born on November 2, 1952."[Laurence Fink: Executive Profile & Biography](https://archive.today/20130118205445/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/people/person.asp?personId=402029&ticker=BLK)", *[Businessweek](Businessweek)*. He grew up one of three children in a [Jewish](American Jews) family in [Nuys, California](Van)(Van Nuys, California), where his mother Lila (1930-2012) was an English professor and his father Frederick (1925-2013) owned a shoe store. He earned a [BA](Bachelor of Arts) in [Science](Political)(Political science) from [UCLA](University of California, Los Angeles) in 1974. Fink is also a member of [Beta Phi](Kappa)(Kappa Beta Phi). He then received an [MBA](MBA) in [Estate](Real)(Real Estate) at the [Anderson Graduate School of Management](UCLA)(UCLA Anderson School of Management) in 1976.
## Career
### 1970 to 2000
Fink started his career in 1976 at [Boston](First)(First Boston), a [York](New)(New York (state))-based [bank](investment)(investment bank), where he was one of the first [security](mortgage-backed)(mortgage-backed security) traders and eventually managed the firm's bond department. At First Boston, Fink was a member of the management committee, a [director](managing)(Board of directors), and co-head of the Taxable Fixed Income Division; he also started the Financial Futures and Options Department, and headed the Mortgage and Real Estate Products Group."[Laurence Fink - News, Articles, Biography, Photos - WSJ.com](http://topics.wsj.com/person/F/laurence-d-fink/375)", *[Street Journal](Wall)(Wall Street Journal)*. Retrieved October 14, 2011.
Fink added "by some estimates" $1 billion to First Boston's bottom line. He was successful at the bank until 1986, when his department lost $100 million due to his incorrect prediction about interest rates. The experience influenced his decision to start a company that would invest clients' money while also incorporating comprehensive [management](risk)(risk management).
In 1988, under the corporate umbrella of [Blackstone Group](The)(The Blackstone Group), Fink co-founded [BlackRock](BlackRock) and became its director and [CEO](CEO). When BlackRock split from Blackstone in 1994, Fink retained his positions, which he continued to hold after BlackRock became more independent in 1998. His other positions at the company have included [of the board](chairman)(chairman of the board), chairman of the executive and leadership committees, chair of corporate council, and co-chair of the global client committee. BlackRock [public](went)(Initial public offering) in 1999.
### 2000s
[[Image:finkcalatrava.jpg|thumb|right|Fink, third from right, receiving a [Wilson Award](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson Award) in April 2010]]
In 2003, Fink helped to negotiate the resignation of the CEO of the [York Stock Exchange](New)(New York Stock Exchange), [Grasso](Richard)(Richard Grasso), who was widely criticized for his $190 million pay package. In 2006 Fink led the merger with [Lynch](Merrill)(Merrill Lynch) Investment Managers, which doubled BlackRock's asset management portfolio. That same year, BlackRock's $5.4 billion purchase of [Town–Peter Cooper Village](Stuyvesant)(Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village), a Manhattan housing complex, became the largest residential-real-estate deal in U.S. history. When the project ended in [default](default (finance)), BlackRock clients lost their money, including the [Pension and Retirement System](California)(CalPERS), which lost about $500 million.
The [U.S](United States). government contracted with BlackRock to help clean up after the [meltdown of 2008](financial)(Late-2000s financial crisis). Fink's longstanding relationships with senior government officials have led to questions about potential conflict of interest regarding government contracts awarded without competitive bidding. BlackRock's contract allowed Fink to cultivate relationships with Obama's first Treasury Secretary [Geithner](Tim)(Tim Geithner) and additional members of the Obama economic recovery team. In 2016 Fink hoped to become part of the federal government himself as [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton)'s Treasury Secretary. At the same time, Blackrock hired many former executive branch appointees to its firm including [Mills](Cheryl)(Cheryl Mills),
Christopher Meade, Katheryn Rosen, Michael Pyle, Coryann Stefansson, Gary Reeder, and Ken Wilson. This move strengthened BlackRock's revolving door with the federal government.
In December 2009, BlackRock purchased Barclays Global Investors, at which point the company became the largest money-management firm in the world. Despite his great influence, Fink is not widely known publicly, apart from his regular appearances on [CNBC](CNBC). BlackRock paid Fink $23.6 million in 2010, and $36 million in 2021. By 2016, BlackRock had $5 trillion under management, with 12,000 employees in 27 countries.[BlackRock shapes shifts](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/18/business/dealbook/at-blackrock-shaping-the-shifts-in-power.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-column-region®ion=top-news&WT.nav=top-news) NYTimes, September 16, 2016 BlackRock|website=BlackRock|language=en-US|access-date=February 23, 2018}}
In 2016, Fink received the ABANA Achievement Award in New York City. It recognizes an individual who exemplifies outstanding leadership in banking and finance and has a commitment to positive professional cooperation between the US and the Middle East and North Africa.
In 2018, Fink was ranked #28 on the [list of The World's Most Powerful People](*Forbes*)(Forbes list of The World's Most Powerful People).
During the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic) of 2020 the Fed has turned to BlackRock to help it purchase distressed securities in an echo of 2008.
## Community involvement
Fink serves on the [of trustees](board)(board of trustees) of [York University](New)(New York University), where he holds various chairmanships including chair of the Financial Affairs Committee. He also co-chairs the [Langone Medical Center](NYU)(NYU Langone Medical Center) board of trustees and is a trustee of the [and Girls Club](Boys)(Boys & Girls Clubs of America) of New York. Fink is also on the board of the [Hood Foundation](Robin)(Robin Hood Foundation). Fink founded the Lori and Laurence Fink Center for Finance & Investments at UCLA Anderson in 2009, and currently serves as chairman of the board. UCLA Anderson School of Management|website=anderson.ucla.edu|access-date=2019-01-15}}
In December 2016, Fink joined a business forum assembled by then president-elect [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues.
In his 2018 annual open letter to CEOs, he called for corporations to play an active role in improving the environment, working to better their communities, and increasing the diversity of their workforces. This has been taken as evidence of a move by BlackRock, one of the largest public investors, to proactively enforce these targets. In his 2019 open letter, Fink said that companies and their CEOs must step into a leadership vacuum to tackle social and political issues when governments fail to address these issues.
After the [murder](Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi) of [Khashoggi](Jamal)(Jamal Khashoggi) in October 2018, Fink cancelled plans to attend an investment conference in [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia).
In his 2020 annual open letter, Fink announced [sustainability](environmental)(Sustainability) as core goal for BlackRock's future investment decisions. In this letter, he explained how climate will become a driver in economics, affecting all aspects of the economy. He also divulged in a separate letter (to investors) that BlackRock will be cutting ties with previous investments involving thermal coal and other investments that have a large environmental risk.
Larry Fink is also longtime donor and supporter of the New York City Police Foundation: a group that provides financial support to the New York City Police Department. The non-profit [of Change](Color)(Color of Change) called on Fink to divest from the NYC Police Foundation in the wake of the [of George Floyd](murder)(murder of George Floyd) and subsequent [protests](nationwide)(George Floyd protests).
## Personal life
Fink has been married to his wife Lori, his high-school sweetheart, since 1974. The couple has three children. Joshua, their eldest son, was CEO of Enso Capital, a now defunct [fund](hedge)(hedge fund) in which Fink had a stake. The Finks own homes in [Manhattan](Manhattan), [Salem, New York](North)(North Salem, New York), and [Colorado](Vail,)(Vail, Colorado).
Fink is a lifelong supporter of the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)).
## Public perception
In his 2018 annual letter to shareholders, Fink stated that other companies should be aware of their impact on society; however, antiwar organizations were discontented with Fink's statement because his company, BlackRock, is the largest investor in weapon manufacturers through its U.S. Aerospace and Defense ETF. In September 2018, an activist with the U.S. non-profit organization [Pink](Code)(Code Pink) confronted Fink onstage at the Yahoo Finance All Markets Summit.
## Climate change
In December 2021, BlackRock teamed up with a Saudi asset manager to pay $15.5 billion to buy and then lease back pipelines to [Aramco](Saudi)(Saudi Aramco).
However, Fink has been largely vocal on companies taking action on [change](climate)(climate change), and in an [letter](open)(open letter) in 2022 stated “Every company and every industry will be transformed by the transition to a net-zero world. The question is, will you lead, or will you be led?”.
In 2022, Fink was named one of the US' top "climate villains" by *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* due to BlackRock profiting from [deforestation](deforestation).
## Honors
*2007, Golden Plate Award of the [Academy of Achievement](American)(Academy of Achievement)
*2015, Appeal of Conscience Award
*2015, Americas Society Gold Medal
*2016, UCLA Medal
*2019, Charles Schwab Financial Innovation Award
## References
## External links
*[Membership](http://www.trilateral.org/pdf/TC_MEMBERSHIP_LIST.pdf) at Trilateral Commission
*[Board of Trustees](https://www.weforum.org/about/leadership-and-governance) at World Economic Forum
*[Board of Directors](https://www.cfr.org/board-directors) at Council on Foreign Relations
*[Lori and Laurence Fink Center for Finance & Investments](http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/centers/fink)
[births](Category:1952)(Category:1952 births)
[billionaires](Category:American)(Category:American billionaires)
[chief executives of financial services companies](Category:American)(Category:American chief executives of financial services companies)
[financial company founders](Category:American)(Category:American financial company founders)
[financiers](Category:American)(Category:American financiers)
[hedge fund managers](Category:American)(Category:American hedge fund managers)
[American Jews](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American Jews)
[money managers](Category:American)(Category:American money managers)
[people](Category:BlackRock)(Category:BlackRock people)
[from Los Angeles](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Los Angeles)
[Democrats](Category:California)(Category:California Democrats)
[American bankers](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American bankers)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[York (state) Democrats](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) Democrats)
[York University people](Category:New)(Category:New York University people)
[from North Salem, New York](Category:People)(Category:People from North Salem, New York)
[Anderson School of Management alumni](Category:UCLA)(Category:UCLA Anderson School of Management alumni)
[American Jews](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Jews)
|
Payday 3
|
payday_3
|
# Payday 3
*Revision ID: 1160095155 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T11:36:12Z*
---
| release = September 21, 2023
| modes = [Single-player](Single-player), [multiplayer](multiplayer)
}}
***Payday 3*** (stylised as *PAYDAY 3*) is an upcoming [shooter](first-person)(first-person shooter) game developed by [Software](Overkill)(Overkill Software) and [Studios](Starbreeze)(Starbreeze Studios) and published by [Matter](Prime)(Koch Media). It is a sequel to [2](Payday)(Payday 2), and is also the third installment in the Payday series of video games. The game is set to be released on September 21, 2023.
## Setting
The game will take place after the ending of *[2](Payday)(Payday 2)* where the heisters went separate ways and left their lives of crime, but something re-motivates the Payday Gang to continue the life of crime. The original crew of characters originating from *[The Heist](Payday:)(Payday: The Heist)* ("Dallas", "Chains", "Wolf", and "Hoxton") will appear in *Payday 3*, and the game will take place mainly in [York](New)(New York City). From teaser images, one of the missions will take place at the "Gold & Sharke Incorporated" bank. *Payday 3* will take place in the 2020s, intended to add more depth to the Payday Gang's crimes with game-changing differences like more advanced surveillance or the rise of cryptocurrency.
## Development
Publisher [Matter](Prime)(Plaion#Subsidiaries) announced in May 2016 that *Payday 3* was in development at [Software](Overkill)(Overkill Software), after Starbreeze acquired the rights to the intellectual property for around . In March 2021, [Plaion](Plaion) (formerly [Media](Koch)(Plaion)) committed to pay to assist in the game's development and marketing, including more than 18 months of post-launch support using the [as a service](games)(games as a service) model. *Payday 3* will be developed using [Engine](Unreal)(Unreal Engine). On January 1, 2023, a teaser trailer titled *A New Criminal Dawn* was released, revealing its logo. Console versions also will be the same version as the game on PC platforms, unlike its predecessor. Overkill states that this is due to the game being created using the Unreal Engine. In June 2023, it was announced that the game would release on September 21, 2023.
## References
## External links
*
[video games scheduled for 2023](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming video games scheduled for 2023)
[robbery in fiction](Category:Bank)(Category:Bank robbery in fiction)
[video games](Category:Cooperative)(Category:Cooperative video games)
[shooter multiplayer online games](Category:First-person)(Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games)
[shooters](Category:First-person)(Category:First-person shooters)
[games](Category:Linux)(Category:Linux games)
[online games](Category:Multiplayer)(Category:Multiplayer online games)
[video games](Category:Multiplayer)(Category:Multiplayer video games)
[Switch games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo Switch games)
[crime video games](Category:Organized)(Category:Organized crime video games)
[5 games](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation 5 games)
[video games](Category:Stealth)(Category:Stealth video games)
[game sequels](Category:Video)(Category:Video game sequels)
[games developed in Sweden](Category:Video)(Category:Video games developed in Sweden)
[games set in New York City](Category:Video)(Category:Video games set in New York City)
[games](Category:Windows)(Category:Windows games)
[Series X and Series S games](Category:Xbox)(Category:Xbox Series X and Series S games)
[Engine games](Category:Unreal)(Category:Unreal Engine games)
[Category:Plaion](Category:Plaion)
|
Glenn Howerton
|
glenn_howerton
|
# Glenn Howerton
*Revision ID: 1159853830 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:24:29Z*
---
| birth_name = Glenn Franklin Howerton III
| birth_place = [Okinawa](Okinawa Prefecture), [Japan](Japan)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1996–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| education = [Dade College](Miami)(Miami Dade College)[School](Juilliard)(Juilliard School) ([BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts))
}}
**Glenn Franklin Howerton III** (born April 13, 1976) is an American actor, screenwriter, producer and podcaster. He is best known for playing [Reynolds](Dennis)(Dennis Reynolds) on the long-running sitcom ''[Always Sunny in Philadelphia](It's)(It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia)* (2005–present) on [FX](FX (TV channel))/[FXX](FXX), a series he co-developed with [Day](Charlie)(Charlie Day) and [McElhenney](Rob)(Rob McElhenney), and on which he serves as an executive producer and writer. Since November 2021, he has co-hosted *The Always Sunny Podcast*, with his fellow co-creators McElhenney and Day.
His other notable performances include those as Corey Howard in *['80s Show](That)(That '80s Show)'' (2002), Cliff Gilbert on [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)'s *[Mindy Project](The)(The Mindy Project)* (2012–2017), Don Chumph on the first season of FX's *[Fargo](Fargo (TV series))* (2014) and Jack Griffin, the lead role on [NBC](NBC)'s *[Bio](A.P.)(A.P. Bio)* (2018–2021). He also voices [Jones](Fred)(Fred Jones (Scooby-Doo)) in the [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) series *[Velma](Velma (TV series))* (2023–present). He received acclaim for his portrayal of [Balsillie](Jim)(Jim Balsillie) in the film *[BlackBerry](BlackBerry (film))'' (2023).
## Early life and education
Glenn Franklin Howerton III was born on April 13, 1976, in Japan, the son of American parents Janice and Glenn Franklin Howerton Jr. His father was a [pilot](fighter)(fighter pilot). Almost immediately after his birth, his family moved to [Arizona](Arizona) and then [Mexico](New)(New Mexico) for a short while. When he was three years old, they moved to the English town of [Suffolk](Felixstowe,)(Felixstowe). They subsequently moved to [Virginia](Virginia), followed by [Korea](South)(South Korea), where they settled in [Seoul](Seoul). When he was 10 years old, the family moved to [Alabama](Montgomery,)(Montgomery, Alabama).
He has a sister.
After graduating from [Davis High School](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis High School (Montgomery, Alabama)), he moved to [Miami](Miami) where he spent two years at [World School of the Arts](New)(New World School of the Arts) of [Dade College](Miami)(Miami Dade College). In 1996, he entered [School](Juilliard)(Juilliard School)'s Drama Division in New York City where he graduated with a [of Fine Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Fine Arts) as part of Group 29 (1996–2000).
## Career
In 2002, Howerton starred as Corey Howard in ''['80s Show](That)(That '80s Show)''. He went on to guest star on *[ER](ER (TV series))* as Dr. Nick Cooper in 2003. He had small roles in the films *[Love Dogs](Must)(Must Love Dogs)* (2005), *[Serenity](Serenity (2005 film))* (2005), *[Weeks](Two)(Two Weeks (2006 film))* (2006), and *[Strangers](The)(The Strangers (2008 film))* (2008). He also appeared as a doctor in *[Crank](Crank (film))* (2006), and reprised the role in its 2009 sequel, *[High Voltage](Crank:)(Crank: High Voltage)*.
Howerton is most well-known for playing the deeply narcissistic and anti-social bartender of Paddy's Pub, [Reynolds](Dennis)(Dennis Reynolds), one of the main characters on the FX sitcom *[Always Sunny in Philadelphia](It’s)(It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia)* (2005–present). The series was co-created by [McElhenney](Rob)(Rob McElhenney), [Day](Charlie)(Charlie Day) and him, and the three serve as executive producers, writers and main cast members alongside [Olson](Kaitlin)(Kaitlin Olson) and [DeVito](Danny)(Danny DeVito). As of season 14, he has also directed two episodes. In December 2021, *Always Sunny* became the longest-running live-action American comedy of all time with the release of its fifteenth season.
In 2008, Howerton co-created sci-fi comedy *[Going Nowhere](Boldly)(Boldly Going Nowhere)* with Day, McElhenney and writing assistant Adam Stein, but the pilot was permanently shelved. He has also had producing roles on various projects created by other *Always Sunny* colleagues like [Hornsby](David)(David Hornsby) such as *[to Be a Gentleman](How)(How to Be a Gentleman)*, *[Unsupervised](Unsupervised)* and *[Cool Kids.](The)(The Cool Kids (TV series))* Howerton also did several voice roles including a recurring part on *[Cleveland Show](The)(The Cleveland Show)* as Ernie Krinklesac.
He played the lead role in a film for the first time in 2013, when he landed the character of Will in the [CollegeHumor](CollegeHumor) comedy film *[Town](Coffee)(Coffee Town)* with co-stars [Little](Steve)(Steve Little (actor)) and [Schwartz](Ben)(Ben Schwartz). Soon after, he landed recurring roles on the [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) comedy series *[Mindy Project](The)(The Mindy Project)* (2012–2017) as Cliff Gilbert, the divorce lawyer introduced in season 2 as one of Mindy's love interests, on the critically acclaimed first season of the FX dark comedy series *[Fargo](Fargo (TV series))* (2014–present) as Don Chumph, and on the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) comedy-drama series *[of Lies](House)(House of Lies)* (2012–2016) starring [Cheadle](Don)(Don Cheadle) in its final season as the young mayoral candidate Seth Buckley. Howerton also played a small part as the gun-running Dominic in the [Original](Netflix)(List of Netflix original programming) film *[Downe](Officer)(Officer Downe (film))* (2016) starring [Coates](Kim)(Kim Coates).
His next major television role came in 2018 on the [NBC](NBC) single-camera comedy created by [O'Brien](Mike)(Mike O'Brien (actor)), *[Bio](A.P.)(A.P. Bio)* (2018–2021), where he played Jack Griffin, an arrogant Harvard philosophy professor whose fall from grace had forced him to get a job teaching biology to high school students in his hometown of Toledo while plotting to exact revenge on his nemesis and restore his career. The show ran for two seasons on NBC before it was cancelled and then picked up by [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)), NBC's streaming service, where it ran for another two seasons. In December 2021, it was cancelled for good. In October 2022, it was announced that he would be voicing [Jones](Fred)(Fred Jones (Scooby-Doo)) on the upcoming [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) animated series [*Velma*](Velma (TV series)).
Starting in November 2021, Day, McElhenney and Howerton launched *The Always Sunny Podcast*, a weekly show loosely based on the rewatch format of podcasting, which had grown in popularity in recent years, to coincide with the release of the record-breaking season 15 of ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia*. In June 2022, they released *Four Walls* *Whiskey'' with all proceeds from the 15-year single-malt Irish whiskey going towards supporting the Pennsylvania hospitality industry which was badly hit by the pandemic.
On August 2022, after production had wrapped, it was announced that Howerton would be co-starring with [Baruchel](Jay)(Jay Baruchel) in a Canadian biopic directed by [Johnson](Matt)(Matt Johnson (director)) on the rise and fall of BlackBerry as one of its co-founders. The film *[BlackBerry](BlackBerry (film))* premiered in competition at [2023](Berlinale)(73rd Berlin International Film Festival) on February 17 to positive reviews from critics with Howerton's performance as Jim Balsillie being especially well-received.
## Personal life
On September 8, 2009, Howerton married actress [Latiano](Jill)(Jill Latiano), who guest-starred on the ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia'' episode "[D.E.N.N.I.S. System](The)(The D.E.N.N.I.S. System)" broadcast two months later. Their first son, Miles Robert, was born in 2011, and their second son, Isley Ray, in August 2014.
Howerton has said that he follows a vegan diet "about 95% of the time."
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Web
### Music videos
## Theatre
## References
## External links
*
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[television producers](Category:American)(Category:American television producers)
[television writers](Category:American)(Category:American television writers)
[male television writers](Category:American)(Category:American male television writers)
[School alumni](Category:Juilliard)(Category:Juilliard School alumni)
[podcasters](Category:American)(Category:American podcasters)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from Montgomery, Alabama](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Montgomery, Alabama)
[from Alabama](Category:Screenwriters)(Category:Screenwriters from Alabama)
[births](Category:1976)(Category:1976 births)
|
Paul Bunyan
|
paul_bunyan
|
# Paul Bunyan
*Revision ID: 1159337796 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T18:19:31Z*
---
*[Minnesota](Akeley,)(Akeley, Minnesota)
*[Minnesota](Brainerd,)(Brainerd, Minnesota)
*[Maine](Bangor,)(Bangor, Maine)
}}
**Paul Bunyan** is a [giant](giant) [lumberjack](lumberjack) and [hero](folk)(folk hero) in [American](American folklore) and [folklore](Canadian)(Canadian folklore). His [tales](tall)(tall tales) revolve around his [superhuman](superhuman) labors, and he is customarily accompanied by **Babe the Blue Ox**, his pet and working animal. The character originated in the [tradition](oral)(oral tradition) of [America](North)(North America)n loggers, and was later popularized by freelance writer William B. Laughead (1882–1958) in a 1916 promotional pamphlet for the Red River Lumber Company. He has been the subject of various literary compositions, musical pieces, commercial works, and theatrical productions. His likeness is displayed in a number of oversized statues across North America.
## Etymology
There are many hypotheses about the etymology of the name *Paul Bunyan*. Much of the commentary focuses on a [French-Canadian](French-Canadian language) origin for the name. Phonetically, Bunyan is similar to the [Québécois](Québécois French) expression "*bon yenne!*" expressing surprise or astonishment. The English surname Bunyan is derived from the same root as "[bunion](bunion)" in the [French](Old)(Old French) *bugne*, referring to a large lump or swelling. Several researchers have attempted to trace Paul Bunyan to the character of Bon Jean of French Canadian folklore.
## Early references
[[File:Paulbunyan.jpg|425px|thumb|left|The first [Bunyan statue (Bemidji, Minnesota)](Paul)(Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox)]]
Michael Edmonds states in his 2009 book *Out of the Northwoods: The Many Lives of Paul Bunyan* that Paul Bunyan stories circulated for at least thirty years before finding their way into print. In contrast to the lengthy narratives abundant in published material, Paul Bunyan "stories" when told in the lumbercamp [bunkhouse](bunkhouse)s were presented in short fragments. Some of these stories include motifs from older folktales, such as absurdly severe weather and [critters](fearsome)(fearsome critters). Parallels in early printings support the view that at least a handful of Bunyan stories hold a common origin in folklore.
The first known reference of Paul Bunyan in print appeared in the March 17, 1893, issue of [County Record*](*Gladwin)(Gladwin, Michigan). Under the local news section for the area of [Beaverton](Beaverton, Michigan), it reads, "Paul Bunion [*sic*] is getting ready while the water is high to take his drive out." This line was presumably an inside joke, as it appeared over fifteen years before any commercial use of the Paul Bunyan name. At the time, few of the general public would have known who Paul Bunyan was.
The earliest recorded story of Paul Bunyan is an uncredited 1904 editorial in the *[News Tribune](Duluth)(Duluth News Tribune)* which recounts:
}}
Each of these elements recurs in later accounts, including logging [Dakotas](the)(the Dakotas), a giant camp, the winter of the blue snow, and stove skating. All four anecdotes are mirrored in J. E. Rockwell's "Some Lumberjack Myths" six years later, and James MacGillivray wrote on the subject of stove skating in "Round River" four years before that.
MacGillivray's account, somewhat extended, reappeared in *The American Lumberman* in 1910. *The American Lumberman* followed up with a few sporadic editorials, such as "Paul Bunyan's Oxen", "In Paul Bunyan's Cook Shanty", and "Chronicle of Life and Works of Mr. Paul Bunyan". Rockwell's earlier story was one of the few to allude to Paul Bunyan's large stature, "eight feet tall and weighed 300 pounds", and introduce his big blue ox, before Laughead commercialized Paul Bunyan, although W. D. Harrigan referred to a giant pink ox in "Paul Bunyan's Oxen", circa 1914. In all the articles, Paul Bunyan is praised as a logger of great physical strength and unrivaled skill.
## Scholarly research
K. Bernice Stewart, a student at the [of Wisconsin](University)(University of Wisconsin), was working contemporaneously with Laughead to gather Paul Bunyan stories from woodsmen in the Midwest. Stewart was able to make a scholarly anthology of original anecdotes through a series of interviews. These were published in 1916 as "Legends of Paul Bunyan, Lumberjack" in *Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters* and coauthored by her English professor Homer A. Watt. The research relates traditional narratives, some in multiple versions, and goes on to conclude that many probably existed in some part before they were set to revolve around Bunyan as a central character. Stewart argued in her analysis that Paul Bunyan belongs to a class of traveler's tales.
Charles E. Brown was the curator of the Museum of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin and secretary of the Wisconsin Archaeological Society. He was another principal researcher who recorded early Paul Bunyan stories from lumberjacks. He published these anecdotes in short pamphlet format for the use of students of folklore. Much of his research was financed through the government-funded Wisconsin Writers' Program.
In 2007, Michael Edmonds of the Wisconsin Historical Society began a thorough reinvestigation of the Paul Bunyan tradition, publishing his findings in *Out of the Northwoods: The Many Lives of Paul Bunyan*. Edmonds concluded that Paul Bunyan had origins in the oral traditions of woodsmen working in Wisconsin camps during the turn of the 20th century, but such stories were heavily embellished and popularized by commercial interests.
## Laughead's influence
In 1916, advertising copywriter William B. Laughead wrote an advertising pamphlet for the Red River Lumber Company using the Paul Bunyan folk character. Laughead's first endeavor was a pamphlet entitled "Introducing Mr. Paul Bunyan of [California](Westwood,)(Westwood, California)", but it did not prove effective. It was not until "Tales about Paul Bunyan, Vol. II" appeared that the campaign gained momentum. Laughead took many liberties with the original oral source material, embellishing older exploits and adding some of his own. Among other things, Laughead gave the name "Babe" to the blue ox, created the first pictorial representation of Bunyan, and increased Paul Bunyan's height to impossible proportions (in Laughead's version, Paul Bunyan towers over trees, while in the earlier folktales Bunyan had been extraordinarily tall and strong, but of human proportions).
Laughead attributes the creation of several American landscapes, landmarks and natural wonders to Paul Bunyan. He wrote that Paul Bunyan and Babe are said to have created the 10,000 lakes of [Minnesota](Minnesota) by their footprints. Later writers made up more details and exploits, such as the creation of bodies of water including [Bemidji](Lake)(Lake Bemidji) (which has a shape somewhat resembling a giant footprint when viewed from above). Later authors, and possibly tourist agents, would add other geographic features to those Paul Bunyan was supposed to have created.
Stories about Bunyan credited him with creating the [Canyon](Grand)(Grand Canyon) by pulling his ax behind him, and [Hood](Mount)(Mount Hood) by putting stones on his campfire.
Later authors have invented tales of Paul Bunyan's finding a female giant as a spouse, such as in the tale "Paul Bunyan's Wife"; her first name is not revealed in the story, she is only referred to as "Mrs. Paul". The tale also mentions her having had a daughter nicknamed "Tiny". Another tale, "Paul Bunyan Finds A Wife", describes Paul's rescuing a lovely red-haired giant-lady who had been trapped underneath an avalanche after a great storm; the grateful maiden (fittingly named "Sylvia", after the Latin word for "forest") quickly falls in love with the kind and chivalrous "treetop-tall" bachelor, and marries him later that same day.
This burial of the original material under stories by commercial writers engendered confusion over whether Bunyan had ever even been a genuine folkloric character at all, although later research has established this.
The Laughead pamphlets remain popular, collected in a single volume titled *The Marvelous Exploits of Paul Bunyan*.
## Children's adaptations
[[File:Bunyanbigrockcandymountain.jpg|left|thumb|A still from the 1960 [Mel-O-Toons](Mel-O-Toons) cartoon *Paul Bunyan*. Typical among juvenile accounts, the cartoon features Paul Bunyan batting cannonballs in the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War), sinking pirate ships, and building the [Rock Candy Mountain](Big)(Big Rock Candy Mountain).]]
Running at variance to his origins in folklore, the character of Paul Bunyan has become a fixture for juvenile audiences since his debut in print. Typical among such adaptations is the further embellishment of stories pulled directly from William B. Laughead's pamphlet, and with very few elements from oral tradition adapted into them. Nearly all of the literature is presented in long narrative format, exaggerates Paul Bunyan's height to colossal proportions, and follows him from infancy to adulthood.
Some of the more enduring collections of stories include *Paul Bunyan* by [Shephard](Esther)(Esther Shephard) (illustrated by [Kent](Rockwell)(Rockwell Kent)), *Paul Bunyan* by James Stevens, *Paul Bunyan Swings His Axe* by Dell J. McCormick, *Paul Bunyan* by Esther Shephard, *Paul Bunyan and His Great Blue Ox* by Wallace Wadsworth, and *The Marvelous Exploits of Paul Bunyan* by William Laughead.
*The Wonderful Adventures of Paul Bunyan* as retold by [Untermeyer](Louis)(Louis Untermeyer) and illustrated by [Gee Jackson](Everett)(Everett Gee Jackson) was published in 1945 by [Heritage Press](The)(The Heritage Press), an imprint of The George Macy Companies.
* Legends of Paul Bunyan* (1947) was the first book published by the prolific tall tale writer [Felton](Harold)(Harold Felton).[Harold W. Felton, Papers](http://archivespec.unl.edu/findingaids/MS040-felton-unl.html) , archive description at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries (retrieved October 11, 2015)
In 1958, [Disney Studios](Walt)(Walt Disney Animation Studios) produced *[Bunyan](Paul)(Paul Bunyan (film))* as an animated short musical. In it, Paul competes with his axe in a tree-chopping contest against a steam-powered mechanical saw. The feature starred [Ravenscroft](Thurl)(Thurl Ravenscroft), perhaps best known as the voice of [the Tiger](Tony)(Tony the Tiger) for [Kellogg Company](The)(The Kellogg Company), and was nominated for an [Award for Best Animated Short Film](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film).
"[Tall Tales](Three)(Three Tall Tales)", a 1963 episode of *[Magical World of Disney](The)(The Magical World of Disney)*, is an animated three-part anthology. The third part is the tale of Paul Bunyan.
In the 1995 Disney film *[Tale](Tall)(Tall Tale (film))*, Paul Bunyan is played by [Platt](Oliver)(Oliver Platt). Contrary to the usual image of Bunyan's gigantism, Platt's Paul is depicted as a man of average height, but compensated with a "larger than life" personality consistent with the film's "over the top" nature.
In 2007, Marybeth Lorbiekci and Renée Graef married Paul to Lucette Diana Kensack, a giant Meti woman who teaches Paul to be a forester, replanting the forest after logging, in ''Paul Bunyan's Sweetheart*.*Paul Bunyan's Sweetheart* written by Marybeth Lorbiecki and illustrated by Renée Graef, .
In 2017, an animated film based loosely on the folktale titled *[and Babe](Bunyan)(Bunyan and Babe)'' was released, starring [Goodman](John)(John Goodman) as Paul Bunyan.
## Debated authenticity
[[in 1865](File:Fabian_Fournier.jpg|thumb|Fournier)]
Commentators such as Carleton C. Ames, Marshall Fitwick, and particularly [Dorson](Richard)(Richard Dorson) cite Paul Bunyan as an example of "[fakelore](fakelore)", a literary invention passed off as an older folktale. They point out that the majority of books about Paul Bunyan are composed almost entirely of elements with no basis in folklore, especially those targeted at juvenile audiences. Modern commercial writers are credited with setting Paul Bunyan on his rise to a nationally recognized figure, but this ignores the historical roots of the character in logging camps and forest industries.
At the same time, several authors have come forward to propose that the legend of Paul Bunyan was based on a real person. D. Laurence Rogers and others have suggested a possible connection between Paul Bunyan tales and the exploits of French-Canadian lumberjack ["Saginaw Joe" Fournier](Fabian)(Fabian Fournier) (1845–1875). From 1865 to 1875, Fournier worked for the H. M. Loud Company in the [Michigan](Grayling,)(Grayling, Michigan) area. James Stevens in his 1925 book *Paul Bunyan* makes another unverified claim that Paul Bunyan was a soldier in the [Rebellion](Papineau)(Papineau Rebellion) named Paul Bon Jean, and this is occasionally repeated in other accounts.
Stewart and Watt acknowledge that they have not yet succeeded in definitively finding out whether Bunyan was based on an actual person or was wholly mythical. They have noted, however, that some of the older lumberjacks whom they interviewed claimed to have known him or members of his crew, and the supposed location of his grave was actually pointed out in northern Minnesota. Bunyan's extreme gigantism was a later invention, and early stories either do not mention it or, as in the Stewart and Watt paper, refer to him as being about seven feet tall.
Included in this section is a comparison chart between early Paul Bunyan references, the Stewart and Watt paper, and the Laughead advertisement.
## In popular culture
[[Image:Klamath-Paul-and-Babe.jpg|thumb|300px|Paul Bunyan (49 foot) and Babe the Blue Ox (35 foot) statues at [of Mystery](Trees)(Trees of Mystery) near [California](Klamath,)(Klamath, California). Note the size of the visitors at Babe's hooves.]]
William Laughead's 1916 ad campaign for the Red River Lumber Company launched Paul Bunyan toward national fame, and established his marketing appeal which continues into the 21st century. Throughout the better part of the 20th century, Paul Bunyan's name and image continued to be used to promote various products, cities, and services. Across North America, giant statues of Paul Bunyan were erected to promote local businesses and tourism. A significant portion of these were produced from the 1960s through the 1970s by the company [Fiberglass](International)(International Fiberglass) as part of their "[man](muffler)(muffler man)" series of giant fiberglass sculptures.
Since 2014 a paved biking trail bears the name "Paul Bunyan Trail" and spans 120 miles, from [Wing State Park](Crow)(Crow Wing State Park) to [Bemidji State Park](Lake)(Lake Bemidji State Park) in Minnesota. Many cities through which the trail passes sell Paul Bunyan trinkets and novelty items. The [Blue Ox Marathon](Bemidji)(Bemidji Blue Ox Marathon) (started in 2013) runs along the [Bunyan State Trail](Paul)(Paul Bunyan State Trail), around [Bemidji](Lake)(Lake Bemidji) and past the [Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox](Paul)(Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox) statues. The Bemidji statues of Paul Bunyan and Babe, the blue ox, appear in the *[Fargo](Fargo (TV series))* television series.
His statue is also briefly shown in the film *Fargo* from 1996.
The statue of Paul Bunyan is regularly mentioned in the novel *[It](It (novel))* by Stephen King.
In the Pixar movie *Toy Story* (1995), Sid has a parody poster in his room for "Kill'n Paul Bunyan and His Blue Bull of Doom".
## See also
* [Joe Mufferaw](Big)(Big Joe Mufferaw)
* [Pete](Cordwood)(Cordwood Pete), said to be the younger brother of Paul
* ''[American Legends](Disney's)(Disney's American Legends)''
* [critters](Fearsome)(Fearsome critters)
* [Magarac](Joe)(Joe Magarac)
* [Henry (folklore)](John)(John Henry (folklore))
* [axe murder incident](Korean)(Korean axe murder incident), including Operation Paul Bunyan
* [Bunyan's Axe (trophy)](Paul)(Minnesota–Wisconsin football rivalry)
* [Bunyan* (operetta)](*Paul)(Paul Bunyan (operetta))
* [Bunyan Trophy](Paul)(Paul Bunyan Trophy)
* [of Paul Bunyan (Portland, Oregon)](Statue)(Statue of Paul Bunyan (Portland, Oregon))
* [tale](Tall)(Tall tale)
* [Tale* (film)](*Tall)(Tall Tale (film))
## References
## External links
;Field recordings
* [Bill McBride in interview with Alan Lomax, "Dialogue on lumber camps and lumberjack ballads; Paul Bunyan discussion, tale: The Round River Drive," Mount Pleasant, Michigan, August 22, 1938, (Field Recording) *Paul Bunyan discussion begins at 7:04](https://www.loc.gov/item/afc1939007_afs02259b/)
* [Bill McBride in interview with Alan Lomax, "Paul Bunyan tale: The Round River Drive, cont.; Roving Lumberjack," Mount Pleasant, Michigan, August 22, 1938, (Field Recording)](https://www.loc.gov/item/afc1939007_afs02260a/)
* [Martin Mustig (phonetic spelling) in interview with Alan Lomax, "Oh When; Paul Bunyan stories," Traverse City, Michigan, September 3, 1938, (Field Recording) *Paul Bunyan discussion begins at 2:47](https://www.loc.gov/item/afc1939007_afs02310a/)
* [Perry Allen and Carl Lathrop in interview with Alan Lomax, "Wild Mustard River; Paul Bunyan tales," Saint Louis, Michigan, August 22, 1938, (Field Recording) *Paul Bunyan discussion begins at 3:03](https://www.loc.gov/item/afc1939007_afs02266a/)
;Text resources
* ["Tall Tales" from PaulBunyan.org.](http://www.paulbunyan.org/tall-tales.html)
* ["Tall Timber Tales" (An Archive of Early Paul Bunyan Printings from 1904 to 1924). Paul Bunyan Fine Art.](http://www.paulbunyanfineart.com/tall_timber_tales/)
* [Inventory of the William B. Laughead Papers, 1897-1958](https://foresthistory.org/research-explore/archives-library/fhs-archival-collections/inventory-william-b-laughead-papers-1897-1958/), Forest History Society Archives
* ["The Birth of Paul Bunyan"](https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Birth-Paul-Bunyan-1972.pdf), [History Society](Forest)(Forest History Society), October 1972
* Esther Shephard. *Paul Bunyan.* Illustrations by Rockwell Kent. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1941. [text](Full)(iarchive:paulbunyan0000shep) available free online at the [Public Library](Internet)(Internet Public Library).
[folklore](Category:American)(Category:American folklore)
[loggers](Category:American)(Category:American loggers)
[folklore](Category:Cascadian)(Category:Cascadian folklore)
[characters from Maine](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from Maine)
[characters from Michigan](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from Michigan)
[characters from Minnesota](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from Minnesota)
[characters from North Dakota](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from North Dakota)
[characters from Wisconsin](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from Wisconsin)
[giants](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional giants)
[lumberjacks](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional lumberjacks)
[in mythology and legend](Category:Heroes)(Category:Heroes in mythology and legend)
[American people](Category:Legendary)(Category:Legendary American people)
[in fiction](Category:Maine)(Category:Maine in fiction)
[in fiction](Category:Michigan)(Category:Michigan in fiction)
[folklore](Category:Minnesota)(Category:Minnesota folklore)
[in fiction](Category:Minnesota)(Category:Minnesota in fiction)
[Dakota in fiction](Category:North)(Category:North Dakota in fiction)
[ ](Category:Paul Bunyan)
[whose existence is disputed](Category:People)(Category:People whose existence is disputed)
[tales](Category:Tall)(Category:Tall tales)
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Steven Van Zandt
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steven_van_zandt
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# Steven Van Zandt
*Revision ID: 1158129930 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T04:19:18Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Massachusetts](Winthrop,)(Winthrop, Massachusetts), U.S.
| origin = [Township, New Jersey](Middletown)(Middletown Township, New Jersey), U.S.
| instrument =
| genre =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1968–present
| label =
| current_member_of = [Street Band](E)(E Street Band)
| past_member_of = [Johnny and the Asbury Jukes](Southside)(Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes)
| website =
}}
**Steven Van Zandt** (né **Lento**; born November 22, 1950), also known as **Little Steven** or **Miami Steve**, is an American musician and actor. He is a member of [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen)'s [Street Band](E)(E Street Band), in which he plays guitar and [mandolin](mandolin). He has appeared in several television drama series, including as [Dante](Silvio)(Silvio Dante) in *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)* (1999–2007) and as Frank Tagliano in *[Lilyhammer](Lilyhammer)* (2012–2014). Van Zandt has his own solo band called Little Steven and The Disciples of Soul, intermittently active since the 1980s. In 2014, he was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) as a member of the E Street Band. Van Zandt has produced music, written songs, and had his own songs covered by [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen), [Loaf](Meat)(Meat Loaf), [Sinatra](Nancy)(Nancy Sinatra), [Jam](Pearl)(Pearl Jam), [United Against Apartheid](Artists)(Artists United Against Apartheid), and the [City Houserockers](Iron)(Iron City Houserockers), among others.
## Early life
Van Zandt was born Steven Lento on November 22, 1950 to Mary Henrietta (née Lento) Van Zandt and Vince Borello, in [Massachusetts](Winthrop,)(Winthrop, Massachusetts). He has Italian ancestry; one grandfather was from [Calabria](Calabria) and one grandmother's parents were from [Naples](Naples). His mother, Mary, remarried in 1957 and he took the last name of his stepfather, William Brewster Van Zandt. The family moved to [Township, New Jersey](Middletown)(Middletown Township, New Jersey), when he was seven.DeMasters, Karen. ["POP MUSIC; Rocking the Foundations Of American Life"](https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/07/nyregion/pop-music-rocking-the-foundations-of-american-life.html) , *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, November 7, 1999. Accessed June 13, 2011."Mr. Van Zandt, who grew up in Middletown and now lives in Manhattan, was born into a Catholic family but grew up as a Baptist. He says he now accepts a mixture of many religions."
Van Zandt found his love for music at an early age, when he learned how to play the guitar. He watched the performances of [Beatles on *The Ed Sullivan Show*](the)(The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show) and [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones) on *[Palace](Hollywood)(Hollywood Palace)* in 1964, and referred to the former as "The Big Bang of Rock n' Roll"."[Show 775 – The Big Bang](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-779-770/show-775-the-big-bang.html) ". ''[Steven's Underground Garage](Little)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 7 February 2017. Web. 25 March 2017."[1964-06-03](http://brucebase.wikidot.com/nogig:1964-06-13-private-residence-freehold-nj)". *Brucebase''. Brucebase, 16 March 2017. Web. 25 March 2017. He said that when he was 13, [Harrison](George)(George Harrison) was his favorite Beatle, and he later became friends with [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney) and [Starr](Ringo)(Ringo Starr)."[Steven Van Zandt: 25 Things You Don't Know About Me](http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/steven-van-zandt-25-things-you-dont-know-about-me-20131512) ". *[Weekly](Us)(Us Weekly)*. Us Weekly, 15 December 2013. Web. 25 March 2017. Around August 1964, he formed his first band, the Whirlwinds, which was short-lived. He later formed the Mates in 1965 and joined the Shadows in May 1966. Van Zandt has cited [Invasion](British)(British Invasion) bands such as the [Clark Five](Dave)(Dave Clark Five), as well as [Shankar](Ravi)(Ravi Shankar) and the culture of India, as early influences."[The Dave Clark Five And Beyond: A Signature Drum Sound](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/the-dave-clark-five-and-beyond-watch-excerpt-a-signature-drum-sound/2095/) ". *[Performances](Great)(Great Performances)*. [PBS](PBS), 8 April 2014. Web. 25 March 2017."[Ravi Shankar influenced me musically: Steven Van Zandt](http://www.sify.com/news/ravi-shankar-influenced-me-musically-steven-van-zandt-news-others-pmstalaghabhe.html) ". *[Sify](Sify)*. Sify Technologies, Ltd., 18 December 2015. Web. 25 March 2017.
Van Zandt attended [High School](Middletown)(Middletown High School North), where he got kicked out for having long hair. He went back to school to appease his mother and graduated in 1968.[Clearwater Swim Club](http://brucebase.wikidot.com/gig:1965-07-00-clearwater-swim-club-atlantic-highlands-nj) *Brucebase*. Brucebase, 10 March 2017. Web. 25 March 2017.Heyboer, Kelly. ["Steven Van Zandt to Rutgers grads: 'Embrace your Jersey roots'"](https://www.nj.com/education/2017/05/rutgers_commencement_steven_van_zandt_addresses_gr.html), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](NJ.com), May 18, 2017. Accessed September 30, 2018. "The actor and musician is a 1968 graduate of Middletown High School in Monmouth County, but never earned a college degree." As a teenager, he was involved in a car accident that caused him to smash his head through the windshield, leaving several scars on his head. To cover this up, he began wearing hats, and later, large bandanas, which has become his characteristic look.
Actor [Van Zandt](Billy)(Billy Van Zandt) is Van Zandt's half-brother and actress [Barbeau](Adrienne)(Adrienne Barbeau) is his ex-sister-in-law. He also has a half-sister named Kathi, who is a writer.
## Career
### Band member
Van Zandt grew up in the [Shore](Jersey)(Jersey Shore) music scene, and was an early friend and pre-E Street bandmate of [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen). Springsteen met Van Zandt for the first time in 1965 when Springsteen went to the Hullabaloo club in Middletown. Van Zandt was performing a cover of [Turtles](the)(the Turtles)' "[Together](Happy)(Happy Together (song))" with the Shadows.[Bruce](Springsteen,)(Bruce Springsteen). *[to Run](Born)(Born to Run (autobiography))*. [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster), 2016. They performed together in bands such as [Mill](Steel)(Steel Mill) and the Bruce Springsteen Band."[Steve Van Zandt](http://brucebase.wikidot.com/relation:Steve-Van-Zandt) *Brucebase* Brucebase, 4 February 2017. Web. 25 March 2017. During the early 1970s, Van Zandt worked in road construction for two years, before returning to show business."[Little Steven Visits the Howard Stern Show to Promote Lilyhammer 1/31/12](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaC8W0FZABY) ". *[YouTube](YouTube)*. YouTube, 24 February 2017. Web. 25 March 2017.[David](Remnick,)(David Remnick). "[We Are Alive](https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/07/30/we-are-alive) ". *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)*. [Nast](Condé)(Condé Nast), 30 July 2012. Web. 25 March 2017. In 1973, he toured with [Dovells](The)(The Dovells). The tour ended in Miami on December 31, 1974 with [Clark](Dick)(Dick Clark)'s [Old Rock 'n' Roll Show](Good)(Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve) at the Deauville Star Theater. After going back to Jersey, Van Zandt continued wearing Hawaiian shirts because he did not particularly like winter, which was how he got the nickname "Miami Steve".Greene, Andy. "[Darlene Love on New Solo LP and Working with Springsteen, Steve Van Zandt](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/darlene-love-on-new-solo-lp-and-working-with-springsteen-steve-van-zandt-20150821) ". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. Rolling Stone, 21 August 2015. Web. 25 March 2017."[Full Interview: Steven Van Zandt](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPojZ57ELHw) ". *[Strombo](Strombo)*. [YouTube](YouTube), 1 March 2012. Web. 25 March 2017.
He co-founded [Johnny and the Asbury Jukes](Southside)(Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes), in addition to [Miami Horns](The)(The Miami Horns),Stern, Kimberly Winter. "[Trumpet Soul Man](http://www.435mag.com/September-2010/Trumpet-Soul-Man/) ". *435 Magazine*. Godengo, September 2010. Web. 25 March 2017. who got their name from Van Zandt's nickname. Van Zandt helped establish the rhythm and blues oriented style of music that the band performed. He also produced Southside Johnny's first three albums. Overall, Van Zandt wrote a significant bulk of Southside Johnny's music which helped provide them with the success that they achieved.Basham, Peter. Pocket Essentials Series: Bruce Springsteen. Herts, GBR: Oldcastle Books, 200s. Proquest Ebrary. Web. 14 October 2014.
Van Zandt then started to switch between writing for Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes and touring with the E Street Band. He confirmed in an interview on *[Howard Stern Show](The)(The Howard Stern Show)* that he arranged the horns on "[Avenue Freeze-Out](Tenth)(Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out)" in 1975 when Springsteen was at a loss, earning him a spot in the [Street Band](E)(E Street Band) shortly thereafter.Prince, Patrick. "[When Steven Van Zandt joined Springsteen's E Street Band](http://www.goldminemag.com/articles/when-van-zandt-joined-springsteen%E2%80%99s-e-street-band) ". *[Goldmine](Goldmine (magazine))*. [Media](F+W)(F+W Media), 30 July 2010. Web. 26 March 2017. In the *[For Wheels](Wings)(Wings For Wheels)* documentary, Springsteen revealed that Van Zandt was partially responsible for the signature guitar line in "[to Run](Born)(Born to Run (Bruce Springsteen song))," described as "Arguably Steve's greatest contribution to my music.""[Stevie Van Zandt](http://brucespringsteen.net/band/steven-van-zandt) ". *[Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen)*. [Music Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Music Entertainment), 2017. Web. 26 March 2017. Ultimately, Van Zandt officially joined the E Street Band on July 20, 1975 during the first show of the [to Run Tour](Born)(Born to Run tours).
In those early years, Van Zandt supplied a great deal of the lead guitar work for the band in concert, as can be seen on the 1975 concert DVD within *[to Run 30th Anniversary Edition](Born)(Born to Run 30th Anniversary Edition)* (later released as the CD ''[Odeon London '75](Hammersmith)(Hammersmith Odeon London '75)''). In 1984, Van Zandt left the E Street Band.Levy, Piet. "[Years by Springsteen's side a gift for guitarist Nils Lofgren](http://www.jsonline.com/story/entertainment/music/2016/02/29/years-by-springsteens-side-a-gift-for-guitarist-nils-lofgren/84860924/) ". *[Journal Sentinel](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)*. [Company, Inc.](Gannett)(Gannett Company), 29 February 2016. Web. 26 March 2017. He originally joined to see Bruce Springsteen rise in success, and once the band rose to that success he left.Siegler, Bonnie. "Fame & Fortune: Steven Van Zandt (Page 1 of 2)." Fame & Fortune: Steven Van Zandt (Page 1 of 2). Satellite, n.d. Web. 15 October 2014.Russell, Lisa. "[Little Steven (van Zandt) Says Goodbye to the Boss](http://people.com/archive/little-steven-van-zandt-says-goodbye-to-the-boss-vol-22-no-11/) ". *[People](People (magazine))*. [Inc.](Time)(Time Inc.), 10 September 1984. Web. 36 March 2017. Despite leaving the band, he appeared as a special guest at certain concerts on the [in the U.S.A. Tour](Born)(Born in the U.S.A. Tour) and appeared in a couple of videos, including the one for "[Days](Glory)(Glory Days (Bruce Springsteen song))".
[[File:Little Steven Van Zandt and Bruce Springsteen.jpg|thumb|257px|right|Springsteen and Van Zandt, onstage during the [on a Dream Tour](Working)(Working on a Dream Tour), August 1, 2009, in [Valladolid](Valladolid), Spain.]]
Later in life, Van Zandt returned to the E Street Band when it was reformed (briefly in 1995, and on an ongoing basis since 1999) and remains a member. By this time, his guitar playing had mostly been reduced to a background rhythm role, due to [Lofgren](Nils)(Nils Lofgren)'s position in the band and his capability as a lead guitarist. In addition, Springsteen had begun taking many more guitar solos as his music became more guitar-centered. Van Zandt said on the *Howard Stern Show* that he is okay with being second in command, especially since he has been in charge before with his solo music and his role in *Lilyhammer*."[Little Steven Doesn't Mind Being #2](https://www.howardstern.com/show/2012/1/31/little-steven-doesnt-mind-being-2-RundownGalleryModel-1104/) ". *[Stern Show](Howard)(Howard Stern Show)*. The Howard Stern Production Company, Inc., 31 January 2012. Web. 26 March 2017. Notwithstanding this, among E Street Band members he often had the second-most "face time" in concert after [Clemons](Clarence)(Clarence Clemons), frequently mugging and posing for the audience and sometimes delivering his unpolished, nasal backing vocals while sharing a microphone with Springsteen. His playing or singing is most prominently featured on the songs "[Days](Glory)(Glory Days (Bruce Springsteen song))", "Two Hearts", "Long Walk Home" (which featured a Van Zandt outro vocal solo during live performances)"[Springsteen – Long Walk Home – The Spectrum October 13, 2009 – Entire Song](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ssEX9HmxqI) ". *[YouTube](YouTube)*. YouTube, 29 October 2009. Web. 26 March 2017. "[of Hope and Dreams](Land)(Land of Hope and Dreams)", "[Badlands](Badlands (Bruce Springsteen song))", "Ramrod", and "Murder Incorporated", among others like the live versions of "[Rosalita](Rosalita (Come Out Tonight))". He often trades vocals with Springsteen in live versions of "Prove It All Night". He features prominently in the video for "Glory Days", sharing the spotlight with Springsteen during the choruses, while swapping lines with him during the (non)fade, and in live versions he does the same."[Bruce Springsteen – Glory Days (Official Video)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vQpW9XRiyM) ". *[Springsteen Vevo](Bruce)(Vevo)*. [YouTube](YouTube), 3 October 2009. Web. 26 March 2017. During the E Street Band's performance at the [Bowl](Super)(Super Bowl) in 2009, Van Zandt was the most prominently featured member of the band, playing a guitar solo on the final number of the set, "Glory Days," as well as sharing lead vocals and exchanging humorous banter with Springsteen."[2009-02-01 – Raymond James Stadium, Tampa, FL (Super Bowl XLIII)](http://brucebase.wikidot.com/gig:2009-02-01+-+RAYMOND+JAMES+STADIUM%2C+TAMPA%2C+FL)". *Brucebase*. Brucebase, 14 March 2015. Web. 26 March 2017.Gamboa, Glenn. "[Super Bowl halftime shows: Most memorable of all time](http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/super-bowl-halftime-shows-most-memorable-of-all-time-1.6834049) ". *[Newsday](Newsday)*. Newsday, 5 February 2017. Web. 26 March 2017.Greene, Andy. "[Van Zandt on Springsteen Tour, Super Bowl Rumors and How Garage Bands Can Blow Up](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/van-zandt-on-springsteen-tour-super-bowl-rumors-and-how-garage-bands-can-blow-up-20090303) ". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. 3 March 2009. Accessed 26 March 2017.
### Songwriter, arranger, producer
Van Zandt became a songwriter and producer for fellow Jersey shore act [Johnny and the Asbury Jukes](Southside)(Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes) in 1974, penning their [song](signature)(signature song) "[Don't Want to Go Home](I)(I Don't Want to Go Home)", co-writing other songs for them with Springsteen, and producing their most-acclaimed record, *[of Stone](Hearts)(Hearts of Stone (Asbury Jukes))*."[Career Timeline 1970s](https://web.archive.org/web/20001014181307/http://littlesteven.com/career-timeline-70.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on October 14, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017. As such, Van Zandt became a key contributor to the [Shore sound](Jersey)(Jersey Shore sound). He also produced two [U.S. Bonds](Gary)(Gary U.S. Bonds) albums. Van Zandt then went on to share production credits on the classic Springsteen albums *[River](The)(The River (Bruce Springsteen album))* and *[in the U.S.A.](Born)(Born in the U.S.A.)*"[Career Timeline 1980s](https://web.archive.org/web/20060718062737/http://www.littlesteven.com/career-timeline-80-z.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on July 18, 2006. Web. 1 April 2016. The first Springsteen song he co-produced was "[Heart](Hungry)(Hungry Heart)." In 1989, [Browne](Jackson)(Jackson Browne) covered the 1983 Van Zandt composition "I Am A Patriot" on his *[in Motion](World)(World in Motion (album))* album.Fricke, David. "[World in Motion](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/albumreviews/world-in-motion-19890713) ". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. 13 July 1989. Accessed 1 April 2017. Van Zandt has produced a number of other records, including an uncredited effort on the [City Houserockers](Iron)(Iron City Houserockers)' *Have A Good Time (But Get Out Alive)*.Deming, Mark. "[
Have a Good Time But Get Out Alive]". *[AllMusic](AllMusic)*. RhythmOne, 2017. Web. 1 April 2017. Less successful was his work on [Justice](Lone)(Lone Justice)'s second album *[Shelter](Shelter (Lone Justice album))*, which was a career-ending flop for the Los Angeles [cowpunk](cowpunk) band.Chrispell, James. "["Shelter – Lone Justice"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/shelter-mw0000190713) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
In 1989, Van Zandt wrote "While You Were Looking at Me" for [Monroe](Michael)(Michael Monroe)'s album ''[Fakin' It](Not)(Not Fakin' It)'' and co-wrote videohits "Dead, Jail or Rock'n Roll" and "Smoke Screen". He was an arranger and backing vocalist for a few songs on the album."["Not Fakin' It – Michael Monroe"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/not-fakin-it-mw0000201873) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31. In 1992, he produced Austin TX-based [Angels](Arc)(Arc Angels)' [album](debut)(Arc Angels (album)).Meredith, Bill. "[Arc Angels](https://www.allmusic.com/album/arc-angels-mw0000275769) ". *[AllMusic](AllMusic)*. RhythmOne, 2017. Web. 1 April 2017. In 1991 Van Zandt produced a successful album, *Spirit of Love*, for Nigerian superstar and reggae icon, [Fashek](Majek)(Majek Fashek).Tarte, Bob. "[Spirit of Love](https://www.allmusic.com/album/spirit-of-love-mw0000675282) ". *[AllMusic](AllMusic)*. RhythmOne, 2017. Web. 1 April 2017. In 1992, Van Zandt wrote and produced "[Alone on Christmas](All)(All Alone on Christmas)" for the soundtrack of the [Columbus](Chris)(Chris Columbus (filmmaker)) film *[Alone 2: Lost in New York](Home)(Home Alone 2: Lost in New York)*, which yielded singer [Love](Darlene)(Darlene Love) her first hit since "A Fine, Fine Boy" from 1963, thirty-one years earlier."["Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992) – Soundtracks"](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0104431/soundtrack?mode=desktop) ", [IMDb](Internet Movie Database), 1990–2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
In 1994, Van Zandt produced the eponymous debut album of the punk rock band [23](Demolition)(Demolition 23) which featured ex-[Rocks](Hanoi)(Hanoi Rocks) members [Monroe](Michael)(Michael Monroe) and [Yaffa](Sami)(Sami Yaffa). Van Zandt also co-wrote six songs for the album with Monroe and Jude Wilder."["Demolition 23 – Demolition 23"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/demolition-23-mw0000887872) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31. In 1995, Van Zandt aided [Loaf](Meat)(Meat Loaf) with the song "Amnesty Is Granted" off of his *[to the Neighborhood](Welcome)(Welcome to the Neighbourhood (Meat Loaf album))* album."["Welcome to the Neighborhood – Meat Loaf"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/welcome-to-the-neighborhood-mw0000645994) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31. In 2004, he contributed the song "Baby Please Don't Go" to [Sinatra](Nancy)(Nancy Sinatra)'s [album](self-titled)(Nancy Sinatra (album))."["Nancy Sinatra – Nancy Sinatra"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/nancy-sinatra-mw0000395745) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
### Solo artist
[[File:Steven Van Zandt (7479336458).jpg|thumb|upright|Van Zandt onstage during the 2012 [Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival](New)(New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival).]]
During the summer of 1981, [EMI-America](EMI America) approached Van Zandt with a record deal due to his success with the E Street Band, Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, and Gary U.S. Bonds. He began fronting an on-and-off group known as Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul, while Springsteen was working on *[Nebraska](Nebraska (album))*. The band included [Danelli](Dino)(Dino Danelli) on drums, [Beauvoir](Jean)(Jean Beauvoir) on bass, and the Miami Horns. They made their live debut at the [Lounge](Peppermint)(Peppermint Lounge) on July 18, 1982. In October 1982, Van Zandt's debut album, *[Without Women](Men)(Men Without Women (album))*, was released. This album earned the most critical praise and [Cocks](Jay)(Jay Cocks) of [magazine](*TIME*)(Time Magazine) dubbed it one of the ten best albums of the year.Saunders, Mike. "[Miami Steve](https://web.archive.org/web/20001202182000/http://www.littlesteven.com/career-miami.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on December 2, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017. Van Zandt released four more solo albums, and has written that these albums are each elements in a five-part political concept cycle: the individual, the family, the state, the economy, and religion."[Men Without Women Essay](https://web.archive.org/web/20001203004500/http://www.littlesteven.com/essays-mww.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on December 3, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017. These albums range from [music](soul)(soul music) to [rock](hard)(hard rock) to [music](world)(world music). Van Zandt's second album, *[of America](Voice)(Voice of America (Little Steven album))*, did the best on the [albums chart](U.S.)(Billboard 200), although none of his albums were much of a commercial success. After touring with the E Street Band during [River Tour](The)(The River Tour) in 1980–81, he started to realize and understand the perceptions of Americans made by people in other countries. He started to become interested in politics and, with *Voice of America*, his music became explicitly political. One of the album's leading singles, "Solidarity", is a general statement of international common ground."[Voice of America Essay](https://web.archive.org/web/20001203031400/http://www.littlesteven.com/essays-voa.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on December 3, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017. In April 1984, shortly before the release of *Born in the U.S.A.* and *Voice of America*, Van Zandt left the E Street Band, but rejoined in 1999.Ruhlmann, William and John Floyd. "[Little Steven & the Disciples of Soul Biography](https://www.billboard.com/artist/307639/little-steven-disciples-soul/biography) ". *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*., 2017. Web. 1 April 2017.
Continuing his involvement in issues of the day, in 1985 he created the music-industry activist group [United Against Apartheid](Artists)(Artists United Against Apartheid) as an action against the [City](Sun)(Sun City, North West) resort in South Africa. Forty-nine recording artists, including Springsteen, [U2](U2), [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan), [Townshend](Pete)(Pete Townshend), [Ramone](Joey)(Joey Ramone), [Petty](Tom)(Tom Petty), [Bambaataa](Afrika)(Afrika Bambaataa) and [DMC](Run)(Run DMC), collaborated on a song called "[City](Sun)(Sun City (song))" in which they pledged to never perform at the resort.Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "["Sun City: Artists United Against Apartheid"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/sun-city-artists-united-against-apartheid-mw0000200232) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31. The song was modestly successful, and played a part in the broad international effort to overthrow apartheid.Solomon, Dan. "["Steven Van Zandt Tells the Story of "Sun City" and Fighting Apartheid in South Africa"](https://archive.today/20150101010723/http://m.fastcocreate.com/3023454/steven-van-zandt-tells-the-story-of-sun-city-and-fighting-apartheid-in-south-africa)", Co.Create, 13 December 2013. Retrieved 2014-12-31. Van Zandt also produced the award-winning documentary *The Making of Sun City* and oversaw the production of the book, *Sun City by Artists United Against Apartheid, the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa: The Making of the Record*, as well as the teaching guide."[Sun City – An Anti-Apartheid Education Brochure (PDF)](http://africanactivist.msu.edu/document_metadata.php?objectid=32-130-F41) ". *African Activist Archive*. Michigan State University. Web. 18 March 2017.
In 1987, he released the album *[- No Compromise](Freedom)(Freedom - No Compromise)*, which continued the political messaging. Some U.S. appearances in that year as opening act for [U2](U2)'s arena-and-stadium [Tree Tour](Joshua)(Joshua Tree Tour) continued in the same vein, but were not well received by some audiences.Jonathan. "[U2 Joshua Tree Tour 3rd leg, North America](http://u2station.com/tours/1987/09/september-20-1987---washington-district-of-columbia-usa---robert-f-kennedy-stadium.php) ", U2 Station, 1997–2012. Retrieved On 2014-12-31."[U2 Concerts with Opening Act: Little Steven & the Disciples of Soul](http://tours.atu2.com/opening/little-steven-the-disciples-of-soul) ", @U2. Retrieved 2014-12-31. Both the record and his concerts were popular in Europe."[German Charts](http://www.chartsurfer.de/artist/little-steven/vrne.html) ", Chartsurfer.de, 2015. Retrieved 2014-12-31. He also performed at the "[Mandela](Nelson)(Nelson Mandela) 70th Birthday Tribute" concert at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium) in 1988.
His fourth album, 1989's *[Revolution](Revolution (Little Steven album))*, attracted little attention. Later in 1989, Van Zandt recorded another album, *Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive* with his garage band The Lost Boys. Although the album remains unreleased, several tracks from it were heard on the *Sopranos* and *Lilyhammer* television shows: including "Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive", "Affection", and "Come for Me".Jeckell, Barry A. "["Billboard Bits: J-Swift, Smiths, Little Steven"](https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/79790/billboard-bits-j-swift-smiths-little-steven?mobile_redirection=false) ", [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)), 10 May 2001. Retrieved 2014-12-31."["The Sopranos" All Happy Families (TV Episode 2004) – Soundtracks"](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0705226/soundtrack?ref_=tt_trv_snd&mode=desktop) ", [IMDb](Internet Movie Database), 1990–2015. Retrieved 2014-12-31."["The Sopranos" Irregular Around the Margins (TV Episode 2004) – Soundtracks](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0705255/soundtrack?ref_=tt_trv_snd) ", [IMDb](Internet Movie Database), 1990–2015. Retrieved 2014-12-31. "Affection" appeared on *[Sopranos: Peppers & Eggs (Music From the HBO Original Series)](The)(Music on The Sopranos#The Sopranos - Peppers and Eggs: Music From The HBO Series)*.Ruhlman, William. "[The Sopranos: Peppers & Eggs (Music From the HBO Original Series)](https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-sopranos-peppers-eggs-music-from-the-hbo-original-series-mw0000586481) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved on 2014-12-31.
Due to a loss of recording contract, his next album, *[Again Savage](Born)(Born Again Savage)*, which was recorded in 1994, was not released until 1999."[Born Again Savage Essay](https://web.archive.org/web/20000823191838/http://www.littlesteven.com/essays-bas.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on August 23, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017. In 1995, Van Zandt wrote, produced, and sang "The Time of Your Life" for the soundtrack to the film *[Months](Nine)(Nine Months)*. He also toured with [Jovi](Bon)(Bon Jovi) during the first European leg of their [Days Tour](These)(These Days Tour)."[Career Timeline 1990s](https://web.archive.org/web/20001202215800/http://www.littlesteven.com/career-timeline-90.html)". *Little Steven Online*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on December 2, 2000. Web. 1 April 2017."[These Days (1995–1996)](http://www.bonjovimuseum.com/main/oldmuseum/tours/id20.htm) ". *The Bon Jovi Museum Tour Archive.* The Bon Jovi Museum, n.d. Web. 18 March 2017."[May 23, 1995](http://www.bonjovi-archives.com/09_These_Days/Tour/19950523.html) ". *These Days*. Bon Jovi Archives, n.d. Web. 18 March 2017.
Van Zandt's song "Under The Gun" was covered by [Olson & The Textones](Carla)(Carla Olson) on their ''Detroit '85 Live & Unreleased* album which was released in 2008.Deming, Mark. "["Detroit 85: Live and Unreleased – Carla Olson"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/detroit-85-live-and-unreleased-mw0000787052) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31. Another of his songs, "All I Needed Was You", appeared on the 2013 Carla Olson album *Have Harmony, Will Travel''.Jurek, Tom. "["Have Harmony, Will Travel – Carla Olson"](https://www.allmusic.com/album/have-harmony-will-travel-mw0002507336) ", [AllMusic](AllMusic), 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
On April 29, 2013, Van Zandt performed a cover of [Sinatra](Frank)(Frank Sinatra)'s "[Kind of Town](My)(My Kind of Town)" at a Springsteen concert in [Norway](Oslo,)(Oslo, Norway), during the [Ball Tour](Wrecking)(Wrecking Ball Tour).Goldstein, Stan. "[Steve Van Zandt provides an unforgettable opening to Springsteen's Monday show in Oslo, Norway](http://www.nj.com/springsteen/index.ssf/2013/04/steve_van_zandt_provides_an_un.html) ". *NJ.com*. New Jersey On-Line LLC, 29 April 2013. Web. 18 March 2017. Although the song was featured in the *Lilyhammer* season one episode "My Kind of Town,""['Lilyhammer' My Kind of Town (TV Episode 2012)](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2089229/soundtrack?ref_=tt_trv_snd) ". *[IMDb](IMDb)*. IMDb.com, Inc., 1990–2017. Web. 1 April 2017. it was not released as a single until September 23, 2014, when it was "the Coolest Song in the World" on *Underground Garage* to help promote the show."[Steven Van Zandt 'Frank Tagliano Sings! My Kind of Town'](https://web.archive.org/web/20150206215734/http://www.wickedcoolrecords.com/shop/music/digital-downloads/steven-van-zandt-frank-tagliano-sings-my-kind-of-town-digital-single.html)". *Wicked Cool Records*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on February 6, 2014. Web. 1 April 2017. It was released under the title "Frank Tagliano Sings! My Kind of Town" and the lyrics were changed to be about Lillehammer, Norway, instead of Chicago."[Steven Van Zandt – Frank Tagliano Sings! My Kind of Town Lyrics](https://www.musixmatch.com/lyrics/Steven-Van-Zandt-2/Frank-Tagliano-Sings-My-Kind-of-Town) " Van Zandt performed the song on *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)* on December 9, 2014, to help promote the series."[Watch Steven Van Zandt & Jimmy Fallon Perform Sinatra's 'My Kind of Town'](https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6398439/steven-van-zandt-jimmy-fallon-frank-sinatra) ". *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*. Billboard, 10 December 2014. Web. 1 April 2017. Van Zandt performed all the music for *Lilyhammer* from season 2 onGreene, Andy. "[How 'Lilyhammer' Changed the TV World](https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/how-lilyhammer-changed-the-tv-world-20131205) ". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. 5 December 2013. Web. 1 April 2017. and released *Lilyhammer: The Score* on December 16, 2014."['Lilyhammer: The Score.' 3-volume digital box set](https://web.archive.org/web/20141225042100/http://www.wickedcoolrecords.com/shop/music/digital-downloads/lilyhammer-the-score-3-volume-digital-box-set.html)". *Wicked Cool Records*. [Machine](Wayback)(Wayback Machine). Archived on December 25, 2014. Web. 1 April 2017.
Van Zandt reformed his band, the Disciples of Soul, for the first time since 1990Jenkins, Jack. "[Little Steven & the Disciples of Soul to play first UK show since 1990!](http://www.lntvglobal.com/gb/article/little-steven-the-disciples-of-soul-to-play-first-uk-show-since-1990/) " *Live Nation TV*. [Nation Worldwide, Inc.](Live)(Live Nation (events promoter)), 14 October 2016. Web. 1 April 2017. to play their only European show of 2016 at [O2 Indigo Lounge](the)(The O2) in London for BluesFest on October 29, 2016."[Lineup & Tickets](https://www.bluesfest.co.uk/lineup-tickets) ". *BluesFest*. BluesFest, 2017. Web. 1 April 2017. The new Disciples included [Sambora](Richie)(Richie Sambora) and Marc Ribler on guitar, [Manion](Eddie)(Eddie Manion) on saxophone, Hook Herrara on harmonica, Leo Green on tenor sax, Richard Mecurio on drums, Jack Daley on bass, Andy Burton on B3 organ, [Carter](Clifford)(Clifford Carter) on piano, Danny Sadownick on percussion, Tommy Walsh and Matt Holland on trumpet, Neil Sidwell on trombone, George Millard on flute, and a women's section called the Divas of Soul (Julie Maguire, Sarah Carpenter and Jess Greenfield) on backing vocals. They played a series of Van Zandt's own solo songs, songs he wrote for Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, a song he co-wrote for [Breakers](the)(The Breakers (band)), cover songs, and "Goodbye", a song that he performed with the Lost Boys.Saunders, Mike. "[Men With Women: The Triumphant Return of Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul](http://backstreets.com/newsarchive86.html) ". *[Backstreets](Backstreets (magazine))*. Backstreets, 2 November 2016. Web. 1 April 2017.Deitch, Royston. "[I'm Coming Back: Saturday's Disciples of Soul Set at the O2](http://backstreets.com/newsarchive85.html) ". *[Backstreets](Backstreets (magazine))*. Backstreets, 30 October 2016. Web. 1 April 2017. His plans included a European tour during the summer of 2017 and a tour of the United States in the fall."[Tour Dates](http://littlesteven.com/index.php/tour-dates) " Van Zandt insists that he is not leaving the E Street Band and he is only touring because the band is not on the road.
Van Zandt announced in November 2016 that he was in the process of remastering and reissuing his albums for a 2017 release, including the unreleased Lost Boys album. Additionally, Van Zandt has stated that he was planning on releasing a new cover album, including a cover of [James](Etta)(Etta James)' "[Blues Is My Business](The)(Let's Roll (album))", as well as new recordings of songs Van Zandt wrote for others, including Southside Johnny, that he describes as "me covering me." The album is a [record](soul)(soul music), composed of a 15 piece band including 5 horns and 3 singers. Van Zandt revealed that Richie Mercurio plays drums on the album.
On February 9, 2017, Van Zandt released "Saint Valentine's Day," a cover of the song, "Saint Valentine's Day Massacre," that he originally wrote for the [Slippers](Cocktail)(Cocktail Slippers), as a single.Stavropoulos, Laura. "['Little Steven' Van Zandt Rocks on New Single 'Saint Valentine's Day'](http://www.udiscovermusic.com/new-releases/little-steven-van-zandt-rocks-on-new-single-saint-valentines-day) ". *uDiscoverMusic*. uDiscoverMusic, 10 February 2017. Web. 18 March 2017. The song was repeatedly played on the *Underground Garage* radio show."[Show 776 – The St. Valentine's Day Massacre](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-779-770/show-776-the-st-valentine-s-day-massacre.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 14 February 2017. Web. 2 April 2017."[Show 777 – Surf's Up](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-779-770/show-777-surf-s-up.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 21 February 2017. Web. 2 April 2017."[Show 778 – Walking Through My Dreams](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-779-770/show-778.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 28 February 2017. Web. 2 April 2017."[Show 779 – Pop Quiz](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-779-770/show-779-pop-quiz.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 7 March 2017. Web. 2 April 2017."[Show 781 – The Week That Was](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-789-780/show-781-the-week-that-was.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 20 March 2017."[Show 782 – Pirate Radio](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-789-780/show-782-pirate-radio.html) ". *[Garage](Underground)(Underground Garage)*. Underground Garage, 27 March 2017.
He debuted his new album at the annual Rock and Roll for Children event at the Fillmore Theater in [Spring, Maryland](Silver)(Silver Spring, Maryland), on March 18, 2017."[Concert](http://www.rockandrollforchildren.org/projects/) ". *Rock and Roll for Children*. Rock and Roll for Children Foundation, 2017. Web. 2 April 2017. Van Zandt debuted a [doo-wop](doo-wop) song called "The City Weeps Tonight," that was an outtake from *Men Without Women*. At the end of the show, he covered "[Bye Johnny](Bye)(Johnny B. Goode)" as a tribute to the late [Berry](Chuck)(Chuck Berry). According to *[Backstreets](Backstreets (magazine))*, Van Zandt's new album was going to be called *Soulfire*, titled after the song he co-wrote for the Breakers.Poole, Shawn. "[Disciples of Soulfire](http://www.backstreets.com/news.html) ". *[Backstreets](Backstreets (magazine))*. Backstreets, 21 March 2017. Web. 2 April 2017. The album was officially released on May 19, 2017.
Van Zandt released his first official live album, *[Live!](Soulfire)(Soulfire Live!)*, recorded with the Disciples of Soul during their 2017 tour of the same name, on April 27, 2018 via [iTunes](iTunes). A 7 LP vinyl box set, CD, and two-disc Blu-ray video were released on February 15, 2019 via Wicked Cool Records/UMe. Consisting of the best performances from their North American and European concerts, the collection feature Little Steven and his 15-strong band taking you on a musical history lesson as they blast through an arsenal of songs spanning rock, pop, soul, blues, funk, doo-wop, reggae and everything in between. Of note, is a performance of "[Saw Her Standing There](I)(I Saw Her Standing There)" recorded at The Roundhouse in London with a special appearance by [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney).
Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul recorded a cover of Elvis Presley's "[Claus Is Back in Town](Santa)(Santa Claus Is Back in Town)", featuring actor [Russell](Kurt)(Kurt Russell) on lead vocals, for the 2018 film *[Christmas Chronicles](The)(The Christmas Chronicles)*.
On March 8, 2019 Van Zandt announced the May 3, 2019 CD, digital and vinyl release of *[of Sorcery](Summer)(Summer of Sorcery)* via Wicked Cool/UME. It was written, arranged, and produced by him at his Renegade Studios in New York City and marks his first new album of original material in 20 years. A tour for the album began in May 2019, but was cancelled in September 2019 due to illness.
Van Zandt finally reissued his albums in the 7 LP and 4-CD box set, *[N Roll Rebel: The Early Work](Rock)(Rock N Roll Rebel: The Early Work)*, released on December 6, 2019. Limited to 1,000 copies, it includes the first United States pressing of 1989's *Revolution*, as well as the first vinyl release of *Born Again Savage*, originally released in 1999. The box set also includes rare outtakes and live performances. The Lost Boys album, however, remains unreleased. Van Zandt stated that the album contains his favorite songs that he recorded and wants to wait until the album can be "properly promoted."
### Actor
Until 1999, Van Zandt had no professional acting experience. His main focus had been music, whether it was the multiple bands he participated in, groups he composed pieces for, or music he wrote on his own. Then, he was asked to play a part in *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos),* and from there on, acting became part of Van Zandt's career.
#### *The Sopranos*
In 1999, Van Zandt took one of the lead roles in *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)*, playing level-headed but deadly mob *[consigliere](consigliere)* and strip club owner [Dante](Silvio)(Silvio Dante). The casting choice was made by series creator [Chase](David)(David Chase), who invited Van Zandt to audition after seeing him induct [Rascals](The)(The Rascals) at the 1997 [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) and being impressed with his humorous appearance and presence. Though Van Zandt had never acted before, he auditioned for the role of [Soprano](Tony)(Tony Soprano). HBO felt that the role should go to an experienced actor, however, so Chase wrote a part especially for Van Zandt. Van Zandt eventually agreed to star on the show as Silvio Dante, and his real-life spouse Maureen (née Santoro) was cast as his on-screen wife [Gabriella](Gabriella Dante).
#### *Tussles in Brussels*
Van Zandt recorded the narration for [Hives](The)(The Hives) biography on their concert DVD *[in Brussels](Tussles)(Tussles in Brussels)* (2004).
#### *Hotel Cæsar*
In 2010, Van Zandt appeared as himself in the Norwegian soap opera *[Cæsar](Hotel)(Hotel Cæsar)*, broadcast on Norway's biggest commercial channel [Norway](TV2)(TV2 Norway). He also appeared on Scandinavia's largest talkshow *[Skavlan](Skavlan)*.
#### *Lilyhammer*
In 2011, he starred in, co-wrote, and was the executive producer for an English and Norwegian language series entitled *[Lilyhammer](Lilyhammer)*, the first original [Netflix](Netflix) series that was produced in collaboration with Norwegian broadcaster [NRK](NRK). The name recalls the city of [Lillehammer](Lillehammer), which hosted the 1994 Winter Olympics.Silverman, Jacob. "[The circuitous return of Steven Van Zandt, wise guy (via Netflix, and Norwegian comedy)](http://www.politico.com/states/new-york/city-hall/story/2012/02/the-circuitous-return-of-steven-van-zandt-wise-guy-via-netflix-and-norwegian-comedy-067223) ". *[New York](Politico)(Politico)*. Politico, LLC., 13 February 2012. Web. 1 April 2017."[The Lillehammer region](https://www.visitnorway.com/places-to-go/eastern-norway/the-lillehammer-region/) ". *Visit Norway*. Innovation Norway, 2017. Web. 1 April 2017. On the show, Van Zandt portrays a *Sopranos*-like role of an ex-mafioso who enters the [protection program](witness)(Witness protection) and flees to Norway to escape a colleague against whom he testified. The show premiered on NRK television on January 25, 2012 with an audience of 998,000 viewers (one fifth of Norway's population),[Norway International Network 26 January 2012: 'Lilyhammer' sets new NRK record](http://www.newsinenglish.no/2012/01/26/lilyhammer-sets-new-nrk-record/) Retrieved 2012-07-15[Hollywood Reporter 27 January 2012: "Steven Van Zandt's'Lilyhammer' Breaks Ratings Records in Norway"](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/steven-van-zandt-s-lilyhammer-285271) Retrieved 2012-07-15 and ran for three seasons before being cancelled in 2015.
#### *The Irishman*
Van Zandt appears in the [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)-produced gangster epic *[Irishman](The)(The Irishman)* as singer [Vale](Jerry)(Jerry Vale), lip-syncing Vale's *Al Di La.*
### Radio host and entrepreneur
;Radio host
Since 2002, Van Zandt has hosted ''[Steven's Underground Garage](Little)(Underground Garage)*, a weekly syndicated radio show that celebrates [rock](garage)(garage rock) and similar rock subgenres from the 1950s to the present day. As of December 2006, the show is heard on over 200 US radio stations and in some international markets. For example, in Spain it has beamed through [& Gol](Rock)(Rock & Gol) since 2007 and later on Rock FM Radio in Finland; Radio Helsinki started beaming *Little Steven's Underground Garage'' in August 2008."["Little Steven's Underground Garage Radio Affiliates"](http://undergroundgarage.com/radio-show-2/little-steven-s-underground-garage-radio-affiliates.html) ", [Steven's Underground Garage](Little)(Underground Garage), 24 July 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
On October 20, 2011, the program recorded its 500th show in front of a sold-out crowd at the [Rock Cafe](Hard)(Hard Rock Cafe) in New York's [Square](Times)(Times Square). The guests included the band [Day](Green)(Green Day); [Buscemi](Steve)(Steve Buscemi), star of *The Sopranos* and *[Empire](Boardwalk)(Boardwalk Empire)*; [Pastore](Vincent)(Vincent Pastore), aka "[Pussy Bonpensiero](Big)(Big Pussy Bonpensiero)" from *The Sopranos*; actor and director [Robbins](Tim)(Tim Robbins); and singer [Harry](Debbie)(Debbie Harry) of the group [Blondie](Blondie (band))."["Show 500 – 500!!!"](http://undergroundgarage.com/shows-509-500/500.html) ", [Steven's Underground Garage](Little)(Underground Garage), 31 October 2011. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
;Program director
Van Zandt is also the program director for two radio channels for the [Satellite Radio](Sirius)(Sirius Satellite Radio) network. The channels continuously broadcast on satellite radio in the US, and worldwide on Sirius Internet Radio. One channel, named *Underground Garage*, has the same philosophy and musical mandate as his own radio show. On-air hosts on the channel include original Rolling Stones manager/producer [Loog Oldham](Andrew)(Andrew Loog Oldham), singer/guitarist [Jett](Joan)(Joan Jett), former record executive [Leo](Kid)(Kid Leo), punk rock singer [Dick Manitoba](Handsome)(Handsome Dick Manitoba) and rock entrepreneur [Fowley](Kim)(Kim Fowley). The second channel, named the *Outlaw Country*, presents the [side of country music](edgier)(Outlaw country), both roots and contemporary. On-air hosts for this channel include pop-culture satirist [Nixon](Mojo)(Mojo Nixon)."[""Little Steven" Van Zandt's Underground Garage and Oulaw Country Channels Declare "Robbie Robertson Week" on Sirius XM"](http://investor.siriusxm.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=625695) ", [XM](Sirius)(Sirius XM Holdings), 21 November 2011. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
#### Record label
In December 2004, Van Zandt launched his own record label, [Cool Records](Wicked)(Wicked Cool Records).
The first album released by Wicked Cool was *Fuzz for the Holidays* by Davie Allan and the Arrows, released on December 14, 2004. The first set of records released by Wicked Cool also included new albums from Underground Garage favorites [Charms](the)(the Charms), the Chesterfield Kings and the [Slippers](Cocktail)((The) Cocktail Slippers (band)); and *[Forever](CBGB)(CBGB Forever)*, a tribute to the famous, [venue](now-defunct)(CBGB). The label continues to release new albums from the next generation of garage rockers including the Cocktail Slippers as well as volumes of ''Little Steven's Underground Garage presents The Coolest Songs in the World,* a compilation of selected songs from the *Underground Garage'' radio show's popular feature, the "Coolest Song in the World This Week". In 2007, the label signed [Launderettes](The)(The Launderettes). The label's first Halloween and Christmas themed compilations were released in 2008. Lost Cathedral is a subsidiary label of Wicked Cool Records and home to the band Crown of Thorns.
### Rock and Roll Forever Foundation
[[Van Zandt - Alan Freed memorial dedication - Lake View Cemetery - 2016-05-07.jpg|thumb|Steven Van Zandt at the dedication of the Alan Freed memorial in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland Heights, Ohio, on May 7, 2016.](File:Steven)]
In 2007, Van Zandt launched the non-profit Rock and Roll Forever Foundation and its [TeachRock](TeachRock) project, which creates K-12 national curriculum. TeachRock includes interdisciplinary, arts-driven materials designed to keep students engaged and in school. The initiative features lesson plans covering topics in social studies, general music, language arts, media studies, and more while aligning with national and state education standards. The material is available at no cost to educators.
### Musical director
In September 2006, Van Zandt assembled and directed an all-star band to back [Williams Jr.](Hank)(Hank Williams Jr.) on a new version of "[My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight](All)(All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight)" for the season premiere (and formal [ESPN](ESPN) debut) of *[Night Football](Monday)(Monday Night Football)*. The all-star lineup included [Richard](Little)(Little Richard), [Nielsen](Rick)(Rick Nielsen) ([Trick](Cheap)(Cheap Trick)), [Perry](Joe)(Joe Perry (musician)) ([Aerosmith](Aerosmith)), [Questlove](Questlove) ([Roots](The)(The Roots)), [Daniels](Charlie)(Charlie Daniels), [Collins](Bootsy)(Bootsy Collins), [Burney](Chris)(Chris Burney) ([for Soup](Bowling)(Bowling for Soup)), and [Worrell](Bernie)(Bernie Worrell).
Since 2007, Van Zandt has been the director of a music selection committee for the video game *[Band](Rock)(Rock Band (video game))*; he is in charge of selecting new music for the game.Jkdmedia. "["Steven Van Zandt to Chair Upcoming Videogame Rock Band's Music Advisory Board"](http://www.gamezone.com/news/steven_van_zandt_to_chair_upcoming_videogame_rock_band_s_music_advisory_board) ", GameZone, 11 July 2007. Retrieved 2014-12-31.Rosmarin, Rachel. "["Battle of the Bands"](https://www.forbes.com/2007/10/22/rockband-videogame-mtv-technology-personaltech_cx_1022rockband.html) ", [Forbes](Forbes), 22 October 2007. Retrieved 2014-12-31.
### Activist career
After leaving the E Street Band in 1984, Van Zandt used his celebrity as a musician to fight issues surrounding [apartheid](apartheid) in South Africa by creating a group called the [United Against Apartheid](Artists)(Artists United Against Apartheid).
This activist group was created in 1985 by Van Zandt and record producer [Baker](Arthur)(Arthur Baker (musician)). Van Zandt and Baker assembled over 54 different artists to record an album entitled *[City](Sun)(Sun City (album))* in order to raise awareness about the apartheid policy in South Africa. The title referred to a resort in South Africa that catered to wealthy white tourists. The resort upheld racist apartheid policies, yet many famous entertainers chose to perform there. Artists that took part in the making of the album included [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen), [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel), [Davis](Miles)(Miles Davis), [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan) and [Reed](Lou)(Lou Reed).
The *Sun City* project was originally meant to only be one song, but other musicians contributed their own pieces which transformed it into a full-length album. *Sun City* was one of the first musical collaborations among major recording stars to support a political cause rather than a social cause. The album raised over $1 million in support of anti-apartheid efforts. The primary goal of the album and foundation was to draw attention to South Africa's racist policy of apartheid and to support a cultural boycott of the country."Artists United Against Apartheid, *Sun City* – 100 Best Albums of the Eighties." Rolling Stone. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 October 2014.
Van Zandt was a part of the 1989 charity single, "Spirit of the Forest", dedicated to saving rain forests.
Later in his career, Van Zandt worked to raise awareness about the U.S. military interference in governments of Central America and other issues."Steven Van Zandt." Bio. A&E Television Networks, 2014. Web. 14 October 2014.
### Author
Van Zandt's memoir *[Infatuations](Unrequited)(Unrequited Infatuations)* was published September 28, 2021 by [Books](Hachette)(Hachette Book Group).
### Tours with Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band
* [to Run tours](Born)(Born to Run tours), 1975–1977
* [Tour](Darkness)(Darkness Tour), 1978–1979
* [River Tour](The)(The River Tour), 1980–1981
* [Tour](Reunion)(Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band Reunion Tour), 1999–2000
* [Rising Tour](The)(The Rising Tour), 2002–2003
* [for Change Tour](Vote)(Vote for Change Tour), 2004
* [Tour](Magic)(Magic Tour (Bruce Springsteen)), 2007–2008
* [on a Dream Tour](Working)(Working on a Dream Tour), 2009
* [Ball Tour](Wrecking)(Wrecking Ball Tour), 2012–2013
* [Hopes Tour](High)(High Hopes Tour), 2014
* [Tour 2016/Oceania '17](River)(The River Tour 2016), 2016–2017
* [and E Street Band 2023 Tour](Springsteen)(Springsteen and E Street Band 2023 Tour), 2023
## Personal life
Van Zandt married actress Maureen Santoro in [York City](New)(New York City) on December 31, 1982. Later she portrayed his wife on *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)*. Springsteen was the best man at their wedding, [Richard](Little)(Little Richard) presided over it, and it featured [Sledge](Percy)(Percy Sledge) singing "[a Man Loves a Woman](When)(When a Man Loves a Woman (song))".
## Philanthropy
Van Zandt is an honorary board member of [Kids Rock](Little)(Little Kids Rock). He was awarded the fourth annual "Big Man of the Year" award at the organization's 2013 Right to Rock Benefit Event.
He and his wife Maureen also serve on the Count Basie Theatre's Board of Directors, and were named as that organization's honorary capital campaign chairs in 2015.
Van Zandt hosts the annual "Policeman's Ball", donating the funds raised to the Detectives Endowment Association Widows and Children's Fund and NYPD With Arms Wide Open, a foundation that supports NYPD officers with children who have special needs.
## Discography
* *[Without Women](Men)(Men Without Women (album))* (1982)
* *[of America](Voice)(Voice of America (Little Steven album))* (1984)
* *[– No Compromise](Freedom)(Freedom – No Compromise)* (1987)
* *[Revolution](Revolution (Little Steven album))* (1989)
* *Nobody Loves and Leaves Alive* (1989 - unreleased)
* *[Again Savage](Born)(Born Again Savage)* (1999)
* *[Soulfire](Soulfire (Little Steven album))* (2017)
* *[of Sorcery](Summer)(Summer of Sorcery)* (2019)
## Filmography
* *[Flyers](American)(American Flyers)* as Cyclist (1985)
* *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)* as [Dante](Silvio)(Silvio Dante) (1999–2007)
* *[Lilyhammer](Lilyhammer)* as Frank Tagliano (2012–2014)
* *[Dad!](American)(American Dad!)* as Diner Owner (2016)
* *[Christmas Chronicles](The)(The Christmas Chronicles)* as Wolfie (2018)
* *[Irishman](The)(The Irishman)* as [Vale](Jerry)(Jerry Vale) (2019)
## References
## External links
*
*
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|
Khazars
|
khazars
|
# Khazars
*Revision ID: 1160332108 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T20:28:47Z*
---
650
| year_end = 969
| p1 = Western Turkic Khaganate
| p2 = Old Great Bulgaria
| s1 = Cumania
| s2 = Pechenegs
| s3 = Kievan Rus'
| flag_s2 =
| event_pre =
| date_pre =
| event_start =
| date_start =
| event_end = [Sviatoslav's](Sviatoslav I of Kiev) [and razing of Atil](sacking)(Caspian expeditions of the Rus'#Destruction of Khazaria)
| date_end =
| image_flag =
| image_coat =
| symbol_type_article =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = Chasaren.jpg
| image_map_caption = Khazar Khaganate, 650–850
| capital = 650–720)}}
* [Samandar](Samandar (city))
* [Atil](Atil)
}}
| national_motto =
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = (*lingua franca*)
* [Turkic](Old)(Old Turkic) (dynastic, spoken)
* [Alanian](Scythian_languages#Classification) (spoken)
}}
| religion =
* [Tengrism](Tengrism)
* [Buddhism](Buddhism)
* [Christianity](Christianity)
* [Islam](Islam)
* [Paganism](Paganism)
* [syncretism](Religious)(Syncretism)
}}
| currency = [Yarmaq](Yarmaq)
| leader1 = [Irbis](Irbis (Khazar))
| year_leader1 = 650
| leader2 = [Bulan](Bulan (Khazar))
| year_leader2 = 8th century
| leader3 = [Obadiah](Obadiah (Khazar))
| year_leader3 = 9th century
| leader4 = [Zachariah](Zachariah (Khazar))
| year_leader4 = 9th century
| leader5 = [Manasseh](Manasseh I)
| year_leader5 = 9th century
| leader6 = [Benjamin](Benjamin (Khazar))
| year_leader6 = 9th century
| leader7 = [Aaron](Aaron II (Khazar))
| year_leader7 = 10th century
| leader8 = [Joseph](Joseph (Khazar))
| year_leader8 = 10th century
| leader9 = [David](David of Taman)
| year_leader9 = 10th century
| leader10 = [Georgios](Georgius Tzul)
| year_leader10 = 11th century
| title_leader = [Qaghan](List of Khazar rulers)
| stat_year1 = 850 est.
| stat_area1 = 3000000
| ref_area1 =
| stat_year2 = 900 est.
| stat_area2 = 1000000
| ref_area2 =
}}
The **Khazars** ; ; ,}} or ;}} ; 突厥可薩 *Tūjué Kěsà*, }} () were a semi-[nomad](nomad)ic [people](Turkic)(Turkic people) that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern [Russia](European)(European Russia), [Ukraine](southern)(southern Ukraine), [Crimea](Crimea), and [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan). They created what for its duration was the most powerful [polity](polity) to emerge from the break-up of the [Turkic Khaganate](Western)(Western Turkic Khaganate). Astride a major artery of commerce between [Europe](Eastern)(Eastern Europe) and [Asia](Southwestern)(Western Asia), Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the [medieval](early)(Early Middle Ages) world, commanding the western [marches](March (territory)) of the [Road](Silk)(Silk Road) and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between [China](China), the [East](Middle)(Middle East) and [Rus'](Kievan)(Kievan Rus'). For some three centuries (c. 650–965) the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern [Crimea](Crimea) and the northern [Caucasus](Caucasus).
Khazaria long served as a [state](buffer)(buffer state) between the [Empire](Byzantine)(Byzantine Empire) and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the [Caliphate](Umayyad)(Umayyad Caliphate) and [Caliphate](Abbasid)(Abbasid Caliphate), after serving as the Byzantine Empire's proxy against the [Empire](Sasanian)(Sasanian Empire). The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the [Alans](Alans) to attack Khazaria and to weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus and sought to obtain an [entente](:wikt:entente) with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity. Between 965 and 969, the [Rus'](Kievan)(Kievan Rus') ruler, [I of Kiev](Sviatoslav)(Sviatoslav I of Kiev), as well as his allies, conquered the capital, [Atil](Atil), and ended Khazaria's independence. The state became the autonomous entity of Rus' and then of Khazar former provinces
([Khwarazm](Khwarazm) in which Khazars were known as Turks, just as Hungarians were known as Turks in Byzantium) in [Bulgaria](Volga)(Volga Bulgaria).
Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of [languages](their)(Turkic languages), but it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survive, and the state was [polyglot](polyglot) and [polyethnic](polyethnicity). The native religion of the Khazars is thought to have been [Tengrism](Tengrism), like that of the [Caucasian Huns](North)(North Caucasian Huns) and other Turkic peoples. The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of pagan, Tengrist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim worshippers. Some of the Khazars (i.e., [Kabars](Kabars)) joined the ancient Hungarians in the 9th century. The ruling elite of the Khazars was said by [Halevi](Judah)(Judah Halevi) and [ibn Daud](Abraham)(Abraham ibn Daud) to have converted to [Judaism](Rabbinic)(Rabbinic Judaism) in the 8th century, but the scope of the [to Judaism](conversion)(conversion to Judaism) within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain.
Where the Khazars dispersed after the fall of the Empire is subject to many conjectures. Proposals have been made regarding the possibility of a Khazar factor in the ethnogenesis of numerous peoples, such as the [Hazaras](Hazaras), [Hungarians](Hungarians), the [Kazakhs](Kazakhs), the [of the Don](Cossacks)(Don Cossacks) region and of [Ukraine](Ukraine), [Jews](Bukharan)(Bukharan Jews), the Muslim [Kumyks](Kumyks), the Turkic-speaking [Krymchaks](Krymchaks) and their Crimean neighbours the [Karaites](Crimean)(Crimean Karaites), the [Csángós](Moldavian)(Csangos), the [Jews](Mountain)(Mountain Jews), even some [Subbotniks](Subbotniks) (on the basis of their Ukrainian and Cossack origin and others). The late 19th century saw the [of the theory](emergence)(Khazar theory of Ashkenazi ancestry#History) that the core of today's [Jews](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jews) are descended from a hypothetical Khazarian Jewish diaspora which migrated westward from modern-day Russia and Ukraine into modern-day France and Germany. Linguistic and genetic studies have not supported the theory of a Khazar connection to [Jewry](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jewry). The theory still finds occasional support, but most scholars view it with considerable scepticism. The theory is sometimes associated with [antisemitism](antisemitism) and [anti-Zionism](anti-Zionism).
In [Oghuz](Oghuz languages) [languages](Turkic)(Turkic languages), the [Sea](Caspian)(Caspian Sea) is still named the "[Sea](Khazar)(Caspian Sea#Etymology)", an enduring legacy of the medieval Khazar state.
## Etymology
[Németh](Gyula)(Gyula Németh (linguist)), following [Gombocz](Zoltán)(Zoltán Gombocz), derived *Khazar* from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic [root](root (linguistics)) *qaz-* ("to ramble, to roam") being an hypothetical [variant](retracted)(Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted) of [Turkic](Common)(Turkic languages) *kez-*; however, [Róna-Tas](András)(András Róna-Tas) objected that **qaz-* is a [word](ghost)(ghost word). In the fragmentary [and Terkhin inscriptions](Tes)(Tariat inscriptions) of the [empire (744–840)](Uyğur)(Uyghur Khaganate) the form *Qasar* is attested, although uncertainty remains whether this represents a personal or tribal name, gradually other hypotheses emerged. [Bazin](Louis)(Louis Bazin) derived it from Turkic *qas-* ("tyrannize, oppress, terrorize") on the basis of its phonetic similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar. citing L. Bazin, , in *Materialia Turcica,* 7/8 (1981–1982): 51–71.}} Róna-Tas connects *qasar* with *Kesar*, the [Pahlavi](Middle Persian) transcription of the [title Caesar](Roman)(Caesar (title)). or *Phrom Ge-sar*, who was possibly inspired by [Kesaro](Fromo)(Fromo Kesaro) (拂菻罽娑 [Chinese](standard)(standard Chinese): *Fúlǐn Jìsuō* X kˠiᴇiH-sɑ*), a king of the [Shahis](Turk)(Turk Shahis) of mixed [Hephthalite](Hephthalite)-[Turkic](Western)(Western Turkic Khaganate) origins (, , , ).}}
[M. Dunlop](D.)(Douglas Morton Dunlop) tried to link the Chinese term for "Khazars" to one of the tribal names of the Uyğur, or [Oğuz](Toquz)(Toquz Oghuz), namely the *Qasar* ([Ch.](Chinese language) 葛薩 *Gésà*). The objections are that Uyğur 葛薩 *Gésà*/*Qasar* was not a tribal name but rather the surname of the chief of the 思结 *Sijie* tribe ([Sogdian](Sogdian language): *Sikari*) of the Toquz Oğuz (Ch. 九姓 *jĭu xìng*),) was mentioned as a 鐵勒 [Tiele](Tiele people), later Toquz Oghuz tribe, and distinguished from 突厥 *Tujue* in Chinese sources such as [Book of Tang](Old)(Old Book of Tang),*[Tangshu](Jiu)(Jiu Tangshu)*, [Vol. 199b Tiele](https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7199%E4%B8%8B#%E9%90%B5%E5%8B%92) (in Chinese) [Book of Tang](New)(New Book of Tang) or [Huiyao](Tang)(Tang Huiyao). However, in other sources *Sijie* were also associated with *Tujue* ([Saka](Saka language) *Ttrūka*): [Tongjian](Zizhi)(Zizhi Tongjian) mentioned the *Tujue Sijie* 突厥思結[Guang](Sima)(Sima Guang) et al. Zizhi Tongjian, [vol. 196](https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?ifgb&chapter579709)
and Tang Huiyao also counted 思結 *Sijie* (rendered as 恩結 *Enjie*) among the [Turkic tribes](Eastern)(Eastern Turkic Khaganate) living south of the [desert](Gobi)(Gobi desert). A *saikairä ttūrkä chārä* (, *Israël chez les nations* (1893) [Ernest Gumplowicz](Maksymilian)(Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz),}} and by the Russian-Jewish anthropologist [Weissenberg](Samuel)(Samuel Weissenberg). Weissenberg's book *Die Südrussischen Juden*, was published in 1895.}} In 1909, [von Kutschera](Hugo)(Hugo von Kutschera) developed the notion into a book-length study, arguing that the Khazars formed the foundational core of the modern Ashkenazim. [Fishberg](Maurice)(Maurice Fishberg) introduced the notion to American audiences in 1911. The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian and [Zionist](General)(General Zionists) [Schipper](Yitzhak)(Yitzhak Schipper) in 1918..}} [Bartal](Israel)(Israel Bartal) has suggested that from the [Haskalah](Haskalah) onwards, polemical pamphlets against the Khazars were inspired by [Sephardi](Sephardi Jews) organizations which opposed the Khazaro-Ashkenazim.
Scholarly anthropologists, such as [B. Dixon](Roland)(Roland Burrage Dixon) (1923), and writers such as [G. Wells](H.)(H. G. Wells) (1920) used it to argue that "The main part of Jewry never was in [Judea](Judea)",}} a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion..}}
In 1932, [Krauss](Samuel)(Samuel Krauss) ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz referred to northern [Minor](Asia)(Asia Minor), and he identified it as the ancestral homeland of the Khazars, a position which was immediately disputed by Jacob Mann. Ten years later, in 1942, [N. Polak](Abraham)(Abraham Polak) (sometimes referred to as *Poliak*), later professor for the history of the Middle Ages at [Aviv University](Tel)(Tel Aviv University), published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria..}} [Dunlop](D.M.)(D.M. Dunlop), writing in 1954, thought that very little evidence supported what he considered a mere assumption, and he also argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent theory went far beyond what "our imperfect records" permit. In 1955, [Poliakov](Léon)(Léon Poliakov), who assumed that the Jews of Western Europe resulted from a "panmixia" in the first millennium, asserted that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews were descended from a mixture of Khazarian and German Jews.}} Poliak's work found some support in [Wittmayer Baron](Salo)(Salo Wittmayer Baron) and [Dinur](Ben-Zion)(Ben-Zion Dinur), cites [Wittmayer Baron](Salo)(Salo Wittmayer Baron), "before and after the Mongol upheaval the Khazars sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish center of Eastern Europe"; as well as [Dinur](Ben-Zion)(Ben-Zion Dinur): "The Russian conquests did not destroy the Khazar kingdom entirely, but they broke it up and diminished it. And this kingdom, which had absorbed Jewish immigration and refugees from many exiles, must itself have become a diaspora mother, the mother of one of the greatest of the diasporas (*Em-galuyot, em akhat hagaluyot hagdolot*)-of Israel in Russia, Lithuania and Poland."}}}} but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962)..}} [Lewis](Bernard)(Bernard Lewis) was of the opinion that the word in [Geniza](Cairo)(Cairo Geniza) interpreted as Khazaria is actually [Hakkari](Hakkari (historical region)) and therefore it relates to the [Kurds](Kurds) of the Hakkari mountains in southeast [Turkey](Turkey).
The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of [Koestler](Arthur)(Arthur Koestler)'s [Thirteenth Tribe](The)(The Thirteenth Tribe) in 1976, which was both positively reviewed and dismissed as a fantasy, and a somewhat dangerous one. Israeli historian Zvi Ankori argued that Koestler had allowed his literary imagination to espouse Poliak's thesis, which most historians dismissed as speculative. Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the [Palestinians](Palestinians)", while [Lewis](Bernard)(Bernard Lewis) claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and it had been abandoned by all serious scholars. Assertions of this kind have been challenged by Paul Wexler who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."}} [Patai](Raphael)(Raphael Patai), however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities,}} and several amateur researchers, such as [Altschüler](Boris)(Boris Altschüler) (1994), kept the thesis in the public eye. The theory has been occasionally manipulated to deny Jewish nationhood. Recently, a variety of approaches, from linguistics ([Wexler](Paul)(Paul Wexler (linguist))) to historiography ([Sand](Shlomo)(Shlomo Sand)) and [genetics](population)(population genetics) ([Elhaik](Eran)(Eran Elhaik), a geneticist from the [of Sheffield](University)(University of Sheffield)) have emerged to keep the theory alive. In a broad academic perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted *en masse* to Judaism and the suggestion they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical issues. One thesis held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a significant impact on the rise of [Jews](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jews). Connected to this thesis is the theory, expounded by Paul Wexler, dissenting from the majority of Yiddish linguists, that the grammar of [Yiddish](Yiddish) contains a Khazar substrate.
#### Use in antisemitic polemic
According to [Barkun](Michael)(Michael Barkun), while the Khazar hypothesis generally never played any major role in the development of [anti-Semitism](Antisemitism), it has exercised a noticeable influence on American antisemites since the [on immigration were imposed in the 1920s](restrictions)(Immigration Act of 1924).}}.}} Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in [racist](Racism) and religious polemical literature, particularly in literature which advocated [Israelism](British)(British Israelism), both in Britain and the United States.}} Particularly after the publication of [J. Hendrick](Burton)(Burton J. Hendrick)'s *The Jews in America*, (1923) it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restriction in the 1920s; racial theorists such as [Stoddard](Lothrop)(Lothrop Stoddard); antisemitic conspiracy-theorists such as the [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan)'s [Wesley Evans](Hiram)(Hiram Wesley Evans); and some anti-communist polemicists such as [O. Beaty](John)(John O. Beaty); ).}} and [Robertson](Wilmot)(Wilmot Robertson), whose views influenced [Duke](David)(David Duke).. Cf. Wilmot Robertson *Dispossessed Majority*(1972)
According to [Harkabi](Yehoshafat)(Yehoshafat Harkabi) (1968) and others, has a more detailed bibliography.}} it played a role in Arab [anti-Zionist](Anti-Zionism) polemics, and took on an antisemitic edge. [Lewis](Bernard)(Bernard Lewis), noting in 1987 that Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only occasionally emerged in Arab political discourse. This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text "Arab Antisemitism" in Shmuel Ettinger, *Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism,* (Hebrew) 1968 (p.50).}} It has also played some role in Soviet antisemitic [chauvinism](chauvinism)}} and Slavic Eurasian historiography; particularly, in the works of scholars like [Gumilev](Lev)(Lev Gumilev), it came to be exploited by the [supremacist](white)(white supremacy) [Identity movement](Christian)(Christian Identity) and even by terrorist esoteric cults like [Shinrikyō](Aum)(Aum Shinrikyo). The Kazar hypothesis was further exploited by esoteric fascists such as [Serrano](Miguel)(Miguel Serrano), referring to a lost *[Palestinabuch](Palestinabuch)* by the German Nazi-scholar [Wirth](Herman)(Herman Wirth), who claimed to have proven that the Jews descended from a prehistoric migrant group parasiting on the Great Civilizations.
#### Genetic studies
The hypothesis of Khazarian ancestry in Ashkenazi has also been a subject of vehement disagreements in the field of [genetics](population)(population genetics),}} wherein claims have been made concerning evidence both for and against it. Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 for a significant Khazar component in the admixture of Ashkenazi Jews using Caucasian populations—Georgians, Armenians and [Jews](Azerbaijani)(Azerbaijani Jews)—as proxies..}} The evidence from historians he used has been criticised by [Stampfer](Shaul)(Shaul Stampfer) and the technical response to such a position from geneticists is mostly dismissive, arguing that, if traces of descent from Khazars exist in the Ashkenazi gene pool, the contribution would be quite minor,}} or insignificant. One geneticist, [Falk](Raphael)(Raphael Falk (geneticist)), has argued that "national and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy."}}
According to [Abu El-Haj](Nadia)(Nadia Abu El-Haj), the issues of origins are generally complicated by the difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion within Jewish history. At the time of her writing, the lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also presented difficulties. "They (researchers) will never be able to prove descent from Khazars: there are no 'verification' samples."}}
## In literature
The *[Kuzari](Kuzari)* is an influential work written by the medieval [Spanish](Spain) [Jew](Jew)ish philosopher and poet Rabbi [Halevi](Yehuda)(Yehuda Halevi) (c. 1075–1141). Divided into five essays (''ma'amarim''), it takes the form of a fictional dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a [Jew](Jew) who was invited to instruct him in the tenets of the [religion](Jewish)(Judaism). The intent of the work, although based on Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's correspondence with the Khazar king, was not historical, but rather to defend Judaism as a revealed religion, written in the context, firstly of Karaite challenges to the Spanish rabbinical intelligentsia, and then against temptations to adapt [Aristotelianism](Aristotelianism) and Islamic philosophy to the Jewish faith. Originally written in [Arabic](Arabic language), it was translated into Hebrew by [ibn Tibbon](Judah)(Judah ibn Tibbon).
[Disraeli](Benjamin)(Benjamin Disraeli)'s early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story. The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories about identity and conversion are central themes of [Pavić](Milorad)(Milorad Pavić (writer))'s best-selling mystery story *[of the Khazars](Dictionary)(Dictionary of the Khazars)*.
[Turteltaub](H.N.)(H.N. Turteltaub)'s *Justinian*, [Halter](Marek)(Marek Halter)'s *Book of Abraham* and *Wind of the Khazars*, and [Chabon](Michael)(Michael Chabon)'s *[of the Road](Gentlemen)(Gentlemen of the Road)* allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or create fictional Khazar characters.
## Cities associated with the Khazars
Cities associated with the Khazars include [Atil](Atil), [Khazaran](Khazaran), [Samandar](Samandar (city)); in the [Caucasus](Caucasus (geographic region)), [Balanjar](Balanjar), [Kazarki](Kazarki), [Sambalut](Sambalut), and [Samiran](Samiran); in [Crimea](Crimea) and the [Taman](Taman Peninsula) region, [Kerch](Kerch), [Theodosia](Feodosiya), [Yevpatoria](Yevpatoria) ([Güzliev](Yevpatoria)), [Samkarsh](Samkarsh) (also called [Tmutarakan](Tmutarakan), Tamatarkha), and [Sudak](Sudak); and in the [Don](Don River, Russia) valley, [Sarkel](Sarkel). A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the [Mayaki-Saltovo](Mayaki-Saltovo) region. Some scholars suppose that the Khazar settlement of Sambat on the [Dnieper](Dnieper) refers to the later [Kyiv](Kyiv).}}
## See also
* [of Khazar rulers](List)(List of Khazar rulers)
* [IV the Khazar](Leo)(Leo IV the Khazar) ([Byzantine](Byzantine Empire) [emperor](Byzantine emperor), r. 775–780, born in 750 to Emperor [V](Constantine)(Constantine V) and Empress [Tzitzak](Tzitzak), a Khazar Turkic princess, daughter of [Bihar](Bihar (Khazar)) [Khagan](Khagan))
* [of Turkic Khaganates](List)(Khanate#Turkic khanates)
* [of Jewish states and dynasties](List)(List of Jewish states and dynasties)
* [of the Jews in Central Asia](History)(History of the Jews in Central Asia)
* [Jews](Turkish)(Turkish Jews)
* [Jews](Red)(Red Jews)
* [of Kyiv](History)(History of Kyiv)
* [Khaganate](Rus')(Rus' Khaganate)
* [War (860)](Rus'–Byzantine)(Rus'–Byzantine War (860))
* [War (907)](Rus'–Byzantine)(Rus'–Byzantine War (907))
* [War (941)](Rus'–Byzantine)(Rus'–Byzantine War (941))
* [War (968-971)](Rus'–Byzantine)(Rus'–Byzantine War (968-971))
## Notes
### Footnotes
### Resource notes
## Citations
## Bibliography
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## External links
* [The Kievan Letter scan](http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/GOLD/thumbs?class_mark=T-S_12.122) in the [University Library](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Library) collection.
* [Khazaria.com](http://www.khazaria.com)
* [Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars](https://archive.today/20061003195338/http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=457&rsid=478) The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*
* [The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com](http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/khz/index.htm)
* [Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found](http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2.209/ancient-lost-capital-of-the-jewish-khazar-kingdom-found-1.254377)
[ ](Category:Khazars)
[peoples of Russia](Category:Ancient)(Category:Ancient peoples of Russia)
[tribe](Category:Ashina)(Category:Ashina tribe)
[kingdoms](Category:Barbarian)(Category:Barbarian kingdoms)
[who converted to Judaism](Category:Groups)(Category:Groups who converted to Judaism)
[of Kuban](Category:History)(Category:History of Kuban)
[polities](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish polities)
[Category:Khanates](Category:Khanates)
[of the North Caucasus](Category:Khanates)(Category:Khanates of the North Caucasus)
[culture](Category:Saltovo-Mayaki)(Category:Saltovo-Mayaki culture)
[and territories disestablished in the 960s](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in the 960s)
[and territories established in the 650s](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in the 650s)
[peoples of Europe](Category:Turkic)(Category:Turkic peoples of Europe)
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Joan Baez
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joan_baez
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# Joan Baez
*Revision ID: 1160051711 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T04:03:34Z*
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**Joan Chandos Baez** ( , ; born January 9, 1941) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, and activist. Her [folk music](contemporary)(contemporary folk music) often includes songs of protest and [justice](social)(social justice).Jackson, Ernie. "Folk Guitarists". Joelma
The Everything Guitar Book Joelma. F+W Publications Inc., 2007. Print. Baez has performed publicly for over 60 years, releasing more than 30 albums. Fluent in Spanish and English, she has also recorded songs in at least six other languages.
Baez is generally regarded as a [singer](folk)(folk singer), but her music has diversified since the [era of the 1960s](counterculture)(counterculture of the 1960s) and encompasses genres such as [rock](folk)(folk rock), [pop](Pop music), [country](Country music), and [music](gospel)(gospel music). She began her recording career in 1960 and achieved immediate success. Her first three albums, *[Baez](Joan)(Joan Baez (album))*, *[Baez, Vol. 2](Joan)(Joan Baez, Vol. 2)* and *[Baez in Concert](Joan)(Joan Baez in Concert)*, all achieved [record](gold)(Music recording sales certification) status. Although a songwriter herself, Baez generally interprets other composers' work, having recorded songs by [Allman Brothers Band](the)(the Allman Brothers Band), [Beatles](the)(the Beatles), [Browne](Jackson)(Jackson Browne), [Cohen](Leonard)(Leonard Cohen), [Guthrie](Woody)(Woody Guthrie), [Parra](Violeta)(Violeta Parra), [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones), [Seeger](Pete)(Pete Seeger), [Simon](Paul)(Paul Simon), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), [Marley](Bob)(Bob Marley), and many others. She was one of the first major artists to record the songs of [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan) in the early 1960s; Baez was already an internationally celebrated artist and did much to popularize his early songwriting efforts. Her tumultuous relationship with Dylan later became the subject of songs from both and generated much public speculation. On her later albums she has found success interpreting the work of more recent songwriters, including [Adams](Ryan)(Ryan Adams), [Ritter](Josh)(Josh Ritter), [Earle](Steve)(Steve Earle), [Merchant](Natalie)(Natalie Merchant), and [Henry](Joe)(Joe Henry).
Baez's acclaimed songs include "[& Rust](Diamonds)(Diamonds & Rust (song))" and [covers](cover version) of [Ochs](Phil)(Phil Ochs)'s "[but for Fortune](There)(There but for Fortune (song))" and [Band](The)(The Band)'s "[Night They Drove Old Dixie Down](The)(The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down)". She is also known for "[Angelina](Farewell,)(Farewell, Angelina (song))", "[Is Just a Four-Letter Word](Love)(Love Is Just a Four-Letter Word)", "[Young](Forever)(Forever Young (Bob Dylan song))", "[to You](Here's)(Here's to You (song))", "Joe Hill", "[Sir Galahad](Sweet)(Sweet Sir Galahad)" and "[Shall Overcome](We)(We Shall Overcome)". Baez performed fourteen songs at the 1969 [Festival](Woodstock)(Woodstock Festival) and has displayed a lifelong commitment to political and social activism in the fields of [nonviolence](nonviolence), [rights](civil)(civil rights), [rights](human)(Human rights activist), and the [environment](Environment (biophysical)). Baez was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) on April 7, 2017.
## Early and personal life
Baez was born in the [Island](Staten)(Staten Island) borough of [York City](New)(New York City) on January 9, 1941. Her grandfather, Alberto Baez, left the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) to become a [Methodist](Methodist) [minister](Minister (Christianity)) and moved to the U.S. when her father was two years old. Her father, [Baez](Albert)(Albert Baez) (1912–2007), was born in [Puebla](Puebla), [Mexico](Mexico),Liberatore, Paul (May 20, 2007). ["Noted scientist was father of Joan Baez and Mimi Farina"](http://www.marinij.com/ci_5484248) . *Marin Independent Journal*. Retrieved May 8, 2010. and grew up in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York, where his father preached to—and advocated for—a Spanish-speaking congregation.Baez, Rev. Alberto (October 11, 1935). [Clergy letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, FDR Personal File](https://web.archive.org/web/19990220062124/http://newdeal.feri.org/texts/406.htm), newdeal.feri.org; New Deal Network. Retrieved May 10, 2007. Albert first considered becoming a minister but instead turned to the study of [mathematics](mathematics) and [physics](physics) and received his PhD degree at Stanford University in 1950. Albert was later credited as a co-inventor of the [microscope](X-ray)(X-ray microscope).Baez, Albert V. ["Anecdotes about the Early Days of X-Ray Optics"](http://www.ndt.net/abstract/ios_rt/data/v7n2a1.htm) *Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology*; . Volume 8, number 2, 1998. Pages: 90 ...Albert V. Baez (June 7, 1952). ["Resolving Power in Diffraction Microscopy with Special Reference to X-Rays"](http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v169/n4310/abs/169963b0.html) *Nature* 169, 963–964; Joan's cousin, [C. Baez](John)(John C. Baez), is a [physicist](mathematical)(mathematical physicist).
Her mother, Joan Chandos Baez ( Bridge), referred to as Joan Senior or "Big Joan", was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, the second daughter of an English Anglican priest who claimed to be descended from the [of Chandos](Dukes)(Duke of Chandos). Born on April 11, 1913,National Records of Scotland 685/1 357. she died on April 20, 2013.
Baez had two sisters, Pauline Thalia Baez Bryan (1938–2016), also known as Pauline Marden, and Margarita Mimi Baez Fariña (1945–2001), who was better known as [Fariña](Mimi)(Mimi Fariña). They both were political activists and musicians.
The Baez family converted to [Quakerism](Religious Society of Friends) during Joan's early childhood, and she has continued to identify with the tradition, particularly in her commitment to [pacifism](pacifism) and social issues. While growing up, Baez was subjected to racial slurs and discrimination because of her [Mexican](Mexicans) heritage. Consequently, she became involved with a variety of social causes early in her career. She declined to play in any white student venues that were segregated, which meant that when she toured the Southern states, she would play only at black colleges.
Owing to her father's work with [UNESCO](UNESCO), their family moved many times, living in towns across the U.S. as well as in England, France, Switzerland, Spain, Canada, and the Middle East, including [Iraq](Iraq). Joan Baez became involved with a variety of social causes early in her career, including [rights](civil)(civil rights) and [nonviolence](nonviolence).Jackson, Ernie (2007). [The Everything Guitar Book: Joan Baez.](https://books.google.com/books?id=p4HKHnYFOzAC&dq=joan+baez+discrimination+mexican&pg=PT236) Adams Media; 2nd ed. . Retrieved June 17, 2010. [justice](Social)(Social justice), she stated in the [PBS](Public Broadcasting Service) series *[Masters](American)(American Masters)*, is the true core of her life, "looming larger than music".
Baez spent much of her formative youth living in the [Francisco Bay area](San)(San Francisco Bay area), where she graduated from [Alto High School](Palo)(Palo Alto High School) in 1958. Here, Baez dated Michael New, a fellow student described as "[Trinidad](Trinidad and Tobago) English" whom she met at her college in the late 1950s, and occasionally introduced as her husband. Baez committed her first act of [disobedience](civil)(civil disobedience) by refusing to leave her [Alto High School](Palo)(Palo Alto High School) classroom in [Alto, California](Palo)(Palo Alto, California) for an [raid drill](air)(Civil defense#History).
Presently, Baez is a resident of [California](Woodside,)(Woodside, California), where she lived with her mother until the latter's death in 2013. She has said that her house has a backyard [house](tree)(tree house) in which she spends time meditating, writing, and "being close to nature".Hayes, John (March 8, 2002). ["Music Preview: Joan Baez says hard times are over"](http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/20020308baez3.asp), *Pittsburgh Post-Gazette*. She remained close to her younger sister Mimi up until Mimi's death in 2001 and mentioned in the 2009 *American Masters* documentary that she had grown closer to her older sister Pauline in later years.
Since stepping down from the stage, she has devoted herself to portraiture. Due to false assumptions that have been promoted about her, Baez stated in 2019 that she has never been part of the [movement](feminist)(feminist movement), and is not a vegetarian.
## Music career
The opening line of Baez's memoir *And a Voice to Sing With* is "I was born gifted" (referring to her singing voice, which she explained was given to her and for which she can take no credit). A friend of Joan's father gave her a [ukulele](ukulele). She learned four chords, which enabled her to play [and blues](rhythm)(rhythm and blues), the music she was listening to at the time. Her parents, however, were fearful that the music would lead her into a life of [addiction](drug)(drug addiction).[Democracy Now, May 4, 2009](http://www.democracynow.org/2009/5/4/legendary_folk_singer_activist_pete_seeger) (transcript). Interview with Joan Baez, by [Goodman](Amy)(Amy Goodman) at Pete Seeger's 90th birthday celebration. When Baez was 13, her aunt took her to a concert by [music](folk)(folk music)ian [Seeger](Pete)(Pete Seeger), and Baez found herself strongly moved by his music.Hajdu, David. *Positively Fourth Street: The Lives and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Fariña and Richard Fariña* (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001). [The passage about that Pete Seeger concert's effect](https://books.google.com/books?id=t4I1CQyVFkEC&q=thirteen) on Baez starts on p. 7 of the book. The concert was in 1954 at Palo Alto High School. It was a fundraiser for the California Democratic Party. She soon began practicing the songs of his [repertoire](Musical repertoire) and performing them publicly. One of her very earliest public performances was at a retreat in [California](Saratoga,)(Saratoga, California), for a youth group from Temple Beth Jacob, a [City, California](Redwood)(Redwood City, California), Jewish congregation. A few years later, in 1957, Baez bought her first [Gibson](Gibson Guitar Corporation) acoustic guitar.
### College music scene in Massachusetts
In 1958, after Baez graduated from high school, her father accepted a faculty position at [MIT](Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and moved his family from the [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) area to [Massachusetts](Boston,)(Boston). At that time, it was in the center of the up-and-coming folk-music scene, and Baez began performing near home in Boston and nearby [Cambridge](Cambridge, Massachusetts). She also performed in clubs and attended [University](Boston)(Boston University) for about six weeks. In 1958, at the [47](Club)(Club Passim) in Cambridge, she gave her first concert. When designing the poster for the performance, Baez considered changing her performing name to either Rachel Sandperl, the surname of her longtime mentor [Sandperl](Ira)(Ira Sandperl), or Maria from the song "[Call the Wind Maria](They)(They Call the Wind Maria)". She later opted against doing so, fearing that people would accuse her of changing her last name because it was Spanish. The audience consisted of her parents, her sister Mimi, her boyfriend, and a few friends, resulting in a total of eight patrons. She was paid ten dollars. Baez was later asked back and began performing twice a week for $25 per show.
A few months later, Baez and two other folk enthusiasts made plans to record an album in the cellar of a friend's house. The three sang solos and duets and a family friend designed the album cover, which was released on Veritas Records that same year as ''['Round Harvard Square](Folksingers)(Folksingers 'Round Harvard Square)*. Baez later met [Gibson](Bob)(Bob Gibson (musician)) and [Odetta](Odetta), who were at the time two of the most prominent vocalists singing [folk](folk music) and [music](gospel)(gospel music). Baez cites Odetta as a primary influence along with [Anderson](Marian)(Marian Anderson) and Pete Seeger.Baez, Joan. *And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir*. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009, p. 43 Gibson invited Baez to perform with him at the 1959 [Folk Festival](Newport)(Newport Folk Festival), where the two sang two duets, "Virgin Mary Had One Son" and "We Are Crossing Jordan River". The performance generated substantial praise for the "barefoot Madonna" with the otherworldly voice, and it was this appearance that led to Baez signing with [Records](Vanguard)(Vanguard Records) the following year, although [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) tried to sign her first.Baez, Joan (1987). *And A Voice to Sing With'', pp 61–62. Baez describes the afternoon when she met with first Mitch Miller at Columbia, then Maynard Solomon at Vanguard. Baez later claimed that she felt she would be given more artistic license at a more "low key" label. Baez's nickname at the time, "Madonna", has been attributed to her clear voice, long hair, and natural beauty,Abbe A. Debolt, James S. Baugess – The Encyclopedia of the Sixties: A Decade of Culture 1440801029 Page 48 "She received the nickname "Madonna" because of the soulful clarity of her soprano voice, long hair, and natural beauty." and to her role as "Earth Mother".Terrie M. Rooney Newsmakers 1998: The People Behind Today's Headlines 0787612308 – 1999 Page 17 "With her pure, three-octave soprano voice, her long hair and natural good looks, and her unpretentious presence, she came to earn the nickname "Madonna" because she represented the "Earth Mother" for the 1960s generation."
### First albums and 1960s breakthrough
[[File:Joan Baez 1963.jpg|right|thumb | alt=Baez stands behind a too-tall podium bristling with microphones, wearing a plaid sleeveless top, longish hair in a feather cut | Baez playing at the [on Washington](March)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom) in August 1963]]
Her true professional career began at the 1959 Newport Folk Festival. Following that appearance, she recorded her first album for Vanguard, *[Baez](Joan)(Joan Baez (album))* (1960), produced by [Hellerman](Fred)(Fred Hellerman) of [Weavers](The)(The Weavers), who produced many albums by folk artists. The collection of traditional folk [ballads](Ballad (music)), blues, and [lament](lament)s sung to her own guitar accompaniment sold moderately well. It featured many popular [Ballads](Child)(Child Ballads) of the day and was recorded in only four days in the ballroom of New York City's Manhattan Towers Hotel. The album also included "[Preso Numero Nueve](El)(Gracias a la Vida (album)#Track listing)", a song sung entirely in Spanish, which she would re-record in 1974 for inclusion on her Spanish-language album *[a la Vida](Gracias)(Gracias a la Vida (album))*.
[[File:JoanBaez1966-1a.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Baez at the [Frankfurt](Frankfurt) Easter March 1966]]
She made her New York concert debut on November 5, 1960, at the [Street Y](92nd)(92nd Street Y) and on November 11, 1961, Baez played her first major New York concert at a sold-out performance at [Hall](Town)(The Town Hall (New York City)). Robert Shelton, folk critic of the *[York Times](New)(New York Times)*, praised the concert, saying, "That superb soprano voice, as lustrous and rich as old gold, flowed purely all evening with a wondrous ease. Her singing (unwound) like a spool of satin." Years later when Baez thought back to that concert, she laughed, saying: "I remember in 1961 my manager sending me this newspaper (clipping) in the mail (which) read, 'Joan Baez Town Hall Concert, SRO.' I thought SRO meant 'sold right out.' I was so innocent of it all."David A. Maurer (March 10, 2016). "Joan Baez: Folk Singer, Hereditary Activist". *The Daily Progress*.
Her second release, *[Baez, Vol. 2](Joan)(Joan Baez, Vol. 2)* (1961), went "[gold](Music recording sales certification)", as did *[Baez in Concert](Joan)(Joan Baez in Concert), Part 1* (1962) and *[Baez in Concert, Part 2](Joan)(Joan Baez in Concert, Part 2)* (1963). Like its immediate predecessor, *Joan Baez, Vol. 2* contained strictly traditional material. Her two albums of live material, *Joan Baez in Concert, Part 1* and its second counterpart were unique in that unlike most live albums, they contained only new songs rather than established favorites. It was *Joan Baez in Concert, Part 2* that featured Baez's first-ever Dylan cover.
From the early to mid 1960s, Baez emerged at the forefront of the American [revival](roots)(roots revival), where she introduced her audiences to the then-unknown [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan) and was emulated by artists such as [Collins](Judy)(Judy Collins), [Harris](Emmylou)(Emmylou Harris), [Mitchell](Joni)(Joni Mitchell), and [Raitt](Bonnie)(Bonnie Raitt). On November 23, 1962, Baez appeared on the cover of *Time Magazine*—a rare honor then for a musician.
Though primarily an album artist, several of Baez's singles have charted, the first being her 1965 cover of [Ochs](Phil)(Phil Ochs)' "There but for Fortune", which became a mid-level chart hit in the U.S. and a top-ten single in the United Kingdom.
[[Baez 1966.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Baez in 1966](File:Joan)]
Baez added other instruments to her recordings on *[Angelina](Farewell,)(Farewell, Angelina)* (1965), which features several Dylan songs interspersed with more traditional fare.
[[File:Joan_Baez_(1966).jpg|thumb|upright|Baez in 1966 at [airport](Amsterdam)(Amsterdam Airport Schiphol)]]
Deciding to experiment with different styles, Baez turned to [Schickele](Peter)(Peter Schickele), a classical music composer, who provided classical orchestration for her next three albums: *[Noël](Noël (Joan Baez album))* (1966), *[Joan](Joan (album))* (1967), and *[A Journey Through Our Time](Baptism:)(Baptism: A Journey Through Our Time)* (1968). *Noël* was a Christmas album of traditional material, while *Baptism* was akin to a [album](concept)(concept album), featuring Baez reading and singing poems written by celebrated poets such as [Joyce](James)(James Joyce), [García Lorca](Federico)(Federico García Lorca), and [Whitman](Walt)(Walt Whitman). *Joan* featured interpretations of work by then-contemporary composers, including [Lennon](John)(John Lennon) and [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney), [Hardin](Tim)(Tim Hardin), [Simon](Paul)(Paul Simon), and [Donovan](Donovan).
In 1968, Baez traveled to [Tennessee](Nashville,)(Nashville, Tennessee), where a marathon recording session resulted in two albums. The first, *[Day Now](Any)(Any Day Now (Joan Baez album))* (1968), consists exclusively of Dylan covers. The other, the country-music-infused ''[Album](David's)(David's Album)* (1969), was recorded for then-husband [Harris](David)(David Harris (protester)), a prominent anti-[War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) protester eventually imprisoned for [resistance](draft)(draft resistance). Harris, a country music fan, turned Baez toward more complex [country-rock](country rock) influences beginning with *David's Album*.
Later in 1968, Baez published her first memoir, *Daybreak* (by [Press](Dial)(Dial Press)). In August 1969, her appearance at [Woodstock](Woodstock) in upstate New York raised her international musical and political profile, particularly after the successful release of the documentary film *[Woodstock](Woodstock (film))* (1970).
Beginning in the late 1960s, Baez began writing many of her own songs, beginning with "Sweet Sir Galahad" and "A Song For David", both songs appearing on her 1970 *[Live) One Day at a Time]((I)((I Live) One Day at a Time)'' album; "Sweet Sir Galahad" was written about her sister Mimi's second marriage, while "A Song For David" was a tribute to Harris. *One Day at a Time*, like ''David's Album'', featured a decidedly country sound.
Baez's distinctive vocal style and political activism had a significant impact on American popular music. She was one of the first musicians to use her popularity as a vehicle for social protest, singing and marching for human rights and peace. [Seeger](Pete)(Pete Seeger), [Odetta](Odetta), and decades-long friend [Belafonte](Harry)(Harry Belafonte) were her early social justice advocate influences. Baez came to be considered the "most accomplished interpretive folksinger/songwriter of the 1960s".[Joan Baez](http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3830.html). United States History. History.com. Her appeal extended far beyond the folk music audience. Of her fourteen Vanguard albums, thirteen made the top 100 of Billboard's mainstream pop chart, eleven made the top forty, eight made the top twenty, and four made the top ten.
### 1970s and the end of Vanguard years
[[Baez Hamburg 1973 2811730005.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Baez playing in Hamburg, 1973| alt=Joan Baez playing on stage in a Hamburg TV studio, 1973](File:Joan)]
After eleven years with Vanguard, Baez decided in 1971 to cut ties with the label that had released her albums since 1960. She delivered Vanguard one last success with the gold-selling album *[Are...](Blessed)(Blessed Are...)* (1971), which included a top-ten hit in "[Night They Drove Old Dixie Down](The)(The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down)", her cover of [Band](The)(The Band)'s signature song. With *[from the Shadows](Come)(Come from the Shadows)* (1972), Baez switched to [Records](A&M)(A&M Records), where she remained for four years and six albums.
Joan Baez wrote "The Story of Bangladesh" in 1971. This song was based on the Pakistani army crackdown on unarmed sleeping Bengali students at Dhaka University on March 25, 1971, which ignited the prolonged nine-month [Liberation War](Bangladesh)(Bangladesh Liberation War). The song was later entitled "The Song of Bangladesh" and released in a 1972 album from Chandos Music.[Words and Music by Joan Baez, Song of Bangladesh](http://www.joanbaez.com/Lyrics/bangladesh.html) , lyrics joanbaez.com.
During this period in late 1971, she reunited with composer [Schickele](Peter)(Peter Schickele) to record two tracks, "Rejoice in the Sun" and "Silent Running" for the [science-fiction](science fiction) film *[Running](Silent)(Silent Running)*. The two songs were issued as a single on [Decca](Decca Records) (32890). In addition to this, another LP was released on Decca (DL 7-9188) and was later reissued by [Sarabande](Varèse)(Varèse Sarabande) on black (STV-81072) and green (VC-81072) vinyl. In 1998, a limited release on CD by the "Valley Forge Record Groupe" was released.
Baez's first album for A&M, *[from the Shadows](Come)(Come from the Shadows)*, was recorded in Nashville, and included a number of more personal compositions, including "Love Song to a Stranger" and "Myths", as well as work by Mimi Farina, John Lennon, and Anna Marly.
*[Are You Now, My Son?](Where)(Where Are You Now, My Son?)* (1973) featured a 23-minute title song which took up all of the [B-side](A-side and B-side) of the album. Half [word](spoken)(spoken word) poem and half tape-recorded sounds, the song documented Baez's visit to [Hanoi](Hanoi), [Vietnam](North)(North Vietnam), in December 1972 during which she and her traveling companions survived the 11-day-long [Bombings](Christmas)(Christmas Bombings) campaign over Hanoi and [Haiphong](Haiphong).[Democracy Now, December 26, 2002](http://www.democracynow.org/2002/12/26/joan_baez) (audio). Interview with Joan Baez by Amy Goodman. *[Now](Democracy)(Democracy Now)*. Retrieved June 17, 2010. *(See Vietnam War in [rights](Civil)(Joan Baez#Civil rights) section below.)*
*[a la Vida](Gracias)(Gracias a la Vida (album))* (1974) (the title song written and first performed by Chilean folk singer [Parra](Violeta)(Violeta Parra)) followed and was a success in both the U.S. and Latin America. It included the song "[paloma](Cucurrucucú)(Cucurrucucú paloma)". Flirting with mainstream pop music as well as writing her own songs for *[& Rust](Diamonds)(Diamonds & Rust)* (1975), the album became the highest selling of Baez's career and included a second top-ten single in the form of the title track.
After *[Winds](Gulf)(Gulf Winds)* (1976), an album of entirely self-composed songs and *[Every Stage](From)(From Every Stage)* (1976), a live album that had Baez performing songs "from every stage" of her career, Baez again parted ways with a record label when she moved to [Records](CBS)(Sony Music Entertainment) for ''[Away](Blowin')(Blowin' Away)* (1977) and *[Lullaby](Honest)(Honest Lullaby)'' (1979).
### 1980s and 1990s
In 1980, Baez was given honorary [of Humane Letters](Doctor)(Doctor of Humane Letters) degrees by [University](Antioch)(Antioch University) and [University](Rutgers)(Rutgers University) for her political activism and the "universality of her music". In 1983, she appeared on the [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), performing Dylan's anthemic "[in the Wind](Blowin')(Blowin' in the Wind)", a song she first performed twenty years earlier.
[[File:Dylan-Baez-Santana.jpg|thumb|right | alt=On stage outdoors, Dylan in a leather jacket and iconic porkpie hat & scarf, Baez wears a peasant skirt, sarape, tassled scarf around neck, her arm around Dylan's shoulder. Santana in workman's shirt & knit cap. | [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan), Baez, and [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana), performing in 1984]]
Baez also played a significant role in the 1985 [Aid](Live)(Live Aid) concert for African famine relief, opening the U.S. segment of the show in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), Pennsylvania. She has toured on behalf of many other causes, including [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International)'s 1986 *[Conspiracy of Hope](A)(A Conspiracy of Hope)* tour and a guest spot on their subsequent *[Rights Now!](Human)(Human Rights Now!)* tour.
Baez found herself without an American label for the release of ''[Europe 83](Live)(Live -Europe '83)* (1984), which was released in Europe and Canada but not released commercially in the U.S. She did not have an American release until the album *[Recently](Recently (album))'' (1987) on [Castle Records](Gold)(Gold Castle Records).
In 1987, Baez's second autobiography, called *And a Voice to Sing With*, was published and became a [York Times* bestseller](*New)(The New York Times Best Seller list). That same year, she traveled to the Middle East to visit with and sing songs of peace for Israel and the [Palestinians](Palestinian people).
In May 1989, Baez performed at a music festival in [communist](communism) [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovakia) called Bratislavská lýra. While there, she met future [president](Czechoslovak)(List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia) [Havel](Václav)(Václav Havel), whom she let carry her guitar so as to prevent his arrest by government agents. During her performance, she greeted members of [77](Charter)(Charter 77), a dissident human-rights group, which resulted in her microphone being shut off abruptly. Baez then proceeded to sing *[cappella](a)(a cappella)* for the nearly four thousand gathered. Havel cited her as a great inspiration and influence in that country's [Revolution](Velvet)(Velvet Revolution), the revolution in which the Soviet-dominated Communist government there was overthrown.
Baez recorded two more albums with Gold Castle: *[of Dreams](Speaking)(Speaking of Dreams)*, (1989) and *[in Arms](Brothers)(Brothers in Arms (Joan Baez album))* (1991). She then landed a contract with a major label, [Records](Virgin)(Virgin Records), recording *[Me Backwards](Play)(Play Me Backwards)* (1992) for Virgin shortly before the company was purchased by [EMI](EMI). She then switched to Guardian, with whom she produced a live album, *[Them Bells](Ring)(Ring Them Bells)* (1995), and a studio album, *[from Danger](Gone)(Gone from Danger)* (1997).
In 1993, at the invitation of [International](Refugees)(Refugees International) and sponsored by the [Foundation](Soros)(Soros Foundation), she traveled to the war-torn [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina) region of former-[Yugoslavia](Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) in an effort to help bring more attention to the suffering there. She was the first major artist to perform in [Sarajevo](Sarajevo) since the outbreak of the [civil war](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav wars).
In October of that year, Baez became the first major artist to perform in a professional concert presentation on [Island](Alcatraz)(Alcatraz Island) (a former U.S. federal prison) in San Francisco, California, in a benefit for her sister Mimi's Bread and Roses organization. She later returned for another concert in 1996.
### 2000s
Beginning in 2001, Baez has had several successful long-term engagements as a lead character at San Francisco's [ZinZanni](Teatro)(Teatro ZinZanni). In August 2001, Vanguard began re-releasing Baez's first 13 albums, which she recorded for the label between 1960 and 1971. The reissues, being released through Vanguard's Original Master Series, feature digitally restored sound, unreleased bonus songs, new and original artwork, and new [liner-note](liner notes) essays written by Arthur Levy. Likewise, her six A&M albums were reissued in 2003.
[[File:HSB 2005 - Joan Baez.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Baez plays in blue jeans and orange waist jacket, against a backdrop of lush trees | [Strictly Bluegrass Festival](Hardly)(Hardly Strictly Bluegrass Festival) 2005 at [Gate Park](Golden)(Golden Gate Park)]]
In 2003, Baez was also a judge for the third annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.[3rd Annual Independent Music Awards – Judges](http://www.independentmusicawards.com/ima_new/imajudges2004.asp) *Independent Music Awards*; Music Resource Group, LLC, 2004. Retrieved June 17, 2010. Her album, *[Chords on a Big Guitar](Dark)(Dark Chords on a Big Guitar)* (2003), features songs by composers half her age, while a November 2004 performance at New York City's [Ballroom](Bowery)(Bowery Ballroom) was recorded for a live release, *[Songs](Bowery)(Bowery Songs)* (2005).
On October 1, 2005, she performed at the [Strictly Bluegrass](Hardly)(Hardly Strictly Bluegrass) festival, at San Francisco's [Gate Park](Golden)(Golden Gate Park). Then, on January 13, 2006, Baez performed at the funeral of [Rawls](Lou)(Lou Rawls), where she led [Jackson](Jesse)(Jesse Jackson) Sr., Wonder, and others in the singing of "[Grace](Amazing)(Amazing Grace)". On June 6, 2006, Baez joined [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen) on stage at his San Francisco concert, where the two performed the rolling anthem "[Me My Money Down](Pay)(Pay Me My Money Down)". In September 2006, Baez contributed a live, retooled version of her classic song "Sweet Sir Galahad" to a [Starbucks](Starbucks)'s exclusive XM Artist Confidential album. In the new version, she changed the lyric "here's to the dawn of their days" to "here's to the dawn of *her* days", as a tribute to her late sister Mimi, about whom Baez wrote the song in 1969. Later on, October 8, 2006, she appeared as a special surprise guest at the opening ceremony of the [2000](Forum)(Forum 2000) international conference in [Prague](Prague). Her performance was kept secret from former [Republic President](Czech)(President of the Czech Republic) Havel until the moment she appeared on stage. Havel was a great admirer of both Baez and her work. During Baez's next visit to Prague, in April 2007, the two met again when she performed in front of a sold-out house at Prague's [Hall](Lucerna)(Lucerna Music Bar#Lucerna Palace), a building erected by Havel's grandfather. On December 2, 2006, she made a guest appearance at the [Interfaith Gospel Choir](Oakland)(Oakland Interfaith Gospel Choir)'s Christmas Concert at the [Theatre](Paramount)(Paramount Theatre (Oakland, California)) in [Oakland](Oakland), California. Her participation included versions of "[Us Break Bread Together](Let)(Let Us Break Bread Together)" and "Amazing Grace". She also joined the choir in the finale of "[Holy Night](O)(O Holy Night)".
[[File:Dresden 07 2008 135 (2684499251).jpg|thumb|left | alt=Baez plays outdoors in brown wide-leg pants, white top, brown waistcoat, blue pearls, and a long orange neck scarf. To her left, a male accompanist in a vest plays a small wooden cigar-box-style guitar | Joan Baez concert in [Dresden](Dresden), Germany, July 2008]]
In February 2007, [Records](Proper)(Proper Records) reissued her 1995 live album *Ring Them Bells*, which featured duets with artists ranging from [Williams](Dar)(Dar Williams) and Mimi Fariña to the [Girls](Indigo)(Indigo Girls) and [Chapin Carpenter](Mary)(Mary Chapin Carpenter). The reissue features a 16-page booklet and six unreleased live tracks from the original recording sessions. In addition, Baez recorded a duet of "Jim Crow" with [Mellencamp](John)(John Mellencamp) which appears on his album ''[Road](Freedom's)(Freedom's Road)* (2007). Also in February 2007, she received the [Lifetime Achievement Award](Grammy)(Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award). The day after receiving the honor, she appeared at the [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) ceremony and introduced a performance by the [Chicks](Dixie)(Dixie Chicks).
September 2008 saw the release of the studio album *[After Tomorrow](Day)(Day After Tomorrow (Joan Baez album))'', produced by [Earle](Steve)(Steve Earle) and featuring three of his songs. The album was Baez's first charting record in nearly three decades.[Day After Tomorrow](http://www.joanbaez.com/DAT.html) . *joanbaez.com*; Joan Baez official website. Retrieved June 17, 2010.Bronson, Fred (September 19, 2008). [Joan Baez back on chart after 29 years](https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN1929946520080919). *Reuters/Billboard*. Retrieved June 18, 2010. On June 29, 2008, Baez performed on the acoustic stage at the [Festival](Glastonbury)(Glastonbury Festival 2008). Glastonbury Music Festival. Archived from the [original](https://web.archive.org/web/20080501112515/http://www.glastonburyfestivals.co.uk:80/performance.aspx?id=2179) June 25, 2008. playing out the final set to a packed audience. On July 6, 2008, she played at the [Jazz Festival](Montreux)(Montreux Jazz Festival) in [Montreux](Montreux), Switzerland. During the concert's finale, she spontaneously danced on stage with a band of African percussionists.
On August 2, 2009, Baez played at the 50th [Folk Festival](Newport)(Newport Folk Festival), which also marked the 50th anniversary of her breakthrough performance at the first festival.WFUV (August 2, 2009). [Joan Baez: Newport Folk Festival 2009](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=111395125).(MP3) *npr.org*; National Public Radio – Music. Retrieved June 17, 2010. On October 14, 2009, PBS aired an episode of its documentary series *[Masters](American)(American Masters)*, entitled *Joan Baez: How Sweet the Sound*. It was produced and directed by Mary Wharton. A DVD and CD of the soundtrack were released at the same time.
### 2010s and 2020s
[[File:Joan_Baez_performs_We_Shall_Overcome_Feb_09_2010.webm|thumb|Baez sings "We Shall Overcome" at the [House](White)(White House), 2010]]
On April 4, 2017, Baez released on her [Facebook](Facebook) page her first new song in 27 years, "Nasty Man", a protest song against US President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump), which became a viral hit. On April 7, 2017, she was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame). On March 2, 2018, she released a new studio album entitled *[Down the Wind](Whistle)(Whistle Down the Wind (album))*, which charted in many countries and was nominated for a Grammy, and undertook her "Fare Thee Well Tour" to support the album. On April 30, 2019, Baez told *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* that she had been approached to perform at the [50](Woodstock)(Woodstock 50) festival, but had turned the offer down for "it was too complicated to even get involved in" and her "instincts" were telling her "no".
On July 28, 2019, following dates across Europe, Baez performed her final concert at Madrid's Teatro Real.
In January 2021, it was announced that Baez would receive a 2020 [Center Honor](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors) in a ceremony that was postponed because of the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). She was honored along with Debbie Allen, Garth Brooks, Midori, and Dick Van Dyke in May 2021. (subscription required)
## Social and political involvement
[[baez01.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Baez in 2003](File:Joan)]
### Civil rights
In 1956, Baez first heard [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.) speak about nonviolence, civil rights and [change](social)(social change) in a speech that brought tears to her eyes. Several years later, the two became friends, with Baez participating in many of the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil Rights Movement) demonstrations that King helped organize.
The early years of Baez's career saw the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil Rights Movement) in the U.S. become a prominent issue. Her performance of "[Shall Overcome](We)(We Shall Overcome)", the civil rights anthem written by [Seeger](Pete)(Pete Seeger) and [Carawan](Guy)(Guy Carawan), at the 1963 [on Washington for Jobs and Freedom](March)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom) permanently linked her to the song. Baez again sang "We Shall Overcome" in [Plaza](Sproul)(Sproul Plaza) during the mid-1960s [Speech Movement](Free)(Free Speech Movement) demonstrations at the [of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley) in [California](Berkeley,)(Berkeley, California), and at many other rallies and protests.
Her recording of the song "[Sunday](Birmingham)(Birmingham Sunday)" (1964), written by her brother-in-law, Richard Fariña, was used in the opening of *[Little Girls](4)(4 Little Girls)* (1997), [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee)'s documentary film about the four young victims killed in the 1963 [Street Baptist Church bombing](16th)(16th Street Baptist Church bombing).
In 1965, Baez announced that she would be opening a school to teach nonviolent protest. She also participated in the 1965 [to Montgomery marches](Selma)(Selma to Montgomery marches) for voting rights.
In November 2017 as part of a release of documents from the National Archives that were supposed to relate to the [assassination](JFK assassination) of [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy), a 1968 FBI report alleged that Baez was involved in the 1960s in an intimate affair with Dr. [Luther King](Martin)(Martin Luther King), an accusation described by history professor Clayborne Carson, the director of the Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute and a Stanford University, as "part of a [campaign](smear)(smear campaign)" against King.
}}
### Vietnam War
Highly visible in civil-rights marches, Baez became more vocal about her disagreement with the Vietnam War. In 1964, she publicly endorsed [taxes](resisting)(tax resistance) by withholding sixty percent of her 1963 income taxes. In 1964, she founded the [for the Study of Nonviolence](Institute)(Institute for the Study of Nonviolence) (along with her mentor Sandperl) and encouraged draft resistance at her concerts. The Institute for the Study of Nonviolence would later branch into the Resource Center for Nonviolence.
In 1966, Baez's autobiography, *Daybreak*, was released. It is the most detailed report of her life through 1966 and outlined her anti-war position, dedicating the book to men facing imprisonment for resisting the draft.
Baez was arrested twice in 1967 for blocking the entrance of the Armed Forces Induction Center in Oakland, California, and spent over a month in jail. *(See also [Harris](David)(Joan Baez#David Harris) section below.)*
She was a frequent participant in anti-war marches and rallies, including:
* numerous protests in New York City organized by the [Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee](Fifth)(Fifth Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee), starting with the March 1966 Fifth Avenue Peace Parade;
* a conversation with husband [Harris](David)(David Harris (protester)) at [UCLA](University of California, Los Angeles) in 1968 discussing the resistance to the draft during the [war](Vietnam)(Vietnam War).
* a free 1967 concert at the [Monument](Washington)(Washington Monument) in Washington, D.C., that had been opposed by the [of the American Revolution](Daughters)(Daughters of the American Revolution) which attracted a crowd of 30,000 to hear her anti-war message;
* the 1969 [to End the War in Vietnam](Moratorium)(Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam) protests.
There were many others, culminating in Phil Ochs's [War Is Over](The)(The War Is Over (Phil Ochs song)) celebration in New York City in May 1975.
During the Christmas season 1972, Baez joined a peace delegation traveling to North Vietnam, both to address human rights in the region, and to deliver Christmas mail to American [of war](prisoners)(Prisoner of war). During her time there, she was caught in the U.S. military's "[bombing](Christmas)(Operation Linebacker II)" of Hanoi, North Vietnam, during which the city was bombed for eleven straight days.
She was critical of Vietnam's government and organized the May 30, 1979, publication of a full-page advertisement (published in four major U.S. newspapers) in which the government was described as having created a nightmare. Her one-time anti-war ally, [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda), refused to join in Baez's criticism of the Vietnamese government. leading to what was publicly described as a feud between the two.
### Prison and death penalty reform
In 2016, Baez advocated for the [Project](Innocence)(Innocence Project) and [Network](Innocence)(Innocence Network). At each concert, Baez informs the audience about the organizations' efforts to exhonerate the wrongfully convicted and reform the system to prevent such incidents.
In December 2005, Baez appeared and sang "[Low, Sweet Chariot](Swing)(Swing Low, Sweet Chariot)" at the California protest at the [Quentin State Prison](San)(San Quentin State Prison) against the execution of [Williams](Tookie)(Tookie Williams).Jenifer Warren, Jenifer and Dolan, Maura (December 13, 2005). [Tookie Williams is executed](http://articles.latimes.com/2005/dec/13/local/me-execution13). *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved June 17, 2010.Felix (December 13, 2005). [Thousand Protest Execution of Stan Tookie Williams](http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2005/12/13/17899151.php) (photo). *Indybay.org*. Retrieved June 17, 2010. She had previously performed the same song at San Quentin at the 1992 vigil protesting the execution of [Alton Harris](Robert)(Robert Alton Harris), the first man to be executed in California after the death penalty was reinstated. She subsequently lent her prestige to the campaign opposing the execution of [Davis](Troy)(Troy Davis) by the State of Georgia.
### LGBT rights
Baez has also been prominent in the struggle for [and lesbian rights](gay)(LGBT rights). In 1978, she performed at several benefit concerts to defeat the [Initiative](Briggs)(Briggs Initiative), which proposed banning openly [gay](gay) people from teaching in public schools in California. Later that same year, she participated in memorial marches for the assassinated San Francisco city supervisor, [Milk](Harvey)(Harvey Milk), who was openly gay.
In the 1990s, she appeared with her friend [Ian](Janis)(Janis Ian) at a benefit for the [Gay and Lesbian Task Force](National)(National Gay and Lesbian Task Force), a gay lobbying organization, and performed at the San Francisco Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Pride March.
Her song "Altar Boy and the Thief" from ''[Away](Blowin')(Blowin' Away)'' (1977) was written as a dedication to her gay fanbase.
### Iran
On June 25, 2009, Baez created a special version of "We Shall Overcome" with a few lines of [Persian](Persian language) lyrics in support of peaceful protests by Iranian people. She recorded it in her home and posted the video on YouTubeBaez, Joan (June 25, 2009). ; Google Inc. Retrieved June 17, 2010. and on her personal website. She dedicated the song "Joe Hill" to the people of Iran during her concert at [Auditorium](Merrill)(Merrill Auditorium) in [Maine](Portland,)(Portland, Maine) on July 31, 2009.
### Environmental causes
On Earth Day 1999, Baez and [Raitt](Bonnie)(Bonnie Raitt) honored environmental activist [Butterfly Hill](Julia)(Julia Butterfly Hill) with Raitt's *Arthur M. Sohcot Award* in person on her -high redwood treetop platform, where Hill had camped to protect ancient redwoods in the [Forest](Headwaters)(Headwaters Forest) from logging.Rising Ground, Michael. (1999). ["Bonnie Raitt and Joan Baez Tree-sit in protest"](http://www.ecomall.com/greenshopping/julie2.htm). *EcoMall*; Ecology America. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
### War in Iraq
In early 2003, Baez performed at two rallies of hundreds of thousands of people in San Francisco protesting the [invasion of Iraq](U.S.)(2003 invasion of Iraq).
In August 2003, she was invited by [Harris](Emmylou)(Emmylou Harris) and [Earle](Steve)(Steve Earle) to join them in London, England, at the Concert For a Landmine-Free World.
In the summer of 2004, Baez joined [Moore](Michael)(Michael Moore)'s "Slacker uprising Tour" on American college campuses, encouraging young people to get out and vote for peace candidates in the [presidential election](upcoming)(U.S. presidential election, 2004).
In August 2005, Baez appeared at an [anti-war](anti-war) protest in [Texas](Crawford,)(Crawford, Texas), which had been started by [Sheehan](Cindy)(Cindy Sheehan).
### Tree sit-in for urban farmers
On May 23, 2006, Baez once again joined [Butterfly Hill](Julia)(Julia Butterfly Hill), this time in a "tree sit" in a giant tree on the site of the [Central Farm](South)(South Central Farm) in a poor neighborhood of downtown Los Angeles, California. Baez and Hill were hoisted into the tree, where they remained overnight. The women, in addition to many other activists and celebrities, were protesting the imminent eviction of the community farmers and demolition of the site, which is the largest urban farm in the state. Because many of the South Central Farmers are immigrants from Central America, Baez sang several songs from her 1974 Spanish-language album, *Gracias a la Vida*, including the title track and "No Nos Moverán" ("[Shall Not Be Moved](We)(We Shall Not Be Moved)").
### 2008 presidential election
Throughout most of her career, Baez remained apprehensive about involving herself in [politics](party)(party politics). However, on February 3, 2008, Baez wrote a letter to the editor at the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* endorsing [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) in the [U.S. presidential election](2008)(2008 United States presidential election). She noted: "Through all those years, I chose not to engage in party politics. ... At this time, however, changing that posture feels like the responsible thing to do. If anyone can navigate the contaminated waters of Washington, lift up the poor, and appeal to the rich to share their wealth, it is Sen. Barack Obama." Playing at the Glastonbury Festival in June, Baez said during the introduction of a song that one reason she likes Obama is because he reminds her of another old friend of hers: [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.)
Although a highly political figure throughout most of her career, Baez had never publicly endorsed a major political party candidate prior to Obama. However, after Obama was elected, she expressed that she would likely never do so again, saying in a 2013 interview in *[Huffington Post](The)(The Huffington Post)* that "In some ways I'm disappointed, but in some ways it was silly to expect more. If he had taken his brilliance, his eloquence, his toughness and not run for office he could have led a movement. Once he got in the Oval Office he couldn't do anything.".
She performed at the White House on February 10, 2010, as part of an evening celebrating the music associated with the civil rights movement, performing "[Shall Overcome](We)(We Shall Overcome)".
### Occupy Wall Street
On November 11, 2011, Baez played as part of a musical concert for the protestors at [Wall Street](Occupy)(Occupy Wall Street). Her three-song set included "Joe Hill", a cover of the [Stones](Rolling)(Rolling Stones)' [of the Earth"]("Salt)(Salt of the Earth (song)) and her own composition "Where's My Apple Pie?".
### Catalan independence movement
Baez has been a strong defender of the [independence movement](Catalan)(Catalan independence movement). On July 21, 2019, she described jailed Catalan independence leaders as political prisoners. Five days later, she visited former [of the Parliament of Catalonia](President)(Parliament of Catalonia) [Forcadell](Carme)(Carme Forcadell) in prison.
## Awards
On March 18, 2011, Baez was honored by [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) at its 50th Anniversary Annual General Meeting in San Francisco. The tribute to Baez was the inaugural event for the Amnesty International Joan Baez Award for Outstanding Inspirational Service in the Global Fight for Human Rights. Baez was presented with the first award in recognition of her human rights work with Amnesty International and beyond, and the inspiration she has given activists around the world. The award is to be presented to an artist – music, film, sculpture, paint or other medium – who has helped advance human rights.
Baez was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2007 Grammys.
To reward her decades of dedicated activism, Baez was honoured with the Spirit of Americana/Free Speech award at the 2008 [Music Honors & Awards](Americana)(Americana Music Honors & Awards).
In 2015 Amnesty International jointly awarded Baez and [Wei Wei](Ai)(Ai Weiwei) the Ambassador of Conscience award.
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences elected her to fellowship in 2020, praising her contributions both to music and to activism.
In 2023, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked Baez at number 189 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
## Notable relationships
### Bob Dylan
[[File:Joan Baez Bob Dylan.jpg|thumb | alt=Sitting very close, Baez singing, Dylan with guitar and harmonica | Baez with [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan) at the civil rights [on Washington](March)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom), 1963]]
Baez first met Dylan in April 1961 at [Folk City](Gerde's)(Gerde's Folk City) in New York City's [Village](Greenwich)(Greenwich Village). At the time, Baez had already released her debut album and her popularity as the emerging "Queen of Folk" was on the rise. Baez was initially unimpressed with the "urban [hillbilly](hillbilly)", but was impressed with one of Dylan's first compositions, "[to Woody](Song)(Song to Woody)" and remarked that she would like to record it.
By 1963, Baez had already released three albums, two of which had been certified gold, and she invited Dylan on stage to perform alongside her at the Newport Folk Festival. The two performed the Dylan composition "[God on Our Side](With)(With God on Our Side (song))", a performance that set the stage for many more duets like it in the months and years to come. Typically, while on tour, Baez would invite Dylan to sing on stage partly by himself and partly with her, much to the chagrin of her fans.
Before meeting Dylan, Baez's topical songs were very few: "[Night I Had the Strangest Dream](Last)(Last Night I Had the Strangest Dream)", "We Shall Overcome", and an assortment of [spirituals](spirituals). Baez would later say that Dylan's songs seemed to update the topics of protest and justice.
By the time of Dylan's 1965 tour of the UK, their relationship had slowly begun to fizzle out. The couple are captured in [A. Pennebaker](D.)(D. A. Pennebaker)'s documentary film *[Look Back](Dont)(Dont Look Back)* (1967).
Baez toured with Dylan as a performer on his [Thunder Revue](Rolling)(Rolling Thunder Revue) in 1975–76. She sang four songs with Dylan on the live album of the tour, *[Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue](The)(The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue)*, released in 2002. Baez appeared with Dylan in the one-hour TV special *Hard Rain*, filmed at [Collins](Fort)(Fort Collins), [Colorado](Colorado), in May 1976. Baez also starred as 'The Woman in White' in the film *[and Clara](Renaldo)(Renaldo and Clara)* (1978), directed by Bob Dylan and filmed during the Rolling Thunder Revue. They performed together at the Peace Sunday anti-nuke concert in 1982. Dylan and Baez toured together again in 1984 along with [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana).
Baez discussed her relationship with Dylan in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s documentary film *[Direction Home](No)(No Direction Home)* (2005), and in the PBS *[Masters](American)(American Masters)* biography of Baez, *How Sweet the Sound* (2009).
Baez wrote and composed at least three songs that were specifically about Dylan. In "To Bobby", written in 1972, she urged Dylan to return to political activism, while in "[& Rust](Diamonds)(Diamonds & Rust (song))", the title track from [1975 album](her)(Diamonds & Rust), she revisited her feelings for him in warm, yet direct terms. "[of the Old Days](Winds)(Winds of the Old Days (song))", also on the *Diamonds & Rust* album, is a bittersweet reminiscence about her time with "Bobby".
The references to Baez in Dylan's songs are far less clear. Baez herself has suggested that she was the subject of both "[of Johanna](Visions)(Visions of Johanna)" and "[You Been on My Mind](Mama,)(Mama, You Been on My Mind)", although the latter was more likely about his relationship with [Rotolo](Suze)(Suze Rotolo).Gray p 30 Baez implied when speaking about the connection to "Diamonds and Rust" that "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts" is, at least in part, a metaphor for Dylan's view of his relationship with her. As for "[A Rolling Stone](Like)(Like A Rolling Stone)", "Visions of Johanna", "[Belongs to Me](She)(She Belongs to Me)", and other songs alleged to have been written about Baez, neither Dylan nor biographers such as [Heylin](Clinton)(Clinton Heylin) and [Gray](Michael)(Michael Gray (author)) have had anything definitive to say either way regarding the subject of these songs.
### David Harris
In October 1967, Baez, her mother and nearly 70 other women were arrested at the Oakland, California, Armed Forces Induction Center for blocking its doorways to prevent entrance by young inductees, and in support of young men who refused [induction](military)(conscription). They were incarcerated in the [Rita Jail](Santa)(Santa Rita Jail), and it was here that Baez met [Harris](David)(David Harris (protestor)), who was kept on the men's side but who still managed to visit with Baez regularly.
The two formed a close bond upon their release and Baez moved into his draft-resistance [commune](Commune (intentional community)) in the hills above [California](Stanford,)(Stanford, California). The pair had known each other for three months when they decided to wed. After confirming the news to Associated Press, media outlets began dedicating ample press to the impending nuptials (at one point, *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine referred to the event as the "Wedding of the Century").
After finding a [pacifist](pacifist) preacher and a church outfitted with peace signs and writing a blend of [Episcopalian](Episcopal Church in the United States of America) and [wedding](Quaker)(Quaker wedding) vows, Baez and Harris married in New York City on March 26, 1968. Her friend [Collins](Judy)(Judy Collins) sang at the ceremony. After the wedding, Baez and Harris moved into a home in the Los Altos Hills on of land called Struggle Mountain, part of a commune, where they tended gardens.
A short time later, Harris refused induction into the armed forces and was indicted. On July 16, 1969, Harris was taken by federal marshals to prison. Baez was visibly pregnant in public in the months that followed, most notably at the [Woodstock](Woodstock) Festival, where she performed a handful of songs in the early morning. The documentary film *Carry It On* was produced during this period and was released in 1970.["Carry It On"](http://www.newfilmco.com/CIOpage.htm). Directed by Chris Knight. The New Film Co., 1970. Official website. The film's behind-the-scenes looks at Harris's views and arrest and Baez on her subsequent performance tour was positively reviewed in *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine and *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*.Wilson, John S. (August 27, 1970). ["Joan Baez and Her Challenge:'Carry It On' Follows Singer and Husband"](https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9C06E1DD1E3EE034BC4F51DFBE66838B669EDE). *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Retrieved June 19, 2010.
Among the songs Baez wrote about this period of her life are "A Song for David", "Myths", "Prison Trilogy (Billy Rose)" and "Fifteen Months" (the amount of time Harris was imprisoned).
Their son Gabriel was born on December 2, 1969. Harris was released from Texas prison after 15 months, but they separated three months after his release and the couple divorced amicably in 1973.[*How Sweet The Sound: Joan Baez*](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/joan-baez-how-sweet-the-sound/1185/) They shared custody of Gabriel, who lived primarily with Baez. Explaining the split, Baez wrote in her autobiography: "I am made to live alone." Baez and Harris remained on friendly terms throughout the years; they reunited on-camera for the 2009 *American Masters* documentary for the USA's PBS. Their son Gabriel is a drummer and occasionally tours with his mother. He has a daughter Jasmine who also sang with Joan Baez at Kidztock in 2010.
### Steve Jobs
Baez dated [Computer](Apple)(Apple Inc.) cofounder [Jobs](Steve)(Steve Jobs) during the early 1980s.Manock, Jerry (June 1982). ["Invasion of Texaco Towers"](http://folklore.org/StoryView.py?project=Macintosh&story=Invasion_of_Texaco_Towers.txt) . Folklore.org. "One afternoon, when the project was in its advanced stages, Steve burst through the door, unannounced, in an exuberant mood. He had two guests ... Joan Baez and her sister, Mimi Farina." A number of sources have stated that Jobs—then in his mid twenties—had considered asking Baez to marry him, except that her age at the time (early 40s) made the possibility of their having children unlikely. Baez mentioned Jobs in the acknowledgments in her 1987 memoir *And a Voice to Sing With* and performed at the memorial for him in 2011. After Jobs's death, Baez spoke fondly about him, stating that even after the relationship had ended, the two remained friends, with Jobs having visited Baez a few months before his death, and stating that "Steve had a very sweet side, even if he was as... erratic as he was famous for being. But he gets genius licence for that, because he was somebody who changed the world."
## In popular culture
* Cartoonist [Capp](Al)(Al Capp), creator of the [strip](comic)(comic strip) ''[Abner](Li'l)(Li'l Abner)'', satirized Baez as "Joanie Phoanie" during the 1960s. Capp's satirized Joanie was an unabashed communist radical who sang songs of [warfare](class)(class conflict) while [hypocritically](hypocrisy) traveling in a [limousine](limousine) and charging outrageous performance fees to impoverished orphans.["Comics: Which One Is the Phoanie?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070930200736/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,843312,00.html) *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine. January 20, 1967. Retrieved June 18, 2010. Capp had this character singing bizarre songs such as "A Tale of Bagels and Bacon" and "Molotov Cocktails for Two". Although Baez was upset by the parody in 1966, she admits to being more amused in recent years. "I wish I could have laughed at this at the time", she wrote in a caption under one of the strips, reprinted in her autobiography. "Mr. Capp confused me considerably. I'm sorry he's not alive to read this, it would make him chuckle."UPI (January 11, 1967). ["Al Capp denies his character "Joanie Phoanie" looks like Joan Baez](http://www.upi.com/topic/Al_Capp/). [Press International](United)(United Press International). Retrieved June 17, 2010. Capp stated at the time: "Joanie Phoanie is a repulsive, egomaniacal, un-American, non-taxpaying horror, I see no resemblance to Joan Baez whatsoever, but if Miss Baez wants to prove it, let her." Via Google Books.
* Baez's serious persona was parodied several times on the American variety show *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)* in impersonations by [Dunn](Nora)(Nora Dunn), notably in the 1986 mock game show *Make Joan Baez Laugh*.
## Discography
* ''['Round Harvard Square](Folksingers)(Folksingers 'Round Harvard Square)* (1959)
* *[Baez](Joan)(Joan Baez (album))* (1960)
* *[Baez, Vol. 2](Joan)(Joan Baez, Vol. 2)* (1961)
* *[Baez in Concert](Joan)(Joan Baez in Concert)* (1962)
* *[Baez in Concert, Part 2](Joan)(Joan Baez in Concert, Part 2)* (1963)
* *[Baez/5](Joan)(Joan Baez/5)* (1964)
* *[Angelina](Farewell,)(Farewell, Angelina)* (1965)
* *[Noël](Noël (Joan Baez album))* (1966)
* *[Joan](Joan (album))* (1967)
* *[A Journey Through Our Time](Baptism:)(Baptism: A Journey Through Our Time)* (1968)
* *[Day Now](Any)(Any Day Now (Joan Baez album))* (1968)
* *[Album](David's)(David's Album)* (1969)
* *[Day at a Time](One)((I Live) One Day at a Time)* (1970)
* *[& Vanzetti](Sacco)(Sacco & Vanzetti (1971 film))* (1971)
* *[It On](Carry)(Carry It On)* (1971)
* *[Are...](Blessed)(Blessed Are...)* (1971)
* *[from the Shadows](Come)(Come from the Shadows)* (1972)
* *[Are You Now, My Son?](Where)(Where Are You Now, My Son?)* (1973)
* *[a la Vida](Gracias)(Gracias a la Vida (album))* (1974)
* *[& Rust](Diamonds)(Diamonds & Rust)* (1975)
* *[Winds](Gulf)(Gulf Winds)* (1976)
* *[Away](Blowin')(Blowin' Away)* (1977)
* *[Lullaby](Honest)(Honest Lullaby)* (1979)
* *[Recently](Recently (Joan Baez album))* (1987)
* *[& Rust in the Bullring](Diamonds)(Diamonds & Rust in the Bullring)* (1988)
* *[of Dreams](Speaking)(Speaking of Dreams)* (1989)
* *[Me Backwards](Play)(Play Me Backwards)* (1992)
* *[from Danger](Gone)(Gone from Danger)* (1997)
* *[Chords on a Big Guitar](Dark)(Dark Chords on a Big Guitar)* (2003)
* *[After Tomorrow](Day)(Day After Tomorrow (Joan Baez album))* (2008)
* *[Down the Wind](Whistle)(Whistle Down the Wind (album))* (2018)
## Filmography
* *[March on Washington](The)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom#Singers)* (1963)
* *The March* (1964)
* *[Big T.N.T. Show](The)(The Big T.N.T. Show)* (1966)
* *[Look Back](Dont)(Dont Look Back)* (1967)
* *[Festival](Festival (1967 film))* (1967)
* *[Woodstock](Woodstock (film))* (1970)
* *[It On](Carry)(Carry It On)* (1970)
* *Woody Guthrie All-Star Tribute Concert* (1970)
* *[at Big Sur](Celebration)(Celebration at Big Sur)* (1971)
* *[Chicken](Dynamite)(Dynamite Chicken)* (1971)
* *[Scruggs: The Bluegrass Legend – Family & Friends](Earl)(Earl Scruggs#DVDs)* (1972)
* *Sing Sing Thanksgiving* (1974)
* *The Making of '[Running](Silent)(Silent Running)'* (1974)
* *A War is Over* (1975)
* *Banjoman* (1975)
* *[Dylan: Hard Rain](Bob)(Hard Rain (Bob Dylan album))* TV Special (1976)
* *[Memory of Justice](The)(The Memory of Justice)* (1976)
* *[and Clara](Renaldo)(Renaldo and Clara)* (1978)
* *There but for Fortune – Joan Baez in Central America* TV documentary (1982)
* *Sag nein* (1983)
* *In Our Hands* (1984)
* *[Guthrie](Woody)(Woody Guthrie): Hard Travelin'* (1984)
* *[Aid](Live)(Live Aid#Philadelphia, John F. Kennedy Stadium)* (1985)
* *In Remembrance of Martin* (1986)
* *[Shall Overcome](We)(We Shall Overcome)* (1989)
* *[The Lost Performances](Woodstock:)(List of performances and events at Woodstock Festival)* (1990)
* *[Kristofferson](Kris)(Kris Kristofferson): His Life and Work* (1993)
* *[and Times of Allen Ginsberg](Life)(Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg)* (1993)
* *[Woodstock](Woodstock) Diary* (1994)
* *A Century of Women* (1994)
* *[History of Rock 'n' Roll](The)(The History of Rock 'n' Roll)* (1995)
* *[& Roll](Rock)(Rock & Roll (TV series))* (1995)
* *[to Love](Message)(Message to Love): [of Wight Festival 1970](Isle)(Isle of Wight Festival 1970)* (1996)
* *Tree Sit: The Art of Resistance* (2001)
* *Smothered: The Censorship Struggles of [Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour](The)(The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour)* (2002)
* *[Joan Baez, Gillian Welch and Nickel Creek](Soundstage:)(Soundstage (TV series)#Season 2: 2004)* (2004)
* *Fahrenheit 9/11: A Movement in Time* (2004)
* *Words and Music in Honor of Fahrenheit 9/11* (2005)
* *[Carter Family: Will the Circle Be Unbroken](The)(American Experience (season 17))* (2005)
* *[Direction Home](No)(No Direction Home)* (2005)
* *[Mike Across America](Captain)(Captain Mike Across America)* (2007)
* *[Seeger: The Power of Song](Pete)(Pete Seeger: The Power of Song)* (2007)
* *[Revisited](65)(65 Revisited)* (2007)
* *[Other Side of the Mirror](The)(The Other Side of the Mirror (film))* (2007)
* *[Central Farm: Oasis in a Concrete Desert.](South)(South Central Farm)* (2008)
* *[Light: When Spirit Meets Action](Fierce)(Fierce Light)* (2008)
* *The Power of Their Song: The Untold Story of Latin America's New Song Movement* (2008)
* *[Baez: How Sweet the Sound](Joan)(American Masters)* (2009)
* *[Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebel](Hugh)(Hugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebel)* (2009)
* *[Cohen: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970](Leonard)(Live at the Isle of Wight 1970 (Leonard Cohen album))* (2009)
* *Welcome to Eden* (2009)
* *In Performance at the White House: A Celebration of Music from the Civil Rights Movement* (2010)
* *[Ochs: There but for Fortune](Phil)(Phil Ochs: There but for Fortune)* (2010)
* *Save the Farm* (2011)
* *For the Love of the Music: The Club 47 Folk Revival* (2012)
* *[March](The)(The March (2013 film))* (2013)
* *Another Day, Another Time: Celebrating the Music of 'Inside Llewyn Davis'* (2014)
* *The Stars Behind the Iron Curtain* (2014)
* *[Isbin](Sharon)(Sharon Isbin): Troubadour* (2014)
* *Snapshots from the Tour* (2015)
* *[Swift: The 1989 World Tour Live](Taylor)(The 1989 World Tour#Filming)* (2015)
* *Joan Baez: Rebel Icon* (2015)
* *[in the Wilderness](King)(King in the Wilderness)* (2018)
* *[Hefner](Hugh)(Hugh Hefner)'s [Dark](After)(Playboy After Dark): Speaking Out in America* (2018)
* *Don't Get Trouble In Your Mind: The Carolina Chocolate Drops' Story* (2019)
* *[Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese](Rolling)(Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese)* (2019)
* *Woodstock* (2019)
## See also
* [of peace activists](List)(List of peace activists)
## References
## Further reading
* Baez, Joan. 1968. *Daybreak: An Intimate Journal*. New York, [Press](Dial)(Dial Press).
* Baez, Joan, 1987. *[And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir](https://books.google.com/books?id=v2tocQYV1owC)*. New York City, Summit Books. .
* Baez, Joan. 1988. *And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir*. Century Hutchinson, London, UK. .
* Fuss, Charles J., 1996. *Joan Baez: A Bio-Bibliography*. Bio-Bibliographies in the Performing Arts Series. Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Press.
* Garza, Hedda, 1999. *Joan Baez* (Hispanics of Achievement). Chelsea House Publications.
* [David](Hajdu,)(David Hajdu), 2001. *Positively 4th Street: The Lives and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Fariña And Richard Fariña*. New York, [Straus and Giroux](Farrar,)(Farrar, Straus and Giroux). .
* Heller, Jeffrey, 1991. *Joan Baez: Singer with a Cause''. People of Distinction Series. Children's Press.
* Jäger, Markus, 2003. *Joan Baez and the Issue of Vietnam: Art and Activism versus Conventionality*. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
* Jaeger, Markus, 2021. *Popular Is Not Enough: The Political Voice of Joan Baez*. Revised and updated edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
* Romero, Maritza, 1998. *Joan Baez: Folk Singer for Peace*. Great Hispanics of Our Time Series. Powerkids Books.
* Rosteck, Jens, 2017. *Joan Baez: Porträt einer Unbeugsamen*. Osburg Verlag, Hamburg, Germany.
* Thomson, Elizabeth, 2020. *Joan Baez: The Last Leaf*, Palazzo Editions, London, UK
## External links
*
* ["Joan Baez: The Folk Heroine Mellows With Age"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090112070915/http://crawdaddy.wolfgangsvault.com/Article.aspx?id=4558) – 1984 article and interview, reprinted in 2007 by *[Crawdaddy!](Crawdaddy!)*
* ["Carry It On", 1970 documentary film of Joan Baez and David Harris](http://www.newfilmco.com/CIOpage.htm), produced by the New Film Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts
* [Joan Baez in Palo Alto](https://web.archive.org/web/20120309140429/http://www.paloaltohistory.com/joan-baez-in-palo-alto.php)
* [PBS.org: 8 Things You Didn't Know About Joan Baez](https://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/joan-baez-75th-birthday-celebration-8-things-you-didnt-know-about-joan-baez/4904/)
*
}}
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|
Young's modulus
|
young's_modulus
|
# Young's modulus
*Revision ID: 1159266104 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T08:15:27Z*
---
[[File:Stress strain ductile.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Young's modulus is the slope of the linear part of the [curve](stress-strain)(stress-strain curve) for a material under tension or compression.]]
'''Young's modulus** E, the **Young modulus''', or the [of elasticity](modulus)(modulus of elasticity) in [tension](Tension (physics)) or [compression](Compression (physics)) (i.e., negative tension), is a mechanical property that measures the tensile or compressive [stiffness](stiffness) of a [solid](solid) material when the force is applied lengthwise. It quantifies the relationship between tensile/compressive [stress](stress (mechanics)) \sigma (force per unit area) and axial [strain](strain (mechanics)) \varepsilon (proportional deformation) in the [elastic](linear)(linear elasticity) region of a material and is determined using the formula:
E = \frac{\sigma}{\varepsilon}
Young's moduli are typically so large that they are expressed not in [pascals](Pascal (unit)) but in [gigapascals](Gigapascal) (GPa).
Example:
* [Putty](Silly)(Silly Putty) (increasing pressure: length increases quickly, meaning low E)
* [Aluminum](Aluminium) (increasing pressure: length increases slowly, meaning high E)
Higher Young's modulus corresponds to greater (lengthwise) stiffness.
Although Young's modulus is named after the 19th-century British scientist [Young](Thomas)(Thomas Young (scientist)), the concept was developed in 1727 by [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler). The first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist [Riccati](Giordano)(Giordano Riccati) in 1782, pre-dating Young's work by 25 years.*The Rational mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies, 1638–1788*: Introduction to Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia, vol. X and XI, Seriei Secundae. Orell Fussli. The term modulus is derived from the [Latin](Latin) [term](root)(Root (linguistics)) *[modus](wiktionary:modus)* which means *measure*.
## Definition
### Linear elasticity
A solid material will undergo [deformation](elastic)(elastic deformation) when a small load is applied to it in compression or extension. Elastic deformation is reversible, meaning that the material returns to its original shape after the load is removed.
At near-zero stress and strain, the stress–strain curve is [linear](linear), and the relationship between stress and strain is described by [law](Hooke's)(Hooke's law) that states stress is proportional to strain. The coefficient of proportionality is Young's modulus. The higher the modulus, the more stress is needed to create the same amount of strain; an idealized [body](rigid)(rigid body) would have an infinite Young's modulus. Conversely, a very soft material (such as a fluid) would deform without force, and would have zero Young's modulus.
Not many materials are linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation.
## Not to be confused with
Material stiffness should not be confused with these properties:
* [Strength](Strength of materials): maximum amount of stress that material can withstand while staying in the elastic (reversible) deformation regime;
* Geometric stiffness: a global characteristic of the body that depends on its shape, and not only on the local properties of the material; for instance, an [I-beam](I beam) has a higher bending stiffness than a rod of the same material for a given mass per length;
* [Hardness](Hardness): relative resistance of the material's surface to penetration by a harder body;
* [Toughness](Toughness): amount of energy that a material can absorb before fracture.
## Usage
Young's modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of an [isotropic](isotropic) elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. The Young's modulus directly applies to cases of uniaxial stress; that is, tensile or compressive stress in one direction and no stress in the other directions. Young's modulus is also used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a [determinate](statically)(statically determinate#Statically determinate) [beam](beam (structure)) when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports.
Other elastic calculations usually require the use of one additional elastic property, such as the [modulus](shear)(shear modulus) G, [modulus](bulk)(bulk modulus) K, and [ratio](Poisson's)(Poisson's ratio) \nu. Any two of these parameters are sufficient to fully describe elasticity in an isotropic material. For homogeneous isotropic materials [relations](simple)(Elastic modulus) exist between elastic constants that allow calculating them all as long as two are known:
:E = 2G(1+\nu) = 3K(1-2\nu).
### Linear versus non-linear
Young's modulus represents the factor of proportionality in [law](Hooke's)(Hooke's law), which relates the stress and the strain. However, Hooke's law is only valid under the assumption of an *elastic* and *linear* response. Any real material will eventually fail and break when stretched over a very large distance or with a very large force; however, all solid materials exhibit nearly Hookean behavior for small enough strains or stresses. If the range over which Hooke's law is valid is large enough compared to the typical stress that one expects to apply to the material, the material is said to be linear. Otherwise, (if the typical stress one would apply is outside the linear range) the material is said to be non-linear.
[Steel](Steel), [fiber](carbon)(carbon (fiber)) and [glass](glass) among others are usually considered linear materials, while other materials such as [rubber](rubber) and [soils](soils) are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification: if very small stresses or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if very high stress or strain is applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For example, as the linear theory implies [reversibility](Reversible process (thermodynamics)), it would be absurd to use the linear theory to describe the failure of a steel bridge under a high load; although steel is a linear material for most applications, it is not in such a case of catastrophic failure.
In [mechanics](solid)(solid mechanics), the slope of the [curve](stress–strain)(stress–strain curve) at any point is called the [modulus](tangent)(tangent modulus). It can be experimentally determined from the [slope](slope) of a stress–strain curve created during [test](tensile)(tensile test)s conducted on a sample of the material.
### Directional materials
Young's modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are [isotropic](isotropy), and their mechanical properties are the same in all orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then become [anisotropic](anisotropy), and Young's modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector. Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, [fiber](carbon)(carbon (fiber)) has a much higher Young's modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other such materials include [wood](wood) and [concrete](reinforced)(reinforced concrete). Engineers can use this directional phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures.
### Temperature dependence
The Young's modulus of metals varies with the temperature and can be realized through the change in the interatomic bonding of the atoms, and hence its change is found to be dependent on the change in the work function of the metal. Although classically, this change is predicted through fitting and without a clear underlying mechanism (for example, the Watchman's formula), the Rahemi-Li model demonstrates how the change in the electron work function leads to change in the Young's modulus of metals and predicts this variation with calculable parameters, using the generalization of the [potential](Lennard-Jones)(Lennard-Jones potential) to solids. In general, as the temperature increases, the Young's modulus decreases via E(T) = \beta(\varphi(T))^6 where the electron work function varies with the temperature as \varphi(T)=\varphi_0-\gamma\frac{(k_BT)^2}{\varphi_0} and \gamma is a calculable material property which is dependent on the crystal structure (for example, BCC, FCC). \varphi_0 is the electron work function at T=0 and \beta is constant throughout the change.
## Calculation
Young's modulus *E*, can be calculated by dividing the [stress](tensile)(Stress (physics)), \sigma(\varepsilon), by the [extensional strain](engineering)(Strain (physics)), \varepsilon, in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the physical [curve](stress–strain)(stress–strain curve):
E \equiv \frac{\sigma(\varepsilon)}{\varepsilon}= \frac{F/A}{\Delta L/L_0} = \frac{F L_0} {A \, \Delta L}
where
*E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
*F is the force exerted on an object under tension;
*A is the actual cross-sectional area, which equals the area of the cross-section perpendicular to the applied force;
*\Delta L is the amount by which the length of the object changes (\Delta L is positive if the material is stretched, and negative when the material is compressed);
*L_0 is the original length of the object.
### Force exerted by stretched or contracted material
Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.
:F = \frac{E A \, \Delta L} {L_0}
where F is the force exerted by the material when contracted or stretched by \Delta L.
[law](Hooke's)(Hooke's law) for a stretched wire can be derived from this formula:
:F = \left( \frac{E A} {L_0} \right) \, \Delta L = k x
where it comes in saturation
:k \equiv \frac {E A} {L_0} \, and x \equiv \Delta L.
But note that the elasticity of coiled springs comes from [modulus](shear)(shear modulus), not Young's modulus.
### Elastic potential energy
The [potential energy](elastic)(elastic potential energy) stored in a linear elastic material is given by the integral of the Hooke's law:
:U_e = \int {k x}\, dx = \frac {1} {2} k x^2.
now by explicating the intensive variables:
:U_e = \int \frac{E A \, \Delta L} {L_0}\, d\Delta L = \frac {E A} {L_0} \int \Delta L \, d\Delta L = \frac {E A \, {\Delta L}^2} {2 L_0}
This means that the elastic potential energy density (that is, per unit volume) is given by:
:\frac{U_e} {A L_0} = \frac {E \, {\Delta L}^2} {2 L_0^2}
or, in simple notation, for a linear elastic material: u_e(\varepsilon) = \int {E \, \varepsilon}\, d\varepsilon = \frac {1} {2} E {\varepsilon}^2, since the strain is defined \varepsilon \equiv \frac {\Delta L} {L_0}.
In a nonlinear elastic material the Young's modulus is a function of the strain, so the second equivalence no longer holds, and the elastic energy is not a [function](quadratic)(quadratic function) of the strain:
: u_e(\varepsilon) = \int E(\varepsilon) \, \varepsilon \, d\varepsilon \ne \frac {1} {2} E \varepsilon^2
## Approximate values
[[YoungMod.gif|350px|thumb|Influences of selected glass component additions on Young's modulus of a specific base glass](Image:SpiderGraph)]
Young's modulus can vary somewhat due to differences in sample composition and test method. The rate of deformation has the greatest impact on the data collected, especially in [polymers](Polymer). The values here are approximate and only meant for relative comparison.
## See also
* [stiffness](Bending)(Bending stiffness)
* [Deflection](Deflection (engineering))
* [Deformation](Deformation (engineering))
* [modulus](Flexural)(Flexural modulus)
* [law](Hooke's)(Hooke's law)
* [excitation technique](Impulse)(Impulse excitation technique)
* [of materials properties](List)(List of materials properties)
* [(engineering)](Yield)(Yield (engineering))
## References
## Further reading
* [ASTM](ASTM) E 111, ["Standard Test Method for Young's Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulus"](http://www.astm.org/Standards/E111.htm)
* The *[Handbook](ASM)(ASM Handbook)* (various volumes) contains Young's Modulus for various materials and information on calculations. [Online version](http://products.asminternational.org/hbk/index.jsp)
## External links
* [Matweb: free database of engineering properties for over 115,000 materials](http://www.matweb.com/)
* [Young's Modulus for groups of materials, and their cost](http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/stiffness-cost/NS6Chart.html)
[(physics)](Category:Elasticity)(Category:Elasticity (physics))
[quantities](Category:Physical)(Category:Physical quantities)
[analysis](Category:Structural)(Category:Structural analysis)
|
Black Panther Party
|
black_panther_party
|
# Black Panther Party
*Revision ID: 1158605713 | Timestamp: 2023-06-05T03:16:51Z*
---
}}
| abbreviation = BPP
| leader = [Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton)
| foundation =
| dissolution =
| membership = 5,000 (1969)
| predecessor =
| successor =
| headquarters = [Oakland](Oakland), [California](California)
| newspaper = *[Black Panther](The)(The Black Panther (newspaper))*
| ideology =
* [Marxism–Leninism](Marxism–Leninism)
* [Maoism](Maoism)
* [rights](Gun)(Gun rights)
* [Womanism](Womanism)
* [Anti-imperialism](Anti-imperialism)
* [Intercommunalism](Intercommunalism) (later)
}}
| position = [Far-left](Far-left politics)
| religion =
| international =
| colors = |border=darkgray}} [Black](Black)
| slogan =
| country = United States
}}
The **Black Panther Party** (originally the **Black Panther Party for Self-Defense**) was a [Marxist-Leninist](Marxism-Leninism) and [power](black)(Black Power movement) political organization founded by college students [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) and [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton) in October 1966 in [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California). The party was active in the United States between 1966 and 1982, with chapters in many major American cities, including [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [York](New)(New York City), [Chicago](Chicago), [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [Seattle](Seattle), and [Philadelphia](Philadelphia). They were also active in many prisons and had international chapters in the United Kingdom and Algeria. Upon its inception, the party's core practice was its [carry](open)(Open carry in the United States) patrols ("copwatching") designed to challenge the [force and misconduct](excessive)(police brutality in the United States) of the [Police Department](Oakland)(Oakland Police Department). From 1969 onward, the party created social programs, including the [Breakfast for Children](Free)(Free Breakfast for Children) Programs, education programs, and community health clinics.; ; ; The Black Panther Party advocated for [struggle](class)(Class conflict), claiming to represent the [proletarian](Proletariat) [vanguard](Vanguardism).
In 1969, [Edgar Hoover](J.)(J. Edgar Hoover), the Director of the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) (FBI), described the party as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country."}}}} The FBI sabotaged the party with an illegal and covert counterintelligence program ([COINTELPRO](COINTELPRO)) of [surveillance](surveillance), [infiltration](Entryism), [perjury](perjury), [harassment](police)(Police misconduct), all designed to undermine and criminalize the party. The FBI was involved in the 1969 assassinations of [Hampton](Fred)(Fred Hampton), and [Clark](Mark)(Mark Clark (activist)), who were killed in a raid by the [Police Department](Chicago)(Chicago Police Department).[Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities](https://archive.org/stream/finalreportofsel03unit#page/184/mode/2up), United States Senate. Black Panther Party members were involved in many fatal firefights with police. [Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton) allegedly killed officer John Frey in 1967, and [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver) (Minister of Information) led an ambush in 1968 of Oakland police officers, in which two officers were wounded and Panther treasurer [Hutton](Bobby)(Bobby Hutton) was killed. The party suffered many internal conflicts, resulting in the murders of [Rackley](Alex)(Alex Rackley) and [Van Patter](Betty)(Murder of Betty Van Patter).
Government persecution initially contributed to the party's growth among [Americans](African)(African Americans) and the political left, who both valued the party as a powerful force against [facto segregation](de)(Racial segregation in the United States) and the US [draft](military)(Conscription in the United States) during the Vietnam War. Party membership peaked in 1970 and gradually declined over the next decade, due to vilification by the mainstream press and infighting largely fomented by COINTELPRO. Support further declined over reports of the party's alleged criminal activities, such as drug dealing and [extortion](extortion).[Foner](Philip)(Philip Foner), *The Black Panthers Speak*, Da Capo Press, 2002.
The party's history is controversial. Scholars have characterized the Black Panther Party as the most influential black power organization of the late 1960s, and "the strongest link between the domestic Black Liberation Struggle and global opponents of [imperialism](American)(American imperialism)". Other scholars have described the party as more criminal than political, characterized by "defiant posturing over substance".
## History
### Origins
[[File:Black-Panther-Party-founders-newton-seale-forte-howard-hutton.jpg|thumb|Original six members of the Black Panther Party (1966)
Top left to right: ["Big Man" Howard](Elbert)(Elbert Howard), [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton) (Defense Minister), Sherwin Forte, [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) (chairman)
Bottom: [Forte](Reggie)(Reggie Forte) and [Bobby Hutton](Little)(Bobby Hutton) (Treasurer).]]
[[File:Black Panther 65-27 HD 2Mbps.webm|thumb|Newsreel in which [Cleaver](Kathleen)(Kathleen Cleaver) spoke at Hutton Memorial Park in Alameda County, California. The footage also shows a student protest demonstration at Alameda County Courthouse, [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California). Black Panther Party leaders [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton), [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver), and [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) spoke on a 10-point program they wanted from the administration which was to include full employment, decent housing and education, an end to police brutality, and black people to be exempt from the military. Black Panther Party members are shown as they marched in uniform. Students at the rally marched, sang, clapped hands, and carried protest signs. Police in riot gear controlled marchers.]]
During [War II](World)(World War II), tens of thousands of black people left the [states](Southern)(Southern United States) during the [Great Migration](Second)(Second Great Migration (African American)), moving to [Oakland](Oakland, California) and other cities in the [Area](Bay)(San Francisco Bay Area) to find work in the war industries such as [Shipyards](Kaiser)(Kaiser Shipyards). The sweeping migration transformed the Bay Area as well as cities throughout the [West](Western United States) and [North](Northern United States), altering the once white-dominated demographics. A new generation of young black people growing up in these cities faced new forms of poverty and racism unfamiliar to their parents, and they sought to develop new forms of politics to address them. Black Panther Party membership "consisted of recent migrants whose families traveled north and west to escape the southern racial regime, only to be confronted with new forms of segregation and repression". In the early 1960s, the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil rights movement) had dismantled the [Crow](Jim)(Jim Crow laws) system of racial caste subordination in the South with tactics of [civil disobedience](non-violent)(Pacifism), and demanding full citizenship rights for black people. However, not much changed in the cities of the North and West. As the wartime and post-war jobs which drew much of the black migration "fled to the suburbs along with white residents", the black population was concentrated in poor "urban ghettos" with high unemployment and substandard housing and was mostly excluded from political representation, top universities, and the middle class. Northern and Western police departments were almost all white. In 1966, only 16 of Oakland's 661 police officers were African American (less than 2.5%).McElrath, Jessica. [The Black Panthers](https://web.archive.org/web/20070407155740/http://afroamhistory.about.com/od/blackpanthers/a/blackpanthers.htm). afroamhistory.about.com. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
Civil rights tactics proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had "led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience", such as [SNCC](Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) and [CORE](Congress of Racial Equality), went into decline. By 1966 a "Black Power ferment" emerged, consisting largely of young urban black people, posing a question the Civil Rights Movement could not answer: "How would black people in America win not only formal citizenship rights, but actual economic and political power?" Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed study groups and political organizations, and from this ferment the Black Panther Party emerged.
### Founding the Black Panther Party
In late October 1966, [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton) and [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) founded the Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense). In formulating a new politics, they drew on their work with a variety of Black Power organizations.; ; ; Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at [College](Merritt)(Merritt College). They joined Donald Warden's [Association](Afro-American)(Afro-American Association), where they read widely, debated, and organized in an emergent black nationalist tradition inspired by [X](Malcolm)(Malcolm X) and others. Eventually dissatisfied with Warden's accommodationism, they developed a revolutionary anti-imperialist perspective working with more active and militant groups like the Soul Students Advisory Council and the [Action Movement](Revolutionary)(Revolutionary Action Movement).[Robin D. G. Kelley "Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141006105851/http://kasamaproject.org/race-liberation/2005-37black-like-mao-red-china-black-revolution-part-2), *Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics*, Vol. 1, No. 4, Fall 1999 (Columbia University Press). Their paid jobs running youth service programs at the North Oakland Neighborhood Anti-Poverty Center allowed them to develop a revolutionary nationalist approach to community service, later a key element in the Black Panther Party's "community survival programs."
Dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the "brothers on the block", Huey and Bobby took matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, an unarmed young black man in San Francisco, Newton observed the violent insurrection that followed. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of [Power](Black)(Black Power) organizations. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a social force and believed that if he could stand up to the police, he could organize that force into political power. Inspired by [F. Williams](Robert)(Robert F. Williams)' armed resistance to the [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan) (KKK) and Williams' book *[with Guns](Negroes)(Negroes with Guns)*,["Negroes With Guns-Description"](http://wsupress.wayne.edu/books/detail/negroes-guns) , Wayne State University Press website. Newton studied [laws in California](gun)(gun laws in California) extensively. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the [Rebellion](Watts)(Watts riots), he decided to organize patrols to follow the police around to monitor for incidents of brutality. But with a crucial difference: his patrols would carry loaded guns. Huey and Bobby raised enough money to buy two shotguns by buying bulk quantities of the recently publicized Mao's [Red Book](Little)(Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung) and reselling them to leftists and liberals on the [Berkeley](University of California, Berkeley) campus at three times the price. According to Bobby Seale, they would "sell the books, make the money, buy the guns, and go on the streets with the guns. We'll protect a mother, protect a brother, and protect the community from the racist cops."
On October 29, 1966, [Carmichael](Stokely)(Stokely Carmichael) – a leader of SNCC – championed the call for "[Power](Black)(Black Power)" and came to [Berkeley](Berkeley, California) to keynote a Black Power conference. At the time, he was promoting the armed organizing efforts of the [County Freedom Organization](Lowndes)(Lowndes County Freedom Organization) (LCFO) in Alabama and their use of the Black Panther symbol. Newton and Seale decided to adopt the Black Panther logo and form their own organization called the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense. Newton and Seale decided on a uniform of blue shirts, black pants, black leather jackets, black berets. Sixteen-year-old [Hutton](Bobby)(Bobby Hutton) was their first recruit.
By January 1967, the BPP opened its first official headquarters in an Oakland storefront, and published the first issue of *[Black Panther: Black Community News Service](The)(The Black Panther (newspaper))*.
[[Panther Party founders Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton standing in the street, armed with a Colt .45 and a shotgun.](File:Black-Panther-Party-armed-guards-in-street-shotguns.jpg|thumb|Black)]
### Late 1966 to early 1967
#### Oakland patrols of police
The initial tactic of the party utilized contemporary [gun laws](open-carry)(Open carry in the United States) to protect Party members when policing the police. This act was done to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods. When confronted by a police officer, Party members cited laws proving they had done nothing wrong and threatened to take to court any officer that violated their constitutional rights. Between the end of 1966 to the start of 1967, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense's armed police patrols in Oakland black communities attracted a small handful of members. Numbers grew slightly starting in February 1967, when the party provided an [escort](armed)(bodyguard) at the San Francisco airport for [Shabazz](Betty)(Betty Shabazz), Malcolm X's widow and keynote speaker for a conference held in his honor.*Black Panther Newspaper*, May 15, 1967, p. 3;
The Black Panther Party's focus on militancy was often construed as open hostility, feeding a reputation of violence even though early efforts by the Panthers focused primarily on promoting social issues and the exercise of their legal right to carry arms. The Panthers employed a California law that permitted carrying a loaded rifle or shotgun as long as it was publicly displayed and pointed at no one. Generally this was done while monitoring and observing police behavior in their neighborhoods, with the Panthers arguing that this emphasis on active militancy and openly carrying their weapons was necessary to protect individuals from police violence. For example, chants like "The Revolution has come, it's time to pick up the gun. Off the pigs!", helped create the Panthers' reputation as a violent organization.
#### Rallies in Richmond, California
The black community of [California](Richmond,)(Richmond, California), wanted protection against police brutality. With only three main streets for entering and exiting the neighborhood, it was easy for police to control, contain, and suppress the population. On April 1, 1967, a black unarmed twenty-two-year-old construction worker named [Dowell](Denzil)(Denzil Dowell) was shot dead by police in North Richmond. Dowell's family contacted the Black Panther Party for assistance after county officials refused to investigate the case. The Party held rallies in North Richmond that educated the community on armed self-defense and the Denzil Dowell incident. Police seldom interfered at these rallies because every Panther was armed and no laws were broken. The Party's ideals resonated with several community members, who then brought their own guns to the next rallies.
#### Protest at the Statehouse
[[Panther demonstration.jpg|thumb|Black Panther Party armed demonstration on May 2, 1967](File:Black)]
Awareness of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense grew rapidly after their May 2, 1967 protest at the [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol). On May 2, 1967, the [State Assembly](California)(California State Assembly) Committee on Criminal Procedure was scheduled to convene to discuss what was known as the "[Act](Mulford)(Mulford Act)", which would make the public carrying of loaded firearms illegal. Newton, with Minister of Information [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver), put together a plan to send a group of 26 armed Panthers led by Seale from Oakland to Sacramento to protest the bill. The group entered the assembly carrying their weapons, an incident which was widely publicized, and which prompted police to arrest Seale and five others. The group pleaded guilty to misdemeanor charges of disrupting a legislative session. At the time of the protest, the Party had fewer than 100 members in total.
[[File:Black Panther convention2.jpg|thumb|Black Panther convention, [Memorial](Lincoln)(Lincoln Memorial), June 19, 1970.]]
}}In 1967, the [Act](Mulford)(Mulford Act) was passed by the California legislature and signed by governor [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan). The bill was crafted in response to members of the Black Panther Party who were copwatching. The bill repealed a law that allowed the public carrying of loaded firearms.
#### Ten-point program
The Black Panther Party first publicized its original "What We Want Now!" Ten-Point program on May 15, 1967, following the Sacramento action, in the second issue of *[Black Panther](The)(The Black Panther (newspaper))* newspaper.
# We want freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black Community.
# We want full employment for our people.
# We want an end to the robbery by the Capitalists of our Black Community.
# We want decent housing, fit for shelter of human beings.
# We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in present-day society.
# We want all Black men to be exempt from military service.
# We want an immediate end to POLICE BRUTALITY and MURDER of Black people.
# We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails.
# We want all Black people when brought to trial to be tried in court by a jury of their peer group or people from their Black Communities, as defined by the Constitution of the United States.
# We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice and peace.
### Late 1967 to early 1968
#### COINTELPRO
[[File:COINTELPRO - Jean Seberg.jpg|thumb|[COINTELPRO](COINTELPRO) document outlining the FBI's plans to 'neutralize' [Seberg](Jean)(Jean Seberg) for her support for the Black Panther Party, by attempting to publicly "cause her embarrassment" and "tarnish her image".]]
In August 1967, the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) (FBI) instructed its program "[COINTELPRO](COINTELPRO)" to "neutralize ... black nationalist hate groups" and other dissident groups. In September 1968, FBI Director [Edgar Hoover](J.)(J. Edgar Hoover) described the Black Panthers as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country".Stohl, 249. By 1969, the Black Panthers and their allies had become primary COINTELPRO targets, singled out in 233 of the 295 authorized "[Nationalist](Black)(Black nationalism)" COINTELPRO actions.["COINTELPRO" A Huey P. Newton Story](https://www.pbs.org/hueypnewton/actions/actions_cointelpro.html) , Public Broadcasting System website. The goals of the program were to prevent the unification of militant black nationalist groups and to weaken their leadership, as well as to discredit them to reduce their support and growth. The initial targets included the [Christian Leadership Conference](Southern)(Southern Christian Leadership Conference), the [Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](Student)(Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), the Revolutionary Action Movement and the [of Islam](Nation)(Nation of Islam), as well as leaders including the Rev. [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.), [Carmichael](Stokely)(Stokely Carmichael), [Rap Brown](H.)(H. Rap Brown), Maxwell Stanford and [Muhammad](Elijah)(Elijah Muhammad). As assistant FBI Director [Sullivan](William)(William C. Sullivan) later testified in front of the [Committee](Church)(Church Committee), the Bureau "did not differentiate" between Soviet spies and suspected Communists in black nationalist movements when deploying surveillance and neutralization tactics.
COINTELPRO attempted to create rivalries between black nationalist factions and to exploit existing ones. One such attempt was to "intensify the degree of animosity" between the Black Panthers and the [Rangers](Blackstone)(Almighty Black P. Stone Nation), a Chicago street gang. The FBI sent an anonymous letter to the Rangers' gang leader claiming that the Panthers were threatening his life, a letter whose intent was to provoke "preemptive" violence against Panther leadership. In Southern California, the FBI made similar efforts to exacerbate a "gang war" between the Black Panther Party and a black nationalist group called the [Organization](US)(US Organization), allegedly sending a provocative letter to the US Organization to increase existing antagonism.
COINTELPRO also aimed to dismantle the Black Panther Party by targeting their social/community programs, including its Free Breakfast for Children program, whose success had served to "shed light on the government's failure to address child poverty and hunger—pointing to the limits of the nation's War on Poverty". According to Bloom & Martin, the FBI denounced the Party's efforts as a means of indoctrination because the Party taught and provided for children more effectively than the government. "Police and Federal Agents regularly harassed and intimidated program participants, supporters, and Party workers and sought to scare away donors and organizations that housed the programs like churches and community centers".["History of the Black Panther Party, Part Two" Civilrightsteaching.org/Teaching for Change.](http://www.civilrightsteaching.org/Handouts/BPPhandout.pdf)
Black Panther Party members were involved in many fatal firefights with police. Newton declared:
}}
#### Huey Newton charged with murdering John Frey
On October 28, 1967, [police](Oakland)(Oakland Police Department) officer John Frey was shot to death in an altercation with Huey P. Newton during a traffic stop in which Newton and backup officer Herbert Heanes also sustained gunshot wounds. Newton was convicted of voluntary manslaughter at trial, but the conviction was later overturned. In his book *Shadow of the Panther*, writer Hugh Pearson alleges that Newton was intoxicated in the hours before the incident, and claimed to have willfully killed John Frey.
#### Free Huey! campaign
At the time, Newton claimed that he had been falsely accused, leading to the Party's "Free Huey!" campaign. The police killing gained the party even wider recognition by the radical American left and it stimulated the growth of the Party nationwide. Newton was released after three years, when his conviction was reversed on appeal.December 15, 1971. "Case Against Newton Dropped". *The Dispatch* (Lexington, North Carolina) via UPI. Retrieved August 5, 2012.
As Newton awaited trial, the "Free Huey" campaign developed alliances with numerous students and anti-war activists, "advancing an anti-imperialist political ideology that linked the oppression of antiwar protestors to the oppression of blacks and Vietnamese". The "Free Huey" campaign attracted black power organizations, New Left groups, and other activist groups such as the [Labor Party](Progressive)(Progressive Labor Party (United States)), [Avakian](Bob)(Bob Avakian) of the Community for New Politics, and the Red Guard. For example, the Black Panther Party collaborated with the [and Freedom Party](Peace)(Peace and Freedom Party), which sought to promote a strong antiwar and antiracist politics in opposition to the establishment democratic party. The Black Panther Party provided needed legitimacy to the Peace and Freedom Party's racial politics and in return received invaluable support for the "Free Huey" campaign.
#### Founding of the L. A. Chapter
In 1968 the southern California chapter was founded by ["Bunchy" Carter](Alprentice)(Bunchy Carter) in Los Angeles. Carter was the leader of the [Street](Slauson)(Slauson Street) gang, and many of the L.A. chapter's early recruits were Slausons.Gerald Horne, *Fire this Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s*, University of Virginia Press, 1995.
#### Killing of Bobby Hutton
[James Hutton](Bobby)(Bobby Hutton) was born April 21, 1950, in Jefferson County Arkansas. At the age of three, he and his family moved to Oakland, California after being harassed by racist vigilante groups associated with the Ku Klux Klan. In December 1966, he became the first treasurer and recruit of the Black Panther Party at the age of just 16 years old.
On April 6, 1968, two days after the [of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.](assassination)(Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.), and with riots raging across cities in the United States, the 17-year-old Hutton was traveling with Eldridge Cleaver and other BPP members in a car. The group confronted Oakland Police officers, then fled to an apartment building where they engaged in a 90-minute gun battle with the police. The standoff ended with Cleaver wounded and Hutton voluntarily surrendering. According to Cleaver, although Hutton had stripped down to his underwear and had his hands raised in the air to prove that he was unarmed, Oakland Police shot Hutton more than 12 times, killing him. Two police officers were also shot. He became the first member of the party to be killed by police.
Although at the time the BPP claimed that the police had ambushed them, several party members later admitted that Cleaver had led the Panther group on a deliberate ambush of the police officers, provoking the shoot-out.Kate Coleman, 1980, ["Souled Out: Eldridge Cleaver Admits He Ambushed Those Cops"](http://colemantruth.net/kate1.pdf) . *New West Magazine*. David Hilliard, This Side of Glory Seven other Panthers, including Chief of Staff David Hilliard, were also arrested. Hutton's death became a rallying issue for Panther supporters.
### Late 1968
#### Chronology
* Early Spring 1968: Eldridge Cleaver's *[on Ice](Soul)(Soul on Ice (book))* published.
* April 6, 1968: Death of Bobby James Hutton, killed in a gunfight with Oakland police.
* April 17, 1968: Funeral for Bobby James Hutton in Berkeley, followed by a rally at the Alameda County Courthouse.
* April to mid-June 1968: Cleaver in jail.
* Mid-July 1968: Huey Newton's murder trial commences. Panthers hold daily "Free Huey" rallies outside the courthouse.
* August 5, 1968: Three Panthers killed in a gun battle with police at a Los Angeles gas station.
* Early September 1968: Newton convicted of manslaughter.
* Late September 1968: Days before he is due to return to prison to serve out a rape conviction, Cleaver flees to Cuba and later Algeria.
* October 5, 1968: A Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in Los Angeles.
* November 1968: The BPP finds numerous supporters, establishing relationships with the [and Freedom Party](Peace)(Peace and Freedom Party) and [SNCC](Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee). Money contributions flow in, and BPP leadership begins embezzlement.
* November 6, 1968: Lauren Watson, head of the Denver chapter, is arrested by Denver Police for fleeing a police officer and resisting arrest. His trial will be filmed and televised in 1970 as [The City and County of Denver vs. Lauren R. Watson."]("Trial:)(Leonard E. Davies)
* November 20, 1968: [Lee Brent](William)(William Lee Brent) and two accomplices in a van marked "Black Panther Black Community News Service" allegedly rob a gas station in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco)'s [district](Bayview)(Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco) of $80, resulting in a [shootout](shootout) with police.Fimrite, Peter, [William Lee Brent -- former Black Panther hijacked jet to Cuba](http://m.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/William-Lee-Brent-former-Black-Panther-2466571.php) , *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*, November 20, 2006
In 1968, the group shortened its name to the Black Panther Party and sought to focus directly on political action. Members were encouraged to carry guns and to defend themselves against violence. An influx of college students joined the group, which had consisted chiefly of "brothers off the block". This created some tension in the group. Some members were more interested in supporting the Panthers' social programs, while others wanted to maintain their "street mentality".
By 1968, the Party had expanded into many U.S. cities, including [Atlanta](Atlanta), [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Boston](Boston), [Chicago](Chicago), [Cleveland](Cleveland), [Dallas](Dallas), [Denver](Denver), [Detroit](Detroit), [City](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri), [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [Newark](Newark, New Jersey), [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), [York City](New)(New York City), [Omaha](Omaha, Nebraska), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), [Diego](San)(San Diego), [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [Seattle](Seattle), [Toledo](Toledo, Ohio), and [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) Peak membership was near 5,000 by 1969, and [newspaper](their)(The Black Panther (newspaper)), under the editorial leadership of [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver), had a circulation of 250,000. The group created a [Program](Ten-Point)(Ten-Point Program (Black Panther Party)), a document that called for "Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice and Peace", as well as exemption from [conscription](Conscription in the United States) for black men, among other demands. With the Ten-Point program, "What We Want, What We Believe", the Black Panther Party expressed its economic and political grievances.
Curtis Austin states that by late 1968, Black Panther ideology had evolved from black nationalism to become more a "revolutionary internationalist movement":
}}
Panther slogans and iconography spread. At the [Summer Olympics](1968)(1968 Summer Olympics), [Smith](Tommie)(Tommie Smith) and [Carlos](John)(John Carlos), two American medalists, gave the [power salute](black)(1968 Olympics Black Power salute) during the American national anthem. The [Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee) banned them from all future Olympic Games. Film star [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda) publicly supported Huey Newton and the Black Panthers during the early 1970s. She actually ended up informally adopting the daughter of two Black Panther members, [Luana Williams](Mary)(Mary Williams (activist)). Fonda and other Hollywood celebrities became involved in the Panthers' leftist programs. The Panthers attracted a wide variety of left-wing revolutionaries and political activists, including writer [Genet](Jean)(Jean Genet), former *[Ramparts](Ramparts (magazine))* magazine editor [Horowitz](David)(David Horowitz) (who later became a major critic of what he describes as Panther criminality) and left-wing lawyer [R. Garry](Charles)(Charles Garry), who acted as counsel in the Panthers' many legal battles.
The BPP adopted a "Serve the People" program, which at first involved a free breakfast program for children. By the end of 1968, the BPP had established 38 chapters and branches, claiming more than five thousand members. Eldridge and [Cleaver](Kathleen)(Kathleen Cleaver) left the country days before Cleaver was to turn himself in to serve the remainder of a thirteen-year sentence for a 1958 rape conviction. They settled in Algeria.
By the end of the year, party membership peaked at around 2,000. Party members engaged in criminal activities such as extortion, stealing, violent discipline of BPP members, and robberies. The BPP leadership took one-third of the proceeds from robberies committed by BPP members.
#### Survival programs
}}
|width=40em}}
Inspired by [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong)'s advice to revolutionaries in *[Little Red Book](The)(Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung)*, Newton called on the Panthers to "serve the people" and to make "survival programs" a priority within its branches. The most famous of their programs was the [Breakfast for Children Program](Free)(Free Breakfast for Children), initially run out of an [Oakland](Oakland, California) church.
The Free Breakfast For Children program was especially significant because it served as a space for educating youth about the current condition of the Black community, and the actions that the Party was taking to address that condition. "While the children ate their meal[s], members [the Party](of) taught them liberation lessons consisting of Party messages and Black history." Through this program, the Party was able to influence young minds, and strengthen their ties to communities as well as gain widespread support for their ideologies. The breakfast program became so popular that the Panthers Party claimed to have fed twenty thousand children in the 1968–69 school year.
Other survival programs were free services such as clothing distribution, classes on politics and economics, free medical clinics, lessons on self-defense and first aid, transportation to upstate prisons for family members of inmates, an emergency-response ambulance program, drug and alcohol rehabilitation, and testing for [disease](sickle-cell)(Sickle cell disease). The free medical clinics were very significant because they modeled an idea of how the world might work with free medical care, eventually being established in 13 places across the country. These clinics were involved in community-based health care that had roots connected to the Civil Rights Movement, which made it possible to establish the Medical Committee for Human Rights.
#### Political activities
In 1968, BPP Minister of Information Eldridge Cleaver ran for presidential office on the [and Freedom Party](Peace)(Peace and Freedom Party) ticket. They were a big influence on the [Panther Party](White)(White Panther Party), tied to the Detroit/Ann Arbor band [MC5](MC5) and their manager [Sinclair](John)(John Sinclair (poet)) (author of the book *Guitar Army*), which also promulgated a ten-point program.
### 1969
#### Chronology
* Early 1969: In late 1968 and January 1969, the BPP began to purge members due to fears about law enforcement infiltration and various petty disagreements.
* January 14, 1969: The Los Angeles chapter was involved in a shootout with members of the black nationalist [Organization](US)(US Organization), and two Panthers are killed.
* January 1969: The Oakland BPP begins the first free breakfast program for children.
* March 1969: There is a second purge of BPP members.
* April 1969: Members of the New York chapter, known as the [21](Panther)(Panther 21) are indicted and jailed for a bombing conspiracy. All would eventually be acquitted.
* May 1969: Two more southern California Panthers are killed in violent disputes with US Organization members.
* May 1969: Members of the New Haven chapter torture and murder [Rackley](Alex)(Alex Rackley), who they suspected of being an informant.
* July 1969 the BPP organized the [Front Against Fascism](United)(United Front Against Fascism) conference in Oakland, which was attended by around 5,000 people representing a number of groups.
* July 17, 1969: Two policemen are shot and a Panther is killed in a gun battle in Chicago.
* Late July 1969: The BPP ideology undergoes a shift, with a turn toward self-discipline and anti-racism.
* August 1969: Bobby Seale is indicted and imprisoned in relation to the Rackley murder.
* October 18, 1969: A Panther is killed in a gunfight with police outside a Los Angeles restaurant.
* Mid-to-late 1969: COINTELPRO activity increases.
* November 13, 1969: A Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in Chicago.
* December 4, 1969: Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are killed by law enforcement in Chicago.
* Late 1969: David Hilliard, current BPP head, advocates violent revolution. Panther membership is down significantly from the late 1968 peak.
#### Shoot-out with the US Organization
Violent conflict between the Panther chapter in LA and the [Organization](US)(US Organization), a black nationalist group, resulted in shootings and beatings and led to the murders of at least four Black Panther Party members. On January 17, 1969, Los Angeles Panther Captain [Carter](Bunchy)(Bunchy Carter) and Deputy Minister [Huggins](John)(John Huggins) were killed in Campbell Hall on the [UCLA](University of California, Los Angeles) campus, in a gun battle with members of the US Organization. Another shootout between the two groups on March 17 led to further injuries. Two more Panthers died.
#### Black Panther Party Liberation Schools
Paramount to their beliefs regarding the need for individual agency to catalyze community change, the Black Panther Party (BPP) strongly supported the education of the masses. As part of their [Program](Ten-Point)(Ten-Point Program (Black Panther Party)) which set forth the ideals and goals of the party, they demanded an equitable education for all black people. Number 5 of the "What We Want Now!" section of the program reads: "We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in present-day society." To ensure that this occurred, the Black Panther Party took the education of their youth into their own hands by first establishing after-school programs and then opening up Liberation Schools in a variety of locations throughout the country which focused their curriculum on Black history, writing skills, and political science.Wahad, D. B., Abu-Jamal, M., Shakur, A., Fletcher, J., Jones, T., & Lotringer, S. (1993). *Still Black, Still Strong: Survivors of the U.S. War Against Black Revolutionaries*. Semiotexte. pp. 221–242
**Intercommunal Youth Institute**
The first Liberation School was opened by the Richmond Black Panthers in July 1969 with brunch served and snacks provided to students. Another school was opened in Mt. Vernon New York on July 17 of the subsequent year. These schools were informal in nature and more closely resembled after-school or summer programs.Murch, D. J. (2010). *Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California*. pp. 171–185 While these campuses were the first to open, the first full-time and longest-running Liberation school was opened in January 1971 in Oakland in response to the inequitable conditions in the Oakland Unified School District which was ranked one of the lowest-scoring districts in California.Woodard, K., Theoharis, J., & Gore, D. F. (2009). *Want to Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle*. New York University Press. pp. 168–181 Named the Intercommunal Youth Institute (IYI), this school, under the directorship of Brenda Bay, and later, [Huggins](Ericka)(Ericka Huggins), enrolled twenty-eight students in its first year, with the majority being the children of Black Panther parents. This number grew to fifty by the 1973–1974 school year. To provide full support for Black Panther parents whose time was spent organizing, some of the students and faculty members lived together year around. The school itself was dissimilar to traditional schools in a variety of ways including the fact that students were separated by academic performance rather than age and students were often provided one on one support as the faculty to student ratio was 1:10.
The Panther's goal in opening Liberation Schools, and specifically the Intercommunal Youth Institute, was to provide students with an education that was not being provided in the "white" schools,Programs. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://nhdblackpantherparty.weebly.com/programs.html as the public schools in the district employed a eurocentric assimilationist curriculum with little to no attention to black history and culture. While students were provided with traditional courses such as English, Math, and Science, they were also exposed to activities focused on class structure and the prevalence of [racism](institutional)(institutional racism).Liberation Schools. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://scalar.usc.edu/works/pictures-and-progress-the-black-panther-1966-2016/liberation-schools The overall goal of the school was to instill a sense of revolutionary consciousness in the students. With a strong belief in experiential learning, students had the opportunity to participate in community service projects as well as practice their writing skills by drafting letters to political prisoners associated with the Black Panther Party. Huggins is noted as saying, "I think that the school's principles came from the socialist principles we tried to live in the Black Panther Party. One of them being critical thinking—that children should learn not what to think but how to think ... the school was an expression of the collective wisdom of the people who envisioned it. And it was ... a living thing [that] changed every year. Joan Kelley oversaw funding for the Intercommunal Youth Institute which was provided through a combination of Black Panther fundraising and community support.
**Oakland Community School**
In 1974, due to increased interest in enrolling in the school, school officials decided to move to a larger facility and subsequently changed the school's name to Oakland Community School. During this year, the school graduated its first class. Although the student population continued to grow ranging between 50 and 150 between 1974 and 1977, the original core values of individualized instruction remained. In September 1977, the school received a special award from Governor Edmund Brown Jr. and the California Legislature for "having set the standard for the highest level of elementary education in the state.
The school eventually closed in 1982 due to governmental pressure on party leadership which caused insufficient membership and funds to continue running the school.
#### Killing of Fred Hampton and Mark Clark
In Chicago, on December 4, 1969, two Panthers were killed when the Chicago Police raided the home of Panther leader [Hampton](Fred)(Fred Hampton). The raid had been orchestrated by the police in conjunction with the FBI. Hampton was shot and killed, as was Panther guard [Clark](Mark)(Mark Clark (activist)). A federal investigation reported that only one shot was fired by the Panthers, and police fired at least 80 shots.Ted Gregory, ["Black Panther Raid and the Death of Fred Hampton"](https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/politics/chi-chicagodays-pantherraid-story-story.html) , *Chicago Tribune*. The only shot fired by the Panthers was from Mark Clark, who appeared to fire a single round determined to be the result of a reflexive death convulsion after he was immediately struck in the chest by shots from the police at the start of the raid.
Hampton was sleeping next to his pregnant fiancée and was subsequently shot twice in the head at point-blank range while unconscious. Coroner reports show that Hampton was drugged with a powerful barbiturate that night, and would have been unable to have been awoken by the sounds of the police raid.["BPP, Chicago Branch"](https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&q=william+o+neal%2C+hampton%2C+drugged&pg=PA672), *Encyclopedia of African-American History* (ABC-CLIO), p. 672. His body was then dragged into the hallway. He was 21 years old and unarmed at the time of his death. Seven other Panthers sleeping at the house at the time of the raid were then beaten and seriously wounded, then arrested under charges of aggravated assault and attempted murder of the officers involved in the raid. These charges would later be dropped.
Cook County State's Attorney [Hanrahan](Edward)(Edward Hanrahan) announced to the media later that the Panthers were first to shoot in the interaction and that they showed a "refusal to cease firing... when urged to do so several times." *New York Times* reporting would later demonstrate that this was not in fact the case and found a great deal of fake evidence being used by Chicago Police to assert their claims.John Kifner, "State's Attorney in Chicago Makes Photographs of Black Panther Apartment Available," *New York Times*, December 12, 1969.
Former FBI agent [Swearingen](Wesley)(M. Wesley Swearingen) asserts that the Bureau was guilty of a "plot to murder" the Panthers. Hampton had been slipped the barbiturates which had left him unconscious by William O'Neal, who had been working as an FBI informant. Hanrahan, his assistant and eight Chicago police officers were indicted by a federal grand jury over the raid, but the charges were later dismissed.Michael Newton, *The Encyclopedia of American Law Enforcement*, 2007. In 1979 civil action, Hampton's family won $1.85 million from the city of Chicago in a wrongful death settlement.["William Kunstler: Disturbing the Universe"](https://www.pbs.org/pov/disturbingtheuniverse/fbi_files4.php) https://www.pbs.org/pov/disturbingtheuniverse/ , PBS website.
#### Torture-murder of Alex Rackley
In May 1969, three members of the New Haven chapter tortured and murdered [Rackley](Alex)(Alex Rackley), a 19-year-old member of the New York chapter, because they suspected him of being a police informant. Three party officers—[Kimbro](Warren)(Warren Kimbro), [Sams, Jr.](George)(George Sams, Jr.), and [McLucas](Lonnie)(Lonnie McLucas)—later admitted taking part. Sams, who gave the order to shoot Rackley at the murder scene, turned state's evidence and testified that he had received orders personally from [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) to carry out the execution. Party supporters responded that Sams was himself the informant and an [provocateur](agent)(agent provocateur) employed by the FBI.Edward Jay Epstein, ["The Black Panthers and the Police: A Pattern of Genocide?"](http://www.edwardjayepstein.com/archived/panthers.htm) *New Yorker*, February 13, 1971. The case resulted in the [Haven Black Panther trials](New)(New Haven Black Panther trials) of 1970. Kimbro, Sams and McLucas were convicted of the murder, but the trials of Seale and [Huggins](Ericka)(Ericka Huggins) ended with a hung jury, and the prosecution chose not to seek another trial.
#### International ties
Activists from many countries around the globe supported the Panthers and their cause. In Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Finland, for example, left-wing activists organized a tour for Bobby Seale and Masai Hewitt in 1969. At each destination along the tour, the Panthers talked about their goals and the "Free Huey!" campaign. Seale and Hewitt made a stop in Germany as well, gaining support for the "Free Huey!" campaign.
### 1970
#### Chronology
* January 1970: [Bernstein](Leonard)(Leonard Bernstein) holds a fundraiser for the BPP, which was notoriously mocked by [Wolfe](Tom)(Tom Wolfe) in *[Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers](Radical)(Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers)*.
* Spring 1970: The Oakland BPP engages in another ambush of police officers with guns and fragmentation bombs. Two officers are wounded.
* May 1970: Huey Newton's conviction is overturned, but he remains incarcerated.
* July 1970: Newton tells *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* that "we've never advocated violence".
* August 1970: Newton is released from prison.
#### International travels
In 1970, a group of Panthers traveled through [Asia](Asia) and they were welcomed as guests of the governments of [Vietnam](North)(North Vietnam), [Korea](North)(North Korea), and [China](China). The group's first stop was in North Korea, where the Panthers met with local officials to discuss ways in which they could help each other fight against American imperialism. [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver) traveled to [Pyongyang](Pyongyang) twice in 1969 and 1970, and following these trips he made an effort to publicize the writings and works of North Korean leader [Il Sung](Kim)(Kim Il Sung) in the United States. After leaving North Korea, the group traveled to North Vietnam with the same agenda in mind: finding ways to put an end to American imperialism. Eldridge Cleaver was invited to speak to Black GIs by the North Vietnamese government. He encouraged them to join the Black Liberation Struggle by arguing that the United States government was only using them for its own purposes. Instead of risking their lives on the battlefield for a country that continued to oppress them, Cleaver believed that the black GIs should risk their lives in support of their own liberation. After leaving Vietnam, Cleaver met with the Chinese ambassador to Algeria to express their mutual animosity towards the American government.
When Algeria held its first Pan-African Cultural Festival, they invited many important figures from the United States. Among the important figures invited to the festival were Bobby Seale and [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver). The cultural festival allowed Black Panthers to network with representatives of various international anti-imperialist movements. This was a significant time, which led to the formation of the International Section of the Party.Marable, Manning; Agard-Jones, Vanessa (2008). *Transnational Blackness: Navigating the Global Color Line*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 183. . https://books.google.com/books?id=OEJaCwAAQBAJ&q=barbara+easley+cox+algiers&pg=PA183 It is at this festival that Cleaver met with the ambassador of North Korea, who later invited him to an International Conference of Revolutionary Journalists in Pyongyang. Eldridge also met with [Arafat](Yasser)(Yasser Arafat), and gave a speech supporting the Palestinians and their goal of achieving liberation.
### 1971–1974
Newton focused the BPP on the Party's Oakland school and various other social service programs. In early 1971, the BPP founded the "Intercommunal Youth Institute" in January 1971, with the intent of demonstrating how black youth ought to be educated. [Huggins](Ericka)(Ericka Huggins) was the director of the school and Regina Davis was an administrator. The school was unique in that it did not have grade levels but instead had different skill levels so an 11-year-old could be in second-level English and fifth-level science. Elaine Brown taught reading and writing to a group of 10- to 11-year-olds deemed "uneducable" by the system. The school children were given free busing; breakfast, lunch, and dinner; books and school supplies; children were taken to have medical checkups; many children were given free clothes.
#### Split
Significant disagreements among the Party's leaders over how to confront ideological differences led to a split within the party. Certain members felt that the Black Panthers should participate in local government and social services, while others encouraged constant conflict with the police. For some of the Party's supporters, the separations among political action, criminal activity, social services, access to power, and grass-roots identity became confusing and contradictory as the Panthers' political momentum was bogged down in the [justice system](criminal)(Criminal justice#Criminal justice system). These (and other) disagreements led to a split. In January 1971, Newton expelled [Pratt](Geronimo)(Geronimo Pratt) who, since 1970, had been in jail facing a pending murder charge. Newton also expelled two of the New York 21 and his own secretary, [Matthews](Connie)(Connie Matthews), who fled the country.
Some Panther leaders, such as [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton) and [Hilliard](David)(David Hilliard), favored a focus on community service coupled with self-defense; others, such as [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver), embraced a more confrontational strategy. In February 1971, Eldridge Cleaver deepened the schism in the party when he publicly criticized the Party for adopting a "[reformist](Reformism)" rather than "[revolutionary](revolutionary)" agenda and called for Hilliard's removal. Cleaver was expelled from the Central Committee but went on to lead a splinter group, the [Liberation Army](Black)(Black Liberation Army), which had previously existed as an underground paramilitary wing of the Party. The split turned violent, as the Newton and Cleaver factions carried out retaliatory assassinations of each other's members, resulting in the deaths of four people. From mid-to-late 1971, hundreds of members throughout the country quit the Black Panther Party.
In May 1971, Bobby Seale was acquitted of ordering the Rackley murder, and returned to Oakland.
#### Delegation to China
In late September 1971, Huey P. Newton led a delegation to China and stayed for 10 days. At every airport in China, Huey was greeted by thousands of people waving copies of the [Red Book](Little)(Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung) and displaying signs that said "we support the Black Panther Party, down with US imperialism" or "we support the American people but the Nixon imperialist regime must be overthrown". During the trip, the Chinese arranged for him to meet and have dinner with a [DPRK](North Korea) ambassador, a [Tanzania](Tanzania)n ambassador, and delegations from both [Vietnam](North)(North Vietnam) and the [Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam](Provisional)(Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam). Huey was under the impression he was going to meet Mao Zedong, but instead had two meetings with the first Premier of the People's Republic of China [Enlai](Zhou)(Zhou Enlai). One of these meetings also included Mao Zedong's wife [Qing](Jiang)(Jiang Qing). Huey described China as "a free and liberated territory with a socialist government".
#### Newton solidifies control and centralizes power in Oakland
In early 1972, the party began closing down dozens of chapters and branches all over the country and bringing members and operations to Oakland. The political arm of the southern California chapter was shut down and its members moved to Oakland, although the underground military arm remained for a time. The underground remnants of the LA chapter, which had emerged from the Slausons street gang, eventually re-emerged as the [Crips](Crips), a street gang who at first advocated social reform before devolving into racketeering. Minister of Education ["Masai" Hewitt](Ray)(Raymond Hewitt) created the Buddha Samurai, the party's underground security cadre in Oakland. Newton expelled Hewitt from the party later in 1972, but the security cadre remained in operation under the leadership of Flores Forbes. One of the cadre's main functions was to extort and rob drug dealers and after-hours clubs.
The party developed a five-year plan to take over the city of Oakland politically and focused nearly all of its resources on winning political power in the Oakland city government. Bobby Seale ran for mayor, Elaine Brown ran for city council, and other Panthers ran for minor offices. Neither Seale nor Brown were elected, and many Party members resigned after the losses, although a few Panthers won seats on local government commissions. Following the electoral defeat, Newton embarked on a major purge of the party in early 1974, expelling Bobby and John Seale, David and June Hilliard, Robert Bay, and numerous other top party leaders. Dozens of other Panthers loyal to Seale resigned or deserted.
#### Newton indicted for violent crimes
In 1974, Huey Newton and eight other Panthers were arrested and charged with assault on police officers. In August 1974, Newton went into exile in Cuba to avoid prosecution for the murder of Kathleen Smith, an eighteen-year-old prostitute. Newton was also indicted for pistol-whipping his tailor, Preston Callins. Although Newton confided to friends that Kathleen Smith was his "first nonpolitical murder", he was ultimately acquitted, after one witness's testimony was impeached by her admission that she had been smoking marijuana on the night of the murder, and another prostitute witness recanted her testimony. Newton was also acquitted of assaulting Preston Callins after Callins refused to press charges.
### 1974–1977
#### The Panthers under Elaine Brown
In 1974, as Huey Newton prepared to go into exile in Cuba, he appointed [Brown](Elaine)(Elaine Brown) as the first Chairwoman of the Party. Under Brown's leadership, the Party became involved in organizing for more radical electoral campaigns, including Brown's 1975 unsuccessful run for Oakland City Council.Perkins, Margo V. *Autobiography As Activism: Three Black Women of the Sixties*. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000, p. 5. The Party supported [Wilson](Lionel)(Lionel Wilson (politician)) in his successful election as the first black mayor of Oakland, in exchange for Wilson's assistance in having criminal charges dropped against Party member Flores Forbes, leader of the Buddha Samurai cadre.
In addition to changing the Party's direction towards more involvement in the electoral arena, Brown also increased the influence of women Panthers by placing them in more visible roles within the previously male-dominated organization.
#### Death of Betty van Patter
Panther leader Elaine Brown hired [Van Patter](Betty)(Murder of Betty Van Patter) in 1974 as a bookkeeper. Van Patter had previously served as a bookkeeper for *[Ramparts](Ramparts (magazine))* magazine, and was introduced to the Panther leadership by [Horowitz](David)(David Horowitz), who had been the editor of *Ramparts* and a major fundraiser and board member for the Panther school.Horowitz, David (December 13, 1999) ["Who killed Betty Van Patter?"](http://www.salon.com/news/col/horo/1999/12/13/betty/index.html) http://www.salon.com/1999/12/13/betty/ *[Salon.com](http://www.salon.com/index.html) .* Later that year, after a dispute with Brown over financial irregularities, Van Patter went missing on December 13, 1974. Some weeks later, her severely beaten corpse was found on a [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay) beach.
There was insufficient evidence for police to charge anyone with van Patter's murder, but the Black Panther Party leadership was "almost universally believed to be responsible".[Frank Browning. The Strange Journey of David Horowitz](https://books.google.com/books?id=recDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT28) . *Mother Jones*, May 1987, p. 34 (on [books](Google)(Google books))Christopher Hitchens, "Left-leaving, left-leaning", *Los Angeles Times*, November 16, 2003. Huey Newton later allegedly confessed to a friend that he had ordered Van Patter's murder, and that Van Patter had been tortured and raped before being killed.
FBI files investigating Van Patter were destroyed in 2009 for reasons the FBI has declined to provide.
### 1977–1982
#### Return of Huey Newton and the demise of the party
In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba, and received complaints from male members about the excessive power of women in the organization, who now outnumbered men. According to Elaine Brown, Newton authorized the physical punishment of school administrator Regina Davis for scolding a male coworker. Davis was hospitalized with a broken jaw. Brown said "The beating of Regina would be taken as a clear signal that the words 'Panther' and 'comrade' had taken a gender on gender connotation, denoting an inferiority in the female half of us." Brown resigned from the party and fled to LA.
Although many scholars and activists date the Party's downfall to the period before Brown's leadership, a shrinking cadre of Panthers struggled through the 1970s. By 1980, Panther membership had dwindled to 27, and the Panther-sponsored Oakland Community School closed in 1982 amid a scandal over Newton embezzling funds for his drug addiction, which marked the formal end of the Black Panther Party.
#### Panthers attempt to assassinate a witness against Newton
In October 1977, Flores Forbes, the party's assistant chief of staff, led a botched attempt to assassinate Crystal Gray, a key prosecution witness in Newton's upcoming trial, who had been present the day of Kathleen Smith's murder. When three Panthers attacked the wrong house by mistake, the occupant returned fire and killed one of the Panthers, Louis Johnson, while the other two assailants escaped. One of them, Flores Forbes, fled to [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley), Nevada, with the help of Panther paramedic Nelson Malloy. Fearing that Malloy would discover the truth behind the botched assassination attempt, Newton allegedly ordered a "house cleaning", and Malloy was shot and buried alive in the desert. Although permanently [paralyzed](Paralysis) from the waist down, Malloy escaped and told police that fellow Panthers Rollin Reid and Allen Lewis were behind his attempted murder. Newton denied any involvement or knowledge and said the events "might have been the result of overzealous party members". Newton was ultimately acquitted of the murder of Kathleen Smith, after Crystal Gray's testimony was impeached by her admission that she had smoked marijuana on the night of the murder, and he was acquitted of assaulting Preston Callins after Callins refused to press charges.
## Women and womanism
From its beginnings, the Black Panther Party championed black masculinity and traditional gender roles. A notice in the first issue of *[Black Panther](The)(The Black Panther (newspaper))* newspaper proclaimed the all-male organization as "the cream of Black Manhood ... there for the protection and defense of our Black community". Scholars consider the Party's stance of armed resistance highly masculine, with guns and violence proving manhood. In 1968, several articles urged female Panthers to "stand behind black men" and be supportive. The first woman to join the party was [Tarika Lewis](Joan)(Joan Tarika Lewis), in 1967.
[[Free our sisters LCCN2015648047.jpg|thumb|Poster showing four women demonstrating for release of six members of the Black Panther Party from the Niantic State Women's Farm in Connecticut](File:Women!)]
Nevertheless, women were present in the party from the early days and expanded their roles throughout its life. Women often joined to fight against unequal gender norms. By 1969, the Party newspaper officially instructed male Panthers to treat female Party members as equals, a drastic change from the idea of the female Panther as subordinate. The same year, Deputy Chairman [Hampton](Fred)(Fred Hampton) of the Illinois chapter conducted a meeting condemning sexism. After 1969, the Party considered sexism counter-revolutionary.
The Black Panthers adopted a *womanist* ideology responding to the unique experiences of African-American women, emphasizing [racism](racism) as more oppressive than [sexism](sexism). [Womanism](Womanism) was a mix of black nationalism and the vindication of women, putting race and community struggle before the gender issue. Womanism posited that traditional feminism failed to include race and class struggle in its denunciation of male sexism and was therefore part of white hegemony. In opposition to some feminist viewpoints, womanism promoted a vision of gender roles: that men are not above women, but hold a different position in the home and community, so men and women must work together for the preservation of African-American culture and community.
Henceforth, the Party newspaper portrayed women as intelligent political revolutionaries, exemplified by members such as [Cleaver](Kathleen)(Kathleen Cleaver), [Davis](Angela)(Angela Davis) and [Huggins](Erika)(Ericka Huggins). The Black Panther Party newspaper often showed women as active participants in the armed self-defense movement, picturing them with children and guns as protectors of home, family and community.
Police killed or incarcerated many male leaders, but female Panthers were less targeted for much of the 1960s and 1970s. By 1968, women made up two-thirds of the party, while many male members were out of duty. In the absence of much of the original male leadership, women moved into all parts of the organization. Roles included leadership positions, implementing community programs, and uplifting the black community. Women in the group called attention to sexism within the Party, and worked to make changes from within. Celebrating the Fullness of Black Womanhood|access-date=October 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620001405/http://www.forharriet.com/2015/05/say-it-loud-9-black-women-in-black.html#axzz4MKgy2NQD|archive-date=June 20, 2018|url-status=live}}
From 1968 to the end of its publication in 1982, the head editors of the Black Panther Party newspaper were all women. In 1970, approximately 40% to 70% of Party members were women, and several chapters, like the Des Moines, Iowa, and New Haven, Connecticut, were headed by women.
During the 1970s, recognizing the limited access poor women had to abortion, the Party officially supported women's reproductive rights, including abortion. That same year, the Party condemned and opposed prostitution.
Many women Panthers began to demand childcare to be able to fully participate in the organization. The Party responded by establishing on-site child development centers in multiple US chapters. "Childcare became largely a group activity", with children raised collectively, in accord with the Panther's commitment to collectivism and the African-American extended-family tradition. Childcare allowed women Panthers to embrace motherhood while fully participating in Party activism.
The Party experienced significant problems in several chapters with sexism and gender oppression, particularly in the Oakland chapter where cases of sexual harassment and gender conflict were common.Regina Jennings, "Africana Womanism in the Black Panthers Party: a Personal story", *The Western Journal of Black Study* 25/3 (2001). When Oakland Panthers arrived to bolster the New York City Panther chapter after 21 New York leaders were incarcerated, they displayed such chauvinistic attitudes towards New York Panther women that they had to be fended off at gunpoint. Some Party leaders thought the fight for gender equality was a threat to men and a distraction from the struggle for racial equality.
In response, the Chicago and New York chapters, among others, established equal gender rights as a priority and tried to eradicate sexist attitudes.
By the time the Black Panther Party disbanded, official policy was to reprimand men who violated the rules of [equality](gender)(gender equality).
### Gender dynamics
In the beginning, recruiting women was a low priority for Newton and Seale. Seale stated in an interview that Newton targeted "brothers who had been pimping, brothers who had been peddling dope, brothers who ain't gonna take no shit, brothers who had been fighting the pigs". Also, they didn't realize that women could help the fight until one came into an interest meeting asking about "female leadership". Regina Jennings recalls that many male leaders had an "unchecked" sexism problem and her task was to "lift the bedroom out of their minds." She remembers overhearing members: "Some concluded that the FBI sent me, but the captain assured them with salty good humor that, 'She's too stupid to be from the FBI.' He thought my cover and my comments too honest, too loud, and too ridiculous to be serious." She recalls her days in Oakland, California as a teenager looking for something to do to add purpose to her life and her community. She grew up around police brutality, so it was nothing new. Her goal in joining was "smashing racism" because she viewed herself as Black before she was a woman. In her community, that identity is what she felt held her back the most.
### Women's role
The Black Panther Party was involved in many community projects as part of their organization. These projects included community outreach, like the breakfast program, education, and health programs. In many cases women were the ones primarily involved with administering these types of programs.
From the beginning of the Black Panther Party education was a fundamental goal of the organization. This was highlighted in the Ten Point Platform, the newspaper that was distributed by the party, and the public commentary shared by the Panthers. The newspaper was one of the primary and original consciousness-raising and educational measures taken by the party. Despite the fact that men were out distributing the newspaper, women like Elaine Brown and Kathleen Cleaver were behind the scenes working on those papers.
### Elaine Brown
[Brown](Elaine)(Elaine Brown) rose to power within the BPP as Minister of Information after [Cleaver](Eldridge)(Eldridge Cleaver) fled abroad. In 1974, she became chair for the Oakland chapter. She was appointed by [Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton), the previous chair, while Newton and other leaders dealt with legal issues. From the beginning of her tenure as chair, she faced opposition and feared a coup. She appointed many female officials, and faced backlash for her policies for equality within the organization. When Huey Newton returned from exile and approved of the beating of a female Panther school teacher, Brown left the organization.
### Gwen Robinson
In an interview with Judson Jeffries, Gwen Robinson reflects on her time in the Black Panther Party Detroit Division. She explains that she joined in October 1969 despite doubts from her mother, who had participated in a march with Martin Luther King Jr. in the early part of the decade. She chose the Black Panther Party (BPP) because "[She] felt a closeness and a bond with them" more than other organizations like the "[SNCC](Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), [NAACP](NAACP), the [League](Urban)(National Urban League), the [of Islam](Nation)(Nation of Islam), Shrines of Madonna, Eastside Voice of Independent Detroit (ESVID), the [of New Africa](Republic)(Republic of New Afrika), and the [Action Movement](Revolutionary)(Revolutionary Action Movement)."
In 12th grade, she decided to work full-time with the Party, dropping out of chaotic [High School](Denby)(Denby High School) in Detroit. "There were some students who would use the N-word freely" and "a P.E. instructor accused [her] of stealing her keys." She was "shoved" into the pool when she refused to swim for fear of wetting her hair, while a White teacher who taught Afro-American history would kick people out "if you challenged his position on certain Black leaders."
In the BPP, she "was living as part of a collective" where all work was shared, and she enjoyed working all day selling newspapers. She climbed the ranks and became the branch's Communications Secretary in January 1971, after her predecessor left due to "some issues related to [sexism](sexism)". In this branch, unlike the average BPP divisions, the "brothers" never turned violent or physical: "That kind of thing didn't take place in Detroit." She left the organization in 1973, keeping a link through her husband, their circulation manager. Summing up the legacy of the Detroit branch, she says, "It's crucial that people realize that the strength of the organization was rooted in discipline, deep commitment, and a genuine love for the people."
## Connections to other political activist groups
Members of the Black Panther Party, such as [P. Newton](Huey)(Huey P. Newton), also frequently collaborated with Latino activist groups, like the [Berets](Brown)(Brown Berets) and [Siete de la Raza](Los)(Los Siete de la Raza). Newton himself even attended some court sessions for Los Siete de la Raza's trial in June 1970.
[Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale) described their alliances with Los Siete as particularly important, they saw that both Black and Brown activist groups had been dealing with similar issues regarding oppression and violence in the United States.
## Connections to the Gay Liberation Movement
Huey Newton expressed his support for the [Liberation Movement](Women's)(Women's liberation movement) and the [Liberation Movement](Gay)(Gay liberation movement) in a 1970 letter published in the newspaper [Black Panther](The)(The Black Panther (newspaper)) titled "A Letter from Huey to the Revolutionary Brothers and Sisters About the Women's Liberation and Gay Liberation Movements". Written one year after the [Riots](Stonewall)(Stonewall riots), Newton acknowledged women and homosexuals as oppressed groups and urged the Black Panthers to "unite with them in a revolutionary fashion". The Black Panther Party and the Gay Liberation Movement shared common ground in their fight against police brutality.
## Aftermath and legacy
[[File:Charles Barron.jpg|thumb|New York City Councilman [Barron](Charles)(Charles Barron) is one of the numerous former Panthers to have held elected office in the US]]
There is considerable debate about the impact of the Black Panther Party on the wider society or even their local environments. Author Jama Lazerow writes:
Professor Judson Jeffries of [University](Purdue)(Purdue University) called the Panthers "the most effective black revolutionary organization in the 20th century".Jordan Green, ["The strange history of the Black Panthers in the Triad"](http://yesweekly.com/article-permalink-2333.html) , *Yes! Weekly*, April 11, 2006. The *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, in a 2013 review of *[Against Empire](Black)(Black Against Empire)*, an "authoritative" history of the BPP published by [of California Press](University)(University of California Press), called the organization a "serious political and cultural force" and "a movement of intelligent, explosive dreamers".[Hector Tobar "'Black Against Empire' tells the history of Black Panthers"](https://articles.latimes.com/2013/jan/24/entertainment/la-ca-jc-joshua-bloom-20130127/2) , *The Los Angeles Times*, January 24, 2013. The Black Panther Party is featured in exhibits["What Do We Want? Black Power"](http://civilrightsmuseum.org/project/what-do-we-want/) National Civil Rights Museum. and curriculum[National Civil Rights Museum Curriculum Guide](http://civilrightsmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/NCRMCurriculum-Guide2011.pdf) ["Black Power-Questions to Consider"](http://civilrightsmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/17-What-Do-We-Want-Black-Power-Learning-Links.pdf) , National Civil Rights Museum. of the [Civil Rights Museum](National)(National Civil Rights Museum).
Numerous former Panthers have held elected office in the United States, some into the 21st century; these include [Barron](Charles)(Charles Barron) (New York City Council), Nelson Malloy (Winston-Salem City Council), and [Rush](Bobby)(Bobby Rush) (US House of Representatives). Most of them praise the BPP's contribution to black liberation and American democracy. In 1990, the [City Council](Chicago)(Chicago City Council) passed a resolution declaring "Fred Hampton Day" in honor of the slain leader. In [Winston-Salem](Winston-Salem, North Carolina) in 2012, a large contingent of local officials and community leaders came together to install a historic marker of the local BPP headquarters; State Representative Earline Parmone declared "[Black Panther Party](The) dared to stand up and say, 'We're fed up and we're not taking it anymore'. ... Because they had courage, today I stand as ... the first African American ever to represent Forsyth County in the state Senate".Layla Garms, ["Black Panther Legacy Honored with Marker"](http://wschronicle.com/2012/10/black-panthers-legacy-honored-with-marker/) , *The Chronicle of Winston-Salem*, October 18, 2012.
In October 2006, the Black Panther Party held a 40-year reunion in Oakland.[Photos of the Black Panther Party](http://www.jetcityorange.com/BlackPanther40thReunion/) , Oakland 2006.
[[REUNION 2006.JPG|thumb|Black Panther 40th Reunion, 2006.](File:BPP)]
In January 2007, a joint California state and Federal task force charged eight men with the August 29, 1971, murder of California police officer Sgt. John Young.[Ex-militants charged in S.F. police officer's '71 slaying at station](http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2007/01/24/MNGDONO11G1.DTL) (via *[SFGate](SFGate)*) The defendants have been identified as former members of the [Liberation Army](Black)(Black Liberation Army), with two linked to the Black Panthers.*See* [Black Liberation Army tied to 1971 slaying](https://web.archive.org/web/20090212123434/http://blogs.usatoday.com/ondeadline/2007/01/black_liberatio.html) *and* [Suspects arrested in police officer's 1971 shooting had settled into quiet lives](http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-25-sanfrancisco_x.htm) . USA Today. In 1975, a similar case was dismissed when a judge ruled that police gathered evidence using [torture](torture). On June 29, 2009, Herman Bell pleaded guilty to voluntary manslaughter in the death of Sgt. Young. In July 2009, charges were dropped against four of the accused: Ray Boudreaux, Henry W. Jones, Richard Brown and Harold Taylor. Also that month Jalil Muntaquim pleaded no contest to conspiracy to commit voluntary manslaughter, becoming the second person convicted in this case.["2nd guilty plea in 1971 killing of S.F. officer"](http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/07/BAKJ18JUNS.DTL) (via *SFGate*).
Since the 1990s, former Panther chief of staff David Hilliard has offered tours in Oakland of sites historically significant to the Black Panther Party.
### Groups and movements inspired and aided by the Black Panthers
Various groups and movements have picked names inspired by the Black Panthers:
* [Daughters](Assata's)(Assata's Daughters), an all-black activist group in Chicago, was founded in 2015 by Page May; the group is named after Black Panther [Shakur](Assata)(Assata Shakur) and has objectives similar to the Black Panthers' 10-Point Program.
* Gray Panthers often used to refer to advocates for the rights of seniors ([Panthers](Gray)(Gray Panthers) in the United States, [Grays – Gray Panthers](The)(The Grays – Gray Panthers) in Germany).
* [Panthers](Polynesian)(Polynesian Panthers), an advocacy group for [Māori](Māori people) and [Pasifika](Pasifika New Zealanders) people in [Zealand](New)(New Zealand).
* [Panthers](Black)(Black Panthers (Israel)), a protest movement that advocates social justice and fights for the rights of [Jews](Mizrahi)(Mizrahi Jews) in [Israel](Israel).
* White Panthers, used to refer to both the [Panther Party](White)(White Panther Party), a far-left, anti-racist, white American political party of the 1970s, as well as the White Panthers UK, an unaffiliated group started by [Farren](Mick)(Mick Farren).
* [Pink Panthers](The)(The Pink Panthers), used to refer to two LGBT rights organizations.
* [Panthers of India](Dalit)(Dalit Panthers of India), an Indian social reform movement, which fights against caste oppression in Indian society.
*[Panther Party](Liberation)(Liberation Panther Party) (formerly known as the "Dalit Panthers Movement" and "Dalit Panthers of India"), modelled after the Dalit Panthers, now a political party in India.
* The [Black Panther](British)(British Black Panthers) movement, which flourished in [London](London) in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was not affiliated with the American organization although it fought for many of the same rights.Holly Williams, ["Power struggle: A new exhibition looks back at the rise of the British Black Panthers"](https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/power-struggle-a-new-exhibition-looks-back-at-the-rise-of-the-british-black-panthers-8872269.html) , *The Independent*, October 13, 2013.Hazelann Williams, ["Reliving The British Black Panther Movement"](http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/reliving-british-black-panther-movement) , *The Voice*, January 9, 2012.
* The French Black Dragons, a black [antifascist](Anti-fascism) group closely linked to the [rock](punk)(punk rock) and [rockabilly](rockabilly) scene.
* The [Lords](Young)(Young Lords)
* [P. Newton Gun Club](Huey)(Huey P. Newton Gun Club), named after the Black Panther Party's founder.
* Memphis Black Autonomy Federation
In April 1977 Panthers were key supporters of the [Sit-Ins](504)(504 Sit-in), the longest of which was the 25-day occupation of the San Francisco Federal Building by over 120 people with disabilities. Panthers provided daily home-cooked meals in support of the protest's eventual success, which eventually led to the [with Disabilities Act* (ADA)](*Americans)(Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990) thirteen years later.
### New Black Panther Party
In 1989, a "[Black Panther Party](New)(New Black Panther Party)" was formed in [Dallas](Dallas), [Texas](Texas). Ten years later, the NBPP became home to many former [of Islam](Nation)(Nation of Islam) members when its chairmanship was taken by [Abdul Muhammad](Khalid)(Khalid Abdul Muhammad).
The [League](Anti-Defamation)(Anti-Defamation League) and the [Poverty Law Center](Southern)(Southern Poverty Law Center) list the New Black Panthers as a [separatist](black)(Black separatism) [group](hate)(hate group). The Huey Newton Foundation, former chairman and co-founder Bobby Seale, and members of the original Black Panther Party have insisted that this New Black Panther Party is illegitimate and they have strongly objected to it, stating that there "is no new Black Panther Party".
## In popular media
The Black Panther Party briefly appeared in 1994's *[Gump](Forrest)(Forrest Gump)*.
[Sorkin](Aaron)(Aaron Sorkin)'s 2020 [Netflix](Netflix) film, *[Trial of the Chicago 7](The)(The Trial of the Chicago 7)*, features the [Seven](Chicago)(Chicago Seven) trial and [Seale](Bobby)(Bobby Seale), who is portrayed by [Abdul-Mateen II](Yahya)(Yahya Abdul-Mateen II).
The 2021 film *[and the Black Messiah](Judas)(Judas and the Black Messiah)*, starring [Kaluuya](Daniel)(Daniel Kaluuya), tells the story of [Hampton](Fred)(Fred Hampton) and his Chicago chapter.
## References
### Citations
### General and cited references
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## Further reading
*
* Documentary about Black Panther Party |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/films/the-black-panthers-vanguard-of-the-revolution/ |work=[Lens](Independent)(Independent Lens) |publisher=[PBS](PBS) |access-date=October 6, 2016 |language=en-US}}
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*
## External links
* [Seattle Black Panther Party History and Memory Project](http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/BPP.htm) The largest collection of materials on any single chapter.
* [Mapping American Social Movements: Mapping the Black Panther Party in Key Cities](http://depts.washington.edu/moves/BPP_map-cities.shtml) tracks the geography of the BPP, including offices, facilities, and locations of key events in six cities.
* [Official website](https://web.archive.org/web/20130624095500/http://www.blackpanther.org/index.html) according to the Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation.
* [FBI file on the BPP](http://vault.fbi.gov/Black%20Panther%20Party) https://web.archive.org/web/20150704181939/https://vault.fbi.gov/Black%20Panther%20Party
* [Incidents attributed to the Black Panthers at the START database](http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page=1&casualties_type=&casualties_max=&perpetrator=4659&count=100&charttype=line&chart=overtime&ob=GTDID&od=desc&expanded=yes#results-table)
* [Young Lords in Lincoln Park](http://www.gvsu.edu/younglords/)
* [FBI Docs](https://web.archive.org/web/20171222162643/http://fbidocs.com/subjects)—Contains FBI Files on BPP members, information on destroyed BPP FBI files, and inventories of BPP FBI files held by the National Archives
* [UC Berkeley Social Activism Online Sound Recordings: The Black Panther Party](http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/pacificapanthers.html)
* [Hartford Web Publishing collection of BPP documents](http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/index-be.html)
* [The Black Panther Party Newspaper, Electronic Archive, published in *Black Thought and Culture*, Alexander Street Press, Alexandria, VA 2005.](http://bltc.alexanderstreet.com/)
* [The Party's Over](http://zinnedntruth.net/kate8.pdf), a 1978 profile and history of the Party by *[Times](New)(New Times (magazine))* magazine.
* [Benjamin R. Young, "'Our Common Struggle against Our Common Enemy': North Korea and the American Radical Left", NKIDP e-Dossier no. 14, Woodrow Wilson Center.](http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/north-korea-and-the-american-radical-left) An essay and selection of primary sources on the Black Panther Party's ties with North Korea in the late 1960s.
*
* [The Black Panther Party Archive](https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/) at [marxists.org](marxists.org)
[ ](Category:Black Panther Party)
[establishments in California](Category:1966)(Category:1966 establishments in California)
[disestablishments in the United States](Category:1982)(Category:1982 disestablishments in the United States)
[and Black nationalism in the United States](Category:African)(Category:African and Black nationalism in the United States)
[history in Oakland, California](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American history in Oakland, California)
[controversies](Category:African-American-related)(Category:African-American-related controversies)
[political parties](Category:Anti-capitalist)(Category:Anti-capitalist political parties)
[organizations in the United States](Category:Anti-fascist)(Category:Anti-fascist organizations in the United States)
[organizations](Category:Anti-imperialist)(Category:Anti-imperialist organizations)
[in the United States](Category:Anti-racism)(Category:Anti-racism in the United States)
[organizations in the United States](Category:Anti-racist)(Category:Anti-racist organizations in the United States)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[political parties in the United States](Category:Black)(Category:Black political parties in the United States)
[Power](Category:Black)(Category:Black Power)
[rights movement](Category:Civil)(Category:Civil rights movement)
[targets](Category:COINTELPRO)(Category:COINTELPRO targets)
[in the San Francisco Bay Area](Category:Crime)(Category:Crime in the San Francisco Bay Area)
[American political movements](Category:Defunct)(Category:Defunct American political movements)
[Maoist parties in the United States](Category:Defunct)(Category:Defunct Maoist parties in the United States)
[politics in the United States](Category:Far-left)(Category:Far-left politics in the United States)
[of Oakland, California](Category:History)(Category:History of Oakland, California)
[militant groups in the United States](Category:Left-wing)(Category:Left-wing militant groups in the United States)
[Left](Category:New)(Category:New Left)
[movements](Category:Political)(Category:Political movements)
[parties disestablished in 1982](Category:Political)(Category:Political parties disestablished in 1982)
[parties established in 1966](Category:Political)(Category:Political parties established in 1966)
[and race in the United States](Category:Politics)(Category:Politics and race in the United States)
[of Oakland, California](Category:Politics)(Category:Politics of Oakland, California)
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UFC 291
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ufc_291
|
# UFC 291
*Revision ID: 1160354211 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:56:17Z*
---
|venue= [Arena](Vivint)(Vivint Arena)
|city= [Lake City, Utah](Salt)(Salt Lake City, Utah), United States
|attendance=
|gate=
|previousevent= [Fight Night: Aspinall vs. Tybura](UFC)(UFC Fight Night: Aspinall vs. Tybura)
|followingevent=[Fight Night: Sandhagen vs. Nurmagomedov](UFC)(UFC Fight Night: Sandhagen vs. Nurmagomedov)
}}
***UFC 291: Poirier vs. Gaethje 2*** is an upcoming [martial arts](mixed)(mixed martial arts) event produced by the [Fighting Championship](Ultimate)(Ultimate Fighting Championship) that will take place on July 29, 2023, at the [Arena](Vivint)(Vivint Arena), [Lake City, Utah](Salt)(Salt Lake City, Utah), United States.
## Background
The event will mark the promotion's third visit to Salt Lake City and first since [278](UFC)(UFC 278) in August 2022.
A lightweight rematch between former interim [Lightweight Champions](UFC)(UFC Lightweight Championship) [Poirier](Dustin)(Dustin Poirier) and [Gaethje](Justin)(Justin Gaethje) (also former [Lightweight Champion](WSOF)(WSOF Lightweight Championship)) is expected to headline the event. They will also compete for the symbolic "BMF" (*baddest [motherfucker](motherfucker)*) title, which was vacated after the original holder [Masvidal](Jorge)(Jorge Masvidal) retired in April. The pairing first met at [on Fox: Poirier vs. Gaethje](UFC)(UFC on Fox: Poirier vs. Gaethje) in April 2018 which Poirier won by fourth-round TKO. The fight was considered "Fight of the Year" by several media channels.
A welterweight bout between former [Welterweight Championship](UFC)(UFC Welterweight Championship) challenger [Thompson](Stephen)(Stephen Thompson (fighter)) and [Pereira](Michel)(Michel Pereira) was expected to take place at [289](UFC)(UFC 289), but contracts were never signed and the bout was rescheduled for this event instead.
## Fight card
## See also
* [of UFC events](List)(List of UFC events)
* [of current UFC fighters](List)(List of current UFC fighters)
* [in UFC](2023)(2023 in UFC)
## References
[Fighting Championship flagship events](Category:Ultimate)(Category:Ultimate Fighting Championship flagship events)
[in mixed martial arts](Category:2023)(Category:2023 in mixed martial arts)
[mixed martial arts events](Category:Scheduled)(Category:Scheduled mixed martial arts events)
[2023 sports events in the United States](Category:July)(Category:July 2023 sports events in the United States)
[martial arts in Utah](Category:Mixed)(Category:Mixed martial arts in Utah)
[competitions in Salt Lake City](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports competitions in Salt Lake City)
[in sports in Utah](Category:2023)(Category:2023 in sports in Utah)
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After _2019 film
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after__2019_film
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# After (2019 film)
*Revision ID: 1155478043 | Timestamp: 2023-05-18T09:57:14Z*
---
| based_on =
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography =
| editing = Michelle Harrison
| music = [Burnett](Justin)(Justin Burnett)
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Pictures](Aviron)(Aviron Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 106 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $14 million
| gross = $69.5 million
}}
***After*** is a 2019 American [drama](romantic)(romantic drama) film directed by Jenny Gage and written by Gage, Susan McMartin and Tamara Chestna, based on the [novel of the same name](2014)(After (Todd novel)) by [Todd](Anna)(Anna Todd). The film stars [Langford](Josephine)(Josephine Langford) and [Fiennes Tiffin](Hero)(Hero Fiennes Tiffin) and follows an inexperienced teenage girl who begins to romance a mysterious student during her first months of college. The cast includes [Blair](Selma)(Selma Blair), [Sarkis](Inanna)(Inanna Sarkis), [Paul McGhie](Shane)(Shane Paul McGhie), [Mia](Pia)(Pia Mia), Khadijha Red Thunder, [Arnold](Dylan)(Dylan Arnold), [Larsen](Samuel)(Samuel Larsen), [Beals](Jennifer)(Jennifer Beals) and [Gallagher](Peter)(Peter Gallagher) in supporting roles.
*After* premiered at [Grove](The)(The Grove at Farmers Market) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) on April 8, 2019. Despite largely negative reviews from critics, who criticized its screenplay and narrative glamorized abusive relationships, it was a commercial success, grossing $69.5 million worldwide against its $14 million budget.
The film launched the [film series](*After*)(After (film series)).
## Plot
Tessa Young begins her [freshman](freshman) year of college by moving into her dorm room with the help of her mother, Carol, and her boyfriend, Noah. During this process she meets her new roommate Steph and Steph's girlfriend Tristan. The day after, Tessa shares a brief encounter with Steph's friend, Hardin Scott. The following day Steph persuades Tessa to attend a party where she meets Steph's other friends: Zed, Molly, and Jace, and meets Hardin for the second time. The group play truth or dare, which reveals Tessa's virginity; she is dared to kiss Hardin but refuses. Later on at the party Hardin attempts to kiss Tessa, but she rejects his advances and leaves.
The following day Tessa meets with Landon, a classmate she met on her first day of classes, who reveals to her that he and Hardin are soon to become stepbrothers, with his mother engaged to Hardin's father. Following a class debate Hardin again approaches Tessa and insists they start over, inviting her to a nearby lake. While they swim, Hardin kisses Tessa, saying that they cannot remain only friends. Later, the two encounter Molly and Zed at a diner, following which Tessa promises to tell her boyfriend about the kiss she shared with Hardin. Hardin tells her not to do so, saying that he does not date, disappointing Tessa. Noah surprises Tessa with a visit, and the two experience an evening together around a bonfire. In a game of 'suck and blow' at the bonfire party, Jace purposely fails in order to kiss Tessa, making Hardin jealous and leading to a physical confrontation. While Noah sleeps in Tessa's bed after the party, she leaves to check in on Hardin, who has destroyed the house in a drunken rage. She comforts him and the two kiss.
The next day Tessa returns to her dorm to check on Noah, who discovers her affair with Hardin and leaves her, heartbroken. Tessa and Hardin finally decide to date, but her mother threatens to cut her off financially if she continues the relationship, believing Hardin to be a bad influence. Hardin finds an apartment for the two to live together and they attend his father's wedding reception. Hardin reveals that his father was a drunk and that his mother was assaulted by some men his father provoked while drunk. Tessa comforts him and the two head back to their apartment to have sex (Tessa loses her virginity).
Later, Tessa grows concerned about the text messages sent to Hardin by Molly; Tessa attempts to confront him, but he dismisses her and leaves. After leaving the apartment searching for him, Tessa finds him at a diner with Molly, Zed, Steph, and Jace. Molly cruelly reveals Hardin's true intentions by showing Tessa a video from the first party they attended, telling that Hardin only pursued Tessa as a challenge, intending to make her fall in love with him before breaking her heart. Hardin attempts to convince Tessa that his intentions changed as he got to know her, but Tessa ends their relationship.
Heartbroken Tessa returns home to reconcile with her mother and Noah, who both forgive her. In the weeks that follow, Tessa cuts ties with Steph and her group of friends, eventually interviewing for an internship at Vance Publishing. Before she leaves college at the end of the semester, Tessa's lecturer hands her an essay written by Hardin, in which he confesses his love for Tessa; after reading it, Tessa returns to the lake to meet Hardin.
## Cast
## Production
### Development
In 2013, author Anna Todd posted the first chapters of a fanfiction titled *After* on fanfiction- and fiction-publishing website Wattpad. The fanfiction's original storyline was based on the boyband [Direction](One)(One Direction), and featured the band's members [Styles](Harry)(Harry Styles), [Payne](Liam)(Liam Payne), [Horan](Niall)(Niall Horan), [Tomlinson](Louis)(Louis Tomlinson) and [Malik](Zayn)(Zayn Malik), portrayed as students at [State University](Washington)(Washington State University). The story followed Tessa Young, an "innocent good girl" who becomes involved in a relationship with "bad boy" Styles.
Within a month of publishing the first chapters, the story had acquired 544 million reads; Todd later landed a deal with [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster) to publish novelizations of the series, with the lead male character's name changed to Hardin Scott; the novels were subsequently released in 2014. The books gained media attention and became [York Times* bestseller](*New)(The New York Times Best Seller list)s.
In 2014, Paramount Pictures acquired the rights to adapt *After* for film; before the expiry of the company's rights to the film production in mid-2017, the project was headed by screenwriter Susan McMartin. Following this, CalMaple Media and Offspring Entertainment acquired the filming rights, with writer Tamara Chestna hired to rework McMartin's script, and director Jenny Gage overseeing the script's final revisions. McMartin, Chestna, and Gage all received final script credit. CalMaple Media's [Canton](Mark)(Mark Canton) and [Solomon](Courtney)(Courtney Solomon), Offspring Entertainment's Jennifer Gibgot, Wattpad's Aron Levitz, [Williams](Meadow)(Meadow Williams) of Diamond Film Productions and Dennis Pelino were all credited as producers on the film, alongside Todd herself. The film was financed by CalMaple, [Pictures](Voltage)(Voltage Pictures) and Diamond Film Productions, with executive production by Swen Temmel, Nicolas Charier, Jonathan Deckter, David Dinerstein, Jason Resnick, Scott Karol, Ian Brereton, Eric Lehrman, [Shankman](Adam)(Adam Shankman), Brian Pitt and Vassal Benford. [Pictures](Aviron)(Aviron Pictures) distributed the film domestically, with Voltage Pictures handling foreign distribution.
### Casting
On May 8, 2018, [Goldani Telles](Julia)(Julia Goldani Telles) and [Fiennes Tiffin](Hero)(Hero Fiennes Tiffin) were cast in the main roles of Tessa Young and Hardin Scott respectively. The actors were selected by the production team, including Todd herself, who was present at the castings and contributed to the casting decisions.
In July 2018, Telles announced her exit from the film due to scheduling conflicts. In the same month, [Langford](Josephine)(Josephine Langford) was announced to play Tessa Young. Todd would later state that once she saw Langford, she "knew right away that was Tessa." [Mia](Pia)(Pia Mia) was cast in the role of Tristan, a previously male character in the books. Executive producer Swen Temmel was cast as Jace, [Paul McGhie](Shane)(Shane Paul McGhie) and Khadijha Red Thunder were added as Landon Gibson and Steph Jones respectively, [Larsen](Samuel)(Samuel Larsen) was set as Zed Evans, and [Sarkis](Inanna)(Inanna Sarkis) played Molly Samuels. Producer [Williams](Meadow)(Meadow Williams) was additionally cast as Professor Soto, another previously male character in the books. On July 27, [Gallagher](Peter)(Peter Gallagher) and [Beals](Jennifer)(Jennifer Beals) were announced to play Ken Scott and Karen Gibson, Hardin's father and Landon's mother, respectively, with [Blair](Selma)(Selma Blair) announced for Carol Young, Tessa's mother, and [Arnold](Dylan)(Dylan Arnold) announced for Noah Porter on July 30.
### Filming
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) was due to begin in June 2018 in [Massachusetts](Boston,)(Boston, Massachusetts). In early July, producer Jennifer Gibgot stated that shooting would begin on July 16, 2018, in Atlanta, Georgia shortly after Langford had been cast as Tessa. Principal photography was mainly conducted at [University](Emory)(Emory University), and production was completed on August 24 of the same year.
## Release
*After* premiered at [Grove](The)(The Grove at Farmers Market) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) on April 8, 2019, and was released in the United States on April 12, 2019, by [Pictures](Aviron)(Aviron Pictures). The film was released in Latin America on April 10, 2019, by Diamond Films, ahead of its North American release.
### Box office
*After* grossed $12.1 million in the United States and Canada and $57.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $69.7 million against a production budget of $14 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside *[Hellboy](Hellboy (2019 film))*, *[Little](Little (film))* and *[Link](Missing)(Missing Link (2019 film))*, and was projected to gross $3–12 million from 2,138 theaters in its opening weekend. The film earned $2.9 million on its first day, including $550,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $6 million, finishing eighth at the box office. In its second weekend, the film dropped 58% to $2.5 million, finishing 11th.
### Critical response
On [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film holds an approval rating of based on 39 reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Tepid and tired, *After*s fun flourishes are let down by its generic story."}} The film has a [average](weighted)(weighted average) of 30 out of 100 on [Metacritic](Metacritic), based on eight critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews." Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while those at [PostTrak](PostTrak) gave it 2.5 out of 5 stars.
Critics found the screenplay at fault, with [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* writing that *After* was an "innocuous teen pulp soap opera that flirts with 'danger' but, in fact, keeps surprising you with how mild and safe and predictable it turns out to be." John Fink of *The Film Stage* echoed this sentiment, commenting that "the talented cast is burdened by a dead on arrival screenplay that waters down what could have been an intoxicating tale of first love," though he noted the film was "beautifully shot" and "occasionally aesthetically pleasing."
### Accolades
*After* won the 2019 [Choice Award](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards) in the category Choice Drama Movie and the 2019 [People's Choice Award](E!)(E! People's Choice Awards) in the category The Drama Movie of 2019.
## Sequels
In May 2019, a [sequel](sequel) was announced, with both Langford and Fiennes Tiffin returning to their respective roles. *[We Collided](After)(After We Collided)* released September 2, 2020, with costars [Sprouse](Dylan)(Dylan Sprouse), [Weber](Charlie)(Charlie Weber (actor)), [Estes](Rob)(Rob Estes), [Lombard](Louise)(Louise Lombard), [King](Candice)(Candice King), Karimah Westbrook and Max Ragone.
A second sequel, *[We Fell](After)(After We Fell)*, released September 1, 2021. A third sequel, *[Ever Happy](After)(After Ever Happy)*, has been completed and was released on September 7, 2022. Another sequel and prequel are in development.
On August 24, 2022, it was announced that a fourth sequel titled *After Everything* has finished filming. Langford and Fiennes Tiffin are both set to reprise their roles. The fifth and final installment in the *After* film series, it will be the only film to not be based on a book in the series.
## References
## External links
*
[films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 films)
[romantic drama films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 romantic drama films)
[romantic drama films](Category:American)(Category:American romantic drama films)
[University](Category:Emory)(Category:Emory University)
[about abuse](Category:Films)(Category:Films about abuse)
[based on American novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on American novels)
[based on romance novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on romance novels)
[based on young adult literature](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on young adult literature)
[scored by Justin Burnett](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Justin Burnett)
[set in universities and colleges](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in universities and colleges)
[shot in Atlanta](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Atlanta)
[Pictures films](Category:Voltage)(Category:Voltage Pictures films)
[English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films)
[American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
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Flash _DC Comics character
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flash__dc_comics_character
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# Flash (DC Comics character)
*Revision ID: 979032231 | Timestamp: 2020-09-18T10:44:45Z*
---
#REDIRECT [(DC Comics character)](Flash)(Flash (DC Comics character))
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Pizza
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pizza
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# Pizza
*Revision ID: 1160166499 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T20:02:37Z*
---
**Pizza** ( , , ) is a [dish](Dish (food)) of [Italian](Italian cuisine) origin consisting of a usually round, flat base of [leavened](Leavening agent) wheat-based [dough](dough) topped with [tomatoes](tomatoes), [cheese](cheese), and often various other ingredients (such as various types of [sausage](sausage), [anchovies](anchovies), [mushrooms](Edible mushroom), [onions](onions), [olives](olives), [vegetables](vegetables), [meat](meat), [ham](ham), etc.), which is then baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a [oven](wood-fired)(wood-fired oven). A small pizza is sometimes called a [pizzetta](pizzetta). A person who makes pizza is known as a **pizzaiolo**.
In Italy, pizza served in a restaurant is presented unsliced, and is eaten with the use of a knife and fork. In casual settings, however, it is [cut](Pizza cutter) into wedges to be eaten [held in the hand](while)(finger food).
The term *pizza* was first recorded in the 10th century in a [Latin](Latin) manuscript from the [Italian](Southern)(Southern Italy) town of [Gaeta](Gaeta) in [Lazio](Lazio), on the border with [Campania](Campania). Modern pizza was invented in [Naples](Naples), and the dish and its variants have since become one of the most popular foods in the world and a common [food](fast)(fast food) item in [Europe](Europe), [Americas](the)(Americas) and [Australasia](Australasia), available at [pizzeria](List of pizza chains)s (restaurants specializing in pizza), restaurants offering [cuisine](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean cuisine), via [delivery](pizza)(pizza delivery), and as [food](street)(street food). Various food companies sell ready-baked pizzas, which may be [frozen](Frozen food), in [store](grocery)(grocery store)s, to be reheated in a home [oven](oven).
In 2017, the world pizza market was [US$](US$)128 billion, and in the US it was $44 billion spread over 76,000 pizzerias. Overall, 13% of the U.S. population aged 2 years and over consumed pizza on any given day.
The *Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana* (lit. True Neapolitan Pizza Association) is a [organization](non-profit)(non-profit organization) founded in 1984 with headquarters in Naples that aims to promote traditional Neapolitan pizza. In 2009, upon Italy's request, [pizza](Neapolitan)(Neapolitan pizza) was registered with the [Union](European)(European Union) as a [Speciality Guaranteed](Traditional)(Traditional Speciality Guaranteed) dish,Official Journal of the European Union, [Commission regulation (EU) No 97/2010](http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:034:0007:0016:EN:PDF) , 5 February 2010International Trademark Association, [European Union: Pizza napoletana obtains "Traditional Speciality Guaranteed" status](http://www.inta.org/INTABulletin/Pages/EUROPEANUNIONPIZZANAPOLETANAObtainsTraditionalSpecialityGuaranteedStatus.aspx) , 1 April 2010 and in 2017 the art of its making was included on [UNESCO](UNESCO)'s list of [cultural heritage](intangible)(intangible cultural heritage).
[Esposito](Raffaele)(Raffaele Esposito) is often considered to be the father of modern pizza.Arthur Schwartz, *Naples at Table: Cooking in Campania* (1998), p. 68. .John Dickie, *Delizia!: The Epic History of the Italians and Their Food* (2008), p. 186.Father Giuseppe Orsini, Joseph E. Orsini, *Italian Baking Secrets* (2007), p. 99.
## Etymology
The oldest usage of the word "pizza" that we have record of was in a [Latin](Latin) text from the town of [Gaeta](Gaeta), then still part of the [Empire](Byzantine)(Byzantine Empire), in 997 AD; the text states that a tenant of certain property is to give the bishop of Gaeta *duodecim pizze* ("twelve pizzas") every [Day](Christmas)(Christmas), and another twelve every [Sunday](Easter)(Easter Sunday).Salvatore Riciniello (1987) *Codice Diplomatico Gaetano*, Vol. I, La Poligrafica
Suggested etymologies include:
* [Greek](Byzantine)(Byzantine Greek) and [Latin](Late)(Late Latin) *pitta* > *pizza,* *cf.* Modern Greek [pitta](pita) bread and the Apulia and Calabrian (then [Italy](Byzantine)(Catepanate of Italy)) *pitta,* a round flat bread baked in the oven at high temperature sometimes with toppings. The word *pitta* can in turn be traced to either [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) πικτή (*pikte*), "fermented pastry", which in Latin became "picta", or Ancient Greek πίσσα (*pissa*, [Attic](Attic dialect) πίττα, *pitta*), "pitch", or πήτεα (*pḗtea*), "bran" (πητίτης *pētítēs*, "bran bread").
* The [Dictionary of the Italian Language](Etymological)(:it:Vocabolario etimologico della lingua italiana) explains it as coming from dialectal *pinza* "clamp", as in modern Italian *pinze* "pliers, pincers, tongs, forceps". Their origin is from [Latin](Latin) *pinsere* "to pound, stamp".['pizza'](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=pizza) , *Online Etymology Dictionary*
* The [Lombardic](Lombardic language) word *bizzo* or *pizzo* meaning "mouthful" (related to the English words "bit" and "bite"), which was brought to Italy in the middle of the 6th century AD by the invading [Lombards](Lombards). The shift b>p could be explained by the [German consonant shift](High)(High German consonant shift), and it has been noted in this connection that in German the word *Imbiss* means "snack".
## History
[[*pizzaiolo* in 1830](File:Pizzaiolo-1830.jpg|thumb|A)]
Foods similar to pizza have been made since the [Age](Neolithic)(Neolithic). Records of people adding other ingredients to [bread](bread) to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. In the 6th century BC, the [Persian](Persian people) soldiers of the [Empire](Achaemenid)(Achaemenid Empire) during the rule of [the Great](Darius)(Darius the Great) baked flatbreads with cheese and [dates](Date (fruits)) on top of their battle shields"Pizza, A Slice of American History" Liz Barrett (2014), p.13"The Science of Bakery Products" W. P. Edwards (2007), p.199 and the [Greeks](ancient)(ancient Greece) supplemented their bread with [oils](vegetable oil), herbs, and cheese. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the *[Aeneid](Aeneid)*, when Celaeno, queen of the [Harpies](Harpy), foretells that the Trojans would not find peace until they are forced by hunger to eat their tables (Book III). In Book VII, [Aeneas](Aeneas) and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes (like pita bread) topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the "tables" prophesied by Celaeno.
The first mention of the word "pizza" comes from a notarial document written in Latin and dating to May 997 AD from [Gaeta](Gaeta), demanding a payment of "twelve pizzas, a pork shoulder, and a pork kidney on Christmas Day, and 12 pizzas and a couple of chickens on Easter Day."
Modern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in [Naples](Naples), Italy, in the 18th or early 19th century. Before that time, flatbread was often topped with ingredients such as garlic, salt, lard, and cheese. It is uncertain when tomatoes were first added and there are many conflicting claims, though it certainly could not have been before the 16th century and the [Exchange](Columbian)(Columbian Exchange). Until about 1830, pizza was sold from open-air stands and out of pizza bakeries.
A popular contemporary legend holds that the archetypal pizza, *[Margherita](pizza)(pizza Margherita)*, was invented in 1889, when the [Palace of Capodimonte](Royal)(Palace of Capodimonte) commissioned the Neapolitan [pizzaiolo](wikt:pizzaiolo) (pizza maker) [Esposito](Raffaele)(Raffaele Esposito) to create a pizza in honor of the visiting [Margherita](Queen)(Margherita of Savoy). Of the three different pizzas he created, the Queen strongly preferred a pizza swathed in the colors of the Italian flag — red (tomato), green (basil), and white (mozzarella). Supposedly, this kind of pizza was then named after the Queen, although later research cast doubt on this legend. An official letter of recognition from the Queen's "head of service" remains on display in Esposito's shop, now called the Pizzeria Brandi.
Pizza was taken to the United States by [immigrants](Italian)(Italian-American) in the late nineteenth century and first appeared in areas where they concentrated. The country's first pizzeria, [Lombardi's](Lombardi's Pizza), opened in New York City in 1905. Following World War II, veterans returning from the [Campaign](Italian)(Italian Campaign (World War II)), who were introduced to [native cuisine](Italy's)(Italian cuisine), proved a ready market for pizza in particular.
## Preparation
Pizza is sold fresh or [frozen](Frozen food), and whole or in [slices](portion-size)(pizza by the slice). Methods have been developed to overcome challenges such as preventing the sauce from combining with the dough, and producing a crust that can be frozen and reheated without becoming rigid. There are frozen pizzas with raw ingredients and self-rising crusts.
Another form of pizza is available from [and bake pizzeria](take)(take and bake pizzeria)s. This pizza is assembled in the store, then sold unbaked to customers to bake in their own [ovens](Conventional ovens). Some grocery stores sell fresh dough along with sauce and basic ingredients, to assemble at home before baking in an oven.
File:Pizza 1 bg.jpg|Pizza dough being [kneaded](Kneading) before being left undisturbed and allowed time to [proof](Proofing (baking technique))
File:Jupiter - Flickr - Joe Parks.jpg|Traditional pizza dough being tossed
File:US Navy 070406-N-2959L-756 Members of USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) First Class Association prepare and put toppings on pizzas in the galley as part of a special dinner prepared for the crew.jpg|Toppings being placed on pan pizzas
File:Neapolitan pizza.jpg|An unbaked Neapolitan pizza on a metal [peel](Peel (tool)), ready for the oven
File:Frozen pizza.jpg|A wrapped, [mass-produced](Mass production) frozen pizza to be baked at home
### Baking
In restaurants, pizza can be baked in an oven with fire bricks above the heat source, an electric deck oven, a [belt](conveyor)(conveyor belt) oven, or, in traditional style in a wood or coal-fired [oven](brick)(masonry oven). The pizza is slid into the oven on a long paddle, called a [peel](peel (tool)), and baked directly on hot bricks, a screen (a round metal grate, typically aluminum), or whatever the oven surface is. Before use, a peel is typically sprinkled with cornmeal to allow the pizza to easily slide on and off it. When made at home, a pizza can be baked on a [stone](pizza)(pizza stone) in a regular oven to reproduce some of the heating effect of a brick oven. Cooking directly on a metal surface results in too rapid heat transfer to the crust, burning it. Some home chefs use a wood-fired pizza oven, usually installed outdoors. As in restaurants, these are often dome-shaped, as pizza ovens have been for centuries, in order to achieve even heat distribution. Another variation is grilled pizza, in which the pizza is baked directly on a barbecue grill. [pizza](Greek)(Greek pizza), like [dish](deep)(deep dish pizza) [Chicago](Chicago-style pizza) and [Sicilian](Sicilian pizza) style pizza, is baked in a pan rather than directly on the bricks of the pizza oven.
Most restaurants use standard and purpose-built pizza preparation tables to assemble their pizzas. [production](Mass)(Mass production) of pizza by [chains](pizza chain) can be completely automated.
File:Pizza im Pizzaofen von Maurizio.jpg|Pizzas baking in a traditional wood-fired [oven](brick)(masonry oven)
File:Pizza baking in Wood-fired oven.jpg|A pizza being removed with a wooden peel
File:Eataly Las Vegas - Feb 2019 - Sarah Stierch 12.jpg|Charred crust on a [Margherita](Pizza)(Pizza Margherita), an acceptable trait in artisanal pizza
File:Grilled_pizza_2.jpg|Pizza grilling on an outdoor gas range
### Crust
[[File:NewYorkSlices.jpg|thumb|Caramelised crust – its *cornicione* (the outer edge) – of [slices](Pizza by the slice) of [York–style pizza](New)(New York–style pizza)]]
The bottom of the pizza, called the "crust", may vary widely according to style – thin as in a typical hand-tossed [pizza](Neapolitan)(Neapolitan pizza) or thick as in a deep-dish [Chicago-style](Chicago-style pizza). It is traditionally plain, but may also be seasoned with garlic or herbs, or stuffed with cheese. The outer edge of the pizza is sometimes referred to as the *cornicione*. Some pizza dough contains sugar, to help its yeast rise and enhance browning of the crust.
[sauce](Dipping)(Dipping sauce) specifically for pizza was invented by American pizza chain [John's Pizza](Papa)(Papa John's Pizza) in 1984 and has since been adopted by some when eating pizza, especially the crust.
### Cheese
[Mozzarella](Mozzarella) cheese is commonly used on pizza, with the [mozzarella](buffalo)(buffalo mozzarella) produced in the surroundings of Naples. Other cheeses are also used, particularly Italian cheeses including [provolone](provolone), [romano](pecorino)(Pecorino Romano), [ricotta](ricotta), and [scamorza](scamorza). Less expensive [cheese](processed)(processed cheese)s or [analogue](cheese)(cheese analogue)s have been developed for [mass-market](mass-market) pizzas to produce desirable qualities like browning, melting, stretchiness, consistent fat and moisture content, and stable [life](shelf)(shelf life). This quest to create the ideal and economical pizza cheese has involved many studies and experiments analyzing the impact of [oil](vegetable)(vegetable oil), manufacturing and culture processes, [denatured](Denaturation (biochemistry)) whey proteins, and other changes in manufacture. In 1997, it was estimated that annual production of pizza cheese was in the U.S. and in Europe.
## Varieties and styles
A great number of pizza varieties exist, defined by the choice of toppings and sometimes also crust. There are also several styles of pizza, defined by their preparation method. The following lists feature only the [notable](Notability in the English Wikipedia) ones.
### Varieties
### Styles
### By region of origin
#### Italy
Authentic [pizza](Neapolitan)(Neapolitan pizza) (*pizza napoletana*) is made with [Marzano tomato](San)(San Marzano tomato)es, grown on the volcanic plains south of [Vesuvius](Mount)(Mount Vesuvius), and either [di bufala Campana](mozzarella)(Buffalo Mozzarella), made with milk from water buffalo raised in the marshlands of [Campania](Campania) and [Lazio](Lazio) or [Fior-di-latte](Fior-di-latte). Buffalo mozzarella is protected with its own European [designation of origin](protected)(protected designation of origin). Other traditional pizzas include *[alla marinara](pizza)(pizza alla marinara)*, which is topped with [sauce](marinara)(marinara sauce) and is supposedly the most ancient tomato-topped pizza, [capricciosa](pizza)(pizza capricciosa), which is prepared with mozzarella cheese, baked ham, mushroom, artichoke, and tomato, and [pugliese](pizza)(pizza pugliese), prepared with tomato, mozzarella, and onions.
A popular variant of pizza in Italy is [pizza](Sicilian)(Sicilian pizza) (locally called *sfincione* or *sfinciuni*), a **thick-crust** or **deep-dish pizza** originating during the 17th century in [Sicily](Sicily, Italy): it is essentially a [focaccia](focaccia) that is typically topped with tomato sauce and other ingredients. Until the 1860s, *sfincione* was the type of pizza usually consumed in Sicily, especially in the Western portion of the island. Other variations of pizzas are also found in other regions of Italy, for example *pizza al padellino* or *pizza al tegamino*, a small-sized, thick-crust, deep-dish pizza typically served in [Turin](Turin), [Piedmont](Piedmont).
#### United States
[[File:Pizza tasting in the Roosevelt Room.jpg|thumb|Pizza banquet in the [House](White)(White House) (2009)]]
The first pizzeria in the U.S. was opened in New York City's [Italy](Little)(Little Italy, Manhattan) in 1905. Common toppings for pizza in the United States include [anchovies](anchovies), ground beef, chicken, ham, mushrooms, olives, onions, peppers, [pepperoni](pepperoni), salami, sausage, spinach, steak, and tomatoes. Distinct regional types developed in the 20th century, including [Buffalo](Buffalo, New York), [California](California-style pizza), [Chicago](Chicago-style pizza), [Detroit](Detroit-style pizza), [Greek](Greek pizza), [Haven](New)(New Haven-style pizza), [York](New)(New York-style pizza), and [Louis](St.)(St. Louis-style pizza) styles. These regional variations include deep-dish, stuffed, pockets, turnovers, [rolled](Pizza Rolls), and pizza-on-a-stick, each with seemingly limitless combinations of sauce and toppings.
Thirteen percent of the United States population consumes pizza on any given day. [chains](Pizza)(List of pizza chains of the United States) such as [Pizza](Domino's)(Domino's Pizza), [Hut](Pizza)(Pizza Hut), and [John's](Papa)(Papa John's Pizza), pizzas from [and bake pizzeria](take)(take and bake pizzeria)s, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide.
#### Argentina
Argentina, and more specifically [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires), saw significant [immigration](Italian)(Immigration to Argentina) at the end of the 19th century. Immigrants from [Naples](Naples) and [Genoa](Genoa) opened the first pizza bars, though over time Spanish residents came to own the majority of the pizza businesses.
Standard Argentine pizza has a thicker crust, called "media masa" (half dough) than traditional Italian style pizza and uses more cheese. In Argentina pizza slices are often served topped with [fainá](fainá), a Genoese chickpea-flour pancake, and accompanied by [wine](moscato)(Moscato d'Asti). The most popular variety of pizza is called "muzzarella" (mozzarella), similar to [pizza](Neapolitan)(Neapolitan pizza) (bread, tomato sauce and cheese) but made with a thicker "media masa" crust, triple cheese and tomato sauce, usually also with olives. It can be found in nearly every corner of the country; Buenos Aires is considered the city with the most pizza bars per person of the world. Other popular varieties include ham, tomato slices, red pepper and [longaniza](longaniza). Two Argentine-originated varieties of pizza with [onion](onion), are also very popular: [with cheese](fugazza)(fugazza with cheese), a regular pizza crust topped with cheese and onions, and [fugazzetta](fugazzetta), with the cheese between two pizza crusts, with onions on top.
## Records
according to *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)*:
*The world's largest pizza was prepared in Rome in December 2012, and measured . The pizza was named "Ottavia" in homage to the first Roman emperor [Augustus](Octavian)(Octavian Augustus), and was made with a [gluten-free](gluten-free) base.
*The world's longest pizza was long; it was made in [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California) in 2017. Other previous records include that of Marquinetti ([Tomelloso](Tomelloso), [Spain](Spain)), where a 1141.5 m pizza was achieved, itself surpassing a previous record in Poland.
*The world's most expensive commercially available pizza recognised by *Guinness World Records* costs US$2,700, and was sold at Industry Kitchen (USA) in New York, New York, USA, as of 24 April 2017. It is made of black [ink](squid)(squid ink) dough, and topped with UK white Stilton cheese, French foie gras and truffles, Ossetra caviar from the Caspian Sea, Almas caviar, and 24K gold leaves.
*More expensive pizzas have been reported, but are not recognised by *Guinness World Records*, such as the "Pizza Royale 007" at Haggis restaurant in Glasgow, Scotland, which is topped with caviar, lobster, and 24-carat gold dust, and the caviar pizza made by Nino's Bellissima pizzeria in New York City, New York.
*A pizza made by the restaurateur Domenico Crolla that included toppings such as sunblush-tomato sauce, Scottish [salmon](smoked)(smoked salmon), medallions of [venison](venison), [gold](edible)(edible gold), [lobster](lobster) marinated in [cognac](cognac (drink)), and [champagne](champagne)-soaked [caviar](caviar). The pizza was auctioned for charity in 2007, raising .
## Pizza and health
[[Scouts Moving Pizza.jpg|thumb|Boy Scouts with pizza](File:Boy)]
Some pizzas [mass-produced](mass-produced) by [chain](pizza)(pizza chain)s have been criticized as having an unhealthy balance of ingredients. Pizza can be high in [salt](salt) and fat, and is high in [calories](food energy). The [USDA](USDA) reports an average sodium content of 5,101 mg per pizza in fast food chains. There are concerns about undesirable health effects.
## Similar dishes
* [Calzone](Calzone) and [stromboli](stromboli (food)) are similar dishes that are often made of pizza dough folded (calzone) or rolled (stromboli) around a filling.
* [Panzerotti](Panzerotti) are similar to calzones, but fried rather than baked.
* [Piadina](Piadina) is a thin Italian flatbread, typically prepared in the Romagna historical region.
* [Focaccia](Focaccia) is a flat [leavened](Leavening agent) oven-baked Italian bread, similar in style and texture to pizza; in some places, it is called *pizza bianca* ("white pizza").
* "Farinata" or "cecina". A Ligurian ([farinata](farinata)) and Tuscan ([cecina](Farinata)) regional dish made from chickpea flour, water, salt, and olive oil. Also called *[socca](socca)* in the [Provence](Provence) region of France. Often baked in a brick oven, and typically weighed and sold by the slice.
* [Coca](Coca (pastry)) is a similar dish consumed mainly in Catalonia and neighbouring regions, but that has extended to other areas in Spain, and to Algeria. There are sweet and savoury versions.
* The [Alsatian](Alsace) *[Flammekueche](Flammekueche)*Helga Rosemann, Flammkuchen: Ein Streifzug durch das Land der Flammkuchen mit vielen Rezepten und Anregungen (Offenbach: Höma-Verlag, 2009). (Standard German: *Flammkuchen*, French: *Tarte flambée)* is a thin disc of dough covered in [fraîche](crème)(crème fraîche), onions, and bacon.
* [fingers](Garlic)(Garlic fingers) is an [Canadian](Atlantic)(Atlantic Canadian) dish, similar to a pizza in shape and size, and made with similar dough. It is garnished with melted butter, garlic, cheese, and sometimes bacon.
* The [Anatolia](Anatolia)n *[Lahmacun](Lahmacun)* (Arabic: ''laḥm bi'ajīn*; Armenian: *lahmajoun*; also *Turkish pizza* or *Armenian pizza'') is a meat-topped dough round. The base is very thin, and the layer of meat often includes chopped vegetables.
* The [Levant](Levant)ine *[Manakish](Manakish)* (Arabic: ''ma'ujnāt*) and *[Sfiha](Sfiha)* (Arabic: *laḥm bi'ajīn*; also *Arab pizza*) are dishes similar to pizza.
*[Panizza](Panizza) is half a stick of bread (often [baguette](baguette)), topped with the usual pizza ingredients, baked in an oven.
* The [Macedonian](North Macedonia) *[Pastrmajlija](Pastrmajlija)* is a bread pie made from dough and meat. It is usually oval-shaped with chopped meat on top of it.
* The [Provençal](Provence) *[Pissaladière](Pissaladière)'' is similar to an Italian pizza, with a slightly thicker crust and a topping of cooked onions, [anchovies](anchovy), and olives.
* [bagel](Pizza)(Pizza bagel) is a bagel with toppings similar to that of traditional pizzas.
* Pizza bread is an open-faced sandwich made of bread, tomato sauce, cheese, and various toppings.
* Pizza sticks are baked with pizza dough and pizza ingredients. Bread dough may also be used in their preparation, and some versions are fried.
*[Rolls](Pizza)(Pizza Rolls) are a trade-marked commercial product.
*[Okonomiyaki](Okonomiyaki), a Japanese dish cooked on a hotplate, is often referred to as "Japanese pizza".
*"Zanzibar pizza" is a street food served in Stone Town, [Zanzibar](Zanzibar), [Tanzania](Tanzania). It uses a dough much thinner than pizza dough, almost like [filo](filo) dough, filled with minced beef, onions, and an egg, similar to Moroccan [basṭīla](Pastilla).
* [Zwiebelkuchen](Zwiebelkuchen), a German onion tart, often baked with diced bacon and caraway seeds.
## See also
*
* [of baked goods](List)(List of baked goods)
* [of Italian dishes](List)(List of Italian dishes)
* [of pizza chains](List)(List of pizza chains)
* [of pizza varieties by country](List)(List of pizza varieties by country)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [strips](Pizza)(Pizza strips) – a tomato pie of Italian-American origin
*
*
## References
## Further reading
*
* Explanation of eight pizza styles: Maryland, Roman, "Gourmet" Wood-fired, Generic boxed, New York, Neapolitan, Chicago, and New Haven.
*
* *
* 208 pages.
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:Pizza)
[dishes](Category:Cheese)(Category:Cheese dishes)
[foods](Category:Convenience)(Category:Convenience foods)
[dishes](Category:Flatbread)(Category:Flatbread dishes)
[combinations](Category:Food)(Category:Food combinations)
[cuisine](Category:Italian)(Category:Italian cuisine)
[inventions](Category:Italian)(Category:Italian inventions)
[cuisine](Category:Italian-American)(Category:Italian-American cuisine)
[cuisine](Category:Mediterranean)(Category:Mediterranean cuisine)
[dishes](Category:National)(Category:National dishes)
[cuisine](Category:Neapolitan)(Category:Neapolitan cuisine)
[culture](Category:Popular)(Category:Popular culture)
[foods](Category:Snack)(Category:Snack foods)
[of food](Category:Types)(Category:Types of food)
[cuisine](Category:World)(Category:World cuisine)
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List of current United States senators
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list_of_current_united_states_senators
|
# List of current United States senators
*Revision ID: 1159806381 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T17:11:47Z*
---
[[File:118th United States Congress Senators.svg|alt=Map of the Senate composition by state and party|thumb|360px|Senate composition by state and party
|2 [Democrats](Democratic Party (United States))}}
|2 [Republicans](Republican Party (United States))}}
|1 [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States)) and 1 Independent caucusing with [Democrats](Democratic Party (United States))}}
|1 [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) and 1 Independent caucusing with [Democrats](Democratic Party (United States))}}]]
The [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) consists of 100 members, two from each of the 50 [states](U.S. state). This list includes all senators serving in the [United States Congress](118th)(118th United States Congress).
## Party affiliation
All three Independent senators caucus with the Democratic party.
## Leadership
### Presiding officers
### Majority leadership
### Minority leadership
## List of senators
## See also
* [in the United States Senate](Seniority)(Seniority in the United States Senate)
* [of current members of the United States House of Representatives](List)(List of current members of the United States House of Representatives)
* [of members of the United States Congress by longevity of service](List)(List of members of the United States Congress by longevity of service)
* [of United States Senate committees](List)(List of United States Senate committees)
* [of United States congressional joint committees](List)(List of United States congressional joint committees)
* [affiliation in the United States Senate](Religious)(Religious affiliation in the United States Senate)
* [congressperson](Shadow)(Shadow congressperson)
## Notes
## References
[**](Category:117th United States Congress)
[Senate](Category:21st-century United States government officials)
[States Congress](United)(Category:Lists of current office-holders in the United States)
[United States senators](Current)(Category:Lists of United States senators)
[States](United)(Category:Lists of current national legislators)
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Amtrak
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amtrak
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# Amtrak
*Revision ID: 1160007273 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T21:50:07Z*
---
| key_people = (President)
*Stephen Gardner (CEO)}}
| start_year = May 1, 1971
| end_year = present
| gauge =
| electrification =
| length = route miles)
*Track owned: }}
| hq_city = 1 Massachusetts Avenue NW[D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)
| website =
|predecessors=[privately operated intercity passenger rail systems](20)(List of railroads eligible to participate in the formation of Amtrak#Participating railroads)}}
The **National Railroad Passenger Corporation**, [business as](doing)(Trade name) **Amtrak** () , is the national [railroad](passenger)(Passenger train) company of the United States. It operates [rail](inter-city)(inter-city rail) service in 46 of the 48 [U.S. states](contiguous)(contiguous United States) and three [provinces](Canadian)(Provinces and territories of Canada). *Amtrak* is a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of the words *America* and *trak*, the latter itself a [spelling](sensational)(sensational spelling) of *track*.
Founded in 1971 as a [corporation](quasi-public)(Quasi-corporation) to operate many U.S. passenger rail routes, Amtrak receives a combination of state and federal subsidies but is managed as a [organization](for-profit)(for-profit corporation). The company's headquarters is located one block west of [Station](Union)(Washington Union Station) in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) Amtrak is headed by a Board of Directors, two of whom are the [of Transportation](Secretary)(Secretary of Transportation) and CEO of Amtrak, while the other eight members are nominated to serve a term of five years.
Amtrak's network includes over 500 stations along of track. It directly owns approximately of this track and operates an additional 132 miles of track. Some track sections allow trains to run as fast as .
In [year](fiscal)(fiscal year) 2022, Amtrak served 22.9 million passengers and had $2.1 billion in revenue, with more than 17,100 employees as of fiscal year 2021. Nearly 87,000 passengers ride more than 300 Amtrak trains daily. Nearly two-thirds of passengers come from the [largest metropolitan areas](10)(Metropolitan statistical area); 83% of passengers travel on routes shorter than .
## History
[[File:The Congressional Pennsylvania Railroad.JPG|thumb|left|The [Railroad](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Railroad)'s *Congressional* in the 1960s]]
### Private passenger service
In 1916, 98% of all commercial intercity travelers in the United States moved by rail, and the remaining 2% moved by [waterways](inland)(Inland waterways of the United States). Nearly 42 million passengers used railways as primary transportation. Passenger trains were owned and operated by the same privately owned companies that operated freight trains. As the 20th century progressed, patronage declined in the face of competition from [bus](bus)es, [travel](air)(air travel), and the [car](car). New [streamlined](streamliner) diesel-powered trains such as the *[Zephyr](Pioneer)(Pioneer Zephyr)* were popular with the traveling public but could not reverse the trend. By 1940, railroads held 67 percent of commercial passenger-miles in the United States. In real terms, passenger-miles had fallen by 40% since 1916, from 42 billion to 25 billion.
Traffic surged during [War II](World)(World War II), which was aided by troop movement and [rationing](gasoline)(Rationing in the United States). The railroad's market share surged to 74% in 1945, with a massive 94 billion passenger-miles. After the war, railroads rejuvenated their overworked and neglected passenger fleets with fast and luxurious streamliners. These new trains brought only temporary relief to the overall decline. Even as postwar travel exploded, passenger travel percentages of the overall market share fell to 46% by 1950, and then 32% by 1957. The railroads had lost money on passenger service since the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), but deficits reached $723 million in 1957. For many railroads, these losses threatened financial viability.
The causes of this decline were heavily debated. The [Highway System](National)(National Highway System (United States)) and [airport](airport)s, both funded by the government, competed directly with the railroads, which paid for their own infrastructure. [car culture](American)(1950s American automobile culture) was also on the rise in the post-World War II years. [Era](Progressive)(Progressive Era) rate regulation limited the railroad's ability to turn a profit. Railroads also faced antiquated work rules and inflexible relationships with trade unions. To take one example, workers continued to receive a day's pay for workdays. Streamliners covered that in two hours.
Matters approached a crisis in the 1960s. Passenger service route-miles fell from in 1958 to in 1970, the last full year of private operation. The diversion of most [States Post Office Department](United)(United States Post Office Department) mail from passenger trains to trucks, airplanes, and freight trains in late 1967 deprived those trains of badly needed revenue. In direct response, the [Topeka and Santa Fe Railway](Atchison,)(Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway) filed to discontinue 33 of its remaining 39 trains, ending almost all passenger service on one of the largest railroads in the country. The equipment the railroads had ordered after World War II was now 20 years old, worn out, and in need of replacement.
### Formation
[[File:PCPOST_19710601_Amtrak.png|right|thumb|[Central Railroad](Penn)(Penn Central Transportation Company)'s employee publication announcing the inauguration of Amtrak on May 1, 1971. Penn Central Amtrak routes are shown.]]
As passenger service declined, various proposals were brought forward to rescue it. The 1961 Doyle Report proposed that the private railroads pool their services into a single body. Similar proposals were made in 1965 and 1968 but failed to attract support. The federal government passed the [Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965](High)(High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965) to fund pilot programs in the [Corridor](Northeast)(Northeast Corridor), but this did nothing to address passenger deficits. In late 1969, multiple proposals emerged in the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress), including equipment subsidies, route subsidies, and, lastly, a "quasi-public corporation" to take over the operation of intercity passenger trains. Matters were brought to a head on June 21, 1970, when the [Central](Penn)(Penn Central Transportation Company), the largest railroad in the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States) and teetering on bankruptcy, filed to discontinue 34 of its passenger trains.
In October 1970, Congress passed, and President [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) signed into law, the [Passenger Service Act](Rail)(Rail Passenger Service Act). Proponents of the bill, led by the [Association of Railroad Passengers](National)(National Association of Railroad Passengers) (NARP), sought government funding to ensure the continuation of passenger trains. They conceived the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (NRPC), a [corporation](quasi-public)(Quasi-corporation) that would be managed as a [organization](for-profit)(for-profit corporation), but which would receive taxpayer funding and assume operation of intercity passenger trains.
There were several key provisions:
* Any railroad operating intercity passenger service could contract with the NRPC, thereby joining the national system.
* The United States federal government, through the [of Transportation](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Transportation), would own all of the NRPC's [issued](Issued shares) and [outstanding](Shares outstanding) [stock](preferred)(preferred stock).
* Participating railroads bought into the NRPC using a formula based on their recent intercity passenger losses. The purchase price could be satisfied either by cash or rolling stock; in exchange, the railroads received NRPC [stock](common)(common stock).
* Any participating railroad was freed of the obligation to operate intercity passenger service after May 1, 1971, except for those services chosen by the [of Transportation](Department)(United States Department of Transportation) (DOT) as part of a "basic system" of service and paid for by NRPC using its federal funds.
* Railroads that chose not to join the NRPC system were required to continue operating their existing passenger service until 1975, at which time they could pursue the customary ICC approval process for any discontinuance or alteration to the service.
Of the 26 railroads still offering intercity passenger service in 1970, only six declined to join the NRPC.
The original working [name](brand)(brand name) for NRPC was Railpax, but less than two weeks before operations began, the official marketing name was changed to Amtrak, a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of the words *America* and *trak*, the latter itself a [spelling](sensational)(sensational spelling) of *track*.
Nearly everyone involved expected the experiment to be short-lived. The Nixon administration and many Washington insiders viewed the NRPC as a politically expedient way for the President and Congress to give passenger trains a "last hurrah" as demanded by the public. They expected the NRPC to quietly disappear as public interest waned. After *[Fortune](Fortune (magazine))* magazine exposed the manufactured mismanagement in 1974, [W. Menk](Louis)(Louis W. Menk), chairman of the [Northern Railroad](Burlington)(Burlington Northern Railroad), remarked that the story was undermining the scheme to dismantle Amtrak. Proponents also hoped that government intervention would be brief and that Amtrak would soon be able to support itself. Neither view had proved to be correct; for popular support allowed Amtrak to continue in operation longer than critics imagined, while financial results made passenger train service returning to private railroad operations infeasible.
### 1970s: The Rainbow Era
[[File:BN_9762_in_Yakima_Aug_71_NthCstHiRP.jpg|right|thumb|The *[Coast Hiawatha](North)(North Coast Hiawatha)* near [Washington](Yakima,)(Yakima, Washington), in July 1971, an example of early Amtrak "rainbow" [consist](consist)s, made up of equipment still painted in the colors of various railroads]]
Amtrak began operations on May 1, 1971. Amtrak received no [tracks](rail)(rail tracks) or [rights-of-way](Right-of-way (transportation)) at its inception. All Amtrak's routes were continuations of prior service, although Amtrak pruned about half the passenger rail network. Of the 366 train routes that operated previously, Amtrak continued only 184. Several major corridors became freight-only, including the ex-[York Central Railroad](New)(New York Central Railroad)'s [Level Route](Water)(Water Level Route) from New York to Ohio and [Trunk Western Railroad](Grand)(Grand Trunk Western Railroad)'s Chicago to Detroit route. The reduced passenger train schedules created confusion amongst staff. At some stations, Amtrak service was available only late at night or early in the morning, prompting complaints from passengers. Disputes with freight railroads over track usage caused some services to be rerouted, temporarily cancelled, or replaced with buses. On the other hand, the creation of the Los Angeles–Seattle *[Starlight](Coast)(Coast Starlight)* from three formerly separate train routes was an immediate success, resulting in an increase to daily service by 1973.
Needing to operate only half the train routes that had operated previously, Amtrak would lease around 1,200 of the best passenger cars from the 3,000 that the private railroads owned. All were air-conditioned, and 90% were easy-to-maintain stainless steel. When Amtrak took over, passenger cars and locomotives initially retained the paint schemes and logos of their former owners which resulted in Amtrak running trains with mismatched colors – the "Rainbow Era". In mid-1971, Amtrak began purchasing some of the equipment it had leased, including 286 [EMD](Electro-Motive Division) E and F unit diesel locomotives, 30 [GG1](PRR GG1) electric locomotives and 1,290 passenger cars. By 1975, the official Amtrak color scheme was painted on most Amtrak equipment and newly purchased locomotives and the rolling stock began appearing.
[[File:JackLondonSquare AmTrakSign 20150923 (22300545112).jpg|thumb|left|Classic Amtrak logo displayed at the [– Jack London Square station](Oakland)(Oakland – Jack London Square station), California]]
Amtrak inherited problems with train stations (most notably [maintenance](deferred)(deferred maintenance)) and redundant facilities from the competing railroads that once served the same areas. For example, on the day it started, Amtrak was given the responsibility of rerouting passenger trains from the seven train terminals in Chicago ([LaSalle](LaSalle Street Station), [Dearborn](Dearborn Station), [Central](Grand)(Grand Central Station (Chicago)), [Randolph](Millennium Station), [Northwestern Terminal](Chicago)(Ogilvie Transportation Center), [Central](Central Station (Chicago terminal)), and Union) into just one, [Station](Union)(Chicago Union Station). In [York City](New)(New York City), Amtrak had to maintain two stations ([Penn](Pennsylvania Station (New York City)) and [Central](Grand)(Grand Central Terminal)) due to the lack of track connections to bring trains from upstate New York into Penn Station; a problem that was rectified once the [Connection](Empire)(Empire Connection) was built in 1991. The Amtrak Standard Stations Program was launched in 1978 and proposed to build a standardized station design across the system with an aim to reduce costs, speed construction, and improve its corporate image." However, the cash-strapped railroad would ultimately build relatively few of these standard stations.
[[File:Amtrak 621 with the San Francisco Zephyr over the Truckee River in Verdi, Nevada, February 1975.jpg|thumb|right|An Amtrak [SDP40F](EMD)(EMD SDP40F) with the *[Francisco Zephyr](San)(San Francisco Zephyr)* in 1975. By the mid-1970s, Amtrak equipment was acquiring its own identity.]]
Amtrak soon had the opportunity to acquire rights-of-way. Following the bankruptcy of several northeastern railroads in the early 1970s, including Penn Central, which owned and operated the Northeast Corridor (NEC), Congress passed the [Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act](Railroad)(Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act) of 1976.[Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act](Railroad)(Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act), , , . February 5, 1976. A large part of the legislation was directed to the creation of [Conrail](Consolidated Rail Corporation), but the law also enabled the transfer of the portions of the NEC not already owned by state authorities to Amtrak. Amtrak acquired the majority of the NEC on April 1, 1976. (The portion in Massachusetts is owned by the Commonwealth and managed by Amtrak. The route from New Haven to New Rochelle is owned by New York's [Transportation Authority](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Transportation Authority) and the [Department of Transportation](Connecticut)(Connecticut Department of Transportation) as the [Haven Line](New)(New Haven Line).) This mainline became Amtrak's "jewel" asset, and helped the railroad generate revenue. While the NEC ridership and revenues were higher than any other segment of the system, the cost of operating and maintaining the corridor proved to be overwhelming. As a result, Amtrak's federal subsidy was increased dramatically. In subsequent years, other short route segments not needed for freight operations were transferred to Amtrak.
In its first decade, Amtrak fell far short of financial independence, which continues today, but it did find modest success rebuilding trade. Outside factors discouraged competing transport, such as fuel shortages which increased costs of automobile and airline travel, and strikes which disrupted airline operations. Investments in Amtrak's track, equipment and information also made Amtrak more relevant to America's transportation needs. Amtrak's ridership increased from 16.6 million in 1972 to 21 million in 1981.
In February 1978, Amtrak moved its headquarters to 400 N Capitol Street W, Washington D.C.
### 1980s and 1990s: The Building Era
In 1982, former [of the Navy](Secretary)(United States Secretary of the Navy) and retired [Railway](Southern)(Southern Railway (U.S.)) head [Graham Claytor Jr.](William)(W. Graham Claytor, Jr.) came out of retirement to lead Amtrak. During his time at Southern, Claytor was a vocal critic of Amtrak's prior managers, who all came from non-railroading backgrounds. Transportation Secretary [Lewis](Drew)(Drew Lewis) cited this criticism as a reason why the Democrat Claytor was acceptable to the Reagan White House. Despite frequent clashes with the Reagan administration over funding, Claytor enjoyed a good relationship with Lewis, [H. Riley](John)(John H. Riley), the head of the [Railroad Administration](Federal)(Federal Railroad Administration) (FRA), and with members of Congress. Limited funding led Claytor to use [debt](short-term)(money market) to fund operations.
Building on mechanical developments in the 1970s, high-speed Washington–New York [Service](Metroliner)(Metroliner (train)) was improved with new equipment and faster schedules. Travel time between New York and Washington, D.C. was reduced to under 3 hours due to system improvements and limited stop service. This improvement was cited as a reason why Amtrak grew its share of intercity trips between the cities along the corridor. Elsewhere in the country, demand for passenger rail service resulted in the creation of five new state-supported routes in California, Illinois, Missouri, Oregon and Pennsylvania, for a total of 15 state-supported routes.
Amtrak added two trains in 1983, the *[Zephyr](California)(California Zephyr)* between [Oakland](Oakland, California) and Chicago via Denver and revived the *[Train](Auto)(Auto Train)*, a unique service that carries both passengers and their vehicles. Amtrak advertised it as a great way to avoid traffic along the [I-95](Interstate 95) running between [Virginia](Lorton,)(Lorton, Virginia) (near Washington, D.C.) and [Florida](Sanford,)(Sanford, Florida) (near Orlando) on the [Star](Silver)(Silver Star (Amtrak train)) alignment.
In 1980s and 1990s, stations in Baltimore, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. received major rehabilitation and the Empire Connection tunnel opened in 1991, allowing Amtrak to consolidate all New York services at [Station.](Penn)(Pennsylvania Station (New York City)) Despite the improvements, Amtrak's ridership stagnated at roughly 20 million passengers per year, amid uncertain government aid from 1981 to about 2000.
In the early 1990s, Amtrak tested several different high-speed trains from Europe on the Northeast Corridor. An [2000 train was leased](X)(X 2000#Exports) from Sweden for test runs from October 1992 to January 1993, followed by revenue service between Washington, D.C. and New York City from February to May and August to September 1993. [Siemens](Siemens) showed the [1](ICE)(ICE 1) train from Germany, organizing the [Train North America Tour](ICE)(ICE 1#ICE train North America tour) which started to operate on the Northeast Corridor on July 3, 1993.
In 1993, Thomas Downs succeeded Claytor as Amtrak's fifth president. The stated goal remained "operational self-sufficiency". By this time, however, Amtrak had a large overhang of debt from years of underfunding. In the mid-1990s, Amtrak suffered through a serious cash crunch. Under Downs, Congress included a provision in the [Relief Act of 1997](Taxpayer)(Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997) that resulted in Amtrak receiving a $2.3 billion tax refund that resolved their cash crisis. However, Congress also instituted a "glide path" to financial self-sufficiency, excluding railroad retirement tax act payments.
[Warrington](George)(George Warrington) became the sixth president in 1998, with a mandate to make Amtrak financially self-sufficient. Under Warrington, the company tried to expand into express freight shipping, placing Amtrak in competition with the "host" freight railroads and the [industry](trucking)(Trucking industry in the United States).
On March 9, 1999, Amtrak unveiled its plan for the *Acela Express,* a high-speed train on the [Corridor](Northeast)(Northeast Corridor) between Washington, D.C. and Boston. Several changes were made to the corridor to make it suitable for higher-speed electric trains. The [Electrification Project](Northend)(Amtrak's 60 Hz traction power system) extended existing electrification from [Haven, Connecticut](New)(New Haven, Connecticut), to Boston to complete the [power supply](overhead)(Railway electrification system) along the route, and several grade crossings were improved or removed.
### 2000s: Growth in the 21st century
[[File:The_Sunday_Morning_Cardinal.jpg|right|thumb|[Genesis](GE)(GE Genesis) diesel locomotives lead the *[Cardinal](Cardinal (train))* in 2006. In the 21st century, Amtrak replaced the F40PH with the Genesis series]]
Ridership increased during the first decade of the 21st century after the implementation of capital improvements in the NEC and rises in automobile fuel costs. The inauguration of the [high-speed](high-speed rail) *[Acela](Acela)* in late 2000 generated considerable publicity and led to major ridership gains. However, through the late 1990s and very early 21st century, Amtrak could not add sufficient express freight revenue or cut sufficient other expenditures to break even. By 2002, it was clear that Amtrak could not achieve self-sufficiency, but Congress continued to authorize funding and released Amtrak from the requirement. In early 2002, [L. Gunn](David)(David L. Gunn) replaced Warrington as seventh president. In a departure from his predecessors' promises to make Amtrak self-sufficient in the short term, Gunn argued that no form of passenger transportation in the United States is self-sufficient as the economy is currently structured. Highways, airports, and air traffic control *all* require large government expenditures to build and operate, coming from the [Trust Fund](Highway)(Highway Trust Fund) and [Trust Fund](Aviation)(Airport and Airway Trust Fund) paid for by user fees, highway fuel and road taxes, and, in the case of the General Fund, from general taxation. Gunn dropped most freight express business and worked to eliminate deferred maintenance.
A plan by the Bush administration "to privatize parts of the national passenger rail system and spin off other parts to partial state ownership" provoked disagreement within Amtrak's board of directors. Late in 2005, Gunn was fired. Gunn's replacement, [Kummant](Alexander)(Alexander Kummant) (2006–08), was committed to operating a national rail network, and like Gunn, opposed the notion of putting the Northeast Corridor under separate ownership. He said that shedding the system's long-distance routes would amount to selling national assets that are on par with national parks, and that Amtrak's abandonment of these routes would be irreversible. In late 2006, Amtrak unsuccessfully sought annual congressional funding of $1 billion for ten years. In early 2007, Amtrak employed 20,000 people in 46 states and served 25 million passengers a year, its highest amount since its founding in 1970. *[Politico](Politico)* noted a key problem: "the rail system chronically operates in the red. A pattern has emerged: Congress overrides cutbacks demanded by the White House and appropriates enough funds to keep Amtrak from plunging into insolvency. But, Amtrak advocates say, that is not enough to fix the system's woes."
[H. Boardman](Joseph)(Joseph H. Boardman) replaced Kummant as president and CEO in late 2008.
[[File:Acela_old_saybrook_ct_summer2011.jpg|right|thumb|An *[Acela](Acela)* at [Saybrook, Connecticut](Old)(Old Saybrook, Connecticut), in 2011]]
In 2011, Amtrak announced its intention to improve and expand the high-speed rail corridor from Penn Station in NYC, under the Hudson River in new tunnels, and double-tracking the line to [NJ](Newark,)(Newark, New Jersey), called the [Program](Gateway)(Gateway Project), initially estimated to cost $13.5 billion (equal to $ billion in ).
From May 2011 to May 2012, Amtrak celebrated its 40th anniversary with festivities across the country that started on National Train Day (May 7, 2011). A commemorative book entitled *Amtrak: An American Story* was published, a documentary was created, [locomotives were painted in Amtrak's four prior paint schemes](six)(Amtrak paint schemes#40th anniversary heritage units), and an Exhibit Train toured the country visiting 45 communities and welcoming more than 85,000 visitors.
After years of almost revolving-door CEOs at Amtrak, in December 2013, Boardman was named "Railroader of the Year" by *Railway Age* magazine, which noted that with over five years in the job, he is the second-longest serving head of Amtrak since it was formed more than 40 years ago. On December 9, 2015, Boardman announced in a letter to employees that he would be leaving Amtrak in September 2016. He had advised the Amtrak Board of Directors of his decision the previous week. On August 19, 2016, the Amtrak Board of Directors named former [Southern Railway](Norfolk)(Norfolk Southern Railway) President & CEO ["Wick" Moorman](Charles)(Charles Moorman) as Boardman's successor with an effective date of September 1, 2016. During his term, Moorman took no salary and said that he saw his role as one of a "transitional CEO" who would reorganize Amtrak before turning it over to new leadership.
On November 17, 2016, the Gateway Program Development Corporation (GDC) was formed for the purpose of overseeing and effectuating the rail infrastructure improvements known as the Gateway Program. GDC is a partnership of the States of New York and New Jersey and Amtrak. The Gateway Program includes the Hudson Tunnel Project, to build a new tunnel under the Hudson River and rehabilitate the existing century-old tunnel, and the Portal North Bridge, to replace a century-old moveable bridge with a modern structure that is less prone to failure. Later projects of the Gateway Program, including the expansion of track and platforms at Penn Station New York, construction of the Bergen Loop and other improvements will roughly double capacity for Amtrak and NJ Transit trains in the busiest, most complex section of the Northeast Corridor.
In June 2017, it was announced that former [Delta](Delta Air Lines) and [Airlines](Northwest)(Northwest Airlines) CEO [Anderson](Richard)(Richard H. Anderson (businessman)) would become Amtrak's next President & CEO. Anderson began the job on July 12, assuming the title of President immediately and serving alongside Moorman as "co-CEOs" until the end of the year. On April 15, 2020, [Air](Atlas)(Atlas Air) Chairman, President and CEO William Flynn was named Amtrak President and CEO. In addition to Atlas Air, Flynn has held senior roles at [Transportation](CSX)(CSX Transportation), [Services](SeaLand)(SeaLand) and GeoLogistics Corp. Anderson would remain with Amtrak as a senior advisor until December 2020.
As Amtrak approached profitability in 2020, the company undertook planning to expand and create new intermediate-distance corridors across the country. Included were several new services in Ohio, Tennessee, Colorado, and Minnesota, among other states.
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United States), Amtrak continued operating as an essential service. It started requiring face coverings the week of May 17, and limited sales to 50% of capacity. Most long-distance routes were reduced to three weekly round trips in October 2020.
In March 2021, following President Joe Biden's [Jobs Plan](American)(American Jobs Plan) announcement, Amtrak CEO Bill Flynn outlined a proposal called Amtrak Connects US that would expand state-supported intercity corridors with an infusion of upfront capital assistance. This would expand service to cities including [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), [Phoenix](Phoenix, Arizona), [Rouge](Baton)(Baton Rouge), [Nashville](Nashville), [Chattanooga](Chattanooga), [Louisville](Louisville, Kentucky), [(Ohio)](Columbus)(Columbus, Ohio), [(North Carolina)](Wilmington)(Wilmington, North Carolina), [Cheyenne](Cheyenne, Wyoming), [Montgomery](Montgomery, Alabama), [Concord](Concord, New Hampshire), and [Scranton](Scranton, Pennsylvania). Also in March 2021, Amtrak announced plans to return 12 of its long-distance routes to daily schedules later in the spring. Most of these routes were restored to daily service in late-May 2021. However, a resurgence of the virus caused by the [variant](Omicron)(SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant) caused Amtrak to modify and/or suspend many of these routes again from January to March 2022.
## Operations
[[File:Moynihan Train Hall interior.jpg|thumb|[York City](New)(New York City)'s [Station](Penn)(Pennsylvania Station (New York City)), Amtrak's busiest station by boardings]]
[[File:Chicago Union Station, Great Hall.jpg|thumb|[Union Station](Chicago)(Chicago Union Station), Amtrak's busiest station off the Northeast Corridor and main hub for long-distance services.]]
### Routes
Amtrak is required by law to operate a national route system.*Amtrak Reform and Accountability Act of 1997.* 105th Cong., Senate Report 105-85 (September 24, 1997). Amtrak has presence in 46 of the 48 contiguous states, as well as the District of Columbia (with only thruway connecting services in [Wyoming](Wyoming) and no services in [Dakota](South)(South Dakota)). Amtrak services fall into three groups: short-haul service on the Northeast Corridor, state-supported short-haul service outside the Northeast Corridor, and medium- and long-haul service known within Amtrak as the National Network. Amtrak receives federal funding for the vast majority of its operations including the central spine of the Northeast Corridor as well as for its National Network routes. In addition to the federally funded routes, Amtrak partners with transportation agencies in 18 states to operate other short and medium-haul routes outside of the Northeast Corridor, some of which connect to it or are extensions from it. In addition to its inter-city services, Amtrak also operates commuter services under contract for three public agencies: the [MARC](MARC Train) [Line](Penn)(Penn Line) in Maryland, [Line East](Shore)(Shore Line East) in Connecticut, and [Metrolink](Metrolink (California)) in Southern California.
Service on the Northeast Corridor (NEC), between [Boston](Boston), and [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), as well as between [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) and [Harrisburg](Harrisburg, Pennsylvania), is powered by [line](overhead)(overhead line)s; for the rest of the system, diesel-fueled locomotives are used. Routes vary widely in the frequency of service, from three-days-a-week trains on the *[Limited](Sunset)(Sunset Limited)* to several times per hour on the Northeast Corridor. For areas not served by trains, [Thruway](Amtrak)(Amtrak Thruway) routes provide guaranteed connections to trains via buses, vans, ferries and other modes.
The most popular and heavily used services are those running on the NEC, including the *Acela* and *[Regional](Northeast)(Northeast Regional)*. The NEC runs between Boston and Washington, D.C. via New York City and Philadelphia. Some services continue into [Virginia](Virginia). The NEC services accounted for 4.4 million of Amtrak's 12.2 million passengers in [year](fiscal)(fiscal year) 2021. Outside the NEC the most popular services are the short-haul corridors in California, the *[Surfliner](Pacific)(Pacific Surfliner)*, *[Corridor](Capitol)(Capitol Corridor)*, and *[Joaquin](San)(San Joaquin (train))*, which are supplemented by an extensive network of connecting buses. Together the California corridor trains accounted for a combined 2.35 million passengers in fiscal year 2021. Other popular routes include the *[Service](Empire)(Empire Service)* between New York City and [Falls](Niagara)(Niagara Falls, New York), via [Albany](Albany, New York) and [Buffalo](Buffalo, New York), which carried 613.2 thousand passengers in fiscal year 2021, and the *[Service](Keystone)(Keystone Service)* between New York City and Harrisburg via Philadelphia that carried 394.3 thousand passengers that same year.
Four of the six busiest stations by boardings are on the NEC: [York Penn Station](New)(Pennsylvania Station (New York City)) (first), [Union Station](Washington)(Washington Union Station) (second), [30th Street Station](Philadelphia)(30th Street Station) (third), and [South Station](Boston)(South Station) (fifth). The other two are [Union Station](Chicago)(Chicago Union Station) (fourth) and [Angeles Union Station](Los)(Union Station (Los Angeles)) (sixth).
### On-time performance
On-time performance is calculated differently for airlines than for Amtrak. A plane is considered on-time if it arrives within 15 minutes of the schedule. Amtrak uses a sliding scale, with trips under considered late if they are more than 10 minutes behind schedule, up to 30 minutes for trips over in length.
Outside the Northeast Corridor and stretches of track in Southern California and Michigan, most Amtrak trains run on tracks owned and operated by privately owned freight railroads. [BNSF](BNSF Railway) is the largest host to Amtrak routes, with 6.3 million miles. Freight rail operators are required under federal law to give dispatching preference to Amtrak trains. However, Amtrak has accused freight railroads violating or skirting these regulations, resulting in passenger trains waiting for freight traffic to clear the track.
The railroads' dispatching practices were investigated in 2008, resulting in stricter laws about train priority. Subsequently, Amtrak's overall on-time performance went up from 74.7% in fiscal 2008 to 84.7% in 2009, with long-distance trains and others outside the NEC seeing the greatest benefit. The *[River Runner](Missouri)(Missouri River Runner)* jumped from 11% to 95%, becoming one of Amtrak's best performers. The *[Eagle](Texas)(Texas Eagle)* went from 22.4% to 96.7%, and the *[Zephyr](California)(California Zephyr)*, with a 5% on-time record in 2008, went up to 78.3%. However, this improved performance coincided with a general economic downturn, resulting in the lowest freight-rail traffic volumes since at least 1988, meaning less freight traffic to impede passenger traffic.
In 2018, Amtrak began issuing report cards, grading each host railroad [to students](similar)(Grading in education), based on the railroad's impact to on-time performance. The first report card, issued in March 2018, includes one A (given to [Pacific](Canadian)(Canadian Pacific Railway)) and two Fs (given to [National](Canadian)(Canadian National Railway) and [Southern](Norfolk)(Norfolk Southern Railway)). Amtrak's 2020 host report card gives [Pacific](Canadian)(Canadian Pacific Railway) and Canadian National an A, [BNSF](BNSF Railway) and [CSX](CSX Transportation) a B, [Pacific](Union)(Union Pacific Railroad) a C+, and Norfolk Southern a D-.
### Ridership
[[Amtrak Ridership Graph thru FY2012.svg|thumb|right|Annual ridership by fiscal year 1971–2022](File:Annual)]
Amtrak carried 15.8 million passengers in 1972, its first full year of operation. Ridership has increased steadily ever since, carrying a record 32 million passengers in [year](fiscal)(fiscal year) 2019, more than double the total in 1972. For the fiscal year ending on September 30, 2020, Amtrak reported 16.8 million passengers, with the decline resulting from effects of the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United States). FY20 vs. FY19|website=Amtrak|access-date=May 2, 2021|quote=Fiscal year 2019 ridership previously reported as 32.5 millions has been decreased to 32.0 million to reflect an updated company definition of ridership|archive-date=May 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517163829/https://media.amtrak.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/FY20-Year-End-Ridership.pdf|url-status=live}} Fiscal year 2021 saw ridership decrease more, with 12.2 million passengers reported. Fiscal year 2022 saw an increase to 22.9 million passengers, however, it is still lower than pre-pandemic numbers.
### Guest Rewards
Amtrak's [program](loyalty)(loyalty program), Guest Rewards, is similar to the [program](frequent-flyer)(frequent-flyer program)s of many airlines. Guest Rewards members accumulate points by riding Amtrak and through other activities, and can redeem these points for free Amtrak tickets and other rewards.
### Rail passes
Amtrak offers rail passes, which can be cheaper than air travel for long distances, and allows side trips without extra charge.
### Lines
[[File:A Lake Shore Limited train backing into Chicago Union Station.jpg|thumb|right|In 2009, an Amtrak Lake Shore Limited train backing into [Chicago](Chicago) Union Station]]
Along the NEC and in several other areas, Amtrak owns including 17 tunnels consisting of of track, and 1,186 bridges (including the famous [Gate Bridge](Hell)(Hell Gate Bridge)) consisting of of track. In several places, primarily in New England, Amtrak leases tracks, providing track maintenance and controlling train movements. Most often, these tracks are leased from state, regional, or local governments. The lines are further divided into services. Amtrak owns and operates the following lines:
* [Corridor](Northeast)(Northeast Corridor): the Northeast Corridor between Washington, D.C., and [Boston](Boston) via [Baltimore](Baltimore), Philadelphia, [Newark](Newark, New Jersey), [York](New)(New York City) and [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island) is largely owned by Amtrak (363 of 457 miles), working cooperatively with several state and regional commuter agencies. Between New Haven, Connecticut, and New Rochelle, New York, Northeast Corridor trains travel on the [Railroad](Metro-North)(Metro-North Railroad)'s [Haven Line](New)(New Haven Line), which is owned and operated by the [Department of Transportation](Connecticut)(Connecticut Department of Transportation) and the [Transportation Authority](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Transportation Authority).
* [Corridor](Keystone)(Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line): Amtrak owns the 104.2-mile line from Philadelphia to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. As a result of an investment partnership with the [of Pennsylvania](Commonwealth)(Pennsylvania), signal and track improvements were completed in October 2006 that allow all-electric service with a top speed of to run along the corridor.
* [Corridor](Empire)(Empire Connection): Amtrak owns the between New York Penn Station and [Duyvil, New York](Spuyten)(Spuyten Duyvil, Bronx). In 2012, Amtrak leased the between [New York](Poughkeepsie,)(Poughkeepsie, New York), and [New York](Schenectady,)(Schenectady, New York), from owner [CSX](CSX Transportation). In addition, Amtrak owns the tracks across the [Rapids Bridge](Whirlpool)(Whirlpool Rapids Bridge) and short approach sections near it.
* [Line](Michigan)(Michigan Line): Amtrak acquired the 98 miles of [Indiana](Porter,)(Porter, Indiana) to [Michigan](Kalamazoo,)(Kalamazoo, Michigan) section of the former [Central](Michigan)(Michigan Central Railroad) main line from [Conrail](Conrail) in 1976.
* [Haven–Springfield Line](New)(New Haven–Springfield Line): Amtrak purchased the between [Haven](New)(New Haven, Connecticut) and [Springfield](Springfield, Massachusetts) from Penn Central in 1976.
* [Road Branch](Post)(Post Road Branch): , [Castleton-on-Hudson](Castleton-on-Hudson, New York) to [New York](Rensselaer,)(Rensselaer, New York)
In addition to these lines, Amtrak owns station and yard tracks in Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York City, [Oakland](Oakland, California) (Kirkham Street Yard), [Orlando](Orlando, Florida), [Oregon](Portland,)(Portland, Oregon), [Seattle](Seattle), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), and Washington, D.C. Amtrak leases station and yard tracks in [Hialeah](Hialeah, Florida), near Miami, Florida, from the State of Florida.
Amtrak owns New York Penn Station, Philadelphia 30th Street Station, Baltimore Penn Station and Providence Station. It also owns Chicago Union Station, formerly through a wholly owned subsidiary, the [Union Station Company](Chicago)(Chicago Union Station Company) until absorbed by Amtrak in 2017. Through the [Terminal Company](Washington)(Washington Terminal Company), in which it owns a 99.7 percent interest, it owns the rail infrastructure around [Union Station](Washington)(Washington Union Station). It holds a 99% interest in 30th Street Limited, a partnership responsible for redeveloping the area in and around 30th Street Station. Amtrak also owns Passenger Railroad Insurance.
### Service lines
Amtrak organizes its business into six "service lines", which are treated like divisions at most companies.
There are three operating service lines: Northeast Corridor, which operates Amtrak's high-speed Acela and Northeast Regional trains; State Supported, which provides service on corridor routes of less than 750 miles through cost-sharing agreements with state governments; and Long Distance, which operates routes over 750 miles and receives financial support from the federal government.
Additionally there are three service lines involved in activities other than operating Amtrak trains. They are: Ancillary, which includes operating commuter trains under contract, establishing Amtrak Thruway connecting services, operating charter trains, and hauling private railcars; Real Estate & Commercial which manages property owned by Amtrak, including leasing space to other businesses inside stations; and Infrastructure Access/Reimbursable which charges other railroads for access to Amtrak owned tracks and performs work that can be reimbursed by other railroads or state governments. Net revenue generated by these service lines is used to fund Amtrak's other operations.
## Rolling stock
Amtrak owns 2,142 railway cars and 425 locomotives for revenue runs and service, collectively called [stock](rolling)(rolling stock). Notable examples include the [Genesis](GE)(GE Genesis) and [Charger](Siemens)(Siemens Charger) diesel locomotives, the [ACS-64](Siemens)(Siemens ACS-64) electric locomotive, the [Amfleet](Amfleet) series of single-level passenger cars, and the [Superliner](Superliner (railcar)) series of double-decker passenger cars.
The railroad is currently working to replace its fleet, spending $2.4 billion on 28 [Liberty](Avelia)(Avelia Liberty) trainsets for its flagship *Acela* service and $7.3 billion for 65 [Airo](Amtrak Airo) trainsets for other Northeast Corridor services. Additionally, California, North Carolina, and a group of Midwestern states purchased [Venture](Siemens)(Siemens Venture) trainsets for use on routes operated by Amtrak in their states, which started entering service in 2022. In 2023, Amtrak announced it had made a [for proposal](request)(request for proposal)s, looking to replace hundreds of railcars used on long-distance routes.
## On-board services
### Classes of service
Amtrak offers four classes of service: First Class, Sleeper Service, Business Class, and Coach Class:
* **First Class**: First Class service is only offered on the *[Acela](Acela)*. Seats are larger than those of Business Class and come in a variety of seating styles (single, facing singles with table, double, facing doubles with table and wheelchair accessible). First Class is located in a separate car from business class and is located at the end of the train (to reduce the number of passengers walking in the aisles). A car attendant provides passengers with hot towel service, a complimentary meal and alcoholic beverages. First Class passengers have access to lounges located at most larger stations.
* **Sleeper Service**: Private room accommodations on long-distance trains, including [roomette](roomette)s, bedrooms, bedroom suites, accessible bedrooms, and, on some trains, family bedrooms. Included in the price of a room are attendant service and on most routes, full hot meals. At night, attendants convert rooms into sleeping areas with fold-down beds and linens. Shower facilities with towels and bar soap are available. Complimentary juice, coffee and bottled water are included as well. Sleeper car passengers have access to all passenger facilities aboard the train. Sleeper Service passengers have access to lounges located at select stations.
* **Business Class**: Business Class seating is offered on the *Acela*, *[Regional](Northeast)(Northeast Regional)*, many short-haul corridor trains and some long-distance trains. It is the standard class of service on the *Acela.* On all other trains where it is offered, Business Class is located in a dedicated car or section of the train. While the specific features vary by route, many include extra legroom and complimentary non-alcoholic drinks. Seats in business class recline and feature a fold-down tray table, footrest, individual reading light, and power outlet. Passengers have access to some lounges, but busier locations may exclude Business Class customers.
* **Coach Class**: Coach Class is the standard class of service on all Amtrak trains except the *Acela*. Seats in coach recline and feature a fold-down tray table, footrest, individual reading light, and power outlet. Coach cars on long-distance trains are configured with fewer seats per car so that passengers have additional legroom and seats which are equipped with leg rests. Some corridor and short-distance trains have one coach car designated as a "quiet car" where loud conversation, phone calls, and sound played from electronic devices are not permitted.
### Wi-Fi and electronic services
Amtrak first offered free [Wi-Fi](Wi-Fi) service to passengers aboard the *Downeaster* in 2008, the *Acela* and the *[Regional](Northeast)(Northeast Regional)* trains on the NEC in 2010, and the *[Cascades](Amtrak)(Amtrak Cascades)* in 2011. In February 2014, Amtrak rolled out Wi-Fi on corridor trains out of Chicago. When all the Midwest cars offer the AmtrakConnect service, about 85% of all Amtrak passengers nationwide will have Wi-Fi access. , most Amtrak passengers have access to free Wi-Fi. The service has developed a reputation for being unreliable and slow due to its cellular network connection; on some routes it is usually unusable, either freezing on the login page or, if it manages to log in, failing to provide any internet bandwidth.
Amtrak launched an [e-ticketing](Electronic ticket) system on the *[Downeaster](Downeaster (train))* in November 2011 and rolled it out nationwide on July 30, 2012. Amtrak officials said the system gives "more accurate knowledge in realtime of who is on the train which greatly improves the safety and security of passengers; en route reporting of onboard equipment problems to mechanical crews which may result in faster resolution of the issue; and more efficient financial reporting".
### Baggage and cargo services
[[File:Viewliner 61049 on Amtrak train 66 at New London Union Station, September 2016.JPG|thumb|right|A [II](Viewliner)(Viewliner) baggage car at [London](New)(New London Union Station) in 2016]]
Amtrak allows carry-on baggage on all routes; services with [cars](baggage)(Passenger car (rail)#Baggage car) allow checked baggage at selected stations. With the passage of the [Amendment](Wicker)(Roger Wicker#Gun law) in 2010 passengers are allowed to put lawfully owned, unloaded firearms in checked Amtrak baggage, reversing a decade-long ban on such carriage.
The [Express](Amtrak)(Amtrak Express) cargo service provides small-package and less-than-truckload shipping between most Amtrak stations that handle checked baggage (over 100 cities). Cargo travels alongside checked luggage in baggage cars. Service and hours vary by station, limited by available equipment and staffing. Nearly all stations with checked baggage service can handle small packages, while large stations with forklifts can handle [shipments](palletized)(Pallet). Amtrak Express also offers station-to-station shipment of human remains to many cities.
Amtrak is popular among [touring](bicycle)(bicycle touring) enthusiasts due to the ease of riding with a bike. In contrast to airlines, which require riders to dismantle their bicycles and place them in specialized bags, most Amtrak trains have onboard bike racks in either the coaches or checked baggage car. Bicycle reservations are required on most routes and cost up to $20.
## Labor issues
In the modern era, Amtrak faces a number of important labor issues. In the area of pension funding, because of limitations originally imposed by Congress, most Amtrak workers were traditionally classified as "railroad employees" and contributions to the [Retirement](Railroad)(Railroad Retirement Board) system have been made for those employees. However, because the size of the contributions is determined on an industry-wide basis rather than with reference to the employer for whom the employees work, some critics, such as the [Association of Railroad Passengers](National)(National Association of Railroad Passengers), maintain that Amtrak is subsidizing freight railroad pensions by as much as US$150 million/year.
In recent times, efforts at reforming passenger rail have addressed labor issues. In 1997 Congress released Amtrak from a prohibition on contracting for labor outside the corporation (and outside its unions), opening the door to privatization.*Amtrak Reform and Accountability Act of 1997.* 105th Cong. (January 7, 1997) Since that time, many of Amtrak's employees have been working without a contract. The most recent contract, signed in 1999, was mainly retroactive.
Because of the fragmentation of railroad unions by job, Amtrak has 14 separate unions to negotiate with. Plus, it has 24 separate contracts with those unions. This makes it difficult to make substantial changes, in contrast to a situation where one union negotiates with one employer. Former Amtrak president Kummant followed a cooperative posture with Amtrak's trade unions, ruling out plans to privatize large parts of Amtrak's unionized workforce.
## Environmental impacts
### Amtrak's environmental impact
Per passenger mile, Amtrak is 30–40 percent more energy-efficient than commercial airlines and automobiles overall, though the exact figures for particular routes depend on load factor along with other variables. The electrified trains in the NEC are considerably more efficient than Amtrak's diesels and can feed energy captured from [braking](regenerative)(Regenerative brake#The motor as a brake) back to the electrical grid. Passenger rail is also very competitive with other modes in terms of safety per mile.
In 2005, Amtrak's carbon dioxide equivalent emissions were 0.411 lbs/mi (0.116 kg per km). table 1.1, figures from 2005. Cf. http://docs.wri.org/wri_co2comm_2002_commuting_protected.xls , sheet 8, cell C33 (figures from 2002). For comparison, this is similar to a car with two people,respectively http://docs.wri.org/wri_co2comm_2002_commuting_protected.xls , sheet 8, cell C36 (figures from 2002); table 1.1, figures from 2007. about twice as high as the UK rail average (where more of the system is electrified), about four times the average US motorcoach, and about eight times a Finnish electric intercity train or fully loaded fifty-seat coach. It is, however, about two thirds of the raw CO2-equivalent emissions of a long-distance domestic flight.
Amtrak operates over thirty passenger train routes throughout the U.S. and Canada. According to a 2009 UK study, rail transport on passenger trains produces significantly less [gas emissions](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas emissions) per unit distance than both road transport and domestic air transport in the UK. |doi=10.1243/09544062JMES1558 |s2cid=110342815}}
Amtrak operates [diesel](Diesel fuel), electric, and dual-mode (diesel and electric) locomotives. [engines](Diesel-powered)(Diesel engine) produce more greenhouse gas emissions during operation than electric trains.
As for the locational pollution directly from Amtrak operation, their diesel trains cause more regional air pollution, impacting the ecosystems around the sites of operation. Also, more stops along train routes can lead to higher greenhouse gas emissions. Amtrak rail facilities located in [Delaware](Delaware) were cited as the state's largest source of [biphenyl](polychlorinated)(polychlorinated biphenyl) (PCB) contamination into the Delaware River, which build up in the tissue of animals and are human carcinogens.
### Environmental impact on Amtrak
Amtrak railways and surrounding infrastructure are susceptible to degradation by natural causes over time. Railways experience water damage from climate change backed increases in rainfall in wet areas, and rail buckling caused by hotter and dryer seasons in naturally dry areas.
In September 2021, the remnants of [Ida](Hurricane)(Hurricane Ida) flooded the Amtrak Northeast Corridor running from Boston to Washington D.C. and caused it to shut down for an entire day. In February 2023, heavy snowfall and debris on tracks caused major disruptions from delays to cancellations.
Rising summertime temperatures are causing an increase in railway buckles. A study conducted on the railways in the southeast United Kingdom found that when temperature changes become extreme in the summertime due to climate change, the tracks buckle due to the outward force of the metal expanding in collaboration with the weight of train car traffic. This causes speed restrictions to be put in place around certain temperature intervals, slowing travel time and lessening the amount of train rides in a day. The study found that in 2004, 30,000 delay minutes were attributed to increased heat causing a total of over 1.7 million U.S. dollars, of total heat related delay cost.
## Public funding
Amtrak receives annual appropriations from federal and state governments to supplement operating and capital programs.
### Funding history
#### 1970s to 1990s
Amtrak commenced operations in 1971 with $40 million in direct federal aid, $100 million in federally insured loans, and a somewhat larger private contribution. Officials expected that Amtrak would break even by 1974, but those expectations proved unrealistic and annual direct federal aid reached a 17-year high in 1981 of $1.25 billion.$709 million of the 1981 aid package was for operations. The remainder was capital appropriations. During the [administration](Reagan)(Presidency of Ronald Reagan), appropriations were halved and by 1986, federal support fell to a decade low of $601 million, almost none of which were capital appropriations.National Railroad Passenger Corp. *Statistical Appendix to Amtrak FY1995 Annual Report*, *1995 Annual Report*, p.1. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Congress continued the reductionist trend even while Amtrak expenses held steady or rose. Amtrak was forced to borrow to meet short-term operating needs, and by 1995 Amtrak was on the brink of a cash crisis and was unable to continue to service its debts.National Railroad Passenger Corp. *1999 Annual Report*, p.41. In response, in 1997 Congress authorized $5.2 billion for Amtrak over the next five years – largely to complete the *Acela* capital project – on the condition that Amtrak submit to the ultimatum of self-sufficiency by 2003 or liquidation.*Amtrak Reform and Accountability Act of 1997*. 105th Cong. (January 7, 1997). Congressional Budget Office. *S. 738 Amtrak Reform and Accountability Act* (July 22, 1997), in *104th Cong. Senate Report 105-85* (September 24, 1997). While Amtrak made financial improvements during this period, it did not achieve self-sufficiency.
#### 2000s
[[File:NCF59.jpg|thumb|right|Amtrak's *[Piedmont](Piedmont (train))* near [North Carolina](Charlotte,)(Charlotte, North Carolina), with a state-owned locomotive. This route is run under a partnership with the [Carolina Department of Transportation](North)(North Carolina Department of Transportation), 2003]]
[[File:Amtrak Cascades cars.jpg|thumb|*[Cascades](Amtrak)(Amtrak Cascades)* service with tilting [Talgo](Talgo) trainsets in [Washington](Seattle,)(King Street Station), 2006]]
In 2004, a stalemate in federal support of Amtrak forced cutbacks in services and routes as well as the resumption of deferred maintenance. In fiscal 2004 and 2005, Congress appropriated about $1.2 billion for Amtrak, $300 million more than President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) had requested. However, the company's board requested $1.8 billion through fiscal 2006, the majority of which (about $1.3 billion) would be used to bring infrastructure, rolling stock, and motive power back to a state of good repair. In Congressional testimony, the DOT Inspector General confirmed that Amtrak would need at least $1.4 billion to $1.5 billion in fiscal 2006 and $2 billion in fiscal 2007 just to maintain the status quo. In 2006, Amtrak received just under $1.4 billion, with the condition that Amtrak would reduce (but not eliminate) food and sleeper service losses. Thus, dining service was simplified and now requires two fewer on-board service workers. Only *[Train](Auto)(Auto Train)* and *[Builder](Empire)(Empire Builder)* services continue regular made-on-board meal service. In 2010 the Senate approved a bill to provide $1.96 billion to Amtrak, but cut the approval for high-speed rail to a $1 billion appropriation.
State governments have partially filled the breach left by reductions in federal aid. Several states have entered into operating partnerships with Amtrak, notably California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Oregon, Missouri, [Washington](Washington (state)), North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas, Wisconsin, Vermont, Maine, and New York, as well as the Canadian province of [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), which provides some of the resources for the operation of the *[Cascades](Amtrak Cascades)* route.
With the dramatic rise in gasoline prices during 2007–08, Amtrak saw record ridership. Capping a steady five-year increase in ridership overall, regional lines saw 12% year-over-year growth in May 2008. In October 2007, the [Senate](United States Senate) passed S-294, *Passenger Rail Improvement and Investment Act of 2007* (70–22) sponsored by Senators [Lautenberg](Frank)(Frank Lautenberg) and [Lott](Trent)(Trent Lott). Despite a veto threat by President Bush, a similar bill passed the House on June 11, 2008, with a veto-proof margin (311–104). The final bill, spurred on by the [12 Metrolink collision](September)(2008 Chatsworth train collision) in California and retitled *[Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008](Passenger)(Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008)*, was signed into law by President Bush on October 16, 2008. The bill appropriates $2.6 billion a year in Amtrak funding through 2013.
#### 2010s
Amtrak points out that in 2010, its farebox recovery (percentage of operating costs covered by revenues generated by passenger fares) was 79%, the highest reported for any U.S. passenger railroad. This increased to 94.9% in 2018.
Amtrak has argued that it needs to increase capital program costs in 2013 in order to replace old train equipment because the multi-year maintenance costs for those trains exceed what it would cost to simply buy new equipment that would not need to be repaired for several years. However, despite an initial request for more than $2.1 billion in funding for the year, the company had to deal with a year-over-year cut in 2013 federal appropriations, dropping to under $1.4 billion for the first time in several years. Amtrak stated in 2010 that the backlog of needed repairs of the track it owns on the Northeast Corridor included over 200 bridges, most dating to the 19th century, tunnels under Baltimore dating to the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) era and functionally obsolete [switches](track)(Railroad switch) which would cost $5.2 billion to repair (more than triple Amtrak's total annual budget). Amtrak's budget is only allocated on a yearly basis, and it has been argued by Joseph Vranich that this makes multi-year development programs and long-term fiscal planning difficult if not impossible.
In Fiscal Year 2011, the U.S. Congress granted Amtrak $563 million for operating and $922 million for capital programs.
### Controversy
Government aid to Amtrak was controversial from the beginning. The formation of Amtrak in 1971 was criticized as a bailout serving corporate rail interests and union railroaders, not the traveling public. Critics have asserted that Amtrak has proven incapable of operating as a business and that it does not provide valuable transportation services meriting public support, a "mobile money-burning machine".Wicker, Tom. ''In the Nation; Young David's Tantrum.* *The New York Times*, p.A31 (May 3, 1985) Many fiscal conservatives have argued that subsidies should be ended, national rail service terminated, and the NEC turned over to private interests. "To fund a *Nostalgia Limited* is not in the public interest."Frailey, Fred W. *Can Amtrak Survive the Budget Cutters?*, *U.S. News & World Report'', p.52 (April 13, 1981). Critics also question Amtrak's energy efficiency,[Congress Should Link Amtrak's Generous Subsidy to Improved Performance](http://www.heritage.org/Research/Budget/bg2072.cfm) , Ronald D. Utt PhD, *Heritage.org* September 20, 2007 though the [Department of Energy](U.S.)(United States Department of Energy) considers Amtrak among the most energy-efficient forms of transportation.
The Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970, which established Amtrak, specifically states that, "The Corporation will not be an agency or establishment of the United States Government". Then [stock](common)(common stock) was issued in 1971 to railroads that contributed capital and equipment; these shares convey almost no benefits, but their holders declined a 2002 buy-out offer by Amtrak. There are currently 109.4 million shares of preferred stock, at a par value of $100 per share, all held by the US government. As at February 2015, there were are 9.4 million shares of common stock, with a par value of $10 per share, held by [Premier Underwriters](American)(American Premier Underwriters) (53%), [BNSF](BNSF) (35%), [Pacific](Canadian)(Canadian Pacific) (7%) and [National](Canadian)(Canadian National) (5%).[Amtrak Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) that list complete number of Amtrak issued Common and Preferred stock shares and shareholders](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xlYelsGU4kEN7lh1UqVxfG7o3xq9_rhn/view?usp=sharing) Retrieved on 27-May-2022[Fini to saga of Amtrak's common stock](https://web.archive.org/web/20230430091700/https://www.railwayage.com/news/fini-to-saga-of-amtraks-common-stock/) *[Age](Railway)(Railway Age)* February 26, 2015
In January 2023, an Auto Train delay caused passengers, fearing being held hostage, to call police, and resulted in Senate involvement.
## Incidents
[[File:1987 Maryland train collision aerial.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Aerial view of the [Maryland train collision](1987)(1987 Maryland train collision)]]
The following are major [and incidents](accidents)(Classification of railway accidents) that involved Amtrak trains:
After settling for $17 million in the 2017 Washington state train crash, to prevent further lawsuits, the board adopted a new policy requiring arbitration.
## See also
### Topics dealing with Amtrak
* [Arrow Reservation System](Amtrak)(Amtrak Arrow Reservation System)
* [paint schemes](Amtrak)(Amtrak paint schemes)
* [Police Department](Amtrak)(Amtrak Police Department)
* [Standard Stations Program](Amtrak)(Amtrak Standard Stations Program)
* [Grove Shops](Beech)(Beech Grove Shops)
* [of rail transport in the United States](History)(History of rail transport in the United States)
* [of Amtrak stations](List)(List of Amtrak stations)
* [train control](Positive)(Positive train control)
* [Intermodal Prevention and Response team](Visible)(Visible Intermodal Prevention and Response team) (VIPR) – [TSA](Transportation Security Administration)'s rail security operations
* [electrification system](Railway)(Railway electrification system)
### Other railway companies
* [Corporation](Auto-Train)(Auto-Train Corporation) – Pioneer of car-on-train service
* [Rail](Via)(Via Rail) (Canada) - connects with Amtrak
* [of railway companies](List)(List of railway companies)
## Notes
### Explanatory citations
### Citations
Figures are from 2008.
Figures from 2012. ;
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## References
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## Further reading
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## External links
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* [Amtrak - Historical Timeline](https://history.amtrak.com/amtraks-history/historic-timeline)
* [Amtrak - Great American Stations](https://www.greatamericanstations.com/)
* [Amtrak Connects US](https://www.amtrakconnectsus.com/) - official website outlining 15-year expansion plans
* [All Aboard Amtrak! 50 Years of America's Railroad](https://sites.northwestern.edu/amtrak50/) - digital exhibit from Northwestern University's Transportation Library for Amtrak's 50th anniversary
* [The Museum of Railway Timetables](http://www.timetables.org/) (Amtrak timetables from 1971 to 2016)
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Bipolar disorder
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bipolar_disorder
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# Bipolar disorder
*Revision ID: 1155593400 | Timestamp: 2023-05-18T21:36:55Z*
---
bipolar illness, manic depression, manic depressive disorder, manic–depressive illness (historical), manic–depressive psychosis, circular insanity (historical), bipolar disease
| symptoms = Periods of [depression](Depression (mood)) and elevated [mood](mood (psychology))
| complications = [Suicide](Suicide), [self-harm](self-harm)
| onset = 25 years old
| duration =
| types = [I disorder](Bipolar)(Bipolar I disorder), [II disorder](bipolar)(bipolar II disorder), others
| causes = [Environmental](Environmental factor) and [genetic](Genetics)
| risks = Family history, [abuse](childhood)(childhood abuse), long-term [stress](stress (psychological))
| diagnosis =
| differential = [deficit hyperactivity disorder](Attention)(Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), [disorder](personality)(personality disorder)s, [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder)
| prevention =
| treatment = [Psychotherapy](Psychotherapy), [medication](medication)s
| medication = [Lithium](Lithium (medication)), [antipsychotic](antipsychotic)s, [anticonvulsant](anticonvulsant)s
| prognosis =
| frequency = 1–3%
| deaths =
}}
**Bipolar disorder**, previously known as **manic depression**, is a [disorder](mental)(mental disorder) characterized by periods of [depression](Depression (mood)) and periods of abnormally elevated [mood](Mood (psychology)) that each last from days to weeks. If the elevated mood is severe or associated with [psychosis](psychosis), it is called [mania](mania); if it is less severe, it is called [hypomania](hypomania). During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy or irritable, and they often make impulsive decisions with little regard for the consequences. There is usually also a reduced need for sleep during manic phases. During periods of depression, the individual may experience crying and have a negative outlook on life and poor eye contact with others. The risk of [suicide](suicide) is high; over a period of 20 years, 6% of those with bipolar disorder died by suicide, while 30–40% engaged in [self-harm](self-harm). Other mental health issues, such as [disorder](anxiety)(anxiety disorder)s and [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder)s, are commonly associated with bipolar disorder.
While the causes of this [disorder](mood)(mood disorder) are not clearly understood, both [genetic](Genetics) and [environmental](Environmental factor) factors are thought to play a role. Many genes, each with small effects, may contribute to the development of the disorder. [factors](Genetic)(Heritability) account for about 70–90% of the risk of developing bipolar disorder. Environmental risk factors include a history of [abuse](childhood)(childhood abuse) and long-term [stress](stress (psychological)). The condition is classified as [I disorder](bipolar)(bipolar I disorder) if there has been at least one manic episode, with or without depressive episodes, and as [II disorder](bipolar)(bipolar II disorder) if there has been at least one hypomanic episode (but no full manic episodes) and one major depressive episode. It is classified as [Cyclothymia](Cyclothymia) if there are hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet the criteria for major depressive episodes.
If these symptoms are due to drugs or medical problems, they are not diagnosed as bipolar disorder. Other conditions that have overlapping symptoms with bipolar disorder include [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), [disorder](personality)(personality disorder)s, [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), and [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder) as well as many other medical conditions. [test](Medical)(Medical test)ing is not required for a [diagnosis](diagnosis), though [tests](blood)(blood tests) or [imaging](medical)(medical imaging) can rule out other problems.
[stabilizer](Mood)(Mood stabilizer)s—[lithium](Lithium (medication)) and certain [anticonvulsant](anticonvulsant)s such as [valproate](valproate) and [carbamazepine](carbamazepine) as well as atypical antipsychotics such as [aripiprazole](aripiprazole)—are the mainstay of long-term pharmacologic relapse prevention. [Antipsychotic](Antipsychotic)s are additionally given during acute manic episodes as well as in cases where mood stabilizers are poorly tolerated or ineffective. In patients where compliance is of concern, long-acting injectable formulations are available. There is some evidence that [psychotherapy](psychotherapy) improves the course of this disorder. The use of [antidepressants](antidepressants) in depressive episodes is controversial: they can be effective but have been implicated in triggering manic episodes. The treatment of depressive episodes, therefore, is often difficult. [therapy](Electroconvulsive)(Electroconvulsive therapy) (ECT) is effective in acute manic and depressive episodes, especially with psychosis or [catatonia](catatonia).}} Admission to a [hospital](psychiatric)(psychiatric hospital) may be required if a person is a risk to themselves or others; [treatment](involuntary)(involuntary treatment) is sometimes necessary if the affected person refuses treatment.
Bipolar disorder occurs in approximately 1% of the global population. In the United States, about 3% are estimated to be affected at some point in their life; rates appear to be similar in females and males. Symptoms most commonly begin between the ages of 20 and 25 years old; an earlier onset in life is associated with a worse prognosis. Interest in functioning in the assessment of patients with bipolar disorder is growing, with an emphasis on specific domains such as work, education, social life, family, and cognition. Around one-quarter to one-third of people with bipolar disorder have financial, social or work-related problems due to the illness. Bipolar disorder is among the top 20 causes of disability worldwide and leads to substantial costs for society. Due to lifestyle choices and the side effects of medications, the risk of death from natural causes such as [heart disease](coronary)(coronary heart disease) in people with bipolar disorder is twice that of the general population.
## Signs and symptoms
Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of bipolar disorder. The condition is characterized by intermittent episodes of [mania](mania) and/or [depression](Depression (mood)), with an absence of symptoms in between. During these episodes, people with bipolar disorder exhibit disruptions in normal [mood](Mood (psychology)), psychomotor activity (the level of physical activity that is influenced by mood)—e.g. constant fidgeting during mania or slowed movements during depression—[rhythm](circadian)(circadian rhythm) and cognition. Mania can present with varying levels of mood disturbance, ranging from [euphoria](euphoria), which is associated with "classic mania", to [dysphoria](dysphoria) and [irritability](irritability). Psychotic symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations may occur in both manic and depressive episodes; their content and nature are consistent with the person's prevailing mood.
According to the [DSM-5](DSM-5) criteria, mania is distinguished from [hypomania](hypomania) by the duration: hypomania is present if elevated mood symptoms persist for at least four consecutive days, while mania is present if such symptoms persist for more than a week. Unlike mania, hypomania is not always associated with impaired functioning. The biological mechanisms responsible for switching from a manic or hypomanic episode to a depressive episode, or vice versa, remain poorly understood.
### Manic episodes
[[woman diagnosed as suffering from hilarious mania. Colour Wellcome L0026687.jpg|thumb|left|An 1892 color lithograph depicting a woman diagnosed with *hilarious mania*](File:A)]
Also known as a manic episode, mania is a distinct period of at least one week of elevated or irritable mood, which can range from euphoria to [delirium](delirium). The core symptom of mania involves an [in energy of psychomotor activity](increase)(Psychomotor agitation). Mania can also present with increased self-esteem or [grandiosity](grandiosity), [thoughts](racing)(racing thoughts), [speech](pressured)(Pressure of speech) that is difficult to interrupt, decreased need for sleep, disinhibited social behavior, increased [goal-oriented](goal-oriented) activities and impaired judgement, which can lead to exhibition of behaviors characterized as impulsive or high-risk, such as [hypersexuality](hypersexuality) or excessive spending. To fit the definition of a manic episode, these behaviors must impair the individual's ability to socialize or work. If untreated, a manic episode usually lasts three to six months.
In severe manic episodes, a person can experience [psychotic](psychosis) symptoms, where thought content is affected along with mood. They may feel unstoppable, or as if they have a special relationship with God, a great mission to accomplish, or other grandiose or delusional ideas. This may lead to violent behavior and, sometimes, hospitalization in an inpatient [hospital](psychiatric)(psychiatric hospital). The severity of manic symptoms can be measured by rating scales such as the [Mania Rating Scale](Young)(Young Mania Rating Scale), though questions remain about the reliability of these scales.
The onset of a manic or depressive episode is often foreshadowed by [disturbance](sleep)(Sleep disorder). Manic individuals often have a history of [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder) developed over years as a form of "self-medication".
### Hypomanic episodes
[[passing into mania' Wellcome L0022595 (cropped).jpg|thumb|An 1858 lithograph captioned 'Melancholy passing into mania'](File:'Melancholy)]
[Hypomania](Hypomania) is the milder form of mania, defined as at least four days of the same criteria as mania, but which does not cause a significant decrease in the individual's ability to socialize or work, lacks psychotic features such as [delusions](delusions) or [hallucinations](hallucinations), and does not require psychiatric hospitalization. Overall functioning may actually increase during episodes of hypomania and is thought to serve as a defense mechanism against depression by some. Hypomanic episodes rarely progress to full-blown manic episodes. Some people who experience hypomania show increased creativity, while others are irritable or demonstrate poor judgment.
Hypomania may feel good to some individuals who experience it, though most people who experience hypomania state that the stress of the experience is very painful. People with bipolar disorder who experience hypomania tend to forget the effects of their actions on those around them. Even when family and friends recognize [swing](mood)(mood swing)s, the individual will often deny that anything is wrong. If not accompanied by depressive episodes, hypomanic episodes are often not deemed problematic unless the mood changes are uncontrollable or volatile. Most commonly, symptoms continue for time periods from a few weeks to a few months.
### Depressive episodes
[[File:'Melancholy' by W. Bagg Wellcome L0022594.jpg|thumb|left|'Melancholy' by [Bagg](William)(William Bagg), after a photograph by [Welch Diamond](Hugh)(Hugh Welch Diamond)]]
Symptoms of the [phase](depressive)(Major depressive episode) of bipolar disorder include persistent feelings of [sadness](sadness), irritability or anger, [of interest in previously enjoyed activities](loss)(Anhedonia), excessive or inappropriate [guilt](Guilt (emotion)), [hopelessness](Depression (mood)), [too much](sleeping)(Hypersomnia) or [enough](not)(Insomnia), changes in appetite and/or weight, [fatigue](fatigue), problems concentrating, self-loathing or feelings of worthlessness, and thoughts of death or [suicide](suicide). Although the DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing unipolar and bipolar episodes are the same, some clinical features are more common in the latter, including increased sleep, sudden onset and resolution of symptoms, significant weight gain or loss, and severe episodes after childbirth.
The earlier the age of onset, the more likely the first few episodes are to be depressive. For most people with bipolar types 1 and 2, the depressive episodes are much longer than the manic or hypomanic episodes. Since a diagnosis of bipolar disorder requires a manic or hypomanic episode, many affected individuals are initially [misdiagnosed](misdiagnosed) as having [depression](major)(Major depressive disorder) and incorrectly treated with prescribed antidepressants.
### Mixed affective episodes
In bipolar disorder, a [state](mixed)(Mixed affective state) is an episode during which symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously. Individuals experiencing a mixed state may have manic symptoms such as grandiose thoughts while simultaneously experiencing depressive symptoms such as excessive guilt or feeling suicidal. They are considered to have a higher risk for suicidal behavior as depressive emotions such as hopelessness are often paired with [swings](mood)(Emotional lability) or [with impulse control](difficulties)(Impulsivity). [disorder](Anxiety)(Anxiety disorder)s occur more frequently as a comorbidity in mixed bipolar episodes than in non-mixed bipolar depression or mania. Substance (including [alcohol](Alcohol use disorder)) use also follows this trend, thereby appearing to depict bipolar symptoms as no more than a consequence of substance use.
### Comorbid conditions
People with bipolar disorder often have other co-existing psychiatric conditions such as [anxiety](anxiety) (present in about 71% of people with bipolar disorder), substance abuse (56%), [disorders](personality)(personality disorders) (36%) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (10–20%) which can add to the burden of illness and worsen the prognosis. Certain medical conditions are also more common in people with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population. This includes increased rates of [syndrome](metabolic)(metabolic syndrome) (present in 37% of people with bipolar disorder), [headaches](migraine)(migraine headaches) (35%), [obesity](obesity) (21%) and [2 diabetes](type)(type 2 diabetes) (14%). This contributes to a risk of death that is two times higher in those with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population.
[use disorder](Substance)(Substance use disorder) is a common comorbidity in bipolar disorder; the subject has been widely reviewed.
## Causes
The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals and the exact mechanism underlying the disorder remains unclear. Genetic influences are believed to account for 73–93% of the risk of developing the disorder indicating a strong hereditary component. The overall [heritability](heritability) of the [spectrum](bipolar)(bipolar spectrum) has been estimated at 0.71. [studies](Twin)(Twin studies) have been limited by relatively small sample sizes but have indicated a substantial genetic contribution, as well as environmental influence. For bipolar I disorder, the rate at which [twin](identical)(identical twin)s (same genes) will both have bipolar I disorder (concordance) is around 40%, compared to about 5% in [twins](fraternal)(fraternal twins). A combination of bipolar I, II, and [cyclothymia](cyclothymia) similarly produced rates of 42% and 11% (identical and fraternal twins, respectively). The rates of bipolar II combinations without bipolar I are lowerbipolar II at 23 and 17%, and bipolar II combining with cyclothymia at 33 and 14%which may reflect relatively higher genetic [heterogeneity](Homogeneity and heterogeneity).
The cause of bipolar disorders overlaps with major depressive disorder. When defining concordance as the co-twins having either bipolar disorder or major depression, then the concordance rate rises to 67% in identical twins and 19% in fraternal twins. The relatively low concordance between fraternal twins brought up together suggests that shared family environmental effects are limited, although the ability to detect them has been limited by small sample sizes.
### Genetic
[genetic](Behavioral)(Behavioral genetics) studies have suggested that many [chromosomal](chromosomal) regions and [gene](candidate)(candidate gene)s are related to bipolar disorder susceptibility with [gene exerting a mild to moderate effect](each)(Polygenic disorder). The risk of bipolar disorder is nearly ten-fold higher in [relatives](first-degree)(first-degree relatives) of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population; similarly, the risk of major depressive disorder is three times higher in relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population.
Although the first [linkage](genetic)(genetic linkage) finding for mania was in 1969, linkage studies have been inconsistent. Findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes implicated in different families. Robust and replicable genome-wide significant associations showed several common [polymorphism](single-nucleotide)(single-nucleotide polymorphism)s (SNPs) are associated with bipolar disorder, including variants within the genes *[CACNA1C](CACNA1C)*, *[ODZ4](ODZ4)*, and *[NCAN](NCAN)*. The largest and most recent [association study](genome-wide)(genome-wide association study) failed to find any locus that exerts a large effect, reinforcing the idea that no single gene is responsible for bipolar disorder in most cases. Polymorphisms in *[BDNF](BDNF)*, *[DRD4](DRD4)*, [*DAO*](D-amino acid oxidase), and *[TPH1](TPH1)* have been frequently associated with bipolar disorder and were initially associated in a [meta-analysis](meta-analysis), but this association disappeared after correction for [testing](multiple)(multiple testing). On the other hand, two polymorphisms in *[TPH2](TPH2)* were identified as being associated with bipolar disorder.
Due to the inconsistent findings in a [association study](genome-wide)(genome-wide association study), multiple studies have undertaken the approach of analyzing SNPs in biological pathways. Signaling pathways traditionally associated with bipolar disorder that have been supported by these studies include [hormone](corticotropin-releasing)(corticotropin-releasing hormone) signaling, cardiac [β-adrenergic](β-adrenergic) signaling, [C](Phospholipase)(Phospholipase C) signaling, [glutamate](glutamate) receptor signaling, cardiac hypertrophy signaling, [signaling](Wnt)(Wnt signaling pathway), [signaling](Notch)(Notch signaling), and [1](endothelin)(endothelin 1) signaling. Of the 16 genes identified in these pathways, three were found to be dysregulated in the [prefrontal cortex](dorsolateral)(dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) portion of the brain in post-mortem studies: *[CACNA1C](CACNA1C)*, *[GNG2](GNG2)*, and *[ITPR2](ITPR2)*.
Bipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific [repair](DNA)(DNA repair) enzymes and increased levels of oxidative [damages](DNA)(DNA damage (naturally occurring)).
### Environmental
[Psychosocial](Psychosocial) factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions. Recent life events and interpersonal relationships likely contribute to the onset and recurrence of bipolar mood episodes, just as they do for unipolar depression. In surveys, 30–50% of adults diagnosed with bipolar disorder report traumatic/abusive experiences in childhood, which is associated with earlier onset, a higher rate of suicide attempts, and more co-occurring disorders such as [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(PTSD). The number of reported stressful events in childhood is higher in those with an adult diagnosis of bipolar spectrum disorder than in those without, particularly events stemming from a harsh environment rather than from the child's own behavior. Acutely, mania can be induced by [deprivation](sleep)(sleep deprivation) in around 30% of people with bipolar disorder.
### Neurological
Less commonly, bipolar disorder or a bipolar-like disorder may occur as a result of or in association with a neurological condition or injury including [stroke](stroke), [brain injury](traumatic)(traumatic brain injury), [infection](HIV)(HIV/AIDS), [sclerosis](multiple)(multiple sclerosis), [porphyria](porphyria), and rarely [lobe epilepsy](temporal)(temporal lobe epilepsy).Murray ED, Buttner N, Price BH. (2012) "Depression and Psychosis in Neurological Practice". In: *Neurology in Clinical Practice*, 6th Edition. Bradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J (eds.) Butterworth Heinemann.
## Proposed mechanisms
[[image of human brain emphasizing emotional regulation circuits|thumb|upright=1.6|Brain imaging studies have revealed differences in the volume of various brain regions between patients with bipolar disorder and healthy control subjects.](File:Fpsyt-05-00098-g002.jpg|alt=3-D)]
The precise mechanisms that cause bipolar disorder are not well understood. Bipolar disorder is thought to be associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of certain brain areas responsible for cognitive tasks and the processing of emotions. A neurologic model for bipolar disorder proposes that the emotional circuitry of the brain can be divided into two main parts. The ventral system (regulates emotional perception) includes brain structures such as the [amygdala](amygdala), [insula](Insular cortex), ventral [striatum](striatum), ventral [cingulate cortex](anterior)(anterior cingulate cortex), and the [cortex](prefrontal)(prefrontal cortex). The dorsal system (responsible for emotional regulation) includes the [hippocampus](hippocampus), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and other parts of the prefrontal cortex. The model hypothesizes that bipolar disorder may occur when the ventral system is overactivated and the dorsal system is underactivated. Other models suggest the ability to regulate emotions is disrupted in people with bipolar disorder and that dysfunction of the ventricular prefrontal cortex is crucial to this disruption.
[Meta-analyses](Meta-analysis) of structural [MRI](Magnetic resonance imaging) studies have shown that certain brain regions (e.g., the left rostral [cingulate cortex](anterior)(anterior cingulate cortex), [cortex](fronto-insular)(insular cortex), ventral prefrontal cortex, and [claustrum](claustrum)) are smaller in people with bipolar disorder, whereas other regions are larger ([ventricles](lateral)(lateral ventricles), [pallidus](globus)(globus pallidus), [anterior cingulate](subgenual)(Brodmann area 25), and the amygdala). Additionally, these meta-analyses found that people with bipolar disorder have higher rates of deep [matter](white)(white matter) [hyperintensities](hyperintensities).
[MRI](Functional)(Functional magnetic resonance imaging) findings suggest that the ventricular prefrontal cortex regulates the [system](limbic)(limbic system), especially the amygdala. In people with bipolar disorder, decreased ventricular prefrontal cortex activity allows for the dysregulated activity of the amygdala, which likely contributes to labile mood and poor emotional regulation. Consistent with this, pharmacological treatment of mania returns ventricular prefrontal cortex activity to the levels in non-manic people, suggesting that ventricular prefrontal cortex activity is an indicator of mood state. However, while pharmacological treatment of mania reduces amygdala hyperactivity, it remains more active than the amygdala of those without bipolar disorder, suggesting amygdala activity may be a marker of the disorder rather than the current mood state. Manic and depressive episodes tend to be characterized by dysfunction in different regions of the ventricular prefrontal cortex. Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right ventricular prefrontal cortex whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left ventricular prefrontal cortex. These disruptions often occur during development linked with [pruning](synaptic)(synaptic pruning) dysfunction.
People with bipolar disorder who are in a [mood state](euthymic)(Euthymia (medicine)) show decreased activity in the [gyrus](lingual)(lingual gyrus) compared to people without bipolar disorder. In contrast, they demonstrate decreased activity in the inferior [cortex](frontal)(frontal cortex) during manic episodes compared to people without the disorder. Similar studies examining the differences in brain activity between people with bipolar disorder and those without did not find a consistent area in the brain that was more or less active when comparing these two groups. People with bipolar have increased activation of left hemisphere ventral limbic areaswhich mediate emotional experiences and generation of emotional responsesand decreased activation of right hemisphere cortical structures related to cognitionstructures associated with the regulation of emotions.
Neuroscientists have proposed additional models to try to explain the cause of bipolar disorder. One proposed model for bipolar disorder suggests that hypersensitivity of reward circuits consisting of [circuit](frontostriatal)(frontostriatal circuit)s causes mania, and decreased sensitivity of these circuits causes depression. According to the "kindling" hypothesis, when people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience stressful events, the stress threshold at which mood changes occur becomes progressively lower, until the episodes eventually start (and recur) spontaneously. There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the [axis](hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal)(hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder. Other brain components that have been proposed to play a role in bipolar disorder are the [mitochondria](mitochondria) and a sodium [ATPase](ATPase) [pump](Pump (biochemistry)). [rhythm](Circadian)(Circadian rhythm)s and regulation of the hormone [melatonin](melatonin) also seem to be altered.
[Dopamine](Dopamine), a [neurotransmitter](neurotransmitter) responsible for mood cycling, has increased transmission during the manic phase. The dopamine hypothesis states that the increase in dopamine results in secondary [homeostatic](Homeostasis) [downregulation](Downregulation and upregulation) of key system elements and receptors such as lower sensitivity of dopaminergic receptors. This results in decreased dopamine transmission characteristic of the depressive phase. The depressive phase ends with homeostatic upregulation potentially restarting the cycle over again. [Glutamate](Glutamate (neurotransmitter)) is significantly increased within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during the manic phase of bipolar disorder, and returns to normal levels once the phase is over.
Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo-[inositol](inositol) levels, inhibition of [signaling](cAMP)(Cyclic AMP), and through altering subunits of the dopamine-associated G-protein. Consistent with this, elevated levels of [Gαi](Gi alpha subunit), [Gαs](Gs alpha subunit), and [Gαq/11](Gq alpha subunit) have been reported in brain and blood samples, along with increased [kinase A](protein)(protein kinase A) (PKA) expression and sensitivity; typically, PKA activates as part of the intracellular signalling cascade downstream from the detachment of Gαs subunit from the G protein complex.
Decreased levels of [acid](5-hydroxyindoleacetic)(5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid), a byproduct of [serotonin](serotonin), are present in the [fluid](cerebrospinal)(cerebrospinal fluid) of persons with bipolar disorder during both the depressed and manic phases. Increased dopaminergic activity has been hypothesized in manic states due to the ability of [dopamine](dopamine) agonists to stimulate mania in people with bipolar disorder. Decreased sensitivity of regulatory α2 [receptor](adrenergic)(adrenergic receptor)s as well as increased cell counts in the [coeruleus](locus)(locus coeruleus) indicated increased noradrenergic activity in manic people. Low plasma GABA levels on both sides of the mood spectrum have been found. One review found no difference in monoamine levels, but found abnormal norepinephrine turnover in people with bipolar disorder. [Tyrosine](Tyrosine) depletion was found to reduce the effects of [methamphetamine](methamphetamine) in people with bipolar disorder as well as symptoms of mania, implicating dopamine in mania. [VMAT2](VMAT2) binding was found to be increased in one study of people with bipolar mania.
## Diagnosis
Bipolar disorder is commonly diagnosed during adolescence or early adulthood, but onset can occur throughout life. Its diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the individual, abnormal behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, observable signs of illness as assessed by a clinician, and ideally a medical work-up to rule out other causes. Caregiver-scored rating scales, specifically from the mother, have shown to be more accurate than teacher and youth-scored reports in identifying youths with bipolar disorder. Assessment is usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to oneself or others.
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing bipolar disorder are from the [Psychiatric Association](American)(American Psychiatric Association)'s (APA) [and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders*, Fifth Edition](*Diagnostic)(DSM-5) (DSM-5) and the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization)'s (WHO) [Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems*, 10th Edition](*International)(ICD-10) (ICD-10). The ICD-10 criteria are used more often in clinical settings outside of the U.S. while the DSM criteria are used within the U.S. and are the prevailing criteria used internationally in research studies. The DSM-5, published in 2013, includes further and more accurate specifiers compared to its predecessor, the [DSM-IV-TR](DSM-IV-TR). This work has influenced the upcoming eleventh revision of the ICD, which includes the various diagnoses within the bipolar spectrum of the DSM-V.
Several [scale](rating)(rating scale)s for the screening and evaluation of bipolar disorder exist, including the [spectrum diagnostic scale](Bipolar)(Bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale), [Disorder Questionnaire](Mood)(Mood Disorder Questionnaire), the [Behavior Inventory](General)(General Behavior Inventory) and the [Checklist](Hypomania)(HCL-32). The use of evaluation scales cannot substitute a full clinical interview but they serve to systematize the recollection of symptoms. On the other hand, instruments for screening bipolar disorder tend to have lower [sensitivity](sensitivity and specificity).
### Differential diagnosis
Bipolar disorder is classified by the [Classification of Diseases](International)(International Classification of Diseases) as a [mental](mental disorder) and [behavioural](Abnormal behaviour) [disorder](Disease#Disorder).Drs; Mental disorders that can have symptoms similar to those seen in bipolar disorder include [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), major depressive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and certain personality disorders, such as [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder). A key difference between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder is the nature of the mood swings; in contrast to the sustained changes to mood over days to weeks or longer, those of the latter condition (more accurately called [dysregulation](emotional)(emotional dysregulation)) are sudden and often short-lived, and secondary to social stressors.
Although there are no biological tests that are diagnostic of bipolar disorder, blood tests and/or imaging are carried out to investigate whether medical illnesses with clinical presentations similar to that of bipolar disorder are present before making a definitive diagnosis. Neurologic diseases such as [sclerosis](multiple)(multiple sclerosis), complex [seizure](partial)(partial seizure)s, [stroke](stroke)s, brain tumors, [disease](Wilson's)(Wilson's disease), [brain injury](traumatic)(traumatic brain injury), [disease](Huntington's)(Huntington's disease), and complex [migraine](migraine)s can mimic features of bipolar disorder. An [EEG](Electroencephalography) may be used to exclude [disorder](neurological)(neurological disorder)s such as [epilepsy](epilepsy), and a [scan](CT)(CT scan) or [MRI](MRI) of the head may be used to exclude brain lesions. Additionally, disorders of the [system](endocrine)(endocrine system) such as [hypothyroidism](hypothyroidism), [hyperthyroidism](hyperthyroidism), and [disease](Cushing's)(Cushing's disease) are in the differential as is the [tissue disease](connective)(connective tissue disease) [lupus erythematosus](systemic)(systemic lupus erythematosus). Infectious causes of mania that may appear similar to bipolar mania include [encephalitis](herpes)(herpes encephalitis), [HIV](HIV), [influenza](influenza), or [neurosyphilis](neurosyphilis). Certain vitamin deficiencies such as [pellagra](pellagra) ([niacin](Niacin (nutrient)) deficiency), [B12 deficiency](Vitamin)(Vitamin B12 deficiency), [deficiency](folate)(folate deficiency), and [Korsakoff syndrome](Wernicke)(Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome) ([deficiency](thiamine)(thiamine deficiency)) can also lead to mania. Common medications that can cause manic symptoms include antidepressants, [prednisone](prednisone), [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease) medications, [hormone](thyroid)(Levothyroxine), stimulants (including [cocaine](cocaine) and methamphetamine), and certain [antibiotic](antibiotic)s.
### Bipolar spectrum
[[Kraepelin.jpg|alt=Kraepelin looking to the side|thumb|right|Since Emil Kraepelin's distinction between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in the 19th century, researchers have defined a spectrum of different types of bipolar disorder.](File:E.)]
Bipolar spectrum disorders include: bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, cyclothymic disorder and cases where subthreshold symptoms are found to cause clinically significant impairment or distress. These disorders involve major depressive episodes that alternate with manic or hypomanic episodes, or with mixed episodes that feature symptoms of both mood states. The concept of the bipolar [spectrum](spectrum disorder) is similar to that of [Kraepelin](Emil)(Emil Kraepelin)'s original concept of manic depressive illness. Bipolar II disorder was established as a diagnosis in 1994 within DSM IV; though debate continues over whether it is a distinct entity, part of a spectrum, or exists at all.
### Criteria and subtypes
The DSM and the ICD characterize bipolar disorder as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum. The DSM-5 and ICD-11 lists three specific subtypes:
* [I disorder](Bipolar)(Bipolar I disorder): At least one manic episode is necessary to make the diagnosis; depressive episodes are common in the vast majority of cases with bipolar disorder I, but are unnecessary for the diagnosis. Specifiers such as "mild, moderate, moderate-severe, severe" and "with psychotic features" should be added as applicable to indicate the presentation and course of the disorder.
* [II disorder](Bipolar)(Bipolar II disorder): No manic episodes and one or more hypomanic episodes and one or more major depressive episodes. Hypomanic episodes do not go to the full extremes of mania (*i.e.*, do not usually cause severe social or occupational impairment, and are without psychosis), and this can make bipolar II more difficult to diagnose, since the hypomanic episodes may simply appear as periods of successful high productivity and are reported less frequently than a distressing, crippling depression.
* [Cyclothymia](Cyclothymia): A history of hypomanic episodes with periods of depression that do not meet criteria for major depressive episodes.
When relevant, specifiers for *peripartum onset* and *with rapid cycling* should be used with any subtype. Individuals who have subthreshold symptoms that cause clinically significant distress or impairment, but do not meet full criteria for one of the three subtypes may be diagnosed with other specified or unspecified bipolar disorder. Other specified bipolar disorder is used when a clinician chooses to explain why the full criteria were not met (e.g., hypomania without a prior major depressive episode). If the condition is thought to have a non-psychiatric medical cause, the diagnosis of *bipolar and related disorder due to another medical condition* is made, while *substance/medication-induced bipolar and related disorder* is used if a medication is thought to have triggered the condition.
#### Rapid cycling
Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0.4 to 0.7 per year, lasting three to six months. *Rapid cycling*, however, is a course specifier that may be applied to any bipolar subtype. It is defined as having four or more mood disturbance episodes within a one-year span. Rapid cycling is usually temporary but is common amongst people with bipolar disorder and affects between 25.8 and 45.3% of them at some point in their life. These episodes are separated from each other by a remission (partial or full) for at least two months or a switch in mood polarity (i.e., from a depressive episode to a manic episode or vice versa). The definition of rapid cycling most frequently cited in the literature (including the DSM-V and ICD-11) is that of Dunner and Fieve: at least four major depressive, manic, hypomanic or mixed episodes during a 12-month period. The literature examining the pharmacological treatment of rapid cycling is sparse and there is no clear consensus with respect to its optimal pharmacological management. People with the rapid cycling or ultradian subtypes of bipolar disorder tend to be more difficult to treat and less responsive to medications than other people with bipolar disorder.
### Coexisting psychiatric conditions
The diagnosis of bipolar disorder can be complicated by coexisting ([comorbid](Comorbidity)) psychiatric conditions including [disorder](obsessive–compulsive)(obsessive–compulsive disorder), [disorder](substance-use)(Substance use disorder), [disorder](eating)(eating disorder)s, [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), [phobia](social)(social anxiety disorder), [syndrome](premenstrual)(premenstrual syndrome) (including [dysphoric disorder](premenstrual)(premenstrual dysphoric disorder)), or [disorder](panic)(panic disorder). A thorough longitudinal analysis of symptoms and episodes, assisted if possible by discussions with friends and family members, is crucial to establishing a treatment plan where these comorbidities exist. Children of parents with bipolar disorder more frequently have other mental health problems.
### Children
[[File:Lithium carbonate.jpg|thumb|[Lithium](Lithium (medication)) is the only medication approved by the FDA for treating mania in children.]]
In the 1920s, Kraepelin noted that manic episodes are rare before puberty. In general, bipolar disorder in children was not recognized in the first half of the twentieth century. This issue diminished with an increased following of the DSM criteria in the last part of the twentieth century. The diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder, while formerly controversial, has gained greater acceptance among childhood and adolescent psychiatrists. American children and adolescents diagnosed with bipolar disorder in [hospital](community)(community hospital)s increased 4-fold reaching rates of up to 40% in 10 years around the beginning of the 21st century, while in [clinic](outpatient)(outpatient clinic)s it doubled reaching 6%. Studies using DSM criteria show that up to 1% of youth may have bipolar disorder. The DSM-5 has established a diagnosis—[mood dysregulation disorder](disruptive)(disruptive mood dysregulation disorder)—that covers children with long-term, persistent irritability that had at times been misdiagnosed as having bipolar disorder, distinct from irritability in bipolar disorder that is restricted to discrete mood episodes.
### Elderly
Bipolar disorder is uncommon in older patients, with a measured lifetime prevalence of 1% in over 60s and a 12-month prevalence of 0.10.5% in people over 65. Despite this, it is overrepresented in psychiatric admissions, making up 48% of inpatient admission to aged care psychiatry units, and the incidence of mood disorders is increasing overall with the aging population. Depressive episodes more commonly present with sleep disturbance, fatigue, hopelessness about the future, slowed thinking, and poor concentration and memory; the last three symptoms are seen in what is known as [pseudodementia](pseudodementia). Clinical features also differ between those with late-onset bipolar disorder and those who developed it early in life; the former group present with milder manic episodes, more prominent cognitive changes and have a background of worse psychosocial functioning, while the latter present more commonly with mixed affective episodes, and have a stronger family history of illness. Older people with bipolar disorder experience cognitive changes, particularly in executive functions such as abstract thinking and switching cognitive sets, as well as concentrating for long periods and decision-making.
## Prevention
Attempts at [of bipolar disorder](prevention)(Prevention of mental disorders) have focused on stress (such as [adversity](childhood)(Childhood trauma) or highly conflictual families) which, although not a diagnostically specific causal agent for bipolar, does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness. Longitudinal studies have indicated that full-blown manic stages are often preceded by a variety of prodromal clinical features, providing support for the occurrence of an at-risk state of the disorder when an early intervention might prevent its further development and/or improve its outcome.
## Management
The aim of management is to treat acute episodes safely with medication and work with the patient in long-term maintenance to prevent further episodes and optimise function using a combination of [pharmacological](pharmacological) and [psychotherapeutic](psychotherapeutic) techniques. Hospitalization may be required especially with the manic episodes present in bipolar I. This can be voluntary or (local legislation permitting) [involuntary](involuntary commitment). Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to [deinstitutionalization](deinstitutionalization), although these can still occur. Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include [center](drop-in)(drop-in center)s, visits from members of a [mental health team](community)(community mental health team) or an [Community Treatment](Assertive)(Assertive Community Treatment) team, [employment](supported)(supported employment), [support groups](patient-led)(Self-help groups for mental health), and [outpatient programs](intensive)(intensive outpatient programs). These are sometimes referred to as partial-inpatient programs.
### Psychosocial
[Psychotherapy](Psychotherapy) aims to assist a person with bipolar disorder in accepting and understanding their diagnosis, coping with various types of stress, improving their interpersonal relationships, and recognizing [prodromal](prodromal) symptoms before full-blown recurrence. [behavioral therapy](Cognitive)(Cognitive behavioral therapy) (CBT), [therapy](family-focused)(family therapy), and [psychoeducation](psychoeducation) have the most evidence for efficacy in regard to relapse prevention, while [and social rhythm therapy](interpersonal)(interpersonal and social rhythm therapy) and cognitive-behavioral therapy appear the most effective in regard to residual depressive symptoms. Most studies have been based only on bipolar I, however, and treatment during the acute phase can be a particular challenge. Some clinicians emphasize the need to talk with individuals experiencing mania, to develop a [alliance](therapeutic)(therapeutic alliance) in support of [recovery](recovery model).
### Medication
[[is often used to treat bipolar disorder and has the best evidence for reducing suicide.](File:Lithium2017a.jpg|thumb|Lithium)]
Medications are often prescribed to help improve symptoms of bipolar disorder. Medications approved for treating bipolar disorder including mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Sometimes a combination of medications may also be suggested. The choice of medications may differ depending on the bipolar disorder episode type or if the person is experiencing unipolar or bipolar depression. Other factors to consider when deciding on an appropriate treatment approach includes if the person has any comorbidities, their response to previous therapies, adverse effects, and the desire of the person to be treated.
#### Mood stabilizers
Lithium and the [anticonvulsant](anticonvulsant)s [carbamazepine](carbamazepine), [lamotrigine](lamotrigine), and [acid](valproic)(valproic acid) are classed as mood stabilizers due to their effect on the mood states in bipolar disorder. Lithium has the best overall evidence and is considered an effective treatment for acute manic episodes, preventing relapses, and bipolar depression. Lithium reduces the risk of suicide, self-harm, and death in people with bipolar disorder. Lithium is preferred for long-term mood stabilization. Lithium treatment is also associated with adverse effects and it has been shown to erode kidney and thyroid function over extended periods. Valproate has become a commonly prescribed treatment and effectively treats manic episodes. Carbamazepine is less effective in preventing relapse than lithium or valproate. Lamotrigine has some efficacy in treating depression, and this benefit is greatest in more severe depression. Lamotrigine may have a similar effectiveness to lithium for treating bipolar disorder, however, there is evidence to suggest that lamotrigine is less effective at preventing recurrent mania episodes. Lamotrigine treatment has been shown to be safer compared to lithium treatment, with less adverse effects. Valproate and carbamazepine are teratogenic and should be avoided as a treatment in women of childbearing age, but discontinuation of these medications during pregnancy is associated with a high risk of relapse. The effectiveness of [topiramate](topiramate) is unknown. Carbamazepine effectively treats manic episodes, with some evidence it has greater benefit in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, or those with more psychotic symptoms or more symptoms similar to that of [disorder](schizoaffective)(schizoaffective disorder).
Mood stabilizers are used for long-term maintenance but have not demonstrated the ability to quickly treat acute bipolar depression.
#### Antipsychotics
[Antipsychotic](Antipsychotic) medications are effective for short-term treatment of bipolar manic episodes and appear to be superior to lithium and anticonvulsants for this purpose. Atypical antipsychotics are also indicated for bipolar depression refractory to treatment with mood stabilizers. [Olanzapine](Olanzapine) is effective in preventing relapses, although the supporting evidence is weaker than the evidence for lithium. A 2006 review found that [haloperidol](haloperidol) was an effective treatment for acute mania, limited data supported no difference in overall efficacy between haloperidol, [olanzapine](olanzapine) or [risperidone](risperidone), and that it could be less effective than [aripiprazole](aripiprazole).
#### Antidepressants
[Antidepressants](Antidepressants) are not recommended for use alone in the treatment of bipolar disorder and do not provide any benefit over mood stabilizers. Atypical antipsychotic medications (e.g., [aripiprazole](aripiprazole)) are preferred over antidepressants to augment the effects of mood stabilizers due to the lack of efficacy of antidepressants in bipolar disorder. Treatment of bipolar disorder using antidepressants carries a risk of affective switches; where a person switches from depression to manic or hypomanic phases. The risk of affective switches is higher in bipolar I depression; antidepressants are generally avoided in bipolar I disorder or only used with mood stabilizers when they are deemed necessary. There is also a risk of accelerating cycling between phases when antidepressants are used in bipolar disorder.
#### Combined treatment approaches
[Antipsychotic](Antipsychotic)s and mood stabilizers used together are quicker and more effective at treating mania than either class of drug used alone. Some analyses indicate antipsychotics alone are also more effective at treating acute mania. A first-line treatment for depression in bipolar disorder is a combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine.
#### Other drugs
Short courses of [benzodiazepines](benzodiazepines) are used in addition to other medications for calming effect until mood stabilizing become effective. [therapy](Electroconvulsive)(Electroconvulsive therapy) (ECT) is an effective form of treatment for acute mood disturbances in those with bipolar disorder, especially when psychotic or [catatonic](Catatonia) features are displayed. ECT is also recommended for use in pregnant women with bipolar disorder. It is unclear if [ketamine](ketamine) (a common general dissociative anesthetic used in surgery) is useful in bipolar disorder. [Gabapentin](Gabapentin) and [pregabalin](pregabalin) are not proven to be effective for treating bipolar disorder.
### Children
Treating bipolar disorder in children involves medication and psychotherapy. The literature and research on the effects of psychosocial therapy on bipolar spectrum disorders are scarce, making it difficult to determine the efficacy of various therapies. [stabilizer](Mood)(Mood stabilizer)s and [antipsychotic](atypical)(atypical antipsychotic)s are commonly prescribed. Among the former, [lithium](Lithium (medication)) is the only compound approved by the [FDA](Food and Drug Administration) for children. Psychological treatment combines normally [on the disease](education)(Psychoeducation), [therapy](group)(Group psychotherapy), and [behavioral therapy](cognitive)(cognitive behavioral therapy). Long-term medication is often needed.
### Resistance to treatment
The occurrence of poor response to treatment in has given support to the concept of resistance to treatment in bipolar disorder. Guidelines to the definition of such treatment resistance and evidence-based options for its management were reviewed in 2020.
### Management of obesity
A large proportion (approximately 68%) of people who seek treatment for bipolar disorder are obese or overweight and managing obesity is important for reducing the risk of other health conditions that are associated with obesity. Management approaches include non-pharmacological, pharmacological, and surgical. Examples of non-pharmacological include dietary interventions, exercise, behavioral therapies, or combined approaches. Pharmacological approaches include weight-loss medications or changing medications already being prescribed. Some people with bipolar disorder who have obesity may also be eligible for bariatric surgery. The effectiveness of these various approaches to improving or managing obesity in people with bipolar disorder is not clear.
## Prognosis
A lifelong condition with periods of partial or full recovery in between recurrent episodes of relapse, bipolar disorder is considered to be a major health problem worldwide because of the increased rates of disability and premature mortality. It is also associated with co-occurring psychiatric and medical problems, higher rates of death from natural causes (e.g., [disease](cardiovascular)(Coronary artery disease)), and high rates of initial under- or misdiagnosis, causing a delay in appropriate treatment and contributing to poorer prognoses. When compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder also have higher rates of other serious medical comorbidities including [mellitus](diabetes)(diabetes mellitus), respiratory diseases, [HIV](HIV), and [C](Hepatitis)(Hepatitis C) virus infection. After a diagnosis is made, it remains difficult to achieve complete remission of all symptoms with the currently available psychiatric medications and symptoms often become progressively more severe over time.
Compliance with medications is one of the most significant factors that can decrease the rate and severity of relapse and have a positive impact on overall prognosis. However, the types of medications used in treating BD commonly cause side effects and more than 75% of individuals with BD inconsistently take their medications for various reasons. Of the various types of the disorder, rapid cycling (four or more episodes in one year) is associated with the worst prognosis due to higher rates of [self-harm](self-harm) and suicide. Individuals diagnosed with bipolar who have a family history of bipolar disorder are at a greater risk for more frequent manic/hypomanic episodes. Early onset and psychotic features are also associated with worse outcomes, as well as subtypes that are nonresponsive to lithium.
Early recognition and intervention also improve prognosis as the symptoms in earlier stages are less severe and more responsive to treatment. Onset after adolescence is connected to better prognoses for both genders, and being male is a protective factor against higher levels of depression. For women, better social functioning before developing bipolar disorder and being a parent are protective towards suicide attempts.
### Functioning
Changes in [cognitive](Cognition) processes and abilities are seen in mood disorders, with those of bipolar disorder being greater than those in major depressive disorder. These include reduced [attention](attention)al and [executive](Executive functions) capabilities and impaired [memory](memory). People with bipolar disorder often experience a decline in cognitive functioning during (or possibly before) their first episode, after which a certain degree of cognitive dysfunction typically becomes permanent, with more severe impairment during [phases](acute)(acute medicine) and moderate impairment during periods of remission. As a result, two-thirds of people with BD continue to experience impaired [functioning](psychosocial)(psychosocial) in between episodes even when their mood symptoms are in full remission. A similar pattern is seen in both BD-I and BD-II, but people with BD-II experience a lesser degree of impairment.
When bipolar disorder occurs in children, it severely and adversely affects their psychosocial development. Children and adolescents with bipolar disorder have higher rates of significant difficulties with substance use disorders, psychosis, academic difficulties, behavioral problems, social difficulties, and legal problems. Cognitive deficits typically increase over the course of the illness. Higher degrees of impairment correlate with the number of previous manic episodes and hospitalizations, and with the presence of psychotic symptoms. Early intervention can slow the progression of cognitive impairment, while treatment at later stages can help reduce distress and negative consequences related to cognitive dysfunction.
Despite the overly ambitious goals that are frequently part of manic episodes, symptoms of mania undermine the ability to achieve these goals and often interfere with an individual's social and occupational functioning. One-third of people with BD remain unemployed for one year following a hospitalization for mania. Depressive symptoms during and between episodes, which occur much more frequently for most people than hypomanic or manic symptoms over the course of illness, are associated with lower functional recovery in between episodes, including unemployment or underemployment for both BD-I and BD-II. However, the course of illness (duration, age of onset, number of hospitalizations, and the presence or not of rapid cycling) and cognitive performance are the best predictors of employment outcomes in individuals with bipolar disorder, followed by symptoms of depression and years of education.
### Recovery and recurrence
A naturalistic study in 2003 by [and coworkers](Tohen)(Mauricio Tohen) from the first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50% achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98% within two years. Within two years, 72% achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43% achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status). However, 40% went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19% switched phases without recovery.
Symptoms preceding a relapse ([prodromal](prodromal)), especially those related to mania, can be reliably identified by people with bipolar disorder. There have been intents to teach patients [strategies](coping)(coping strategies) when noticing such symptoms with encouraging results.
### Suicide
Bipolar disorder can cause suicidal ideation that leads to [suicide](suicide) attempts. Individuals whose bipolar disorder begins with a depressive or mixed affective episode seem to have a poorer prognosis and an increased risk of suicide. One out of two people with bipolar disorder attempt suicide at least once during their lifetime and many attempts are successfully completed. The annual average suicide rate is 0.4%, which is 10–20 times that of the general population. The number of deaths from [suicide](suicide) in bipolar disorder is between 18 and 25 times higher [would be expected](than)(standardized mortality ratio) in similarly aged people without bipolar disorder. The lifetime risk of suicide has been estimated to be as high as 20% in those with bipolar disorder.
Risk factors for suicide attempts and death from suicide in people with bipolar disorder include older age, prior suicide attempts, a depressive or mixed index episode (first episode), a manic index episode with psychotic symptoms, hopelessness or psychomotor agitation present during the episodes, co-existing anxiety disorder, a first degree relative with a mood disorder or suicide, interpersonal conflicts, occupational problems, bereavement or social isolation.
## Epidemiology
[[File:Bipolar disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|Burden of bipolar disorder around the world: [life year](disability-adjusted)(disability-adjusted life year)s per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.
]]
Bipolar disorder is the sixth leading cause of disability worldwide and has a lifetime prevalence of about 1 to 3% in the general population. However, a reanalysis of data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area survey in the United States suggested that 0.8% of the population experience a [episode](manic)(manic episode) at least once (the diagnostic threshold for [I](bipolar)(bipolar I)) and a further 0.5% have a [hypomanic](hypomanic) episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II or cyclothymia). Including sub-threshold diagnostic criteria, such as one or two symptoms over a short time-period, an additional 5.1% of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4%, were classified as having a bipolar spectrum disorder. A more recent analysis of data from a second US [Comorbidity Survey](National)(National Comorbidity Survey) found that 1% met lifetime prevalence criteria for bipolar I, 1.1% for bipolar II, and 2.4% for subthreshold symptoms. Estimates vary about how many children and young adults have bipolar disorder. These estimates range from 0.6 to 15% depending on differing settings, methods, and referral settings, raising suspicions of overdiagnosis. One meta-analysis of bipolar disorder in young people worldwide estimated that about 1.8% of people between the ages of seven and 21 have bipolar disorder. Similar to adults, bipolar disorder in children and adolescents is thought to occur at a similar frequency in boys and girls.
There are conceptual and methodological limitations and variations in the findings. Prevalence studies of bipolar disorder are typically carried out by lay interviewers who follow fully structured/fixed interview schemes; responses to single items from such interviews may have limited validity. In addition, diagnoses (and therefore estimates of prevalence) vary depending on whether a categorical or [approach](spectrum)(spectrum approach) is used. This consideration has led to concerns about the potential for both underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis.
The incidence of bipolar disorder is similar in men and women as well as across different cultures and ethnic groups. A 2000 study by the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization) found that prevalence and incidence of bipolar disorder are very similar across the world. Age-standardized prevalence per 100,000 ranged from 421.0 in South Asia to 481.7 in Africa and Europe for men and from 450.3 in Africa and Europe to 491.6 in Oceania for women. However, severity may differ widely across the globe. Disability-adjusted life year rates, for example, appear to be higher in developing countries, where medical coverage may be poorer and medication less available. Within the United States, [American](Asian)(Asian American)s have significantly lower rates than their [American](African)(African American) and [American](European)(European American) counterparts. In 2017, the [Burden of Disease Study](Global)(Global Burden of Disease Study) estimated there were 4.5 million new cases and a total of 45.5 million cases globally.
## History
[[File:Emil Kraepelin 1926.jpg|alt=|thumb|right|German psychiatrist [Kraepelin](Emil)(Emil Kraepelin) first distinguished between manic–depressive illness and "dementia praecox" (now known as [schizophrenia](schizophrenia)) in the late 19th century.]]
In the early 1800s, French psychiatrist [Dominique Esquirol](Jean-Étienne)(Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol)'s lypemania, one of his affective [monomania](monomania)s, was the first elaboration on what was to become modern depression. The basis of the current conceptualization of bipolar illness can be traced back to the 1850s. In 1850, [Falret](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Falret) described "circular insanity" (la folie circulaire, ); the lecture was summarized in 1851 in the "Gazette des hôpitaux" ("Hospital Gazette"). Three years later, in 1854, [Baillarger](Jules-Gabriel-François)(Jules Baillarger) (1809–1890) described to the French Imperial [Nationale de Médecine](Académie)(Académie Nationale de Médecine) a biphasic mental illness causing recurrent oscillations between mania and melancholia, which he termed *folie à double forme* (, "madness in double form"). Baillarger's original paper, "De la folie à double forme," appeared in the medical journal *[médico-psychologiques](Annales)(Annales médico-psychologiques)* (*Medico-psychological annals*) in 1854.
These concepts were developed by the German psychiatrist [Kraepelin](Emil)(Emil Kraepelin) (1856–1926), who, using [Kahlbaum](Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum)'s concept of cyclothymia, categorized and studied the natural course of untreated bipolar patients. He coined the term *manic depressive psychosis*, after noting that periods of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals where the patient was able to function normally.
The term "manic–depressive *reaction*" appeared in the first version of the DSM in 1952, influenced by the legacy of [Meyer](Adolf)(Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist)). Subtyping into "unipolar" depressive disorders and bipolar disorders has its origin in [Kleist](Karl)(Karl Kleist)'s concept – since 1911 – of unipolar and bipolar affective disorders, which was used by [Leonhard](Karl)(Karl Leonhard) in 1957 to differentiate between unipolar and bipolar disorder in depression. These subtypes have been regarded as separate conditions since publication of the DSM-III. The subtypes bipolar II and rapid cycling have been included since the DSM-IV, based on work from the 1970s by [Dunner](David)(David L. Dunner), [Gershon](Elliot)(Elliot S. Gershon), [Goodwin](Frederick)(Frederick K. Goodwin), [Fieve](Ronald)(Ronald R. Fieve), and [Fleiss](Joseph)(Joseph L. Fleiss).[Bipolar Depression: Molecular Neurobiology, Clinical Diagnosis and Pharmacotherapy](https://books.google.com/books?id=6-IfJ6dYy2cC) Carlos A. Zarate Jr., Husseini K. Manji, Springer Science & Business Media, April 16, 2009[David L. Dunner interviewed by Thomas A. Ban](http://d.plnk.co/ACNP/50th/Transcripts/David%20Dunner%20by%20Thomas%20A.%20Ban.doc) for the ANCP, Waikoloa, Hawaii, December 13, 2001
## Society and culture
[[File:Rosemary Clooney Allan Warren.jpg|alt=|thumb|Singer [Clooney](Rosemary)(Rosemary Clooney)'s public revelation of bipolar disorder made her an early celebrity spokesperson for mental illness.]]
### Cost
The [States](United)(United States) spent approximately $202.1 billion on people diagnosed with bipolar I disorder (excluding other subtypes of bipolar disorder and undiagnosed people) in 2015. One analysis estimated that the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom) spent approximately £5.2 billion on the disorder in 2007. In addition to the economic costs, bipolar disorder is a leading cause of disability and lost productivity worldwide. People with bipolar disorder are generally more disabled, have a lower level of functioning, longer duration of illness, and increased rates of work absenteeism and decreased productivity when compared to people experiencing other mental health disorders. The decrease in the productivity seen in those who care for people with bipolar disorder also significantly contributes to these costs.
### Advocacy
There are widespread issues with [stigma](social)(social stigma), stereotypes, and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. In 2000, actress [Fisher](Carrie)(Carrie Fisher) went public with her bipolar disorder diagnosis. She became one of the most well-recognized advocates for people with bipolar disorder in the public eye and fiercely advocated to eliminate the stigma surrounding mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder. [Fried](Stephen)(Stephen Fried), who has written extensively on the topic, noted that Fisher helped to draw attention to the disorder's chronicity, relapsing nature, and that bipolar disorder relapses do not indicate a lack of discipline or moral shortcomings. Since being diagnosed at age 37, actor [Fry](Stephen)(Stephen Fry) has pushed to raise awareness of the condition, with his 2006 documentary *[Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive](Stephen)(Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive)*. In an effort to ease the social stigma associated with bipolar disorder, the orchestra conductor [Braunstein](Ronald)(Ronald Braunstein) cofounded the ME/2 Orchestra with his wife Caroline Whiddon in 2011. Braunstein was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1985 and his concerts with the ME/2 Orchestra were conceived in order to create a welcoming performance environment for his musical colleagues, while also raising public awareness about mental illness.
### Notable cases
Numerous authors have written about bipolar disorder and many successful people have openly discussed their experience with it. [Redfield Jamison](Kay)(Kay Redfield Jamison), a clinical psychologist and professor of psychiatry at the [Hopkins University School of Medicine](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine), profiled her own bipolar disorder in her memoir *[Unquiet Mind](An)(An Unquiet Mind)* (1995). Several celebrities have also publicly shared that they have bipolar disorder; in addition to [Fisher](Carrie)(Carrie Fisher) and [Fry](Stephen)(Stephen Fry) these include [Zeta-Jones](Catherine)(Catherine Zeta-Jones), [Carey](Mariah)(Mariah Carey), [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), [Pauley](Jane)(Jane Pauley), [Lovato](Demi)(Demi Lovato), [Gomez](Selena)(Selena Gomez), and [Brand](Russell)(Russell Brand).
### Media portrayals
Several dramatic works have portrayed characters with traits suggestive of the diagnosis which have been the subject of discussion by psychiatrists and film experts alike.
In *[Jones](Mr.)(Mr. Jones (1993 film))* (1993), ([Gere](Richard)(Richard Gere)) swings from a manic episode into a depressive phase and back again, spending time in a psychiatric hospital and displaying many of the features of the syndrome. In *[Mosquito Coast](The)(The Mosquito Coast (film))* (1986), Allie Fox ([Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford)) displays some features including recklessness, grandiosity, increased goal-directed activity and mood lability, as well as some [paranoia](paranoia). Psychiatrists have suggested that [Loman](Willy)(Willy Loman), the main character in [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller)'s classic play *[of a Salesman](Death)(Death of a Salesman)*, has bipolar disorder.
The 2009 drama *[90210](90210 (TV series))* featured a character, Silver, who was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. [Slater](Stacey)(Stacey Slater), a character from the BBC soap [EastEnders](EastEnders), has been diagnosed with the disorder. The storyline was developed as part of the BBC's Headroom campaign. The [4](Channel)(Channel 4) soap *[Brookside](Brookside (television program))* had earlier featured a story about bipolar disorder when the character [Corkhill](Jimmy)(Jimmy Corkhill) was diagnosed with the condition. 2011 [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))'s [thriller](political)(political thriller) drama *[Homeland](Homeland (TV series))* protagonist [Mathison](Carrie)(Carrie Mathison) has bipolar disorder, which she has kept secret since her school days. The 2014 [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) medical drama, *[Box](Black)(Black Box (TV series))*, featured a world-renowned neuroscientist with bipolar disorder.
In the TV series *[Dave](Dave (TV series))*, the eponymous main character, played by [Dicky](Lil)(Lil Dicky) as a fictionalized version of himself, is an aspiring rapper. Lil Dicky's real-life hype man [GaTa](GaTa) also plays himself. In one episode, after being off his medication and having an episode, GaTa tearfully confesses to having bipolar disorder. GaTa has bipolar disorder in real life but, like his character in the show, he is able to manage it with medication.
### Creativity
A link between mental illness and professional success or creativity has been suggested, including in accounts by [Socrates](Socrates), [the Younger](Seneca)(Seneca the Younger), and [Lombroso](Cesare)(Cesare Lombroso). Despite prominence in popular culture, the link between creativity and bipolar has not been rigorously studied. This area of study also is likely affected by [bias](confirmation)(confirmation bias). Some evidence suggests that some heritable component of bipolar disorder overlaps with heritable components of creativity. [Proband](Proband)s of people with bipolar disorder are more likely to be professionally successful, as well as to demonstrate temperamental traits similar to bipolar disorder. Furthermore, while studies of the frequency of bipolar disorder in creative population samples have been conflicting, full-blown bipolar disorder in creative samples is rare.
## Research
Research directions for bipolar disorder in children include optimizing treatments, increasing the knowledge of the genetic and neurobiological basis of the pediatric disorder and improving diagnostic criteria. Some treatment research suggests that [psychosocial](psychosocial) interventions that involve the family, psychoeducation, and skills building (through therapies such as [CBT](Cognitive behavioral therapy), [DBT](Dialectical behavior therapy), and [IPSRT](Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy)) can benefit in addition to pharmacotherapy.
## See also
* [of people with bipolar disorder](List)(List of people with bipolar disorder)
* [of bipolar disorder](Outline)(Outline of bipolar disorder)
* [I disorder](Bipolar)(Bipolar I disorder)
* [II disorder](Bipolar)(Bipolar II disorder)
* [NOS](Bipolar)(Bipolar NOS)
* [Cyclothymia](Cyclothymia)
* [disorders research](Bipolar)(Bipolar disorders research)
* [personality disorder](Borderline)(Borderline personality disorder)
* [dysregulation](Emotional)(Emotional dysregulation)
* [(psychology)](Mood)(Mood (psychology))
* [swing](Mood)(Mood swing)
* [bipolar disorder](Ultradian)(Rapid cycling)
* [Society for Bipolar Disorders](International)(International Society for Bipolar Disorders)
## Explanatory notes
## Citations
## Cited texts
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
## External links
| ICD9 = , , , , , ,
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 125480
| OMIM_mult =
| MedlinePlus = 000926
| eMedicineSubj = med
| eMedicineTopic = 229
| MeshID = D001714
}}
[ ](Category:Bipolar disorder)
[(mood)](Category:Depression)(Category:Depression (mood))
[disorders](Category:Mood)(Category:Mood disorders)
[neurology articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate)
[medicine articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate)
|
Little Women _2019 film
|
little_women__2019_film
|
# Little Women (2019 film)
*Revision ID: 1159128195 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T12:34:25Z*
---
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = [Le Saux](Yorick)(Yorick Le Saux)
| editing = Nick Houy
| music = [Desplat](Alexandre)(Alexandre Desplat)
| studio =
| distributor = [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing)
| released =
| runtime = 135 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $40 million
| gross = $218.9 million
}}
***Little Women*** is a 2019 American [coming-of-age](Coming-of-age story) [drama film](period)(Historical drama) written and directed by [Gerwig](Greta)(Greta Gerwig). It is the seventh film adaptation of the [novel of the same name](1868)(Little Women) by [May Alcott](Louisa)(Louisa May Alcott). It chronicles the lives of the March sisters—Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy—in [Massachusetts](Concord,)(Concord, Massachusetts), during the [century](19th)(19th century). It stars an [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) consisting of [Ronan](Saoirse)(Saoirse Ronan), [Watson](Emma)(Emma Watson), [Pugh](Florence)(Florence Pugh), [Scanlen](Eliza)(Eliza Scanlen), [Dern](Laura)(Laura Dern), [Chalamet](Timothée)(Timothée Chalamet), [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep), [Letts](Tracy)(Tracy Letts), [Odenkirk](Bob)(Bob Odenkirk), [Norton](James)(James Norton (actor)), [Garrel](Louis)(Louis Garrel), and [Cooper](Chris)(Chris Cooper).
[Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) initiated the development of the film in 2013, with [Pascal](Amy)(Amy Pascal) coming on board to produce in 2015 and Gerwig hired to write its screenplay the following year. Using Alcott's other writings as inspiration, Gerwig penned the script in 2018. She was made director that same year, with the film being the second she had solely directed. Filming took place from October to December 2018 in the state of [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), with editing commencing the day after filming wrapped.
*Little Women* premiered at the [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art) in New York City on December 7, 2019, and was released theatrically in the United States on December 25, 2019, by [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing). The film received critical acclaim, with particular praise for Gerwig's screenplay and direction as well as the performances of the cast, and grossed $218 million worldwide. Among its [accolades](numerous)(List of accolades received by Little Women (2019 film)), the film garnered six [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominations, including [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture), [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) (Ronan), [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) (Pugh), [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) and [Original Score](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Score), and won for [Costume Design](Best)(Academy Award for Best Costume Design). It also earned five [Academy Film Award](British)(British Academy Film Award) nominations, with a win for [Costume Design](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design), and two [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nominations.
## Plot
In 1868, Jo March, a teacher in New York City, goes to Mr. Dashwood, an editor who agrees to publish a story she has written. Her youngest sister, Amy, who is in Paris with their Aunt March, attends a party with their childhood friend and neighbor, Laurie. Amy becomes angry at Laurie's drunken behavior, prompting him to mock her for spending time with wealthy businessman Fred Vaughn. In New York, Jo becomes hurt when Friedrich Bhaer, a professor interested in her, gives critical feedback on her writing, angering her. After learning from a letter that her younger sister Beth's illness has worsened, Jo returns home to [Massachusetts](Concord,)(Concord, Massachusetts).
Seven years earlier in 1861 while at a party with her elder sister, Meg, Jo meets Laurie. On Christmas morning, the girls' mother, "Marmee", persuades them to give their breakfast to their poor neighbor Mrs. Hummel and her starving children. After returning home, they find a table full of food given to them by their neighbor and Laurie's grandfather, Mr. Laurence. Marmee then reads a letter from their father fighting in the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War). Jo regularly reads to Aunt March, hoping Aunt March would invite her to Europe.
When Meg, Jo, Laurie, and John— Laurie's tutor and Meg's future husband— go to the theater, a jealous Amy burns Jo's writings. The next morning, Amy, wanting an upset Jo to forgive her, chases her and Laurie onto a lake where they are skating. They save Amy when she falls through the ice. Mr. Laurence notices Beth's quietness and invites her to play his late daughter's piano in his house. Meg sits down with John in the present after buying an expensive fabric they can't afford and expresses her unhappiness about being poor. Laurie visits Amy to apologize for his behavior, urging her not to marry Fred but instead marry him. Though in love with Laurie, Amy refuses, upset at always being second to Jo. Despite this, she also turns down Fred's proposal.
Mr. Laurence gifts his piano to Beth in the past and discovers she has contracted [fever](scarlet)(scarlet fever) from the Hummels. To avoid the illness, Amy is sent to stay with Aunt March, who advises her to provide for her family by marrying well. John urges Meg to turn the fabric into a dress in the present to make her happy, but she reveals she had sold it and reassures him of her happiness as his wife. Beth recovers in time for Christmas in the past, and their father returns home as well. After worsening in the present, Beth dies. On Meg's wedding day in the past, Jo tries to convince her to run away, but Meg expresses her elation to marry John. Aunt March announces her European trip, taking Amy instead of Jo. After the wedding, Laurie proposes to Jo, who refuses, explaining she does not see herself married.
Marmee reveals Amy is returning from Europe with an ill Aunt March in the present. Jo wonders whether she was too quick to turn Laurie down and writes him a letter. Preparing to leave, Amy tells Laurie she turned down Fred's proposal; they kiss and later marry on the journey home. Jo and Laurie agree to remain friends, after which she discards the letter she wrote to him. Jo begins to write a novel based on her and her sisters' lives and sends the first chapters to an unimpressed Mr. Dashwood. Bhaer surprises Jo by turning up at the March house on his way to California.
In New York, Mr. Dashwood agrees to publish Jo's novel after his daughters demand to know how it ends, but he refuses to accept the protagonist remaining unmarried at the end. To appease him, Jo ends her novel with the protagonist, herself, stopping Bhaer from leaving for California. She successfully negotiates copyright and royalties with Mr. Dashwood. Following Aunt March's passing, Jo inherits her house and opens it as a school, where Meg, Amy, and Bhaer all teach. Jo observes the printing of her novel, titled *Little Women*.
## Cast
## Production
### Development and casting
[[File:Greta Gerwig, Saoirse Ronan.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|[Gerwig](Greta)(Greta Gerwig) and [Ronan](Saoirse)(Saoirse Ronan), who directed and starred in *Little Women*, respectively, at a screening of the film]]
In October 2013, it was announced that a new film adaptation of the novel *[Women](Little)(Little Women)* by [May Alcott](Louisa)(Louisa May Alcott) was in development at [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures), with Olivia Milch writing the screenplay, and [Swicord](Robin)(Robin Swicord) and [Di Novi](Denise)(Denise Di Novi) serving as producers. In March 2015, [Pascal](Amy)(Amy Pascal) joined as a producer on the new adaptation, with [Polley](Sarah)(Sarah Polley) hired to write the script and potentially direct. Ultimately, Polley's involvement never went beyond initial discussions. In August 2016, [Gerwig](Greta)(Greta Gerwig) was hired to write the screenplay. In June 2018, Gerwig was announced as the film's director in addition to being its screenwriter. She had heard about Sony's plans to adapt the book in 2015 and urged her agent to get her in touch with the studio, conceding that while she "was not on anybody's list to direct this film", it was something she aspired to do, citing how the book had inspired her to become a writer and director. Pascal described Gerwig's pitch as "the ambition and the dreams that you have as a girl" and how they "get stomped out of you as you grow up" as well as "commerce and art and what we have to do to make things commercial." In addition to being Gerwig's first studio film she had directed, *Little Women* was her second solo directorial endeavor.
It was also announced in June 2018 that [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep), [Stone](Emma)(Emma Stone), [Ronan](Saoirse)(Saoirse Ronan), [Chalamet](Timothée)(Timothée Chalamet), and [Pugh](Florence)(Florence Pugh) had joined the cast of the film in undisclosed roles. Gerwig had previously worked with Ronan and Chalamet in her solo directorial debut film, *[Bird](Lady)(Lady Bird (film))*, while she sought to cast Pugh after seeing her in *[Macbeth](Lady)(Lady Macbeth (film))* (2016). [Scanlen](Eliza)(Eliza Scanlen), who Gerwig watched star in the television miniseries *[Objects](Sharp)(Sharp Objects (miniseries))* (2018), joined the cast the following month. [Norton](James)(James Norton (actor)) and [Dern](Laura)(Laura Dern) were cast in August. [Watson](Emma)(Emma Watson) joined the cast that same month, replacing Stone who dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with promoting *[Favourite](The)(The Favourite)*. In September 2018, [Garrel](Louis)(Louis Garrel), [Odenkirk](Bob)(Bob Odenkirk), and [Cooper](Chris)(Chris Cooper) joined the cast in supporting roles. [Regency Pictures](New)(New Regency Pictures) was announced as an additional financier on the film in October.
### Writing
Gerwig began penning the screenplay during a trip to [Sur](Big)(Big Sur), California shortly after the [Academy Awards](2018)(90th Academy Awards), using Alcott's letters and diaries as well as "19th-century paintings of young women" as inspirations. She had written "three or four drafts" prior to the production of *Lady Bird*. She also drew inspiration from Alcott's other stories for the dialogues. Gerwig wrote many overlapping lines of dialogue that would be "read on top of one another." In addition, she stated that a monologue in the film was inspired by a conversation she had with Streep about "the challenges women faced in the 1860s". To "focus the film on [characters](its) as adults", Gerwig incorporated a [timeline](nonlinear)(Nonlinear narrative). The ending differs from that in the novel by depicting "the pleasures of a romance inside a story about Alcott realizing her artistic ambitions", which Gerwig believed honors Alcott's true vision given that Alcott had to "satisfy the era's narrative expectations".
### Costume design
The film required "roughly 75 principal period costumes", each of which took "approximately 40 hours" to create. The costume designer, [Durran](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Durran), combined "a free sartorial spirit" and "the traditional [Victorian](Victorian era) stiffness" in costuming the characters. Wanting to make "vintage clothes look covetable to the modern viewer", she paired "woollen sontags" with "preppy plaid skirts", "long crimson capes", and "jaunty newsboy caps". She distinguished the characters' childhood and adulthood wardrobes while keeping in mind "the internal logic of each one" and maintaining "the connection between the two", with each character being assigned a "core color", including red for Jo, green and lavender for Meg, brown and pink for Beth, and light blue for Amy. She also had the characters share and reuse the same wardrobe pieces to reinforce their relationships with each other. In addition to styling Jo in "baggy cotton dresses" as well as "plain woolly skirts", Durran incorporated "modern references" and used "a young [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan)", the [Boy](Teddy)(Teddy Boy) subculture, and French artist [Tissot](James)(James Tissot)'s painting *The Circle of the Rue Royale* as inspirations to style Laurie. She also modeled one of Jo's looks after a figure in the 1870 painting *High Tide* by [Homer](Winslow)(Winslow Homer).
### Filming and editing
[[File:Harvard public library.jpg|thumb|upright|210px|Filming primarily took place in [Massachusetts](Harvard,)(Harvard, Massachusetts).]]
The cast, with the exception of Pugh due to her filming commitments to *[Midsommar](Midsommar)*, began rehearsals for the film two weeks prior to filming. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began in [Boston](Boston) in October 2018, with [Massachusetts](Harvard,)(Harvard, Massachusetts), serving as the main location. Additional locations included [Lancaster](Lancaster, Massachusetts), [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) in [Cambridge](Cambridge, Massachusetts), [Beach](Crane)(Crane Beach) in [Ipswich](Ipswich, Massachusetts), and Concord, all in the state of Massachusetts. The [Shaker](Harvard Shaker Village Historic District) museum in the [Fruitlands](Fruitlands Museum) of Harvard, a property in which Alcott and her family had once resided, was used as the location of Meg and John's home. The March family house was built from scratch on a plot in Concord; production designer [Gonchor](Jess)(Jess Gonchor) intended for the exterior to exude "an old worn-out jewelry box that you found in your grandmother's drawer" while likening the interior to "a beautiful maze and flow and endless activity." The [Estate](Lyman)(Lyman Estate) in Waltham was used for a ballroom scene. Harvard University's [Arboretum](Arnold)(Arnold Arboretum) was used to shoot a scene set in a 19th century Paris park with Pugh, Chalamet, and Streep. [Hill](Castle)(Castle Hill (Ipswich, Massachusetts)) in Ipswich was also utilized to double for European scenes.
In the midst of production, Gerwig discovered she was pregnant and kept it secret throughout. She imposed a ban on cell phones on set during filming. Cinematographer [Le Saux](Yorick)(Yorick Le Saux) shot on [mm film](35)(35 mm movie film). After principal photography wrapped on December 16, 2018, Gerwig began editing the film alongside editor Nick Houy the following day and later screened it for Sony Pictures executives in New York City on March 10, 2019, three days ahead of giving birth to her son.
## Music
French composer [Desplat](Alexandre)(Alexandre Desplat) composed the score. Gerwig had been a fan of Desplat's score for the film *[Birth](Birth (2004 film))* and aspired to work with him, while he "loved" *[Bird](Lady)(Lady Bird (film))*. Desplat said in an interview that Gerwig specified that she would like the music to be "a mix of [Mozart](Mozart) meeting [Bowie](David Bowie)", with her later saying that she had enlisted him for the "beautiful but not saccharine" and "exacting" qualities of his music. He employed an orchestra that included a piano, harp, flute, clarinet, and [celesta](celesta). The score was released on December 13, 2019.
## Release
*Little Women* had its world premiere at the [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art) in New York City on December 7, 2019, and was also screened to open the [de Janeiro International Film Festival](Rio)(Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival) on December 9. It was theatrically released in the United States on December 25, 2019, by [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing). *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* reported that Sony spent an estimated $70 million promoting the film.
*Little Women* was originally scheduled for a theatrical release in China on February 14, 2020, but this was scrapped due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The film was released digitally on March 10, 2020, and on DVD and Blu-ray on April 7. In May, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* reported that it was once again intended for a China release at an unspecified date following the pandemic. The film was released in Denmark and Japan in June after both countries re-opened their theaters following [lockdowns](pandemic)(COVID-19 lockdowns). It was eventually released in China on August 25, 2020.
## Reception
### Box office
*Little Women* grossed $108.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $110.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $218.9 million, against a production budget of $40 million. In April 2020, *Deadline Hollywood* calculated its [profit](net)(net income) to be $56 million.
Released in the United States and Canada alongside *[Wars: The Rise of Skywalker](Star)(Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker)* and *[The Next Level](Jumanji:)(Jumanji: The Next Level)*, the film was projected to gross $18–22 million from 3,308 theaters over its five-day opening weekend. It made $6.4 million on Christmas Day and $6 million on its second day, debuting to $16.8 million (a total of $29.2 million over the five-day Christmas period) and finishing fourth behind the two aforementioned films and *[II](Frozen)(Frozen II)*. In its second weekend, the film grossed $13.6 million, finishing third. It then made $7.8 million and $6.4 million, respectively, the following weekends.
In June 2020, the film grossed $495,000 and $255,000 during its opening weekend in Japan and its second weekend in Denmark, respectively. That same month, it passed $100 million at the international box office following releases in 12 other markets. The film made $4.7 million over the first six days of its August 2020 release in China.
### Critical response
On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: "With a stellar cast and a smart, sensitive retelling of its classic source material, Greta Gerwig's *Little Women* proves some stories truly are timeless." |type=m |title=Little Women (2019) |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116175328/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/little_women_2019 |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |url-status=live}} On [Metacritic](Metacritic), it has a weighted average score of 91 out of 100 based on 57 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, and viewers surveyed by [PostTrak](PostTrak) gave it an average five out of five.
Writing for [IndieWire](IndieWire), Kate Erbland highlighted Gerwig's "ambitious elliptical storytelling" and commended her direction for being neither "heavy-handed" nor "preachy". [Lane](Anthony)(Anthony Lane) of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* said that it "may just be the best film yet made by an American woman". The [Press](Associated)(Associated Press)'s Lindsey Bahr also praised Gerwig's direction, deeming it an "astonishing accomplishment" and an "artist's statement". Awarding the film three-and-a-half out of four, Brian Truitt of *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* lauded Gerwig's writing as "magnificent" and said it "makes Alcott's time and language feel effervescently modern and authentically nostalgic". [LaSalle](Mick)(Mick LaSalle), writing for the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*, gave the film a mixed review, in which he complimented Gerwig's direction but criticized the nonlinear timeline and the "snooty" characters.
Critics praised the cast's performances, with David Rooney of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* highlighting their "lovely ensemble work", and *[TheWrap](TheWrap)*s [Duralde](Alonso)(Alonso Duralde) saying that there was not "a single artificial moment" from any of the actors. [James](Caryn)(Caryn James) of [Online](BBC)(BBC Online) called Ronan's performance "luminous", and *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*s Leah Greenblatt suggested that she "carries nearly every scene she's in". David Sims of *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)* highlighted Pugh's performance, writing that she turned her character into "a heroine as rich and compelling as [Ronan's]", while *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*s Clarisse Loughrey stated that Pugh "manages to steal the show". In his review for [NPR](NPR), [Chang](Justin)(Justin Chang) hailed both Ronan and Pugh's performances as "blazingly good". Chalamet was also praised by [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* and [Hornaday](Ann)(Ann Hornaday) of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* for the "innate charm and poignant vulnerability" as well as "playful physicality" in his performance.
While the film overall received six [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominations, Gerwig was not nominated for [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director), which was deemed a snub. [Pearson](Allison)(Allison Pearson) of *[Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* labeled this a "whole new standard of idiocy", opining that it "belittles women's experience", while *[Slate](Slate (magazine))*s [Stevens](Dana)(Dana Stevens (critic)) theorized that [Academy](Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) members believe that "women can only have a little recognition, as a treat" and that Gerwig "may now safely be ignored" since she had been previously nominated for *Lady Bird*. Writing for the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, social psychologists Devon Proudfoot and Aaron Kay concluded that the snub was due to a "general psychological tendency to unwittingly view women's work as less creative than men's".
### Accolades
At the [Academy Awards](92nd)(92nd Academy Awards), *Little Women* received six nominations, including for [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture), [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) (Ronan), [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) (Pugh), [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) and [Original Score](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Score), and won for [Costume Design](Best)(Academy Award for Best Costume Design). The film also received nine nominations at the [Critics' Choice Awards](25th)(25th Critics' Choice Awards), winning for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Screenplay), five nominations at the [British Academy Film Awards](73rd)(73rd British Academy Film Awards), and two at the [Golden Globe Awards](77th)(77th Golden Globe Awards). It was chosen by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) as one of the [ten films of the year](top)(American Film Institute Awards 2019#Top 10 Films). In December 2021, the film's screenplay was listed number eighty-nine on the [Guild of America](Writers)(Writers Guild of America)'s "101 Greatest Screenplays of the 21st Century (So Far)".
## References
## External links
*
*
*
* [Official screenplay](https://web.archive.org/web/20200126110955/https://pmcvariety.files.wordpress.com/2019/12/little-women-by-greta-gerwig.pdf)
}}
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|
Basic access authentication
|
basic_access_authentication
|
# Basic access authentication
*Revision ID: 1153536505 | Timestamp: 2023-05-07T00:31:46Z*
---
In the context of an [HTTP](HTTP) transaction, **basic access authentication** is a method for an [user agent](HTTP)(User agent) (e.g. a [browser](web)(web browser)) to provide a [name](user)(user name) and [password](password) when making a request. In basic HTTP authentication, a request contains a header field in the form of Authorization: Basic , where credentials is the [Base64](Base64) encoding of ID and password joined by a single colon :.
It was originally implemented by [Luotonen](Ari)(Ari Luotonen) at [CERN](CERN) in 1993 and defined in the HTTP 1.0 specification in 1996.
It is specified in from 2015, which obsoletes from 1999.
## Features
HTTP Basic authentication (BA) implementation is the simplest technique for enforcing [controls](access)(access controls) to web resources because it does not require [cookies](HTTP cookie), session identifiers, or login pages; rather, HTTP Basic authentication uses standard fields in the [header](HTTP)(HTTP header).
## Security
The BA mechanism does not provide [confidentiality](information security#Confidentiality) protection for the transmitted credentials. They are merely encoded with [Base64](Base64) in transit and not [encrypted](encryption) or [hashed](cryptographic hash) in any way. Therefore, basic authentication is typically used in conjunction with [HTTPS](HTTPS) to provide confidentiality.
Because the BA field has to be sent in the header of each HTTP request, the web browser needs to [cache](Cache (computing)) credentials for a reasonable period of time to avoid constantly prompting the user for their username and password. Caching policy differs between browsers.
HTTP does not provide a method for a web server to instruct the client to "log out" the user. However, there are a number of methods to clear cached credentials in certain web browsers. One of them is redirecting the user to a URL on the same domain, using credentials that are intentionally incorrect. However, this behavior is inconsistent between various browsers and browser versions. [Internet Explorer](Microsoft)(Internet Explorer) offers a dedicated JavaScript method to clear cached credentials:
document.execCommand('ClearAuthenticationCache');
In modern browsers, cached credentials for basic authentication are typically cleared when clearing browsing history. Most browsers allow users to specifically clear only credentials, though the option may be hard to find, and typically clears credentials for all visited sites.
Brute forcing credentials is not actively prevented or detected (unless a server-side mechanism is used).
## Protocol
### Server side
When the server wants the user agent to authenticate itself towards the server after receiving an unauthenticated request, it must send a response with a *HTTP 401 Unauthorized* status line and a *WWW-Authenticate* header field.
The *WWW-Authenticate* header field for basic authentication is constructed as following:
WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="User Visible Realm"
The server may choose to include the *charset* parameter from :
WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="User Visible Realm", charset="UTF-8"
This parameter indicates that the server expects the client to use UTF-8 for encoding username and password (see below).
### Client side
When the user agent wants to send authentication credentials to the server, it may use the *Authorization* header field.
The *Authorization* header field is constructed as follows:
# The username and password are combined with a single colon (:). This means that the username itself cannot contain a colon.
# The resulting string is encoded into an octet sequence. The character set to use for this encoding is by default unspecified, as long as it is compatible with US-ASCII, but the server may suggest use of UTF-8 by sending the *charset* parameter.
# The resulting string is encoded using a variant of Base64 (+/ and with padding).
# The authorization method and a space character (e.g. "Basic ") is then prepended to the encoded string.
For example, if the browser uses *Aladdin* as the username and *open sesame* as the password, then the field's value is the Base64 encoding of *Aladdin:open sesame*, or *QWxhZGRpbjpvcGVuIHNlc2FtZQ==*. Then the *Authorization* header field will appear as:
Authorization: Basic QWxhZGRpbjpvcGVuIHNlc2FtZQ==
## See also
* [access authentication](Digest)(Digest access authentication)
* [header](HTTP)(HTTP header)
* [TLS-SRP](TLS-SRP), an alternative if one wants to avoid transmitting a password-equivalent to the server (even encrypted, like with TLS).
## References and notes
## External links
*
[Transfer Protocol](Category:Hypertext)(Category:Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
[access control protocols](Category:Computer)(Category:Computer access control protocols)
[Authentication](de:HTTP-Authentifizierung#Basic)(de:HTTP-Authentifizierung#Basic Authentication).
|
Nova Scotia
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nova_scotia
|
# Nova Scotia
*Revision ID: 1157489873 | Timestamp: 2023-05-29T00:01:23Z*
---
| image_flag = Flag of Nova Scotia.svg
| image_shield = Coat of arms of Nova Scotia.svg
| motto = ("One defends and the other conquers")
| image_map = Nova Scotia in Canada 2.svg
| Label_map = yes
| coordinates = |display=inline,title}}
| official_lang = English (*de facto*)**First Language**: [Mi'kmawi'simk](Mi'kmawi'simk)
**Recognised Regional Languages:**
[French](French language), [Gaelic](Scottish)(Scottish Gaelic)
| capital = [Halifax](Halifax, Nova Scotia)
| largest_city = [Halifax](Halifax, Nova Scotia)
| largest_metro = Halifax
| Premier = [Houston](Tim)(Tim Houston)
| PremierParty = [PC](Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia)
| government_type = [Parliamentary](Parliamentary system) [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy)
| Viceroy = [LeBlanc](Arthur)(Arthur LeBlanc)
| ViceroyType = Lieutenant Governor
| Legislature = Nova Scotia House of Assembly
| PCI = 39,092
| area_rank = 12th
| area_total_km2 = 55284
| area_land_km2 = 52942
| area_water_km2 = 2342
| PercentWater = 4.2
| population_demonym = Nova Scotian, Bluenoser
| population_rank = 7th
| population_total = 969,383
| population_ref =
| population_as_of = [2021](2021 Canadian census)
| population_est = 1,045,563
| pop_est_as_of = Q2 2023
| pop_est_ref =
| DensityRank = 2nd
| Density_km2 = 18.91
| GDP_year = 2020
| GDP_total = billion
| GDP_rank = 7th
| GDP_per_capita =
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 12th
| AdmittanceOrder = 1st, with [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick), [Ontario](Ontario), [Quebec](Quebec)
| AdmittanceDate = 1 July 1867
| HouseSeats = 11
| SenateSeats = 10
| timezone1 = [Atlantic](Atlantic Time Zone)
| utc_offset1 = -04:00
| PostalAbbreviation = NS
| PostalCodePrefix = [B](List of B postal codes of Canada)
| iso_code = CA-NS
| website = novascotia.ca
| flower = [Mayflower](Epigaea repens)
| tree = [spruce](Red)(Picea rubens)
| bird = [Osprey](Osprey)
|HDI=0.903 — Very high|HDI_rank=11th|HDI_year=2019}}
**Nova Scotia** ( ; ; ) is one of the thirteen [and territories](provinces)(Provinces and territories of Canada) of [Canada](Canada). It is one of the three [provinces](Maritime)(Maritime Canada) and one of the four [provinces](Atlantic)(Atlantic Canada). Nova Scotia is [Latin](Latin) for "New Scotland."
Most of the population are [native](First language) English-speakers, and the province's population is 969,383 according to the 2021 census. It has the largest population of Canada's Atlantic Provinces. It is the country's [densely populated](second-most)(Population of Canada by province and territory) province and second-smallest province by area, both after [Edward Island](Prince)(Prince Edward Island). Its area of includes [Breton Island](Cape)(Cape Breton Island) and 3,800 other coastal islands. The [Scotia peninsula](Nova)(Nova Scotia peninsula) is connected to the rest of [America](North)(North America) by the [of Chignecto](Isthmus)(Isthmus of Chignecto), on which the province's land border with [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick) is located. The province borders the [of Fundy](Bay)(Bay of Fundy) and [of Maine](Gulf)(Gulf of Maine) to the west and the [Ocean](Atlantic)(Atlantic Ocean) to the south and east, and is separated from Prince Edward Island and the island of [Newfoundland](Newfoundland (island)) by the [Northumberland](Northumberland Strait) and [Cabot](Cabot Strait) straits, respectively.
The land that comprises what is now Nova Scotia was inhabited by the [Miꞌkmaq](Mi'kmaq) people at the time of European exploration. In 1605, [Acadia](Acadia)—France's first [France](New)(New France) colony—was founded with the creation of Acadia's capital, . Britain fought France for the territory on numerous occasions for over a century afterwards. The [of Louisbourg](Fortress)(Fortress of Louisbourg) was a key focus point in the battle for control. Subsequent to the [Upheaval](Great)(Expulsion of the Acadians) (1755–1763) where the British deported the [Acadians](Acadians) en masse, the [of New France](Conquest)(Conquest of New France (1758–1760)) (1758–1760) by the British, and the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1763)) (1763), France had to surrender Acadia to the [Empire](British)(British Empire). During the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War) (1775–1783), thousands of [Loyalists](Loyalist (American Revolution)) settled in Nova Scotia. In 1848, Nova Scotia became the first British colony to achieve [government](responsible)(responsible government), and it [federated](Canadian Confederation) in July 1867 with New Brunswick and the [of Canada](Province)(Province of Canada) (now [Ontario](Ontario) and [Quebec](Quebec)) to form what is now the country of Canada.
Nova Scotia's [capital](Capital city) and largest municipality is [Halifax](Halifax, Nova Scotia), which is home to over 45% of the province's population as of the [census](2021)(2021 Canadian census). Halifax is the [thirteenth-largest](List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada) census metropolitan area in Canada, the largest municipality in [Canada](Atlantic)(Atlantic Canada), and Canada's second-largest coastal municipality after [Vancouver](Vancouver).
## Etymology
"Nova Scotia" means "New [Scotland](Scotland)" in [Latin](Latin)[Scottish Settlement](http://www.novascotia.com/en/home/discovernovascotia/history/routestoyourroots/settlementpatterns/scottishsettlement.aspx) . Novascotia.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013. and is the recognized [English-language](English language) name for the province. In both French and [Gaelic](Scottish)(Scottish Gaelic), the province is directly translated as "New Scotland" (French: **. Gaelic: **). In general, Romance and Slavic languages use a direct translation of "New Scotland", while most other languages use direct transliterations of the Latin / English name.
The province was first named in the 1621 Royal Charter granting to [William Alexander](Sir)(William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling) in 1632 the right to settle lands including modern Nova Scotia, [Breton Island](Cape)(Cape Breton Island), [Edward Island](Prince)(Prince Edward Island), [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick) and the [Peninsula](Gaspé)(Gaspé Peninsula).
## Geography
Nova Scotia is Canada's second-smallest province in area, after [Edward Island](Prince)(Prince Edward Island). It is surrounded by four major bodies of water: the [of Saint Lawrence](Gulf)(Gulf of Saint Lawrence) to the north, the [of Fundy](Bay)(Bay of Fundy) to the west, the [of Maine](Gulf)(Gulf of Maine) to the southwest, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The province's mainland is the [Scotia peninsula](Nova)(Nova Scotia peninsula) and includes numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than from the ocean. [Breton Island](Cape)(Cape Breton Island), a large island to the northeast of the Nova Scotia mainland, is also part of the province, as is [Island](Sable)(Sable Island), a small island notorious for being the site of offshore shipwrecks, approximately from the province's southern coast.
[[topo.png|thumb|left|Topographic map of Nova Scotia](File:Novascotia)]
Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are particularly rich on the [of Fundy](Bay)(Bay of Fundy)'s shores. Blue Beach near [Hantsport](Hantsport), [Fossil Cliffs](Joggins)(Joggins Fossil Cliffs), on the [of Fundy](Bay)(Bay of Fundy)'s shores, has yielded an abundance of [Carboniferous](Carboniferous)-age fossils. Wasson's Bluff, near the town of [Parrsboro](Parrsboro), has yielded both [Triassic](Triassic)- and [Jurassic](Jurassic)-age fossils. The highest point is [Hill](White)(White Hill (Nova Scotia)) at 533 m (1,749 ft) above sea level, situated amongst the [Breton Highlands](Cape)(Cape Breton Highlands) in the far north of the province.
Nova Scotia is located along the [parallel north](45th)(45th parallel north), so it is midway between the [Equator](Equator) and the [Pole](North)(North Pole). The province contains 5,400 lakes.
### Climate
[[File:Nova Scotia Köppen.svg|thumb|[climate types](Köppen)(Köppen climate classification) of Nova Scotia]]
Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone and, although the province is almost surrounded by water, the climate is closer to [climate](continental)(continental climate) rather than [maritime](Oceanic climate). The winter and summer temperature extremes of the continental climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental—still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotian climate is in many ways similar to the central [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea) coast in Northern Europe, only wetter and snowier. This is true although Nova Scotia is some fifteen parallels further south. Areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows are a little colder. On 12 August 2020, the community of Grand Étang, famous for its [Suêtes](Les)(Suetes) winds, recorded a balmy overnight low of
## History
[[File:Mi'kmaq people at Tufts Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada, ca. 1871.jpg|thumb|[Mi'kmaq](Mi'kmaq) family in [Cove](Tuft's)(Tuft's Cove, Nova Scotia), 1871. The Mi'kmaq inhabited Nova Scotia when the first Europeans arrived.]]
The province includes regions of the [Mi'kmaq](Mi'kmaq) nation of [Mi'kma'ki](Miꞌkmaꞌki) (''''), the territory of which extends across the Maritimes, parts of [Maine](Maine), [Newfoundland](Newfoundland and Labrador) and the [Peninsula](Gaspé)(Gaspé Peninsula). The Mi'kmaq people are part of the large [Algonquian-language](Algonquian languages) family and inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived.
### European settlement
The first Europeans to settle the area were the French, who arrived in 1604, and Catholic Mi'kmaq and [Acadians](Acadians) formed the majority of the population of the colony for the next 150 years. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada (and the first north of [Florida](Spanish Florida)) at [Royal](Port)(Port-Royal National Historic Site), founding what would become known as [Acadia](Acadia).[Nova Scotia Archives – An Acadian Parish Remembered](http://www.gov.ns.ca/nsarm/virtual/acadian/) . Gov.ns.ca (1 December 2009). Retrieved 12 July 2013.
Warfare was a notable feature in Nova Scotia during the 17th and 18th centuries.John G. Reid. "An International Region of the Northeast: Rise and Decline, 1635–1762". In Buckner, Campbell and Frank (eds) *The Acadiensis Reader*: Volume 1. Third Edition. 1998. p. 31 During the first 80 years the French and Acadians lived in Nova Scotia, nine significant military clashes took place as the English and Scottish, [Dutch](Jurriaen Aernoutsz) and French fought for possession of the area. These encounters happened at Port Royal, [John](Saint)(Saint John, New Brunswick),Until 1784, New Brunswick administratively formed part of Nova Scotia. Cap de Sable (present-day [Pubnico](Pubnico (village), Nova Scotia) to [La Tour, Nova Scotia](Port)(Port La Tour, Nova Scotia)), [Jemseg](Jemseg, New Brunswick) (1674 and 1758) and [Baleine](Baleine, Nova Scotia) (1629). The [Civil War](Acadian)(Acadian Civil War) took place from 1640 to 1645. Beginning with [William's War](King)(King William's War) in 1688, a series of six wars [place between the English, Scottish and the French](took)(Second Hundred Years' War), with Nova Scotia being a consistent theatre of conflict between the two powers.
#### 18th century
[[File:EvacutionOfPortRoyal1710byCWJefferys.png|thumb|left|French forces withdrawing from [Port-Royal](Port-Royal (Acadia)) after being [defeated](Siege of Port Royal (1710)) by the British in 1710]]
Hostilities between the British and French resumed from 1702 to 1713, known as [Anne's War](Queen)(Queen Anne's War). The British [of Port Royal](siege)(Siege of Port Royal (1710)) took place in 1710, ending French rule in peninsular Acadia. The subsequent signing of the [of Utrecht](Treaty)(Peace of Utrecht) in 1713 formally recognized this, while returning Cape Breton Island (**) and Prince Edward Island (**) to the French. Despite the British [of Acadia](conquest)(Siege of Port Royal (1710)) in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq, who confined British forces to Annapolis and to Canso. Present-day New Brunswick formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. Immediately after the capture of Port Royal in 1710, [Nicholson](Francis)(Francis Nicholson) announced it would be renamed [Royal](Annapolis)(Annapolis Royal) in honour of [Anne](Queen)(Anne, Queen of Great Britain).
As a result of [Rale's War](Father)(Dummer's War) (1722–1725), the Mi'kmaq signed a series of treaties with Great Britain in 1725. The Mi'kmaq signed a treaty of "submission" to the British crown. However, conflict between the Acadians, Mi'kmaq, French, and the British persisted in the following decades with [George's War](King)(King George's War) (1744–1748).
[Le Loutre's War](Father)(Father Le Loutre's War) (1749–1755) began when [Cornwallis](Edward)(Edward Cornwallis) arrived to establish [Halifax](Halifax, Nova Scotia) with 13 transports on 21 June 1749.Grenier, John. *The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760.* Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 2008Thomas Beamish Akins *History of Halifax,* Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition), p. 7 A General Court, made up of the governor and the council, was the highest court in the colony at the time. [Belcher](Jonathan)(Jonathan Belcher (jurist)) was sworn in as chief justice of the Nova Scotia Supreme Court on 21 October 1754. The first legislative assembly in Halifax, under the Governorship of [Lawrence](Charles)(Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)), met on 2 October 1758.
During the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War) of 1754–1763 (the North American theatre of the [Years' War](Seven)(Seven Years' War)), the British [the Acadians](deported)(Expulsion of the Acadians) and recruited [England Planters](New)(New England Planters) to resettle the colony. The 75-year period of war ended with the [Treaties](Halifax)(Peace and Friendship Treaties) between the British and the Mi'kmaq (1761). After the war, some Acadians were allowed to return.
[[File:Deportation Grand-Pré.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[of the Acadians](Expulsion)(Expulsion of the Acadians) in [Grand-Pré](Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia). More than 80 per cent of the Acadian population was expelled from the region between 1755 and 1764.]]
In 1763, most of Acadia (Cape Breton Island, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island), and New Brunswick) became part of Nova Scotia. In 1765, the county of [Sunbury](Sunbury County, Nova Scotia) was created. This included the territory of present-day New Brunswick and eastern Maine as far as the [River](Penobscot)(Penobscot River). In 1769, St. John's Island became a separate colony. History, Population, & Facts Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Prince-Edward-Island|access-date=5 February 2022|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=22 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222154921/https://www.britannica.com/place/Prince-Edward-Island|url-status=live}}
The [Revolution](American)(American Revolution) (1775–1783) had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia, with the colony initially displaying ambivalence over whether the colony should join the revolution; Rebellion flared at the [of Fort Cumberland (1776)](Battle)(Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776)) and at the [of Saint John (1777)](Siege)(St. John River expedition). Throughout the war, American [privateer](privateer)s devastated the maritime economy by capturing ships and looting almost every community outside of Halifax. These American raids alienated many sympathetic or neutral Nova Scotians into supporting the British. By the end of the war, Nova Scotia had outfitted numerous privateers to attack American shipping.Roger Marsters (2004). ''Bold Privateers: Terror, Plunder and Profit on Canada's Atlantic Coast'', pp. 87–89. British military forces based at Halifax succeeded in preventing American support for rebels in Nova Scotia and deterred any invasion of Nova Scotia. However the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) failed to establish naval supremacy. While the British captured many American privateers in battles such as the [battle off Halifax](Naval)(Battle off Halifax (1782)) (1782), many more continued attacks on shipping and settlements until the final months of the war. The Royal Navy struggled to maintain British supply lines, defending convoys from American and French attacks as in the fiercely fought convoy battle, the [battle off Cape Breton](Naval)(Action of 21 July 1781) (1781).
[[File:AricanNovaScotianByCaptain William Booth1788.png|thumb|left|A [Loyalist](Black)(Black Loyalist) wood cutter, at [Nova Scotia](Shelburne,)(Shelburne, Nova Scotia), in 1788]]
After the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies) and their French allies forced the British forces to surrender in 1781, approximately 33,000 [Loyalists](Loyalist (American Revolution)) (the King's Loyal Americans, allowed to place "[Empire Loyalist](United)(United Empire Loyalist)" after their names) settled in Nova Scotia (14,000 of them in what became New Brunswick) on lands granted by the Crown as some compensation for their losses. (The British administration divided Nova Scotia and hived off Cape Breton and New Brunswick in 1784). The Loyalist exodus created new communities across Nova Scotia, including [Shelburne](Shelburne, Nova Scotia), which briefly became one of the larger British settlements in North America, and infused Nova Scotia with additional capital and skills.
The migration caused political tensions between Loyalist leaders and the leaders of the existing New England Planters settlement. The Loyalist influx also pushed Nova Scotia's 2000 Mi'kmaq People to the margins as Loyalist land grants encroached on ill-defined native lands. As part of the Loyalist migration, about 3,000 [Loyalist](Black)(Black Loyalist)s arrived; they founded the largest free Black settlement in North America at [Birchtown](Birchtown, Nova Scotia), near Shelburne. There are several Black Loyalists buried in unmarked graves in the [Burying Ground](Old)(Old Burying Ground (Halifax, Nova Scotia)) in Halifax. Many Nova Scotian communities were [by British regiments that fought in the war](settled)(Nova Scotia in the American Revolution#Loyalist settlements).
#### 19th century
[[File:John Christian Schetky, H.M.S. Shannon Leading Her Prize the American Frigate Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (c. 1830).jpg|thumb| leading the [captured](Capture of USS Chesapeake) into [Halifax](Halifax, Nova Scotia) during the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812)]]
During the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812), Nova Scotia's contribution to the British war effort involved communities either purchasing or building various privateer ships to attack U.S. vessels.John Boileau. Half-hearted Enemies: Nova Scotia, New England and the War of 1812. Halifax: Formac Publishing. 2005. p. 53 Perhaps the most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia occurred when [*Shannon*](HMS)(HMS Shannon (1806)) escorted the captured American frigate [*Chesapeake*](USS)(USS Chesapeake (1799)) into [Harbour](Halifax)(Halifax Harbour) in 1813. Many of the U.S. prisoners were kept at [Island](Deadman's)(Deadman's Island (Nova Scotia)).
Nova Scotia became the first colony in [North America](British)(British North America) and in the [Empire](British)(British Empire) to achieve [government](responsible)(responsible government) in January–February 1848 and become [self-governing](self-governing colony) through the efforts of [Howe](Joseph)(Joseph Howe).Beck, J. Murray. (1983) *Joseph Howe: The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873*. (v.2). Kingston & Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. Nova Scotia had established [government](representative)(Representative democracy) in 1758, an achievement later commemorated by the erection of the [Tower](Dingle)(Sir Sandford Fleming Park) in 1908.
Nova Scotians fought in the [War](Crimean)(Crimean War) of 1853–1856. The 1860 [Monument](Welsford-Parker)(Sebastopol Monument) in Halifax is the second-oldest war monument in Canada and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the [Siege of Sevastopol](1854–55)(Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)).
[[File:Inauguration of the Welsford-Parker Monument, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, 17 July 1860 - restored.jpg|thumb|left|Inauguration of the [Monument](Sebastopol)(Sebastopol Monument) in 1860. The monument was built to honour Nova Scotians who fought in the [War](Crimean)(Crimean War).]]
Thousands of Nova Scotians fought in the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) (1861–1865), primarily on behalf of the [North](Union (American Civil War)).
Marquis, Greg. ''In Armageddon's Shadow: The Civil War and Canada's Maritime Provinces''. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1998.
The British Empire (including Nova Scotia) [itself neutral](declared)(s:British proclamation of neutrality in the American Civil War) in the conflict. As a result, Britain (and Nova Scotia) continued to trade with both the [South](Confederate States of America) and the North. Nova Scotia's economy boomed during the Civil War.
### Post-Confederation history
Soon after the American Civil War, Pro-Canadian Confederation [premier](List of premiers of Nova Scotia) [Tupper](Charles)(Charles Tupper) led Nova Scotia into [Confederation](Canadian)(Canadian Confederation) on 1 July 1867, along with New Brunswick and the [of Canada](Province)(Province of Canada). The [Party](Anti-Confederation)(Anti-Confederation Party) was led by [Howe](Joseph)(Joseph Howe). Almost three months later, in the election of 18 September 1867, the Anti-Confederation Party won 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature.
Throughout the 19th century, numerous businesses developed in Nova Scotia became of pan-Canadian and international importance: the [Manufacturing Company](Starr)(Starr Manufacturing Company) (first ice skate manufacturer in Canada), the [of Nova Scotia](Bank)(Scotiabank), [Line](Cunard)(Cunard Line), [Keith's Brewery](Alexander)(Alexander Keith's Brewery), [Tea Company](Morse's)(Morse's Tea Company) (first tea company in Canada), among others.
[[File:Bluenose sailing 1921.jpg|thumb|The *[Bluenose](Bluenose)* in 1921. The racing ship became a provincial icon for Nova Scotia in the 1920s and 1930s.]]
Nova Scotia became a world leader in both building and owning wooden sailing ships in the second half of the 19th century. Nova Scotia produced internationally recognized shipbuilders [McKay](Donald)(Donald McKay) and [Dawson Lawrence](William)(William Dawson Lawrence). The fame Nova Scotia achieved from sailors was assured in 1895 when [Slocum](Joshua)(Joshua Slocum) became the first man to sail single-handedly around the world. International attention continued into the following century with the many racing victories of the *[Bluenose](Bluenose)* schooner. Nova Scotia was also the birthplace and home of [Cunard](Samuel)(Samuel Cunard), a [British](United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) shipping magnate (born at [Halifax](Halifax (former city)), Nova Scotia) who founded the Cunard Line.
In December 1917, about 2,000 people were killed in the [Explosion](Halifax)(Halifax Explosion).
In April 2004, the Nova Scotia legislature adopted a resolution explicitly inviting the government of the [and Caicos Islands](Turks)(Turks and Caicos Islands) to explore the possibility of joining [Canada](Canada) as part of that [Province](Provinces and territories of Canada).
In April 2020, [killing spree](a)(2020 Nova Scotia attacks) occurred across the province and became the deadliest rampage in Canada's history.
## Demographics
### Population
[[Nova Scotia Density 2016.png|thumb|right|Population density map of Nova Scotia (c. 2016) with county and regional municipality borders shown.](File:Canada)]
### Ethnicity
According to the 2016 Canadian census the largest ethnic group in Nova Scotia is [Scottish](Scottish people) (30.0%), followed by English (28.9%), Irish (21.6%), French (16.5%), German (10.7%), First Nations (5.4%), Dutch (3.5%), Métis (2.9%), and Acadian (2.6%). 42.6% of respondents identified their ethnicity as "Canadian".
### Language
As of the [Canadian Census](2021)(2021 Canadian census), the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (951,945 or 99.59%), French (99,300 or 10.39%), Arabic (11,745 or 1.23%), Hindi (10,115 or 1.06%), Spanish (8,675 or 0.91%), Mandarin (8,525 or 0.89%), [Punjabi](punjabi language) (6,730 or 0.7%), German (6,665 or 0.7%), Miꞌkmaq (5,650 or 0.59%), and [Tagalog](Tagalog language) (5,595 or 0.59%). The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.
The [Canadian census](2021)(2021 Canadian census) showed a population of 969,383. Of the 958,990 singular responses to the census question concerning [tongue](mother)(mother tongue), the most commonly reported languages were:
[[langues.png|thumb|Languages in Nova Scotia:red – majority anglophone, orange – mixed, blue – majority francophone](File:Nouvelle-Ecosse)]
Figures shown are for the number of single-language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses.
[[File:Gaidhealtachd-chanadach.svg|thumb|Distribution of [Gaelic](Scottish)(Scottish Gaelic) in [Maritimes](the)(the Maritimes)]]
Nova Scotia is home to the largest [Gaelic](Scottish)(Scottish Gaelic)-speaking community outside of Scotland, with a small number of native speakers in [County](Pictou)(Pictou County), [County](Antigonish)(Antigonish County), and [Breton Island](Cape)(Cape Breton Island), and the language is taught in a number of secondary schools throughout the province. In 2018 the government launched a new Gaelic vehicle licence plate to raise awareness of the language and help fund Gaelic language and culture initiatives. They estimated that there were 2,000 Gaelic speakers in the province.
### Religion
According to the [census](2021)(2021 Canadian census), religious groups in Nova Scotia included:
*[Christianity](Christianity in Canada) (556,115 persons or 58.2%)
*[Irreligion](Irreligion in Canada) (359,395 persons or 37.6%)
*[Islam](Islam in Canada) (14,715 persons or 1.5%)
*[Hinduism](Hinduism in Canada) (8,460 persons or 0.9%)
*[Sikhism](Sikhism in Canada) (4,735 persons or 0.5%)
*[Buddhism](Buddhism in Canada) (2,955 persons or 0.3%)
*[Judaism](Judaism in Canada) (2,195 persons or 0.2%)
*[Spirituality](Indigenous)(Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas) (1,090 persons or 0.1%)
*Other (6,195 persons or 0.6%)
According to the 2011 census, the largest denominations by number of adherents were Christians with 78.2%. About 21.18% were non-religious and 1% were [Muslims](Muslims). [Jews](Jews), [Hindus](Hindus), and [Sikhs](Sikhs) constitute around 0.20%.
In 1871, the largest religious denominations were Presbyterian with 103,500 (27%); Roman Catholic with 102,000 (26%); Baptist with 73,295 (19%); Anglican with 55,124 (14%); Methodist with 40,748 (10%), Lutheran with 4,958 (1.3%); and Congregationalist with 2,538 (0.65%).A history and geography of Nova Scotia by John Burgess Calkin: p. 88
## Economy
Nova Scotia's [capita GDP](per)(List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product) in 2016 was , significantly lower than the national average per capita GDP of . GDP growth has lagged behind the rest of the country for at least the past decade. As of 2017, the median family income in Nova Scotia was $85,970, below the national average of $92,990; in Halifax the figure rises to $98,870.
[[File:Nova Scotia DGJ 7889 - I can't carry all those lobster traps!!!!!!! (4891334833).jpg|thumb|left|Lobster traps on a dock in [Harbour](Sheet)(Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia). The province is the world's largest exporter of lobsters.]]
The province is the world's largest exporter of [tree](Christmas)(Christmas tree)s, [lobster](lobster), [gypsum](gypsum), and [berries](wild)(Berry). Its export value of fish exceeds $1 billion, and fish products are received by 90 countries around the world. Nevertheless, the province's imports far exceed its exports. While these numbers were roughly equal from 1992 until 2004, since that time the trade deficit has ballooned. In 2012, exports from Nova Scotia were 12.1% of provincial GDP, while imports were 22.6%.Nova Scotia's Merchandise Trade with the World [http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/ResearchPublications/2013-38-e.htm] .
Nova Scotia's traditionally [economy](resource-based)(Natural resource) has diversified in recent decades. The rise of Nova Scotia as a viable jurisdiction in North America, historically, was driven by the ready availability of natural resources, especially the [stock](fish)(Fish stocks)s off the [Shelf](Scotian)(Scotian Shelf). The [fishery](Fishing) was a pillar of the economy since its development as part of [France](New)(New France) in the 17th century; however, the fishery suffered a sharp decline due to [overfishing](overfishing) in the late 20th century. The collapse of the [stocks](cod)(Atlantic Cod) and the closure of this sector resulted in a loss of approximately 20,000 jobs in 1992.
Other sectors in the province were also hit hard, particularly during the last two decades: coal mining in Cape Breton and northern mainland Nova Scotia has virtually ceased, and a [steel](large)(Sydney Steel Corporation) mill in [Sydney](Sydney, Nova Scotia) closed during the 1990s. More recently, the high value of the Canadian dollar relative to the US dollar has hurt the forestry industry, leading to the shutdown of a long-running [and paper mill](pulp)(Bowater Mersey Paper Company Limited) near [Liverpool](Liverpool, Nova Scotia). Mining, especially of [gypsum](gypsum) and salt and to a lesser extent [silica](silica), [peat](peat) and [barite](barite), is also a significant sector.Province of Nova Scotia, ["Summary of Nova Scotia Mineral Production, 1994 and 1995"](http://www.gov.ns.ca/natr/meb/one/95act1-4.asp) Since 1991, [oil and gas](offshore)(Offshore drilling) has become an important part of the economy, although production and revenue are nowdeclining. However, agriculture remains an important sector in the province, particularly in the [Valley](Annapolis)(Annapolis Valley).
[[File:Grafton, Nova Scotia.JPG|thumb|A farm in [Grafton](Grafton, Nova Scotia). Agriculture remains an important sector of the economy in the [Valley](Annapolis)(Annapolis Valley).]]
Nova Scotia's defence and aerospace sector generates approximately $500 million in revenues and contributes about $1.5 billion to the provincial economy each year.Nova Scotia Business Inc. [Defence, Security & Aerospace](https://web.archive.org/web/20060516013130/http://www.novascotiabusiness.com/en/home/locate/sectorinfo/defense_aerospace.aspx). Retrieved 10 October 2008. To date, 40% of Canada's military assets reside in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia has the fourth-largest [industry](film)(film industry) in Canada hosting over 100 productions yearly, more than half of which are the products of international film and television producers.Nova Scotia Film Development Corporation [Production Statistics for the 12 Month Period Ended 31 March 2008](http://www.film.ns.ca/pdfs/2007-08%20stat%20summary%20for%20Press%20release.pdf). Retrieved 10 October 2008. In 2015, the government of Nova Scotia eliminated tax credits to film production in the province, jeopardizing the industry given most other jurisdictions continue to offer such credits. The province also boasts a rapidly developing [& Communication Technology](Information)(Information Technology) (ICT) sector which consists of over 500 companies, and employs roughly 15,000 people.
In 2006, the manufacturing sector brought in over $2.6 billion in chained GDP, the largest output of any industrial sector in Nova Scotia. [Michelin](Michelin) remains by far the largest single employer in this sector, operating three production plants in the province. Michelin is also the province's largest private-sector employer.
### Tourism
[[File:Enchantment of the Seas Halifax 2011.jpg|thumb|A cruise ship docked at the [of Halifax](Port)(Port of Halifax). The port sees more than 200,000 cruise passengers each year.]]
The Nova Scotia tourism industry includes more than 6,500 direct businesses, supporting nearly 40,000 jobs.Tourism Industry Association of Nova Scotia. [Tourism Summit 2008](http://www.tians.org/) . Retrieved 10 October 2008. Cruise ships pay regular visits to the province. In 2010, the [of Halifax](Port)(Port of Halifax) received 261,000 passengers and Sydney 69,000. This industry contributes approximately $1.3 billion annually to the economy. A 2008 Nova Scotia tourism campaign included advertising a fictional mobile phone called [Pomegranate](Pomegranate (phone)) and establishing website, which after reading about "new phone" redirected to tourism info about region.[Pomegranate phone? Nova Scotia ad budget goes to cellphone concept video – latimes.com](http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2008/10/pomegranate-ns0.html) . *Los Angeles Times*. (30 October 2008). Retrieved 12 April 2014.
Nova Scotia's tourism industry showcases Nova Scotia's culture, scenery and coastline. Nova Scotia has many museums reflecting its [ethnic](ethnic) heritage, including the [Glooscap](Glooscap) Heritage Centre, [National Historic Site](Grand-Pré)(Grand-Pré National Historic Site), [Heritage Quay](Hector)(Hector (ship)) and the [Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia](Black)(Black Cultural Centre for Nova Scotia). Other museums tell the story of its working history, such as the [Breton Miners Museum](Cape)(Cape Breton Miners Museum), and the [Museum of the Atlantic](Maritime)(Maritime Museum of the Atlantic).
Nova Scotia is home to several internationally renowned musicians and there are visitor centres in the home towns of [Snow](Hank)(Hank Snow), [MacNeil](Rita)(Rita MacNeil), and [Murray](Anne)(Anne Murray) Centre. There are also numerous music and cultural festivals such as the [Rogers Folk Festival](Stan)(Stan Rogers Folk Festival), [Colours](Celtic)(Celtic Colours), the [Scotia Gaelic Mod](Nova)(Nova Scotia Gaelic Mod), [Nova Scotia International Tattoo](Royal)(Royal Nova Scotia International Tattoo), the [Film Festival](Atlantic)(Atlantic Film Festival) and the [Fringe Festival](Atlantic)(Atlantic Fringe Festival).
[[File:Lighthouse DSC01066 - Peggy's Cove Lighthouse (7612052968).jpg|thumb|[Point Lighthouse](Peggys)(Peggys Point Lighthouse) in [Cove](Peggys)(Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia) is a tourist attraction in the province.]]
The province has [National Historic Sites of Canada](87)(List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Nova Scotia), including the [at Port-Royal](Habitation)(Habitation at Port-Royal), the [of Louisbourg](Fortress)(Fortress of Louisbourg) and [Hill (Fort George)](Citadel)(Citadel Hill (Fort George)) in Halifax. Nova Scotia has two national parks, [Kejimkujik](Kejimkujik National Park) and [Breton Highlands](Cape)(Cape Breton Highlands National Park), and many other [areas](protected)(List of protected areas of Nova Scotia). The [of Fundy](Bay)(Bay of Fundy) has the highest tidal range in the world, and the iconic [Cove](Peggys)(Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia) is internationally recognized and receives 600,000-plus visitors a year. [Town Lunenburg](Old)(Lunenburg, Nova Scotia) is a port town on the South Shore that was declared a [World Heritage Site](UNESCO)(UNESCO World Heritage Site).
Acadian Skies and Mi'kmaq Lands is a starlight reserve in southwestern Nova Scotia. It is the first certified [UNESCO](UNESCO)-Starlight Tourist Destination. Starlight tourist destinations are locations that offer conditions for observations of stars which are protected from [pollution](light)(light pollution). The Chronicle Herald| access-date = 4 August 2016| archive-date = 15 December 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181215123809/https://www.thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1253429-un-backed-award-recognizes-n.s.-nighttime-sky-reserve| url-status = live}}
## Government and politics
Nova Scotia is ordered by a [government](parliamentary)(Parliamentary system) within the construct of [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy); the [in Nova Scotia](monarchy)(monarchy in Nova Scotia) is the foundation of the executive, [legislative](Legislature), and [judicial](Judiciary) branches.
The sovereign is [Charles III](King)(King Charles III), who also serves as head of state of [other Commonwealth countries](14)(Commonwealth realm), each of Canada's nine other provinces, and the Canadian federal realm, and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the King's representative, the [Governor of Nova Scotia](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia) (at present [Joseph LeBlanc](Arthur)(Arthur Joseph LeBlanc)), carries out most of the royal duties in Nova Scotia.
The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in any of these areas of governance is limited, though; in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by [Executive Council](the)(Executive Council of Nova Scotia), a committee of [of the Crown](ministers)(Minister of the Crown) responsible to the unicameral, elected [of Assembly](House)(Nova Scotia House of Assembly) and chosen and headed by the [of Nova Scotia](Premier)(Premier of Nova Scotia) (presently [Houston](Tim)(Tim Houston)), the [of government](head)(head of government). To ensure the stability of government, the lieutenant governor will usually appoint as premier the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a [plurality](plurality (voting)) in the House of Assembly. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the [of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition](Leader)(Leader of the Opposition (Nova Scotia)) (presently [Churchill](Zach)(Zach Churchill)) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.
Each of the 51 [of the Legislative Assembly](Members)(Member of the Legislative Assembly) in the House of Assembly is elected by single member plurality in an [district](electoral)(electoral district (Canada)) or riding. General elections must be called by the lieutenant governor on the advice of the premier, or may be triggered by the government losing a [vote](confidence)(confidence vote) in the House. There are three dominant political parties in Nova Scotia: the [Party](Liberal)(Nova Scotia Liberal Party), the [Democratic Party](New)(Nova Scotia New Democratic Party), and the [Conservative Party](Progressive)(Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia). The other two registered parties are the [Party of Nova Scotia](Green)(Green Party of Nova Scotia) and the [Party](Atlantica)(Atlantica Party), neither of which has a seat in the [of Assembly](House)(House of Assembly).
The province's revenue comes mainly from the taxation of personal and corporate income, although taxes on tobacco and alcohol, its stake in the [Lottery Corporation](Atlantic)(Atlantic Lottery Corporation), and oil and gas royalties are also significant. In 2006–07, the province passed a budget of $6.9 billion, with a projected $72 million surplus. Federal equalization payments account for $1.385 billion, or 20.07% of the provincial revenue. The province participates in the [HST](Harmonized Sales Tax), a blended sales tax collected by the federal government using the [GST](Goods and Services Tax (Canada)) tax system.
On 21 July 2022, Nova Scotia became the second province in Canada to regulate online gambling by launching its own online casino through the ALC. The site will bring benefits to the economy and provide residents with a safe and secure place to gamble online.
### Administrative divisions
[[File:Nova Scotia counties 2015.png|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Map showing locations of Nova Scotia's historical counties|Map of Nova Scotia's 18 historical counties by their current [or municipal status](organization)(List of municipalities in Nova Scotia).]]
Municipal-level governance is provided by 50 municipalities, of which there are three types: regional municipalities, towns, and county or district municipalities. Villages can exist within county or district municipalities, with a limited authority and an elected council.
Nova Scotia is divided into [counties](18)(List of counties of Nova Scotia). 9 of the original 18 counties retain a county-level government while the rest are either governed by [or district municipalities](regional)(List of municipalities in Nova Scotia). Regional municipalities are coextensive with the borders with a historic county, while historic counties governed by district municipalities are split into two district municipalities each. Despite this, [Canada](Statistics)(Statistics Canada) uses all counties of Nova Scotia for the purposes of administering the census and presenting its data, and they remain used in common parlance as geographic identifiers by Nova Scotians.
There are three regional municipalities. They may incorporate under the *Municipal Government Act* (*MGA*) of 1998, which came into force on 1 April 1999, while towns, county municipalities and district municipalities are continued as municipalities under the *MGA*. The *MGA* gives municipal councils the power to make bylaws for "health, well being, safety and protection of persons" and "safety and protection of property" in addition to a few expressed powers. The regional municipality of [Halifax](Halifax Regional Municipality) is the capital and largest municipality of Nova Scotia by population with 403,131 residents representing of the total population of the province and land area at . [Pictou](Pictou) was the first municipality to incorporate , and the newest municipalities are Halifax and [of Queens Municipality](Region)(Region of Queens Municipality, Nova Scotia) both amalgamating into their present regional municipality form of government .
There are 26 towns, nine county municipalities and 12 district municipalities.
## Culture
### Cuisine
The [cuisine](cuisine) of Nova Scotia is typically [Canadian](Canadian cuisine) with an emphasis on local seafood. One endemic dish (in the sense of "peculiar to" and "originating from") is the [donair](Halifax)(donair), a distant variant of the [kebab](doner)(doner kebab) prepared using thinly sliced beef [meatloaf](meatloaf) and a sweet [milk](condensed)(condensed milk) sauce. As well, [podge](hodge)(Hodge-Podge (soup)), a creamy soup of fresh baby vegetables, is native to Nova Scotia.
The province is also known for a dessert called blueberry [grunt](Dumpling).
### Events and festivals
[[File:INSTRUMENTS live at Halifax Pop Explosion 2012.jpg|thumb|Performers at [Pop Explosion](Halifax)(Halifax Pop Explosion), an annual [festival](music)(music festival) in Halifax]]
There are a number of [festivals](festivals) and cultural events that are recurring in Nova Scotia, or notable in its history. The following is an incomplete list of festivals and other cultural gatherings in the province:
* [Valley Apple Blossom Festival](Annapolis)(Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival)
* [Band Festival](Atlantic)(Atlantic Band Festival)
* [Film Festival](Atlantic)(Atlantic Film Festival)
* [Theatre Festival](Atlantic)(Atlantic Theatre Festival)
* [Breton International Drum Festival](Cape)(Cape Breton International Drum Festival)
* [Colours](Celtic)(Celtic Colours)
* [Concerts Chamber Music Series](Cecilia)(Cecilia Concerts Chamber Music Series)
* [Festival](Evolve)(Evolve Festival)
* [Antigonish Summer Theatre](Festival)(Festival Antigonish Summer Theatre)
* [Hal-Con](Hal-Con)
* [Busker Festival](Halifax)(Halifax Busker Festival)
* [Comedy Festival](Halifax)(Halifax Comedy Festival)
* [Jazz Festival](Halifax)(Halifax Jazz Festival)
* [Pop Explosion](Halifax)(Halifax Pop Explosion)
* [Pride](Halifax)(Halifax Pride)
* [Glasgow Riverfront Jubilee](New)(New Glasgow Riverfront Jubilee)
* [Scotia Gaelic Mod](Nova)(Nova Scotia Gaelic Mod)
* [Lobster Carnival](Pictou)(Pictou Lobster Carnival)
* [Nova Scotia International Tattoo](Royal)(Royal Nova Scotia International Tattoo)
* [Rogers Folk Festival](Stan)(Stan Rogers Folk Festival)
* [for the Holidays](Stoked)(Stoked for the Holidays)
* [Partners](Strategic)(Strategic Partners)
* [Word on the Street](The)(The Word on the Street (literary festival))
* [Festival](Virgin)(Virgin Festival)
* [Rat Rally](Wharf)(Wharf Rat Rally)
### Film and television
Nova Scotia has produced numerous film actors. [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominee [Page](Elliot)(Elliot Page) (*[Juno](Juno (film))*, *[Inception](Inception)*) was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia; five-time [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominee [Kennedy](Arthur)(Arthur Kennedy) (*[of Arabia](Lawrence)(Lawrence of Arabia (film))*, *[Sierra](High)(High Sierra (film))*) called Nova Scotia his home; and two time [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) winner [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland) (*[MASH](MASH (film))*, *[People](Ordinary)(Ordinary People)*) spent most of his youth in the province. Other actors include [Paul Tremblay](John)(John Paul Tremblay), [Wells](Robb)(Robb Wells), [Smith](Mike)(Mike Smith (actor)) and [Dunsworth](John)(John Dunsworth) of *[Park Boys](Trailer)(Trailer Park Boys)* and actress [Kelly](Joanne)(Joanne Kelly) of *[13](Warehouse)(Warehouse 13)*.
Nova Scotia has also produced numerous film directors such as [Fitzgerald](Thom)(Thom Fitzgerald) (*[Hanging Garden](The)(The Hanging Garden (film))*), [Petrie](Daniel)(Daniel Petrie) (*[Resurrection](Resurrection (1980 film))*—Academy Award nominee) and Acadian film director [Comeau](Phil)(Phil Comeau)'s multiple award-winning local story (*[Secret de Jérôme](Le)(Le Secret de Jérôme (film))*).
Nova Scotian stories are the subject of numerous feature films: ''[Museum](Margaret's)(Margaret's Museum)* (starring [Bonham Carter](Helena)(Helena Bonham Carter)); *[Bay Boy](The)(The Bay Boy)* (directed by [Petrie](Daniel)(Daniel Petrie) and starring [Sutherland](Kiefer)(Kiefer Sutherland)); *[Waterford Girl](New)(New Waterford Girl)*; *[Story of Adele H.](The)(The Story of Adele H.)* (the story of unrequited love of [Hugo](Adèle)(Adèle Hugo)); and two films of *Evangeline* (one starring [Cooper](Miriam)(Miriam Cooper) and another starring [del Río](Dolores)(Dolores del Río)).
There is a significant film industry in Nova Scotia. Feature filmmaking began in Canada with *Evangeline* (1913), made by [Bioscope Company](Canadian)(Canadian Bioscope Company) in Halifax, which released six films before it closed. The film has since been lost. Some of the award-winning feature films made in the province are *[Titanic](Titanic (1997 film))* (starring [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) and [Winslet](Kate)(Kate Winslet)); *[Shipping News](The)(The Shipping News)* (starring [Spacey](Kevin)(Kevin Spacey) and [Moore](Julianne)(Julianne Moore)); *[The Widowmaker](K-19:)(K-19: The Widowmaker)* (starring [Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford) and [Neeson](Liam)(Liam Neeson)); *[Amelia](Amelia (film))* (starring [Swank](Hilary)(Hilary Swank), [Gere](Richard)(Richard Gere) and [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor)) and *[Lighthouse](The)(The Lighthouse (2019 film))* (starring [Pattinson](Robert)(Robert Pattinson) and [Dafoe](Willem)(Willem Dafoe)).
Nova Scotia has also produced numerous television series: *[Hour Has 22 Minutes](This)(This Hour Has 22 Minutes)*, *[Messer's Jubilee](Don)(Don Messer's Jubilee)*, *[Harbour](Black)(Black Harbour)*, *[Haven](Haven (TV series))*, *[Park Boys](Trailer)(Trailer Park Boys)*, *[D](Mr.)(Mr. D)*, *[Me Fitz](Call)(Call Me Fitz)*, and *[Tugboat](Theodore)(Theodore Tugboat)*. The *[Stone](Jesse)(Jesse Stone (character))'' film series on [CBS](CBS) starring [Selleck](Tom)(Tom Selleck) is also routinely produced in the province.
### Fine arts
[[File:Art Gallery of Nova Scotia.JPG|thumb|The [Gallery of Nova Scotia](Art)(Art Gallery of Nova Scotia) is the [art gallery](provincial)(Provincial museums of Canada) of Nova Scotia.]]
Halifax hosts institutions such as [Scotia College of Art and Design University](Nova)(Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University), [Gallery of Nova Scotia](Art)(Art Gallery of Nova Scotia), [Theatre](Neptune)(Neptune Theatre (Halifax)), and the [Arts Centre](Dalhousie)(Dalhousie Arts Centre).The province is home to avant-garde visual art and traditional crafting, writing and publishing and a film industry.
Much of the historic public art sculptures in the province were made by New York sculptor [Massey Rhind](J.)(J. Massey Rhind) as well as Canadian sculptors [MacCarthy](Hamilton)(Hamilton MacCarthy), [Hill](George)(George William Hill (sculptor)), [Hahn](Emanuel)(Emanuel Hahn) and [Hébert](Louis-Philippe)(Louis-Philippe Hébert). Some of this public art was also created by Nova Scotian [Wilson](John)(John Wilson (sculptor)). Nova Scotian [Lang](George)(George Lang (builder)) was a [sculptor](stone)(stone sculpture) who also built many landmark buildings in the province, including the [Monument](Welsford-Parker)(Welsford-Parker Monument). Two valuable sculptures/ monuments in the province are in [Paul's Church (Halifax)](St.)(St. Paul's Church (Halifax)): one by [Gibson](John)(John Gibson (sculptor)) (for [John Uniacke, Jr.](Richard)(Richard John Uniacke, Jr.)) and another monument by Sir [Leggatt Chantrey](Francis)(Francis Leggatt Chantrey) (for Amelia Ann Smyth). Both Gibson and Chantry were famous British sculptors during the Victorian era and have numerou sculptures in the [Tate](Tate), [of Fine Arts, Boston](Museum)(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) and [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey).
Some of the province's greatest painters were [Lewis](Maud)(Maud Lewis), [Valentine](William)(William Valentine (painter)), [Morris](Maria)(Maria Frances Ann Morris), [L. Gray](Jack)(Jack L. Gray), [Lawson](Ernest)(Ernest Lawson), [Bannerman](Frances)(Frances Bannerman), [Colville](Alex)(Alex Colville), and ship portrait artist [O'Brien](John)(John O'Brien (marine artist)). Some of most notable artists whose works have been acquired by Nova Scotia are British artist [Reynolds](Joshua)(Joshua Reynolds) (collection of Art Gallery of Nova Scotia); [Gush](William)(William Gush) and [J. Weaver](William)(William J. Weaver) (both have works in [House](Province)(Province House (Nova Scotia))); [Field](Robert)(Robert Field (painter)) ([House](Government)(Government House (Nova Scotia))), as well as leading American artists [West](Benjamin)(Benjamin West) (self portrait in [Halifax Club](The)(The Halifax Club), portrait of chief justice in [Scotia Supreme Court](Nova)(Nova Scotia Supreme Court)), [Singleton Copley](John)(John Singleton Copley), [Feke](Robert)(Robert Feke), and [Field](Robert)(Robert Field (painter)) (the latter three have works in the [Estate](Uniacke)(Richard John Uniacke)). Two famous Nova Scotian photographers are [R. MacAskill](Wallace)(Wallace R. MacAskill) and [Hines](Sherman)(Sherman Hines).[Sherman Hines Museum of Photography: Macaskill Collection](http://www.shermanhinesphotographymuseum.com/collect_mac_.html) . Shermanhinesphotographymuseum.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013. Three of the most accomplished illustrators were [Wylie Hutchinson](George)(George Wylie Hutchinson), [Chambers (cartoonist)](Bob)(Bob Chambers (cartoonist)) and [A. Mackay](Donald)(Donald A. Mackay).
### Literature
There are numerous Nova Scotian authors who have achieved international fame: [Chandler Haliburton](Thomas)(Thomas Chandler Haliburton) (*[Clockmaker](The)(Sam Slick)*), [MacLeod](Alistair)(Alistair MacLeod) (*[Great Mischief](No)(No Great Mischief)*), [Richardson](Evelyn)(Evelyn M. Richardson) *(We Keep A Light)*, [Marshall Saunders](Margaret)(Margaret Marshall Saunders) *([Joe](Beautiful)(Beautiful Joe)),* [B. Dakin](Laurence)(Laurence Bradford Dakin) *(Marco Polo),* and [Slocum](Joshua)(Joshua Slocum) *([Alone Around the World](Sailing)(Sailing Alone Around the World)).* Other authors include [Skibsrud](Johanna)(Johanna Skibsrud) *(The Sentimentalists),* [Nowlan](Alden)(Alden Nowlan) *(Bread, Wine and Salt),* [Elliott Clarke](George)(George Elliott Clarke) *(Execution Poems),* [Choyce](Lesley)(Lesley Choyce) *(Nova Scotia: Shaped by the Sea),* [Raddall](Thomas)(Thomas Raddall) *(Halifax: Warden of the North),* [Morrissey](Donna)(Donna Morrissey) ''(Kit's Law),* and [Parker Day](Frank)(Frank Parker Day) *([Rockbound](Rockbound)).*
Nova Scotia has also been the subject of numerous literary books. Some of the international best-sellers are: *Last Man Out: The Story of the Springhill Mining Disaster* (by [Fay Greene](Melissa)(Melissa Fay Greene)); *Curse of the Narrows: The [Explosion](Halifax)(Halifax Explosion) 1917* (by Laura MacDonald); "In the Village" (short story by [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize)–winning author [Bishop](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Bishop)); and [Book Critics Circle Award](National)(National Book Critics Circle Award) winner *[Crossings](Rough)(Rough Crossings)* (by [Schama](Simon)(Simon Schama)). Other authors who have written novels about Nova Scotian stories include: [MacIntyre](Linden)(Linden MacIntyre) (*[Bishop's Man](The)(The Bishop's Man)*); [MacLennan](Hugh)(Hugh MacLennan) (*[Rising](Barometer)(Barometer Rising)*); [Buckler](Ernest)(Ernest Buckler) (*The Valley and the Mountain*); [MacMechan](Archibald)(Archibald MacMechan) (*Red Snow on Grand Pré*), [Wadsworth Longfellow](Henry)(Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) (long poem *[Evangeline](Evangeline)*); [Hill](Lawrence)(Lawrence Hill) (*[Book of Negroes](The)(The Book of Negroes (novel))*) and [Mack Faragher](John)(John Mack Faragher) (*Great and Nobel Scheme'').
### Media
#### News
The first newspaper to be printed in Nova Scotia was the [Gazette](Halifax)(Halifax Gazette) on 23 March 1752. It was also the first newspaper printed anywhere in Canada. A single copy of the first issue of the Gazette exists today, which was acquired by [and Archives Canada](Library)(Library and Archives Canada) on 20 June 2002 from the [Historical Society](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Historical Society) in [Boston](Boston). [Newsprint](Newsprint) made from [pulp](wood)(Pulp (paper)) was invented in 1844 by [Scotian](Nova)(List of people from Nova Scotia) [Fenerty](Charles)(Charles Fenerty) and was presented to the [Recorder](Acadian)(Acadian Recorder) as an alternative printing medium to the paper made from other plant fibers at the time, such as cotton, which was typically made from [articles of clothing](discarded)(Cotton paper). Founded in 1874, the province's current primary daily [broadsheet](broadsheet) newspaper is [Chronicle Herald](The)(The Chronicle Herald), which is circulated to 91,152 weekday customers, with the number increasing to 93,178 on Saturdays (2015). It is the most widely circulated newspaper in Atlantic Canada. The paper does not publish on Sundays. It is owned by the [Network](SaltWire)(SaltWire Network), the largest media company in Atlantic Canada. The Nova Scotia Government also provides a digital [archive](archive) of past newspapers via the Nova Scotia Archives website.
#### Radio
The province's first radio station was [CHNS-FM](CHNS-FM) which first aired on 12 May 1926 from the [Hotel](Carleton)(The Carleton) in Halifax by [War I](World)(World War I) [Corps](Signal)(Royal Canadian Corps of Signals) soldier [C. Borrett](William)(William C. Borrett). History of Canadian Broadcasting|url=https://www.broadcasting-history.ca/listing_and_histories/radio/chns-fm|url-status=live|access-date=27 November 2021|website=History of Canadian Broadcasting|archive-date=27 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127191804/https://www.broadcasting-history.ca/listing_and_histories/radio/chns-fm}} Today the station is owned by [Broadcasting System](Maritime)(Maritime Broadcasting System) and goes by the on-air [name](brand)(Brand) *89.9 The Wave* and attracts a weekly average of 64,236 listeners between the ages of 25 and 54. It has a [hits](classic)(classic hits) format, airing [music](popular)(popular music) from the 60s, 70s and 80s.
### Music
[[File:Symphony Nova Scotia performs at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic.jpg|thumb|[Nova Scotia](Symphony)(Symphony Nova Scotia) performing at the [Museum of the Atlantic](Maritime)(Maritime Museum of the Atlantic) in Halifax]]
Nova Scotia is home to [Nova Scotia](Symphony)(Symphony Nova Scotia), a [orchestra](symphony)(symphony orchestra) based in Halifax. The province has produced more than its fair share of famous musicians, including [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) winners [Doherty](Denny)(Denny Doherty) (from [Mamas & the Papas](The)(The Mamas & the Papas)), [Murray](Anne)(Anne Murray), and [McLachlan](Sarah)(Sarah McLachlan), country singers [Snow](Hank)(Hank Snow), [Canyon, and Drake Jensen](George)(George Canyon), jazz vocalist [Cole](Holly)(Holly Cole), classical performers [White](Portia)(Portia White) and [Hannigan](Barbara)(Barbara Hannigan), multi [Award](Juno)(Juno Award) nominated rapper [Classified](Classified (rapper)), and such diverse artists as [MacNeil](Rita)(Rita MacNeil), [Mays](Matt)(Matt Mays), [Sloan](Sloan (band)), [Feist](Feist (singer)), [Fancey](Todd)(Todd Fancey), [Rankin Family](The)(The Rankin Family), [MacMaster](Natalie)(Natalie MacMaster), [Crowe](Susan)(Susan Crowe), [65](Buck)(Buck 65), [Plaskett](Joel)(Joel Plaskett), and the bands [Wine](April)(April Wine) and [Dérangement](Grand)(Grand Dérangement (band))
There are numerous songs written about Nova Scotia: The Ballad of Springhill (written by [Seeger](Peggy)(Peggy Seeger) and performed by Irish folk singer [Kelly](Luke)(Luke Kelly), a member of [Dubliners](The)(The Dubliners)); several songs by [Rogers](Stan)(Stan Rogers) including Bluenose, Watching The Apples Grow, The Jeannie C (mentions Little Dover, NS), [Privateers](Barrett's)(Barrett's Privateers), Giant, and The Rawdon Hills; Farewell to Nova Scotia (traditional); Blue Nose ([Tom Connors](Stompin')(Stompin' Tom Connors)); She's Called Nova Scotia (by [MacNeil](Rita)(Rita MacNeil)); Cape Breton (by [Myles](David)(David Myles (singer-songwriter))); [Driftwood](Acadian)(Acadian Driftwood) (by [Robertson](Robbie)(Robbie Robertson)); Acadie (by [Lanois](Daniel)(Daniel Lanois)); [For The Mira](Song)(Song for the Mira) (by [MacGillivray](Allister)(Allister MacGillivray)) and My Nova Scotia Home (by [Snow](Hank)(Hank Snow)).
Nova Scotia has produced many significant songwriters, such as [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) winning [Sampson](Gordie)(Gordie Sampson), who has written songs for [Underwood](Carrie)(Carrie Underwood) ("Jesus, Take the Wheel", "Just a Dream", "Get Out of This Town"), [McBride](Martina)(Martina McBride) ("If I Had Your Name", "You're Not Leavin Me"), [Rimes](LeAnn)(LeAnn Rimes) ("Long Night", "Save Myself"), and [Canyon](George)(George Canyon) ("My Name"). Many of [Snow's](Hank)(Hank Snow) songs went on to be recorded by the likes of [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones), [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley), and [Cash](Johnny)(Johnny Cash). Cape Bretoners [MacGillivray](Allister)(Allister MacGillivray) and [Dubinsky](Leon)(Leon Dubinsky) have both written songs which, by being covered by so many popular artists, and by entering the repertoire of so many choirs around the world, have become iconic representations of Nova Scotian style, values and ethos. Dubinsky's pop ballad "[Rise Again](We)(Rise Again (The Rankin Family song))" might be called the unofficial anthem of Cape Breton.
Music producer [Ahern](Brian)(Brian Ahern (producer)) is a Nova Scotian. He got his start by being music director for CBC television's [Jubilee](Singalong)(Singalong Jubilee). He later produced 12 albums for [Murray](Anne)(Anne Murray) ("Snowbird", "Danny's Song" and "You Won't See Me"); 11 albums for [Harris](Emmylou)(Emmylou Harris) (whom he married at his home in Halifax on 9 January 1977). He also produced discs for [Cash](Johnny)(Johnny Cash), [Jones](George)(George Jones), [Orbison](Roy)(Roy Orbison), [Campbell](Glen)(Glen Campbell), [Williams](Don)(Don Williams), [Winchester](Jesse)(Jesse Winchester) and [Ronstadt](Linda)(Linda Ronstadt).
Grammy winning songwriter and music producer [Cirkut](Cirkut), known for writing and producing songs for [Weeknd](The)(The Weeknd), [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears), [Cyrus](Miley)(Miley Cyrus), and [Perry](Katy)(Katy Perry), was born and raised in Halifax before moving to Toronto in 2004.
### Sports
[[File:Cape Breton Screaming Eagles at Halifax Mooseheads (February 6 2010) (4336519788).jpg|thumb|An [hockey](ice)(ice hockey) game between the [Breton Screaming Eagles](Cape)(Cape Breton Screaming Eagles), and the [Mooseheads](Halifax)(Halifax Mooseheads), two [Junior](Major)(Major Junior) hockey teams in Nova Scotia]]
Sport is an important part of Nova Scotia culture. There are numerous semi pro, university and amateur sports teams, for example, The [Mooseheads](Halifax)(Halifax Mooseheads), 2013 Canadian Hockey League Memorial Cup Champions, and the [Breton Screaming Eagles](Cape)(Cape Breton Screaming Eagles), both of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. The [Hurricanes](Halifax)(Halifax Hurricanes) of the National Basketball League of Canada is another team that calls Nova Scotia home, and were 2016 league champions. Professional soccer came to the province in 2019 in the form of [Premier League](Canadian)(Canadian Premier League) club [Wanderers FC](HFX)(HFX Wanderers FC).
The [Scotia Open](Nova)(Nova Scotia Open) was a professional [golf](golf) tournament on the [Tour](Web.com)(Web.com Tour) in 2014 and 2015.
The province has also produced numerous athletes such as [Crosby](Sidney)(Sidney Crosby) (ice hockey), [Mackinnon](Nathan)(Nathan Mackinnon) (ice hockey), [Steen](Lincoln)(Lincoln Steen) (Wrestling), [Marchand](Brad)(Brad Marchand) (ice hockey), [Jones](Colleen)(Colleen Jones) (curling), [MacInnis](Al)(Al MacInnis) (ice hockey), [J. Grant](T.)(T. J. Grant) (mixed martial arts), [Johnson](Rocky)(Rocky Johnson) (wrestling, and father of ["The Rock" Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson)), [Dixon](George)(George Dixon (boxer)) (boxing) and [Johnson](Kirk)(Kirk Johnson) (boxing). The achievements of Nova Scotian athletes are presented at the [Scotia Sport Hall of Fame](Nova)(Nova Scotia Sport Hall of Fame).
## Education
[[File:SteAnnes.jpg|thumb|[Sainte-Anne](Université)(Université Sainte-Anne) is a Francophone university situated in [Pointe-de-l'Église](Pointe-de-l'Église, Nova Scotia).]]
The Minister of Education is responsible for the administration and delivery of education, as defined by the Education Act and other acts relating to colleges, universities and private schools. The powers of the Minister and the Department of Education are defined by the Ministerial regulations and constrained by the Governor-In-Council regulations.
All children until the age of 16 are legally required to attend school or the parent needs to perform home schooling. Nova Scotia's education system is split up into eight different regions including; Tri-County (22 schools), Annapolis Valley (42 schools), South Shore (25 schools), Chignecto-Central (67 schools), Halifax (135 schools), Strait (20 schools), and Cape Breton-Victoria Regional Centre for Education (39 schools).
Nova Scotia has more than 450 public schools for children. The public system offers primary to Grade 12. There are also private schools in the province. Public education is administered by seven regional school boards, responsible primarily for English instruction and French immersion, and also province-wide by the [Scolaire Acadien Provincial](Conseil)(Conseil Scolaire Acadien Provincial), which administers French instruction to students whose primary language is French.
The [Scotia Community College](Nova)(Nova Scotia Community College) system has 13 campuses around the province. With a focus on training and education, the [college](College (Canada)) was established in 1988 by amalgamating the province's former vocational schools. In addition to the provincial community college system, there are more than 90 registered private colleges in Nova Scotia.
Ten universities are also situated in Nova Scotia, including [University](Dalhousie)(Dalhousie University), [of King's College](University)(University of King's College), [Mary's University](Saint)(Saint Mary's University (Halifax)), [Saint Vincent University](Mount)(Mount Saint Vincent University), [University](NSCAD)(Nova Scotia College of Art and Design), [University](Acadia)(Acadia University), [Sainte-Anne](Université)(Université Sainte-Anne), [Francis Xavier University](Saint)(Saint Francis Xavier University), [Breton University](Cape)(Cape Breton University) and the [School of Theology](Atlantic)(Atlantic School of Theology).
## See also
* [Acadiensis](Acadiensis), scholarly history journal covering Atlantic Canada
* [of Nova Scotia–related articles](Index)(Index of Nova Scotia–related articles)
* [of Nova Scotia](Outline)(Outline of Nova Scotia)
## References
## Bibliography
*
* [John Bartlet](Brebner,)(John Bartlet Brebner). ''New England's Outpost. Acadia before the Conquest of Canada* (1927)
* Brebner, John Bartlet. *The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years'' (1937)
*
*
* Grenier, John. [The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760](https://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&dq=The%20Far%20Reaches%20of%20Empire.%20%20War%20in%20Nova%20Scotia%2C%201710-1760&pg=PP1) . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 2008. ()
* Landry, Peter. The Lion & The Lily. Vol. 1, Trafford Publishing, Victoria, BC., 2007. ()
* Murdoch, Beamish. [ History of Nova Scotia, Or Acadie](https://archive.org/details/ahistorynovasco04murdgoog). Vol 2. BiblioBazaar, LaVergne, TN, 1865.
* Pryke, Kenneth G. *Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864–74* (1979) ()
* Thomas Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition) ()
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:Nova Scotia)
[establishments in Canada](Category:1867)(Category:1867 establishments in Canada)
[Category:Acadia](Category:Acadia)
[Canada](Category:Atlantic)(Category:Atlantic Canada)
[North America](Category:British)(Category:British North America)
[British colonies and protectorates in the Americas](Category:Former)(Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas)
[Scottish colonies](Category:Former)(Category:Former Scottish colonies)
[and territories of Canada](Category:Provinces)(Category:Provinces and territories of Canada)
[and territories established in 1867](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1867)
[Maritimes](Category:The)(Category:The Maritimes)
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Tomb Raider
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tomb_raider
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# Tomb Raider
*Revision ID: 1158811726 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T11:21:22Z*
---
*Lara Croft: Tomb Raider*|}}
| publisher =
| genre = [Action-adventure](Action-adventure game)
| platforms =
| first release version = *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (1996 video game))*
| first release date = 25 October 1996
| latest release version = *[of the Tomb Raider](Shadow)(Shadow of the Tomb Raider)*
| latest release date = 14 September 2018
}}
***Tomb Raider***, also known as ***Lara Croft: Tomb Raider*** from 2001 to 2008, is a [franchise](media)(media franchise) that originated with an [action-adventure](Action-adventure game) video game series created by British gaming company [Design](Core)(Core Design). Formerly owned by [Interactive](Eidos)(Eidos Interactive), then by Square Enix Europe after [Enix](Square)(Square Enix)'s acquisition of Eidos in 2009, the franchise focuses on the fictional British archaeologist [Croft](Lara)(Lara Croft), who travels around the world searching for lost artefacts and infiltrating dangerous tombs and ruins. Gameplay generally focuses on exploration of environments, solving puzzles, navigating hostile environments filled with traps, and fighting enemies. Additional media has been developed for the franchise in the form of [adaptation](film)(film adaptation)s, [comic](comic)s and [novel](novel)s. On January 27, 2023, [Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) exclusively reported that [Amazon](Amazon (company)) was in the works with [Waller-Bridge](Phoebe)(Phoebe Waller-Bridge) reportedly set to write a TV Show adaptation of the video game franchise. It was also reported this would involve a tie-in video game and movie in an interconnected universe, likened to the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe).
Development of the [*Tomb Raider* game](original)(Tomb Raider (1996 video game)) began in 1994; it was released two years later. Its critical and commercial success prompted Core Design to develop a new game annually for the next four years, which put a strain on staff. The sixth game, *[Angel of Darkness](The)(Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness)*, faced difficulties during development and was considered a failure at release. This prompted Eidos to switch development duties to [Dynamics](Crystal)(Crystal Dynamics), which has been the series' primary developer since. Other developers have contributed to spin-off titles and ports of mainline entries.
*Tomb Raider* games have sold over 95 million copies worldwide by 2022. while the entire franchise generated close to $1.2 billion in revenue by 2002. The series has generally been met with critical acclaim, and Lara Croft has become one of the most recognisable video game protagonists, winning accolades and earning places on the [of Game](Walk)(Walk of Game) and *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)*.
## Titles
[[File:55 Ashbourne Derby.jpg|thumb|right|The entrance of 55 Ashbourne Road in [Derby](Derby) where Core Design used to develop *Tomb Raider*.]]
The first six *Tomb Raider* games were developed by Core Design, a British video game development company owned by [Interactive](Eidos)(Eidos Interactive). After the sixth game in the series was released to a lukewarm reception in 2003, development was transferred to American studio [Dynamics](Crystal)(Crystal Dynamics), who have handled the main series since. Since 2001, other developers have contributed either to ports of mainline games or with the development of spin-off titles.
### Games
The first entry in the series *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (1996 video game))* was released in 1996 for [computer](personal)(personal computer)s (PC), [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)) and [Saturn](Sega)(Sega Saturn) consoles. The Saturn and PlayStation versions were released in Japan in 1997. Its sequel, *[Raider II](Tomb)(Tomb Raider II)*, launched in 1997, again for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation. A month before release, Eidos finalised a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment to keep the console version of *Tomb Raider II* and future games exclusive to PlayStation until the year 2000. The PlayStation version was released in Japan in 1998. *[Raider III](Tomb)(Tomb Raider III)* launched in 1998. As with *Tomb Raider II*, the PlayStation version released in Japan the following year. The fourth consecutive title in the series, *[Raider: The Last Revelation](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation)*, released in 1999. In 2000, with the end of the PlayStation exclusivity deal, the game also released on the [Dreamcast](Dreamcast). In Japan, both console versions released the following year. *[Raider Chronicles](Tomb)(Tomb Raider Chronicles)* released in 2000 on the same platforms as *The Last Revelation*, with the PlayStation version's Japanese release as before coming the following year.
After a three-year gap, *[Raider: The Angel of Darkness](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness)* was released on the Microsoft Windows and [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2) (PS2) in 2003. The PlayStation 2 version was released in Japan that same year. The next entry, *[Raider: Legend](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: Legend)*, was released worldwide in 2006 for the Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, [Xbox](Xbox (console)), [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360), [Portable](PlayStation)(PlayStation Portable) (PSP), [GameCube](GameCube), [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) (GBA) and [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS). The Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions were released in Japan the same year. A year later, a remake of the first game titled *[Raider: Anniversary](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: Anniversary)* was released worldwide in 2007 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360 and the [Wii](Wii). The next entry, *[Raider: Underworld](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: Underworld)*, was released in 2008 on the Microsoft Windows, [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) (PS3), PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, Wii and DS. The PlayStation 3, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360 and Wii versions were released in Japan in 2009.
In 2011, *[Tomb Raider Trilogy](The)(List of Tomb Raider media#The Tomb Raider Trilogy)* was released for PlayStation 3 as a compilation release that included *Anniversary* and *Legend* remastered in HD resolution, along with the PlayStation 3 version of *Underworld*. The disc includes avatars for PlayStation Home, a Theme Pack, new Trophies, Developer's Diary videos for the three games, and trailers for *[Croft and the Guardian of Light](Lara)(Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light)* as bonus content.
A reboot of the series, titled *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (2013 video game))*, was released worldwide in 2013 for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows), PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Its sequel, *[of the Tomb Raider](Rise)(Rise of the Tomb Raider)*, was released in 2015 on the Xbox 360 and [One](Xbox)(Xbox One). The game was part of a timed exclusivity deal with Microsoft. Versions for the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) were released in 2016. Another sequel, *[of the Tomb Raider](Shadow)(Shadow of the Tomb Raider)*, was released worldwide on [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4), [One](Xbox)(Xbox One), and [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) in 2018. An arcade game based on this incarnation was released by [Namco Amusement](Bandai)(Bandai Namco Holdings) in Europe in 2018.
#### Spin-offs
The first spin-off title in the series was a game for the [Boy Color](Game)(Game Boy Color) (GBC) titled *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (Game Boy Color))*, developed by Core Design and released in 2000. Its sequel, *[Raider: Curse of the Sword](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: Curse of the Sword)*, was released in 2001 for the GBC. In 2002, a new game for the Game Boy Advance called *[Raider: The Prophecy](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: The Prophecy)*, was developed by [Soft Milan](Ubi)(Ubi Soft Milan) and published by [Soft](Ubi)(Ubi Soft). In 2003, four *Tomb Raider* titles for mobile phones were released. A platform-puzzler for mobile devices, *[Croft Go](Lara)(Lara Croft Go)*, was released in 2015.
Beginning in 2010, a subseries titled *Lara Croft* was in development, with different gameplay than the main series and existing in its own continuity. The first game, *[Croft and the Guardian of Light](Lara)(Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light)*, was released in 2010 as a downloadable title for PC, PS3 and Xbox 360. It was followed by *[Croft and the Temple of Osiris](Lara)(Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris)*, released for retail and download in 2014 for PC, PS4 and Xbox One. An entry for mobile devices, an [runner platformer](endless)(Endless running games) titled *[Croft: Relic Run](Lara)(Lara Croft: Relic Run)*, was released in 2015.
Developed by Emerald City Games and [Enix London Mobile](Square)(Square Enix London Mobile) for iOS and Android devices, *[Raider Reloaded](Tomb)(Tomb Raider Reloaded)* is an action arcade and [free-to-play](free-to-play) game released in 2022.
#### Cancelled games
*The Angel of Darkness* was originally the first game in a trilogy, with its sequel titled *The Lost Dominion*. While *The Lost Dominion* was undergoing preliminary development, the negative reception of *The Angel of Darkness* caused the trilogy to be scrapped. With Eidos's approval, Core Design began development of an updated edition of the first game for the PSP called *Tomb Raider: The Anniversary Edition* in late 2005, with a projected release date of Christmas 2006. Development continued while Core Design staff were working on the platformer *[Running](Free)(Free Running (video game))*. When Core Design was sold to [Developments](Rebellion)(Rebellion Developments), Eidos requested the project's cancellation. It was suggested by staff that Eidos did not want to let outside developers handle the franchise.
## Common elements
### Lara Croft
[[computer generated image of a brown haired woman whose body faces to the right while her head is turned down towards the ground, and left hand is placed on her wounded shoulder. She wears a dirty white shirt, ripped green pants and black boots. She has several abrasions covered by cloth. The woman holds a bow in her right hand.|thumb|Various incarnations of Lara Croft in the video game series. Despite multiple revisions to her clothing and general physique, her face and hair have remained generally consistent.](File:ClassicLaraCroft.jpg|alt=A)]
Lara Croft is the main protagonist and playable character of the video game series: she travels around the world in search of many forgotten artefacts and locations, frequently connected to supernatural powers. While her biography has changed throughout the series, her shared traits are her origins as the only daughter and heir of the aristocratic Croft family. She is portrayed as intelligent, athletic, elegant, fluent in multiple languages, and determined to fulfil her own goals at any cost. She has brown eyes and brown hair worn in a [braid](braid) or [ponytail](ponytail). The character's classic outfit consists of a turquoise singlet, light brown shorts, calf-high boots, and tall white socks. Recurring accessories include fingerless gloves, a backpack, a utility belt with holsters on either side, and twin pistols. Later games have multiple new outfits for her.
Lara Croft has been voiced by five actresses in the video game series: [Blond](Shelley)(Shelley Blond), Judith Gibbins, Jonell Elliott, [Hawes](Keeley)(Keeley Hawes), and [Luddington](Camilla)(Camilla Luddington). In other media, Croft was also voiced by [Driver](Minnie)(Minnie Driver) in the animated series and portrayed by [Jolie](Angelina)(Angelina Jolie) and [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander) in feature films. Multiple models and body doubles have portrayed Croft in promotional material until the [reboot](Tomb Raider (2013 video game)) in 2013. Eight different real-life models have portrayed her at promotional events.
#### Continuity
The circumstances of her first adventures, along with the drive behind her adventures, differ depending on the continuity. In the original continuities, she is on a plane that crashes in the Himalayas: her journey back to civilization against the odds help to begin her journey towards her adult life as an adventuress and treasure hunter. In the original continuity, after her ordeal in the Himalayas, she left behind her privileged life and made a living writing about her exploits as an adventurer, mercenary, and cat burglar. Shortly after these books she was disowned by her family. In *The Last Revelation*, Lara was caught in a collapsing pyramid at the game's end, leaving her fate unknown: this was because the staff, exhausted from four years of non-stop development, wanted to move on from the character. *Chronicles* was told through a series of flashbacks at a wake for Lara, while *The Angel of Darkness* was set an unspecified time after *The Last Revelation*, with Lara revealed to have survived. The circumstances of her survival were originally part of the game but were cut due to time constraints and the pushing of the publisher Eidos.
In the *Legend* continuity, her mother Amelia was involved in the crash, and she is partially driven by the need to discover the truth behind her mother's disappearance and vindicate her father's theories about Amelia's disappearance. This obsession with the truth is present in *Anniversary*, and ends up bringing the world to the brink of destruction during the events of *Underworld*. Her father is referred to as Lord Henshingly Croft in the original games and Lord Richard Croft in the *Legend* continuity. The *Lara Croft* subseries take place within their own separate continuity, devoting itself to adventures similar to earlier games while the main series goes in a different stylistic direction.
In the 2013 reboot continuity, Lara's mother vanished at an early age, and her father became obsessed with finding the secrets of immortality, eventually resulting in an apparent suicide. Lara distanced herself from her father's memory, believing like many others that his obsession had caused him to go mad. After studying at university, Lara gets an opportunity to work on an archaeology program, in the search for the mythic kingdom of [Yamatai](Yamatai). The voyage to find the kingdom results in a shipwreck on an island, which is later discovered to be Yamatai, but the island is also home to savage bandits, who were victims of previous wrecks. Lara's attempts to find a way off the island lead her to discover that the island itself is stopping them from leaving, which she discovered is linked to the still-living soul of the Sun Queen [Himiko](Himiko). Lara tries to find a way to banish the spirit of the sun queen in order to get home. The aftermath of the events of the game causes Lara to see that her father was right, and that she had needlessly distanced herself from him. She decides to finish his work, and uncover the mysteries of the world. The game's sequels portray Lara Croft in conflict with an ancient organization Trinity, in their quest to obtain supernatural items for their world domination.
### Gameplay
[[Anniversary gameplay.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A gameplay screenshot from *Tomb Raider: Anniversary*, showing Lara jumping for a ledge below a door switch. While many mechanics within the *Tomb Raider* series have undergone changes, platforming and puzzle solving linked to this are recurring, standard elements within the series.](File:TR)]
The gameplay of *Tomb Raider* is primarily based around an [action-adventure](Action-adventure game) framework, with Lara navigating environments and solving mechanical and environmental puzzles, in addition to fighting enemies and avoiding traps. These puzzles, primarily set within ancient tombs and temples, can extend across multiple rooms and areas within a level. Lara can swim through water, a rarity in games at the time that has continued through the series. According to original software engineer and later studio manager Gavin Rummery, the original set-up of interlinking rooms was inspired by Egyptian multi-roomed tombs, particularly the [of Tutankhamun](tomb)(KV62). The feel of the gameplay was intended to evoke that of the 1989 video game *[of Persia](Prince)(Prince of Persia (1989 video game))*. In the original games, Lara utilised a "bulldozer" steering set-up, with two buttons pushing her forward and back and two buttons steering her left and right, and in combat Lara automatically locked onto enemies when they came within range. The camera automatically adjusts depending on Lara's action, but defaults to a third-person perspective in most instances. This basic formula remained unchanged through the first series of games. *Angel of Darkness* added stealth elements.
For *Legend*, the control scheme and character movement was redesigned to provide a smooth and fluid experience. One of the key elements present was how buttons for different actions cleanly transitioned into different actions, along with these moves being incorporated into combat to create effects such as stunning or knocking down enemies. Quick-time events were added into certain segments within each level, and many of the puzzles were based around sophisticated in-game physics. *Anniversary*, while going through the same locales of the original game, was rebuilt using the gameplay and environmental puzzles of *Legend*. For *Underworld*, the gameplay was redesigned around a phrase the staff had put to themselves: "What Could Lara Do?". Using this set-up, they created a greater variety of moves and greater interaction with the environment, along with expanding and improving combat.
The gameplay underwent another major change for the 2013 reboot. Gameplay altered from progression through linear levels to navigating an open world, with hunting for supplies and upgrading equipment and weapons becoming a key part of gameplay, yet tombs were mostly optional and platforming was less present in comparison to combat. The combat was redesigned to be similar to the *[Uncharted](Uncharted)* series: the previous reticle-based lock-on mechanics were replaced by a free-roaming aim. *Rise of the Tomb Raider* built on the 2013 reboot's foundation, adding dynamic weather systems, reintroducing swimming, and increasing the prevalence of non-optional tombs with more platforming elements.
## History
### Original series at Core Design (1994–2006)
[[File:Toby Gard - E3 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Toby Gard, a key creative figure for the series, at the 2005 [Entertainment Expo](Electronic)(Electronic Entertainment Expo).]]
The concept for *Tomb Raider* originated in 1994 at Core Design, a British game development studio. One of the people involved in its creation was [Gard](Toby)(Toby Gard), who was mostly responsible for creating the character of Lara Croft. Gard originally envisioned the character as a man: company co-founder Jeremy Heath-Smith was worried the character would be seen as derivative of [Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones (character)), so Gard changed the character's gender. Her design underwent multiple revisions and redrafts during early development. The game proved an unexpected commercial success, reversing Eidos' then-bleak financial situation. After the success of *Tomb Raider*, work began on a sequel. Gard was no longer given full creative control, and it was stated by development staff that he was both saddened and disappointed by the use of Lara Croft's sex appeal in marketing. Gard left Core Design in 1997 to found his own gaming company [Factor](Confounding)(Confounding Factor (games company)), and was replaced by Stuart Atkinson. *Tomb Raider II* proved a larger commercial success than the original.
Over the next three years, Core Design was committed to delivering a *Tomb Raider* game annually, putting considerable strain on staff. For this reason, and the feeling that they had exhausted the series' potential, the developers tried to kill the character off. This did not work, and while a fifth game was created, the team stated that they were not fully invested in its development. During development on the fifth game, the team split into two divisions, with one division working on the next-generation sequel *The Angel of Darkness*. During this period, multiple handheld titles were developed by both Core Design and third-party developers. The production of *The Angel of Darkness* was beset by problems from an early stage, with the team wanting to create a grander game to compete with contemporary action-adventure games. Under pressure from Eidos, key sections of the game needed to be cut, and it was released before the team felt it was ready. The game received negative reactions from critics, and was cited by [Paramount](Paramount Pictures) as the reason for the [*Tomb Raider* film](second)(Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life) underperforming.
While development of the next title *Legend* moved to Crystal Dynamics, Core Design continued to work on the franchise until 2006, when their remake of the original game entitled *10th Anniversary* was cancelled. Crystal Dynamics would later release a similar title simply titled *Anniversary*.
### Crystal Dynamics and *Legend* trilogy (2003–2008)
After the critical backlash of *The Angel of Darkness*, Eidos decided to take production of the *Tomb Raider* series out of Core Design's hands and give it to another subsidiary studio. Production of the next game was given to Crystal Dynamics in 2003, a studio that had made its name with the *[of Kain](Legacy)(Legacy of Kain)* series. Eidos CEO [Livingstone](Ian)(Ian Livingstone) stated that while the critical failure of *The Angel of Darkness* was a major reason for taking the series away from Core Design, the decision was motivated by their inordinate struggles with developing for the PlayStation 2, and by how many members of the Core team had complained that they were "burnt out" on *Tomb Raider*. He added that "for a UK company, moving the development of its prized asset from Derby to California was a big decision to make but, as it turned out, absolutely the right one to make". One of the main priorities for both Eidos and Crystal Dynamics was to regain the fanbase's trust in the brand, along with helping the series reclaim the status and selling power it had before *The Angel of Darkness* release. Their main goal was to put Lara back inside tombs, with their physics-based engine enabling more intricate puzzles. *Legend* was well received, and was the first game in a rebooted trilogy. After *Legend* was finished, the team decided to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the series by remaking the original game, rebuilding the environments and redesigning the story to fit in with the events and gameplay of *Legend*. Alongside the development of *Anniversary*, an entry for [hardware](seventh-generation)(Seventh generation of video game consoles) was in development, although it used established gaming architecture from *Legend* and this caused problems for the development team. This released as *[Raider: Underworld](Tomb)(Tomb Raider: Underworld)* in 2008.
### Square Enix acquisition and *Survivor* trilogy (2009–2019)
In 2009, the year after the release of *Underworld*, Eidos was bought by Square Enix and later renamed [Enix Europe](Square)(Square Enix Europe), giving Square Enix ownership of the *Tomb Raider* franchise. Development of Tomb Raider remained with Crystal Dynamics, now under the new structure. A new subseries began in 2010, billed simply as *Lara Croft* rather than *Tomb Raider* while using the aesthetics of the *Legend* continuity. The first of these was *[Croft and the Guardian of Light](Lara)(Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light)*, followed by *[Croft and the Temple of Osiris](Lara)(Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris)* in 2014. From 2015 the subseries aimed at the mobile format with *[Run](Relic)(Lara Croft: Relic Run)*, and later *[Croft Go](Lara)(Lara Croft Go)* which received critical acclaim.
During this period, a second development team was working on a second reboot of the series and character, which put emphasis on a darker and grittier interpretation of the character. Another priority was presenting Lara as a more human character, putting her in vulnerable situations, and showing how she begins her journey to becoming a "tomb raider" through both narrative and gameplay. The reboot, simply entitled *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (2013 video game))*, was met with critical acclaim at launch in 2013, and became the start of the "Survivor Trilogy". A sequel, eventually revealed as *[of the Tomb Raider](Rise)(Rise of the Tomb Raider)*, was in development a few months after the reboot's release. In response to criticisms about a lack of classic tombs, more optional and story-based tombs were incorporated into the game. It continued the team's new portrayal of Lara, showing more sides to her character and her growing obsession with discovering the truth. In 2018, *[of the Tomb Raider](Shadow)(Shadow of the Tomb Raider)* was released to coincide with a new film starring [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander) as Lara Croft, simply titled *[Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (film))*, taking heavy inspiration from the 2013 game of the same name. *Shadow* was developed by [Eidos-Montréal](Eidos-Montréal) as Crystal Dynamics completed ''[Avengers](Marvel's)(Marvel's Avengers (video game))'', though Crystal would provide secondary support. The game concluded Lara's origin story. A "Definitive Edition", featuring all 7 DLCs for *Shadow* was released in November 2019.
### Diversification and Embracer Group acquisition (2021–present)
Following the conclusion of the Survivor trilogy, both Crystal Dynamics and Eidos-Montréal were busy with Marvel properties, and so there were no further *Tomb Raider* games for several years. In Crystal Dynamics' case, continued support for ''Marvel's Avengers* lasted until 2023. In May 2022, [Enix](Square)(Square Enix) and [Group](Embracer)(Embracer Group) entered into an agreement for Embracer to purchase several assets of [Enix Europe](Square)(Square Enix Europe) for , including developer [Dynamics](Crystal)(Crystal Dynamics) and the *Tomb Raider'' franchise among others, with a deal completed in the second quarter of Embracer's financial year.
The next main *Tomb Raider* title was announced by Crystal Dynamics in 2022, a game that would "unify the timelines", and combine elements from all three series, including the work of Core Design. In this timeline, Lara would be a seasoned adventurer. This instalment will use [Engine 5](Unreal)(Unreal Engine 5), and will be published by [Games](Amazon)(Amazon Games).
A series of announcements were made over the course of this period regarding spin offs. In 2021, [Television](Legendary)(Legendary Television) and DJ2 Entertainment announced to create an [series](anime)(anime series) set after the events of *Shadow of the Tomb Raider*. *[Raider Reloaded](Tomb)(Tomb Raider Reloaded)*, a mobile game, was published by [Enix London Mobile](Square)(Square Enix London Mobile) in 2023.
## Music
The original *Tomb Raider* theme was composed by [McCree](Nathan)(Nathan McCree). He created the original theme music after having discussions with Gard about the character of Lara Croft. Having decided to use Classical English music as an inspiration, he decided to create something simple for the theme song. Its simplicity made rearrangements and orchestrations easy. For his work on the first three *Tomb Raider* games, he was given fairly minimal briefs, and for *Tomb Raider III* he was working on the game as a freelancer as he had left the company. For *The Last Revelation*, [Connelly](Peter)(Peter Connelly) replaced Nathan McCree as the main composer, using McCree's music as a basis for his work. He composed the opening theme for *The Last Revelation*, saying that the opening melody came to him out of the blue, and added Egyptian motifs to fit in with the game's setting. *Chronicles* was originally going to have a sizeable original opening theme, but due to time constraints the majority of it ended up being discarded, much to Connelly's later regret. Only the opening segment survived. The music for *The Angel of Darkness*, composed by Connelly and Martin Iveson, was the one element of production that did not encounter problems, as recording was finished before the major content cuts happened. Scored using a full orchestra as opposed to the synthesised instruments of previous titles, it was performed by the [Symphony Orchestra](London)(London Symphony Orchestra).
For *Legend*, [Brun Folmann](Troels)(Troels Brun Folmann) composed the music and managed the sound effects. Alongside composing a large amount of music for the game, he created micro-scores for small segments within gameplay. Folmann returned to score *Anniversary*, doing re-orchestrations of the original score, along with expanding them. For *Underworld*, Folmann handled the main theme while [O'Malley](Colin)(Colin O'Malley) handled the rest of the soundtrack, which featured far less looping music than *Legend*. The 2013 reboot was scored by [Graves](Jason)(Jason Graves), who had become known through his work on the *[Space](Dead)(Dead Space (series))* franchise. Along with his orchestral style, he created a special instrument to create discordant sounds within the music, and musical elements from around the globe to represent the inhabitants of the game's island location. For *Rise of the Tomb Raider*, the composer was Bobby Tahouri, who had previously worked as assistant composer on video games and theatrical films. *Guardian of Light* used no original music, instead using extracts from the music of *Legend*, *Anniversary* and *Underworld*. The music for *Temple of Osiris* was written by Will Roget II, who had originally worked on licensed video games including *[Wars: The Old Republic](Star)(Star Wars: The Old Republic)*. *Temple of Osiris* was the first title in the *Lara Croft* subseries to have an original score, using Egyptian and Middle Eastern musical elements while creating a new main theme that could be used in future *Lara Croft* games.
## Technology
The first *Tomb Raider* used a custom-built game engine, as other equivalent engines available to Core Design at the time were not versatile enough to realise the team's vision. The engine was designed by Paul Douglas, who handled the game's [intelligence](artificial)(Artificial intelligence (video games)) (AI) and the three-dimensional (3D) graphics. The choice of a 3D game was influenced by the team's opinion that the game type was under-represented when compared to [shooter](first-person)(first-person shooter)s such as *[Doom](Doom (1993 video game))*. Its 3D style meant multiple elements were difficult to implement, including the AI and camera control. Another noted aspect was the multi-layered levels, as compared to equivalent 3D action-adventure games of the time which were limited to a flat-floor system. Lara's movements were hand-animated and coordinated rather than created using [capture](motion)(motion capture). The reason for this was that the team wanted uniformity in her movement, which was not possible with motion capture technology of the time. For *Tomb Raider II*, minor upgrades were made to the engine, with the main improvements being to the AI and smoothing out Lara's model. *Tomb Raider III* underwent major revisions, including rewrites to the graphics engine and improvements in the lighting and AI systems. The engine was given a major overhaul for *The Last Revelation*. The first five games make use of full-motion video cutscenes. For the first three games, they were primarily used as transitional periods depicting Lara moving from one level to another or one location to another. For *Chronicles*, fairly minor revisions were made.
For *The Angel of Darkness*, a new engine was built from scratch, but due to being unfamiliar and unused to the technology of the PS2, the team encountered multiple problems such as needing to remove areas and characters due to polygon restrictions. Due to the deadlines imposed, the team were forced to cut corners, meaning that the game reached store shelves in a poor condition. For *Legend*, the staff at Crystal Dynamics created a proprietary engine from the ground up, named the Crystal Engine. The engine and the game's content were developed in parallel, leading to scheduling and workload difficulties. *Anniversary* used the same engine as *Legend*. *Underworld* used a new engine built specifically for the game, although its basic codebase was shared with *Legend*. In *Underworld*, Lara's movements were animated using full motion capture, with Olympic gymnast Heidi Moneymaker providing the character's animations. For the 2013 reboot, a new engine called Foundation was created for the game. Motion capture was again used for this title. An updated version of the Foundation engine was used again for *Rise of the Tomb Raider*. For both games in the new reboot, Lara's hair movements were made more realistic using a technology called [TressFX](TressFX) in *Tomb Raider* and PureHair in *Rise of the Tomb Raider*. The Foundation engine remained in use for the third entry in the reboot series, *Shadow of the Tomb Raider*, and featured new graphical enhancements from developer [Eidos-Montréal](Eidos-Montréal).
## Cultural impact
Both the character of Lara Croft and the concepts behind the *Tomb Raider* franchise have evolved thematically and in popularity since the first game's release in 1996. The success of the game series led to several commercial tie-ins that further catapulted to cultural icon status, including feature spin-off games, feature films, and comics.
### Reception
Upon release, *Tomb Raider* became an unexpected success, reaching the top of sales charts and remaining for a time. It went on to sell over 7 million units worldwide. *Tomb Raider II* was a greater commercial success, with debut sales higher than the first game and total worldwide sales of 8 million units. Despite varying critical receptions, series sales continued to be strong until the release of *Chronicles*, which sold 1.5 million units. While *The Angel of Darkness* met with initial strong sales, it failed to meet expectations. Since the release of *Legend*, the series has picked up in sales and popularity. The 2013 [reboot](Tomb Raider (2013 video game)) sold 11 million units, becoming the most commercially successful *Tomb Raider* title to date. As of 2021, the series has sold over 85 million units worldwide. In addition to the games' success, the [film adaptation](2001)(Lara Croft: Tomb Raider) grossed $275 million, making it the highest-grossing video game adaptation until being overtaken in 2010 by *[of Persia: The Sands of Time](Prince)(Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (film))*. Additionally, the first *Tomb Raider* comic book issue was the best-selling comic book of 1999 and the 2001 film adaptation had the biggest opening weekend (US$47.7m) for an action film with a female lead since *[Aliens](Aliens (film))* in 1986.
Multiple video game journalists, including *[Gaming Monthly](Electronic)(Electronic Gaming Monthly)*s Crispin Boyer in 1997 and [Eurogamer](Eurogamer)'s Martyn Carroll in 2008, have cited the series as a pioneer in the medium, both laying the foundations for and popularising action-adventure and platforming games. Carrol credited the series for bringing video gaming out into the cultural mainstream. In a different article, Eurogamer cited *The Angel of Darkness* as a pioneer of mixing different video game genres. The public's reactions to the series over the years have conversely had a profound effect upon the series' direction and identity, as noted in a 2008 review of the series' history by *[Develop](Develop (magazine))*. In 2006, *Tomb Raider* was voted one of Britain's top 10 designs in the Great British Design Quest organised by the [BBC](BBC) and the [Museum](Design)(Design Museum). The game appeared in a list of British design icons which included [Concorde](Concorde), [Mini](Mini), [Wide Web](World)(World Wide Web), *[Theft Auto](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto)*, [telephone box](K2)(Red telephone box), [tube map](London)(Tube map), [Routemaster](AEC)(AEC Routemaster) bus, and the [Spitfire](Supermarine)(Supermarine Spitfire). In 2020, *Tomb Raider* featured on a [of UK postage stamps](series)(Great Britain commemorative stamps 2020–2029#2020) issued by the [Mail](Royal)(Royal Mail) to celebrate classic UK video games.
The character of Lara Croft has similarly enjoyed popularity, standing out during her initial appearance in the male-dominated video game market, and continuing to stand out throughout the series' history. After her debut in 1996, Lara Croft was featured on the front cover of British culture magazine *[Face](The)(The Face (magazine))*, a position previously held by real-life celebrities. She similarly was featured in Irish rock band [U2](U2)'s [Tour](PopMart)(PopMart Tour). The character was inducted onto the [of Game](Walk)(Walk of Game) in 2006, and earned multiple mentions in the *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)*: she was recognised as the "most successful human video game heroine" in 2006, and earned six awards in 2010. As part of the latter honours, *Guinness World Records* editor Gaz Deaves said that the character "epitomises all that's great about video gaming". In an article for [1UP.com](1UP.com), Jeremy Parish said that Lara's sex appeal was the main draw for early fans, a facet Eidos exploited for marketing and attempted to emulate in other products. He cited other writers' statements that her popularity stemmed from player empathy with her ability to survive tough situations, alongside contrasting against weaker female characters such as [Peach](Princess)(Princess Peach). However, alongside this praise, she has divided opinion as to her character design and consequent sexuality: she is both hailed as an empowering figure for women and a negative role model due to her hyper-sexualized and unrealistic appearance.
## References
Also known as *Ten Years of Tomb Raider: A GameTap Retrospective*
[Transcript](https://web.archive.org/web/20120220050716/http://www.laracroft.name/archive/97-12.php)
[Translation](http://www.tombraiderforums.com/showthread.php?t=82110)
}}
## Further reading
*
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Tomb Raider)
[game franchises](Category:Video)(Category:Video game franchises)
[video games by series](Category:Action-adventure)(Category:Action-adventure video games by series)
[based on video games](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels based on video games)
[Group franchises](Category:Embracer)(Category:Embracer Group franchises)
[games featuring female protagonists](Category:Video)(Category:Video games featuring female protagonists)
[games adapted into films](Category:Video)(Category:Video games adapted into films)
[games adapted into novels](Category:Video)(Category:Video games adapted into novels)
[games adapted into comics](Category:Video)(Category:Video games adapted into comics)
[games adapted into television shows](Category:Video)(Category:Video games adapted into television shows)
[game franchises introduced in 1996](Category:Video)(Category:Video game franchises introduced in 1996)
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River Phoenix
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river_phoenix
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# River Phoenix
*Revision ID: 1159530538 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T22:55:57Z*
---
| birth_place = [Oregon](Madras,)(Madras, Oregon), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| death_cause = [combined drug intoxication](Acute)(Combined drug intoxication)
| resting_place = Cremated; ashes scattered at family ranch in [Florida](Micanopy,)(Micanopy, Florida)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1982–1993
| spouse =
| mother = [Phoenix](Arlyn)(Arlyn Phoenix)
| father =
| relatives =
| module =
| genre =
| associated_acts = [Attic](Aleka's)(Aleka's Attic)
}}
}}
**River Jude Phoenix** (; August 23, 1970 – October 31, 1993) was an American actor and musician.
Phoenix grew up in an [itinerant](Wikt:itinerant) family, as the older brother of [Phoenix](Rain)(Rain Phoenix), [Phoenix](Joaquin)(Joaquin Phoenix), [Phoenix](Liberty)(Liberty Phoenix), and [Phoenix](Summer)(Summer Phoenix). He had no formal schooling, but showed an instinctive talent for the guitar. He began his acting career at age 10 in television commercials. He starred in the science fiction adventure film *[Explorers](Explorers (film))* (1985) and had his first notable role in 1986's *[by Me](Stand)(Stand by Me (film))*, a [coming-of-age](List of coming-of-age stories) film based on the novella *[Body](The)(The Body (King novella))* by [King](Stephen)(Stephen King). Phoenix made a transition into more adult-oriented roles with *[on Empty](Running)(Running on Empty (1988 film))* (1988), playing Danny Pope, the son of fugitive parents in a well-received performance that earned him a nomination for an [Award for Best Supporting Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor) (at age 18, he became the [sixth-youngest](List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Youngest nominees 4) nominee in the category), and *[Own Private Idaho](My)(My Own Private Idaho)* (1991), playing [Waters](Michael)(Mikey Waters), a gay [hustler](Male prostitution) in search of his estranged mother. For his performance in the latter, Phoenix garnered enormous praise and won a [Cup for Best Actor](Volpi)(Volpi Cup for Best Actor) at the [Venice Film Festival](1991)(48th Venice International Film Festival) as well as [Spirit Award for Best Male Lead](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead) and [Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor](National)(National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor), becoming the second-youngest winner of the former.
Phoenix died at age 23 from [drug intoxication](combined)(combined drug intoxication) in [Hollywood](West)(West Hollywood) in the early hours of [Halloween](Halloween), 1993, having overdosed on [cocaine](cocaine) and heroin (a mixture commonly known as [speedball](Speedball (drug))) at [Viper Room](The)(The Viper Room).
## Early life
Phoenix was born on August 23, 1970, in [Oregon](Madras,)(Madras, Oregon), the first child of [Dunetz](Arlyn)(Arlyn Sharon Dunetz) and John Lee Bottom. He has four younger siblings, [Rain](Rain Phoenix) (born 1972), [Joaquin](Joaquin Phoenix) (born 1974), [Liberty](Liberty Phoenix) (born 1976) and [Summer](Summer Phoenix) (born 1978), as well as a paternal half-sister, Jodean (born 1964). Phoenix's parents named him after the *river of life* from the [Hesse](Hermann)(Hermann Hesse) novel *[Siddhartha](Siddhartha (novel))*, and he received his middle name from [Beatles](the)(the Beatles)' song "[Jude](Hey)(Hey Jude)". In an interview with *[People](People (magazine))*, Phoenix described his parents as "[hippie](hippie)ish". His mother was born in New York to [Jewish](Jewish) parents whose families had emigrated from [Russia](History of the Jews in Russia) and [Hungary](History of the Jews in Hungary). His father was a [Catholic](lapsed)(lapsed Catholic) from [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California), of English, German, and French ancestry. In 1968, Phoenix's mother travelled across the United States. While hitchhiking in California she met John Lee Bottom. They married on September 13, 1969, less than a year after meeting.
Phoenix's family moved cross country when he was very young. Phoenix has stated that they lived in a "desperate situation." Phoenix often played guitar while he and his sister sang on street corners for money and food to support their ever-growing family. Phoenix never attended formal school. Screenwriter [Foner](Naomi)(Naomi Foner) later commented, "He was totally, totally without education. I mean, he could read and write, and he had an appetite for it, but he had no deep roots into any kind of sense of history or literature." [Sluizer](George)(George Sluizer) claimed Phoenix was [dyslexic](dyslexic).
### Children of God and child sexual abuse
In 1973, the family joined the religious organization known as the [of God](Children)(The Family International). His family settled in [Venezuela](Caracas,)(Caracas, Venezuela), where the Children of God had stationed them to work as missionaries and fruit gatherers. According to *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*, Phoenix was raped at the age of four. In an interview with *[Details](Details Magazine)* magazine in November 1991, Phoenix stated he lost his virginity at age four to other children while in the Children of God, but he had "blocked it out".["Gone Before 30: Stars Who Died Young"](https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=4174733&page=1) January 29, 2008. ABC News. Although Phoenix rarely talked about the cult, he was quoted in an article published in *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))* in 1994 as having said, "They're disgusting, they're ruining people's lives." In 2019, his brother [Joaquin](Joaquin Phoenix) would claim that River was joking, saying, "It was a complete and total joke. It was just fucking with the press. It was literally a joke, because he was so tired of being asked ridiculous questions by the press." Arlyn and John eventually grew disillusioned with the "Church" and left the cult in 1977. In the aforementioned interview with *Details* magazine, Phoenix said he was "completely celibate" between the ages of ten and fourteen.
## Acting career
### 1980–1985: Early work and acting background
Back in the United States, Arlyn began working as a secretary for an [NBC](NBC) broadcaster and John as an exteriors architect. Talent agent [Burton](Iris)(Iris Burton) spotted River, Joaquin, and their sisters Summer and Rain singing for spare change in [Los Angeles](Westwood,)(Westwood, Los Angeles), and was so charmed by the family that she soon represented the four siblings.
Phoenix started doing commercials for [Mitsubishi](Mitsubishi), [Spray](Ocean)(Ocean Spray (cooperative)), and [Fifth Avenue](Saks)(Saks Fifth Avenue), and soon afterward he and the other children were signed by [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) casting director [Marshall](Penny)(Penny Marshall). River and Rain were assigned immediately to a show called *Real Kids* as audience warm-up performers. In 1980, Phoenix began to fully pursue his career as an actor, making his first appearance on a TV show called *Fantasy* singing with his sister Rain. In 1982, Phoenix was cast in the short-lived CBS television series, *[Brides for Seven Brothers](Seven)(Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (TV series))*, in which he starred as youngest brother Guthrie McFadden. Phoenix arrived at the auditions with his guitar and promptly burst into a convincing [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) impersonation, charming the show producer. By this age, Phoenix was also an accomplished tap dancer.
Almost a year after *Seven Brides* ended in 1983, Phoenix found a new role in the 1984 television movie *Celebrity*, in which he played the part of young Jeffie Crawford. Although only onscreen for about ten minutes, his character was central. Less than a month after *Celebrity* came the *[Afterschool Special](ABC)(ABC Afterschool Special)*: *[The Riddle of Dyslexia](Backwards:)(Backwards: The Riddle of Dyslexia)*. Phoenix starred as a young boy who discovers he has [dyslexia](dyslexia). Joaquin starred in a small role alongside his brother. In September, the pilot episode of short-lived TV series ''[Your Move](It's)(It's Your Move)'' aired. Phoenix was cast as Brian and only had one line of dialogue. He also starred as [Kennedy's](Robert)(Robert F. Kennedy) son, [F. Kennedy Jr.](Robert)(Robert F. Kennedy Jr.), in the TV movie *[Kennedy and His Times](Robert)(Robert Kennedy and His Times)*. After his role in *Dyslexia* was critically acclaimed, Phoenix was almost immediately cast in a major role in made-for-TV movie *[A Family in Crisis](Surviving:)(Surviving: A Family in Crisis)*. He starred as Philip Brogan alongside [Ringwald](Molly)(Molly Ringwald) and [O'Rourke](Heather)(Heather O'Rourke). Halfway through the filming of *Surviving*, Iris Burton contacted him about a possible role in the film *[Explorers](Explorers (film))*.
In October 1984, Phoenix secured the role of geeky boy-scientist Wolfgang Müller in [Dante](Joe)(Joe Dante)'s big-budget science-fiction film *[Explorers](Explorers (film))* alongside [Hawke](Ethan)(Ethan Hawke), and production began soon after. Released in the summer of 1985, this was Phoenix's first major motion picture role. In October 1986, Phoenix co-starred alongside [Weld](Tuesday)(Tuesday Weld) and [Fitzgerald](Geraldine)(Geraldine Fitzgerald) in the acclaimed [CBS](CBS) television movie *[of Violence: A Family Drama](Circle)(Circle of Violence: A Family Drama)*, which told a story of domestic [abuse](elder)(elder abuse). This was Phoenix's last television role before achieving film stardom.
### 1986–1993: Critical success in *Stand by Me*, *Running on Empty*, *My Own Private Idaho*
[[File:River Phoenix and Martha Plimpton.jpg|thumb|left|Phoenix and [Plimpton](Martha)(Martha Plimpton) on the red carpet at the [Academy Awards](61st)(61st Academy Awards), March 1989|upright=1]]
Phoenix had a significant role in [Reiner](Rob)(Rob Reiner)'s popular coming-of-age film *[by Me](Stand)(Stand by Me (film))* (1986), which made him a household name at 16. Filming started on June 17, 1985, and ended in late August 1985, making Phoenix 14 for most (if not all) of the movie. *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* opined that Phoenix gave the film its "centre of gravity". Phoenix commented: "The truth is, I identified so much with the role of Chris Chambers that if I hadn't had my family to go back to after the shoot, I'd have probably had to see a psychiatrist." Later that year, Phoenix completed [Weir](Peter)(Peter Weir)'s *[Mosquito Coast](The)(The Mosquito Coast (film))* (1986), playing the son of [Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford) and [Mirren](Helen)(Helen Mirren)'s characters. "He was obviously going to be a movie star," observed Weir. "It's something apart from acting ability. [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier) never had what River had." During the five-month shoot in [Belize](Belize), Phoenix began a romance with co-star [Plimpton](Martha)(Martha Plimpton), a relationship which continued in some form for many years. Phoenix was surprised by the poor reception for the film, feeling more secure about his work in it than he had in *Stand by Me*.
Phoenix was next cast as the lead in the teen comedy-drama *[Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon](A)(A Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon)* (1988), but was disappointed with his performance: "It didn't turn out the way I thought it would, and I put the blame on myself. I wanted to do a comedy, and it was definitely a stretch, but I'm not sure I was even the right person for the role." Also in 1988, Phoenix starred in *[Nikita](Little)(Little Nikita)* alongside [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier). During this time, the Phoenix family continued to move on a regular basis, relocating over forty times by the time Phoenix was 18. Phoenix purchased his family a ranch in [Florida](Micanopy,)(Micanopy, Florida), near [Gainesville](Gainesville, Florida), in 1987, in addition to a spread in Costa Rica.
[[File:River Phoenix.jpg|thumb|150px|Phoenix at the [Academy Awards](61st)(61st Academy Awards)'s Governor's Ball, March 1989]]
His sixth feature film was [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet)'s *[on Empty](Running)(Running on Empty (1988 film))* (1988), for which the 18-year-old Phoenix received [Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor](National)(National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor) and nominations for a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture) and an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor), becoming the [sixth-youngest](List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Youngest nominees 4) Academy Award nominee in the category. Phoenix jumped to his feet during the ceremony when [Kline](Kevin)(Kevin Kline) beat him to the Oscar. "I had to stop River from running to hug Kevin," recalled his mother Arlyn. "It never crossed his mind that he hadn't won". In 1989, he portrayed a young [Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones) in the prologue of the box-office hit *[Jones and the Last Crusade](Indiana)(Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade)*, the third installment of the *[Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones)* franchise, directed by [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) and starring Harrison Ford.
Phoenix was photographed by [Weber](Bruce)(Bruce Weber (photographer)) for *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))* and was spokesperson for a campaign for [Gap](Gap Inc.) in 1990. He starred with Kevin Kline, [Ullman](Tracey)(Tracey Ullman), [Plowright](Joan)(Joan Plowright) and [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves) in the 1990 comedy film *[Love You to Death](I)(I Love You to Death)*. Phoenix had met Reeves while Reeves was filming the 1989 film *[Parenthood](Parenthood (1989 film))* with Phoenix's brother, [Joaquin](Joaquin Phoenix), and girlfriend, Martha Plimpton; however, Phoenix had reportedly auditioned for Bill in Reeves' then-current film ''[& Ted's Excellent Adventure](Bill)(Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure)'' before the role was taken by [Winter](Alex)(Alex Winter).
He co-starred with [Taylor](Lili)(Lili Taylor) in the acclaimed independent picture *[Dogfight](Dogfight (film))* (1991), directed by [Savoca](Nancy)(Nancy Savoca). In the romantic coming-of-age drama set in San Francisco, Phoenix portrayed a young U.S. Marine on the night before he is shipped off to Vietnam in November 1963. Taylor remarked that Phoenix suffered because he could not distance himself from his character: "He also hadn't gotten into any [drugs] – he was just drinking then, too. It was different ... That was actually a hard part for him, because it was so radically different from who he was. He was such a hippie, and here he was playing this marine. It actually caused him a lot of discomfort. I don't think he enjoyed that, actually, getting into that psyche."
[[File:River Phoenix Dan Aykroyd Sky Phoenix (aka G Siewierski)on the set of the Movie "Sneakers".jpg|thumb|left|River Phoenix, [Aykroyd](Dan)(Dan Aykroyd), and Sky Phoenix on the set of the movie *[Sneakers](Sneakers (1992 film))* in 1991]]
Phoenix reunited with Keanu Reeves to co-star in [Van Sant](Gus)(Gus Van Sant)'s 1991 avant-garde film *[Own Private Idaho](My)(My Own Private Idaho)*. In his review for *[Newsweek](Newsweek)*, David Ansen praised Phoenix's performance as gay hustler [Waters](Michael)(Mikey Waters): "The campfire scene in which Mike awkwardly declares his unrequited love for Scott is a marvel of delicacy. In this, and every scene, Phoenix immerses himself so deeply inside his character you almost forget you've seen him before: it's a stunningly sensitive performance, poignant and comic at once". He won the [Cup for Best Actor](Volpi)(Volpi Cup for Best Actor) at the [Venice Film Festival](1991)(48th Venice International Film Festival). In addition, the 21-year-old Phoenix received [Spirit Award for Best Male Lead](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead) and [Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor](National)(National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor), becoming the second-youngest winner of the former. His critically acclaimed performance helped bring [cinema](queer)(queer cinema) to a mainstream audience. The film and its success solidified his image as an actor with edgy, leading man potential. In that period, Phoenix was beginning to use [marijuana](marijuana), [cocaine](cocaine) and [heroin](heroin) with some friends.
Around this time, Phoenix was approached by [Lucas](George)(George Lucas) to reprise his role of a younger Indiana Jones for *[Young Indiana Jones Chronicles](The)(The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles)*, a spin-off television series produced by the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) that served as a prequel to the *Indiana Jones* films. However, Phoenix declined to reprise the role due to having started his career in different sitcoms and struggled hard to get out from the television medium, not being willing to return to it. The role of a younger Indy was eventually filled by [Carrier](Corey)(Corey Carrier) and [Patrick Flannery](Sean)(Sean Patrick Flannery) respectively.
He teamed up with [Redford](Robert)(Robert Redford) and again with Sidney Poitier for the conspiracy/espionage thriller *[Sneakers](Sneakers (1992 film))* (1992). A month later, he began production on [Shepard](Sam)(Sam Shepard)'s art-house ghost western *[Tongue](Silent)(Silent Tongue)* (which was released in 1994). He was beaten out for the role of Paul by [Pitt](Brad)(Brad Pitt) in *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))*. Phoenix then starred in [Bogdanovich](Peter)(Peter Bogdanovich)'s country music-themed film, *[Thing Called Love](The)(The Thing Called Love)* (1993), the last completed picture before his death. He began a relationship with co-star [Mathis](Samantha)(Samantha Mathis) on the set.
### Unreleased and unfilmed projects
Phoenix's sudden death prevented him from playing various roles:
*Phoenix was due to begin work on [Jordan](Neil)(Neil Jordan)'s *[with the Vampire](Interview)(Interview with the Vampire (film))* (1994) two weeks after his death. He was to play the part of [Molloy](Daniel)(Daniel Molloy), the interviewer, which then went to [Slater](Christian)(Christian Slater), who donated his entire $250,000 salary to two of Phoenix's favorite charitable organizations: Earth Save and Earth Trust.[Christian Slater](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Sb4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QdgEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4230,2278705&dq=christian+slater+river+phoenix+salary&hl=en). Gadsden Times. November 18, 1993 The film has a dedication to Phoenix after the end credits.
**[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* suggested in 2003 "it was likely that Phoenix would have followed *Interview with the Vampire* by appearing as [Sarandon](Susan)(Susan Sarandon)'s son in *[Passage](Safe)(Safe Passage (film))* (1994), a role that went to [Astin](Sean)(Sean Astin).
* Phoenix had signed onto the lead role in *Broken Dreams*, a screenplay written by [Boorman](John)(John Boorman) and [Jordan](Neil)(Neil Jordan) (to be directed by Boorman), and co-starring [Ryder](Winona)(Winona Ryder). The film was put on hold due to Phoenix's death. In June 2012, it was announced that [Landry Jones](Caleb)(Caleb Landry Jones) had been cast in the role.
* [Van Sant](Gus)(Gus Van Sant) had persuaded Phoenix to agree to play the role of [Jones](Cleve)(Cleve Jones) in *[Milk](Milk (2008 American film))* when he was originally planning on making the movie in the early 1990s. The role was eventually played by [Hirsch](Emile)(Emile Hirsch) in 2008.
* When Gus Van Sant was asked in *[Interview](Interview (magazine))* magazine, "You were going to do a movie with River about [Warhol](Andy)(Andy Warhol), right?", he said, "Yeah. River kind of looked like Andy in his younger days. But that project never really went forward." Only first page of four pages archived; *Milk* comment appears on non-archived page.
*In 1988, Phoenix was reportedly carrying around a copy of the 1978 memoir *[Basketball Diaries](The)(The Basketball Diaries (book))*. He had heard a movie version was in the works and wanted to play the autobiographical role of [Carroll](Jim)(Jim Carroll). The film was sent into hiatus on numerous occasions with Phoenix being cited as the main contender for the role each time. *[Basketball Diaries](The)(The Basketball Diaries (film))* was made in 1995 with 19-year-old [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) in the lead.
*He had expressed interest in playing the 19th-century poet [Rimbaud](Arthur)(Arthur Rimbaud) in *[Eclipse](Total)(Total Eclipse (film))* (1995) by Polish director [Holland](Agnieszka)(Agnieszka Holland). Phoenix died before the movie was cast, with the role eventually going to Leonardo DiCaprio.
*Phoenix was [Cameron](James)(James Cameron)'s original choice to play Jack Dawson in *[Titanic](Titanic (1997 film))* (1997), with the role ultimately going to Leonardo DiCaprio.
*[book](Comic)(Comic book) writer [Marrs](Lee)(Lee Marrs) claimed in a 2023 interview with the IndyCast podcast that [Ltd.](Lucasfilm)(Lucasfilm Ltd.) considered for a while to make a continuation to the *[Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones)* film series starring Phoenix as a younger Indy, being this the primary reason for which [Horse Comics](Dark)(Dark Horse Comics) hoped to keep running their [Jones* comic book line](*Indiana)(Indiana Jones (comics)). Phoenix's death in 1993 put an end to this option and Dark Horse cancelled their line a few years later, stopping the development of any *Indiana Jones* films until *[Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull](Indiana)(Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull)* came out in 2008.
## Music
[[Attic.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1|Phoenix (middle) with Aleka's Attic.](File:Aleka's)]
[[File:AlekasPixRivSkysYellowGuitar1.jpg|thumb|upright|Phoenix in 1991 playing with Aleka's Attic at [Cubby Bear](The)(The Cubby Bear).]]
Although Phoenix's movie career was generating most of the income for his family, it has been stated by close friends and relatives that his true passion was music. Phoenix was a singer, songwriter, and accomplished guitarist. He had begun teaching himself guitar at age five and had stated in an interview for *E!* in 1988 that his family's move to Los Angeles when he was nine was so that he and his sister "could become recording artists. I fell into commercials for financial reasons and acting became an attractive concept". Before securing an acting agent, Phoenix and his siblings tried to forge a career in music by playing cover versions on the streets of the Westwood district of LA, often being moved along by police because gathering crowds would obstruct the sidewalk. From the first fruits of his film success, Phoenix saved $650 to obtain his prized possession: a guitar with which he wrote what he described as "progressive, ethereal folk-rock".
While working on *[Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon](A)(A Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon)* in 1986, Phoenix had written and recorded a song, "Heart to Get", specifically for the end credits of the movie. 20th Century Fox cut it from the completed film, but director William Richert put it back into place for his director's cut some years later. It was during filming that Phoenix met [Blackwell](Chris)(Chris Blackwell) of [Records](Island)(Island Records); this meeting would later secure Phoenix a two-year development deal with the label. Phoenix disliked the idea of being a solo artist and relished collaboration; therefore he focused on putting together a band. [Attic](Aleka's)(Aleka's Attic) were formed in 1987 and the lineup included his sister Rain.
Phoenix was committed to gaining credibility by his own merit and maintained that the band would not use his name when securing performances that were not benefits for charitable organizations. Phoenix's first release was "Across the Way", co-written with bandmate Josh McKay, which was released in 1989 on a benefit album for [PETA](PETA) titled *Tame Yourself*. In 1991, Phoenix wrote and recorded a spoken word piece called "Curi Curi" for [Nascimento](Milton)(Milton Nascimento)'s album *TXAI*. Also in 1991, the Aleka's Attic track "Too Many Colors" was used in the film *[Own Private Idaho](My)(My Own Private Idaho)*, which included Phoenix in a starring role.
Aleka's Attic disbanded in 1992, but Phoenix continued writing and performing. While working on the film *[Thing Called Love](The)(The Thing Called Love)* in 1993, Phoenix wrote and recorded the song "[Star State of Mine](Lone)(Lone Star State of Mine)", which he performs in the movie. The song was not included on the film's soundtrack album. In 1996, the Aleka's Attic track "Note to a Friend" was released on the 1996 benefit album *In Defense of Animals; Volume II* and featured [Flea](Flea (musician)) of [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers) on bass. Phoenix had collaborated with friend [Frusciante](John)(John Frusciante) after his first departure from [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers) and the songs "Height Down" and "Well I've Been" were released on Frusciante's second solo album *[from the Streets You Hold](Smile)(Smile from the Streets You Hold)* in 1997. Phoenix was an investor in the original [of Blues](House)(House of Blues) (founded by his good friend and *[Sneakers](Sneakers (1992 film))* co-star [Aykroyd](Dan)(Dan Aykroyd)) in [Massachusetts](Cambridge,)(Cambridge, Massachusetts), which opened its doors to the public after serving a group of homeless people on Thanksgiving Day 1992.
## Activism
Phoenix was a dedicated [rights](animal)(animal rights) and [environmental](Environmental movement) activist. He was a [vegan](vegan) from the age of seven. He was a prominent spokesperson for [PETA](PETA) and won their Humanitarian Award in 1992 for his fund-raising efforts. His first girlfriend [Plimpton](Martha)(Martha Plimpton) recalled: "Once when we were fifteen, River and I went out for a fancy dinner in Manhattan, and I ordered soft-shell crabs. He left the restaurant and walked around on Park Avenue, crying. I went out and he said, 'I love you so much, why? ... ' He had such pain that I was eating an animal, that he hadn't impressed on me what was right."
In 1990, Phoenix wrote an environmental awareness essay about [Day](Earth)(Earth Day) targeted at his young fan base, which was printed in *[Seventeen](Seventeen (American magazine))* magazine. Seventeen, April 1990|website=www.aleka.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211042828/http://www.aleka.org/phoenix/zines/phoeni20.htm|archive-date=December 11, 2012|url-status=dead}} He financially aided a great many environmental and humanitarian organizations, and bought of endangered rainforest in [Rica](Costa)(Costa Rica). As well as giving speeches at rallies for various groups, Phoenix and his band often played environmental benefits for well-known charities as well as local ones in the [Florida](Gainesville,)(Gainesville, Florida) area.
He campaigned for [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) in the 1992 US presidential election.
## Personal life
In February 1986, during the filming of *[Mosquito Coast](The)(The Mosquito Coast (film))*, Phoenix began a romance with his co-star [Plimpton](Martha)(Martha Plimpton). They had met a year earlier but initially disliked one another. They also co-starred in the 1988 film *[on Empty](Running)(Running on Empty (1988 film))* before the relationship ended in June 1989 due to Phoenix's drug use. The two maintained a close friendship until his death. Plimpton later stated, "When we split up, a lot of it was that I had learned that screaming, fighting, and begging wasn't going to change him. He had to change himself, and he didn't want to yet."
A *[à clef](roman)(Roman a clef)* [*Pink*](Pink (Van Sant Novel)) by director [Van Sant](Gus)(Gus Van Sant) asserts that Phoenix was not a regular drug user but only an occasional one, and that the actor had a more serious problem with alcohol. Phoenix had always tried to hide his addictions because he feared that they might ruin his career as they did his relationship with Plimpton.Gus Van Sant, *Pink*, Faber & Faber, 1998,
For the last year of his life, in 1993, he dated his *[Thing Called Love](The)(The Thing Called Love)* co-star [Mathis](Samantha)(Samantha Mathis). Mathis was with Phoenix on the night he died.
## Death
[[File:Viper Room.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1|The [Room](Viper)(Viper Room) on [Strip](Sunset)(Sunset Strip) in Los Angeles, where Phoenix died.]]
In late October 1993, Phoenix had returned to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) after flying back from one week in New Mexico. Before that, he had spent six to seven weeks in Utah to complete the three weeks of interior shots left on his last project, *[Blood](Dark)(Dark Blood)*. The film was finally completed in 2012.
In his book *Running with Monsters* [Forrest](Bob)(Bob Forrest) wrote that Phoenix spent the days preceding his death on a drug binge with [Frusciante](John)(John Frusciante) from the [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers). Phoenix and John Frusciante were consuming cocaine and heroin and had not slept for several days.
On the evening of October 30, 1993, Phoenix arrived at [Viper Room](The)(The Viper Room), a Hollywood nightclub partly owned by [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp), with his girlfriend [Mathis](Samantha)(Samantha Mathis) and his brother [Joaquin](Joaquin Phoenix) and sister [Rain](Rain Phoenix). Phoenix was to perform with the band [P](P (band)). The band featured Phoenix's friends [Flea](Flea (musician)) and [Frusciante](John)(John Frusciante) from the [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers), [Haynes](Gibby)(Gibby Haynes) of the [Surfers](Butthole)(Butthole Surfers), [Jourgensen](Al)(Al Jourgensen) of [Ministry](Ministry (band)), and Depp.
According to [Forrest](Bob)(Bob Forrest), during the performance by P, Phoenix tapped him on the shoulder to tell him he was not feeling well and that he thought he had overdosed. Forrest said to Phoenix that he did not think that he was overdosing because he could stand and talk. Nonetheless, he offered to take Phoenix home, but the latter declined, saying he was feeling better. A few moments later, Forrest said that a commotion erupted in the club and he went outside to find Mathis screaming as her boyfriend was lying on the sidewalk having convulsions. Unable to determine whether Phoenix was breathing, Joaquin called 911. Rain proceeded to give Phoenix mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
According to Gibby Haynes, the band was performing their song "[Stipe](Michael)(Michael Stipe)" while Phoenix was outside the venue having seizures on the sidewalk. When the news filtered through the club, Flea left the stage and rushed outside. By that time, paramedics had arrived on the scene and found Phoenix turning [cyanotic](Cyanosis), suffering from cardiac arrest, and [asystolic](asystole). They administered medication in an attempt to restart his heart.
When the ambulance arrived, Phoenix was still alive, and Flea accompanied him to [Medical Center](Cedars-Sinai)(Cedars-Sinai Medical Center). Attempts to resuscitate Phoenix at the hospital were unsuccessful. He was pronounced dead at 1:51 a.m. PST on the morning of October 31, 1993, at the age of 23.
### Aftermath
Years later, Samantha Mathis said that during her relationship with Phoenix, she had known him to be sober. However, Mathis added that in the moments immediately prior to his death, she "knew something was going on". Mathis added, "I didn't see anyone doing drugs [night](that) but he was high in a way that made me feel uncomfortable". She added that "the heroin that killed him didn't happen until he was in the Viper Room". Mathis went to the restroom, and on her way back to the table, she saw Phoenix scuffling with another man. The bouncers removed both men from the club. Mathis shouted at the other man, "What have you done? What are you on?" Another person responded, "Leave him alone, you're spoiling his high." By that time, Phoenix had fallen to the ground and begun to convulse.
Following Phoenix's death, the club became a makeshift shrine, with fans and mourners leaving flowers, pictures and candles on the sidewalk, as well as graffiti messages on the walls of the venue. A sign was placed in the window that read, "With much respect and love to River and his family, The Viper Room is temporarily closed. Our heartfelt condolences to all his family, friends and loved ones. He will be missed." The club remained closed for a week. Depp continued to close the club every year on October 31 until selling his share in 2004.
The autopsy report, finalized on November 15, 1993, stated that there were "high concentrations of morphine and cocaine in the blood, as well as other substances in smaller concentrations." The cause of death was "acute multiple drug intoxication".
On November 24, 1993, Arlyn (who later changed her name to Heart) Phoenix published an open letter in the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* on her son's life and death. It read, in part:
}}
Before his death, Phoenix's image—one he bemoaned in interviews—had been squeaky-clean, owing in part to his public dedication to his various social, political, humanitarian, and dietary interests that were not always popular in the 1980s. As a result, his death elicited a vast amount of coverage from the media. Phoenix was described by one writer as "the vegan [Dean](James)(James Dean)", and comparisons were made regarding the youth and sudden deaths of both actors.
Phoenix was [cremated](Cremation) and his ashes were scattered at the family ranch in [Florida](Micanopy,)(Micanopy, Florida).
## Legacy
Actors who have credited Phoenix as a major influence as well as paving the way for them include [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio), [Leto](Jared)(Jared Leto), [Franco](James)(James Franco), and many more.
During his acceptance speech for Best Actor at the [Academy Awards](92nd)(92nd Academy Awards), Joaquin Phoenix honored his brother by stating "When he was 17, my brother [River] wrote this lyric. He said: 'run to the rescue with love and peace will follow. Joaquin and partner [Mara](Rooney)(Rooney Mara) named their son, River, after him.
### In culture and media
Phoenix's status as a teen idol and promising young actor, and his subsequent premature death, made him a frequent subject in popular culture media. He first gained references in music with Brazilian singer [Nascimento](Milton)(Milton Nascimento) writing the song "River Phoenix: Letter to a Young Actor" about him after having seen Phoenix in *The Mosquito Coast* (1986). The song appears on the 1989 release *Miltons*.
[Van Sant](Gus)(Gus Van Sant), with whom Phoenix worked in the film *[Own Private Idaho](My)(My Own Private Idaho)*, dedicated his 1993 movie *[Cowgirls Get the Blues](Even)(Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (film))* as well as his 1997 novel *Pink* to him. Experimental [Cruz](Santa)(Santa Cruz, California) filmmaker [Archer](Cam)(Cam Archer) also produced a documentary called *Drowning River Phoenix* as part of his American Fame series.
Phoenix was the subject of a controversial song by Australian group [TISM](TISM) titled "[Never Be An) Ol' Man River]((He'll)((He'll Never Be An) Ol' Man River)" the single originally featured a mock-up of Phoenix's tombstone as its cover art in 1995. The chorus features the line, "I'm on the drug that killed River Phoenix."
A lesser-known reference to River Phoenix was *[Fantasy VIII](Final)(Final Fantasy VIII)* main protagonist [Leonhart](Squall)(Squall Leonhart). [Nomura](Tetsuya)(Tetsuya Nomura), the lead character designer for the game, stated he modeled Squall on River's visage during development, and even gave Squall the same birthdate. The scene of Phoenix's death also merits several mentions in [Gibson](William)(William Gibson)'s book *[Country](Spook)(Spook Country)*.
Rapper [the Creator](Tyler,)(Tyler, the Creator) references Phoenix in his 2017's *[Boy](Flower)(Flower Boy)*, perceived by some critics as a kind of coming out album, as a [symbol](sex)(sex symbol). In the song "I Ain't Got Time", he writes in the first verses "Boy, I need a Kleenex. How I got this far? Boy, I can't believe it. That I got this car, so I take the scenic. Passenger a white boy, look like River Phoenix".
In July 2020, it was reported that Phoenix heavily influenced the forthcoming novel by British novelist [Mankowski](Guy)(Guy Mankowski), *Dead Rock Stars*, in which a character is named after him.
In "River", a song from *Tigerlily*, Natalie Merchant defends Phoenix as she castigates the media for systematically dissecting the child actor after his death.
[Carlisle](Belinda)(Belinda Carlisle)'s 1996 song "California" refers to Phoenix's death: "I remember I was in the tanning salon / When I heard that River Phoenix was gone / They say that only the good die young / But that ain't true where I come from / California, California."
### Honors and rankings
Phoenix has been ranked numerous times on a number of lists recognizing his talent and career. He was listed as one of twelve "Promising New Actors of 1986" in "John Willis' Screen World" (2004). Phoenix was voted at No. 64 on a "Greatest Movie Stars of All Time" poll by [4](Channel)(Channel 4) television in the UK. The poll was made up wholly of votes from prominent figures of the acting and directing communities. He was ranked No. 86 in *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* magazine's "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time" list in 1997.
His life and death has been the subject of an *[True Hollywood Story](E!)(E! True Hollywood Story)*, an *[Biography](A&E)(A&E Biography)* and an episode of *[24](Final)(Final 24)*, which contains a dramatic reconstruction of his final hours and death. He was also referred to as "This century's James Dean" in episode 10 ("Mi Casa, Su Casa Loma") of the first season of *[Erica](Being)(Being Erica)*. His death was listed as No. 16 in the top 101 events in [Television](E!)(E!)'s "101 Most Shocking Moments in Entertainment". In 2010, Phoenix was voted by *[GQ](GQ)* magazine as one of the "50 Most Stylish Men of the Past Half Century".
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Music videos
## See also
* [of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees – Youngest nominees for Best Actor in a Supporting Role](List)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Youngest nominees 4)
*[of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
*[of Jewish Academy Award winners and nominees](List)(List of Jewish Academy Award winners and nominees)
*[of animal rights advocates](List)(List of animal rights advocates)
*[of vegans](List)(List of vegans)
## References
## Further reading
*
*
* Holmstrom, John. *The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995''. Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996.
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1970)(Category:1970 births)
[deaths](Category:1993)(Category:1993 deaths)
[deaths in California](Category:Accidental)(Category:Accidental deaths in California)
[deaths in California](Category:Cocaine-related)(Category:Cocaine-related deaths in California)
[deaths in California](Category:Drug-related)(Category:Drug-related deaths in California)
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Jackson Pollock
|
jackson_pollock
|
# Jackson Pollock
*Revision ID: 1158050812 | Timestamp: 2023-06-01T17:28:31Z*
---
| birth_place = [Wyoming](Cody,)(Cody, Wyoming), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [New York](Springs,)(Springs, New York), U.S.
| spouse =
| known_for = [Painting](Painting)
| education = [Students League of New York](Art)(Art Students League of New York)
| movement = [expressionism](Abstract)(Abstract expressionism)
| signature = Jackson Pollock Signature.svg
| patrons = [Guggenheim](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim)
| notable works = * *[17A](Number)(Number 17A)* (1948)
* *[5, 1948](No.)(No. 5, 1948)* (1948)
* *[on Indian Red Ground](Mural)(Mural on Indian Red Ground)* (1950)
* *[Rhythm](Autumn)(Autumn Rhythm (Number 30))* (1950)
* *[Convergence](Convergence (Pollock))* (1952)
* [Poles* (*Number 11, 1952*)](*Blue)(Blue Poles) (1952)
* *[Deep](The)(The Deep (painting))* (1953)
}}
**Paul Jackson Pollock** (; January 28, 1912August 11, 1956) was an American painter. A major figure in the [expressionist](abstract)(abstract expressionism) movement, Pollock was widely noticed for his "[technique](drip)(Drip painting)" of pouring or splashing liquid household paint onto a horizontal surface, enabling him to view and paint his canvases from all angles. It was called [painting](all-over)(all-over painting) and [painting](action)(action painting), since he covered the entire canvas and used the force of his whole body to paint, often in a frenetic dancing style. This extreme form of abstraction divided the critics: some praised the immediacy of the creation, while others derided the random effects. In 2016, Pollock's painting titled *[17A](Number)(Number 17A)* was reported to have fetched US$200 million in a private purchase.
A reclusive and volatile personality, Pollock struggled with alcoholism for most of his life. In 1945, he married the artist [Krasner](Lee)(Lee Krasner), who became an important influence on his career and on his legacy. Pollock died at the age of 44 in an alcohol-related single-car collision when he was driving. In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a memorial [retrospective](retrospective) exhibition at the [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art) (MoMA) in New York City. A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967. In 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at the [Tate](tate Britain) in London.Horsley, Carter B., *Mud Pies, Jackson Pollock, Museum of Modern Art, November 1, 1998 to February 2, 1999, The Tate Gallery, London, March 11 to June 6, 1999*: ["While it is de rigueur to concentrate on the signature works that define an artist's 'style', it is very important to understand its evolution..."](http://www.thecityreview.com/pollock.html)
## Early life (1912–1936)
Paul Jackson Pollock was born in [Wyoming](Cody,)(Cody, Wyoming), in 1912, the youngest of five brothers. His parents, Stella May (née McClure) and LeRoy Pollock, were born and grew up in [Iowa](Tingley,)(Tingley, Iowa), and were educated at Tingley High School. Pollock's mother is interred at Tingley Cemetery, [County, Iowa](Ringgold)(Ringgold County, Iowa). His father had been born with the surname McCoy, but took the surname of his adoptive parents, neighbors who adopted him after his own parents had died within a year of each other. Stella and LeRoy Pollock were [Presbyterian](Presbyterianism); they were of [Irish](Irish people) and [Scots-Irish](Scotch-Irish American) descent, respectively. LeRoy Pollock was a farmer and later a land surveyor for the government, moving for different jobs. Stella, proud of her family's heritage as weavers, made and sold dresses as a teenager. In November 1912, Stella took her sons to San Diego; Jackson was just 10 months old and would never return to Cody. He subsequently grew up in [Arizona](Arizona) and [California](Chico,)(Chico, California).
While living in the [Square](Vermont)(Vermont Square, Los Angeles) neighborhood of Los Angeles, he enrolled at [Arts High School](Manual)(Manual Arts High School), from which he was expelled. He had already been expelled in 1928 from another high school. During his early life, Pollock explored [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) culture while on surveying trips with his father. He was also heavily influenced by [muralists](Mexican)(Mexican muralists), particularly [Clemente Orozco](José)(José Clemente Orozco), whose fresco *[Prometheus](Prometheus (Orozco))* he would later call "the greatest painting in North America".
In 1930, following his older brother [Pollock](Charles)(Charles Pollock), he moved to New York City, where they both studied under [Hart Benton](Thomas)(Thomas Hart Benton (painter)) at the [Students League](Art)(Art Students League of New York). Benton's rural American subject matter had little influence on Pollock's work, but his rhythmic use of paint and his fierce independence were more lasting. In the early 1930s, Pollock spent a summer touring the Western United States together with [Rounds](Glen)(Glen Rounds), a fellow art student, and Benton, their teacher.
## Career (1936–1954)
Pollock was introduced to the use of liquid paint in 1936 at an experimental workshop in New York City by the Mexican muralist [Alfaro Siqueiros](David)(David Alfaro Siqueiros). In the summer, he went to [College](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth College) to study [Clemente Orozco](Jose)(Jose Clemente Orozco)'s 3,200 square foot mural, “[Epic of American Civilization](The)(The Epic of American Civilization).” He later used paint pouring as one of several techniques on canvases of the early 1940s, such as *Male and Female* and *Composition with Pouring I*. After his move to [New York](Springs,)(Springs, New York), he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor and he developed what was later called his "[drip](drip painting)" technique.
From 1938 to 1942 Pollock worked for the [WPA](Works Progress Administration) [Art Project](Federal)(Federal Art Project). During this time Pollock was trying to deal with his established alcoholism; from 1938 through 1941 he underwent [psychotherapy](Jungian)(Jungian psychotherapy) with Dr. [L. Henderson](Joseph)(Joseph L. Henderson) and later with Dr. Violet Staub de Laszlo in 1941–42. Henderson engaged him through his art, encouraging Pollock to make drawings. Jungian concepts and archetypes were expressed in his paintings. Some historians have hypothesized that Pollock might have had [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder).
Pollock signed a gallery contract with [Guggenheim](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim) in July 1943. He received the commission to create the *[Mural](Mural (1943))* (1943) for the entry to her new townhouse. At the suggestion of her friend and advisor [Duchamp](Marcel)(Marcel Duchamp), Pollock painted the work on canvas, rather than the wall, so that it would be portable. After seeing the big mural, the art critic [Greenberg](Clement)(Clement Greenberg) wrote: "I took one look at it and I thought, 'Now that's great art,' and I knew Jackson was the greatest painter this country had produced."[Jackson Pollock, *Mural* (1943)](http://uima.uiowa.edu/mural/) [of Iowa Museum of Art](University)(University of Iowa Museum of Art), Iowa City. The catalog introducing his first exhibition described Pollock's talent as "volcanic. It has fire. It is unpredictable. It is undisciplined. It spills out of itself in a mineral prodigality, not yet crystallized."Sweeney, James Johnson, Catalog- Introduction- Pollock's First Exhibition, New York, 1943.
### Drip period
Pollock's most famous paintings were made during the "drip period" between 1947 and 1950. He became famous following an August 8, 1949, four-page spread in *[Life](Life (magazine))* magazine that asked, "Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?" Thanks to the mediation of [Ossorio](Alfonso)(Alfonso A. Ossorio), a close friend of Pollock, and the art historian [Tapié](Michel)(Michel Tapié), the young gallery owner [Facchetti](Paul)(Paul Facchetti), from March 7, 1952, managed to realize the first exhibition of Pollock's works from 1948 to 1951 in his Studio Paul Facchetti in Paris and in Europe.Documents and lists of works from the exhibition can be found in the Facchetti Archives with his son [Agosti](Jean-Paul)(Jean-Paul Agosti) and in the Kandinsky Library in the Archives of the [Pompidou](Centre)(Centre Pompidou), Paris. At the peak of his fame, Pollock abruptly abandoned the drip style. Pollock's drip paintings were influenced by the artist [Sobel](Janet)(Janet Sobel); the art critic Clement Greenberg would later report that Pollock "admitted" to him that Sobel's work "had made an impression on him."
Pollock's work after 1951 was darker in color, including a collection painted in black on unprimed [canvas](canvas)es. These paintings have been referred to as his "Black pourings" and when he exhibited them at the [Parsons Gallery](Betty)(Betty Parsons Gallery) in New York, none of them sold. Parsons later sold one to a friend at half the price. These works show Pollock attempting to find a balance between abstraction and depictions of [figure](the)(Figure painting).William Cook, ["Jackson Pollock's forgotten bleak masterpieces: The 30-year wait for 'black pourings' exhibition"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5BNv7H97g3SpczrK56dHngF/jackson-pollocks-forgotten-bleak-masterpieces-the-30-year-wait-for-black-pourings-exhibition), BBC — Arts, June 30, 2015. Retrieved July 8, 2015.
He later returned to using color and continued with figurative elements. During this period, Pollock had moved to the [Janis Gallery](Sidney)(Sidney Janis Gallery), a more commercial gallery; the demand for his work from collectors was great. In response to this pressure, along with personal frustration, his alcoholism deepened.["Downfall of Pollock"](http://www.jackson-pollock.com/downfall.html), Jackson Pollock website. Retrieved July 23, 2010.
## Relationship with Lee Krasner
The two artists met while they both exhibited at the McMillen Gallery in 1942. Krasner was unfamiliar yet intrigued with Pollock's work and went to his apartment, unannounced, to meet him following the gallery exhibition.Hobbs, Robert. Lee Krasner. New York: Abbeville Press, 1993. pg. 7 In October 1945, Pollock and [Krasner](Lee)(Lee Krasner) were married in a church with two witnesses present for the event.Rose, Barbara. "Krasner|Pollock: A Working Relationship". New York: Grey Art Gallery and Study Center, 1981. pg. 4 In November, they moved out of the city to the [Springs](Springs, New York) area of [Hampton](East)(East Hampton, New York) on the south shore of [Island](Long)(Long Island). With the help of a down-payment loan from Peggy Guggenheim, they bought a wood-frame house and barn at 830 Springs Fireplace Road. Pollock converted the barn into a studio. In that space, he perfected his big "drip" technique of working with paint, with which he would become permanently identified. When the couple found themselves free from work they enjoyed spending their time together cooking and baking, working on the house and garden, and entertaining friends.Rose, Barbara. "Krasner|Pollock: A Working Relationship". New York: Grey Art Gallery and Study Center, 1981. pg. 8.
[[File:Pollock-barn.jpg|thumb|right|Pollock's studio in [New York](Springs,)(Springs, New York)]]
Krasner's influence on her husband's art was something critics began to reassess by the latter half of the 1960s due to the rise of feminism at the time.Tucker, Marcia. "Lee Krasner: Large Paintings". New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1973. pg.7 Krasner's extensive knowledge and training in modern art and techniques helped her bring Pollock up to date with what contemporary art should be. Krasner is often considered to have tutored her husband in the tenets of modernistic painting.Rose, Barbara. "Krasner|Pollock: A Working Relationship". New York: Grey Art Gallery and Study Center, 1981. pg. 6 Pollock was then able to change his style to fit a more organized and cosmopolitan genre of modern art, and Krasner became the one judge he could trust.Berger, John. "Portraits: John Berger on Artists". London: Verso, 2015. pg. 369 At the beginning of the two artists' marriage, Pollock would trust his peers' opinions on what did or did not work in his pieces. Krasner was also responsible for introducing him to many collectors, critics, and artists, including [Matter](Herbert)(Herbert Matter), who would help further his career as an emerging artist.Landau, E.G., Cernuschi, C. "Pollock Matters". Boston: McMullen Museum of Art Boston College, 2007. pg. 19 Art dealer [Bernard Myers](John)(John Bernard Myers) once said "there would never have been a Jackson Pollock without a Lee Pollock", whereas fellow painter [Bultman](Fritz)(Fritz Bultman) referred to Pollock as Krasner's "creation, her Frankenstein", both men recognizing the immense influence Krasner had on Pollock's career.Chave, Anna. "Pollock and Krasner: Script and Postscript". The President and Fellows of Harvard College acting through the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 1993. Anthropology and Aesthetics, No. 24, pg. 95
Jackson Pollock's influence on his wife's artwork is often discussed by art historians. Many people thought that Krasner began to reproduce and reinterpret her husband's chaotic paint splatters in her own work.Wagner, Anne M. "Lee Krasner as L.K.", Representations, No. 25 (Winter, 1989): 42-57. PRINT. pg. 44 There are several accounts where Krasner intended to use her own intuition as a way to move towards Pollock's *I am nature* technique in order to reproduce nature in her art.Anne M Wagner. Three Artists (Three Women): Modernism and the Art of Hesse, Krasner, and O'Keeffe. (Berkeley: University of California, 1996.) p. 107
## Later years and death (1955–1956)
[[File:Pollock-green.jpg|thumb|right|Jackson Pollock's grave in the rear with Lee Krasner's grave in front in the [River Cemetery](Green)(Green River Cemetery)]]
In 1955, Pollock painted *Scent* and *Search*, his last two paintings.[Abstract Expressionism in 1955](http://www.warholstars.org/abstractexpressionism/timeline/abstractexpressionism55.html) . Retrieved August 28, 2009. He did not paint at all in 1956, but was making sculptures at [Smith](Tony)(Tony Smith (sculptor))'s home: constructions of wire, gauze, and plaster. Shaped by sand-casting, they have heavily textured surfaces similar to what Pollock often created in his paintings.["Jackson Pollock & Tony Smith: Sculpture, An Exhibition on the Centennial of their Births, September 7 - October 27, 2012"](http://www.matthewmarks.com/new-york/exhibitions/2012-09-07_jackson-pollock-and-tony-smith-sculpture/), [Marks Gallery](Matthew)(Matthew Marks Gallery), New York.
Pollock and Krasner's relationship began to crumble by 1956, owing to Pollock's continuing alcoholism and infidelity involving another artist, [Kligman](Ruth)(Ruth Kligman).Rose, Barbara. Lee Krasner: A Retrospective. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1983. pg. 95 On August 11, 1956, at 10:15 p.m., Pollock died in a single-car crash in his [Oldsmobile](Oldsmobile) convertible while driving under the influence of alcohol. At the time, Krasner was visiting friends in Europe; she abruptly returned on hearing the news from a friend. One of the passengers, Edith Metzger, was also killed in the accident, which occurred less than a mile from Pollock's home. The other passenger, Ruth Kligman, survived.[Kirk](Varnedoe,)(Kirk Varnedoe) and Karmel, Pepe, *Jackson Pollock: Essays, Chronology, and Bibliography*, Exhibition catalog, New York: [Museum of Modern Art](The)(The Museum of Modern Art), *Chronology*, p. 328, 1998, In December 1956, four months after his death, Pollock was given a memorial [retrospective](retrospective) exhibition at the [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art) (MoMA) in New York City. A larger, more comprehensive exhibition of his work was held there in 1967. In 1998 and 1999, his work was honored with large-scale retrospective exhibitions at MoMA and at [Tate](The)(tate Britain) in London.
For the rest of her life, his widow Lee Krasner managed his estate and ensured that Pollock's reputation remained strong despite changing art world trends. The couple are buried in [River Cemetery](Green)(Green River Cemetery) in Springs with a large boulder marking his grave and a smaller one marking hers.
In 2023, an unknown Pollock painting was reportedly discovered in Bulgaria after international police agencies were able to track down a group of international art smugglers. The painting is reportedly worth up to 50 million euros.
## Artistry
### Influence and technique
The work of [Hart Benton](Thomas)(Thomas Hart Benton (painter)), [Picasso](Pablo)(Pablo Picasso) and [Miró](Joan)(Joan Miró) influenced Pollock.
Pollock started using synthetic resin-based paints called [alkyd](alkyd) enamels, which at that time was a novel medium. Pollock described this use of household paints, instead of artist's paints, as "a natural growth out of a need". He used hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes as paint applicators. Pollock's technique of pouring and dripping paint is thought to be one of the origins of the term [painting](action)(action painting). With this technique, Pollock was able to achieve his own signature style [palimpsest](palimpsest) paintings, with paints flowing from his chosen tool onto the canvas. By defying the convention of painting on an upright surface, he added a new dimension by being able to view and apply paint to his canvases from all directions.
In 1936, Pollock participated in an experimental workshop run by the Mexican muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros. It was there that he first used liquid enamel paints, which he continued to incorporate in his paintings in the early to mid 1940s, long before he encountered the work of
the [American](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian American) artist [Sobel](Janet)(Janet Sobel) (1894–1968) (born Jennie Lechovsky). Peggy Guggenheim included Sobel's work in her *[Art of This Century Gallery](The)(The Art of This Century Gallery)* in 1945. Jackson Pollock and art critic [Greenberg](Clement)(Clement Greenberg) saw Sobel's work there in 1946 and later Greenberg noted that Sobel was "a direct influence on Jackson Pollock's drip painting technique". In his essay "American-Type Painting", Greenberg noted those works were the first of [painting](all-over)(all-over painting) he had seen, and said, "Pollock admitted that these pictures had made an impression on him".
While painting this way, Pollock moved away from figurative representation, and challenged the Western tradition of using easel and brush. He used the force of his whole body to paint, which was expressed on the large canvases. In 1956, *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine dubbed Pollock "Jack the Dripper" due to his painting style.
the painting.
I continue to get further away from the usual painter's tools such as easel, palette, brushes, etc. I prefer sticks, trowels, knives and dripping fluid paint or a heavy [impasto](impasto) with sand, broken glass or other foreign matter added.
When I am my painting, I'm not aware of what I'm doing. It is only after a sort of "get acquainted" period that I see what I have been about. I have no fear of making changes, destroying the image, etc., because the painting has a life of its own. I try to let it come through. It is only when I lose contact with the painting that the result is a mess. Otherwise there is pure harmony, an easy give and take, and the painting comes out well.
|author=Jackson Pollock|source=*My Painting*, 1947}}
Pollock observed [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) [sandpainting](sandpainting) demonstrations in the 1940s. Referring to his style of painting on the floor, Pollock stated, "I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk round it, work from the four sides and literally be in the painting. This is akin to the methods of the Indian sand painters of the West."Jackson Pollock, "My Painting", in *Pollock: Painting* (edited by Barbara Rose), New York: Agrinde Publications Ltd (1980), p. 65; originally published in *Possibilities* I, New York, Winter 1947-48 Other influences on his drip technique include the Mexican [mural](mural)ists and [Surrealist](Surrealist) automatism. Pollock denied reliance on "the accident"; he usually had an idea of how he wanted a particular work to appear. His technique combined the movement of his body, over which he had control, the viscous flow of paint, the force of gravity, and the absorption of paint into the canvas. It was a mixture of controllable and uncontrollable factors. Flinging, dripping, pouring, and spattering, he would move energetically around the canvas, almost as if in a dance, and would not stop until he saw what he wanted to see.
Austrian artist [Paalen](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Paalen)'s article on totem art of the indigenous people of British Columbia, in which the concept of space in totemist art is considered from an artist's point of view, influenced Pollock as well; Pollock owned a signed and dedicated copy of the Amerindian Number of Paalen's magazine (DYN 4–5, 1943). He had also seen Paalen's surrealist paintings in an exhibition in 1940."In Mexico City, he [Motherwell] visited Wolfgang Paalen whose show Baziotes and Jackson [Pollock] had seen at the Julien Levy Gallery the year before." Steven Naifeh, p. 414. Another strong influence must have been Paalen's surrealist *[fumage](fumage)* technique, which appealed to painters looking for new ways to depict what was called the "unseen" or the "possible". The technique was once demonstrated in Matta's workshop, about which Steven Naifeh reports, "Once, when Matta was demonstrating the Surrealist technique [Paalen's] Fumage, Jackson [Pollock] turned to (Peter) Busa and said in a stage whisper: 'I can do that without the smoke.Steven Naifeh, p. 427. Pollock's painter friend [Bultman](Fritz)(Fritz Bultman) even stated, "It was Wolfgang Paalen who started it all."Steven Naifeh, p. 534.
In 1950, [Namuth](Hans)(Hans Namuth), a young photographer, wanted to take pictures—both stills and moving—of Pollock at work. Pollock promised to start a new painting especially for the photographic session, but when Namuth arrived, Pollock apologized and told him the painting was finished.
[[File:Namuth - Pollock.jpg|thumb|Photographer [Namuth](Hans)(Hans Namuth) extensively documented Pollock's unique painting techniques]]
Namuth said that when he entered the studio:
### From naming to numbering
Continuing to evade the viewer's search for figurative elements in his paintings, Pollock abandoned titles and started numbering his works. He said about this, "[L]ook passively and try to receive what the painting has to offer and not bring a subject matter or preconceived idea of what they are to be looking for." His wife said, "He used to give his pictures conventional titles ... but now he simply numbers them. Numbers are neutral. They make people look at a picture for what it is—pure painting."
### Critical debate
Pollock's work has been the subject of important critical debates. Critic [Coates](Robert)(Robert Coates (critic)) once derided a number of Pollock's works as "mere unorganized explosions of random energy, and therefore meaningless".[Steven McElroy, "If It's So Easy, Why Don't You Try It"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/05/nyregion/05spotli.html), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, December 3, 2010. ''[News](Reynold's)(Reynold's News)'', in a 1959 headline, said, "This is not art—it's a joke in bad taste." French abstract painter [Hélion](Jean)(Jean Hélion), on the other hand, remarked on first seeing a Pollock, "It filled out space going on and on because it did not have a start or end to it."Gray Martin, Quote in Book One 'Breaking the Ice' of 'Jackson Pollock — Memories arrested in Space', Santa Monica Press, 2003, [Greenberg](Clement)(Clement Greenberg) supported Pollock's work on formalistic grounds. It fit well with Greenberg's view of art history as a progressive purification in form and elimination of historical content. He considered Pollock's work to be the best painting of its day and the culmination of the Western tradition via [Cubism](Cubism) and [Cézanne](Cézanne) to [Manet](Manet).
In a 1952 article in *ARTnews*, [Rosenberg](Harold)(Harold Rosenberg) coined the term "[painting](action)(action painting)" and wrote that "what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event. The big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation from value—political, aesthetic, moral." Many people assumed that he had modeled his "action painter" paradigm on Pollock.
The [for Cultural Freedom](Congress)(Congress for Cultural Freedom), an organization to promote American culture and values, backed by the [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA), sponsored exhibitions of Pollock's work. Some left-wing scholars, including [Cockcroft](Eva)(Eva Cockcroft), have argued that the United States government and wealthy elite embraced Pollock and abstract expressionism to place the United States in the forefront of global art and devalue [realism](socialist)(socialist realism).Saunders, F. S. (2000), *The Cultural Cold War. The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters*, New York: Free Press. Cockcroft wrote that Pollock became a "weapon of the [War](Cold)(Cold War)".Eva Cockcroft, "Abstract Expressionism, Weapon of the Cold War", *Artforum*, vol. 12, no. 10, June 1974, pp. 43–54.
Pollock described his art as "motion made visible memories, arrested in space".Text written by Pollock on the reverse of a photo of himself, taken in his studio, circa 1948/49
## Legacy
### Influence
Pollock's staining into raw canvas was adapted by the [Field](Color)(Color Field) painters [Frankenthaler](Helen)(Helen Frankenthaler) and [Louis](Morris)(Morris Louis). [Stella](Frank)(Frank Stella) made "all-over composition" a hallmark of his works of the 1960s. The [Happenings](Happenings) artist [Kaprow](Allan)(Allan Kaprow), sculptors [Serra](Richard)(Richard Serra) and [Hesse](Eva)(Eva Hesse), and many contemporary artists have retained Pollock's emphasis on the process of creation; they were influenced by his approach to the process, rather than the look of his work.
In 2004, *One: Number 31, 1950* was ranked the eighth-most influential piece of modern art in a poll of 500 artists, curators, critics, and dealers.
### In pop culture and media
In 1960, [Coleman](Ornette)(Ornette Coleman)'s album *[Jazz: A Collective Improvisation](Free)(Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation)* featured a Pollock painting, *White Light*, as its cover artwork.
In the early 1990s, three groups of movie makers were developing Pollock biographical projects, each based on a different source. The project that at first seemed most advanced was a joint venture between [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand)'s Barwood Films and [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro)'s [Productions](TriBeCa)(TriBeCa Productions) (De Niro's parents were friends of Krasner and Pollock). The script, by Christopher Cleveland, was to be based on [Potter](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Potter)'s 1985 oral biography, *To a Violent Grave*, a collection of reminiscences by Pollock's friends. Streisand was to play the role of Lee Krasner, and De Niro was to portray Pollock. A second was to be based on *Love Affair* (1974), a memoir by [Kligman](Ruth)(Ruth Kligman), who was Pollock's lover in the six months before his death. This was to be directed by [Becker](Harold)(Harold Becker), with [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino) playing Pollock.Carol Strickland (July 25, 1993), ["Race Is On to Portray Pollock"](https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/25/nyregion/race-is-on-to-portray-pollock.html), *The New York Times*.
In 2000, the biographical film *[Pollock](Pollock (film))*, based on the [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize)-winning biography, *[Pollock: An American Saga](Jackson)(Jackson Pollock: An American Saga)*, directed by and starring [Harris](Ed)(Ed Harris), was released. [Gay Harden](Marcia)(Marcia Gay Harden) won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for her portrayal of Lee Krasner. The movie was the project of Harris, who was nominated for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). Harris himself painted the works seen in the film.[Interview with Ed Harris](http://www.dvdtalk.com/interviews/actor_ed_harris.html) at DVDtalk The Pollock-Krasner Foundation did not authorize or collaborate with any production.
In September 2009, the art historian Henry Adams claimed in *[Smithsonian](Smithsonian (magazine))* magazine that Pollock had written his name in his famous painting *Mural* (1943).[smithsonianmag.com](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/Decoding-Jackson-Pollock.html) , Henry Adams, "Decoding Jackson Pollock", *Smithsonian Magazine*, September 2009. The painting is now insured for US$140 million. In 2011, the Republican Iowa State Representative [Raecker](Scott)(Scott Raecker) introduced a bill to force the sale of the artwork, held by the University of Iowa, to fund scholarships, but his bill created such controversy that it was quickly withdrawn.Michael Winter (February 9, 2011), ["Iowa lawmaker proposes selling Pollock masterpiece to fund scholarships"](http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/02/iowa-lawmaker-proposes-selling-pollock-masterpiece-to-fund-scholarships/1), *[Today](USA)(USA Today)*.
### Art market
In 1973, *[11, 1952](Number)(Number 11, 1952 (painting))* (also known as *Blue Poles*) was purchased by the Australian [Whitlam](Gough Whitlam) government for the [Gallery of Australia](National)(National Gallery of Australia) for US$2 million (A$1.3 million at the time of payment). At the time, this was the highest price ever paid for a modern painting. The painting is now one of the most popular exhibits in the gallery. It was a centerpiece of the [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)'s 1998 retrospective in New York, the first time the painting had been shown in America since its purchase.
In November 2006, Pollock's *[5, 1948](No.)(No. 5, 1948)* became the world's most expensive painting, when it was sold privately to an undisclosed buyer for the sum of US$140 million. Another artist record was established in 2004, when *No. 12* (1949), a medium-sized drip painting that had been shown in the United States Pavilion at the 1950 [Biennale](Venice)(Venice Biennale), fetched US$11.7 million at [Christie's](Christie's), New York.[Jackson Pollock, *No. 12* (1949)](http://www.christies.com/LotFinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=4288617) [Christie's](Christie's) New York, May 11, 2004. In 2012, *Number 28, 1951*, one of the artist's combinations of drip and brushwork in shades of silvery gray with red, yellow, and shots of blue and white, also sold at Christie's, New York, for US$20.5 million—US$23 million with fees—within its estimated range of US$20 million to US$30 million.Carol Vogel (May 8, 2012), ["Record Sales for a Rothko and Other Art at Christie's"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/09/arts/design/rothko-painting-sells-for-record-nearly-87-million-at-christies.html), *The New York Times*.
In 2013, Pollock's *Number 19* (1948) was sold by Christie's for a reported US$58,363,750 during an auction that ultimately reached US$495 million total sales in one night, which Christie's reports as a record to date as the most expensive auction of contemporary art.
In February 2016, Bloomberg News reported that [C. Griffin](Kenneth)(Kenneth C. Griffin) had purchased Jackson Pollock's 1948 painting *[17A](Number)(Number 17A)* for US$200 million, from [Geffen](David)(David Geffen)."Billionaire drops $500M for 2 masterpieces", February 19, 2016, Bloomberg News, as republished by Fox News, at [foxnews.com](http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/02/19/billionaire-drops-500m-for-2-masterpieces.html?intcmp=hpbt4).
## Authenticity issues
The Pollock-Krasner Authentication Board was created by the Pollock-Krasner Foundation in 1990 to evaluate newly found works for an upcoming supplement to the 1978 catalogue.Lesley M. M. Blume (September 2012), ["The Canvas and the Triangle"](http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2012/09/jackson-pollock-ruth-kligman-love-triangle), *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*. In the past, however, the Pollock-Krasner Foundation has declined to be involved in authentication cases.Randy Kennedy (May 29, 2005), ["Is This a Real Jackson Pollock?"](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/29/arts/design/29kenn.html), *The New York Times*.
In 2006, a documentary, *[the *$&% Is Jackson Pollock?](Who)(Who the *$&% Is Jackson Pollock?)*, was made concerning Teri Horton, a truck driver who bought an abstract painting for five dollars at a thrift store in California in 1992. This work may be a lost Pollock painting, but its authenticity is debated.
*Untitled 1950*, which the New York-based [Gallery](Knoedler)(Knoedler Gallery) had sold in 2007 for $17 million to Pierre Lagrange, a London hedge-fund multimillionaire, was subject to an authenticity suit before the [States District Court for the Southern District of New York](United)(United States District Court for the Southern District of New York). Done in the painter's classic drip-and-splash style and signed "J. Pollock", the modest-sized painting (15 by 28 1/2 in) was found to contain yellow paint pigments not commercially available until about 1970.Michael Shnayerson (May 2012), ["A Question of Provenance"](http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2012/05/knoedler-gallery-forgery-scandal-investigation), *Vanity Fair*. The suit was settled in a confidential agreement in 2012.Patricia Cohen (October 21, 2012), ["Lawsuits Claim Knoedler Made Huge Profits on Fakes"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/22/arts/design/knoedler-made-huge-profits-on-fake-rothko-lawsuit-claims.html), *The New York Times*.
### Fractal computer analysis
In 1999, physicist and artist Richard Taylor used [computer](computer) analysis to show similarities between Pollock's painted patterns and [fractal](fractal)s (patterns that recur on multiple size scales) found in natural scenery, reflecting Pollock's own words: "I am nature". His research team labelled Pollock's style [expressionism](fractal)(fractal expressionism).R.P. Taylor, "Order in Pollock's Chaos", *Scientific American*, vol. 287, 116–121 (2002)
In 2003, 24 Pollockesque paintings and drawings were found in a locker in [New York](Wainscott,)(Wainscott, New York). In 2005, The Pollock-Krasner Foundation requested a fractal analysis to be used for the first time in an authenticity dispute.J. Abbott, "In the Hands of a Master", *Nature*, vol. 439, 648–650 (2006).R.P. Taylor et al, "Authenticating Pollock Paintings Using Fractal Geometry", Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 28, 695–702 (2005).J. Rehmeyer, "Fractal or Fake?", ScienceNews, vol. 171, 122–123, (2007)K. Jones-Smith et al, "Fractal Analysis: Revisiting Pollock's Paintings" Nature, Brief Communication Arising, vol. 444, E9-10, (2006).R.P. Taylor et al, "Fractal Analysis: Revisiting Pollock's Paintings" Nature, Brief Communication Arising, vol. 444, E10-11, (2006) Researchers at the University of Oregon used the technique to identify differences between the patterns in the six disputed paintings analyzed and those in 14 established Pollocks. Pigment analysis of the paintings by researchers at [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) showed the presence in one painting of a synthetic pigment that was not patented until the 1980s, and materials in two others that were not available in Pollock's lifetime.Custer, Lee Ann W. (January 31, 2007), ["Pigment Could Undo Pollock"](http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2007/1/31/pigment-could-undo-pollock-a-sophisticated/), *The Harvard Crimson*.
In 2007, a traveling museum exhibition of the paintings was mounted and was accompanied by a comprehensive book, *Pollock Matters*, written by Ellen G. Landau, one of the four sitting scholars from the former Pollock Krasner Foundation authentication panel from the 1990s, and Claude Cernuschi, a scholar in Abstract Expressionism. In the book, Landau demonstrates the many connections between the family who owns the paintings and Jackson Pollock during his lifetime to place the paintings in what she believes to be their proper historic context. Landau also presents the forensic findings of Harvard University and presents possible explanations for the forensic inconsistencies that were found in three of the 24 paintings.Ellen G. Landau, Claude Cernuschi (2007). *Pollock Matters*. McMullen Museum of Art Boston College, published by the University of Chicago Press.Michael Miller (December 7, 2007). "Pollock Matters, The McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College, September 1–December 9, 2007". *The Berkshire Review, An International Journal for the Arts*. However, the scientist who invented one of the modern pigments dismissed the possibility that Pollock used this paint as being "unlikely to the point of fantasy".
Subsequently, over 10 scientific groups have performed fractal analysis on over 50 of Pollock's works.J.R. Mureika, C.C. Dyer, G.C. Cupchik, "Multifractal Structure in Nonrepresentational Art", *[Review E](Physical)(Physical Review E)*, vol. 72, 046101-1-15 (2005).C. Redies, J. Hasenstein and J. Denzler, "Fractal-Like Image Statistics in Visual Art: Similar to Natural Scenes", *Spatial Vision*, vol. 21, 137–148 (2007).S. Lee, S. Olsen and B. Gooch, "Simulating and Analyzing Jackson Pollock's Paintings" *Journal of Mathematics and the Arts*, vol.1, 73–83 (2007).J. Alvarez-Ramirez, C. Ibarra-Valdez, E. Rodriguez and L. Dagdug, "1/f-Noise Structure in Pollock's Drip Paintings", Physica A, vol. 387, 281–295 (2008).D.J. Graham and D.J. Field, "Variations in Intensity for Representative and Abstract Art, and for Art from Eastern and Western Hemispheres", *Perception*, vol. 37, 1341–1352 (2008).J. Alvarez-Ramirez, J. C. Echeverria, E. Rodriguez "Performance of a High-Dimensional R/S Analysis Method for Hurst Exponent Estimation", *Physica A*, vol. 387, 6452–6462 (2008).J. Coddington, J. Elton, D. Rockmore and Y. Wang, "Multi-fractal Analysis and Authentication of Jackson Pollock Paintings", Proceedings SPIE, vol. 6810, 68100F 1-12 (2008).M. Al-Ayyoub, M. T. Irfan and D.G. Stork, "Boosting Multi-Feature Visual Texture Classifiers for the Authentification of Jackson Pollock's Drip Paintings", SPIE proceedings on Computer Vision and Image Analysis of Art II, vol. 7869, 78690H (2009).J.R. Mureika and R.P. Taylor, "The Abstract Expressionists and Les Automatistes: multi-fractal depth", *Signal Processing*, vol. 93 573 (2013).L. Shamar, "What Makes a Pollock Pollock: A Machine Vision Approach", *International Journal of Arts and Technology*, vol. 8, 1–10, (2015). A 2015 study that used fractal analysis as one of its techniques achieved a 93% success rate distinguishing real from fake Pollocks.L. Shamar, "What Makes a Pollock Pollock: A Machine Vision Approach", *International Journal of Arts and Technology*, vol. 8, 1–10, (2015) Current research of Fractal Expressionism focuses on human response to viewing fractals. Cognitive neuroscientists have shown that Pollock's fractals induce the same stress-reduction in observers as [computer-generated](computer-generated imagery) fractals and naturally occurring fractals.R.P. Taylor, B. Spehar, P. Van Donkelaar and C.M. Hagerhall, "Perceptual and Physiological Responses to Jackson Pollock's Fractals", *Frontiers in Human Neuroscience*, vol. 5 1–13 (2011)R.P. Taylor et al, in *Fractal Geometry of the Brain*, Springer 2016
## Archives
Lee Krasner donated Pollock's papers to the [of American Art](Archives)(Archives of American Art) in 1983. They were later archived with her own papers. The Archives of American Art also houses the Charles Pollock papers, which include correspondence, photographs, and other files relating to his brother Jackson.
A separate organization, the [Foundation](Pollock-Krasner)(Pollock-Krasner Foundation), was established in 1985. The foundation functions as the official estate for both Pollock and his widow, but also under the terms of Krasner's will, serves "to assist individual working artists of merit with financial need". The U.S. copyright representative for the Pollock-Krasner Foundation is the [Rights Society](Artists)(Artists Rights Society).
The [House and Studio](Pollock-Krasner)(Pollock-Krasner House and Studio) is owned and administered by the Stony Brook Foundation, a nonprofit affiliate of [Brook University](Stony)(Stony Brook University). Regular tours of the house and studio occur from May through October.
## List of major works
[[File:Pollock-Krasner House studio floor.jpg|thumb|right|Pollock's studio-floor in [New York](Springs,)(Springs, New York), the visual result of being his primary painting surface from 1946 until 1953]]
* (1942) *Male and Female* [Museum of Art](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Museum of Art)
* (1942) *Stenographic Figure* [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)
* (1942) *The Moon Woman* [Guggenheim Collection](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim Collection)
* (1943) *[Mural](Mural (1943))* [of Iowa Museum of Art](University)(University of Iowa Museum of Art), given by [Guggenheim](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim)
* (1943) *The She-Wolf* [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)
* (1943) *Blue (Moby Dick)* [Museum of Art](Ohara)(Ohara Museum of Art)
* (1945) *Night Mist* [Museum of Art](Norton)(Norton Museum of Art)
* (1945) *Troubled Queen* [of Fine Arts, Boston](Museum)(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
* (1946) *Eyes in the Heat* [Guggenheim Collection](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim Collection), [Venice](Venice)
* (1946) *The Key* [Institute of Chicago](Art)(Art Institute of Chicago)
* (1946) *The Tea Cup* Collection [Burda](Frieder)(Frieder Burda)
* (1946) *Shimmering Substance*, from *The Sounds In The Grass* [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)
* (1947) *Portrait of H.M.* [of Iowa Museum of Art](University)(University of Iowa Museum of Art), given by [Guggenheim](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim).
* (1947) *Full Fathom Five* [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)
* (1947) *Cathedral* [Museum of Art](Dallas)(Dallas Museum of Art)
* (1947) *Enchanted Forest* [Guggenheim Collection](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim Collection)
* (1947) *Lucifer* The Anderson Collection at Stanford University
* (1947) *Sea Change* [Art Museum](Seattle)(Seattle Art Museum), given by [Guggenheim](Peggy)(Peggy Guggenheim)
* (1948) *Painting*
* (1948) *[5](Number)(Number 5 (painting))* (4 ft x 8 ft) Private collection
* (1948) *Number 8* [Museum at the State University of New York at Purchase](Neuburger)(Neuberger Museum of Art)
* (1948) *Number 13A: Arabesque* [University Art Gallery](Yale)(Yale University Art Gallery), New Haven, Connecticut
* (1948) *Composition (White, Black, Blue and Red on White)* [Orleans Museum of Art](New)(New Orleans Museum of Art)
* (1948) *Summertime: Number 9A* [Modern](Tate)(Tate Modern)
* (1948) "Number 19"
* (1949) *Number 1* [of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles](Museum)(Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles)
* (1949) *Number 3* [Museum and Sculpture Garden](Hirshhorn)(Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden), Washington, D.C.
* (1949) *Number 10* [of Fine Arts, Boston](Museum)(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
* (1949) *Number 11* [University Art Museum](Indiana)(Indiana University Art Museum) [Indiana](Bloomington,)(Bloomington, Indiana)
* (1950) *Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist)* [Gallery of Art](National)(National Gallery of Art)
* (1950) *[on Indian red ground](Mural)(Mural on Indian red ground), 1950* [Museum of Contemporary Art](Tehran)(Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art)
* (1950) *[Rhythm (Number 30)](Autumn)(Autumn Rhythm (Number 30)), 1950* [Museum of Art](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Museum of Art)
* (1950) *Number 29, 1950* [Gallery of Canada](National)(National Gallery of Canada)
* (1950) *Number 32*, [Nordrhein-Westfalen](Kunstsammlung)(Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen), Düsseldorf, BRD
* (1950) *[Number 31, 1950](One:)(One: Number 31, 1950)* [of Modern Art](Museum)(Museum of Modern Art)[*A Pollock Restored, a Mystery Revealed*](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/28/arts/design/jackson-pollocks-one-number-31-1950-restored-by-moma.html) May 27, 2013 NYT
* (1951) *Number 7* [Gallery of Art](National)(National Gallery of Art)
* (1951) *Black and White (Number 6)* [Francisco Museum of Modern Art](San)(San Francisco Museum of Modern Art)
* (1952) *Convergence* [Art Gallery](Albright-Knox)(Albright-Knox Art Gallery)
* (1952) *[Poles](Blue)(Blue Poles): No. 11, 1952* [Gallery of Australia](National)(National Gallery of Australia)
* (1952) *Number 12, 1952* [Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection](Governor)(Empire State Plaza#Art collection)
* (1953) *Portrait and a Dream* [Museum of Art](Dallas)(Dallas Museum of Art)
* (1953) *Easter and the Totem* [Museum of Modern Art](The)(The Museum of Modern Art)
* (1953) *Ocean Greyness* [R. Guggenheim Museum](Solomon)(Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum)
* (1953) *[Deep](The)(The Deep (painting))* [Georges Pompidou](Centre)(Centre Georges Pompidou)
## Tribute
On 28 January 2019, Google Doodle celebrated Jackson Pollock’s Birthday.
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*[mcah.columbia.edu](https://web.archive.org/web/20070609154221/http://www.mcah.columbia.edu/arthumanities/mov/arthum_pollock_studio.mov)
## External links
*[Exhibition-'Memories Arrested' 2012](http://www.aaa.si.edu/exhibitions/memories-arrested)
*[Pollock-Krasner House and Study Center](http://stonybrook.edu/pkhouse)
*[Pollock-Krasner Foundation](http://www.pkf.org)
*[Pollock and The Law](http://www.lawforart.com/pollock.html)
*[National Gallery of Art web feature, includes highlights of Pollock's career, numerous examples of his work, photographs and motion footage of Pollock, plus an in-depth discussion of his 1950 painting *Lavender Mist*](http://www.nga.gov/feature/pollock/index.htm)
*[*Blue Poles*](http://www.nga.gov.au/International/Catalogue/Detail.cfm?IRN=36334&MnuID=2&GalID=1) at the NGA
*[Fractal Expressionism](https://web.archive.org/web/20051224171704/http://materialscience.uoregon.edu/taylor/art/info.html#Recent_Publications) – the fractal qualities of Pollock's drip paintings.
*[Jackson Pollock Papers at the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art](http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/findingaids/polljack.htm)
*["Jackson Pollock, John Cage and William Burroughs"](http://www.moma.org/explore/multimedia/audios/197/2019), talk at MOMA
*[pictures of Pollock](https://web.archive.org/web/20120224235300/http://life.time.com/culture/jackson-pollock-rare-unpublished/#1), slideshow *Life Magazine*
*[by Jackson Pollock](Works)(wikilivres:Jackson Pollock) (public domain in Canada)
Museum links
*
*[The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation](https://guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/jackson-pollock)
*[Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), Los Angeles, California](https://collections.lacma.org/node/164912)
*[Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles, California](https://www.moca.org/artist/jackson-pollock)
*[Jackson Pollock](http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/collections/results.asp?searchType=simple&words=Pollock%2C+Jackson&ArtistE=on&Submit2=Search) at the [Museum](Israel)(Israel Museum), Jerusalem
[ ](Category:Jackson Pollock)
[painters](Category:Abstract)(Category:Abstract painters)
[abstract artists](Category:American)(Category:American abstract artists)
[expressionist artists](Category:Abstract)(Category:Abstract expressionist artists)
[American painters](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American painters)
[male painters](Category:American)(Category:American male painters)
[births](Category:1912)(Category:1912 births)
[deaths](Category:1956)(Category:1956 deaths)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scottish descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[people of Scotch-Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent)
[Students League of New York alumni](Category:Art)(Category:Art Students League of New York alumni)
[from California](Category:Painters)(Category:Painters from California)
[from New York City](Category:Painters)(Category:Painters from New York City)
[from Wyoming](Category:Artists)(Category:Artists from Wyoming)
[from Springs, New York](Category:People)(Category:People from Springs, New York)
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[Art Project artists](Category:Federal)(Category:Federal Art Project artists)
[deaths in New York (state)](Category:Alcohol-related)(Category:Alcohol-related deaths in New York (state))
[incident deaths in New York (state)](Category:Road)(Category:Road incident deaths in New York (state))
[at Green River Cemetery](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Green River Cemetery)
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Dartmouth College
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dartmouth_college
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# Dartmouth College
*Revision ID: 1160162042 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:27:35Z*
---
([Latin](Latin language) - A Biblical reference to John the Baptist in the New Testament)
| mottoeng = "A voice crying out in the wilderness"
| type = [Private](Private university) [university](research)(research university)
| established = [Sketches of the alumni of Dartmouth college](https://books.google.com/books?id=8r3mgJPY4twC&q=Earl%20of%20Dartmouth%20de%20lega&pg=PA108) , Page 108, The New Hampshire Repository, Volumes 1–2, William Cogswell, Publisher: Alfred Prescott, 1846
| academic_affiliations =
| accreditation = [NECHE](New England Commission of Higher Education)
| endowment = $8.5 billion (2021)As of October 11, 2021.
| president = [Beilock](Sian)(Sian Beilock)
| provost = David F. Kotz
| administrative_staff = 2,938 full time, 328 part time (fall 2018)
| faculty = 943 (fall 2018)
| students = 6,608 (fall 2019)
| undergrad = 4,459 (fall 2019)
| postgrad = 2,149 (fall 2019)
| city = [Hanover](Hanover, New Hampshire)
| state = [Hampshire](New)(New Hampshire)
| country = United States
| coordinates =
| campus = [Town](Remote)(college town)
| campus_size = (total)
| free_label2 = Newspaper
| free2 = *[Dartmouth](The)(The Dartmouth)*
| colors =
| athletics_nickname = [Green](Big)(Dartmouth Big Green)
| sporting_affiliations =
| website =
| logo = Dartmouth College logo.svg
| logo_upright = 1.1
| mascot = [the Keg](Keggy)(Keggy the Keg) (unofficial - no official mascot)
}}
**Dartmouth College** (; ) is a [private](Private university) [League](Ivy)(Ivy League) [university](research)(research university) in [New Hampshire](Hanover,)(Hanover, New Hampshire). Established in 1769 by [Wheelock](Eleazar)(Eleazar Wheelock), it is one of the nine [colleges](colonial)(colonial colleges) chartered before the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution). Although founded to educate [Americans](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) in [theology](Christian)(Christian theology) and the English way of life, the university primarily trained [Congregationalist](Congregationalism in the United States) ministers during its early history before it gradually secularized. It emerged from relative obscurity into national prominence at the turn of the 20th century, and was considered to be the most prestigious undergraduate college in the United States in the early 1900s. While Dartmouth is now a research university rather than simply an undergraduate college, it continues to go by "Dartmouth College" to emphasize its focus on undergraduate education.
Following a liberal arts curriculum, Dartmouth provides undergraduate instruction in 40 academic departments and [interdisciplinary](Interdisciplinarity) programs, including 60 [majors](Academic major) in the [humanities](humanities), [sciences](social)(social sciences), [science](natural)(natural science)s, and [engineering](engineering), and enables students to design specialized concentrations or engage in [degree](dual)(Double degree) programs. In addition to the undergraduate faculty of arts and sciences, Dartmouth has four professional and graduate schools: the [School of Medicine](Geisel)(Geisel School of Medicine), the [School of Engineering](Thayer)(Thayer School of Engineering), the [School of Business](Tuck)(Tuck School of Business), and the Guarini School of Graduate and Advanced Studies. The university also has affiliations with the [Medical Center](Dartmouth–Hitchcock)(Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center). Dartmouth is home to the [Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences](Rockefeller)(Nelson A. Rockefeller#Memorials), the [Museum of Art](Hood)(Hood Museum of Art), the John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding, and the [Center for the Arts](Hopkins)(Hopkins Center for the Arts). With a student enrollment of about 6,700, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League. Undergraduate admissions are highly selective with an acceptance rate of 6% for the class of 2027, including a 4.5% rate for regular decision applicants.
Situated on a terrace above the [River](Connecticut)(Connecticut River), Dartmouth's [campus](main)(Campus of Dartmouth College) is in the rural [Valley](Upper)(Connecticut River) region of [England](New)(New England). The university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms. Dartmouth is known for its strong undergraduate focus, [culture](Greek)(Dartmouth College Greek organizations), and wide array of enduring [traditions](campus)(Dartmouth College traditions). Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the [Division I](NCAA)(NCAA Division I).
Dartmouth is consistently cited as a leading university for undergraduate teaching by *[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)*."Dartmouth College is the best university for undergraduate teaching ... still. For the fifth year in a row, Dartmouth was named No. 1 in U.S. News & World Report's ranking of universities that offer the best undergraduate teaching."; "As shown by its high placement in annual *U.S. News & World Report* rankings, Dartmouth's commitment to undergraduate education is top-notch, the college offering unique academic and research opportunities for students during their course of study while achieving the highest levels of distinction in the discovery and transmission of knowledge and understanding. Besides [Princeton](Princeton University), Dartmouth truly lays claim to being America's preeminent undergraduate institution and the world's first "research college". In 2021, the [Classification of Institutions of Higher Education](Carnegie)(Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education) listed Dartmouth as the only majority-undergraduate, arts-and-sciences focused, doctoral university in the country that has "some graduate coexistence" and "very high research activity".
The university has many prominent [alumni](List of Dartmouth College alumni), including 170 members of the [Senate](U.S.)(United States Senate) and the [House of Representatives](U.S.)(United States House of Representatives), 24 [governors](U.S.)(Governor (United States)), 23 billionaires, 8 [Cabinet secretaries](U.S.)(Cabinet of the United States), 3 [Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) laureates, 2 [Supreme Court](U.S.)(Supreme Court of the United States) justices, and a [vice president](U.S.)(Vice President of the United States). Other notable alumni include 79 [Scholars](Rhodes)(Rhodes Scholarship), 26 [Scholarship](Marshall)(Marshall Scholarship) recipients, 13 [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) recipients, 10 CEOs of [500](*Fortune*)(Fortune 500) companies, and 51 [medalists](Olympic)(Lists of Olympic medalists).
## History
[[File:Eleazar Wheelock.jpg|thumb|left|[Wheelock](Eleazar)(Eleazar Wheelock), Dartmouth College founder]]
Dartmouth was founded by [Wheelock](Eleazar)(Eleazar Wheelock), a [Yale](Yale University) graduate and [Congregational](Congregational church) minister from [Connecticut](Windham,)(Windham, Connecticut), who had sought to establish a school to train [Americans](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) as Christian missionaries. It was one of the nine [colleges](colonial)(colonial colleges) chartered before the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution). Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with [Mohegan](Mohegan) Indian [Occom](Samson)(Samson Occom). Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747, and later moved to [Island](Long)(Long Island) to preach to the [Montauks](Montaukett).
Wheelock founded [Indian Charity School](Moor's)(Moor's Charity School) in 1755. The Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue school's operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money. The first major donation to the school was given by [Phillips](John)(John Phillips (educator)) in 1762, who would go on to found [Exeter Academy](Phillips)(Phillips Exeter Academy). Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches. With these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock. The head of the trust was a [Methodist](Methodist) named [Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth](William)(William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth).
[[File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-02 03 - Charter.jpg|thumb|upright|The Charter of Dartmouth College on display in [Memorial Library](Baker)(Baker Memorial Library). The charter was signed on December 13, 1769, on behalf of [III](George)(George III of the United Kingdom).]]
Although the fund provided Wheelock ample financial support for the Charity School, Wheelock initially had trouble recruiting Indians to the institution, primarily because its location was far from tribal territories. In seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the [of New Hampshire](Province)(Province of New Hampshire). The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources and secure a charter. The Royal Governor of New Hampshire, [Wentworth](John)(Sir John Wentworth, 1st Baronet), provided the land upon which Dartmouth would be built and on December 13, 1769, issued a [charter](royal)(royal charter) in the name of [George III](King)(King George III) establishing the College. That charter created a college "for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences and also of English Youth and any others". The reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable the use of the Charity School's unspent trust funds. Named for [Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth](William)(William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth) – an important supporter of Eleazar Wheelock's earlier efforts but who, in fact, opposed creation of the College and never donated to it – Dartmouth is the nation's ninth oldest college and the last institution of higher learning established under Colonial rule. The College granted its first degrees in 1771.
Given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites. Occom, disappointed with Wheelock's departure from the school's original goal of Indian [Christianization](Christianization), went on to form his own community of New England Indians called [Indians](Brothertown)(Brothertown Indians) in New York.
[[File:Early Dartmouth Dunham.jpg|thumb|left|The earliest known image of Dartmouth appeared in the February 1793 issue of *Massachusetts Magazine*. The engraving may also be the first visual proof of [cricket](cricket) being played in the United States.]]
In 1819, Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic [College case](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth College v. Woodward), which challenged [Hampshire](New)(New Hampshire)'s 1816 attempt to amend the college' charter to make the school a public university. An institution called [University](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth University) occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817, though the college continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby. [Webster](Daniel)(Daniel Webster), an [alumnus](alumnus) of the class of 1801, presented the College's case to the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States), which found the amendment of Dartmouth's charter to be an [impairment of a contract](illegal)(Contract Clause) by the state and reversed New Hampshire's takeover of the college. Webster concluded his [peroration](peroration) with the famous words: "It is, Sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it."
Dartmouth taught its first [African-American](African Americans) students in 1775 and 1808. By the end of the [War](Civil)(American Civil War), 20 black men had attended the college or its medical school. and Dartmouth "was recognized in the African-American community as a place where a man of color could go to get educated". One of them, [C. Gibbs](Jonathan)(Jonathan C. Gibbs), served as [of State](Secretary)(Secretary of state (U.S. state government)) and Superintendent of Public Instruction for the state of [Florida](Florida).
In 1866, the [Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts](New)(New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts) was incorporated in Hanover, in connection with Dartmouth College. The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth and was directed by Dartmouth's president. The new college was moved to [New Hampshire](Durham,)(Durham, New Hampshire), in 1891, and later became known as the [of New Hampshire](University)(University of New Hampshire).
Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the 20th century. Prior to this period, the college had clung to traditional methods of instruction and was relatively poorly funded. Under President [Jewett Tucker](William)(William Jewett Tucker) (1893–1909), Dartmouth underwent a major revitalization of facilities, faculty, and the student body, following large endowments such as the $10,000 given by Dartmouth alumnus and law professor [Ordronaux](John)(John Ordronaux (doctor)). 20 new structures replaced antiquated buildings, while the student body and faculty both expanded threefold. Tucker is often credited for having "refounded Dartmouth" and bringing it into national prestige. [[File:Dartmouth Hall.jpg|thumb|Lithograph of the President's House, Thornton Hall, [Hall](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Hall), and Wentworth Hall]]Presidents [Fox Nichols](Ernest)(Ernest Fox Nichols) (1909–16) and [Martin Hopkins](Ernest)(Ernest Martin Hopkins) (1916–45) continued Tucker's trend of modernization, further improving campus facilities and introducing [admissions](selective)(College admissions in the United States) in the 1920s. In 1945, Hopkins was subject to no small amount of controversy, as he openly admitted to Dartmouth's practice of using [quota](racial)(racial quota)s to deny Jews entry into the university.[F. Goldman, *The Crucial Decade: America, 1945–1955*](Eric)(iarchive:crucialdecadeame006464mbp), (New York: Knopf, 1956), p. 42: "...and Dartmouth's president, Ernest Hopkins, blandly explained that of course his college admitted only a quota of Jews." [Sloan Dickey](John)(John Sloan Dickey), serving as president from 1945 until 1970, strongly emphasized the liberal arts, particularly [policy](public)(public policy) and [relations](international)(international relations). During [War II](World)(World War II), Dartmouth was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the [Navy College Training Program](V-12)(V-12 Navy College Training Program) which offered students a path to a navy commission.
In 1970, longtime professor of [mathematics](mathematics) and [science](computer)(computer science) [George Kemeny](John)(John George Kemeny) became president of Dartmouth. Kemeny oversaw several major changes at the college. Dartmouth, which had been a men's institution, began admitting women as full-time students and undergraduate degree candidates in 1972 amid much controversy. At about the same time, the college adopted its "[Plan](Dartmouth)(#The Dartmouth Plan)" of academic scheduling, permitting the student body to increase in size within the existing facilities. In 1988, Dartmouth's alma mater song's lyrics changed from "Men of Dartmouth" to "Dear old Dartmouth".
During the 1990s, the college saw a major academic overhaul under President [O. Freedman](James)(James O. Freedman) and a controversial (and ultimately unsuccessful) 1999 initiative to encourage the school's single-sex Greek houses to go coed. The first decade of the 21st century saw the commencement of the $1.5 billion Campaign for the Dartmouth Experience, the largest capital fundraising campaign in the college's history, which surpassed $1 billion in 2008. The mid- and late first decade of the 21st century have also seen extensive campus construction, with the erection of two new housing complexes, full renovation of two dormitories, and a forthcoming dining hall, life sciences center, and visual arts center. In 2004, [Allen Hamilton](Booz)(Booz Allen Hamilton) selected Dartmouth College as a model of institutional endurance "whose record of endurance has had implications and benefits for all American organizations, both academic and commercial", citing *Dartmouth College v. Woodward* and Dartmouth's successful self-reinvention in the late 19th century.
[[College campus 2007-09-25 07 - Collis Center.JPG|thumb|left|College seal at the Collis Center](File:Dartmouth)]
Since the election of a number of petition-nominated trustees to the [of Trustees](Board)(Board of Trustees of Dartmouth College) starting in 2004, the role of alumni in Dartmouth governance has been the subject of ongoing conflict. President [Wright](James)(James Wright (historian)) announced his retirement in February 2008 and was replaced by Harvard University professor and physician [Yong Kim](Jim)(Jim Yong Kim) on July 1, 2009.
In May 2010 Dartmouth joined the [Network of Universities](Matariki)(Matariki Network of Universities) (MNU) together with [University](Durham)(Durham University) (UK), [University](Queen's)(Queen's University at Kingston) (Canada), [of Otago](University)(University of Otago) (New Zealand), [of Tübingen](University)(University of Tübingen) (Germany), [of Western Australia](University)(University of Western Australia) (Australia) and [University](Uppsala)(Uppsala University) (Sweden).
In early August 2019, Dartmouth College agreed to pay nine current and former students a total of $14 million to settle a [lawsuit](class-action)(Class action) alleging they were [harassed](sexually)(Sexual harassment) by three former [neuroscience](neuroscience) professors.
In 2019, Dartmouth College was elected to the [of American Universities](Association)(Association of American Universities) (AAU).
In April 2022, Dartmouth College returned the papers of [Occum](Sanson)(Samson Occom) (who helped Eleazar Wheelock secure the funds for Dartmouth College for what Occom believed would be a school for Native students in Connecticut) to the [Tribe](Mohegan)(Mohegan Tribe).
In November 2022, Dartmouth Hall was rededicated after a $42 million renovation. Fundraising for the project was led by over 1700 alumnae as part of the celebration of 50 years of coeducation at Dartmouth College.
## Academics
[[Memorial Library, Dartmouth College - DSC09058.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Baker Memorial Library](File:Baker)]
Dartmouth, a [arts](liberal)(Liberal arts education) institution, offers a four-year [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) and ABET-accredited [of Engineering](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Engineering) degree to undergraduate students. The college has 39 academic departments offering 56 [programs](major)(Academic major), while students are free to design special majors or engage in dual majors. For the graduating class of 2017, the most popular majors were economics, government, computer science, engineering sciences, and history. The Government Department, whose prominent professors include [Brooks](Stephen)(Stephen Brooks (academic)), [Muirhead](Russell)(Russell Muirhead), and [Wohlforth](William)(William Wohlforth), was ranked the top solely undergraduate political science program in the world by researchers at the [School of Economics](London)(London School of Economics) in 2003. The Economics Department, whose prominent professors include [Blanchflower](David)(David Blanchflower) and [Samwick](Andrew)(Andrew Samwick), also holds the distinction as the top-ranked bachelor's-only economics program in the world.
[[College campus 2007-10-20 09.JPG|thumb|left|upright|A view of East Campus from Baker Tower](File:Dartmouth)]
In order to graduate, a student must complete 35 total courses, eight to ten of which are typically part of a chosen major program. Other requirements for graduation include the completion of ten "distributive requirements" in a variety of academic fields, proficiency in a foreign language, and completion of a writing class and first-year seminar in writing. Many departments offer honors programs requiring students seeking that distinction to engage in "independent, sustained work", culminating in the production of a [thesis](thesis). In addition to the courses offered in Hanover, Dartmouth offers 57 different off-campus programs, including Foreign Study Programs, Language Study Abroad programs, and Exchange Programs.
[[File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Tuck School of Business.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.2|[School of Business](Tuck)(Tuck School of Business)]]
Through the Graduate Studies program, Dartmouth grants doctorate and master's degrees in 19 Arts & Sciences graduate programs. Although the first graduate degree, a PhD in classics, was awarded in 1885, many of the current PhD programs have only existed since the 1960s. Furthermore, Dartmouth is home to three professional schools: the [School of Medicine](Geisel)(Geisel School of Medicine) (established 1797), [School of Engineering](Thayer)(Thayer School of Engineering) (1867) — which also serves as the undergraduate department of engineering sciences — and [School of Business](Tuck)(Tuck School of Business) (1900). With these professional schools and graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of "Dartmouth University"; however, because of historical and nostalgic reasons (such as *Dartmouth College v. Woodward*), the school uses the name "Dartmouth College" to refer to the entire institution.
Dartmouth employs a total of 607 tenured or tenure-track faculty members, including the highest proportion of female tenured professors among the Ivy League universities, and [first black woman tenure-track faculty member in computer science at an Ivy League university](the)(Temiloluwa Prioleau). Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the [Workshop](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Workshop), the [Time Sharing System](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Time Sharing System), [BASIC](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth BASIC), and [ALGOL 30](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth ALGOL 30). In 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million.
Dartmouth served as the host member of the [Press of New England](University)(University Press of New England), a [press](university)(university press) founded in 1970 that included [University](Brandeis)(Brandeis University), [University](Tufts)(Tufts University), the [of New Hampshire](University)(University of New Hampshire), and [University](Northeastern)(Northeastern University). The University Press of New England shut down in 2018. With the exception of Dartmouth College Press titles, in 2021, Brandeis become the sole owner of all copyrights and titles of UPNE.
### Rankings
Dartmouth was ranked 12th among undergraduate programs at national universities by *[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)* in its 2022 rankings. *U.S. News* also ranked the school 3rd best for veterans, tied for 5th best in undergraduate teaching, and 7th for "best value" national universities. Dartmouth's undergraduate teaching was previously ranked 1st by *U.S. News* for five years in a row (2009–2013). Dartmouth News|url=https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2013/09/us-news-dartmouth-again-no-1-teaching-top-10-overall|access-date=July 2, 2020|website=news.dartmouth.edu|archive-date=July 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702101650/https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2013/09/us-news-dartmouth-again-no-1-teaching-top-10-overall|url-status=live}} Dartmouth College is [accredited](Higher education accreditation in the United States) by the [England Commission of Higher Education](New)(New England Commission of Higher Education).
In *[Forbes](Forbes)* 2019 rankings of 650 universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, Dartmouth ranked 10th overall and 10th in research universities. In the *Forbes* 2018 "grateful graduate" rankings, Dartmouth came in first for the second year in a row.
The 2021 [Ranking of World Universities](Academic)(Academic Ranking of World Universities) ranked Dartmouth among the 90–110th best universities in the nation. However, this specific ranking has drawn criticism from scholars for not adequately adjusting for the size of an institution, which leads to larger institutions ranking above smaller ones like Dartmouth.
The 2006 [Foundation](Carnegie)(Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching) classification listed Dartmouth as the only "majority-undergraduate", "arts-and-sciences focus[ed]", "research university" in the country that also had "some graduate coexistence" and "very high research activity".
### Admissions
|admit rate = Overall: 6.24%[ED](Early decision): 21.3%: 4.7%
|yield rate =
|SAT EBRW = 710–770
|SAT EBRW change =
|SAT Math = 730–790
|SAT Math change =
|ACT = 32–35
|ACT change =
|top decile = 95%
|top decile change =
|top quarter = 98.7%
|top quarter change =
|top half = 99.5%
|top half change =
|align=left
}}
Undergraduate admission to Dartmouth College is characterized by the Carnegie Foundation and *U.S. News & World Report* as "most selective". Carnegie Classification |url=http://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/srp.php?clq=%7B%22ugprfile2005_ids%22%3A%2214%22%7D |access-date=May 14, 2016 |archive-date=May 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527104955/https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/srp.php?clq=%7B%22ugprfile2005_ids%22%3A%2214%22%7D |url-status=live}} The *[Review](Princeton)(Princeton Review)*, in its 2018 edition, gave the university an admissions selectivity rating of 98 out of 99.
[[College campus 2007-06-23 McNutt Hall 01.JPG|thumb|left|McNutt Hall, home to the Dartmouth Office of Undergraduate Admissions](File:Dartmouth)]
For the freshman class entering Fall 2020, Dartmouth received 21,394 applications of which 1,881 were accepted for an 8.8% admissions rate. Of those admitted students who reported class rank, 96% ranked in the top decile of their class. The admitted students' academic profile showed an all-time high SAT average score of 1501, while the average composite ACT score remained at 33.
Additionally, for the 2016–2017 academic year, Dartmouth received 685 transfer applications of which 5.1% were accepted, with an average SAT composite score of 1490, average composite ACT score of 34, and average college GPA of about 3.85. Dartmouth meets 100% of students' demonstrated financial need in order to attend the College, and currently admits all students, including internationals, on a [basis](need-blind)(Need-blind admission).
### Financial aid
Dartmouth guarantees to meet 100% of the demonstrated need of every admitted student who applies for financial aid at the time of admission. Dartmouth is one of seven American universities to practice international need-blind admissions. Dartmouth |url=https://www.bowdoin.edu/news/2022/07/bowdoin-college-expands-need-blind-admissions-policy-to-include-international-students.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817071814/https://www.bowdoin.edu/news/2022/07/bowdoin-college-expands-need-blind-admissions-policy-to-include-international-students.html |archive-date=August 17, 2022 |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=Bowdoin News |language=en}} This means that all applicants, including U.S. permanent residents, undocumented students in the U.S., and international students, are admitted to the college without regard to their financial circumstances. At Dartmouth, free tuition is provided for students from families with total incomes of $125,000 or less and possessing typical assets. Dartmouth is also one of a few U.S. universities to eliminate undergraduate student loans and replace them with expanded scholarship grants. In 2015, $88.8 million in need-based scholarships were awarded to Dartmouth students.
The median family income of Dartmouth students is $200,400, with 58% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 14% from the bottom 60%.
However, a 2022 article from [Dartmouth](The)(The Dartmouth) disputes the college's claims by saying the following:
"To put it all together with the $9 million of student debt from the Class of 2021, this change in Dartmouth policy, hailed as "eliminat[ing] loans for undergraduate students" actually eliminated only about a quarter — 27.4% to be exact — of student loans for undergraduate students. So, while Dartmouth gets glowing coverage in news publications across the country, 72.6% of the debt it saddles its students with remains."
### The Dartmouth Plan
[[File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-11-06 Baker Memorial Library 08 - Tower Room.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1|Tower Room in [Memorial Library](Baker)(Baker Memorial Library)]]
Dartmouth functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week [term](academic)(academic term)s. The Dartmouth Plan (or simply "D-Plan") is an academic scheduling system that permits the customization of each student's academic year. All undergraduates are required to be in residence for the fall, winter, and spring terms of their freshman and senior years, as well as the summer term of their sophomore year. However, students may petition to alter this plan so that they may be off during their freshman, senior, or sophomore summer terms. During all terms, students are permitted to choose between studying on-campus, studying at an off-campus program, or taking a term off for vacation, outside internships, or research projects. The typical course load is three classes per term, and students will generally enroll in classes for 12 total terms over the course of their academic career.
The D-Plan was instituted in the early 1970s at the same time that Dartmouth began accepting female undergraduates. It was initially devised as a plan to increase the enrollment without enlarging campus accommodations, and has been described as "a way to put 4,000 students into 3,000 beds". Although new dormitories have been built since, the number of students has also increased and the D-Plan remains in effect. It was modified in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce the problems of lack of social and academic continuity.
### Board of trustees
[[File:Dartmouth Hall, Dartmouth College - general view.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|[Hall](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Hall) was reconstructed in 1906.]]
Dartmouth is governed by a board of trustees comprising the college president (*ex officio*), the [governor](state)(governor of New Hampshire) (*ex officio*), 13 trustees nominated and elected by the board (called "charter trustees"), and eight trustees nominated by alumni and elected by the board ("alumni trustees"). The nominees for alumni trustee are determined by a poll of the members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College, selecting from among names put forward by the Alumni Council or by alumni petition.
Although the board elected its members from the two sources of nominees in equal proportions between 1891 and 2007, the board decided in 2007 to add several new members, all charter trustees. In the controversy that followed the decision, the Association of Alumni filed a lawsuit, although it later withdrew the action. In 2008, the board added five new charter trustees.
## Campus
[[File:Dartmouth College 1885 American Architect.png|thumb|Drawing of Wilson Hall, Dartmouth's first library building, by architect [J. F. Thayer](Samuel)(Samuel J. F. Thayer) (1842–1893), which appeared in *American Architect and Building News* in March 1885.]]
Dartmouth College is situated in the rural town of [New Hampshire](Hanover,)(Hanover, New Hampshire), located in the Upper Valley along the [River](Connecticut)(Connecticut River) in [England](New)(New England). Its campus is centered on a "[Green](The Green (Dartmouth College))", a former field of [trees](pine)(pine) cleared in 1771. Dartmouth is the largest private landowner of the town of Hanover, and its total landholdings and facilities are worth an estimated $434 million. In addition to its campus in Hanover, Dartmouth owns of [Moosilauke](Mount)(Mount Moosilauke) in the [Mountains](White)(White Mountains (New Hampshire)) and a tract of land in northern New Hampshire known as the [College Grant](Second)(Second College Grant, New Hampshire).
[[Tree between Fahey Hall and Russell Sage building at Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH June 2011.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|American elm on Dartmouth College campus, June 2011](File:Elm)]
Dartmouth's campus buildings vary in age from Wentworth and Thornton Halls of the 1820s (the oldest surviving buildings constructed by the college) to new dormitories and mathematics facilities completed in 2006. Most of Dartmouth's buildings are designed in the [colonial architecture](Georgian)(Georgian architecture#Colonial Georgian architecture) style, a theme which has been preserved in recent architectural additions. The College has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus, earning it the grade of A- from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card 2008.
A notable feature of the Dartmouth campus is its many trees which (despite [elm disease](Dutch)(Dutch elm disease)) include some 200 [elms](American)(Ulmus americana). The campus also has the largest [coffeetree](Kentucky)(Kentucky coffeetree) in New Hampshire, at 91 ft tall.
While Dartmouth's campus is located in a rural setting, it is connected to several major cities by intercity bus services that directly serve Dartmouth and Hanover. [Coach](Dartmouth)(Concord Coach Lines) provides service from Hanover to [Station](South)(South Station) and [International Airport](Logan)(Logan International Airport) in [Boston](Boston) as well as [York City](New)(New York City), while [Lines](Greyhound)(Greyhound Lines) operates a daily route connecting Hanover and [Montreal](Montreal). All three cities are popular weekend/vacation destinations for Dartmouth students.
### Academic facilities
[[File:Hopkins Center for the Arts, Dartmouth College.jpg|upright|thumb|The [Center](Hopkins)(Hopkins Center for the Arts)]]
The college's creative and performing arts facility is the [Center for the Arts](Hopkins)(Hopkins Center for the Arts) ("the Hop"). Opened in 1962, the Hop houses the College's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty. The building was designed by the famed architect [Harrison](Wallace)(Wallace Harrison), who would later design the similar-looking façade of [Manhattan](Manhattan)'s [Opera House](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Opera) at [Center](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center). Its facilities include two theaters and one 900-seat auditorium. The Hop is also the location of all student mailboxes ("Hinman boxes") and the Courtyard Café dining facility. The Hop is connected to the [Museum of Art](Hood)(Hood Museum of Art), arguably North America's oldest museum in continuous operation, and the Loew Auditorium, where films are screened.
[[College campus 2007-06-23 Sherman Fairchild Physical Sciences Center.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Sherman Fairchild Physical Sciences Center](File:Dartmouth)]
In addition to its 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences, Dartmouth is home to three separate graduate schools. The [School of Medicine](Geisel)(Geisel School of Medicine) is located in a complex on the north side of campus and includes laboratories, classrooms, offices, and a biomedical library. The [Medical Center](Dartmouth–Hitchcock)(Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center), located several miles to the south in [New Hampshire](Lebanon,)(Lebanon, New Hampshire), contains a 396-bed [hospital](teaching)(teaching hospital) for the Medical School. The [School of Engineering](Thayer)(Thayer School of Engineering) and the [School of Business](Tuck)(Tuck School of Business) are both located at the end of Tuck Mall, west of the center of campus and near the Connecticut River. The Thayer School comprises two buildings; Tuck has seven academic and administrative buildings, as well as several common areas. The two graduate schools share a library, the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library. In December 2018, Dartmouth began a major expansion of the west end of campus by breaking ground on the $200 million Center for Engineering and Computer Science. The Center will house the Computer Science department and Magnuson Center for Entrepreneurship. In October 2019, construction began on the Irving Institute of Energy and Society. Both were completed by Spring 2022, and the Center for Engineering and Computer Science was renamed the Class of 1982 Engineering and Computer Science Center.
Dartmouth's libraries are all part of the collective Dartmouth College Library, which comprises 2.48 million volumes and 6 million total resources, including videos, maps, sound recordings, and photographs. Its specialized libraries include the Biomedical Libraries, Evans Map Room, Feldberg Business & Engineering Library, Jones Media Center, Rauner Special Collections Library, and Sherman Art Library. Baker-Berry Library is the main library at Dartmouth, consisting of a merger of the [Memorial Library](Baker)(Baker Memorial Library) (opened 1928) and the Berry Library (completed 2002). Located on the northern side of the Green, Baker's tower is an iconic symbol of the College.
### Athletic facilities
[[File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Memorial Field 02.JPG|thumb|[Field](Memorial)(Memorial Field (Dartmouth College))]]
Dartmouth's original sports field was [Green](the)(The Green (Dartmouth College)), where students played [cricket](cricket) and [division football](old)(old division football) during the 19th century. Today, two of Dartmouth's athletic facilities are located in the southeast corner of campus. The center of athletic life is the [Gymnasium](Alumni)(Alumni Gymnasium (Dartmouth College)), which includes the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool, a fitness center, a weight room, and a 1/13th-mile (123 m) indoor track. Attached to Alumni Gymnasium is the Berry Sports Center, which contains basketball and volleyball courts ([Arena](Leede)(Leede Arena)), as well as the Kresge Fitness Center. Behind the Alumni Gymnasium is [Field](Memorial)(Memorial Field (Dartmouth)), a 15,600-seat stadium overlooking Dartmouth's football field and track. The nearby [Arena](Thompson)(Thompson Arena), designed by Italian engineer [Luigi Nervi](Pier)(Pier Luigi Nervi) and constructed in 1975, houses Dartmouth's ice rink. Also visible from Memorial Field is the Nathaniel Leverone Fieldhouse, home to the indoor track. The new softball field, Dartmouth Softball Park, was constructed in 2012, sharing parking facilities with Thompson arena and replacing Sachem Field, located over a mile from campus, as the primary softball facility.
Dartmouth's other athletic facilities in Hanover include the Friends of Dartmouth Rowing Boathouse and the old rowing house storage facility (both located along the Connecticut River), the [Country Club](Hanover)(Hanover Country Club), Dartmouth's oldest remaining athletic facility (established in 1899), and the Corey Ford Rugby Clubhouse. The college also maintains the [Skiway](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Skiway), a skiing facility located over two mountains near the Hanover campus in [Center, New Hampshire](Lyme)(Lyme Center, New Hampshire), that serves as the winter practice grounds for the Dartmouth ski team, which is a perennial contender for the NCAA Division I championship.
Dartmouth's close association and involvement in the development of the [skiing](downhill)(downhill skiing) industry is featured in the 2010 book *[for Skiing](Passion)(Passion for Skiing)* as well as the 2013 documentary based on the book *[for Snow](Passion)(Passion for Snow)*.
### Residential housing and student life facilities
Beginning in the fall term of 2016, Dartmouth placed all undergraduate students in one of six House communities, similar to [college](residential)(residential college)s, including Allen House, East Wheelock House, North Park House, School House, South House, and West House, alongside independent Living Learning Communities. Dartmouth used to have nine residential communities located throughout campus, instead of ungrouped dormitories or [college](residential)(residential college)s. The dormitories varied in design from modern to traditional Georgian styles, and room arrangements range from singles to quads and apartment suites. Since 2006, the college has guaranteed housing for students during their freshman and sophomore years. More than 3,000 students elect to live in housing provided by college.
Campus meals are served by Dartmouth Dining Services, which operates 11 dining establishments around campus. The Class of 1953 Commons, commonly referred to as "Foco", is the all-you-can-eat dining hall, located at the center of campus. Dartmouth also operates à la carte cafes around campus (Collis Café, Courtyard Café, Novack Café, The Fern Coffee & Tea Bar, Ramekin, and Café@Baker), a convenience store (Collis Market), and 3 snack bars located in the Allen House Commons (also called the "Cube"), McLaughlin Cluster, and East Wheelock Cluster.
The Collis Center is the center of student life and programming, serving as what would be generically termed the "student union" or "campus center". It contains a café, study space, common areas, and a number of administrative departments, including the Academic Skills Center. Robinson Hall, next door to both the Collis Center and the Class of 1953 Commons, contains the offices of a number of student organizations, including the [Outing Club](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Outing Club) and *[Dartmouth](The)(The Dartmouth)* daily newspaper.
#### House communities
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Lord Hall.JPG|Lord Hall, Allen House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Morton Hall 01.JPG|Morton Hall, East Wheelock House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Woodward Hall 02.JPG|Woodward Hall, North Park House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Mid Massachusetts Hall 02.JPG|Mid Massachusetts Hall, School House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Topliff Hall 03.JPG|Topliff Hall, South House
File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-21 03 - Russell Sage Hall.JPG|Russell Sage Hall, West House
## Student life
Dartmouth's [Government](Student)(Student Government) represents students on issues related to student life. Annually, students elect a [body president](student)(Student-body president), vice president, and undergraduate senate to represent them in the following academic year. In 2006, *[Princeton Review](The)(The Princeton Review)* ranked Dartmouth third in its "Quality of Life" category, and sixth for having the "Happiest Students". Athletics and participation in the Greek system are the most popular campus activities. In all, Dartmouth offers more than 350 organizations, teams, and sports. The school is also home to a variety of longstanding traditions and celebrations and has a loyal alumni network; Dartmouth ranked #2 in "The Princeton Review" in 2006 for Best Alumni Network.
In 2014, Dartmouth College was the third highest in the nation in "total of reports of rape" on their main campus, with 42 reports of rape. [*Washington Post*](The)(The Washington Post) attributed the high number of rape reports to the fact that a growing number of sexual assault victims feel comfortable enough to report sexual assaults that would have gone unreported in previous years. In 2015, the Huffington Post reported that Dartmouth had the highest rate of bystander intervention of any college surveyed, with 57.7% of Dartmouth students reporting that they would take some sort of action if they saw someone acting in a "sexually violent or harassing manner," compared to 45.5% of students nationally.
Dartmouth fraternities have an extensive history of [hazing](hazing) and [abuse](alcohol)(alcohol abuse), leading to police raids and accusations of [harassment](sexual)(sexual harassment).Janet Reitman, ["Confessions of an Ivy League Frat Boy: Inside Dartmouth's Hazing Abuses"](https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/news/confessions-of-an-ivy-league-frat-boy-inside-dartmouths-hazing-abuses-20120328?print=true) , *Rolling Stone*, April 12, 2012Richard Perez-Pena, ["Dartmouth in the Glare of Scrutiny on Drinking"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/02/education/dartmouth-in-the-glare-of-scrutiny-on-drinking.html) , *New York Times*, October 2, 2013
### Student groups
[[File:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-03 Robinson Hall.JPG|thumb|left|Robinson Hall houses many of the College's student-run organizations, including the [Outing Club](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Outing Club). The building is a designated stop along the [Trail](Appalachian)(Appalachian Trail).]]
[[File:Dartmouth AXA.jpg|thumb|right|Dartmouth [Chi Alpha](Alpha)(Alpha Chi Alpha) fraternity house]]
Dartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests. In 2007, the college hosted eight academic groups, 17 cultural groups, two honor societies, 30 "issue-oriented" groups, 25 performing groups, 12 pre-professional groups, 20 publications, and 11 recreational groups. Notable student groups include the nation's largest and oldest collegiate outdoors club, the [Outing Club](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Outing Club), which includes the nationally recognized [Green Bus](Big)(The Big Green Bus); the campus's oldest a cappella group, [Dartmouth Aires](The)(The Dartmouth Aires); the controversial independent newspaper *[Dartmouth Review](The)(The Dartmouth Review)*; Dartmouth Student Government, the college's official undergraduate [government](student)(Student Government);, and *[Dartmouth](The)(The Dartmouth)*, arguably the nation's oldest university newspaper. *The Dartmouth* describes itself as "America's Oldest College Newspaper, Founded 1799".
Partially because of Dartmouth's rural, isolated location, the [system](Greek)(fraternities and sororities in North America) dating from the 1840s is one of the most popular social outlets for students. Dartmouth is home to 32 recognized Greek houses: 17 fraternities, 12 sororities, and three coeducational organizations. In 2007, roughly 70% of eligible students belonged to a Greek organization; since 1987, students have not been permitted to join Greek organizations until their sophomore year. Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to [desegregate](desegregate) fraternity houses, doing so in the 1950s, and was involved in the movement to create [coeducational](coeducational) Greek houses in the 1970s. In the early first decade of the 21st century, campus-wide debate focused on a Board of Trustees recommendation that Greek organizations become "substantially coeducational"; this attempt to change the Greek system eventually failed.
Dartmouth also has a number of secret societies, which are student- and alumni-led organizations often focused on preserving the history of the college and initiating service projects. Most prominent among them is the [society](Sphinx)(Sphinx (senior society)), housed in a prominent Egyptian tomb-like building near the center of campus. The Sphinx has been the subject of numerous rumors as to its facilities, practices, and membership.
The college has an additional classification of social/residential organizations known as [societies](undergraduate)(Dartmouth College student groups#Undergraduate societies).
### Athletics
[[File:Dartmouth vs Princeton ice hockey 1, 2007.jpg|thumb|left|A Dartmouth varsity hockey game against Princeton at [Arena](Thompson)(Thompson Arena)]]
Approximately 20% of students participate in a varsity sport, and nearly 80% participate in some form of club, varsity, intramural, or other athletics. In 2021, Dartmouth College fielded 33 intercollegiate varsity teams: 15 for men, 17 for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs. Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the [Division I](NCAA)(NCAA Division I) eight-member [League](Ivy)(Ivy League) conference; some teams also participate in the [College Athletic Conference](Eastern)(Eastern College Athletic Conference) (ECAC). As is mandatory for the members of the Ivy League, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships. In addition to the traditional American team sports (football, basketball, baseball, and ice hockey), Dartmouth competes at the varsity level in many other sports including track and field, softball, squash, sailing, tennis, rowing, soccer, skiing, and lacrosse.
[[College Big Green logo.svg|125px|right](File:Dartmouth)]
The college also offers 26 club and intramural sports such as fencing, rugby, water polo, figure skating, boxing, volleyball, ultimate frisbee, and cricket, leading to a 75% participation rate in athletics among the undergraduate student body. The Dartmouth Fencing Team, despite being entirely self-coached, won the [USACFC](USACFC) club national championship in 2014. The Dartmouth Men's Rugby Team, founded in 1951, has been ranked among the best collegiate teams in that sport, winning for example the [Rugby Conference](Ivy)(Ivy Rugby Conference) every year between 2008 and 2020. The figure skating team won the national championship five straight times from 2004 through 2008. In addition to the academic requirements for graduation, Dartmouth requires every undergraduate to complete a swim and three terms of [education](physical)(physical education).
### Native Americans at Dartmouth
[[Dartmouth Powwow (7210510954).jpg|thumb|right|The 40th Dartmouth Powwow](File:40th)]
The charter of Dartmouth College, granted to Wheelock in 1769, proclaims that the institution was created "for the education and instruction of Youth of the [Tribes](Indian)(Native Americans in the United States) in this Land in reading, writing and all parts of Learning ... as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences; and also of English Youth and any others". However, Wheelock primarily intended the college to educate white youth, and the few Native students that attended Dartmouth experienced much difficulty in an institution ostensibly dedicated to their education. The funds for the Charity School for Native Americans that preceded Dartmouth College were raised primarily by the efforts of a Mohegan named Samson Occom, and at least some of those funds were used to help found the college.
The college graduated only 19 Native Americans during its first 200 years. In 1970, the college established Native American academic and social programs as part of a "new dedication to increasing Native American enrollment". Since then, Dartmouth has graduated over 700 Native American students from over 200 different tribes, more than the other seven Ivy League universities combined.
### Traditions
Dartmouth is well known for its fierce school spirit and many traditions. The college functions on a [system](quarter)(Academic term), and one weekend each term is set aside as a traditional celebratory event, known on campus as "big weekends" or "party weekends". In the fall term, Homecoming (officially called Dartmouth Night) is marked by a [bonfire](bonfire) on the Green constructed by the freshman class. Winter term is celebrated by Winter Carnival, a tradition started in 1911 by the Dartmouth Outing Club to promote winter sports. This tradition is the oldest in the United States, and subsequently went on to catch on at other New England colleges. News Bates College|url = https://www.bates.edu/news/1997/01/13/winter-carnival-1997/|website = www.bates.edu|access-date = February 7, 2016|date = January 13, 1997|archive-date = February 15, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160215154401/https://www.bates.edu/news/1997/01/13/winter-carnival-1997/|url-status = live}} In the spring, Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration.
The summer term was formerly marked by Tubestock, an unofficial tradition in which the students used wooden rafts and inner tubes to float on the Connecticut River. Begun in 1986, Tubestock was ended in 2006 by town ordinance. The Class of 2008, during their summer term on campus in 2006, replaced the defunct Tubestock with Fieldstock. This new celebration includes a barbecue, live music, and the revival of the 1970s and 1980s tradition of racing homemade chariots around the Green. Unlike Tubestock, Fieldstock is funded and supported by the College.
Another longstanding tradition is four-day, student-run First-Year Trips for incoming freshmen, begun in 1935. Each trip concludes at the [Ravine Lodge](Moosilauke)(Moosilauke Ravine Lodge). In 2011, over 96% of freshmen elected to participate.
## Insignia and other representations
### Motto and song
Dartmouth's motto, chosen by Eleazar Wheelock, is *Vox clamantis in deserto*. The Latin motto is literally translated as "The voice of one crying in the wilderness", but is more often rendered as "A voice crying out in the wilderness". The phrase appears five times in the Bible and is a reference to the college's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement. Richard Hovey's "[of Dartmouth](Men)(Alma Mater (Dartmouth College))" was elected as the best of Dartmouth's songs in 1896, and became the school's official song in 1926. The song was retitled to "Alma Mater" in the 1980s when its lyrics were changed to refer to women as well as men.
### Seal
[[of Dartmouth College.png|thumb|upright|left|Seal of Dartmouth College](File:Seal)]
Dartmouth's 1769 royal charter required the creation of a [seal](seal (emblem)) for use on official documents and diplomas. The college's founder, Eleazar Wheelock, designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the [for the Propagation of the Gospel](Society)(USPG), a missionary society founded in London in 1701, in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education. Engraved by a Boston silversmith, the seal was ready by commencement of 1773. The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25, 1773, describing it as:
On October 28, 1926, the trustees affirmed the charter's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone. The College Publications Committee commissioned noted typographer [Addison Dwiggins](William)(William Addison Dwiggins) to create a line drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use. Dwiggins' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from "1770" to "1769", to accord with the date of the college charter. The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of "1769" to replace the old dies, now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use. The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032.
### Shield
On October 28, 1926, the trustees approved a "Dartmouth College Shield" for general use. Artist and engraver W. Parke Johnson designed this emblem on the basis of the shield that is depicted at the center of the original seal. This design does not survive. On June 9, 1944, the trustees approved another [of arms](coat)(coat of arms) based on the shield part of the seal, this one by Canadian artist and designer [MacDonald](Thoreau)(Thoreau MacDonald). That design was used widely and, like Dwiggins' seal, had its date changed from "1770" to "1769" around 1958. That version continues to be used under trademark registration number 3112676 and others.
College designer John Scotford made a stylized version of the shield during the 1960s, but it did not see the success of MacDonald's design. The shield appears to have been used as the basis of the shield of the [School of Medicine](Geisel)(Geisel School of Medicine), and it has been reproduced in sizes as small as 20 micrometers across. The design has appeared on [Ruzicka](Rudolph)(Rudolph Ruzicka)'s Bicentennial Medal ([Mint](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Mint), 1969) and elsewhere.
### Nickname, symbol, and mascot
Dartmouth has never had an official [mascot](mascot). The nickname "The Big Green", originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green ("Dartmouth Green") as the school's official color in 1866. Beginning in the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams were known by their unofficial nickname "the Indians", a moniker that probably originated among sports journalists. This unofficial mascot and team name was used until the early 1970s, when its use came under criticism. In 1974, the Trustees declared the "use of the [Indian] symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education". Some alumni and students, as well as the conservative student newspaper, *The Dartmouth Review*, have sought to return the Indian symbol to prominence, but never succeeded in doing so.
Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a mascot, but none has become "official". One proposal devised by the college humor magazine the *[Jack-O-Lantern](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern)* was [the Keg](Keggy)(Keggy the Keg), an [anthropomorphic](anthropomorphism) beer keg who makes occasional appearances at college sporting events. Despite student enthusiasm for Keggy, the mascot has received approval from only the student government. In November 2006, student government attempted to revive the "Dartmoose" as a potential replacement amid renewed controversy surrounding the former unofficial Indian mascot.
## Alumni
Dartmouth's alumni are known for their devotion to the college. Most start by giving to the Senior Class Gift. According to a 2008 article in *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* based on data from [payscale.com](payscale.com), Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed.
By 2008, Dartmouth had graduated 238 classes of students, and had over 60,000 living alumni in a variety of fields. Finance, consulting, and technology have consistently been the most popular industries to enter for students. Top employers of new graduates include [Sachs](Goldman)(Goldman Sachs), [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley), [& Company](McKinsey)(McKinsey & Company), [& Company](Bain)(Bain & Company), [Amazon](Amazon (company)), [Microsoft](Microsoft), and [Google](Google).
[A. Rockefeller](Nelson)(Nelson Rockefeller), 41st [President of the United States](Vice)(Vice President of the United States) and 49th [of New York](Governor)(Governor of New York), graduated cum laude from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930. Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) and [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives), such as Massachusetts statesman [Webster](Daniel)(Daniel Webster). Cabinet members of American presidents include Attorney General [T. Akerman](Amos)(Amos T. Akerman), Secretary of Defense [V. Forrestal](James)(James V. Forrestal), Secretary of Labor [Reich](Robert)(Robert Reich), Secretary of the Treasury [Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson), and Secretary of the Treasury [Geithner](Timothy)(Timothy Geithner). [Everett Koop](C.)(C. Everett Koop) was the [General of the United States](Surgeon)(Surgeon General of the United States) under President Ronald Reagan. Two Dartmouth alumni have served as justices on the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States): [P. Chase](Salmon)(Salmon P. Chase) and [Woodbury](Levi)(Levi Woodbury). Eugene Norman Veasey (class of 1954) served as the [Justice of Delaware](Chief)(Chief Justice of Delaware). The 46th [of Pennsylvania](Governor)(List of Governors of Pennsylvania), [Wolf](Tom)(Tom Wolf); the 42nd [of Illinois](Governor)(List of Governors of Illinois), businessman [Rauner](Bruce)(Bruce Rauner); and the 31st governor and current senator from North Dakota, [Hoeven](John)(John Hoeven) (R), are also Dartmouth alumni. [de la Guardia](Ernesto)(Ernesto de la Guardia), class of 1925, was president of the Republic of [Panama](Panama).
In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced 13 [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) winners: Thomas M. Burton, [Eberhart](Richard)(Richard Eberhart), [Fagin](Dan)(Dan Fagin), [Gigot](Paul)(Paul Gigot), [Gilroy](Frank)(Frank Gilroy), [Hooker](Jake)(Jake Hooker (journalist)), [Jaquiss](Nigel)(Nigel Jaquiss), [Rago](Joseph)(Joseph Rago), [J. Sherwin](Martin)(Martin J. Sherwin), [K. Shipler](David)(David K. Shipler), David Shribman, [Harvey Smith](Justin)(Justin Harvey Smith) and [Frost](Robert)(Robert Frost). Frost, who received four [Prizes for Poetry](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for Poetry) in his lifetime, attended but did not graduate from Dartmouth; he is, however, the only person to have received two honorary degrees from Dartmouth.
Other authors and media personalities include CNN Chief White House correspondent and Anchor [Tapper](Jake)(Jake Tapper), novelist and founding editor of *The Believer* [Julavits](Heidi)(Heidi Julavits), "Dean of rock critics" [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau), National Book Award winners [Erdrich](Louise)(Louise Erdrich) and [Klay](Phil)(Phil Klay), novelist/screenwriter [Schulberg](Budd)(Budd Schulberg), political commentator [D'Souza](Dinesh)(Dinesh D'Souza), radio talk show host [Ingraham](Laura)(Laura Ingraham), commentator [Kondracke](Mort)(Mort Kondracke), and journalist [Panero](James)(James Panero). [Maclean](Norman)(Norman Maclean), professor at the University of Chicago and author of *A River Runs Through It and Other Stories*, graduated from Dartmouth in 1924. Theodor Geisel, better known as children's author [Seuss](Dr.)(Dr. Seuss), was a member of the class of 1925.
In the area of religion and theology, Dartmouth alumni include priests and ministers [Porter](Ebenezer)(Ebenezer Porter), [Clarkson Gibbs](Jonathan)(Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs), [Sprague Henry](Caleb)(Caleb Sprague Henry), [Whipple Jenks](Arthur)(Arthur Whipple Jenks), [Spalding](Solomon)(Solomon Spalding), and [Tracy](Joseph)(Joseph Tracy); and rabbis [Meyer](Marshall)(Marshall Meyer), [Resnicoff](Arnold)(Arnold Resnicoff), and [E. Stern](David)(David E. Stern). [Smith](Hyrum)(Hyrum Smith), brother of Mormon Prophet [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith), attended the college in his teens. He was Patriarch of the [Church](LDS)(LDS Church).
Dartmouth alumni in academia include [Kauffman](Stuart)(Stuart Kauffman) and [Weeks](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Weeks (mathematician)), both recipients of [Fellowships](MacArthur)(MacArthur Fellows Program) (commonly called "genius grants"). Dartmouth has also graduated three [Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) winners with four separate prizes: [Chamberlain](Owen)(Owen Chamberlain) ([Physics](Nobel Prize in Physics), 1959), [Barry Sharpless](K.)(K. Barry Sharpless) ([Chemistry](Nobel Prize in Chemistry), 2001 and 2022), and [Davis Snell](George)(George Davis Snell) ([or Medicine](Physiology)(Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), 1980). Educators include founder and first president of [College](Bates)(Bates College) [Burbank Cheney](Oren)(Oren Burbank Cheney) (1839); the current chancellor of the [of California, San Diego](University)(University of California, San Diego), [Anne Fox](Marye)(Marye Anne Fox) (PhD. in Chemistry, 1974); founding president of [College](Vassar)(Vassar College) [Parker Jewett](Milo)(Milo Parker Jewett); founder and first president of Kenyon College [Chase](Philander)(Philander Chase); first professor of Wabash College [Mills](Caleb)(Caleb Mills); president of Union College [Augustus Aiken](Charles)(Charles Augustus Aiken). Nine of Dartmouth's 17 presidents were alumni of the college.
Dartmouth alumni serving as CEOs or company presidents and executives include [Alfred Pillsbury](Charles)(Charles Alfred Pillsbury), founder of the [Company](Pillsbury)(Pillsbury Company) and patriarch of the Pillsbury family, [Alderson](Sandy)(Sandy Alderson) ([Diego Padres](San)(San Diego Padres)), [Donahoe](John)(John Donahoe) ([eBay](eBay)), [V. Gerstner, Jr.](Louis)(Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.) ([IBM](IBM)), [E. Haldeman](Charles)(Charles E. Haldeman) ([Investments](Putnam)(Putnam Investments)), [J. Hall Sr.](Donald)(Donald J. Hall Sr.) ([Cards](Hallmark)(Hallmark Cards)), [Hodge](Douglas)(Douglas Hodge (businessman)) (CEO of [PIMCO](PIMCO) accused of fraud), [R. Immelt](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey R. Immelt) ([Electric](General)(General Electric)), [Koziara Boudreaux](Gail)(Gail Koziara Boudreaux) ([Health Care](United)(United Health Care)), [Tinker](Grant)(Grant Tinker) ([NBC](NBC)), and [Goldner](Brian)(Brian Goldner) ([Hasbro](Hasbro)).
In film, entertainment, and television, Dartmouth is represented by [Benioff](David)(David Benioff), co-creator, showrunner, and writer of [of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones); [Rhimes](Shonda)(Shonda Rhimes), creator of ''[Anatomy](Grey's)(Grey's Anatomy), [Practice](Private)(Private Practice (TV series))* and *[Scandal](Scandal (American TV series))*; [Schulberg](Budd)(Budd Schulberg), [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards)-winning screenwriter of *[the Waterfront](On)(On the Waterfront)*; [Phillips](Michael)(Michael Phillips (producer)), who won the Academy Award for best picture as co-producer of *[Sting](The)(The Sting)*; [Dratch](Rachel)(Rachel Dratch), a former cast member of *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*; [Meledandri](Chris)(Chris Meledandri), executive producer of *[Age](Ice)(Ice Age (franchise))*, *[Hears a Who!](Horton)(Horton Hears a Who! (film))*, and *[Me](Despicable)(Despicable Me)*; writer and director duo [Lord and Chris Miller](Phil)(Phil Lord and Chris Miller); and the title character of *[Rogers' Neighborhood](Mister)(Mister Rogers' Neighborhood)'', [Rogers](Fred)(Fred Rogers). Other notable film and television figures include [Wayne Callies](Sarah)(Sarah Wayne Callies) (*[Break](Prison)(Prison Break)*), Emmy Award winner [Moriarty](Michael)(Michael Moriarty), [Shue](Andrew)(Andrew Shue) of *[Place](Melrose)(Melrose Place)*, [Tyler](Aisha)(Aisha Tyler) of *[Friends](Friends)* and *[24](24 (TV series))*, ESPN and Tennis Channel broadcaster [Haber](Brett)(Brett Haber), [Britton](Connie)(Connie Britton) of *[City](Spin)(Spin City)* and *[Night Lights](Friday)(Friday Night Lights (TV series))*, [Kaling](Mindy)(Mindy Kaling) of *[Office](The)(The Office (U.S. TV series))* and *[Mindy Project](The)(The Mindy Project)*, [Harbour](David)(David Harbour) of *[Things](Stranger)(Stranger Things)*, and [Khare](Michelle)(Michelle Khare) of [Max](HBO)(HBO Max)'s [*Karma*](Karma (2020 TV series)).
A number of Dartmouth alumni have found success in professional sports. In baseball, Dartmouth alumni include All-Star and three-time [Glove](Gold)(Gold Glove) winner and manager [Ausmus](Brad)(Brad Ausmus), All-Star reliever [Remlinger](Mike)(Mike Remlinger), and pitcher [Hendricks](Kyle)(Kyle Hendricks). Professional football players include Miami Dolphins quarterback [Fiedler](Jay)(Jay Fiedler), linebacker [Williams](Reggie)(Reggie Williams (linebacker)), three-time Pro Bowler [Lowery](Nick)(Nick Lowery), quarterback [Kemp](Jeff)(Jeff Kemp), and Tennessee Titans tight end [Cramer](Casey)(Casey Cramer), and Miami Dolphins defensive coordinator [Burke](Matt)(Matt Burke (American football)). Dartmouth has also produced a number of Olympic competitors. [Nelson](Adam)(Adam Nelson) won the silver medal in the shot put in the [Sydney Olympics](2000)(2000 Sydney Olympics) and the gold medal at the [Athens Olympics](2004)(2004 Athens Olympics) to go along with his gold medal in the [World Championships in Athletics](2005)(2005 World Championships in Athletics) in [Helsinki](Helsinki). [King](Kristin)(Kristin King) and [Parsons](Sarah)(Sarah Parsons) were members of the United States' 2006 bronze medal-winning ice hockey team. [Piper](Cherie)(Cherie Piper), [Apps](Gillian)(Gillian Apps), and [Weatherston](Katie)(Katie Weatherston) were among Canada's ice hockey gold medalists in 2006. [Whitney](Lawrence)(Lawrence Whitney) won bronze at the [Summer Olympics](1912)(1912 Summer Olympics) in [shot put](men's)(Athletics at the 1912 Summer Olympics – Men's shot put).
[Durrance](Dick)(Dick Durrance) and [Caldwell](Tim)(Tim Caldwell (skier)) competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics, respectively. [Shaw](Arthur)(Arthur Shaw (athlete)), [Thomson](Earl)(Earl Thomson), [Myers](Edwin)(Edwin Myers), [Wright](Marc)(Marc Wright), Adam Nelson, [Ashworth](Gerry)(Gerry Ashworth), and [Einarsson](Vilhjálmur)(Vilhjálmur Einarsson) have all won medals in track and field events. Former heavyweight [rower](rowing (sport)) [Seiterle](Dominic)(Dominic Seiterle) is a member of the Canadian national rowing team and won a gold medal at the [Summer Olympics](2008)(2008 Summer Olympics) in the men's [8+](Eight (rowing)) event.
File:Jb modern frost 2 e.jpg|[Frost](Robert)(Robert Frost), poet
File:Ted Geisel NYWTS 2 crop.jpg|[Seuss](Dr.)(Dr. Seuss), writer and illustrator
File:Henry Paulson official Treasury photo, 2006.jpg|[Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson), former CEO of [Sachs](Goldman)(Goldman Sachs) and [States Secretary of the Treasury](United)(United States Secretary of the Treasury)
File:Timothy Geithner official portrait.jpg|[Geithner](Timothy)(Timothy Geithner), former [States Secretary of the Treasury](United)(United States Secretary of the Treasury)
File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865, full version).jpg|[Chase](Salmon)(Salmon Chase), former [Justice of the U.S.](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States)
File:Daniel Webster.jpg|[Webster](Daniel)(Daniel Webster), former [of State](Secretary)(United States Secretary of State)
File:Nelson Rockefeller.jpg|[Rockefeller](Nelson)(Nelson Rockefeller), former [President of the United States](Vice)(Vice President of the United States)
File:SenatorGillibrandpic.jpg|[Gillibrand](Kirsten)(Kirsten Gillibrand), [States senator](United)(United States senator)
File:Robert Reich at the UT Liz Carpenter Lecture 2015.JPG|[Reich](Robert)(Robert Reich), former [States Secretary of Labor](United)(United States Secretary of Labor), political commentator, professor, and author
File:Sarah Wayne Callies Comic-Con 4, 2012.jpg|[Wayne Callies](Sarah)(Sarah Wayne Callies), actress
File:MindyKaling08.jpg|[Kaling](Mindy)(Mindy Kaling), actress and comedian
File:Connie Britton 2013.jpg|[Britton](Connie)(Connie Britton), actress, singer and producer
File:Shonda Rhimes 2008.jpg|[Rhimes](Shonda)(Shonda Rhimes), television producer and writer
File:Ausmuscrop.jpg|[Ausmus](Brad)(Brad Ausmus), baseball player
File:Jake Tapper at the White House.jpg|[Tapper](Jake)(Jake Tapper), journalist, author, and commentator
File:David Benioff by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|[Benioff](David)(David Benioff), screenwriter and television producer, writer, and director
File:Fred Rogers, late 1960s.jpg|[Rogers](Fred)(Fred Rogers), television personality(*did not graduate*)
File:Rachel Dratch 2012 Shankbone 2.JPG|[Dratch](Rachel)(Rachel Dratch), comedian
## In popular culture
Dartmouth College has appeared in or been referenced by a number of popular media. Some of the most prominent include:
* The 1978 comedy film ''[Lampoon's Animal House](National)(National Lampoon's Animal House)'', was co-written by [Miller](Chris)(Chris Miller (writer)) '63 and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth. In a CNN interview, [Landis](John)(John Landis) said the movie was "based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth", [Delta Phi](Alpha)(Dartmouth College Greek organizations#Alpha Delta).
* Dartmouth's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film *Winter Carnival* starring [Sheridan](Ann)(Ann Sheridan) and written by [Schulberg](Budd)(Budd Schulberg) '36 and [Scott Fitzgerald](F.)(F. Scott Fitzgerald).
## Notes
## References
; "Dartmouth College went from a floundering, financially weak institution of about 300 students over the next 20 years to an enrollment of more than 2,000, a robust endowment, and a national reputation as the most prestigious undergraduate college in the United States."
Dartmouth College, Trustees' Records, 1:26. Dartmouth College Library, Special Collections, DA-1.
*Dartmouth Outing Guide* p. 56.
[Dartmouth News](http://www.dartmouth.edu/~news/releases/2006/11/21a.html) , "Dartmouth acquires Budd Schulberg '36 papers"
}}
## Further reading
* Behrens, Richard K., "From the Connecticut Valley to the West Coast: The Role of Dartmouth College in the Building of the Nation," *Historical New Hampshire,* 63 (Spring 2009), 45–68.
* *([Read and download public domain copy via Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=F8KEAAAAIAAJ&q=A%20history%20of%20Dartmouth%20College%20and%20the%20town%20of%20Hanover%2C%20New%20Hampshire%2C%20Volume%202) .)*
*
*
*
*
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* [*Listen, Look, Likeness: examining the portraits of Félix de la Concha*](http://www.artseditor.com/html/features/0509_concha.shtml) 2009 ArtsEditor.com article
## External links
*
* [Dartmouth Athletics website](http://www.dartmouthsports.com/)
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Great Purge
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# Great Purge
*Revision ID: 1159715151 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T02:50:30Z*
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| fatalities = 700,000 to 1.2 million(higher estimates overlap with at least 116,000 deaths in the [Gulag](Gulag) system)
| injuries =
| perps = [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin), the [NKVD](NKVD) ([Yagoda](Genrikh)(Genrikh Yagoda), [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov), [Beria](Lavrentiy)(Lavrentiy Beria), [Serov](Ivan)(Ivan Serov) and others), [Molotov](Vyacheslav)(Vyacheslav Molotov), [Vyshinsky](Andrey)(Andrey Vyshinsky), [Kaganovich](Lazar)(Lazar Kaganovich), [Voroshilov](Kliment)(Kliment Voroshilov), [Eikhe](Robert)(Robert Eikhe) and others
| motive = Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltrationJames Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941," *Journal of Strategic Studies* 30#3 [2007]: 513–45.
}}
The **Great Purge** or the **Great Terror** (), also known as the '''Year of '37** () and the **Yezhovshchina''' ('period of [Yezhov](Nikolay Yezhov)'),In [historiography](Russian)(Russian historiography), the period of the most intense purge, 1937–1938, is called ***Yezhovshchina*** ([lit.](Literal translation) 'Yezhov phenomenon'), after [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov), the head of the [NKVD](NKVD). was [General Secretary](Soviet)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin)'s campaign to solidify his power over the [Party of the Soviet Union](Communist)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union) and the state; the [purge](purge)s were also designed to remove the remaining influence of [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky) as well as other prominent political rivals within the party. It occurred from August 1936 to March 1938.
Following the [death](Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin) of [Lenin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Lenin) in 1924, a [vacuum](power)(power vacuum) opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) (USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, outmaneuvered political opponents and ultimately gained control of the party by 1928. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary Trotsky was forced into exile in 1929, and the doctrine of "[in one country](socialism)(socialism in one country)" became enshrined party policy. However, by the early 1930s, party officials began losing faith in his leadership following the human cost of the [five-year plan](first)(first five-year plan) and the [of agriculture](collectivization)(Collective farming). By 1934 several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his influence over the party. New Orleans |date=12 September 2018 |language=en}}
In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, a popular high-ranking official, [Kirov](Sergei)(Sergei Kirov), was [assassinated](Assassination of Sergei Kirov). His death led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's assassination also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself, including high-ranking party officials. The validity of these claims is still debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint where Stalin took action and began the purges.
By 1936, Stalin's paranoia reached its peak. The fear of losing his position and the potential return of Trotsky drove him into authorizing the Great Purge. The purges themselves were largely conducted by the [NKVD](NKVD) (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), the secret police of the USSR. The NKVD began the removal of the central party leadership, [Bolshevik](Old)(Old Bolshevik)s, government officials, and regional party [bosses](Political boss). Eventually, the purges were expanded to the [Army](Red)(Red Army) and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. Three successive [were held in Moscow](trials)(Moscow trials) that removed most of the Old Bolsheviks and the challenges to Stalin's position. As the scope of the purge began widening, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and [counter-revolutionaries](Counter-revolutionary) began impacting civilian life. The NKVD began targeting certain [minorities](ethnic)(Soviet Union#Nationalities and ethnic groups) such as the [Germans](Volga)(Volga Germans), who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. During its [operations](mass)(Mass operations of the NKVD), the NKVD widely utilized imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and arbitrary executions to solidify control over civilians through fear.
In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges and declared that the internal enemies had been removed. Stalin criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions and subsequently executed [Yagoda](Genrikh)(Genrikh Yagoda) and [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov), who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Despite the Great Purge being over, the atmosphere of mistrust and widespread surveillance continued for decades after. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000. The term *great purge* itself was popularized by the historian [Conquest](Robert)(Robert Conquest) in his 1968 book *[Great Terror](The)(The Great Terror (book))*. Conquest's title itself was an [allusion](allusion) to the period from the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) known as the [of Terror](Reign)(Reign of Terror). While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin. Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leon-Trotsky/Exile-and-assassination |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}
## Introduction
[[File:NKVD Order No. 00447.jpg|thumb|An excerpt of [Order No. 00447](NKVD)(NKVD Order No. 00447)]]
[[File:Great Purge Resolution of Central Committee.jpg|thumb|The [politburo](Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) decision to extend the time limits of the [line" (ethnic-based) purge operations]("national)(Mass operations of the NKVD) signed by [Stalin](Joseph Stalin), [Molotov](Vyacheslav Molotov), [Kaganovich](Lazar Kaganovich), [Voroshilov](Kliment Voroshilov), [Mikoyan](Anastas Mikoyan), and [Chubar](Vlas Chubar).]]
The term *[repression](Political repression)* was officially used by the leader of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) at the time, [general secretary](Soviet)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin), to describe the prosecution of people considered [counter-revolutionaries](Counter-revolutionary) and [of the people](enemies)(enemies of the people). Historians debate the causes of the purge, such as Stalin's paranoia, or his desire to remove dissenters from the Communist Party or to consolidate his authority. The purges began in the [Army](Red)(Red Army), and the techniques developed there were quickly adapted to purges in other sectors.Whitewood, Peter. 2015. "[The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38](http://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/958/1/slaveasteurorev2.93.2.0286.pdf)." *[& East European Review](Slavonic)(The Slavonic and East European Review)* 93(2) 286–314.
Most public attention was focused on the [purge](purge (communist)) of certain parts of the leadership of the Communist Party, as well as of government bureaucrats and leaders of the armed forces, most of whom were Party members. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society: [intelligentsia](intelligentsia), peasants—especially those lending out money or wealth ([*kulaks*](kulak))—and professionals.
A series of [NKVD](NKVD) operations affected a number of national minorities, accused of being "[fifth-column](fifth column)" communities. A number of purges were officially explained as an elimination of the possibilities of sabotage and espionage by the [Military Organisation](Polish)(Polish Military Organisation) and, consequently, many victims of the purge were ordinary [citizens of Polish origin](Soviet)(Polish Operation of the NKVD).
According to [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev)'s 1956 speech, "[the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences](On)(On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences)", and to historian [Conquest](Robert)(Robert Conquest), a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the [show trial](Moscow)(Moscow Trials)s, were based on [confession](forced)(forced confession)s, often obtained through [torture](torture), and on loose interpretations of [58 of the RSFSR Penal Code](Article)(Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)), which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by [troika](NKVD)(NKVD troika)s.
Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage, [wrecking](Wrecking (Soviet crime)), [sabotage](sabotage), [agitation](anti-Soviet)(anti-Soviet agitation), conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were quickly executed by shooting or sent to the [Gulag](Gulag) [camp](labor)(labor camp)s. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of [van](gas)(Soviet gas van)s to kill the victims during their transportation to the [firing range](Butovo)(Butovo firing range) has been documented.This information was published first in 1990 in a *[Pravda](Komsomolskaya)(Komsomolskaya Pravda)* article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:
[Yevgenia](Albats,)(Yevgenia Albats). 1995. *KGB: The State Within a State*. p. 101;
[Robert](Gellately,)(Robert Gellately). 2007. *Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe*. Knopf. . p. 460;
[Catherine](Merridale,)(Catherine Merridale). 2002. *Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia*. Penguin Books. . p. 200;
[Timothy J.](Colton,)(Timothy Colton) 1998. *Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis*. [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press). . [p. 286](https://books.google.com/books?id=lXM2H6tWHskC&pg=PA286&dq=gas+chamber+butovo); and
[Solzhenitsyn](Alexandr)(Alexandr Solzhenitsyn). *[Hundred Years Together](Two)(Two Hundred Years Together)*.
The Great Purge began under NKVD chief [Yagoda](Genrikh)(Genrikh Yagoda) but reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov), hence the name *Yezhovshchina*. The campaigns were carried out according to the [line of the party](general)(general line (party)), often by direct orders of the [politburo](Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) headed by Stalin.Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign". *The American Historical Review*, 110(5), 1427–53
## Background
From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of [collectivization of peasants](forced)(Collectivization in the Soviet Union) and the resulting [of 1932–1933](famine)(Soviet famine of 1932–1933), as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Forged documents and misinformation spread by [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) in order to incriminate innocent Soviet citizens also contributed to this perception. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies."Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in *Stalinism: New Directions*, edited by [Fitzpatrick](S.)(Sheila Fitzpatrick). London: Routledge.Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in ''Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,* edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke: [MacMillan](Palgrave)(Palgrave MacMillan).
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R15068, Leo Dawidowitsch Trotzki.jpg|thumb|upright|[Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky), in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union.]]
The term "[purge](purge)" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression *purge of the Party ranks*. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution.
According to an October 1993 study published in *[American Historical Review](The)(The American Historical Review)'', much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time. The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky) and [Bukharin](Nikolai)(Nikolai Bukharin), respectively. Following the [War](Civil)(Russian Civil War) and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.
This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The [affair](Ryutin)(Ryutin affair) seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. [Ryutin](Martemyan Ryutin) was working with the even larger secret [Bloc](Opposition)(Bloc of Soviet Oppositions) in which [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky) and [Zinoviev](Grigori)(Grigory Zinoviev) participated,. and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending [centralism](democratic)(democratic centralism).
In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including [Tukhachevsky](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tukhachevsky) and [Kun](Béla)(Béla Kun), as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before [killing](Leon Trotsky#Assassination) him in Mexico; the NKVD agent [Mercader](Ramón)(Ramón Mercader) was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent [Sudoplatov](Pavel)(Pavel Sudoplatov), under the personal orders of Stalin.
[[Image:Sergei Kirov and Joseph Stalin, 1934.jpg|thumb|[Leningrad](Saint Petersburg) party leader [Kirov](Sergei)(Sergey Kirov) with [Stalin](Joseph Stalin) (and his daughter [Svetlana](Svetlana Alliluyeva)) in 1934.]]
In 1934, Stalin used the murder of [Kirov](Sergey)(Sergey Kirov) as a pretext to launch the Great Purge, in which about a million people perished (see ). Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The [Party Congress](1934)(17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)) elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses, including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.
Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war. [Molotov](Vyacheslav)(Vyacheslav Molotov) and [Kaganovich](Lazar)(Lazar Kaganovich), participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies.
From the [Revolution](October)(October Revolution) onward,Robert Gellately, *Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe*, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the [Terror](Red)(Red Terror). As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928 the mass repression including incarceration in the Gulag system dropped significantly.
By 1929, Stalin had outmaneuvered his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and collectivization of agriculture escalated which prompted Stalin to increase police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks, who were wealthy peasants that owned farmland in a policy called [dekulakization](dekulakization). The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage created lead to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan.
[Kopelev](Lev)(Lev Kopelev) wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the comparatively early beginning of the Soviet crackdown in Ukraine. A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:
* 1936, the [Moscow trial](first)(Moscow trials#The "Anti-Soviet Trotskyist Center").
* 1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."
* 1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."
* 1937, the [Moscow trial](second)(Moscow trials#The "Parallel anti-Soviet Trotskyist Center")
* 1937, the military purge.
* 1938, the [Moscow trial](third)(Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites").
## Moscow trials
### First and second Moscow trials
[[File:Л. Д. Троцкий, Л. Б. Каменев и Г. Е. Зиновьев. Середина 1920-х годов.jpg|thumb|right|Bolshevik revolutionaries [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky), [Kamenev](Lev)(Lev Kamenev) and [Zinoviev](Grigory)(Grigory Zinoviev)]]
Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences.
* The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936,Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 at which the chief defendants were [Zinoviev](Grigory)(Grigory Zinoviev) and [Kamenev](Lev)(Lev Kamenev), two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a [Bloc](Conspiratorial)(Bloc of Soviet Oppositions) that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and executed.Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38
* The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included [Radek](Karl)(Karl Radek), [Piatakov](Yuri)(Yuri Piatakov) and [Sokolnikov](Grigory)(Grigory Sokolnikov), and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting. The rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died.
* There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including [Tukhachevsky](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tukhachevsky), in June 1937.
It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former [OGPU](OGPU) officer [Orlov](Alexander)(Alexander Mikhailovich Orlov) and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.
Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin, [Voroshilov](Kliment)(Kliment Voroshilov), and Yezhov were present. Stalin claimed that they were the "commission" authorized by the Politburo and gave assurances that death sentences would not be carried out. After the trial, Stalin not only broke his promise to spare the defendants, he had most of their relatives arrested and shot.
#### Dewey Commission
In May 1937, the **Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials**, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator [Dewey](John)(John Dewey). Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true.
For example, [Pyatakov](Georgy)(Georgy Pyatakov) testified that he had flown to [Oslo](Oslo) in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant, [Smirnov](Ivan)(Ivan N. Smirnov), confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year.
The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled *Not Guilty*. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote
The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."
#### Implication of the Rightists
In the second trial, [Radek](Karl)(Karl Radek) testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through [Trotsky's] school,"British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937 as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism, from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."
By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the [Rightists](Right Opposition), led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying:
### Third Moscow trial
[[File:1934 agranov yagoda unknown redens.jpg|thumb|[NKVD](NKVD) chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right): [Agranov](Yakov)(Yakov Agranov); [Yagoda](Genrikh)(Genrikh Yagoda); unknown; [Redens](Stanislav)(Stanislav Redens). All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed.]]
The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the [of the Twenty-One](Trial)(Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"), is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the [International](Communist)(Communist International), former premier [Rykov](Alexei)(Alexei Rykov), [Rakovsky](Christian)(Christian Rakovsky), [Krestinsky](Nikolai)(Nikolai Krestinsky), and [Yagoda](Genrikh)(Genrikh Yagoda), recently disgraced head of the NKVD.
Although [Opposition Bloc](an)(Bloc of Soviet Oppositions) led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed, [Broué](Pierre)(Pierre Broué) asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies, [Humbert-Droz](Jules)(Jules Humbert-Droz), said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership.
The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder [Gorky](Maxim)(Maxim Gorky) by poison, partition the U.S.S.R and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.
Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and [Kalinin](Mikhail Kalinin). No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing.Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 For some prominent communists such as [Wolfe](Bertram)(Bertram Wolfe), [Lovestone](Jay)(Jay Lovestone), [Koestler](Arthur)(Arthur Koestler), and [Brandler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Brandler), the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually.Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10 To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation.
#### Bukharin's confession
[[File:Bucharin.bra.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[Bukharin](Nikolai)(Nikolai Bukharin), Russian [Bolshevik](Bolshevik) [revolutionary](Russian Revolution) executed in 1938.]]
On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.
[Mikoyan](Anastas)(Anastas Mikoyan) and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.
Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel *[at Noon](Darkness)(Darkness at Noon)* and philosophical essay by [Merleau-Ponty](Maurice)(Maurice Merleau-Ponty) in *Humanism and Terror*. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further.
The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily demolish the whole case."Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938 He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites." *Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet*. pp. 667–68.[T]he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.[Rolland](Romain)(Romain Rolland) and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in [prisoner massacres](NKVD)(Medvedev Forest massacre) in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife, [Larina](Anna)(Anna Larina), was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously [rehabilitated](Rehabilitation (Soviet)) a half-century later by the Soviet state under [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) in 1988.
## "Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements"
On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.
On 30 July 1937, the [Order No. 00447](NKVD)(NKVD Order No. 00447) was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the [regime](Tsarist)(Russian Empire), former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas.
The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "[settlements](special)(Forced settlements in the Soviet Union)" in inhospitable parts of the country ([Siberia](Siberia), the [Urals](Ural Mountains), Kazakhstan, and the [North](Far)(Extreme North (Russia))), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the [Army](White)(White Army), participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements".
However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."Werth, Nicolas. 2009. *L’ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d’un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938*. Paris: Tallandier.
[[File:Evgeny Miller1.png|upright=0.7|thumb|[Karlovich Miller](Yevgeny-Ludvig)(Yevgeny Miller), one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later.]]
The [clergy](Orthodox)(Russian Orthodox Church), including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" (*spetzpereselentsy*) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror.
Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the [firing range](Butovo)(Butovo firing range) were charged with a non-political criminal offence.
To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and [Komsomol](Komsomol) ([Communist League](Young)(Young Communist League)) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators.
After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.
The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.
## Campaigns targeting nationalities
[[File:Izrail Pliner NKVD.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=0.8|[Pliner](Israil)(Israel Pliner); (1896–1939) chief of [Gulag](Gulag) [NKVD](NKVD) (1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939]]
A series of [operations of the NKVD](mass)(mass operations of the NKVD) was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov).
The [operation of the NKVD](Polish)(Polish operation of the NKVD) was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without further inquiry.
Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).
The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the [Order No. 00486](NKVD)(NKVD Order No. 00486). The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families.
The NKVD national operations were conducted on a quota system using [procedure](album)(album procedure). The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian.
The [Operation of the NKVD](Polish)(Polish Operation of the NKVD) served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the [Finnish](Finns), [Latvian](Latvian people), [Estonian](Estonian people), [Bulgaria](Bulgaria)n, [Afghan](Afghan people), [Iranian](Iranian peoples), [Greek](Greek people), and [Chinese](Chinese people). Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to [Snyder](Timothy)(Timothy Snyder), ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed.[Timothy](Snyder,)(Timothy Snyder). 2010. *[Europe Between Hitler and Stalin](Bloodlands:)(Bloodlands)*. [Books](Basic)(Basic Books). . pp. 102, 107. Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian Kulaks who survived the early 1930s.Timothy Snyder, *Bloodlands*, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12
Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity, sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the National Operations of the NKVD [genocidal](genocidal).["The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study"](https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=jil) by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve *Journal of International Law*, Vol. 45, 2013 [Naimark](Norman)(Norman Naimark) called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "[genocidal](genocidal);" however he doesn't consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.
Most scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space *vis-à-vis* neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of [relations](international)(international relations) and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.
## Purge of the army
[[File:5marshals 01.jpg|thumb|The first five [of the Soviet Union](Marshals)(Marshal of the Soviet Union) in November 1935. (l–r): [Tukhachevsky](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tukhachevsky), [Budyonny](Semyon)(Semyon Budyonny), [Voroshilov](Kliment)(Kliment Voroshilov), [Blyukher](Vasily)(Vasily Blyukher), [Yegorov](Alexander)(Alexander Yegorov (soldier)). Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge.]]
The purge of the [Army](Red)(Red Army) and [Maritime Fleet](Military)(Soviet Navy) removed three of five [marshals](Marshal of the Soviet Union) (then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army [corps](corps) commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army [commissar](commissar)s, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars.
At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.Stephen Lee, *European Dictatorships 1918–1945,* p. 56.
The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.
The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in [War II](World)(World War II): many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but [Hitler](Hitler) disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge."Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" [Medvedev](Roy)(Roy Medvedev), *[History Judge](Let)(Let History Judge)*, p. 214
## Wider purge
Eventually almost all of the [Bolsheviks](Bolsheviks) who had played prominent roles during the [Revolution](Russian)(Russian Revolution), or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original [Politburo](Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) during the [Revolution](October)(October Revolution) who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth, [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky), had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent [Mercader](Ramón)(Ramón Mercader) in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one ([Tomsky](Mikhail Tomsky)) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and [Kalinin](Mikhail Kalinin)) lived.
While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by [Bukovsky](Vladimir)(Vladimir Bukovsky) demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.
The victims were convicted [absentia](in)(Trial in absentia) and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the [troika](NKVD)(NKVD troika)s sentenced indigenous "enemies" under [Order No. 00447](NKVD)(NKVD Order No. 00447) and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar [Yezhov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Yezhov) and Main State Prosecutor [Vyshinsky](Andrey)(Andrey Vyshinsky), or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the [operations of the NKVD](mass)(mass operations of the NKVD) was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and again.
The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols.
### Intelligentsia
[[Image:NKVD Mandelstam.jpg|thumb|right|1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet [Mandelstam](Osip)(Osip Mandelstam), who died in a labor camp.]]
[[Image:Babel NKWD.png|right|thumb|The NKVD photo of writer [Babel](Isaac)(Isaac Babel) made after his arrest.]]
[[Image:MeyerholdMug.jpg|thumb|right|Theatre director [Meyerhold](Vsevolod)(Vsevolod Meyerhold) at the time of his arrest.]]
[[Image:Vavilov in prison.jpg|thumb|right|Botanist [Vavilov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Vavilov)'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest.]]
In the 1920s and 1930s, 2,000 writers, intellectuals, and artists were imprisoned and 1,500 died in prisons and concentration camps. After [sunspot](sunspot) development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the crops. However, the toll was especially high among writers. Those who perished during the Great Purge include:
[[Image:Khadija Gaibova.jpg|thumb|180px|Pianist [Gayibova](Khadija)(Khadija Gayibova), executed in 1938.]]
[[Image:Aino Forsten.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=0.8|[Forsten](Aino)(Aino Forsten); (1885–1937) Finnish educator and [Democratic](Social)(Social Democratic Party of Finland) politician, later arrested and executed.]]
[[File:1930-MushketovD.jpg|thumb|180px|Paleontologist and geologist [Mushketov](Dmitrii)(Dmitrii Mushketov), executed in 1938.]]
[[File:VSOshchepkov1912.jpg|thumb|180px|[Oshchepkov](Vasili)(Vasili Oshchepkov), who popularized [judo](judo) in the USSR and co-invented [sambo](Sambo (martial art)). He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and [executed](extrajudicially)(extrajudicial execution) in the [Butyrka](Butyrka) in 1938.]]
indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to [Cherdyn](Cherdyn, Perm Krai) for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok.Caxtonian, [*Collecting Mandelstam*](http://www.ideals.uiuc.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1095/martinCaxtonian.pdf?sequence=2), November 2006 Pasternak himself was nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445
| Writer [Babel](Isaac)(Isaac Babel) was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer [Malraux](André)(André Malraux) to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky, as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in [prison](Butyrka)(Butyrka prison).The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995
| Writer [Pilnyak](Boris)(Boris Pilnyak) was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with [[André Gide|[André] Gide]], and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward.
| Theatre director [Meyerhold](Vsevolod)(Vsevolod Meyerhold) was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress [Raikh](Zinaida)(Zinaida Reich), was murdered in her apartment.Kern, Gary. *A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror.* Enigma Books, 2003. p. 111 In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote:
The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.
| Georgian poet [Tabidze](Titsian)(Titsian Tabidze) was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet [Besiki](Besiki) as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.
| Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, [Iashvili](Paolo)(Paolo Iashvili), having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the [of the people](enemies)(enemy of the people), shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union.Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), *The Making of the Georgian Nation* (2nd ed.), p. 272. [University Press](Indiana)(Indiana University Press), He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When [Beria](Lavrentiy)(Lavrentiy Beria), chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself.
| In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.
| [Sten](Jan)(Jan Sten), philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's [dialectic](dialectic). (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the [of Soviet Oppositions](Bloc)(Bloc of Soviet Oppositions) which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "[Menshevi](Mensheviks)zing idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in [prison](Lefortovo)(Lefortovo prison).Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438
| Poet [Klyuev](Nikolai)(Nikolai Klyuev) was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.
| Russian linguist [Durnovo](Nikolai)(Nikolai Nikolayevich Durnovo), born into the [noble family](Durnovo)(House of Durnovo), was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature.
| [Mari](Mari people) poet and playwright [Chavain](Sergei)(Sergei Chavain) was executed in [Yoshkar-Ola](Yoshkar-Ola) on 11 November 1937. The [prize](State)(State Prizes of the Soviet Republics) of [El](Mari)(Mari El) is named after Chavain.
| Ukrainian theater and movie director [Kurbas](Les)(Les Kurbas), considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937.
| Russian writer and explorer [Kravkov](Maximilian)(Maximilian Kravkov) was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.
| Russian [Esperanto](Esperanto) writer and translator [Nekrasov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Vladimirovich Nekrasov) was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer [Varankin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Varankin) was executed on 3 October 1938.
| Playwright and avant-garde poet [Oleynikov](Nikolay)(Nikolay Oleynikov) was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.
| [Yakut](Yakuts) writer [Oyunsky](Platon)(Platon Oyunsky), seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939.
| Russian dramaturge [Piotrovsky](Adrian)(Adrian Piotrovsky), responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev))*, was executed on 21 November 1937.
| [Shumyatsky](Boris)(Boris Shumyatsky), *de facto* executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the [film industry](Soviet)(Soviet film industry).
| Sinologist [Shchutsky](Julian)(Julian Shchutsky) was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.
| Russian linguist [Nevsky](Nikolai)(Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky), an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky.
| Ukrainian drama writer [Kulish](Mykola)(Mykola Kulish) was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of [Renaissance](Executed)(Executed Renaissance).}}
### Western émigré victims
Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at [firing range](Butovo)(Butovo firing range). In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at [Sandarmokh](Sandarmokh).
[Earl Haynes](John)(John Earl Haynes) and [Klehr](Harvey)(Harvey Klehr). "[American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh](http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page99.html)" (appendix to *In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage*).
127 [Canadian](Finnish)(Finnish Canadian)s were also shot and buried there.
### Executions of Gulag inmates
Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000 executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.
### Mongolian Great Purge
During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the [People's Republic](Mongolian)(Mongolian People's Republic), established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist [lama](lama)s made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders.Christopher Kaplonski, "[Thirty thousand bullets](http://www.chriskaplonski.com/downloads/bullets.pdf)", in: *Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe*, London, 2002, pp. 155–68 Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.
### Xinjiang Great Purge
The pro-Soviet leader [Shicai](Sheng)(Sheng Shicai) of [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The [War (1937)](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang War (1937)) broke out amid the purge.Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958 Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General Garegin Apresoff, General [Hushan](Ma)(Ma Hushan), [Shaowu](Ma)(Ma Shaowu), Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and [Hoja-Niyaz](Hoja-Niyaz) were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.
## Timeline
The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:
; October 1936 – February 1937: Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.
; March – June 1937: Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.
; July 1937 – October 1938: Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.
; November 1938 – 1939: Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.
## End
In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed. [Beria](Lavrentiy)(Lavrentiy Beria) succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of [Sovnarkom](Sovnarkom) USSR and [Committee](Central)(Central Committee) of VKP(b) ([about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation](Decree)(Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation)) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria, cancelled most of the [orders of systematic repression](NKVD)(Mass operations of the NKVD) and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges. When Yezhov was executed, Stalin claimed in a private conversation with [Yakovlev](Aleksandr)(Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev) that it was because he had killed many innocent people.
Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s. [Solzhenitsyn](Aleksandr)(Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn) (a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in *[Gulag Archipelago](The)(The Gulag Archipelago)* his view of the timeline of *all* the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of purges, such as the [five-year plan](first)(first five-year plan) of 1928–1933's collectivization and [dekulakization](dekulakization), were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public.
In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union [Yegorov](Alexander)(Alexander Yegorov (military)), arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander [Fedko](Ivan)(Ivan Fedko), arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor [I. Bondar](G.)(Georgy Bondar), arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously [rehabilitated](rehabilitation (Soviet)).
[[File:Kosior.jpg|thumb|182x182px|Polish-born Soviet politician [Kosior](Stanislav)(Stanislav Kosior), a contributor to the [famine in Ukraine](1932–33)(Holodomor), was executed in 1939.]]
When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "ten years [the right of correspondence](without)(without the right of correspondence)" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked [MGB](Ministry for State Security (USSR)) about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.
## Western reactions
Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest, [Sartre](Jean-Paul)(Jean-Paul Sartre) took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.
According to [Conquest](Robert)(Robert Conquest) in his 1968 book ''The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties*, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably [Duranty](Walter)(Walter Duranty) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, [E. Davies](Joseph)(Joseph E. Davies), who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and [Beatrice](Beatrice Webb) and [Webb](Sidney)(Sidney Webb), authors of *Soviet Communism: A New Civilization*. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably *[Manchester Guardian](The)(The Guardian)''. The American journalist [R. Knickerbocker](H.)(H. R. Knickerbocker) also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 [kulaks] ... died at once, or within a few years."
Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the [Party USA](Communist)(Communist Party USA) newspaper, the *[Worker](Daily)(Daily Worker)*, who, following the lead of *The New York Times*, published the [Speech](Secret)(On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences) in full.
## Rehabilitation
[[Soviet Union 1963 CPA 2824 stamp (Russian Civil War Hero Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky. Map of Eastern Front of Russian Civil War).jpg|thumb|right|Posthumously rehabilitated, Tukhachevsky on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union](Image:The)]
[[File:WP 20130802 006.jpg|thumb|Monument to victims of the repressions in [Ulaanbaatar](Ulaanbaatar), Mongolia]]
The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the [20th](20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) [CPSU](Communist Party of the Soviet Union) congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("[rehabilitated](Rehabilitation (Soviet))") in 1957. The former Politburo members [Rudzutak](Yan)(Yan Rudzutak) and [Kosior](Stanislav)(Stanislav Kosior) and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to [theory](Marxist)(Marxist theory), was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book *Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s* (Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30-50-х годов) (1991) contains a large amount of newly presented original archive material: transcripts of interrogations, letters of convicts, and photos. The material demonstrates in detail how numerous show trials were fabricated.
## Number of people executed
Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the [Gulag](Gulag), and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein.
According to [Conquest](Robert)(Robert Conquest), a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence "ten years [the right of correspondence](without)(without the right of correspondence)" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at [Vinnitsa](Vinnytsia massacre) and [Kuropaty](Kuropaty) were of individuals who had received this sentence.Robert Conquest, *The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition*, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287 Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of *The Great Terror*, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million".Robert Conquest, Preface, *The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition*, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi
According to [Arch Getty](J.)(J. Arch Getty) and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years [1937–38] was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.
The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with [Molotov](Vyacheslav)(Vyacheslav Molotov) saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".Chuev, Feliks. *Molotov Remembers*. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285
[[archive 910794 Memorial events in Bykovnya Graves reserve.jpg|thumb|Memorial events in Bykovnya Graves reserve.](File:RIAN)]
## Stalin's role
[[File:Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg|thumb|upright|A list from the Great Purge signed by [Molotov](Vyacheslav Molotov), [Stalin](Joseph Stalin), [Voroshilov](Kliment Voroshilov), [Kaganovich](Lazar Kaganovich), and [Zhdanov](Andrei Zhdanov)]]
Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian [V. Khlevniuk](Oleg)(Oleg Khlevniuk) states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record".Oleg V. Khlevniuk. *Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle.* [University Press](Yale)(Yale University Press), 2008. p. xix Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!"Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. ''Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940.* [Institution Press](Hoover)(Hoover Institution Press), 2002. p. 111 Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally.Getty & Naumov, *The Road to Terror''. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the [boyars](boyars) [the Terrible](Ivan)(Ivan the Terrible) got rid of? No one."Quoted in [Volkogonov](Dmitri)(Dmitri Volkogonov), *Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy* (New York, 1991), p. 210.
It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former [Trotskyists](Trotskyism) and [Zinovievist](Zinovievist)s which "would be a bigger victory".
[G. Wheatcroft](Stephen)(Stephen G. Wheatcroft) posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:
Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast, wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.
## Soviet investigation commissions
[[archive 749019 Opening of monument to victims of political repressions.jpg|thumb|upright|Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990](File:RIAN)]
At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich, [Suslov](Mikhail Suslov), [Furtseva](Furtseva), [Shvernik](Nikolay Shvernik), [Aristov](Averky Aristov), [Pospelov](Pospelov), and [Rudenko](Roman Rudenko). They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky *et al.* should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".
The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("[Commission](Shvernik)(Shvernik Commission)"). It included [Shelepin](Alexander Shelepin), Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated:
Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov....
Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"Chuev, Feliks. *Molotov Remembers*. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294
[[of sorrow at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow.jpg|thumb|300px|"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988](File:Wall)]
## Mass graves and memorials
In the late 1980s, with the formation of the [Society](Memorial)(Memorial Society) and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of [Gorbachev](Mikhail Gorbachev)'s [glasnost](glasnost) ("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there.
In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at [Kurapaty](Kurapaty) in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former [prison camp](Solovki)(Solovki prison camp) in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the [Bykivnia](Bykivnia) killing fields near [Kyiv](Kyiv), are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses.
In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.
On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the [of Sorrow](Wall)(Wall of Sorrow), an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime.
In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in [Odesa](Odesa), Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of [International Airport](Odesa)(Odesa International Airport). The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge.
File:Kurapaty 1989 meeting.jpg|The [Kuropaty](Kuropaty) mass grave site near [Minsk](Minsk), Belarus
File:КрасныйБор.jpg|The *Krasny Bor* memorial cemetery near [Petrozavodsk](Petrozavodsk), Russia
File:Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg|A memorial to [Polish](Poles in the Soviet Union) victims of Stalinist repression, [Tomsk](Tomsk), Russia
File:Кировский район Донецка 302.jpg|A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of [Donetsk](Donetsk), Ukraine
File:Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg|A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia
File:Сандормох25.jpg|The monumental slab at the entrance to the [Sandarmokh](Sandarmokh) burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia
## Historical interpretations
The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast [engineering](social)(Social engineering (political science)) campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003).
According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution.
So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.
Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity.Peter Whitewood, ''The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military* (2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276.Ronald Grigor Suny, review, *Historian* (2018) 80#1: 177–79.For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review, *American Historical Review'' (2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." *Military History Quarterly* 27.1 (2014): 38–45. [W. Thurston](Robert)(Robert W. Thurston) reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.
## See also
* [mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin](Excess)(Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin)
* [of Soviet Union-related articles](Index)(Index of Soviet Union-related articles)
* [of the Great Purge](Timeline)(Timeline of the Great Purge)
* [of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)](History)(History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953))
* [victims of the Great Purge](Armenian)(Armenian victims of the Great Purge)
* [members of traitors to the Motherland](Family)(Family members of traitors to the Motherland)
* [in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945](Orphans)(Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945)
* [killings under communist regimes](Mass)(Mass killings under communist regimes)
* [Lustration](Lustration)
## References
### Citations
### Sources
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## Further reading
* A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev. *Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s*. Moscow, 2003.
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* Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited." *Journal of Soviet Military Studies* 3.1 (1990): 46–65.
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* Whitewood, Peter. ''The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military* (2015)
* Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38." *Slavonic & East European Review* 93.2 (2015): 286–314. [online](http://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/958/1/slaveasteurorev2.93.2.0286.pdf)
* —— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." *Europe-Asia Studies* 67.1 (2015): 102–22.
* —— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." *Journal of Strategic Studies* (2019): 1–24.
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### Film
* Pultz, David, dir. 1997. *Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror* [documentary film](81:00,). Narrated by [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep). US
## External links
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* [*The Case of Bukharin''](http://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1938/trial/)Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79
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* [Werth](Nicolas)(Nicolas Werth) [Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)](http://www.massviolence.org/The-NKVD-Mass-Secret-Operation-no-00447-August-1937)
* ["Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38"](http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/1999/9905/9905arc2.cfm) by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999
[Purge](Category:Great)(Category:Great Purge)
[conflicts](Category:1930s)(Category:1930s conflicts)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:1930s)(Category:1930s in the Soviet Union)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:1936)(Category:1936 in the Soviet Union)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:1937)(Category:1937 in the Soviet Union)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:1938)(Category:1938 in the Soviet Union)
[Stalin](Category:Joseph)(Category:Joseph Stalin)
[Category:NKVD](Category:NKVD)
[and cultural purges](Category:Political)(Category:Political and cultural purges)
[repression in the Soviet Union](Category:Political)(Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union)
[of the Soviet Union](Category:Politics)(Category:Politics of the Soviet Union)
[in Russia](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in Russia)
[in Ukraine](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in Ukraine)
[in Uzbekistan](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in Uzbekistan)
[in Belarus](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in Belarus)
[in Armenia](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in Armenia)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:Death)(Category:Death in the Soviet Union)
[Category:Politicides](Category:Politicides)
[Category:Stalinism](Category:Stalinism)
[murder in 1937](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass murder in 1937)
[murder in 1938](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass murder in 1938)
[phraseology](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet phraseology)
[by the Soviet Union](Category:Persecution)(Category:Persecution by the Soviet Union)
[of intellectuals](Category:Persecution)(Category:Persecution of intellectuals)
[in the Soviet Union](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in the Soviet Union)
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Hulu
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hulu
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# Hulu
*Revision ID: 1159716422 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T03:02:33Z*
---
| parent = [Streaming](Disney)(Disney Streaming)([Entertainment](Disney)(Disney Entertainment))
| owner =
| url =
| key_people = Joe Earley (President)
| advertising = Yes
| registration = Required
| users = 48.2 million ()
| current_status = Active
}}
**Hulu** () is an American [subscription](Subscription business model) [service](streaming)(Streaming media) majority-owned by [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company), with [Comcast](Comcast)'s [NBCUniversal](NBCUniversal) holding a minority stake that is pending sale to Disney; which would make Hulu into a wholly owned subsidiary of Disney. It was launched on October 29, 2007 and offers a library of films and television series from studios including [Century Studios](20th)(20th Century Studios), [Pictures](Searchlight)(Searchlight Pictures), [Television Studios](Disney)(Disney Television Studios), [ABC](American Broadcasting Company), [Freeform](Freeform (TV channel)), and [Networks](FX)(FX Networks) among others, as well as [original programming](Hulu)(List of Hulu original programming). Currently, the service is a palate for content not promoted on either [Disney+](Disney+) or [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)).
Hulu was initially established as a [venture](joint)(joint venture) between [Corporation](News)(News Corporation) and NBC Universal, [Equity](Providence)(Providence Equity), and later The Walt Disney Company, serving as an aggregation of recent episodes of television series from their respective [broadcasting](television)(television broadcasting). In 2010, Hulu launched a subscription service, initially [brand](brand)ed as "Hulu Plus", which featured full seasons of programs from the companies and other partners, and un-delayed access to new episodes. In 2017, the company launched Hulu with Live TV—an [over-the-top](Over-the-top media service) live TV service featuring [programing](broadcast)(Broadcast programming) channels.
, Hulu has a total of 48.2 million subscribers in United States. In 2011, Hulu launched [services in Japan](its)(Hulu Japan), marking its first and only international expansion. However, in 2014, Hulu Japan was spun off and acquired by [TV](Nippon)(Nippon TV).
Hulu became available in India on June 1, 2023 as a channel on [Hotstar](Disney+)(Disney+ Hotstar). The TV shows that were available through the [World](Star)(Star World (Indian TV channel)) channel on Disney+ Hotstar were moved to the Hulu channel. The Hulu channel on Disney+ Hotstar is used to release shows from [ABC](American Broadcasting Company), [Freeform](Freeform (TV channel)), [Networks](FX)(FX Networks) and [Television](20th)(20th Television) along with Hulu Originals.
## Etymology
The name Hulu comes from two [Chinese](Mandarin)(Standard Chinese) characters, *húlu* ([葫芦](wikt:葫芦)/[葫蘆](wikt:葫蘆)), "[calabash](calabash); bottle gourd", and *hùlù* ([互录](wikt:互录)/[互錄](wikt:互錄)), "interactive recording".
[Kilar](Jason)(Jason Kilar), who served as CEO of Hulu, said the name comes from a [proverb](Chinese)(Chinese proverbs):}}
## History
### Early years (2007–2010)
Individuals who were instrumental in the founding of Hulu include Bruce Campbell, Peter Chernin, JB Perrette, [Lang](Mike)(Mike Lang (film executive)), [Comstock](Beth)(Beth Comstock), George Kliavkoff, Darren Feher, and [Kilar](Jason)(Jason Kilar). Hulu was announced in March 2007 with [AOL](AOL), [Universal](NBC)(NBCUniversal) (then co-owned by [Electric](General)(General Electric) and [Vivendi](Vivendi)), [MSN](MSN), [Myspace](Myspace), and [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) planned as "initial distribution partners". Jason Kilar was named Hulu CEO in late 2007.
The name *Hulu* was chosen in late August 2007, when the website went live with an announcement only and no content. It invited users to leave their email addresses for the upcoming [test](beta)(Software release life cycle). In October 2007, Hulu began the private beta testing by invitation, and later allowed users to invite friends. Hulu launched for public access in the United States on March 12, 2008. The first product to launch was the HULU Syndication network, which was designed and developed by the NBC Universal team from New York, on October 29, 2007, led by Tom Sharma, followed by the Hulu.com destinations site.
Hulu began an advertising campaign during NBC's broadcast of [Bowl XLIII](Super)(Super Bowl XLIII) with an initial ad starring [Baldwin](Alec)(Alec Baldwin) titled "Alec in Huluwood". Advertisements have since aired featuring [Dushku](Eliza)(Eliza Dushku), [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane), [Leary](Denis)(Denis Leary), and [Arnett](Will)(Will Arnett).
In July 2007, [Equity](Providence)(Providence Equity), the owner of [Television](Newport)(Newport Television), became one of the earliest "outside" investors by purchasing a 10 percent stake in the company for US$100 million [investment](equity)(equity (finance)), before the company was known as "Hulu". With its investment came a seat on the board of directors, where Providence was said to act as an "independent voice on the board". In April 2009, [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) joined the Hulu consortium as a stakeholder, with plans to offer content from [ABC](American Broadcasting Company), [ESPN](ESPN) and [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel).
### Multiple joint ventures (2010–2019)
Early in 2010, Hulu chief executive Jason Kilar said the service had made a profit in two quarters and that the company could top $100 million in revenue by summer 2010, more than its income for all of 2009. [ComScore](Comscore) says monthly video streams reached 903 million in January 2010, over three times the figure for a year earlier, and second only to [YouTube](YouTube).
On August 16, 2010, a report revealed that Hulu was planning an [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) (IPO) which could value the company at more than $2 billion.
On June 21, 2011, *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* reported that an "unsolicited offer" caused Hulu to begin "weighing whether to sell itself". However, on October 13, 2011, Hulu and its owners announced that they would not sell the company, as none of the bidders offered an amount that was satisfactory to its owners. In September of that year, the [service](Hulu Japan) launched in [Japan](Japan); marking Hulu's first international expansion.
Hulu generated $420 million in revenue in 2011, $80 million short of the company's target. The vacant CEO post was officially filled by former Fox Networks President Mike Hopkins on October 17, 2013.
In October 2012, Providence sold its 10 percent stake to "Hulu's media owners" and ceased participation in the board.
On February 27, 2014, [Television Network Corporation](Nippon)(Nippon TV) acquired Hulu's [business](Japanese)(Hulu Japan). The service would retain the "Hulu" brand and technology in Japan under a subsidiary of Nippon as part of a separate agreement.
On August 3, 2016, Time Warner (later [WarnerMedia](WarnerMedia), now [Bros. Discovery](Warner)(Warner Bros. Discovery)) acquired a 10 percent stake of Hulu.
Hopkins exited and was named Sony Pictures TV Chairman. Fox Networks Group COO Randy Freer was named CEO on October 24, 2017.
### Disney majority ownership (2019–present)
On March 20, 2019, Disney [acquired](Acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney) [Century Fox](21st)(21st Century Fox), giving it a 60% [stake](majority)(controlling interest) in Hulu. On April 15, 2019, WarnerMedia sold its 10% stake in Hulu back to the company for $1.43 billion, leaving Disney with 67% and Comcast with 33%. Comcast, the only other shareholder, announced on May 14, 2019, that it had agreed to cede its control to Disney, and reached an agreement for Disney to purchase its 33% stake in the company as early as 2024.
[[history of Hulu.|left|thumb|257x257px|Ownership history of Hulu.](File:Huluownership.jpg|alt=Ownership)]
On May 14, 2019, Comcast relinquished its control in Hulu to Disney effective immediately. As a result, the streaming service became a division of [Media and Entertainment Distribution](Disney)(Disney Media and Entertainment Distribution) (DTCI) with Comcast effectively becoming a [partner](silent)(Partnership#Silent partners). Under the agreement, Comcast's 33% stake can be sold to Disney at [market value](fair)(fair market value) as early as 2024. The fair market value will be determined at that time, but Disney guaranteed a minimum valuation of the entire company at $27.5 billion (valuing the Comcast stake as worth at least $9.075 billion). Randy Freer would report to Disney executive [Mayer](Kevin)(Kevin A. Mayer).
In the wake of the deal, Disney CEO [Iger](Bob)(Bob Iger) explained that direct integration of Hulu with Disney's studios would allow increased investments in original content, which would in turn allow it to "make the service even more compelling and a greater value for consumers". Disney stated that its control of Hulu was the third major component of its direct-to-consumer strategy, complementing its sports streaming service [ESPN+](ESPN+), and its then-forthcoming [Disney+](Disney+). Hulu would be oriented towards "general" entertainment and content targeting mature audiences. NBCUniversal will continue to license its content to the service through at least 2024, but it will have the option to begin transitioning its exclusivity deals with Hulu to non-exclusive terms beginning in 2020, and to end other content deals beginning in 2022.
[[File:Kelly Campbell on AdWeek.jpg|thumb|upright|Kelly Campbell, chief marketing officer, later president of Hulu, speaks to *[AdWeek](Adweek)* in 2019.]]
On July 31, 2019, Disney reorganized Hulu's reporting structure, placing Hulu's Scripted Originals team under [General Entertainment Content](Disney)(Disney General Entertainment Content). Under the new structure, Hulu's SVP of Original Scripted Content would report directly to the chairman of Disney Television Studios and ABC Entertainment. As of November 2019, [FX](FX (TV channel)#FX Networks) and [Searchlight](Fox)(Searchlight Pictures) were assigned to supply Hulu with content. In January 2020, Disney eliminated the role of Hulu CEO, with its top executives to report directly to DTCI and Walt Disney Television. On January 31, 2020, Freer resigned as CEO of Hulu and the position was eliminated; Hulu's top executives now report directly to DTCI and Walt Disney Television.
In June 2021, it was reported that Comcast had accused Disney of undermining Hulu's growth and value by not engaging in international expansion of the service, having instead added the [Disney+](Star)(Star (Disney+)) brand as an extension of Disney+ in selected markets. In August 2021, Disney CEO [Chapek](Bob)(Bob Chapek) suggested that Hulu, Disney+, and ESPN+ could similarly be merged in the future, citing that the existing bundle offering of the services had a lower rate of [churn](Churn rate) than the individual services, but in the U.S. "there may also be certain constraints that we're under that could at least, from a short-term standpoint, limit our ability to do what long term we might feel was ideal, but frankly we don't know what’s ideal yet."
On September 7, 2021, Hulu announced that the prices of its main video on-demand and ad-free plans would increase by $1 each to $6.99 and $12.99 per-month beginning October 8. In October 2021, Hulu president Kelly Campbell resigned, and was subsequently appointed the president of NBCUniversal's competing service [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)). In its third-quarter earnings report, Comcast CFO Mike Cavanagh stated of Hulu that they were "happy to be along for that ride", and projected that "It’ll be fine if we stay until the end because I expect the value to keep increasing."
On November 22, 2021, Disney and WarnerMedia reached a deal to let select [Century Studios](20th)(20th Century Studios) and [Pictures](Searchlight)(Searchlight Pictures) films stream on Disney+, Hulu and HBO Max in 2022. On the same day, *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* reported that Comcast was considering pulling some content from Hulu to boost their Peacock streaming service. On March 4, 2022, it was reported that NBCUniversal will pull content from Hulu and move them to Peacock, beginning in September. In January 2022, Joe Earley became president of Hulu.
In September 2022, Chapek indicated that Disney is considering merging Hulu into Disney+ because the model had been successful outside the United States without any content friction. To accelerate the plan, he said that Disney would love to buy out Comcast's 33.3% stake in Hulu earlier than their previously agreed 2024 timeline. However, Comcast had not offered reasonable terms for an early buyout and had instead expressed interest in buying Hulu themselves if it were for sale.
On May 10, 2023, Disney announced that they would introduce an app in the US which combines Disney+ and Hulu content by the end of 2023.
On May 18, it was announced that Disney+ and Hulu will remove nearly 60 original films and series on May 26 in order to "cut costs." The news sparked some backlash, mostly towards the initial decision to remove *[Howard](Howard (film))*, the documentary on the life of lyricist [Ashman](Howard)(Howard Ashman), on the eve of [Month](Pride)(Pride Month) and the release of the [adaptation](live-action)(The Little Mermaid (2023 film)) of *The Little Mermaid*. However, it was confirmed the next day that film will remain available on the service.
On June 1, 2023, Hulu made its first Disney-controlled global expansion, which launched as a content hub under [Hotstar](Disney+)(Hotstar) in India.
## Content
### Original content
From January 17, 2011, to April 24, 2014, Hulu streamed its own in-house web series *[Morning After](The)(The Morning After (web series))*, a light-hearted pop-culture news show. It was produced by Hulu in conjunction with [Hall](Jace)(Jace Hall)'s HDFilms and stars Brian Kimmet and [Gonzaga](Ginger)(Ginger Gonzaga). Producing the show was a first for the company, which in the past has been primarily a content distributor.
On January 16, 2012, Hulu announced that it would be airing its first original script based program, titled *[Battleground](Battleground (TV series))*, which premiered in February 2012. The program aired on Hulu's free web service rather than on the subscription-based [Menu](Wii)(Wii Menu). *Battleground* is described as a documentary-style political drama.Rother, Larry, January 16, 2012, ["Hulu Announces First Original-Script-Based Program".](http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/16/hulu-announces-first-original-script-based-program/)
Later that same month, Hulu announced it would air *The Fashion Fund*, a six-part reality series, and the winner of the show would receive $300,000 to start their career.Poggi Jeanine January 27, 2012. [Hulu Adds Unscripted Series 'The Fashion Fund,' Accelerating Original Content Effort."](http://adage.com/article/mediaworks/hulu-introduces-fashion-fund-original-reality-series/232384/)
To continue with its original programming movement, Hulu announced that there would be a total of seven original programs that were planned to air on its service: *Battleground*, *Day in the Life*, and *Up to Speed* were previously mentioned; and on April 19, Hulu added four more shows to its list: ''Don't Quit Your Daydream*, *Flow*, *The Awesomes*, and *We Got Next*. Some of these programs began airing in 2012, while others premiered over the next few years.
On May 21, 2012, Hulu announced it would be bringing [Smith](Kevin)(Kevin Smith) to its lineup of original programming. Smith hosts a movie discussion show titled *[Spoilers](Spoilers (TV series))*, which began airing in mid-2012.
In March 2016, [Premiere](Lionsgate)(Lionsgate Premiere) and Hulu jointly acquired distribution rights to the film *[Joshy](Joshy (film))'', which was later released on August 12, 2016.
On May 4, 2016, Hulu acquired *[Beatles: Eight Days a Week](The)(The Beatles: Eight Days a Week)*, as its first documentary acquisition, as part of a planned Hulu Documentary Films collection. The film premiered theatrically on September 15, before debuting on the streaming service on September 17.
Since September 2022, selected International programs that released on [Disney+](Disney+)’s [Hub](Star)(Star (Disney+)) and [Disney+](Disney+) original International content that is over the rating limit (maximum TV-14 and PG-13) in United States market begins to release on Hulu.
### Content partners
Following the start of its service, Hulu signed deals with several new content providers making additional material available to consumers. On April 30, 2009, [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) announced that it would join the venture, purchasing a 27 percent stake in Hulu.
Starting August 15, 2011, viewers of content from Fox and related networks are required to authenticate paid cable or satellite service wherever Fox streams episodes, including on Hulu, to be able to watch them the morning after the first airing. Non-subscribers will see those episodes delayed a week before they are viewable.[Stelter](Brian)(Brian Stelter), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. "[Fox to Limit Next-Day Streaming on Hulu to Paying Cable Customers](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/27/business/media/fox-to-limit-next-day-streaming-on-hulu.html) ". July 26, 2011. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
On October 28, 2011, Hulu announced that they had inked a five-year deal with [CW](The)(The CW), giving the streaming site access to next-day content from five of the six major networks.Wasserman, Todd, [Mashable](Mashable) [http://mashable.com/2011/10/28/hulu-gossip-girl-cw/] On September 18, 2013, Hulu announced a multi-year deal with the [BBC](BBC) that would deliver 2,000 episodes from 144 different titles in the first 12 months.
In 2015, Hulu began offering content from [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) for an additional $8.99/month, which is cheaper than Showtime's own streaming service. On June 16, 2016, Hulu announced a deal with the Disney-ABC Television Group for the exclusive SVOD rights to past seasons of seven Disney Channel, Disney Junior and Disney XD series, and more than 20 Disney Channel original movies.
The CW's agreement with Hulu ended September 18, 2016; in-season streaming of current CW programs moved to the network's own digital platforms, and Netflix began to carry past seasons of The CW's programs through 2019. , a limited amount of content from [CBS](CBS)'s library is available on-demand, mostly limited to shows that are no longer producing new episodes. On January 4, 2017, it was reported that a deal was reached to bring live broadcasts of CBS and several affiliated channels to Hulu's upcoming live streaming service as well as to make more shows available on-demand.
In April 2018, Hulu announced a partnership with [Spotify](Spotify) that allows users to purchase both streaming services for a discounted price per month. This discount also includes an even larger discounted rate for university students.
Hulu distributes video on its own website and syndicates its hosting to other sites, and allows users to embed Hulu clips on their websites. In addition to NBC, ABC and Fox programs and movies, Hulu carries shows from networks: [A&E](A&E (TV channel)), [Ten Network](Big)(Big Ten Network), [Bravo](Bravo (American TV channel)), [E!](E!), [Sports 2](Fox)(Fox Sports 2), [FX](FX (TV channel)), [PBS](PBS), [Network](NFL)(NFL Network), [Oxygen](Oxygen (TV channel)), [America](RT)(RT America), [Sports 1](Fox)(Fox Sports 1), [SundanceTV](SundanceTV), [Syfy](Syfy), [Network](USA)(USA Network), [NBCSN](NBCSN), and online comedy sources such as [News Network](Onion)(Onion News Network). Hulu retains between thirty and fifty percent of advertising revenue generated by the shows it distributes.
In November 2009, Hulu also began to establish partnerships with record labels to host music videos and concert performances on the site, including [EMI](EMI) in November 2009, and [Music Group](Warner)(Warner Music Group) in December 2009.
In early March 2010, [Viacom](Viacom (2005–2019)) announced that it was pulling two of the website's most popular shows, *[Colbert Report](The)(The Colbert Report)* and *[Daily Show](The)(The Daily Show)*, off Hulu.*[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* article: "[Comedy Central's 'The Daily Show' and 'The Colbert Report' off Hulu](http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/2010/03/03/2010-03-03_comedy_central_pulls_daily_show_and_colbert_off_hulu.html) ." The programs had been airing on Hulu since late 2008. A spokesman for [Viacom](Viacom (2005–present)) noted that "in the current economic model, there is not that much in it for us to continue at this time. If they can get to the point where the monetization model is better, then we may go back."Multichannel News article: "[Dauman: Vivendi Could Return To Hulu](http://www.multichannel.com/article/449861-Dauman_Vivendi_Could_Return_To_Hulu.php)." In February 2011, both shows were made available for streaming on Hulu again. *The Daily Show* was again removed from Hulu in March 2017 in order to push viewers to watch the program on Viacom and Comedy Central's apps.
In 2012, [Media](Viz)(Viz Media), [of America](Aniplex)(Aniplex of America), and other distributors teamed up to create [Alley](Neon)(Neon Alley). It had launched on October 2, 2012, as a 24/7 web channel, but in 2014 it had switched to Hulu-only. The site contained exclusive dub premieres with anime such as *[World](Accel)(Accel World)*, *[Exorcist](Blue)(Blue Exorcist)*, *[The Labyrinth of Magic](Magi:)(Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic)*, *[Fate/Zero](Fate/Zero)* and the uncut version of *[Moon](Sailor)(Sailor Moon)*. It also had shows such as *[Naruto](Naruto)* and *[Shippuden](Naruto:)(Naruto: Shippuden)*, *[Note](Death)(Death Note)*, *[Inuyasha](Inuyasha)*, *[Bakuman](Bakuman)*, *[½](Ranma)(Ranma ½)*, *[Piece](One)(One Piece)*, *[Punch Man](One)(One Punch Man)*, and *[Bleach](Bleach (manga))*. It went defunct on May 4, 2016. However, Hulu still hosts over 300 anime from [Funimation](Funimation), [of America](Aniplex)(Aniplex of America), [Media](Viz)(Viz Media), and [Filmworks](Sentai)(Sentai Filmworks), and selected anime began resume to release on Hulu following the deal between Disney and Sony Pictures since 2021.
In April 2017, Hulu signed a first-run license deal with [Pictures](Annapurna)(Annapurna Pictures). Hulu also has output deals with [Films](IFC)(IFC Films) and [Pictures](Magnolia)(Magnolia Pictures).
New releases from 20th Century Studios will not immediately be available on either Disney+ or Hulu, as it has an existing output deal with [HBO](HBO) until 2022.
Hulu in May 2018 announced its first-ever license deal with [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation), becoming the exclusive streaming home for future DWA movies feature films, as well as library films. DWA had streamed exclusively through Netflix since 2013. Films will be available on the service in 2019, while original series will be available later in 2020.
In October 2018, [PocketWatch](PocketWatch (company)) launched 90 22-minute episodes of repackaged content from their YouTube creator partners on Hulu and [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) and partnered with [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) to license them to international distributors.
On December 4, 2018, Hulu confirmed an exclusive multi-year first-look SVOD deal with [Funimation](Funimation).
In June 2019, Hulu and [FX](FX (TV channel)) signed an output deal with [Lionsgate](Lionsgate), where Hulu and FX would respectably gain the streaming and TV rights to films released under the Lionsgate label in 2020 and 2021.
In August 2019, Hulu agreed to control the streaming rights to upcoming films released by [Street](Bleecker)(Bleecker Street (company)).
On March 2, 2020, Hulu launched a dedicated "hub" for content from FX branded as "[on Hulu](FX)(FX on Hulu)", with the service becoming the exclusive streaming outlet for current and past series from the network. Beginning with *[Breeders](Breeders (TV series))*, new episodes of FX original series also become available on Hulu immediately after their television airing, and selected series will also premiere exclusively on the service.
On January 14, 2021, it was announced that following an exclusive 3-week [IMAX](IMAX) engagement, [Searchlight](Searchlight Pictures)'s *[Nomadland](Nomadland (film))* would be released on Hulu alongside a regular limited theatrical and drive-in run in the United States on February 19.
On April 21, 2021, Disney reached a deal for television and streaming rights to [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) films from 2022 through 2026, which includes library rights for some of its franchises like *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man in film)*, *[Jumanji](Jumanji (franchise))* and *[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania)* franchises, etc., and licensing anime under [Funimation](Funimation) and [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) brands and anime released by [of America](Aniplex)(Aniplex of America), and post-pay-one window rights to new releases (after their exclusivity period with Netflix expires). This deal covers Disney+, Hulu, and Disney's television channels. On May 17, 2021, it started [Collective](Onyx)(Onyx Collective) which is a content brand for creators.
On August 31, 2021, Disney announced that it would fold the U.S. version of [Hotstar](Hotstar)—a niche streaming service targeting [Americans](Indian)(Indian Americans)—in late-2022, with its [entertainment content](original)(List of Hotstar original programming) migrating to Hulu. Since August 2021, [India Networks](Star)(Star India) programming has been available to Hulu subscribers.
## Services
### Hulu on demand service
Hulu's subscription service was launched in [release life cycle](Software)(Software release life cycle) on June 29, 2010, and officially launched on November 17, 2010, under the branding **Hulu Plus**. The service remained advertising-supported, but it offers an expanded content library including full seasons, day-after access to current season content and more episodes of shows available. Hulu also launched Hulu Plus apps on other types of devices, including mobile, [media player](digital)(digital media player)s, and [game console](video)(video game console)s. By the end of 2011, Hulu Plus had around 1.5 million subscribers.Nakashima, Ryan January 13, 2012. ["Hulu Plus ends year with 1.5 million subscribers"](http://www.newsday.com/business/hulu-plus-ends-year-with-1-5-million-subscribers-1.3448597).
On April 29, 2015, it was announced that the "Hulu Plus" branding would be discontinued, and that the service would be henceforth marketed as simply "Hulu" to place it in-line with its subscription-only competitors. By then, the service had grown to 9 million subscribers.
The *Wall Street Journal* reported in July 2015 that Hulu was exploring an advertising-free subscription option for around $12 to $14 a month. This was confirmed as going forward , with a "No Commercials" plan priced at $11.99, $4 more than the $7.99 monthly rate for a "Limited Commercials" subscription, though a few highlighted network series (fewer than 10) would retain pre-roll and post-roll ad pods. Starting in 2019, Hulu plans to begin displaying on-screen ads when the viewer pauses the show, although it is unclear whether this will apply to customers on the $11.99/month No Ads plan.
In May 2016, Hulu announced that it had reached 12 million subscribers. In January 2018, Hulu announced that it had reached 17 million subscribers.
On August 8, 2016, Hulu announced that it would discontinue its free video on-demand content, and syndicate it to [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) on a new website known as [Screen](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! Screen). This service featured recent episodes of ABC, Fox, and NBC series until its 2019 discontinuation. The Hulu website is now devoted exclusively to the subscription service.
In May 2018, Hulu introduced [surround sound](5.1)(5.1 surround sound) on select devices for its original content.[Audio quality on Hulu](https://help.hulu.com/en-us/sound-quality) . Hulu. In December 2016 Hulu began streaming content in [4K](4K resolution), also limited to its original content.[4K Ultra HD Now Streaming on Hulu](https://www.hulu.com/press/4k-ultra-hd-now-streaming-on-hulu/) . Hulu Press Release. December 2, 2016. 4K video was quietly rolled back in 2018, and reintroduced in July 2019.[Hulu finally brings back 4K streaming after killing it last year](https://bgr.com/2019/07/12/hulu-4k-streaming-devices-original-shows/) . BGR. July 12, 2019.[Can you get 4K HDR video on Hulu?](https://www.cordcutters.com/can-you-get-4k-hdr-video-hulu) Cord Cutters. October 4, 2018. Hulu added [HDR](High-dynamic-range television) for some of its original content in August 2021.
On January 23, 2019, Hulu announced a $2 price drop for the basic ad-supported plan to $5.99. The $5.99 monthly plan has previously been offered as a promotional offer since late 2017 where users that signed up (or reactivated accounts that had previously ended their service) during the offer period would keep the price for an entire year before paying the regular rate.
Since the launch of Disney+ in November 2019, the service has been available in the United States in a bundle with Hulu and ESPN+, priced at US$12.99 per-month for the ad-supported tier of Hulu, and US$18.99 for the ad-free tier of Hulu.[How to get the Disney+ bundle with ad-free Hulu and ESPN+](https://www.theverge.com/2019/11/14/20964587/disney-plus-bundle-hulu-espn-ad-free-ads-how-to-get) – Barbara Krasnoff, The Verge, November 14, 2019
On September 7, 2021, Disney announced that Hulu would be getting a price increase on October 8, 2021. The ad-supported Hulu plan would increase from $5.99 to $6.99 a month, while the ad-free Hulu plan would increase from $11.99 to $12.99 a month. The Hulu live TV plan and the Disney bundle, which includes Disney+, Hulu with ads and ESPN+ for $13.99 a month, would not get a price increase at this time.
### Hulu + Live TV service
On May 4, 2016, Hulu announced that it planned to begin offering an [over-the-top](Over-the-top media service) "live programming from broadcast and cable brands" some time in 2017. On November 1, 2016, co-owners [Century Fox](21st)(21st Century Fox), including [Networks Group](Fox)(Fox Networks Group) ([Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company), [Sports](Fox)(Fox Sports), [News Channel](Fox)(Fox News), [Networks](FX)(FX (TV channel)), and [Geographic](National)(National Geographic (American TV channel))) and [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company), including [Television Group](Disney–ABC)(Walt Disney Television) and [Inc.](ESPN)(ESPN Inc.) ([ABC](American Broadcasting Company), [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel), [Junior](Disney)(Disney Junior), [XD](Disney)(Disney XD), [Freeform](Freeform (TV channel)), [ESPN](ESPN), [ESPN2](ESPN2), [ESPNU](ESPNU), [Network](SEC)(SEC Network), and [ESPN3](ESPN3)) agreed to supply their channels to the streaming service, joined by [Media](Warner)(WarnerMedia), including [Broadcasting System](Turner)(Turner Broadcasting System) ([TBS](TBS (American TV channel)), [TNT](TNT (American TV network)), [Classic Movies](Turner)(Turner Classic Movies), [TruTV](TruTV), [CNN](CNN), [HLN](HLN (TV network)), [International](CNN)(CNN International), [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network), [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim), and [Boomerang](Boomerang (TV network))) on August 3, 2016, which previously reached an agreement with Hulu.
The service, originally marketed as "Hulu with Live TV," launched in [testing](Software)(Software testing) on May 3, 2017, along with [NBCUniversal](NBCUniversal) ([Bravo](Bravo (American TV network)), [TV](Cozi)(Cozi TV), [NBC](NBC), [Oxygen](Oxygen (TV channel)), [SYFY](Syfy), [Sprout](Universal Kids), and [Telemundo](Telemundo)), [Networks](A+E)(A&E Networks) ([A&E](A&E (TV network)), [History](History (American TV network)), and [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network))), [Corporation](CBS)(CBS Corporation) ([CBS](CBS), [TV](Pop)(Pop (American TV channel)), [Channel](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian Channel), and [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))), and [Networks Interactive](Scripps)(Scripps Networks Interactive) ([Channel](Cooking)(Cooking Channel), [Network](Food)(Food Network), and [HGTV](HGTV)). It was later renamed to "Hulu + Live TV." The service included live streams of more than 75 broadcast and cable-originated channels, including feeds of the five major broadcast networks – ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox and The CW – as well as cable channels owned by Hulu co-parents [Comcast](Comcast)'s NBCUniversal and The Walt Disney Company, along with [Network](NFL)(NFL Network), [Global](Paramount)(Paramount Global) with Showtime, A+E Networks, [Corporation](Fox)(Fox Corporation), [Bros. Discovery](Warner)(Warner Bros. Discovery) with [HBO](HBO), [Cinemax](Cinemax), and Starz available as add-ons for an extra fee. Hulu representatives stated that it intends to negotiate carriage agreements with independently owned broadcasting groups to gain distribution rights to local stations from additional markets.
By May 2018, the service had reached 800,000 subscribers.
On November 29, 2018, Hulu + Live TV now adds Discovery Networks ([Discovery](Discovery Channel), [TLC](TLC (TV network)), [MotorTrend](Motor Trend (TV network)), [Planet](Animal)(Animal Planet) and [Discovery](Investigation)(Investigation Discovery)) for the prices on the bundles featuring the new channels won't change, Discovery will be joining Scripps Networks Interactive. While the $40 per month Hulu With Live TV core package will get the five aforementioned channels, more of Discovery brand channels will also be available through add-on packages. [America](Destination)(Destination America), [Family](Discovery)(Discovery Family), [Channel](Science)(Science Channel), [Life](Discovery)(Discovery Life), and [Heroes Channel](American)(American Heroes Channel) are in the Entertainment add-on for $7.99 per month. [Channel](Discovery)(Discovery Channel) and [Familia](Discovery)(Discovery Familia) have been added to the $4.99-per-month Spanish language package.
In the third quarter of 2019, Hulu overtook [TV](Sling)(Sling TV) as the top OTT pay television service in the United States, with 2.7 million subscribers.
The service was initially priced at $39.99 per-month. In December 2019, the price had been increased to $54.99 per month (after having previously been raised to $44.99).
In November 2020, the rate for Hulu + Live TV increased to $64.99 per month. Along with the ad-free plan with Live TV included, which is now $70.99.
On January 19, 2021, [Nexstar](Nexstar Media Group)'s [NewsNation](NewsNation) launched on Hulu + Live TV.
On April 30, 2021, the service added nine ViacomCBS (now Paramount) networks ([BET](BET), [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central), [MTV](MTV), [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon), [Network](Paramount)(Paramount Network), [VH1](VH1), [CMT](CMT (American TV channel)), [Jr. Channel](Nick)(Nick Jr. Channel), and [Land](TV)(TV Land)) to the base package, along with [Her](BET)(BET Her), [MTV2](MTV2), [Classic](MTV)(MTV Classic (American TV channel)), [Nicktoons](Nicktoons (American TV channel)) and [TeenNick](TeenNick) on the Entertainment add-on.
On November 10, 2021, Disney stated that Hulu + Live TV had reached four million subscribers.
On December 21, 2021, unlimited DVR, Disney+ and ESPN+ will be included with Hulu + Live TV moving forward, but the price of the service would be increased by $5.
On November 14, 2022, Hulu announced that it had added [Weather Channel](The)(The Weather Channel) and Comedy.TV on November 1 and [Channel](Hallmark)(Hallmark Channel) and [Movies & Mysteries](Hallmark)(Hallmark Movies & Mysteries) effective November 14. [Drama](Hallmark)(Hallmark Drama) also became available in the Entertainment Add-On. Hulu also announced that on December 1, 2022, five Vevo music video channels would launched, along with [Television Network](theGrio)(theGrio), JusticeCentral.TV, and The Weather Channel en Español.
## Viewership
Viewership numbers for the site are tracked by measurement firms such as [Comscore](Comscore), [Media Research](Nielsen)(Nielsen Media Research), and [Quantcast](Quantcast). In partnership with comScore, Hulu is the first digital company to receive multi-platform measurement at an individual level that includes co-viewing for living room devices.
The reliability of these metrics has been drawn into question, partly due to widely divergent estimates. For example, between May and June 2010, ComScore updated its scoring methodology and its estimates for Hulu. Hulus viewers would go from 43.5 million to 24 million in one month. In a comScore digital trends report in 2010, comScore's Digital Year in Review report found that Hulu was watched twice as much as viewers who watched on the websites of the five major TV networks combined.
Hulu in May 2018 announced it has surpassed 20 million subscribers in the United States. The tally, which puts the company about 36 million subscriptions behind Netflix, was disclosed at a media presentation at the newly named Hulu Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York. Hulu said it has grown total engagement by more than 60%, with 78% of viewing taking place in the living room on connected TVs.
## Awards
Hulu original series [Handmaid's Tale*](*The)(The Handmaid's Tale (TV series)) won two awards at the [annual Television Critics Association Awards](33rd)(33rd TCA Awards) for [of the Year](Program)(TCA Award for Program of the Year) and [Achievement in Drama](Outstanding)(TCA Award for Outstanding Achievement in Drama). At the [69th](69th Primetime Emmy Awards) [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards), Hulu earned a total of eight awards for the series and became the first streaming service to win [Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series). ''The Handmaid's Tale* also received Emmys for [Directing](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series), [Writing](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series), [Cinematography](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Series (One Hour)) and [Production Design](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Contemporary or Fantasy Program (One Hour or More)). [Moss](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Moss) won the Emmy for [Lead Actress](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series), and [Dowd](Ann)(Ann Dowd) the award for [Supporting Actress](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series). At the 75th Golden Globe Awards *The Handmaid's Tale'' took home two awards, Best TV Drama and Best Actress in a Drama TV Series (Elisabeth Moss).
At the [Critics' Choice Documentary Awards](2016)(22nd Critics' Choice Awards), Hulu's first-released documentary, [Beatles: Eight Days A Week – The Touring Years*](*The)(The Beatles: Eight Days a Week) won the award for Best Music Documentary. The documentary also received [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) for [Music Film](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Music Film) at the [Grammy Awards](2017)(59th Annual Grammy Awards) and Best Documentary at the 16th Annual Movies for Grownups Awards. At the [Arts Emmy Awards](Creative)(Creative Arts Emmy Awards), the documentary earned two Emmys including [Sound Editing](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Nonfiction or Reality Program (Single or Multi-Camera)) and [Sound Mixing](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Nonfiction or Reality Program (Single or Multi-Camera)).
At the [Primetime Emmy Awards](68th)(68th Primetime Emmy Awards), Hulu received its first Emmy Award nominations for its Original series, *[11.22.63](11.22.63)* and for [Election Special 2016*](*Triumph's)(Triumph the Insult Comic Dog). In 2016, Hulu received its first [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nomination for its original series [*Casual*](Casual (TV series)) for [series, Comedy](TV)(Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy).
In 2020, Hulu original series *[Bravest Knight](The)(The Bravest Knight)* won the [Media Award for Outstanding Kids and Family Programming](GLAAD)(GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Kids and Family Programming).
*[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)* ranked Hulu its 'Best Live Streaming Service' of 2022.
## References
## External links
*
}}
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Jefferson Starship
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jefferson_starship
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# Jefferson Starship
*Revision ID: 1149761153 | Timestamp: 2023-04-14T08:04:44Z*
---
| years_active = 1974–1984, 1992–present
| label = [RCA](RCA Records), [Grunt](Grunt Records), [Epic](Epic Records)
| associated_acts = [Airplane](Jefferson)(Jefferson Airplane), [Starship](Starship (band)), [Band](KBC)(KBC Band), [Tuna](Hot)(Hot Tuna)
| website =
| current_members = *[Freiberg](David)(David Freiberg)
*[Baldwin](Donny)(Donny Baldwin)
*Chris Smith
*[Richardson](Cathy)(Cathy Richardson)
*[Gold](Jude)(Jude Gold)
| past_members = See: [of Jefferson Starship members](List)(List of Jefferson Starship members)
}}
**Jefferson Starship** is an American rock band from [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), California, formed in 1974 by a group of musicians including former members of [Airplane](Jefferson)(Jefferson Airplane). Between 1974 and 1984, they released eight [gold](RIAA certification) or [platinum](Music recording sales certification)-selling studio albums, and one gold-selling compilation. The album *[Octopus](Red)(Red Octopus)* went double-platinum, reaching No. 1 on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart in 1975. The band went through several major changes in personnel and genres through the years while retaining the Jefferson Starship name. The band name was retired in 1984, but it was picked up again in 1992 by a revival of the group led by [Kantner](Paul)(Paul Kantner), which has continued since his death in 2016.
The group was formed by former Jefferson Airplane members Kantner and [Slick](Grace)(Grace Slick), and evolved from several solo albums they had recorded. They were joined by [Freiberg](David)(David Freiberg), [Chaquico](Craig)(Craig Chaquico), [Barbata](John)(John Barbata), [Sears](Pete)(Pete Sears), and Papa John Creach. Former Airplane frontman [Balin](Marty)(Marty Balin) subsequently joined the group in 1975, and the following year's album *[Spitfire](Spitfire (Jefferson Starship album))* was a top five hit. Slick and Balin both left the group in 1978, leaving the remaining members to recruit [Thomas](Mickey)(Mickey Thomas (singer)) as their replacement. In 1981 Slick rejoined the group, which continued with minor chart success. Kantner quit in 1984 and took legal action towards using the name; the remaining members became [Starship](Starship (band)). Kantner reformed the group as Jefferson Starship: The Next Generation in 1992, which toured regularly throughout that decade and into the 21st century. After Kantner's death, the group continued with new members. Craig Chaquico filed a lawsuit against them in 2016 for continuing to use the name, and the suit was consequently settled.
## History
### 1970–1974: origins
In 1970, while [Airplane](Jefferson)(Jefferson Airplane) was on break from touring, singer-guitarist [Kantner](Paul)(Paul Kantner) recorded *[Against the Empire](Blows)(Blows Against the Empire)*. This was a concept album featuring an ad hoc group of musicians (centered on Kantner, [Slick](Grace)(Grace Slick), [Covington](Joey)(Joey Covington), and [Casady](Jack)(Jack Casady) of Jefferson Airplane; [Crosby](David)(David Crosby) and [Nash](Graham)(Graham Nash); and [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead) members [Garcia](Jerry)(Jerry Garcia), [Hart](Mickey)(Mickey Hart), and [Kreutzmann](Bill)(Bill Kreutzmann)) credited on the LP as Paul Kantner and "Jefferson Starship", marking the first use of that name. This agglomeration was informally known as the Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra, a moniker later used on a Kantner album in the early 1980s.
On *Blows Against the Empire*, Kantner and Slick sang about a group of people escaping Earth in a hijacked starship. In 1971, the album was nominated for the prestigious science fiction prize, the [Award](Hugo)(Hugo Award), a rare honor for a musical recording. Kantner and Slick were a couple during this period. Slick was pregnant during the recording of the album. Their daughter, [China](China Kantner), was born shortly thereafter.
Kantner and Slick with the Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra released two follow-up albums: *[Sunfighter](Sunfighter)*, an environmentalism-tinged album released in 1971 to celebrate China's birth, and 1973's *[von Tollbooth & the Chrome Nun](Baron)(Baron von Tollbooth & the Chrome Nun)*, titled after the nicknames [Crosby](David)(David Crosby) had given to the couple. Bassist/keyboardist/vocalist [Freiberg](David)(David Freiberg) was given equal billing alongside Kantner and Slick on the latter album. A founding member of [Messenger Service](Quicksilver)(Quicksilver Messenger Service), Freiberg had known and played with Kantner on the folk circuit in the early 1960s and sang background vocals on *Blows Against the Empire*. Following a marijuana arrest that resulted in his departure from Quicksilver in 1971, he joined Jefferson Airplane as a vocalist for their 1972 tour, documented on the live album *[Seconds Over Winterland](Thirty)(Thirty Seconds Over Winterland)* (1973).
Kantner was introduced to the teenage guitarist [Chaquico](Craig)(Craig Chaquico) through his friend and fellow musician, Jack Traylor, during this time. Chaquico, a high school English student of Traylor's and a member in his band Steelwind, played guitar on the song "Earth Mother" from *Sunfighter*. Chaquico would go on to perform with Kantner and Slick on their subsequent album collaborations, then with Jefferson Starship, and finally with Starship until 1990.
Early in 1974, Slick released *[Manhole](Manhole (album))*, her first solo album. Appearing along with Slick on *Manhole* were Kantner, Freiberg, Chaquico, Jack Casady, David Crosby, and the [Symphony Orchestra](London)(London Symphony Orchestra). It was on that album that Kantner, Slick, and Freiberg next worked with bassist and keyboard player [Sears](Pete)(Pete Sears) (who had first played on [John Creach](Papa)(Papa John Creach)'s first solo album). Sears, was co-producing a [McDonald](Kathi)(Kathi McDonald) album in the same studio. Sears wrote the music to Slick's lyrics for the song "Better Lying Down," and also played bass on the song "Epic #38". It was during this session at Wally Heider studios in San Francisco that Kantner and Slick first approached Sears about playing in what would eventually become Jefferson Starship. Sears would eventually join Jefferson Starship in June 1974, replacing [Kaukonen](Peter)(Peter Kaukonen).
In early 1974, with guitarist Jorma Kaukonen and bass player Jack Casady having moved on to their band [Tuna](Hot)(Hot Tuna) full-time, Kantner decided to put together a touring band without them. The musicians on *Baron von Tollbooth & the Chrome Nun* formed the core of a new lineup that was formally reborn as Jefferson Starship. They appropriated the name from Kantner's *Blows Against the Empire*, with manager [Thompson](Bill)(Bill Thompson (manager)) convincing the group that keeping the connection to Jefferson Airplane made sense from a business standpoint. It included the other five remaining members of Jefferson Airplane, including Kantner on rhythm guitar and vocals; Slick on vocals and percussion, David Freiberg on vocals and keyboards, [Barbata](John)(John Barbata), who had played with [Turtles](the)(the Turtles) and Crosby, Stills and Nash, on drums and Papa John Creach, from Hot Tuna, on electric violin. Jorma Kaukonen's brother, Peter (who had appeared on the albums *Blows Against the Empire* and *Sunfighter*), was on bass. On lead guitar was Craig Chaquico who had played on three of Kantner and Slick's solo albums, as well as in the band Steelwind. The band began rehearsals in January 1974 and opened its first tour in Chicago on March 19. By April, it was decided that the band would go into the studio to record an album. British veteran Pete Sears, who had worked on Slick's solo album, *Manhole*, and played with Rod Stewart, was selected to replace Peter Kaukonen as the band's bass player.
### 1974–1978: Balin on board and commercial apogee
[[Starship 1976.JPG|thumb|right|Promotional shot in 1976](File:Jefferson)]
In 1974, after touring as "Jefferson Starship," Kantner, Slick, Freiberg, Chaquico, Pete Sears, Papa John Creach, and John Barbata recorded the album *[Fly](Dragon)(Dragon Fly (album))*. Jorma Kaukonen's brother Peter had played bass during the group's spring tour in 1974, but was replaced by [Sears](Pete)(Pete Sears) who, like Freiberg, played bass and keyboards. Kantner collaborated with [Balin](Marty)(Marty Balin) on the song "Caroline" during the recording sessions, for which Balin sang vocals on the album. *Dragon Fly* was certified gold, and included the single "Ride the Tiger" (#84 [Billboard](US)(Billboard Hot 100)) and its [B-side](B-side) "Hyperdrive". Balin then appeared on-stage with the band to perform the song "Caroline" for a show at the Winterland ballroom in November 1974.
[[File:CC - '70s Jefferson Starship Live Concert photo by Ron Draper.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Jefferson Starship free concert at Marx Meadow, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, May 30, 1975 (''[Ballroom in the Park](People's)(White Panther Party#San Francisco)'')]]
Their followup album, 1975's *[Octopus](Red)(Red Octopus)*, had even greater success. Marty Balin, who had contributed and sung the ballad "Caroline" on the previous album, officially returned to the Jefferson fold as a full-time member in January 1975 and stayed with the group for nearly the remainder of the decade. The Balin penned single "[Miracles](Miracles (Jefferson Starship song))” peaked at No. 3 on the chart, and along with the single “Play on Love” (#49 US Billboard Chart), helped to propel the album to eventual multiple-platinum status and topping the [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) chart. It would be the biggest selling album of the band's career. Creach quietly left the group soon after in August 1975 to pursue a solo career.
The next album, *[Spitfire](Spitfire (Jefferson Starship album))*, was released in June 1976 and went platinum. It spent six weeks at No. 3 on the Billboard charts, and included the singles "With Your Love" (#12 US Billboard Chart) and "St. Charles" (#64 US Billboard Chart). Regardless of this success, the band considered the album's sales to be relatively disappointing compared to its predecessor and requested an audit from [Records](RCA)(RCA Records), distributor of their Grunt label. RCA subsequently put a reported $500,000 into the next Jefferson Starship project. *[Earth](Earth (Jefferson Starship album))* was released in February 1978 and also went platinum. The album featured the singles "Count on Me" (No. 8 US Billboard Chart), "Runaway" (No. 12 US Billboard Chart), and "Crazy Feelin'" (No. 54 US Billboard Chart). Tours of the U.S. and Europe would soon follow.
Balin's reluctance to tour had kept the band off the road for over a year, and Slick's alcoholism increasingly became a problem, which led to two consecutive nights of disastrous concerts in West Germany in June 1978. On the first night, the band was scheduled to play at the [Amphitheatre](Loreley)(Freilichtbühne Loreley), on the bill with [Kottke](Leo)(Leo Kottke) and the [Rhythm Section](Atlanta)(Atlanta Rhythm Section), but Slick was unable to perform and the show was cancelled. The show was rescheduled for July 2, but the audience were unhappy with this and began rioting, destroying or stealing some of the band's gear. The band acquired replacement gear for the following day's show in Hamburg, which was marred by a drunken Slick continually swearing and insulting the audience throughout the show. She repeatedly asked "Who won the war?", and implied that all Germans were responsible for the wartime atrocities. Kantner subsequently asked for Slick's resignation from the band, and she left the group at this time.
Towards the end of 1978, a Jefferson Starship that was now without Grace Slick but still including Marty Balin recorded the single "Light the Sky on Fire" (No. 66 US Billboard Chart) for television's *[Wars Holiday Special](Star)(Star Wars Holiday Special)*. It was released as a promotional tie-in to the special (backed with "Hyperdrive" from *Dragon Fly*), and was also included as a bonus with their greatest hits album *[Gold](Gold (Jefferson Starship album))* (1979), which highlighted their work from 1974's *Dragon Fly* to 1978's *Earth*. In October 1978, Marty Balin left the group, leaving the band without a lead singer. That same month, John Barbata was seriously injured in a car accident that forced him to drop out of the group.
### 1979–1984: changing personnel and sound
[[Starship 19.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Mickey Thomas, Pete Sears, and Aynsley Dunbar of Jefferson Starship in 1981](File:Jefferson)]
In early 1979, the band regrouped. Barbata was replaced on drums by [Dunbar](Aynsley)(Aynsley Dunbar), who had previously played with [Journey](Journey (band)), in January 1979. [Thomas](Mickey)(Mickey Thomas (singer)) (who had sung lead on Elvin Bishop's "Fooled Around and Fell in Love") was invited to audition and then joined the group in April 1979.
[[Starship 22.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Pete Sears and Craig Chaquico of Jefferson Starship in Central Park in 1981](File:Jefferson)]
In 1979, the band released their first album without Marty Balin or Grace Slick, the gold-selling *[at Point Zero](Freedom)(Freedom at Point Zero)*. The album was produced by [Nevison](Ron)(Ron Nevison), who would also produce two the band's following three albums. The single "[Jane](Jane (Jefferson Starship song))" (Freiberg, McPherson, Chaquico and Kantner) peaked at No. 14 on the *[Hot 100](Billboard)(Billboard Hot 100)* and spent three weeks at No. 6 on the *[Box](Cash)(Cashbox (magazine))* Top 100.[[Freedom at Point Zero#cite note-3|[3]]] The new lineup toured, augmented by saxophonist Steve Schuster. Schuster, along with horn player David Farey, had previously played on Jefferson Starship's 1978 tour, and he had also appeared on *Freedom at Point Zero*.
[[File:Starship Onstage 1985 - Slick, Thomas, Sears, Chaquico, Baldwin, Freiberg - Great America (John Lushenko).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Jefferson Starship onstage at Great America, June 23, 1984, shortly before the evolution into [Starship](Starship (band)) (l-to-r Grace Slick, Mickey Thomas, Pete Sears, Paul Kantner, Craig Chaquico, Donny Baldwin, and David Freiberg).]]
In early 1981, Grace Slick returned to the band, rejoining in time to sing on one song, "Stranger," (No. 48 on the *Billboard Hot 100* chart), on the group's next album, *[Times](Modern)(Modern Times (Jefferson Starship album))* (1981). *Modern Times*, which also went gold, included the song "Find Your Way Back" (No. 29), as well as the humorous "Stairway to Cleveland", in which the band defended the numerous changes it had undergone in its musical style, personnel, and even name. *Modern Times* also featured the promo single, "Save Your Love", (No. 104). Slick remained in the band for Jefferson Starship's next album, *[of Change](Winds)(Winds of Change (Jefferson Starship album))* (1982), which was certified gold. *Winds of Change* featured the singles "Be My Lady," which reached No. 26 in the US, and "Winds of Change" (No. 38). By August 1982, after the recording of *Winds of Change* but prior to the supporting tour, Dunbar was replaced by [Baldwin](Donny)(Donny Baldwin), who had performed with Thomas in the Elvin Bishop Group. Paul Kantner's 1983 solo album, *[Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra](Planet)(Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra (album))*, included the track "Circle of Fire", which had been recorded by Jefferson Starship during the *Winds of Change* sessions in 1982. Other members of the band also appeared on additional tracks on this effort.
Around this time, the band began enthusiastically embracing the rock-video age, making elaborate videos typical of the era's superstar bands. They would appear frequently on [MTV](Music Television) and other music-oriented television shows as *Solid Gold*, and 1984's *Super Night of Rock and Roll*, giving the band a high visibility in the MTV era. Their next album, *[Furniture](Nuclear)(Nuclear Furniture)* (1984), reached No. 28 and was also certified gold. It featured the singles "No Way Out" (a [40](Top)(Top 40) hit, reaching No. 23), "Layin' It On the Line" (No. 66), and "Sorry Me, Sorry You".
### 1984-1985: Kantner departs and transition to Starship
While Balin and Slick had come and gone over the years, in June 1984, after the release of *Nuclear Furniture*, Kantner, the last remaining founding member of Jefferson Airplane, left the band due to disputes over the group's artistic direction. "I think we would be terrible failures trying to write pop songs all the time. … The band became more mundane and not quite as challenging and not quite as much of a thing to be proud of," said Kantner.
In October 1984, Kantner took legal action over money he claimed he was owed and to prevent the remaining members from continuing to use the name Jefferson Starship. The lawsuit was settled in March 1985. Kantner received a cash settlement, the name Jefferson Starship became the property of Grace Slick (51%) and Bill Thompson (49%), and all parties agreed to not use the name "Jefferson" going forward. The remaining members renamed themselves [Starship](Starship (band)), and continued to tour and record music. David Freiberg was dismissed from the band shortly after the lawsuit was settled. Pete Sears departed in 1987. Grace Slick left Starship in early 1988, going on to join the reformed Jefferson Airplane for an album and tour in 1989. Craig Chaquico departed in 1990. The band has been billed as "Starship featuring Mickey Thomas" since 1992.
Shortly after leaving Jefferson Starship, Kantner formed the [Band](KBC)(KBC Band) with (among others) his former bandmates Marty Balin and Jack Casady. They released an [album](eponymous)(KBC Band (album)) in 1986, but soon broke up after Balin lost interest. In 1988, Kantner toured with Casady in [Tuna](Hot)(Hot Tuna). This led to a full Jefferson Airplane reunion in 1989, which also resulted in an [album](eponymous)(Jefferson Airplane (album)) and subsequent tour. In 1991, Kantner toured with an acoustic ensemble called "Paul Kantner's Wooden Ships," a trio that included [Aguilar](Slick)(Slick Aguilar) and [Gorman](Tim)(Tim Gorman) from the KBC Band.
### 1992–2016: revival
[[Kantner, Diana Mangano, and Marty Balin performing in 1996](File:JeffersonStarshipSome1996.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Paul)]
Paul Kantner reestablished the band as "Jefferson Starship: The Next Generation" in January 1992, for which Kantner recruited Jack Casady, Papa John Creach, Slick Aguilar, Tim Gorman, former [Tubes](The Tubes) drummer [Prince](Prairie)(Prairie Prince), and former [Entertainment War](World)(World Entertainment War) vocalist [Gould](Darby)(Darby Gould). In 1993, Balin joined. Creach died in February 1994, weeks after touring Europe. Concurrently, vocalist Diana Mangano joined the group (after a brief spell by original Jefferson Airplane singer [Toly Anderson](Signe)(Signe Toly Anderson)) as Gould's replacement.
After the first couple of years, the band dropped the use of "The Next Generation", and began to perform as simply Jefferson Starship. In 1995 they released *[Space / Virgin Sky](Deep)(Deep Space / Virgin Sky)*, a live album recorded at the House of Blues in West Hollywood, California on January 21, 1995. The album featured eight new and seven classic tunes. Grace Slick joined the band for five songs, "Lawman", "Wooden Ships", "[to Love](Somebody)(Somebody to Love (Jefferson Airplane song))" and "[Rabbit](White)(White Rabbit (Jefferson Airplane song))" and "[Volunteers](Volunteers (song))". In 1999 Jefferson Starship released the studio album *[of Heaven](Windows)(Windows of Heaven (album))*, which featured Slick on background vocals on one song, "I'm On Fire".
Balin continued as a full-time member of the reunited band until 2003 and continued to occasionally join them in concert up until 2008. Casady remained a member until 2000 and has also (since 1983) played with Jorma Kaukonen in a reunited Hot Tuna. Gorman left in 1995 and was replaced by Gary Cambra (from [Tubes](The)(The Tubes)), Barry Flast and then [Lavitz](T)(T Lavitz), who stayed with the band for the recording of *Windows of Heaven* but was replaced by former Supremes keyboardist Chris Smith before the album's release. In 2005, twenty years after leaving, David Freiberg rejoined the group. Freiberg had apologized to Kantner for not departing the group with him back in 1984, ending their estrangement. Jefferson Starship played three songs on NBC's The Today Show on June 30, 2007.
In 2007, Jefferson Starship began working with corporate sponsors. The owners of the name Jefferson Starship, Grace Slick along with manager Bill Thompson, objected. They sued Kantner for the sponsorship and for touring under the Jefferson Starship name, citing their initial separation agreement in 1985. All parties later agreed that Kantner could go forward, after paying Slick and Thompson an undisclosed fee.
Mangano was replaced by vocalist [Richardson](Cathy)(Cathy Richardson) in early 2008, and Prince was replaced by the reinstated Baldwin.
In March and May 2008, tracks were recorded for the new studio album released on September 2, 2008, ''[Tree of Liberty](Jefferson's)(Jefferson's Tree of Liberty)''. In addition to the current members, Grace Slick made contributions to the bonus track on the album, and Marty Balin and Jack Casady appear on a recording originally made for *Windows of Heaven*.
In July and August 2008, they played a two-part UK tour, including three nights at the [Club](100)(100 Club) in London and an appearance at the [Festival](Rhythm)(Rhythm Festival).
In 2009 they toured as part of the [of Woodstock tour](Heroes)(Heroes of Woodstock tour) with [Pevar](Jeff)(Jeff Pevar) ([Is Dead](Jazz)(Jazz Is Dead (band)), [Pevar & Raymond](Crosby,)(Crosby, Pevar & Raymond)) on bass. Other musicians included in this tour were [Heat](Canned)(Canned Heat), [Years After](Ten)(Ten Years After), [Joe McDonald](Country)(Country Joe McDonald), [Constanten](Tom)(Tom Constanten), [Brother and the Holding Company](Big)(Big Brother and the Holding Company), [Melanie](Melanie Safka), [Sebastian](John)(John Sebastian), [Mountain](Mountain (band)), [Messenger Service](Quicksilver)(Quicksilver Messenger Service) and [Helm Band](Levon)(Levon Helm Band), although not all artists appeared at every show. On July 3, 2009, Jefferson Starship (Kantner, Freiberg, Baldwin, Aguilar, Smith, and Richardson) performed at the Roswell UFO Parade and Festival, along with guest musicians Tom Constanten, Jack Traylor, [Sless](Barry)(Barry Sless), plus former band members Pete Sears and Darby Gould. A four disc live album of this concert, *Tales From the Mothership*, was released in November 2012.
On June 5, 2011, Jefferson Starship (Kantner, Freiberg, Richardson and Smith) performed with the [Youth Orchestra](Contemporary)(Contemporary Youth Orchestra) at [Pavilion at Nautica](Jacobs)(Jacobs Pavilion at Nautica) in [Cleveland](Cleveland), Ohio. The show was broadcast live on [HDNet](HDNet) for the HDNet Concert Series.
[[Starship 2014.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Jefferson Starship in 2014 – l to r: Chris Smith, David Freiberg, Cathy Richardson, Paul Kantner, Donny Baldwin, Jude Gold](File:Jefferson)]
In 2012, longtime guitarist Slick Aguilar departed the band due to falling ill with [C](Hepatitis)(Hepatitis C), and was replaced by Jude Gold. In November 2015, a new lead vocalist, Rachel Rose, was phased in to replace the departing Cathy Richardson; sharing the stage with one-time Jefferson Starship vocalist Darby Gould until Richardson announced her return to the band in March 2016. The band has featured guest musicians such as Balin, Gould, Gorman, Jeff Pevar, Tony Morley, Richard Newman, and former Jefferson Starship bassist and keyboardist Pete Sears.
Paul Kantner died from multiple organ failure and [shock](septic)(septic shock) at the age of 74 on January 28, 2016. Signe Toly Anderson, a member of both the initial Jefferson Airplane lineup and the revived Jefferson Starship in the 1990s, also died on January 28, 2016, at age 74.
### 2016–present: post-Kantner era
Following Paul Kantner's death, the band received the approval of both Kantner's family and Grace Slick to keep performing. Jefferson Starship has continued to tour with a line-up consisting of remaining members David Freiberg (vocals, guitar), Donny Baldwin (drums), Chris Smith (keyboards), Jude Gold (lead guitar), and Cathy Richardson (vocals). When Jefferson Starship announced the 'Carry the Fire' tour in March 2017, Richardson stated that the band's continuation is a tribute to both Kantner and Grace Slick, and noted that Slick had granted the current members a lifetime license to use the name Jefferson Starship after Kantner's death.
In April 2017, former Jefferson Starship member Craig Chaquico filed a lawsuit against the five individual members (Freiberg, Baldwin, Smith, Gold, and Richardson) currently performing as Jefferson Starship for breaching the 1985 contract and for using Chaquico's name and likeness in their promotional materials. About this, Chaquico has said he had only given permission to Paul Kantner to use the name, and by this point, "Freiberg and Baldwin are performing with others who have no connection to the original group, using the name in violation of that agreement. If any of the members who signed the '85 agreement want to use the name, they need the permission of all the other members who signed the agreement and Freiberg and Baldwin do not have my permission." On August 11, 2017, U.S. Magistrate Judge Maria-Elena James said the guitarist Craig Chaquico may pursue a breach of contract claim against David Freiberg, Donny Baldwin and the other musicians for performances and merchandising since January 2016, but dismissed Chaquico's claims of earlier alleged contract breaches and a trademark claim over the use of his likeness. On August 16, 2018, Judge Maria-Elena James denied Chaquico's motion to strike the counter-claims by the current Jefferson Starship band members of intentional interference to gain a potential economic advantage and defamation. The defendants alleged that the plaintiff caused economic harm and attempted to prevent the band from operating by actions such as Chaquico posting statements on his website that they were a "fake band," they created "fake recordings," they were a "lesser cover band," and the members were "lesser artists." On December 4, 2018, the lawsuit concerning the use of the name Jefferson Starship was dismissed after an undisclosed settlement was reached between Chaquico and the current members of the band.
In July 2018, Jefferson Starship announced plans to release a new album in 2019 that will include their new song "What Are We Waiting For." Marty Balin died on September 27, 2018, at the age of 76. On February 1, 2019, [Entertainment](Rhino)(Rhino Entertainment) acquired the catalogues of Jefferson Starship, Starship, Grace Slick and Hot Tuna for albums released between the years of 1972 and 1991. On August 21, 2020, Jefferson Starship released the new studio album *[of the Sun](Mother)(Mother of the Sun)*. The first single from the album, "It's About Time", was co-written by Jude Gold, Cathy Richardson and former vocalist Grace Slick. *Mother of the Sun* features former bassist Pete Sears on three songs, and the album includes both a song written by former singer Marty Balin and a live version of the Jefferson Airplane song "Embryonic Journey".
## Members
**Current members**
*[Freiberg](David)(David Freiberg) – [vocals](Singing), [guitar](acoustic)(acoustic guitar) (1974–1984, 2005–present)
*[Baldwin](Donny)(Donny Baldwin) – [drums](Drum kit), [percussion](Percussion instrument), [vocals](backing)(Backing vocalist) (1982–1984, 2008–present)
*Chris Smith – [keyboard](Keyboard instrument)s, [bass](Bass guitar) (1998–present)
*[Richardson](Cathy)(Cathy Richardson) – vocals, [guitar](rhythm)(rhythm guitar) (2008–2015, 2016–present)
*[Gold](Jude)(Jude Gold) – [guitar](lead)(lead guitar), backing vocals (2012–present)
## Discography
**[Fly](Dragon)(Dragon Fly (album))* (1974)
**[Octopus](Red)(Red Octopus)* (1975)
**[Spitfire](Spitfire (Jefferson Starship album))* (1976)
**[Earth](Earth (Jefferson Starship album))* (1978)
**[at Point Zero](Freedom)(Freedom at Point Zero)* (1979)
**[Times](Modern)(Modern Times (Jefferson Starship album))* (1981)
**[of Change](Winds)(Winds of Change (Jefferson Starship album))* (1982)
**[Furniture](Nuclear)(Nuclear Furniture)* (1984)
**[of Heaven](Windows)(Windows of Heaven)* (1998)
*''[Tree of Liberty](Jefferson's)(Jefferson's Tree of Liberty)* (2008)
**[of the Sun](Mother)(Mother of the Sun)'' (2020)
## References
## External links
*[Official Jefferson Starship web site](http://www.jeffersonstarship.net/)
*[Old official site](https://web.archive.org/web/20170630182717/http://www.jeffersonstarshipsf.com/)
*[Jefferson Starship collection](https://archive.org/details/JeffersonStarship) at the [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive)'s live music archive
[establishments in California](Category:1970)(Category:1970 establishments in California)
[disestablishments in California](Category:1984)(Category:1984 disestablishments in California)
[pop rock music groups](Category:American)(Category:American pop rock music groups)
[establishments in California](Category:1992)(Category:1992 establishments in California)
[music groups from California](Category:Rock)(Category:Rock music groups from California)
[soft rock music groups](Category:American)(Category:American soft rock music groups)
[Records artists](Category:Epic)(Category:Epic Records artists)
[groups established in 1970](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1970)
[groups disestablished in 1984](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1984)
[groups from San Francisco](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from San Francisco)
[groups reestablished in 1992](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 1992)
[Records artists](Category:RCA)(Category:RCA Records artists)
[Airplane](Category:Jefferson)(Category:Jefferson Airplane)
[ ](Category:Jefferson Starship)
|
List of United Artists films
|
list_of_united_artists_films
|
# List of United Artists films
*Revision ID: 1160231796 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T06:22:58Z*
---
**[Artists](United)(United Artists)** (**UA**) was an American film and television entertainment studio founded in 1919 by [Griffith](D. W.)(D. W. Griffith), [Chaplin](Charlie)(Charlie Chaplin), [Pickford](Mary)(Mary Pickford), and [Fairbanks](Douglas)(Douglas Fairbanks). This is a list of feature films originally produced or distributed by United Artists, including those made overseas.
Note: The [MGM](MGM) films that United Artists distributed are now owned by [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) through [Entertainment](Turner)(Turner Entertainment).
This list also includes films that received the United Artists copyright.
## 1910s
[[File:United Artists Offices in Boston 1919.jpg|thumb|Offices of [Artists](United)(United Artists) in Boston (1919)]]
## 1920s
## 1930s
## 1940s
## 1950s
## 1960s
## 1970s
## 1980s
## 1990s
## 2000s
## 2010s
## See also
*
* [of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films](List)(List of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films)
## References
[*](Category:United Artists films)
[Artists](United)(Category:Lists of films by studio)
[Artists](United)(Category:American films by studio)
|
Spotlight _film
|
spotlight__film
|
# Spotlight (film)
*Revision ID: 1160293795 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T15:01:22Z*
---
| writer =
| starring =
| music = [Shore](Howard)(Howard Shore)
| cinematography = [Takayanagi](Masanobu)(Masanobu Takayanagi)
| editing = [McArdle](Tom)(Tom McArdle)
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Road Films](Open)(Open Road Films)
| released =
| runtime = 129 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $20 million
| gross = $98.7 million
}}
***Spotlight*** is a 2015 American [biographical](biographical film) [film](drama)(Drama (film and television)) directed by [McCarthy](Tom)(Tom McCarthy (director)) and written by McCarthy and [Singer](Josh)(Josh Singer). The film follows *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* "Spotlight" team, the oldest continuously operating newspaper [journalist](investigative)(investigative journalism) unit in the United States, and its investigation into cases of widespread and systemic [sex abuse in the Boston area](child)(Catholic Archdiocese of Boston sex abuse scandal) by numerous [Catholic](Catholic Church) priests. Although the plot was original, it is loosely based on a series of stories by the *Spotlight* team that earned *The Globe* the 2003 [Prize for Public Service](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for Public Service). The film features an [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) including [Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo), [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton), [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams), [Slattery](John)(John Slattery), and [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci), with [d'Arcy James](Brian)(Brian d'Arcy James), [Schreiber](Liev)(Liev Schreiber), and [Crudup](Billy)(Billy Crudup) in supporting roles.
*Spotlight* was shown in the Out of Competition section of the [Venice International Film Festival](72nd)(72nd Venice International Film Festival), the [Film Festival](Telluride)(Telluride Film Festival) and the Special Presentations section of the [Toronto International Film Festival](2015)(2015 Toronto International Film Festival). It was released on November 6, 2015, by [Road Films](Open)(Open Road Films) and grossed $98 million worldwide. It received widespread critical praise, with critics lauding the performances of the cast, historical accuracy and screenplay; it won numerous guilds' and critics' association awards, and was named one of the best films of 2015 by various publications. *Spotlight* won the [Award for Best Picture](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Picture), along with [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay), from six total nominations, making it the first Best Picture winner since *[Greatest Show on Earth](The)(The Greatest Show on Earth (film))* (1952) to win only one other Oscar. The film also won the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture).
## Plot
In 1976, at a [Police](Boston)(Boston Police Department) station, two policemen discuss the arrest of [Fr.](Priesthood in the Catholic Church) [Geoghan](John)(John Geoghan) for [molestation](child)(child molestation). A [cleric](high-ranking)(Monsignor) talks to the mother of the children. An [district attorney](assistant)(District attorney#Assistant District Attorney) then enters the precinct and tells the policemen not to let the press learn what has happened. The arrest is not publicized and Geoghan is released.
In 2001, [Baron](Marty)(Martin Baron), the new managing editor of *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)*, meets ["Robby" Robinson](Walter)(Walter V. Robinson), the editor of the newspaper's "Spotlight" [team](investigative)(Investigative journalism). After Baron reads a *Globe* article about a lawyer, [Garabedian](Mitchell)(Mitchell Garabedian), charging that [Cardinal](Cardinal (Catholic Church)) [Law](Bernard)(Bernard Francis Law), the [of Boston](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Boston), knew about Geoghan's [abuse](sexual)(child sexual abuse) of children and did nothing to stop it, Baron urges the Spotlight team to investigate. Journalist [Rezendes](Michael)(Michael Rezendes) contacts Garabedian, who initially declines to be interviewed. Though he is told not to, Rezendes reveals that he is on the Spotlight team and convinces Garabedian to talk.
Initially believing that they are following the story of one priest who was moved to new assignments several times, the Spotlight team begin to uncover a pattern of sexual abuse by other priests in [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) and an ongoing cover-up by the [Archdiocese](Boston)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston). Through [Saviano](Phil)(Phil Saviano), who heads the victims' rights group [Network of those Abused by Priests](Survivors)(Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests) (SNAP), the team is led to widen their search to thirteen priests. [Sipe](Richard)(Richard Sipe), a former priest who worked to rehabilitate sexually abusive priests, tells them that his studies suggest that there are approximately 90 abusive priests in Boston (6% of priests). Through their research, the team develops a list of 87 names and begin to find victims to back up their suspicions.
As the team realizes the sheer scale of the investigation, it begins to take a toll on their lives: reporter Matt Carroll learns one of the priest rehabilitation centers is on the same block as his family's home but cannot tell his children or his neighbors to avoid spoiling the story; reporter [Pfeiffer](Sacha)(Sacha Pfeiffer) finds herself unable to attend church with her grandmother; Rezendes pushes to get the story out quickly to prevent further abuse; and Robinson faces pushback from some of his close friends who he learns were complicit in covering up the abuse.
When the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks) occur, the team is forced to de-prioritize the story. They regain momentum when Rezendes learns from Garabedian that there are publicly available documents that confirm Cardinal Law was made aware of the abuse and ignored it. Although Rezendes argues vociferously to run the story immediately, before more victims suffer and rival newspapers publish comparable articles, Robinson steadfastly refuses, arguing the team needs to research further so that the systemic problem can be more fully exposed. After the *Globe* wins a case to have even more legal documents unsealed that provide the evidence of that larger picture, the Spotlight team finally begins to write the story and plan to publish their findings in early 2002.
As they are about to go to print, Robinson admits that he learned during the investigation that he was sent a list of 20 sexually abusive priests by lawyer [MacLeish](Eric)(Eric MacLeish) in 1993, on which Robinson never followed up. Baron still commends Robinson and the Spotlight team's efforts to expose the crimes now. The story goes to print with a weblink to the documents that expose Law's inaction and a phone number for victims of abusive priests. The next morning, the team is inundated with calls from victims coming forward to tell their stories.
A textual epilogue notes that Law resigned in December 2002 and was eventually promoted to the [di Santa Maria Maggiore](Basilica)(Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore) in [Rome](Rome), and presents a list of 105 U.S. communities and 101 others around the world where major scandals involving abuse by priests have taken place.
## Cast
* [Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo) as [Rezendes](Michael)(Michael Rezendes)
* [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton) as ["Robby" Robinson](Walter)(Walter V. Robinson)
* [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams) as [Pfeiffer](Sacha)(Sacha Pfeiffer)
* [d'Arcy James](Brian)(Brian d'Arcy James) as Matt Carroll
* [Schreiber](Liev)(Liev Schreiber) as [Baron](Marty)(Martin Baron)
* [Slattery](John)(John Slattery) as [Bradlee Jr.](Ben)(Ben Bradlee Jr.)
* [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci) as [Garabedian](Mitchell)(Mitchell Garabedian), an attorney representing victims of sexual abuse
* Gene Amoroso as [Kurkjian](Stephen)(Stephen Kurkjian), *Boston Globe* general investigative reporter
* [Sheridan](Jamey)(Jamey Sheridan) as Jim Sullivan, an attorney representing the Church
* [Crudup](Billy)(Billy Crudup) as [MacLeish](Eric)(Eric MacLeish), an attorney representing victims of sexual abuse
* Maureen Keiller as [McNamara](Eileen)(Eileen McNamara), *Boston Globe* columnist
* [Jenkins](Richard)(Richard Jenkins) as [Sipe](Richard)(Richard Sipe), psychotherapist (telephone voice, uncredited)
* [Guilfoyle](Paul)(Paul Guilfoyle) as Peter Conley
* [Cariou](Len)(Len Cariou) as [Bernard Law](Cardinal)(Bernard Francis Law), [of Boston](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Boston)
* [Huff](Neal)(Neal Huff) as [Saviano](Phil)(Phil Saviano) of [SNAP](Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests)
* Michael Countryman as Richard Gilman, publisher of the *Boston Globe*
* [Cyril Creighton](Michael)(Michael Cyril Creighton) as Joe Crowley
* [Heineman](Laurie)(Laurie Heineman) as Judge Constance Sweeney
* David Fraser as John Albano
* [Progosh](Tim)(Tim Progosh) as Principal Bill Kemeza
* [LeBlanc](Jimmy)(Jimmy LeBlanc) as Patrick McSorley
## Production
### Writing
The film was written by Tom McCarthy and co-writer Josh Singer. When McCarthy was asked how he and his co-author tackled the research and writing process, he said:
As I said, I passed [down the film](turned) the first time! That's probably some indication of how intimidating it was. But I think, as always, with any big assignment, once you get over that initial shock and awe of how much material there was to cover, you start digging into the material and become really fascinated by and engaged with it, and we did. And yeah, it was a lot of work, but it was exciting work. It was really interesting work, parsing through details of not just the investigation, but its findings, and trying to determine what was most helpful in telling our story. I think having two brains on it was somewhat helpful too, because we could talk through it a lot. So it wasn't just sitting alone in a room and jotting notes. We were dialoguing a lot about it. That particular collaboration did feel investigative and on some level, seemed to parallel some of the collaboration of the reporters in that investigation. So, I think there was something about our collaboration that made that initial process more palatable on some level.
### Development
McCarthy and Singer completed the script in June 2013. It was on the 2013 [List](Black)(Black List (survey)) of unproduced screenplays. Singer told *Creative Screenwriting* that one of his goals for the film was to highlight the power of journalism, which he feels has been waning. He explained, "This story isn't about exposing the Catholic Church. We were not on some mission to rattle people's faith. In fact, Tom came from a Catholic family. The motive was to tell the story accurately while showing the power of the newsroom—something that's largely disappeared today. This story is important. Journalism is important, and there is a deeper message in the story."
### Filming
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on September 24, 2014, in [Massachusetts](Boston,)(Boston), and continued in October in [Ontario](Hamilton,)(Hamilton, Ontario). Filming took place at [Park](Fenway)(Fenway Park), the then-current *[Globe](Boston)(Boston Globe)* offices in [Boston](Dorchester,)(Dorchester, Boston), the [Public Library](Boston)(Boston Public Library), and [University](McMaster)(McMaster University) in Hamilton, Ontario. The film's editor [McArdle](Tom)(Tom McArdle) said of the post-production process, "We edited for eight months. We just wanted to keep refining the film. We cut out five scenes plus some segments of other scenes. Often we would just cut out a line or two to make a scene a little tighter." The Boston Police station depicted in the opening scene was filmed in Toronto at the former [Police Service](Toronto)(Toronto Police Service) 11 Division station at 209 Mavety Street, and the former [Sears](Sears) building on Islington Avenue in [Toronto](Toronto) was converted into a replica of the interior of the old *Boston Globe*, where the bulk of the filming took place. The brief scene in which Rezendes watches a children's church choir perform "[Night](Silent)(Silent Night)" was filmed in [Basil's Church (Toronto)](St.)(St. Basil's Church (Toronto)), a Roman Catholic church on the [of Toronto](University)(University of Toronto) campus.
### Historical accuracy
The visual blog *[is Beautiful](Information)(David McCandless)* deduced that, while taking creative license into account, the film was 76.2% accurate when compared to real-life events, summarizing that "the only conceits are scenes of power figures warning off the journalists".
* The film only depicts the events leading up to the publication of the Spotlight team's first article, whereas the team actually continued publishing follow-up reports for nearly two years afterward. As a result, certain events are depicted as having happened earlier than they actually did, including the scene where former priest Ronald H. Paquin freely admits to molesting children and having been molested himself.
* While Sacha Pfeiffer did indeed write the numerous follow-up reports on Paquin, the interview depicted in the film was a blend of two interviews conducted by her and Steve Kurkjian, both of which took place about a month after the events in the film. After the first story was published, Kurkjian rejoined the Spotlight team (he had been a founding member before becoming the *Globe*'s Washington bureau chief) to assist with further reporting on the abuses. Pfeiffer and Kurkjian have said that the confession was a much more gradual process and Paquin did not just "blurt it out" the way he does in the film.
* A scene where Matt Carroll discovers one of the priest treatment centers is down the block from where he lives is based on an actual discovery he made during the investigation, with one minor detail changed: Carroll actually lived down the street from John Geoghan, the priest whose case sparked the investigations. This was changed as the filmmakers thought the image of Carroll putting Geoghan's photo on his refrigerator to warn his children would seem unrealistic.
* In a subplot, Eric MacLeish claims he sent a list of 20 priests to the *Globe* in 1993 but the story was buried in Metro: Robinson later admits he was the editor for Metro at the time and he likely overlooked the case. While the *Globe* did publish an article about the list of 20 priests, the Spotlight team did not learn this during their investigation. MacLeish himself revealed the article's existence while being interviewed for the screenplay by McCarthy and Singer. This revelation, along with Robinson's response to the filmmakers' inquiry, was incorporated into the screenplay for dramatic purposes.
## Release
The film "premiered to sustained applause" at the Venice Film Festival and the audience "erupted in laughter" when the film reported that following the events in the film Cardinal Bernard Law was reassigned to a senior position of honor in Rome. It had a limited release on November 6, 2015, with its U.S. release scheduled for three weeks later on November 25.
### Home media
*Spotlight* was released by [Studios Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Studios Home Entertainment) on DVD and Blu-ray in the [States](United)(United States) on February 23, 2016.
## Reception
### Box office
*Spotlight* grossed $45.1 million in the United States and Canada and $53.2 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $98.3 million, against a production budget of $20 million. *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* calculated the film made a net profit of up to $10 million.
In the opening weekend of its limited release, the film grossed $295,009 from five theaters ($59,002 average), one of the highest per-screen averages of any release of 2015. The film grossed $4.4 million in the first weekend during its wide release, finishing 8th at the box office.
### Critical response
*Spotlight* received critical acclaim. The review aggregator website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gave the film an approval rating of 97% based on 376 reviews, with an average rating of 8.80/10. The website's summary of the critical consensus is that "*Spotlight* gracefully handles the lurid details of its fact-based story while resisting the temptation to lionize its heroes, resulting in a drama that honors the audience as well as its real-life subjects." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a score of 93 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "universal acclaim."
*[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s [Chang](Justin)(Justin Chang) called the film "a superbly controlled and engrossingly detailed account of the *Boston Globe*s Pulitzer Prize-winning investigation into the widespread pedophilia scandals and subsequent cover-ups within the Catholic Church." Joe Morgenstern of *The Wall Street Journal* wrote, "To turn a spotlight fittingly on *Spotlight*, it's the year's best movie so far, and a rarity among countless dramatizations that claim to be based on actual events." Mark Kermode of *The Guardian* gave it 4 out of 5 stars and praised Ruffalo's performance, writing, "As for Mark Ruffalo, he's the closest thing this ensemble cast has to a star turn, a long-suppressed outburst of emotion providing one of the film's few grandstanding showstoppers." Helen O'Hara of *Empire* gave the movie 4 out of 5 stars and called it a "grown-up film about serious people that mercifully escapes any awards-grabbing platitudes" and "more thrilling than most action movies." Richard Propes of *The Independent Critic* gave *Spotlight* 4 out of 4 marks and praised the screenplay and cast: "*Spotlight* is a nearly perfect example of what happens when the perfect filmmaker works with the perfect script and acquires the perfect cast and crew to bring a story to life".
At the [Toronto International Film Festival](2015)(2015 Toronto International Film Festival), *Spotlight* finished third in the audience balloting for the People's Choice Award.
Comparing *Spotlight* to *[Post](The)(The Post (film))*, a similar period film about journalists, critic [Zoller Seitz](Matt)(Matt Zoller Seitz) of [RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com) expressed perplexity over critics' muted praise for the latter film, writing that in terms of direction, *Spotlight* "got praise for doing a tenth of what [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) does here".
### Top ten lists
*Spotlight* was included on many critics' top-ten lists.
* 1st – [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers), *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*
* 1st – Christoper Orr, *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)*
* 1st – Bill Goodykoontz, *[Republic](Arizona)(Arizona Republic)*
* 1st – [Lumenick](Lou)(Lou Lumenick), *[York Post](New)(New York Post)*
* 1st – [Reed](Rex)(Rex Reed), *[York Observer](New)(New York Observer)*
* 1st – [Burr](Ty)(Ty Burr), *[Globe](Boston)(Boston Globe)*
* 1st – [Phillips](Michael)(Michael Phillips (critic)), *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*
* 1st – [Zacharek](Stephanie)(Stephanie Zacharek), *[Time](Time (magazine))*
* 1st – [Hornaday](Ann)(Ann Hornaday), *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*
* 1st – Kate Erbland, *[Indiewire](Indiewire)*
* 1st – [Morgenstern](Joe)(Joe Morgenstern), *[Street Journal](Wall)(Wall Street Journal)*
* 2nd – Peter Debruge, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*
* 2nd – [Lemire](Christy)(Christy Lemire), *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)*
* 3rd – Scott Feinberg, *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*
* 3rd – Rene Rodriguez, *[Herald](Miami)(Miami Herald)*
* 3rd – Inkoo Kang, *[TheWrap](TheWrap)*
* 3rd – [Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli), *Reelviews*
* 3rd – [Lawson](Richard)(Richard Lawson (writer)), *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*
* 3rd – J.R. Jones, *[Reader](Chicago)(Chicago Reader)*
* 3rd – [Scott](A.O.)(A.O. Scott) and [Holden](Stephen)(Stephen Holden), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
* 4th – Jake Coyle, *[Press](Associated)(Associated Press)*
* 4th – Connie Ogle, *[Herald](Miami)(Miami Herald)*
* 4th – Josh Kupecki, *[Chronicle](Austin)(Austin Chronicle)*
* 5th – [Thompson](Anne)(Anne Thompson (film critic)), *[IndieWire](IndieWire)*
* 5th – Kristopher Tapley, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*
* 5th – [LaSalle](Mick)(Mick LaSalle), *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*
* 6th – [Edelstein](David)(David Edelstein), *[York Magazine](New)(New York Magazine)*
* 6th – Joshua Rothkopf, *[Out New York](Time)(Time Out (magazine))*
* 7th – [Chang](Justin)(Justin Chang), *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*
* 8th – [Roeper](Richard)(Richard Roeper), *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*
* 9th – [Duralde](Alonso)(Alonso Duralde), *[TheWrap](TheWrap)*
* 10th – Alison Willmore, *[BuzzFeed](BuzzFeed)*
* 10th – [Brook](Tom)(Tom Brook), *[BBC](BBC)*
* 10th – [Smith](Kyle)(Kyle Smith (critic)), *[York Post](New)(New York Post)*
* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Stephen Whitty, *[Star-Ledger](The)(The Star-Ledger)*
* Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – [Stevens](Dana)(Dana Stevens (critic)), *[Slate.com](Slate.com)*
* Top 10 (listed alphabetically) – [Rea](Steven)(Steven Rea), *[Inquirer](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Inquirer)*
* Best of 2015 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – [Turan](Kenneth)(Kenneth Turan), *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*
### Reactions from the Catholic Church
In general, the film was positively received by the Catholic community. Before its release, Cardinal [O'Malley](Sean)(Seán Patrick O'Malley) of the Archdiocese of Boston issued a statement in the archdiocese's official newspaper, stating that the "media's investigative reporting on the abuse crisis instigated a call for the Church to take responsibility for its failings and to reform itself—to deal with what was shameful and hidden." O'Malley had not seen the movie at that time but planned to do so.
On November 9, 2015, a review in the *[News Service](Catholic)(Catholic News Service)* called the film a "generally accurate chronicle" of the Boston scandal, but objected to some of the portrayals and the film's view of the Church. On the *Catholic News Service*, auxiliary bishop of [Angeles](Los)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles) [Barron](Robert)(Robert Barron (bishop)) said that it is "not a bad movie", as it shows how the wider community shares the responsibility for sexual abuse committed by priests, but that the film is wrong to insinuate that the Church has not reformed.
[Radio](Vatican)(Vatican Radio), the official radio service of the [See](Holy)(Holy See), called it "honest" and "compelling" and said it helped the U.S. Catholic Church "to accept fully the sin, to admit it publicly, and to pay all the consequences." Luca Pellegrini on the Vatican Radio website wrote that the *Globe* reporters "made themselves examples of their most pure vocation, that of finding the facts, verifying sources, and making themselves—for the good of the community and of a city—paladins of the need for justice." In February 2016, a [City](Vatican)(Vatican City) commission on clerical sex abuse attended a private screening of the film. Following the film's Best Picture win at the Oscars, Vatican newspaper ''[Romano](L'Osservatore)(L'Osservatore Romano)'' ran a column assuring that it is "not an anti-Catholic film", and Vatican Radio revealed that clerics in Rome have been recommending the film to each other.
### Criticism
A January 8, 2016, article in *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* cited author David F. Pierre Jr., who said that *Spotlight* "is a misrepresentation of how the Church dealt with sexual abuse cases", asserting that the movie's biggest flaw was its failure to portray psychologists who had assured Church officials that abusive priests could be safely returned to ministry after undergoing therapy treatments. Open Road Films rebutted the detractor, saying he was "perpetuating a myth in order to distract from real stories of abuse."
The film was attacked by Jack Dunn (played by Gary Galone), the public relations head and a member of the board at [College High School](Boston)(Boston College High School), for portraying him as callous and indifferent to the scandal. Dunn says he was immediately aware of the issues involved and worked to respond after viewing the film. Dunn was also the head of public relations for [College](Boston)(Boston College). Two of the *Globe* reporters depicted in the film, Walter Robinson and Sacha Pfeiffer, issued a statement in response to Dunn, firmly standing by their recollections of the day, that Dunn did "his best to frame a story in the most favorable way possible for the institution he is representing. That's what Jack did that day." They said Dunn mounted a "spirited public relations defense of Boston College High School during our first sit-down interview at the school in early 2002," the scene in which Dunn is depicted.
On March 15, 2016, Open Road Films released a statement on how Dunn was portrayed in the film: "As is the case with most movies based on historical events, *Spotlight* contains fictionalized dialogue that was attributed to Mr. Dunn for dramatic effect. We acknowledge that Mr. Dunn was not part of the Archdiocesan cover-up. It is clear from his efforts on behalf of the victims at BC High that he and the filmmakers share a deep, mutual concern for victims of abuse." Dunn then also released a statement: "I feel vindicated by the public statement and relieved to have the record set straight on an issue that has caused me and my family tremendous pain. While it will never erase the horrific experience of being falsely portrayed in an Academy Award-winning film, this public statement enables me to move forward with my reputation and integrity intact."
## Accolades
*Spotlight* has been critically acclaimed, and has been included in many critics' Top Ten Films of 2015 lists. The film has received over 100 industry and critics awards and nominations. The [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) selected *Spotlight* as one of the [Ten Films](Top)(American Film Institute Awards 2015#Movies of the Year) of the year. The film garnered three [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nominations for [Motion Picture – Drama](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama), [Director](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Director) for McCarthy, and [Screenplay](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay) for McCarthy and [Singer](Josh)(Josh Singer). It was nominated for five [Spirit Awards](Independent)(Independent Spirit Awards), including [Feature](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Film), [Director](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Director), [Screenplay](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay) for Singer, [Editing](Best)(Independent Spirit Award) for Tom McArdle and Honorary [Altman Award](Robert)(Robert Altman Award) for the cast. [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams) and the ensemble cast received nominations for the [Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role) and the [Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture) respectively, with the cast winning the latter.
The [York Film Critics Circle](New)(New York Film Critics Circle) awarded [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton) the [Actor](Best)(New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor) award, while it won the [Picture](Best)(New York Film Critics Online Awards#2015), Best Director, Best Screenplay and Best Ensemble cast at the [York Film Critics Online Awards](New)(New York Film Critics Online Awards). *Spotlight* won the [Film](Best)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Film) and [Screenplay](Best)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay) from the [Angeles Film Critics Association](Los)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association). It received eight nominations from the [Film Critics Association](Broadcast)(Broadcast Film Critics Association), including [Film](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Picture), [Director](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Director), [Supporting Actor](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actor), [Supporting Actress](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress), [Screenplay](Best)(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Screenplay) and [Score](Best)(Critics' Choice Award for Best Composer). It won the [Cast in a Motion Picture](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Cast – Motion Picture) at [Awards](Satellite)(Satellite Awards) and was nominated for six other awards including [Film](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Film), [Director](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Director), [Supporting Actor](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture), [Supporting Actress](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture)
and [Original Screenplay](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Original Screenplay).
At the [Awards](Academy)(88th Academy Awards), the film received six nominations, including [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture), [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director), [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor) for Ruffalo, [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for McAdams, [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay), and [Film Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Film Editing), winning Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay. It is the first Best Picture winner to win fewer than three [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards) since [1952](25th Academy Awards)'s *[Greatest Show on Earth](The)(The Greatest Show on Earth (film))*. At the time of its win, the film had made $39.2 million at the North American box office, which made it the second lowest domestically grossing film (adjusted for ticket-price inflation) to win Best Picture within the past four decades (after *[Hurt Locker](The)(The Hurt Locker)* with $17 million).
*Spotlight* was listed on over 120 critics' and publications' top ten lists.
It was also voted the 88th greatest film since 2000 in an international critics' poll conducted by [BBC](BBC). In 2018, [IndieWire](IndieWire) writers ranked its screenplay the 12th best American screenplay of the 21st century, with Kate Erbland saying that the script "ticks along so well, not cutting any corners when it comes to the nitty gritty of real-world reporting, while also finding time to develop its characters and tell a banger of a story. It hits the right beats, but it does so in earned ways, rooted in realism".
## See also
* [Archdiocese of Boston sex abuse scandal](Catholic)(Catholic Archdiocese of Boston sex abuse scandal)
* [Church sexual abuse cases](Catholic)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases)
* *[the Grace of God](By)(By the Grace of God (film))*, a 2019 French-Belgian film about three victims of [sexual abuse](clerical)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases)
* [Network of those Abused by Priests (SNAP)](Survivors)(Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests)
* ''[The President's Men](All)(All the President's Men (film))*, a 1976 film portraying the *[Post](Washington)(Washington Post)* investigation into the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal); the overseer of the *Post* investigation, [Bradlee](Ben)(Ben Bradlee), is the father of [Bradlee Jr.](Ben)(Ben Bradlee Jr.), the overseer of the *Globe* investigation
* [treatment of sexual assault victims](Post-assault)(Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
* ["The story behind the *Spotlight* movie"](https://www.boston.com/globe/spotlight/abuse) from *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)*
}}
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Evolution
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evolution
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# Evolution
*Revision ID: 1159768120 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T12:01:09Z*
---
In [biology](biology), **evolution** is the change in [heritable](heritable) [characteristics](Phenotypic trait) of biological [population](population)s over successive generations. These characteristics are the [expressions](Gene expression) of [gene](gene)s, which are passed on from parent to offspring during [reproduction](reproduction). [variation](Genetic)(Genetic variability) tends to exist within any given population as a result of genetic [mutation](mutation) and [recombination](genetic recombination). Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as [selection](natural)(natural selection) (including [selection](sexual)(sexual selection)) and [drift](genetic)(genetic drift) act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations. It is this process of evolution that has given rise to [biodiversity](biodiversity) at every level of [organisation](biological)(biological organisation).
The [theory](scientific theory) of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) and [Russel Wallace](Alfred)(Alfred Russel Wallace) in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book *[the Origin of Species](On)(On the Origin of Species)*. Evolution by natural selection is established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often produced than can possibly survive; (2) traits vary among individuals with respect to their [morphology](morphology (biology)), [physiology](physiology), and behaviour ([variation](phenotypic)(phenotypic variation)); (3) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential [fitness](Fitness (biology))); and (4) traits can be passed from generation to generation ([heritability](heritability) of fitness). In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be replaced by the [offspring](offspring) of parents with favourable characteristics. In the early 20th century, other [ideas of evolution](competing)(Alternatives to evolution by natural selection) such as [mutationism](mutationism) and [orthogenesis](orthogenesis) were [refuted](Superseded theories in science) as the [synthesis](modern)(Modern synthesis (20th century)) concluded [evolution](Darwinian)(Darwinian evolution) acts on [Mendelian](Mendelian) genetic variation.
All [life](life) on Earth—including [humanity](Human evolution)—shares a [universal common ancestor](last)(last universal common ancestor) (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago. The [record](fossil)(fossil) includes a progression from early [biogenic](Biogenic substance) [graphite](graphite) to [mat](microbial)(microbial mat) fossils to fossilised [organism](multicellular)(multicellular organism)s. Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species ([speciation](speciation)), changes within species ([anagenesis](anagenesis)), and loss of species ([extinction](extinction)) throughout the evolutionary [of life](history)(history of life) on Earth. [Morphological](morphology (biology)) and [biochemical](biochemical) traits are more similar among species that share a more [common ancestor](recent)(recent common ancestor), and these traits can be used to reconstruct [tree](phylogenetic)(phylogenetic tree)s.[2008](NAS)(#NAS 2008), [p. 17](http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=17)
[biologists](Evolutionary)(Evolutionary biologists) have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing [hypotheses](hypotheses) as well as constructing theories based on [evidence](empirical evidence) from the field or laboratory and on data generated by the methods of [and theoretical biology](mathematical)(mathematical and theoretical biology). Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of [biology](biology) but numerous other scientific and industrial fields, including [agriculture](agriculture), [medicine](medicine), and [science](computer)(computer science).
## Heredity
[[File:ADN static.png|thumb|upright|[DNA](DNA) structure. [Bases](nucleobase) are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a [helix](double)(Nucleic acid double helix).]]
Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits—the inherited characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, [colour](eye)(eye colour) is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism's [genome](genome) (genetic material) is called its *[genotype](genotype)*.
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its *[phenotype](phenotype)*. These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example, [suntanned](suntanned) skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of [albinism](albinism), who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to [sunburn](sunburn).
Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via [DNA](DNA), a [molecule](molecule) that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long [biopolymer](biopolymer) composed of four types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called [chromosome](chromosome)s. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a [locus](locus (genetics)). If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by [trait loci](quantitative)(quantitative trait locus) (multiple interacting genes).
Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of [nucleotide](nucleotide)s in the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems. [methylation](DNA)(DNA methylation) marking [chromatin](chromatin), self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by [interference](RNA)(RNA interference) and the three-dimensional [conformation](Protein structure) of [protein](protein)s (such as [prion](prion)s) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in [networks](genetic)(gene regulatory network) and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in [plasticity](developmental)(developmental plasticity) and [canalisation](Canalisation (genetics)). Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of [construction](niche)(niche construction) is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and [symbiogenesis](symbiogenesis).
## Sources of variation
Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population. Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through [reproduction](sexual)(sexual reproduction) and migration between populations ([flow](gene)(gene flow)). Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.
* However, even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype: for example, chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5% of their genomes.
An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the environment it has lived in. A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of [fixation](fixation (population genetics))—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.
Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was [inheritance](blending)(blending inheritance). But with blending inheritance, genetic variation would be rapidly lost, making evolution by natural selection implausible. The [principle](Hardy–Weinberg)(Hardy–Weinberg principle) provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift.
### Mutation
[[File:Gene-duplication.svg|thumb|upright|Duplication of part of a [chromosome](chromosome)]]
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source of genetic variation in all organisms. When mutations occur, they may alter the [of a gene](product)(gene product), or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect. Based on studies in the fly *[melanogaster](Drosophila)(Drosophila melanogaster)*, it has been suggested that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70% of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.
Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming [duplicated](gene duplication) (usually by [recombination](genetic)(genetic recombination)), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome. Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve. This is important because most new genes evolve within [families](gene)(gene family) from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors. For example, the [eye](human)(human eye) uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for [vision](colour)(Cone cell) and one for [vision](night)(Rod cell); all four are descended from a single ancestral gene.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the [redundancy](Gene redundancy) of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed [novo* gene birth](*de)(de novo gene birth).
The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions ([shuffling](exon)(exon shuffling)). When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts, [domains](protein domain) act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions. For example, [synthase](polyketide)(polyketide synthase)s are large [enzyme](enzyme)s that make [antibiotic](antibiotic)s; they contain up to 100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in an assembly line.
One example of mutation is [boar](wild)(wild boar) piglets. They are camouflage colored and show a characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes. However, mutations in *[1 receptor](melanocortin)(melanocortin 1 receptor)* (*MC1R*) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type color and different mutations causing dominant black color of the pigs.
### Sex and recombination
In [asexual](Asexual reproduction) organisms, genes are inherited together, or *linked*, as they cannot mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment. In a related process called [recombination](homologous)(homologous recombination), sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes. Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.
[[File:Evolsex-dia1a.png|thumb|upright=1.15|This diagram illustrates the *twofold cost of sex*. If each individual were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), *(a)* the [sex](sex)ual population remains the same size each generation, where the *(b)* [reproduction](Asexual)(Asexual reproduction) population doubles in size each generation.]]
The two-fold cost of sex was first described by [Maynard Smith](John)(John Maynard Smith). The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many [invertebrate](invertebrate)s. The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes. Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms. The [Queen hypothesis](Red)(Red Queen hypothesis) has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to [coevolution](coevolution) with other species in an ever-changing environment. Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively beneficial.Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277–81. . PMID 3898363Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE. The molecular basis of the evolution of sex. Adv Genet. 1987;24:323-70. . PMID 3324702
### Gene flow
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species. It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the movement of [pollen](pollen) between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations of grasses.
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of [hybrid](Hybrid (biology)) organisms and [gene transfer](horizontal)(horizontal gene transfer). Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among [bacteria](bacteria). In medicine, this contributes to the spread of [resistance](antibiotic)(antibiotic resistance), as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast *[cerevisiae](Saccharomyces)(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)* and the adzuki bean weevil *[chinensis](Callosobruchus)(Callosobruchus chinensis)* has occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic [rotifers](bdelloid)(Bdelloidea), which have received a range of genes from bacteria, [fungi](fungi) and plants. [Virus](Virus)es can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across [domains](biological)(Domain (biology)).
Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of [cell](eukaryotic)(eukaryotic cell)s and bacteria, during the acquisition of [chloroplast](chloroplast)s and [mitochondria](Mitochondrion). It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and [archaea](archaea).
## Evolutionary processes
[[File:Mutation and selection diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[Mutation](Mutation) followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration.]]
From a [neo-Darwinian](Neo-Darwinism) perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms, for example, the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow and mutation bias.
### Natural selection
Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies three principles:
* Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation).
* Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).
* These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).
More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage. This [teleonomy](teleonomy) is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are [fitted](seemingly)(teleology in biology) for the [functional](function (biology)) roles they perform. Consequences of selection include [mating](nonrandom)(Assortative mating) and [hitchhiking](genetic)(genetic hitchhiking).
The central concept of natural selection is the [fitness](evolutionary)(fitness (biology)) of an organism. Fitness is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation. However, fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes. For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.
If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population. These traits are said to be "selected *for*." Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased [fecundity](fecundity). Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer—they are "selected *against*." Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful. However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form. However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in [dolphin](dolphin)s, teeth in [chicken](chicken)s, wings in wingless stick [insect](insect)s, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks" such as these are known as [atavism](atavism)s.
[[File:Genetic Distribution.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.45|These charts depict the different types of genetic selection. On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of [trait](phenotypic)(phenotypic trait) and the y-axis variable is the number of organisms. Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection.
**·** Graph 1 shows [selection](directional)(directional selection), in which a single extreme [phenotype](phenotype) is favoured.
**·** Graph 2 depicts [selection](stabilizing)(stabilizing selection), where the intermediate phenotype is favoured over the extreme traits.
**·** Graph 3 shows [selection](disruptive)(disruptive selection), in which the extreme phenotypes are favoured over the intermediate.]]
Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is [selection](directional)(directional selection), which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller. Secondly, [selection](disruptive)(disruptive selection) is selection for extreme trait values and often results in [different values](two)(bimodal distribution) becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in [selection](stabilising)(stabilising selection) there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in [variance](variance) around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.
Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to an [ecosystem](ecosystem), that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, [physical](Abiotic component) as well as [biological](Biotic component), in their local environment. [Odum](Eugene)(Eugene Odum), a founder of [ecology](ecology), defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system...." Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct [niche](Ecological niche), or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the [chain](food)(food chain) and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.
Natural selection can act at [levels of organisation](different)(unit of selection), such as genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and species. Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called [transposons](Transposable element), which can replicate and spread throughout a genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as [selection](group)(group selection), may allow the evolution of cooperation.
#### Genetic hitchhiking
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as [linkage](genetic linkage). This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to [expectations](independence (probability theory)), which is called their [disequilibrium](linkage)(linkage disequilibrium). A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a [haplotype](haplotype). This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial: natural selection can drive a [sweep](selective)(selective sweep) that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size.
#### Sexual selection
[[File:Rana arvalis2.jpg|thumb|Male [frogs](moor)(Moor frog) become blue during the height of mating season. Blue reflectance may be a form of intersexual communication. It is hypothesized that males with brighter blue coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic fitness.]]
A special case of natural selection is sexual selection, which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates. Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species. Although sexually favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls, large body size and bright colours often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males. This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these [hard-to-fake](Handicap principle), sexually selected traits.
### Genetic drift
[[File:Allele-frequency.png|thumb|Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to [fixation](Fixation (population genetics)) is more rapid in the smaller population.]]
Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of [frequencies](allele)(allele frequency) within a population from one generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to *drift* upward or downward in each successive generation because the alleles are subject to [error](sampling)(sampling error). This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.
According to the now largely abandoned [theory of molecular evolution](neutral)(neutral theory of molecular evolution) most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of [mutation](neutral)(neutral mutation)s by genetic drift. In this model, most genetic changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift. This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature. A better-supported version of this model is the [neutral theory](nearly)(nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution), according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Other theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other [stochastic](stochastic) forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking, also known as genetic draft. Another concept is [neutral evolution](constructive)(constructive neutral evolution) (CNE), which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting, and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the [spliceosome](spliceosome) to the complex interdependence of [communities](microbial)(Microbial consortium).
The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.
It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes, including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of [research](current)(Evolutionary biology).
*
### Gene flow
Gene flow involves the exchange of genes between populations and between species. The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution. Due to the complexity of organisms, any two completely isolated populations will eventually evolve genetic incompatibilities through neutral processes, as in the [model](Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller)(Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller Model), even if both populations remain essentially identical in terms of their adaptation to the environment.
If genetic differentiation between populations develops, gene flow between populations can introduce traits or alleles which are disadvantageous in the local population and this may lead to organisms within these populations evolving mechanisms that prevent mating with genetically distant populations, eventually resulting in the appearance of new species. Thus, exchange of genetic information between individuals is fundamentally important for the development of the *[Species Concept](Biological)(Biological Species Concept)*.
During the development of the modern synthesis, Sewall Wright developed his [balance theory](shifting)(shifting balance theory), which regarded gene flow between partially isolated populations as an important aspect of adaptive evolution. However, recently there has been substantial criticism of the importance of the shifting balance theory.
### Mutation bias
[bias](Mutation)(Mutation bias) is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is related to the idea of [bias](developmental)(developmental bias). Haldane and Fisher argued that, because mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.
Noboru Sueoka and [Freese](Ernst)(Ernst Freese) proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The identification of a GC-biased *E. coli* mutator strain in 1967, along with the proposal of the [theory](neutral)(Neutral theory of molecular evolution), established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature.
For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage. Such models also include effects of selection, following the mutation-selection-drift model, which allows both for mutation biases and differential selection based on effects on translation. Hypotheses of mutation bias have played an important role in the development of thinking about the evolution of genome composition, including isochores. Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different [taxa](Taxon) can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes. The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.
However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work showed that the original "pressures" theory assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on events of mutation that introduce new alleles, mutational and developmental [ biases in the introduction of variation](Bias_in_the_introduction_of_variation ) (arrival biases) can impose biases on evolution without requiring neutral evolution or high mutation rates ).
Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common mutation biases though others dispute this interpretation.
## Applications
Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology, such as natural selection, have many applications.
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has been used for thousands of years in the [domestication](domestication) of plants and animals. More recently, such selection has become a vital part of [engineering](genetic)(genetic engineering), with [marker](selectable)(selectable marker)s such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new [antibodies](antibody)) in a process called [evolution](directed)(directed evolution).
Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in human [disorder](genetic)(genetic disorder)s. For example, the [tetra](Mexican)(Mexican tetra) is an [albino](albino) cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation.
Evolutionary theory has many [in medicine](applications)(Evolutionary therapy). Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and [cancer](cancer)s evolve to be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to [drug](pharmaceutical)(pharmaceutical drug)s. These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and [herbicide](herbicide) resistance. It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.
In [science](computer)(computer science), simulations of evolution using [algorithm](evolutionary)(evolutionary algorithm)s and [life](artificial)(artificial life) started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of [Rechenberg](Ingo)(Ingo Rechenberg) in the 1960s. He used [strategies](evolution)(evolution strategies) to solve complex engineering problems. [algorithm](Genetic)(Genetic algorithm)s in particular became popular through the writing of [Henry Holland](John)(John Henry Holland). Practical applications also include [evolution of computer programmes](automatic)(genetic programming). Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems.
## Natural outcomes
[[File:Kishony lab-The Evolution of Bacteria on a Mega-Plate.webm|thumb|upright=1.5|thumbtime=106|A visual demonstration of rapid [resistance](antibiotic)(antibiotic resistance) evolution by *E. coli* growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of [trimethoprim](trimethoprim)]]
Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding [predators](predators) or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by [cooperating](Co-operation (evolution)) with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial [symbiosis](symbiosis). In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed. These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as [macroevolution](macroevolution) versus microevolution. Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation. Macroevolution the outcome of long periods of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one—the difference is simply the time involved. However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new [habitat](habitat)s, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels—with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes such as [selection](species)(species selection) acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction.
A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for "progress", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity. Although [species](complex)(Evolution of biological complexity) have evolved, they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere. For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic [prokaryote](prokaryote)s, which form about half the world's [biomass](Biomass (ecology)) despite their small size, and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity. Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is [noticeable](more)(Sampling bias). Indeed, the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to evolutionary research, since their rapid reproduction allows the study of [evolution](experimental)(experimental evolution) and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time.
### Adaptation
[[File:Homology vertebrates-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|[Homologous](Homology (biology)) bones in the limbs of [tetrapod](tetrapod)s. The bones of these animals have the same basic structure, but have been [adapted](adapted) for specific uses.]]
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat.: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past and became instead a continuing dynamic process."The sixth edition of the *Oxford Dictionary of Science* (2010) defines *adaptation* as "Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment." Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For example, the adaptation of [horse](horse)s' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the term *adaptation* for the evolutionary process and *adaptive trait* for the product (the bodily part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:
# *Adaptation* is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.
# *Adaptedness* is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.
# An *adaptive trait* is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.
Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria *[coli](Escherichia)(Escherichia coli)* evolving the ability to use [acid](citric)(citric acid) as a nutrient in a [laboratory experiment](long-term)(E. coli long-term evolution experiment), *[Flavobacterium](Flavobacterium)* evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of [nylon](nylon) manufacturing, and the soil bacterium *[Sphingobium](Sphingobium)* evolving an entirely new [pathway](metabolic)(metabolic pathway) that degrades the synthetic [pesticide](pesticide) [pentachlorophenol](pentachlorophenol). An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).
[[File:Whale skeleton.png|upright=1.35|thumb|left|A [whale](baleen)(baleen whale) skeleton. Letters *a* and *b* label [flipper](flipper (anatomy)) bones, which were adapted from front [leg](leg) bones, while *c* indicates [vestigial](vestigial) leg bones, both suggesting an adaptation from land to sea.]]
Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within [bat](bat) wings, for example, are very similar to those in [mice](mice) feet and [primate](primate) hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as [arthropod](arthropod), [squid](squid) and [vertebrate](vertebrate) eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called [homology](deep)(deep homology).
During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include [pseudogene](pseudogene)s, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction. Examples of [structures in humans](vestigial)(Human vestigiality) include [teeth](wisdom)(Wisdom tooth), the [coccyx](coccyx), the [appendix](vermiform)(vermiform appendix), and other behavioural vestiges such as [bumps](goose)(goose bumps) and [reflexes](primitive)(primitive reflexes).
However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact [exaptation](exaptation)s: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard *Holaspis guentheri*, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation. Within cells, [machine](molecular)(molecular machine)s such as the bacterial [flagella](flagella) and [sorting machinery](protein)(translocase of the inner membrane) evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions. Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from [glycolysis](glycolysis) and [metabolism](xenobiotic)(xenobiotic metabolism) to serve as structural proteins called [crystallin](crystallin)s within the lenses of organisms' eyes.
An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and evolution of [development](embryonic)(Embryogenesis) and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features.
* These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the [ear in mammals](middle)(Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles). It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of [crocodile](crocodile)s. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.
### Coevolution
[[File:Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis Wooster.jpg|thumb|The [garter snake](common)(common garter snake) has evolved resistance to the [substance](defensive)(anti-predator adaptation) [tetrodotoxin](tetrodotoxin) in its amphibian prey.]]
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a [pathogen](pathogen) and a [host](host (biology)), or a predator and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution. An example is the production of [tetrodotoxin](tetrodotoxin) in the [newt](rough-skinned)(rough-skinned newt) and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the [garter snake](common)(common garter snake). In this predator-prey pair, an [arms race](evolutionary)(evolutionary arms race) has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.
*
*
### Cooperation
Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict.
* Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the [mycorrhiza](mycorrhiza)l fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil. This is a [reciprocal](Reciprocity (evolution)) relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from [photosynthesis](photosynthesis). Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending [signals](signal transduction) that suppress the plant [system](immune)(immune system).
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the [eusociality](eusociality) found in social insects, such as [bee](bee)s, [termite](termite)s and [ant](ant)s, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a [colony](Colony (biology)) that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth [cancer](causes)(carcinogenesis).
Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of [selection](kin)(kin selection), which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring. This activity is selected for because if the *helping* individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will *also* contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.
### Speciation
[[File:Speciation modes edit.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.6|The four geographic modes of [speciation](speciation)]]
Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.
There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species." The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist [Mayr](Ernst)(Ernst Mayr) in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes; this is called the [problem](species)(species problem). Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.
[to reproduction](Barriers)(Reproductive isolation) between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their [recent common ancestor](most)(most recent common ancestor), it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and [donkey](donkey)s mating to produce [mule](mule)s. Such hybrids are generally [infertile](infertile). In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridisation in producing [species](new)(hybrid speciation) of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the [tree frog](gray)(gray tree frog) being a particularly well-studied example.
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both [laboratory conditions](controlled)(Laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.
*
*
* In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is [speciation](allopatric)(allopatric speciation), which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by [fragmentation](habitat)(habitat fragmentation) or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.
The second mode of speciation is [speciation](peripatric)(peripatric speciation), which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the [effect](founder)(founder effect) causes rapid speciation after an increase in [inbreeding](inbreeding) increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.
The third mode is [speciation](parapatric)(parapatric speciation). This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations. Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass *[odoratum](Anthoxanthum)(Anthoxanthum)*, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause [reinforcement](Reinforcement (speciation)), which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as [displacement](character)(character displacement), which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.
[[File:Darwin's finches.jpeg|frame|[isolation](Geographical)(Geographical isolation) of [finches](Darwin's finches) on the [Islands](Galápagos)(Galápagos Islands) produced over a dozen new species.]]
Finally, in [speciation](sympatric)(sympatric speciation) species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.
* Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both [differences](genetic)(Polymorphism (biology)) and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.
One type of sympatric speciation involves [crossbreed](crossbreed)ing of two related species to produce a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during [meiosis](meiosis) the [chromosome](homologous)(homologous chromosome)s from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form [polyploids](polyploidy). This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already. An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species *[thaliana](Arabidopsis)(Arabidopsis thaliana)* and *[arenosa](Arabidopsis)(Arabidopsis arenosa)* crossbred to give the new species *Arabidopsis suecica*. This happened about 20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.
Speciation events are important in the theory of [equilibrium](punctuated)(punctuated equilibrium), which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. In this theory, speciation and [evolution](rapid)(Contemporary evolution) are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.
### Extinction
[[File:Palais de la Decouverte Tyrannosaurus rex p1050042.jpg|thumb|left|*[rex](Tyrannosaurus)(Tyrannosaurus rex)*. Non-[avian](bird) [dinosaur](dinosaur)s died out in the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event) at the end of the [Cretaceous](Cretaceous) period.]]
Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction. Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species. These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass [event](extinction)(extinction event)s. The [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier [extinction event](Permian–Triassic)(Permian–Triassic extinction event) was even more severe, with approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction. The [extinction event](Holocene)(Holocene extinction) is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century. Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event; [warming](global)(global warming) may further accelerate it in the future. Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of 1% described.
The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered. The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species for limited resources (the [exclusion principle](competitive)(competitive exclusion principle)). If one species can out-compete another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.
## Evolutionary history of life
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### Origin of life
The Earth is about [years old](4.54 billion)(Age of Earth). The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the [Eoarchean](Eoarchean) Era after a geological [crust](Crust (geology)) started to solidify following the earlier molten [Hadean](Hadean) Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old [rocks](metasedimentary)(Metasediment) discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of [life](biotic)(Biotic material)" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. Commenting on the Australian findings, [Blair Hedges](Stephen)(Stephen Blair Hedges) wrote, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe." In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [gene](gene)s from the [universal common ancestor](last)(last universal common ancestor) (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.
More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet described.
Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed. The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating molecules such as [RNA](RNA) and the assembly of simple cells.
### Common descent
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral [pool](gene)(gene pool). Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, [trait](vestigial)(vestigial trait)s with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.
[[File:Ape skeletons.png|upright=1.5|thumb|left|The [hominoids](hominoids) are descendants of a [ancestor](common)(common ancestor).]]
Due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species. To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the "[of life](Coral)(Coral of life)" as a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.
Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.
More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and [acid](amino)(amino acid)s. The development of [genetics](molecular)(molecular genetics) has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through the [clock](molecular)(molecular clock) produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.
### Evolution of life
The three [domains](Domain (biology)) are coloured, with [bacteria](bacteria) blue, [archaea](archaea) green and [eukaryote](eukaryote)s red.}}
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.
* No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called [endosymbiosis](endosymbiont). The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or [hydrogenosome](hydrogenosome)s. Another engulfment of [cyanobacteria](cyanobacteria)l-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.
*
The history of life was that of the [unicellular](Unicellular organism) eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the [Ediacaran](Ediacara biota) period. The [of multicellularity](evolution)(Multicellular evolution) occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as [sponge](sponge)s, [algae](brown)(brown algae), cyanobacteria, [moulds](slime)(Slime mold) and [myxobacteria](myxobacteria). In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.
Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the [explosion](Cambrian)(Cambrian explosion). Here, the majority of [types](Phylum) of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.
*
About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species. [Amphibian](Amphibian)s first appeared around 364 million years ago, followed by early [amniote](amniote)s and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "[reptile](reptile)"-like lineages), [mammal](mammal)s around 129 million years ago, [Homininae](Homininae) around 10 million years ago and [humans](modern)(Anatomically modern humans) around 250,000 years ago. However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes.
## History of evolutionary thought
[[File:Lucretius Rome.jpg|thumb|upright|[Lucretius](Lucretius)]]
[[File:Alfred-Russel-Wallace-c1895.jpg|thumb|upright|[Russel Wallace](Alfred)(Alfred Russel Wallace)]]
[[File:Thomas Robert Malthus Wellcome L0069037 -crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[Robert Malthus](Thomas)(Thomas Robert Malthus)]]
[[File:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|thumb|upright|In 1842, [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) penned his first sketch of *[the Origin of Species](On)(On the Origin of Species)*.]]
### Classical antiquity
The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first [pre-Socratic](pre-Socratic philosophy) Greek [philosopher](philosopher)s, such as [Anaximander](Anaximander#Origin of humankind) and [Empedocles](Empedocles#Cosmogony). Such proposals survived into Roman times. The [poet](poet) and philosopher [Lucretius](Lucretius) followed Empedocles in his masterwork *[rerum natura](De)(De rerum natura)* (*On the Nature of Things*).
### Middle Ages
In contrast to these [materialistic](Materialism) views, [Aristotelianism](Aristotelianism) had considered all natural things as [actualisations](potentiality and actuality) of fixed natural possibilities, known as [forms](Theory of forms). This became part of a medieval [teleological](teleology) understanding of [nature](Nature (philosophy)) in which all things have an intended role to play in a [divine](divinity) [cosmic](cosmos) order. Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages) and were integrated into [Christian](Christianity) learning, but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one-for-one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be.
A number of Arab Muslim scholars wrote about evolution, most notably [Khaldun](Ibn)(Ibn Khaldun), who wrote the book *[Muqaddimah](Muqaddimah)* in 1377 AD, in which he asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys", in a process by which "species become more numerous".Kiros, Teodros. *Explorations in African Political Thought*. 2001, page 55
### Pre-Darwinian
The [Science"]("New)(Scientific revolution) of the 17th century rejected the Aristotelian approach. It sought to explain natural phenomena in terms of [law](physical)(physical law)s that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order. However, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences: the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. [Ray](John)(John Ray) applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation.
* The [classification](biological)(biological classification) introduced by [Linnaeus](Carl)(Carl Linnaeus) in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.
Other [naturalists](naturalists) of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws. In 1751, [Louis Maupertuis](Pierre)(Pierre Louis Maupertuis) wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species. [Leclerc, Comte de Buffon](Georges-Louis)(Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon), suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms, and [Darwin](Erasmus)(Erasmus Darwin) proposed that all warm-blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism (or "filament"). The first full-fledged evolutionary scheme was [Lamarck](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Lamarck)'s "transmutation" theory of 1809, which envisaged [generation](spontaneous)(spontaneous generation) continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency, and postulated that on a local level, these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents. (The latter process was later called [Lamarckism](Lamarckism).) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support. In particular, [Cuvier](Georges)(Georges Cuvier) insisted that species were unrelated and fixed, their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs. In the meantime, Ray's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by [Paley](William)(William Paley) into the *[Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity](Natural)(Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity)* (1802), which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin.
* Letter 2532, 22 November 1859.
### Darwinian revolution
The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) and [Wallace](Alfred)(Alfred Wallace) in terms of variable populations. Darwin used the expression "**descent with modification**" rather than "evolution". Partly influenced by *[Essay on the Principle of Population](An)(An Essay on the Principle of Population)* (1798) by [Robert Malthus](Thomas)(Thomas Robert Malthus), Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when [Russel Wallace](Alfred)(Alfred Russel Wallace) sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their [papers](separate)(On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection) were presented together at an 1858 meeting of the [Society of London](Linnean)(Linnean Society of London). At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as *On the Origin of Species* explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of [concepts of evolution](Darwin's)(Darwinism) at the expense of [theories](alternative)(Alternatives to evolution by natural selection). [Henry Huxley](Thomas)(Thomas Henry Huxley) applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using [paleontology](paleontology) and [anatomy](comparative)(comparative anatomy) to provide strong evidence that humans and [ape](ape)s shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the [universe](universe).
### Pangenesis and heredity
The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of [pangenesis](pangenesis). In 1865, [Mendel](Gregor)(Gregor Mendel) reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the [assortment](independent)(Mendelian inheritance#Law of Independent Assortment) and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory. [Weismann](August)(August Weismann) made the important distinction between [cell](germ)(germ cell)s that give rise to [gamete](gamete)s (such as [sperm](sperm) and [cell](egg)(egg cell)s) and the [cell](somatic)(somatic cell)s of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. [de Vries](Hugo)(Hugo de Vries) connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the [nucleus](cell)(cell nucleus) and when expressed they could move into the [cytoplasm](cytoplasm) to change the [cell](Cell (biology))'s structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed [mutation theory](a)(Mutationism) that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of [genetics](population)(population genetics), such as [Fisher](Ronald)(Ronald Fisher), [Wright](Sewall)(Sewall Wright) and [B. S. Haldane](J.)(J. B. S. Haldane) set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and [inheritance](Mendelian)(Mendelian inheritance) was thus reconciled.
### The 'modern synthesis'
In the 1920s and 1930s, the so-called modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics, based on Mendelian inheritance, into a unified theory that applied generally to any branch of biology. It explained patterns observed across species in populations, through [transitions](fossil)(Transitional fossil) in palaeontology.
### Further syntheses
Since then, further syntheses have extended evolution's explanatory power in the light of numerous discoveries, to cover biological phenomena across the whole of the [hierarchy](biological)(Biological organisation) from genes to populations.
The publication of the structure of [DNA](DNA) by [Watson](James)(James Watson) and [Crick](Francis)(Francis Crick) with contribution of [Franklin](Rosalind)(Rosalind Franklin) in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance. [biology](Molecular)(Molecular biology) improved understanding of the relationship between [genotype](genotype) and [phenotype](phenotype). Advances were also made in phylogenetic [systematics](systematics), mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of [trees](evolutionary)(Phylogenetic tree). In 1973, evolutionary biologist [Dobzhansky](Theodosius)(Theodosius Dobzhansky) penned that "[in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution](nothing)(Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution)," because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent [explanatory](Explanation) body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.
One extension, known as [developmental biology](evolutionary)(evolutionary developmental biology) and informally called "evo-devo," emphasises how changes between generations (evolution) act on patterns of change within individual organisms ([development](Developmental biology)). Since the beginning of the 21st century, some biologists have argued for an [evolutionary synthesis](extended)(extended evolutionary synthesis), which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes, such as [epigenetics](epigenetics), [effects](parental)(Maternal effect), ecological inheritance and [inheritance](cultural)(Dual inheritance theory), and [evolvability](evolvability).
## Social and cultural responses
[[File:Editorial cartoon depicting Charles Darwin as an ape (1871).jpg|upright|thumb|As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, [caricature](caricature)s of Charles Darwin with an [ape](ape) or [monkey](monkey) body symbolised evolution.]]
In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of *On the Origin of Species* in 1859, the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Today, the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists. However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some [theists](Theism).For an overview of the philosophical, religious and cosmological controversies, see:
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For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see:
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While [religions and denominations](various)(Level of support for evolution#Religious) have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as [evolution](theistic)(theistic evolution), there are [creationists](creationism) who believe that evolution is contradicted by the [myth](creation)(creation myth)s found in their [religion](religion)s and who raise various [to evolution](objections)(objections to evolution). As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of *[of the Natural History of Creation](Vestiges)(Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation)* in 1844, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of [evolution](human)(human evolution) that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and [faculties](moral)(Evolution of morality) of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals. In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on [politics](politics) and [education](public)(creation and evolution in public education). While other scientific fields such as [cosmology](physical cosmology) and [science](Earth)(Earth science) also conflict with literal interpretations of many [text](religious)(religious text)s, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.
The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century. The [Trial](Scopes)(Scopes Trial) decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 *[v. Arkansas](Epperson)(Epperson v. Arkansas)* decision. Since then, the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s, but it returned in [pseudoscientific](Pseudoscience) form as [design](intelligent)(intelligent design) (ID), to be excluded once again in the 2005 *[v. Dover Area School District](Kitzmiller)(Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District)* case. The debate over Darwin's ideas did not generate significant controversy in China.
## See also
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## References
## Bibliography
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* The notebook is available from [The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online](http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&viewtype=side&pageseq=1) . Retrieved 2019-10-09.
* The book is available from [The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online](http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F373&viewtype=side) . Retrieved 2014-11-21.
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* "Papers from the Symposium on the Limits of Reductionism in Biology, held at the Novartis Foundation, London, May 13–15, 1997."
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* "[History of Evolution in the United States](https://www.salon.com/2021/08/24/more-americans-believe-in-evolution/)". [Salon](Salon.com) (Retrieved 2021-08-24)
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[ ](Category:Evolution)
[ ](Category:Biological evolution)
[theories](Category:Biology)(Category:Biology theories)
[*](Category:Evolutionary biology)
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Alfred the Great
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alfred_the_great
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# Alfred the Great
*Revision ID: 1159581946 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T07:14:23Z*
---
886
| predecessor = [I](Æthelred)(Æthelred I)
| succession1 = [of the Anglo-Saxons](King)(King of the Anglo-Saxons)
| reign1 = 886 – 26 October 899
| successor1 = [the Elder](Edward)(Edward the Elder)
| image = Alfred the Great silver coin.jpg
| caption = Silver coin of Alfred
| house = [Wessex](House of Wessex)
| issue =
| birth_date = 848–49
| birth_place = [Wantage](Wantage), [Berkshire](History of Berkshire),}} [Wessex](Kingdom of Wessex)
| death_date = 26 October 899 (aged 50 or 51)
| burial_date =
| burial_place = [Abbey](Hyde)(Hyde Abbey), [Winchester](Winchester), Hampshire, now lost
| spouse =
| father = [King of Wessex](Æthelwulf,)(Æthelwulf, King of Wessex)
| mother = [Osburh](Osburh)
}}
**Alfred the Great** (alt. **Ælfred**; 848/849 – 26 October 899) was [of the West Saxons](King)(King of the West Saxons) from 871 to 886, and [of the Anglo-Saxons](King)(King of the Anglo-Saxons) from 886 until his death in 899. He was the youngest son of King [Æthelwulf](Æthelwulf, King of Wessex) and his first wife [Osburh](Osburh), who both died when Alfred was young. Three of Alfred's brothers, [Æthelbald](Æthelbald, King of Wessex), [Æthelberht](Æthelberht, King of Wessex) and [Æthelred](Æthelred I of Wessex), reigned in turn before him. Under Alfred's rule, considerable administrative and military reforms were introduced, prompting lasting change in England. }}
After ascending the throne, Alfred spent several years fighting [Viking](Viking) invasions. He won a decisive victory in the [of Edington](Battle)(Battle of Edington) in 878 and made an agreement with the Vikings, dividing England between Anglo-Saxon territory and the Viking-ruled [Danelaw](Danelaw), composed of [York](Scandinavian)(Scandinavian York), the north-east Midlands and East Anglia. Alfred also oversaw the conversion of Viking leader [Guthrum](Guthrum) to Christianity. He defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, becoming the dominant ruler in England. Alfred began styling himself as "King of the Anglo-Saxons" after reoccupying London from the Vikings. Details of his life are described in a work by 9th-century Welsh scholar and bishop [Asser](Asser).
Alfred had a reputation as a learned and merciful man of a gracious and level-headed nature who encouraged education, proposing that primary education be conducted in [English](Old English), rather than Latin, and improving the legal system and military structure and his people's quality of life. He was given the epithet "the Great" in the 16th century and is only one of two English monarchs, alongside [the Great](Cnut)(Cnut the Great), to be labelled as such.
## Family
Alfred was a son of [Æthelwulf](Æthelwulf of Wessex), king of [Wessex](Wessex), and his wife [Osburh](Osburh). According to his biographer, [Asser](Asser), writing in 893, "In the year of our Lord's Incarnation 849 Alfred, King of the Anglo-Saxons", was born at the royal estate called [Wantage](Wantage), in the district known as [Berkshire](Berkshire) (which is so called from Berroc Wood, where the box tree grows very abundantly)." This date has been accepted by the editors of Asser's biography, [Keynes](Simon)(Simon Keynes) and [Lapidge](Michael)(Michael Lapidge), and by other historians such as [Dumville](David)(David Dumville) and Richard Huscroft. West Saxon genealogical lists state that Alfred was 23 when he became king in April 871, implying that he was born between April 847 and April 848. This dating is adopted in the biography of Alfred by [Smyth](Alfred)(Alfred P. Smyth), who regards Asser's biography as fraudulent, an allegation which is rejected by other historians. [Abels](Richard)(Richard Abels) in his biography discusses both sources but does not decide between them and dates Alfred's birth as 847/849, while [Wormald](Patrick)(Patrick Wormald) in his *[Dictionary of National Biography](Oxford)(Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)* article dates it 848/849. }} Berkshire had been historically disputed between Wessex and the midland kingdom of [Mercia](Mercia), and as late as 844, a charter showed that it was part of Mercia, but Alfred's birth in the county is evidence that, by the late 840s, control had passed to Wessex.
He was the youngest of six children. His eldest brother, [Æthelstan](Æthelstan of Kent), was old enough to be appointed sub-king of Kent in 839, almost 10 years before Alfred was born. He died in the early 850s. Alfred's next three brothers were successively kings of Wessex. [Æthelbald](Æthelbald, King of Wessex) (858–60) and [Æthelberht](Æthelberht, King of Wessex) (860–65) were also much older than Alfred, but [Æthelred](Æthelred I, King of Wessex) (865–71) was only a year or two older. Alfred's only known sister, [Æthelswith](Æthelswith), married [Burgred](Burgred of Mercia), king of Mercia in 853. Most historians think that Osburh was the mother of all Æthelwulf's children, but some suggest that the older ones were born to an unrecorded first wife. Osburh was descended from the rulers of the [of Wight](Isle)(Isle of Wight). She was described by Alfred's biographer [Asser](Asser) as "a most religious woman, noble by temperament and noble by birth". She had died by 856 when Æthelwulf married [Judith](Judith of Flanders), daughter of [the Bald](Charles)(Charles the Bald), king of [Francia](West)(West Francia).
In 868, Alfred married [Ealhswith](Ealhswith), daughter of the Mercian nobleman [Mucel](Æthelred)(Æthelred Mucel), [ealdorman](ealdorman) of the Gaini, and his wife Eadburh, who was of royal Mercian descent. }} Their children were [Æthelflæd](Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians), who married [Lord of the Mercians](Æthelred,)(Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians); [the Elder](Edward)(Edward the Elder), Alfred's successor as king; [Æthelgifu](Æthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury), abbess of [Shaftesbury](Shaftesbury Abbey); [Ælfthryth](Ælfthryth, Countess of Flanders), who married [Baldwin](Baldwin II, Margrave of Flanders), count of [Flanders](County of Flanders); and [Æthelweard](Æthelweard (son of Alfred)).
## Background
[[886.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Britain in 886](File:Britain)]
Alfred's grandfather, [Ecgberht](Ecgberht, King of Wessex), became king of Wessex in 802, and in the view of the historian [Abels](Richard)(Richard Abels), it must have seemed very unlikely to contemporaries that he would establish a lasting dynasty. For 200 years, three families had fought for the West Saxon throne, and no son had followed his father as king. No ancestor of Ecgberht had been a king of Wessex since [Ceawlin](Ceawlin) in the late sixth century, but he was believed to be a paternal descendant of [Cerdic](Cerdic), the founder of the West Saxon dynasty. and broadly whether Cerdic was a real person or if the story of Cerdic is a "foundation myth". }} This made Ecgberht an [ætheling](ætheling) – a prince eligible for the throne. But after Ecgberht's reign, descent from Cerdic was no longer sufficient to make a man an ætheling. When Ecgberht died in 839, he was succeeded by his son Æthelwulf; all subsequent West Saxon kings were descendants of Ecgberht and Æthelwulf, and were also sons of kings.
At the beginning of the ninth century, England was almost wholly under the control of the [Anglo-Saxon](Anglo-Saxon)s. Mercia dominated southern England, but its supremacy came to an end in 825 when it was decisively defeated by Ecgberht at the [of Ellendun](Battle)(Battle of Ellendun). The two kingdoms became allies, which was important in the resistance to [Viking](Viking) attacks. In 853, King Burgred of Mercia requested West Saxon help to suppress a Welsh rebellion, and Æthelwulf led a West Saxon contingent in a successful joint campaign. In the same year Burgred married Æthelwulf's daughter, Æthelswith.
In 825, Ecgberht sent Æthelwulf to invade the Mercian sub-kingdom of [Kent](Kingdom of Kent), and its sub-king, [Baldred](Baldred of Kent), was driven out shortly afterwards. By 830, [Essex](Kingdom of Essex), [Surrey](Kingdom of Surrey) and [Sussex](Kingdom of Sussex) had submitted to Ecgberht, and he had appointed Æthelwulf to rule the south-eastern territories as king of Kent. The Vikings ravaged the [of Sheppey](Isle)(Isle of Sheppey) in 835, and the following year they defeated Ecgberht at [Carhampton](Carhampton, Somerset) in Somerset, but in 838 he was victorious over an alliance of [Cornishmen](Cornishmen) and Vikings at the [of Hingston Down](Battle)(Battle of Hingston Down), reducing Cornwall to the status of a [kingdom](client)(client kingdom). When Æthelwulf succeeded, he appointed his eldest son Æthelstan as sub-king of Kent. Ecgberht and Æthelwulf may not have intended a permanent union between Wessex and Kent because they both appointed sons as sub-kings, and charters in Wessex were attested (witnessed) by West Saxon magnates, while Kentish charters were witnessed by the Kentish elite; both kings kept overall control, and the sub-kings were not allowed to issue their own coinage.
Viking raids increased in the early 840s on both sides of the English Channel, and in 843 Æthelwulf was defeated at Carhampton. In 850, Æthelstan defeated a Danish fleet off [Sandwich](Sandwich, Kent) in the first recorded naval battle in English history. In 851 Æthelwulf and his second son, Æthelbald, defeated the Vikings at the [of Aclea](Battle)(Battle of Aclea) and, according to the *[Chronicle](Anglo-Saxon)(Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)*, "there made the greatest slaughter of a heathen raiding-army that we have heard tell of up to this present day, and there took the victory". Æthelwulf died in 858 and was succeeded by his oldest surviving son, Æthelbald, as king of Wessex and by his next oldest son, Æthelberht, as king of Kent. Æthelbald only survived his father by two years, and Æthelberht then for the first time united Wessex and Kent into a single kingdom.
## Childhood
[[File:Æthelwulf - MS Royal 14 B VI.jpg|thumb|Alfred's father [of Wessex](Æthelwulf)(Æthelwulf of Wessex) in the early 14th-century *Genealogical Roll of the Kings of England*]]
According to Asser, in his childhood Alfred won a beautifully decorated book of English poetry, offered as a prize by his mother to the first of her sons able to memorise it. He must have had it read to him because his mother died when he was about six and he did not learn to read until he was 12. In 853, Alfred is reported by the *[Chronicle](Anglo-Saxon)(Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)* to have been sent to Rome where he was [confirmed](confirmation) by [Leo IV](Pope)(Pope Leo IV), who "anointed him as king". [Victorian](Victorian era) writers later interpreted this as an anticipatory coronation in preparation for his eventual succession to the throne of Wessex. This is unlikely; his succession could not have been foreseen at the time because Alfred had three living elder brothers. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a "consul" and a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion. It may be based upon the fact that Alfred later accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome where he spent some time at the court of [the Bald](Charles)(Charles the Bald), [of the Franks](king)(List of Frankish kings), around 854–855. On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son [Æthelbald](Æthelbald of Wessex). With civil war looming, the magnates of the realm met in council to form a compromise. Æthelbald retained the western shires (i.e. historical Wessex), and Æthelwulf ruled in the east. After King Æthelwulf died in 858, Wessex was ruled by three of Alfred's brothers in succession: Æthelbald, [Æthelberht](Æthelberht of Wessex) and [Æthelred](Æthelred of Wessex).
## The reigns of Alfred's brothers
[[File:England Great Army map.svg|thumb|A map of the route taken by the Viking [Heathen Army](Great)(Great Heathen Army) which arrived in England from Denmark, Norway, and southern Sweden in 865]]
Alfred is not mentioned during the short reigns of his older brothers Æthelbald and Æthelberht. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* describes the [Heathen Army](Great)(Great Heathen Army) of Danes landing in East Anglia with the intent of conquering the four kingdoms which constituted Anglo-Saxon England in 865. Alfred's public life began in 865 at age 16 with the accession of his third brother, 18-year-old Æthelred. During this period, Bishop Asser gave Alfred the unique title of *secundarius*, which may indicate a position similar to the Celtic [tanist](Tanistry), a recognised successor closely associated with the reigning monarch. This arrangement may have been sanctioned by Alfred's father or by the [Witan](Witenagemot) to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Æthelred fall in battle. It was a well known tradition among other Germanic peoples – such as the Swedes and Franks to whom the Anglo-Saxons were closely related – to crown a successor as royal prince and military commander.
### Viking invasion
In 868, Alfred was recorded as fighting beside Æthelred in a failed attempt to keep the Great Heathen Army led by [the Boneless](Ivar)(Ivar the Boneless) out of the adjoining [of Mercia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Mercia). The Danes arrived in his homeland at the end of 870, and nine engagements were fought in the following year, with mixed results; the places and dates of two of these battles have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at the [of Englefield](Battle)(Battle of Englefield) in Berkshire on 31 December 870 was followed by a severe defeat at the siege and the [of Reading](Battle)(Battle of Reading (871)) by Ivar's brother [Ragnarsson](Halfdan)(Halfdan Ragnarsson) on 5 January 871. Four days later, the Anglo-Saxons won a victory at the [of Ashdown](Battle)(Battle of Ashdown) on the [Downs](Berkshire)(North Wessex Downs AONB), possibly near [Compton](Compton, Berkshire) or [Aldworth](Aldworth). The Saxons were defeated at the [of Basing](Battle)(Battle of Basing) on 22 January. They were defeated again on 22 March at the [of Merton](Battle)(Battle of Merton) (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire or Martin in Dorset). Æthelred died shortly afterwards in April.
## King at war
### Early struggles
In April 871 [Æthelred](King)(Æthelred I of Wessex) died and Alfred acceded to the throne of Wessex and the burden of its defence, even though Æthelred left two under-age sons, [Æthelhelm](Æthelhelm) and [Æthelwold](Æthelwold of Wessex). This was in accordance with the agreement that Æthelred and Alfred had made earlier that year in an assembly at an unidentified place called Swinbeorg. The brothers had agreed that whichever of them outlived the other would inherit the personal property that King Æthelwulf had left jointly to his sons in his will. The deceased's sons would receive only whatever property and riches their father had settled upon them and whatever additional lands their uncle had acquired. The unstated premise was that the surviving brother would be king. Given the Danish invasion and the youth of his nephews, Alfred's accession probably went uncontested.
While he was busy with the burial ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the Saxon army in his absence at an unnamed spot and then again in his presence at [Wilton](Wilton, Wiltshire) in May. The defeat at Wilton smashed any remaining hope that Alfred could drive the invaders from his kingdom. Alfred was forced instead to make peace with them. Although the terms of the peace are not recorded, Bishop Asser wrote that the pagans agreed to vacate the realm and made good their promise.
The Viking army withdrew from Reading in the autumn of 871 to take up winter quarters in Mercian London. Although not mentioned by Asser or by the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, Alfred probably paid the Vikings silver to leave, much as the Mercians were to do in the following year. [Hoard](Hoard)s dating to the Viking occupation of London in 871/872 have been excavated at [Croydon](Croydon), [Gravesend](Gravesend, Kent) and [Bridge](Waterloo)(Waterloo Bridge). These finds hint at the cost involved in making peace with the Vikings. For the next five years, the Danes occupied other parts of England.
In 876, under their three leaders [Guthrum](Guthrum), Oscetel and Anwend, the Danes slipped past the Saxon army and attacked and occupied [Wareham](Wareham, Dorset) in Dorset. Alfred blockaded them but was unable to take Wareham by assault. He negotiated a peace that involved an exchange of hostages and oaths, which the Danes swore on a "holy ring" associated with the worship of [Thor](Thor). The Danes broke their word, and after killing all the hostages, slipped away under cover of night to [Exeter](Exeter, England) in Devon.
Alfred blockaded the Viking ships in Devon, and with a relief fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes were forced to submit. The Danes withdrew to Mercia. In January 878, the Danes made a sudden attack on [Chippenham](Chippenham, Wiltshire), a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been staying over Christmas "and most of the people they killed, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way by wood and swamp, and after Easter he made a fort at [Athelney](Athelney) in the marshes of [Somerset](Somerset), and from that fort kept fighting against the foe". From his fort at Athelney, an island in the marshes near [Petherton](North)(North Petherton), Alfred was able to mount a resistance campaign, rallying the local militias from Somerset, [Wiltshire](Wiltshire) and [Hampshire](Hampshire). 878 was the nadir of the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. With all the other kingdoms having fallen to the Vikings, Wessex alone was resisting.
### The cake legend
A legend tells how when Alfred first fled to the [Levels](Somerset)(Somerset Levels), he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, unaware of his identity, left him to watch some wheaten cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of his kingdom, Alfred accidentally let the cakes burn and was roundly scolded by the woman upon her return. There is no contemporary evidence for the legend, but it is possible that there was an early oral tradition. The first known written account of the incident is from about 100 years after Alfred's death.
### Counter-attack and victory
[[File:King Alfred's Tower, Stourhead, Somerset.jpg|thumb|[Alfred's Tower](King)(King Alfred's Tower) (1772) on the supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the [of Edington](Battle)(Battle of Edington). }} ]]
In the seventh week after Easter (4–10 May 878), around [Whitsuntide](Whitsuntide), Alfred rode to [Stone](Egbert's)(Egbert's Stone) east of [Selwood](Selwood, Somerset) where he was met by "all the people of Somerset and of [Wiltshire](Wiltshire) and of that part of [Hampshire](Hampshire) which is on this side of the sea (that is, west of [Water](Southampton)(Southampton Water)), and they rejoiced to see him". Alfred's emergence from his marshland stronghold was part of a carefully planned offensive that entailed raising the [fyrd](fyrd)s of three [shire](shire)s. This meant not only that the king had retained the loyalty of [ealdormen](ealdormen), royal [reeves](High-reeve) and king's [thegn](thegn)s, who were charged with levying and leading these forces, but that they had maintained their positions of authority in these localities well enough to answer his summons to war. Alfred's actions also suggest a system of scouts and messengers.
Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing [of Edington](Battle)(Battle of Edington) which may have been fought near [Wiltshire](Westbury,)(Westbury, Wiltshire). He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at [Chippenham](Chippenham) and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity. Three weeks later, the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at Alfred's court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son.
According to Asser,
}} on the eighth day took place at a royal estate called [Wedmore](Wedmore).|source=}}
At Wedmore, Alfred and Guthrum negotiated what some historians have called the [of Wedmore](Treaty)(Treaty of Wedmore), but it was to be some years after the cessation of hostilities that a formal treaty was signed. Under the terms of the so-called Treaty of Wedmore, the converted Guthrum was required to leave Wessex and return to East Anglia. Consequently, in 879 the Viking army left Chippenham and made its way to Cirencester. The formal [of Alfred and Guthrum](Treaty)(Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum), preserved in [English](Old)(Old English) in [Christi College, Cambridge](Corpus)(Corpus Christi College, Cambridge) (Manuscript 383), and in a [Latin](Latin) compilation known as *[Quadripartitus](Quadripartitus)*, was negotiated later, perhaps in 879 or 880, when King [II of Mercia](Ceolwulf)(Ceolwulf II of Mercia) was deposed.
That treaty divided up the kingdom of Mercia. By its terms, the boundary between Alfred's and Guthrum's kingdoms was to run up the [Thames](River)(River Thames) to the [Lea](River)(River Lea), follow the Lea to its source (near [Luton](Luton)), from there extend in a straight line to [Bedford](Bedford), and from Bedford follow the [Ouse](River)(River Great Ouse) to [Street](Watling)(Watling Street).
Alfred succeeded to Ceolwulf's kingdom consisting of western Mercia, and Guthrum incorporated the eastern part of Mercia into an enlarged [of East Anglia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of East Anglia) (henceforward known as the [Danelaw](Danelaw)). By terms of the treaty, moreover, Alfred was to have control over the Mercian city of London and its mints—at least for the time being. In 825, the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* had recorded that the people of Essex, Sussex, Kent and Surrey surrendered to [Egbert](Egbert of Wessex), Alfred's grandfather. From then until the arrival of the [Heathen Army](Great)(Great Heathen Army), Essex had formed part of Wessex. After the foundation of Danelaw, it appears that some of Essex would have been ceded to the Danes, but how much is not clear.
### 880s
With the signing of the [of Alfred and Guthrum](Treaty)(Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum), an event most commonly held to have taken place around 880 when Guthrum's people began settling [Anglia](East)(East Anglia), Guthrum was neutralised as a threat. The Viking army, which had stayed at Fulham during the winter of 878–879, sailed for Ghent and was active on the continent from 879 to 892.
There were local raids on the coast of Wessex throughout the 880s. In 882, Alfred fought a small sea battle against four Danish ships. Two of the ships were destroyed, and the others surrendered. This was one of four sea battles recorded in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, three of which involved Alfred. Similar small skirmishes with independent Viking raiders would have occurred for much of the period as they had for decades.
In 883, [Marinus](Pope)(Pope Marinus I) exempted the Saxon quarter in Rome from taxation, probably in return for Alfred's promise to send alms annually to Rome, which may be the origin of the medieval tax called [Pence](Peter's)(Peter's Pence). The pope sent gifts to Alfred, including what was reputed to be a piece of the [Cross](True)(True Cross).
After the signing of the treaty with Guthrum, Alfred was spared any large-scale conflicts for some time. Despite this relative peace, the king was forced to deal with a number of Danish raids and incursions. Among these was a raid in [Kent](Kent), an allied kingdom in [East England](South)(South East England), during the year 885, which was possibly the largest raid since the battles with Guthrum. Asser's account of the raid places the Danish raiders at the Saxon city of [Rochester](Rochester, Kent), where they built a temporary fortress in order to besiege the city. In response to this incursion, Alfred led an [Anglo-Saxon](Anglo-Saxon) force against the Danes who, instead of engaging the army of Wessex, fled to their beached ships and sailed to another part of Britain. The retreating Danish force supposedly left Britain the following summer.
Not long after the failed Danish raid in Kent, Alfred dispatched his fleet to East Anglia. The purpose of this expedition is debated, but Asser claims that it was for the sake of plunder. After travelling up the [Stour](River)(River Stour, Suffolk), the fleet was met by Danish vessels that numbered 13 or 16 (sources vary on the number), and a battle ensued. The Anglo-Saxon fleet emerged victorious, and as [of Huntingdon](Henry)(Henry of Huntingdon) writes, "laden with spoils". The victorious fleet was surprised when attempting to leave the River Stour and was attacked by a Danish force at the mouth of the river. The Danish fleet defeated Alfred's fleet, which may have been weakened in the previous engagement.
### King of the Anglo-Saxons
[[File:Southwark Bridge City Plaque.JPG|thumb|A plaque in the [of London](City)(City of London) noting the restoration of the Roman walled city by Alfred]]
A year later, in 886, Alfred reoccupied the city of London and set out to make it habitable again. Alfred entrusted the city to the care of his son-in-law [Æthelred](Æthelred, Ealdorman of Mercia), [ealdorman](ealdorman) of Mercia. Soon afterwards, Alfred restyled himself as "King of the Anglo-Saxons". The restoration of London progressed through the latter half of the 880s and is believed to have revolved around a new street plan; added fortifications in addition to the existing Roman walls; and, some believe, the construction of matching fortifications on the south bank of the [Thames](River)(River Thames).
This is also the period in which almost all chroniclers agree that the Saxon people of pre-unification England submitted to Alfred. In 888, Æthelred, the [of Canterbury](archbishop)(archbishop of Canterbury), also died. One year later Guthrum, or Athelstan by his baptismal name, Alfred's former enemy and king of East Anglia, died and was buried in [Suffolk](Hadleigh,)(Hadleigh, Suffolk). Guthrum's death changed the political landscape for Alfred. The resulting power vacuum stirred other power-hungry warlords eager to take his place in the following years. The quiet years of Alfred's life were coming to a close.
### Viking attacks (890s)
After another lull, in the autumn of 892 or 893, the Danes attacked again. Finding their position in mainland Europe precarious, they crossed to England in 330 ships in two divisions. They entrenched themselves, the larger body at [Kent](Appledore,)(Appledore, Kent), and the lesser under [Hastein](Hastein), at [Milton](Milton, Kent), also in Kent. The invaders brought their wives and children with them, indicating a meaningful attempt at conquest and colonisation. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position from which he could observe both forces.
While he was in talks with Hastein, the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards. They were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, [Edward](Edward the Elder) and were defeated at the [of Farnham](Battle)(Battle of Farnham) in Surrey. They took refuge on an island at [Thorney](Thorney, Buckinghamshire), on the [Colne](River)(River Colne, Hertfordshire) between [Buckinghamshire](Buckinghamshire) and [Middlesex](Middlesex), where they were blockaded and forced to give hostages and promise to leave Wessex. They then went to Essex and after suffering another defeat at [Benfleet](South Benfleet), joined with Hastein's force at [Shoebury](Shoeburyness).
Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the [Northumbria](Northumbria)n and East Anglian Danes were besieging [Exeter](Exeter) and an unnamed stronghold on the [Devon](North)(North Devon) shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the [of Exeter](Siege)(Siege of Exeter (893)). The fate of the other place is not recorded.
The force under Hastein set out to march up the [Valley](Thames)(Thames Valley), possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. They were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of [Mercia](Mercia), Wiltshire and [Somerset](Somerset) and forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and blockaded at [Buttington](Battle of Buttington). (Some identify this with Buttington Tump at the mouth of the [Wye](River)(River Wye), others with [Buttington](Buttington) near [Welshpool](Welshpool).) An attempt to break through the English lines failed. Those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. After collecting reinforcements, they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined [Roman](Ancient Rome) walls of [Chester](Chester). The English did not attempt a winter blockade but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the district.
Early in 894 or 895 lack of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of the year, the Danes drew their ships up the [Thames](River)(River Thames) and the [Lea](River)(River Lea) and fortified themselves north of London. A frontal attack on the Danish lines failed but later in the year, Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realised that they were outmanoeuvred, struck off north-westwards and wintered at [Cwatbridge](Quatford) near [Bridgnorth](Bridgnorth). The next year, 896 (or 897), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to [Northumbria](Northumbria), some to [Anglia](East)(East Anglia). Those who had no connections in England returned to the continent.
## Military reorganisation
[[the great silver offering penny 871 899.jpg|thumb|Alfred the Great silver offering penny, 871–899. Legend: AELFRED REX SAXONUM ('Alfred King of the Saxons').](File:Alfred)]
The Germanic tribes who invaded Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries relied upon the unarmoured infantry supplied by their [levy](tribal)(Conscription), or [fyrd](fyrd), and it was upon this system that the military power of the several kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England depended. The fyrd was a local militia in the Anglo-Saxon shire in which all freemen had to serve; those who refused military service were subject to fines or loss of their land. According to the [code](law)(Anglo-Saxon law) of [Ine of Wessex](King)(Ine of Wessex), issued in ,
}}
Wessex's history of failures preceding Alfred's success in 878 emphasised to him that the traditional system of battle he had inherited played to the Danes' advantage. While the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes attacked settlements for plunder, they employed different tactics. In their raids the Anglo-Saxons traditionally preferred to attack head-on by assembling their forces in a [wall](shield)(shield wall), advancing against their target and overcoming the oncoming wall marshalled against them in defence. The Danes preferred to choose easy targets, mapping cautious forays to avoid risking their plunder with high-stake attacks for more. Alfred determined their tactic was to launch small attacks from a secure base to which they could retreat should their raiders meet strong resistance.
The bases were prepared in advance, often by capturing an estate and augmenting its defences with ditches, [ramparts](defensive wall) and [palisade](palisade)s. Once inside the fortification, Alfred realised, the Danes enjoyed the advantage, better situated to outlast their opponents or crush them with a counter-attack because the provisions and stamina of the besieging forces waned.
The means by which the Anglo-Saxons marshalled forces to defend against marauders also left them vulnerable to the Vikings. It was the responsibility of the shire fyrd to deal with local raids. The king could call up the national militia to defend the kingdom but in the case of the Viking raids, problems with communication and raising supplies meant that the national militia could not be mustered quickly enough. It was only after the raids had begun that a call went out to landowners to gather their men for battle. Large regions could be devastated before the fyrd could assemble and arrive. Although the landowners were obliged to the king to supply these men when called, during the attacks in 878 many of them abandoned their king and collaborated with Guthrum.
With these lessons in mind Alfred capitalised on the relatively peaceful years following his victory at Edington with an ambitious restructuring of Saxon defences. On a trip to Rome Alfred had stayed with [the Bald](Charles)(Charles the Bald), and it is possible that he may have studied how the Carolingian kings had dealt with Viking raiders. Learning from their experiences he was able to establish a system of taxation and defence for Wessex. There had been a system of fortifications in pre-Viking Mercia that may have been an influence. When the Viking raids resumed in 892 Alfred was better prepared to confront them with a standing, mobile field army, a network of garrisons and a small fleet of ships navigating the rivers and estuaries.
### Administration and taxation
Tenants in Anglo-Saxon England had a threefold obligation based on their landholding: the so-called "common burdens" of military service, fortress work, and bridge repair. This threefold obligation has traditionally been called *[necessitas](trinoda)(trinoda necessitas)* or *trimoda necessitas*. The Old English name for the fine due for neglecting military service was . To maintain the [burh](burh)s, and to reorganise the fyrd as a standing army, Alfred expanded the tax and conscription system based on the productivity of a tenant's landholding. The hide was the basic unit of the system on which the tenant's public obligations were assessed. A hide is thought to represent the amount of land required to support one family. The hide differed in size according to the value and resources of the land and the landowner would have to provide service based on how many hides he owned.
### Burghal system
[[File:Anglo-Saxon burhs.svg|thumb|A map of [burh](burh)s named in the [Hidage](Burghal)(Burghal Hidage)]]
[[File:winchesterwalls.jpg|thumb|The walled defence round a burh. The [Walls](City)(Winchester city walls) of Alfred's capital, [Winchester](Winchester). Saxon and medieval work on Roman foundations.]]
The foundation of Alfred's new military defence system was a network of burhs, distributed at tactical points throughout the kingdom. There were thirty-three burhs, about apart, enabling the military to confront attacks anywhere in the kingdom within a day.
Alfred's burhs (of which 22 developed into [borough](borough)s) ranged from former [towns](Roman)(Roman Britain), such as [Winchester](Winchester), where the [walls](stone)(Winchester city walls) were repaired and ditches added, to massive earthen walls surrounded by wide ditches, probably reinforced with wooden [revetment](revetment)s and palisades, such as at [Burpham](Burpham) in West Sussex.}} The size of the burhs ranged from tiny outposts such as [Pilton](Pilton, Devon) in Devon, to large fortifications in established towns, the largest being at Winchester., which is referenced in
A document now known as the *[Hidage](Burghal)(Burghal Hidage)* provides an insight into how the system worked. It lists the hidage for each of the fortified towns contained in the document. Wallingford had a hidage of 2,400, which meant that the landowners there were responsible for supplying and feeding 2,400 men, the number sufficient for maintaining of wall. A total of 27,071 soldiers were needed, approximately one in four of all the free men in Wessex. Many of the burhs were twin towns that straddled a river and were connected by a fortified bridge, like those built by [the Bald](Charles)(Charles the Bald) a generation before. The double-burh blocked passage on the river, forcing Viking ships to navigate under a garrisoned bridge lined with men armed with stones, spears or arrows. Other burhs were sited near fortified royal villas, allowing the king better control over his strongholds.
The burhs were connected by a road system maintained for army use (known as [herepath](herepath)s). The roads allowed an army quickly to be assembled, sometimes from more than one burh, to confront the Viking invader. The road network posed significant obstacles to Viking invaders, especially those laden with booty. The system threatened Viking routes and communications making it far more dangerous for them. The Vikings lacked the equipment for a siege against a burh and a developed doctrine of [siegecraft](siegecraft), having tailored their methods of fighting to rapid strikes and unimpeded retreats to well-defended fortifications. The only means left to them was to starve the burh into submission but this gave the king time to send his field army or garrisons from neighbouring burhs along the army roads. In such cases, the Vikings were extremely vulnerable to pursuit by the king's joint military forces. Alfred's burh system posed such a formidable challenge against Viking attack that when the Vikings returned in 892 and stormed a half-built, poorly garrisoned fortress up the [Lympne](Lympne) estuary in Kent, the Anglo-Saxons were able to limit their penetration to the outer frontiers of Wessex and Mercia. Alfred's burghal system was revolutionary in its strategic conception and potentially expensive in its execution. His contemporary biographer Asser wrote that many nobles balked at the demands placed upon them even though they were for "the common needs of the kingdom".Asser, translated by
### English navy
Alfred also tried his hand at naval design. In 896 he ordered the construction of a small fleet, perhaps a dozen or so longships that, at 60 oars, were twice the size of Viking warships. This was not, as the Victorians asserted, the birth of the [Navy](English)(Royal Navy). Wessex had possessed a royal fleet before this. Alfred's older brother sub-king [of Kent](Æthelstan)(Æthelstan of Kent) and Ealdorman Ealhhere had defeated a Viking fleet in 851 capturing nine ships and Alfred had conducted naval actions in 882. The year 897 marked an important development in the naval power of Wessex. The author of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* related that Alfred's ships were larger, swifter, steadier and rode higher in the water than either Danish or [Frisian](Frisians) ships. It is probable that, under the classical tutelage of Asser, Alfred used the design of [and Roman warships](Greek)(Hellenistic-era warships), with high sides, designed for fighting rather than for navigation. Cf. the much more positive view of the capabilities of these ships in
Alfred had seapower in mind; if he could intercept raiding fleets before they landed, he could spare his kingdom from being ravaged. Alfred's ships may have been superior in conception, but in practice they proved to be too large to manoeuvre well in the close waters of estuaries and rivers, the only places in which a naval battle could be fought. The warships of the time were not designed to be ship killers but rather troop carriers. It has been suggested that, like sea battles in late Viking age Scandinavia, these battles may have entailed a ship coming alongside an opposing vessel, lashing the two ships together and then boarding the craft. The result was a land battle involving hand-to-hand fighting on board the two lashed vessels.
In the one recorded naval engagement in 896, Alfred's new fleet of nine ships intercepted six Viking ships at the mouth of an unidentified river in the south of England. The Danes had beached half their ships and gone inland. Alfred's ships immediately moved to block their escape. The three Viking ships afloat attempted to break through the English lines. Only one made it; Alfred's ships intercepted the other two. Lashing the Viking boats to their own, the English crew boarded and proceeded to kill the Vikings. One ship escaped because Alfred's heavy ships became grounded when the tide went out. A land battle ensued between the crews. The Danes were heavily outnumbered, but as the tide rose, they returned to their boats which, with shallower drafts, were freed first. The English watched as the Vikings rowed past them but they suffered so many casualties (120 dead against 62 Frisians and English) that they had difficulty putting out to sea. All were too damaged to row around Sussex, and two were driven against the Sussex coast (possibly at [Bill](Selsey)(Selsey Bill)). The shipwrecked crew were brought before Alfred at Winchester and hanged.
## Legal reform
[[king of Wessex London 880.jpg|thumb|A coin of Alfred, London, 880 (based upon a Roman model)](File:Alfred)]
In the late 880s or early 890s, Alfred issued a long *[domboc](Doom book)* or [code](law)(law code) consisting of his own laws, followed by a code issued by his late seventh-century predecessor King [of Wessex](Ine)(Ine of Wessex). Together these laws are arranged into 120 chapters. In his introduction Alfred explains that he gathered together the laws he found in many "[synod](synod)-books" and "ordered to be written many of the ones that our forefathers observed—those that pleased me; and many of the ones that did not please me, I rejected with the advice of my councillors, and commanded them to be observed in a different way"."Alfred" Int. 49.9, trans. .
Alfred singled out in particular the laws that he "found in the days of Ine, my kinsman, or [Offa](Offa), king of the Mercians, or King [of Kent](Æthelberht)(Æthelberht of Kent) who first among the English people received baptism". He appended, rather than integrated, the laws of Ine into his code and although he included, as had Æthelbert, a scale of payments in compensation for injuries to various body parts, the two injury tariffs are not aligned. Offa is not known to have issued a law code, leading historian [Wormald](Patrick)(Patrick Wormald) to speculate that Alfred had in mind the legatine [capitulary](capitulary) of 786 that was presented to Offa by the [legate](papal)(papal legate) [of Ostia](George)(George of Ostia).
About a fifth of the law code is taken up by Alfred's introduction which includes translations into English of the [Commandments](Ten)(Ten Commandments), a few chapters from the [of Exodus](Book)(Book of Exodus), and the Apostolic Letter from the [of the Apostles](Acts)(Acts of the Apostles) (15:23–29). The introduction may best be understood as Alfred's meditation upon the meaning of Christian law. It traces the continuity between God's gift of law to Moses to Alfred's own issuance of law to the West Saxon people. By doing so, it linked the holy past to the historical present and represented Alfred's law-giving as a type of divine legislation.
Similarly Alfred divided his code into 120 chapters because 120 was the age at which Moses died and, in the number-symbolism of early medieval biblical exegetes, 120 stood for law. The link between [law](Mosaic)(Law of Moses) and Alfred's code is the Apostolic Letter which explained that Christ "had come not to shatter or annul the commandments but to fulfill them; and he taught mercy and meekness" (Intro, 49.1). The mercy that Christ infused into Mosaic law underlies the injury tariffs that figure so prominently in barbarian law codes since Christian synods "established, through that mercy which Christ taught, that for almost every misdeed at the first offence secular lords might with their permission receive without sin the monetary compensation which they then fixed"."Alfred" Intro, 49.7, trans.
The only crime that could not be compensated with a payment of money was treachery to a lord "since Almighty God adjudged none for those who despised Him, nor did Christ, the Son of God, adjudge any for the one who betrayed Him to death; and He commanded everyone to love his lord as Himself". Alfred's transformation of Christ's commandment, from "Love your neighbour as yourself" (Matt. 22:39–40) to love your secular lord as you would love the Lord Christ himself, underscores the importance that Alfred placed upon lordship which he understood as a sacred bond instituted by God for the governance of man. cites "Alfred's Pastoral Care" ch. 28
When one turns from the *domboc* introduction to the laws themselves, it is difficult to uncover any logical arrangement. The impression is of a hodgepodge of miscellaneous laws. The law code, as it has been preserved, is singularly unsuitable for use in lawsuits. In fact, several of Alfred's laws contradicted [laws of Ine](the)(Ine of Wessex#Laws) that form an integral part of the code. Patrick Wormald's explanation is that Alfred's law code should be understood not as a legal manual but as an ideological manifesto of kingship "designed more for symbolic impact than for practical direction". In practical terms the most important law in the code may well have been the first: "We enjoin, what is most necessary, that each man keep carefully his oath and his pledge" which expresses a fundamental tenet of Anglo-Saxon law."Alfred" 2, in .
Alfred devoted considerable attention and thought to judicial matters. Asser underscores his concern for judicial fairness. Alfred, according to Asser, insisted upon reviewing contested judgments made by his ealdormen and reeves and "would carefully look into nearly all the judgements which were passed [issued] in his absence anywhere in the realm to see whether they were just or unjust".Asser chap. 106, in A charter from the reign of his son Edward the Elder depicts Alfred as hearing one such appeal in his chamber while washing his hands.The charter is Sawyer 1445 and is printed in .
Asser represents Alfred as a [Solomonic](Judgment of Solomon) judge, painstaking in his own judicial investigations and critical of royal officials who rendered unjust or unwise judgments. Although Asser never mentions Alfred's law code he does say that Alfred insisted that his judges be literate so that they could apply themselves "to the pursuit of wisdom". The failure to comply with this royal order was to be punished by loss of office.Asser, chap. 106, in .
The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, commissioned at the time of Alfred, was probably written to promote unification of England, whereas Asser's *The Life of King Alfred* promoted Alfred's achievements and personal qualities. It was possible that the document was designed this way so that it could be disseminated in Wales because Alfred had acquired overlordship of that country.
## Foreign relations
Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers but little definite information is available. His interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of [Orosius](Paulus Orosius). He corresponded with [III](Elias)(Elias III of Jerusalem), the [of Jerusalem](patriarch)(Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem), and embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the pope were fairly frequent.}} Around 890, [of Hedeby](Wulfstan)(Wulfstan of Hedeby) undertook a journey from [Hedeby](Hedeby) on [Jutland](Jutland) along the Baltic Sea to the Prussian trading town of [Truso](Truso). Alfred personally collected details of this trip.
Alfred's relations with the Celtic princes in the western half of Great Britain are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign, according to Asser, the [Welsh](southern)(South Wales) princes, owing to the pressure on them from [Wales](North)(North Wales) and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in his reign, the [Welsh](North)(North Wales) followed their example and the latter cooperated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894). That Alfred sent alms to Irish and Continental monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority. The visit of three pilgrim "[Scots](Scoti)" (*i.e.*, [Irish](Early medieval Ireland)) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic. The story that, in his childhood, he was sent to Ireland to be healed by Saint [Modwenna](Modwenna) may show Alfred's interest in that island.
## Religion, education and culture
[[File:RichardHakluyt-BristolCathedral-stainedglasswindow-Alfred.jpg|thumb|Alfred depicted in a stained-glass window of c. 1905 in [Cathedral](Bristol)(Bristol Cathedral)]]
In the 880s, at the same time that he was "cajoling and threatening" his nobles to build and man the burhs, Alfred, perhaps inspired by the example of [Charlemagne](Charlemagne) almost a century before, undertook an equally ambitious effort to revive learning. During this period, the Viking raids were often seen as a divine punishment, and Alfred may have wished to revive religious awe in order to appease God's wrath.
This revival entailed the recruitment of clerical scholars from Mercia, Wales and abroad to enhance the tenor of the court and of the [episcopacy](episcopacy); the establishment of a court school to educate his own children, the sons of his nobles, and intellectually promising boys of lesser birth; an attempt to require literacy in those who held offices of authority; a series of translations into the vernacular of Latin works the king deemed "most necessary for all men to know"; the compilation of a chronicle detailing the rise of Alfred's kingdom and house, with a genealogy that stretched back to [Adam](Adam), thus giving the West Saxon kings a biblical ancestry.
Very little is known of the church under Alfred. The Danish attacks had been particularly damaging to the monasteries. Although Alfred founded monasteries at Athelney and Shaftesbury, these were the first new monastic houses in Wessex since the beginning of the eighth century. According to Asser, Alfred enticed foreign monks to England for his monastery at Athelney because there was little interest for the locals to take up the monastic life.
Alfred undertook no systematic reform of ecclesiastical institutions or religious practices in Wessex. For him, the key to the kingdom's spiritual revival was to appoint pious, learned, and trustworthy bishops and abbots. As king, he saw himself as responsible for both the temporal and spiritual welfare of his subjects. Secular and spiritual authority were not distinct categories for Alfred.
He was equally comfortable distributing his translation of [the Great](Gregory)(Gregory the Great)'s *[Care](Pastoral)(Pastoral Care)* to his bishops so that they might better train and supervise priests and using those same bishops as royal officials and judges. Nor did his piety prevent him from expropriating strategically sited church lands, especially estates along the border with the Danelaw, and transferring them to royal [thegn](thegn)s and officials who could better defend them against Viking attacks.
### Effect of Danish raids on education
The Danish raids had a devastating effect on learning in England. Alfred lamented in the preface to his translation of Gregory's *Pastoral Care* that "learning had declined so thoroughly in England that there were very few men on this side of the Humber who could understand their divine services in English or even translate a single letter from Latin into English: and I suppose that there were not many beyond the Humber either". Alfred undoubtedly exaggerated, for dramatic effect, the abysmal state of learning in England during his youth. That Latin learning had not been obliterated is evidenced by the presence in his court of learned Mercian and West Saxon clerics such as Plegmund, Wæferth, and Wulfsige.
Manuscript production in England dropped off precipitously around the 860s when the Viking invasions began in earnest, not to be revived until the end of the century. Numerous Anglo-Saxon manuscripts burnt along with the churches that housed them. A solemn diploma from [Church, Canterbury](Christ)(Christ Church, Canterbury), dated 873, is so poorly constructed and written that historian [Brooks](Nicholas)(Nicholas Brooks (historian)) posited a scribe who was either so blind he could not read what he wrote or who knew little or no Latin. "It is clear", Brooks concludes, "that the metropolitan church [Canterbury](of) must have been quite unable to provide any effective training in the scriptures or in Christian worship".
### Establishment of a court school
Alfred established a court school for the education of his own children, those of the nobility, and "a good many of lesser birth". There they studied books in both English and Latin and "devoted themselves to writing, to such an extent… they were seen to be devoted and intelligent students of the liberal arts". He recruited scholars from the Continent and from Britain to aid in the revival of Christian learning in Wessex and to provide the king personal instruction. [Grimbald](Grimbald) and John the Saxon came from Francia; Plegmund (whom Alfred appointed archbishop of Canterbury in 890), Bishop Wærferth of Worcester, Æthelstan, and the royal chaplains Werwulf, from Mercia; and Asser, from St David's in southwestern Wales.
### Advocacy of education in English
[[File:Alfred Jewel right way up.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Line drawing of the [Jewel](Alfred)(Alfred Jewel), showing the socket at its base]]
Alfred's educational ambitions seem to have extended beyond the establishment of a court school. Believing that without Christian wisdom there can be neither prosperity nor success in war, Alfred aimed "to set to learning (as long as they are not useful for some other employment) all the free-born young men now in England who have the means to apply themselves to it". Conscious of the decay of Latin literacy in his realm, Alfred proposed that primary education be taught in [English](Old English), with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.
There were few "books of wisdom" written in English. Alfred sought to remedy this through an ambitious court-centred programme of translating into English the books he deemed "most necessary for all men to know". It is unknown when Alfred launched this programme, but it may have been during the 880s when Wessex was enjoying a respite from Viking attacks. Alfred was, until recently, often considered to have been the author of many of the translations, but this is now considered doubtful in almost all cases. Scholars more often refer to translations as "Alfredian", indicating that they probably had something to do with his patronage, but are unlikely to be his own work.
Apart from the lost *Handboc* or *Encheiridio*, which seems to have been a [book](commonplace)(commonplace book) kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the *Dialogues* of [the Great](Gregory)(Gregory the Great), a book greatly popular in the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages). The translation was undertaken at Alfred's command by [Wærferth](Werferth), [of Worcester](Bishop)(Bishop of Worcester), with the king merely furnishing a preface. Remarkably, Alfred – undoubtedly with the advice and aid of his court scholars – translated four works himself: Gregory the Great's *Pastoral Care*, [Boethius](Boethius)'s *[of Philosophy](Consolation)(Consolation of Philosophy)*, [Augustine](St.)(St. Augustine)'s *[Soliloquies](Soliloquies of Augustine)* and the first fifty psalms of the [Psalter](Psalter).; .
One might add to this list the translation, in Alfred's law code, of excerpts from the [Vulgate](Vulgate) Book of Exodus. The Old English versions of [Orosius](Paulus Orosius)'s *Histories against the Pagans* and [Bede](Bede)'s *[History of the English People](Ecclesiastical)(Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum)* are no longer accepted by scholars as Alfred's own translations because of lexical and stylistic differences. Nonetheless, the consensus remains that they were part of the Alfredian programme of translation. [Keynes](Simon)(Simon Keynes) and [Lapidge](Michael)(Michael Lapidge) suggest this also for Bald's *Leechbook* and the anonymous *Old English Martyrology*.
The preface of Alfred's translation of Pope Gregory the Great's *Pastoral Care* explained why he thought it necessary to translate works such as this from Latin into English. Although he described his method as translating "sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense", the translation keeps very close to the original although, through his choice of language, he blurred throughout the distinction between spiritual and secular authority. Alfred meant the translation to be used, and circulated it to all his bishops. Interest in Alfred's translation of *Pastoral Care* was so enduring that copies were still being made in the 11th century.
Boethius's *Consolation of Philosophy* was the most popular philosophical handbook of the Middle Ages. Unlike the translation of the *Pastoral Care*, the [text](Alfredian)(Metres of Boethius) deals very freely with the original and, though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to the translator himself but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is distinctive to the translation and has been taken to reflect philosophies of kingship in Alfred's milieu. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "To speak briefly: I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works." The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these the writing is prose, in the other a combination of prose and alliterating verse. The latter manuscript was severely damaged in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The last of the Alfredian works is one which bears the name *Blostman* ('Blooms') or *Anthology*. The first half is based mainly on the *Soliloquies* of St [of Hippo](Augustine)(Augustine of Hippo), the remainder is drawn from various sources. The material has traditionally been thought to contain much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore, he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear." Alfred appears as a character in the twelfth- or 13th-century poem *[Owl and the Nightingale](The)(The Owl and the Nightingale)* where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is praised. *[Proverbs of Alfred](The)(The Proverbs of Alfred)*, a 13th-century work, contains sayings that are not likely to have originated with Alfred but attest to his posthumous medieval reputation for wisdom.
[[File:Alfred-jewel-ashmolean.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [Jewel](Alfred)(Alfred Jewel), in the [Museum](Ashmolean)(Ashmolean Museum), Oxford, commissioned by Alfred; probably a pointer to aid reading]]
The [jewel](Alfred)(Alfred jewel), discovered in [Somerset](Somerset) in 1693, has long been associated with King Alfred because of its [English](Old)(Old English) inscription AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN ('Alfred ordered me to be made'). The jewel is about long, made of [filigree](filigree)d gold, enclosing a highly polished piece of quartz crystal beneath which is set in a cloisonné enamel plaque with an enamelled image of a man holding floriate sceptres, perhaps personifying Sight or the Wisdom of God.
It was at one time attached to a thin rod or stick based on the hollow socket at its base. The jewel certainly dates from Alfred's reign. Although its function is unknown, it has been often suggested that the jewel was one of the *æstels* – pointers for reading – that Alfred ordered sent to every bishopric accompanying a copy of his translation of the *Pastoral Care*. Each *æstel* was worth the princely sum of 50 [mancus](mancus)es which fits in well with the quality workmanship and expensive materials of the Alfred jewel.
Historian Richard Abels sees Alfred's educational and military reforms as complementary. Restoring religion and learning in Wessex, Abels contends, was to Alfred's mind as essential to the defence of his realm as the building of the burhs. As Alfred observed in the preface to his English translation of Gregory the Great's *Pastoral Care*, kings who fail to obey their divine duty to promote learning can expect earthly punishments to befall their people. The pursuit of wisdom, he assured his readers of the Boethius, was the surest path to power: "Study wisdom, then, and, when you have learned it, condemn it not, for I tell you that by its means you may without fail attain to power, yea, even though not desiring it".
The portrayal of the West-Saxon resistance to the Vikings by Asser and the chronicler as a Christian holy war was more than mere rhetoric or propaganda. It reflected Alfred's own belief in a doctrine of divine rewards and punishments rooted in a vision of a hierarchical Christian world order in which God is the Lord to whom kings owe obedience and through whom they derive their authority over their followers. The need to persuade his nobles to undertake work for the 'common good' led Alfred and his court scholars to strengthen and deepen the conception of Christian kingship that he had inherited by building upon the legacy of earlier kings including Offa, clerical writers including Bede, and Alcuin and various participants in the [renaissance](Carolingian)(Carolingian renaissance). This was not a cynical use of religion to manipulate his subjects into obedience but an intrinsic element in Alfred's worldview. He believed, as did other kings in ninth-century England and Francia, that God had entrusted him with the spiritual as well as physical welfare of his people. If the Christian faith fell into ruin in his kingdom, if the clergy were too ignorant to understand the Latin words they butchered in their offices and liturgies, if the ancient monasteries and collegiate churches lay deserted out of indifference, he was answerable before God, as [Josiah](Josiah) had been. Alfred's ultimate responsibility was the pastoral care of his people.
## Appearance and character
[[known portrait of Alfred the Great exists from life. A likeness by artist and historian George S. Stuart created from his physical description mentioned in historical records.](File:AlfredtheGreatbyGeorgeSStuart.jpg|thumb|right|175px|No)]
[Asser](Asser) wrote of Alfred in his *[of King Alfred](Life)(Asser#The Life of King Alfred)*,
}}
It is also written by Asser that Alfred did not learn to read until he was 12 years old or later, which is described as "shameful negligence" of his parents and tutors. Alfred was an excellent listener and had an incredible memory and he retained poetry and psalms very well. A story is told by Asser about how his mother held up a book of Saxon poetry to him and his brothers, and said; "I shall give this book to whichever one of you can learn it the fastest." After excitedly asking, "Will you really give this book to the one of us who can understand it the soonest and recite it to you?" Alfred then took it to his teacher, learned it, and recited it back to his mother.
Alfred is noted as carrying around a small book, probably a medieval version of a small pocket notebook, that contained psalms and many prayers that he often collected. Asser writes: these "he collected in a single book, as I have seen for myself; amid all the affairs of the present life he took it around with him everywhere for the sake of prayer, and was inseparable from it." An excellent hunter in every branch of the sport, Alfred is remembered as an enthusiastic huntsman against whom nobody's skills could compare.
Although he was the youngest of his brothers, he was probably the most open-minded. He was an early advocate for education. His desire for learning could have come from his early love of English poetry and inability to read or physically record it until later in life. Asser writes that Alfred "could not satisfy his craving for what he desired the most, namely the liberal arts; for, as he used to say, there were no good scholars in the entire kingdom of the West Saxons at that time".
## Family
[[File:Queen Ealhswith.png|thumb|A posthumous image of [Ealhswith](Queen)(Ealhswith), 1220]]
In 868, Alfred married [Ealhswith](Ealhswith), daughter of a Mercian nobleman, [Mucel](Æthelred)(Æthelred Mucel), [Ealdorman](Ealdorman) of the [Gaini](Gaini). The Gaini were probably one of the tribal groups of the Mercians. Ealhswith's mother, Eadburh, was a member of the Mercian royal family.
They had five or six children together, including [the Elder](Edward)(Edward the Elder) who succeeded his father as king; [Æthelflæd](Æthelflæd) who became lady of the Mercians; and [Ælfthryth](Ælfthryth, Countess of Flanders) who married [II, Count of Flanders](Baldwin)(Baldwin II, Count of Flanders). Alfred's mother was [Osburga](Osburga), daughter of Oslac of the [of Wight](Isle)(Isle of Wight), Chief [Butler](Butler#Ancient through medieval eras) of England. Asser, in his *Vita Ælfredi* asserts that this shows his lineage from the [Jutes](Jutes) of the Isle of Wight.
[Osferth](Osferth) was described as a relative in King Alfred's will and he attested charters in a high position until 934. A charter of King Edward's reign described him as the king's brother – mistakenly according to Keynes and Lapidge, but in the view of [Nelson](Janet)(Janet Nelson), he probably was an illegitimate son of King Alfred.
## Death and burial
[[the Great's will.jpg|thumb|upright|Alfred's will](File:Alfred)]
Alfred died on 26 October 899 at the age of 50 or 51. How he died is unknown, but he suffered throughout his life with a painful and unpleasant illness. His biographer Asser gave a detailed description of Alfred's symptoms, and this has allowed modern doctors to provide a possible diagnosis. It is thought that he had either [disease](Crohn's)(Crohn's disease) or [haemorrhoids](haemorrhoids). His grandson King [Eadred](Eadred) seems to have had a similar illness.}}
Alfred was temporarily buried at the [Minster](Old)(Old Minster, Winchester) in Winchester with his wife [Ealhswith](Ealhswith) and later, his son [the Elder](Edward)(Edward the Elder). Before his death he had ordered the construction of the [Minster](New)(New Minster, Winchester) hoping that it would become a mausoleum for him and his family. Four years after his death, the bodies of Alfred and his family were exhumed and moved to their new resting place in the New Minster and remained there for 211 years. When [the Conqueror](William)(William the Conqueror) rose to the English throne after the Norman conquest in 1066, many Anglo-Saxon abbeys were demolished and replaced with Norman cathedrals. One of those unfortunate abbeys was the very New Minster abbey where Alfred was laid to rest. Before demolition, the monks at the New Minster exhumed the bodies of Alfred and his family to safely transfer them to a new location. The New Minster monks moved to Hyde in 1110 a little north of the city, and they transferred to [Abbey](Hyde)(Hyde Abbey) along with Alfred's body and those of his wife and children, which were interred before the high altar.
In 1536, many Roman Catholic churches were vandalized by the people of England spurred by disillusionment with the church during the [of the Monasteries](Dissolution)(Dissolution of the Monasteries). One such Catholic church was the site of Alfred's burial, Hyde Abbey. Once again, Alfred's place of rest was disturbed for the now 3rd time. Hyde Abbey was dissolved in 1538 during the reign of [VIII](Henry)(Henry VIII), the church site was demolished and treated like a quarry, as the stones that made up the abbey were then re-used in local architecture. The stone graves housing Alfred and his family stayed underground, and the land returned to farming. These graves remained intact until 1788 when the site was acquired by the county for the construction of a town jail.
Before construction began, convicts that would later be imprisoned at the site were sent in to prepare the ground, to ready it for building. While digging the foundation trenches, the convicts discovered the coffins of Alfred and his family. The local Catholic priest, Dr. Milner recounts this event:}}The convicts broke the stone coffins into pieces, the lead, which lined the coffins, was sold for two [guineas](Guinea (coin)), and the bones within scattered around the area.
The prison was demolished between 1846 and 1850. Further excavations were inconclusive in 1866 and 1897. In 1866, amateur antiquarian John Mellor claimed to have recovered a number of bones from the site which he said were those of Alfred. These came into the possession of the vicar of nearby St Bartholomew's Church who reburied them in an unmarked grave in the church graveyard.
Excavations conducted by the Winchester Museums Service of the Hyde Abbey site in 1999 located a second pit dug in front of where the high altar would have been located, which was identified as probably dating to Mellor's 1866 excavation. The 1999 archeological excavation uncovered the foundations of the abbey buildings and some bones, suggested at the time to be those of Alfred; they proved instead to belong to an elderly woman. In March 2013, the Diocese of Winchester exhumed the bones from the unmarked grave at St Bartholomew's and placed them in secure storage. The diocese made no claim that they were the bones of Alfred, but intended to secure them for later analysis, and from the attentions of people whose interest may have been sparked by the recent identification of the remains of [Richard III](King)(King Richard III). The bones were radiocarbon-dated but the results showed that they were from the 1300s and therefore not of Alfred. In January 2014, a fragment of pelvis that had been unearthed in the 1999 excavation of the Hyde site, and had subsequently lain in a Winchester museum store room, was radiocarbon-dated to the correct period. It has been suggested that this bone may belong to either Alfred or his son [Edward](Edward the Elder), but this remains unproven.
## Legacy
[[File:Statue of King Alfred in Wantage Market Square.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Alfred the Great at [Wantage](Wantage), Oxfordshire]]
Though [VI of England](Henry)(Henry VI of England) attempted unsuccessfully to have Alfred canonized by [Eugene IV](Pope)(Pope Eugene IV) in 1441, he was venerated sometimes in the Catholic Church. The current "[Martyrology](Roman)(Roman Martyrology)" does not mention Alfred. The [Communion](Anglican)(Anglican Communion) [venerates](Calendar of saints (Church of England)) him as a Christian hero, with a [Festival](Lesser)(Lesser Festival (Anglicanism)) on 26 October, and he may often be found depicted in stained glass in [of England](Church)(Church of England) parish churches.
Alfred commissioned Bishop Asser to write his biography, which inevitably emphasised Alfred's positive aspects. Later medieval historians such as [of Monmouth](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey of Monmouth) also reinforced Alfred's favourable image. By the time of the Reformation, Alfred was seen as a pious Christian ruler who promoted the use of English rather than Latin, and so the translations that he commissioned were viewed as untainted by the later Roman Catholic influences of the Normans. Consequently, it was writers of the 16th century who gave Alfred his epithet as "the Great", not any of Alfred's contemporaries. The epithet was retained by succeeding generations who admired Alfred's patriotism, success against barbarism, promotion of education, and establishment of the rule of law.
A number of educational establishments are named in Alfred's honour:
* The [of Winchester](University)(University of Winchester) created from the former King Alfred's College, Winchester (1928 to 2004)
* [University](Alfred)(Alfred University) and [State College](Alfred)(Alfred State College) in [New York](Alfred,)(Alfred (village), New York); the local telephone exchange for Alfred University is 871 in commemoration of the year of Alfred's ascension to the throne. Additionally, the mascot of Alfred University is named Lil' Alf and is modeled after the king
* The [of Liverpool](University)(University of Liverpool) created a [Alfred Chair of English Literature](King)(King Alfred Chair of English Literature)
[[File:Alfred the Great - Samuel Woodforde.jpg|thumb|upright|Eighteenth-century portrait of Alfred by [Woodforde](Samuel)(Samuel Woodforde)]]
* [Alfred's Academy](King)(King Alfred's Academy), a secondary school in [Wantage](Wantage), Oxfordshire, the birthplace of Alfred
* King's Lodge School in [Wiltshire](Chippenham,)(Chippenham, Wiltshire), so named because King Alfred's hunting lodge is reputed to have stood on or near the site of the school
* The King Alfred School and Specialist Sports Academy, Burnham Road, Highbridge, so named due to its rough proximity to Brent Knoll (a Beacon site) and Athelney
* The King Alfred School in Barnet, North London, UK
* King Alfred's house in [Stopford's School at Enfield](Bishop)(Bishop Stopford's School at Enfield)
* King Alfred Swimming Pool & Leisure complex in Hove, Brighton UK
The Royal Navy named one ship and two shore establishments [*King Alfred*](HMS)(HMS King Alfred), and one of the early ships of the U.S. Navy was named [*Alfred*](USS)(USS Alfred) in his honour. In 2002, Alfred was ranked number 14 in the BBC's list of the [Greatest Britons](100)(100 Greatest Britons) following a UK-wide vote.
## Statues
### Southwark
A [of Alfred the Great](statue)(Statue of Alfred the Great, Southwark) located in [Church Square](Trinity)(Trinity Church Square), [Southwark](Southwark) is considered to be the oldest outdoor statue in London, and part of it has been found to date to [times](Roman)(Roman times). The sculpture was thought to be [medieval](medieval) until 2021 conservation work. The lower half was then discovered to be [Stone](Bath)(Bath Stone) and part of a colossal ancient sculpture dedicated to the goddess [Minerva](Minerva). It is typical of the 2nd Century, dating to around the reign of [Hadrian](Hadrian). The lower older half is likely to have been carved by a continental craftsman used to working with British stone. The upper half dates to the late 18th or early 19th century, cast to fit the lower portion from [stone](Coade)(Coade stone).
### Winchester
A bronze statue of Alfred the Great stands at the eastern end of The Broadway, close to the site of [Winchester](Winchester)'s medieval East Gate. The statue was designed by [Thornycroft](Hamo)(Hamo Thornycroft), cast in bronze by [& Sons of Frome](Singer)(John Webb Singer) and erected in 1899 to mark one thousand years since Alfred's death. The statue is placed on a pedestal consisting of two immense blocks of grey Cornish granite.
### Pewsey
[[File:King Alfred Statue Pewsey.jpg|thumb|1913 statue of Alfred in [Pewsey](Pewsey), Wiltshire]]
A prominent statue of King Alfred the Great stands in the middle of [Pewsey](Pewsey). It was unveiled in June 1913 to commemorate the coronation of King [V](George)(George V).
### Wantage
A statue of Alfred the Great, situated in the [Wantage](Wantage) [place](market)(market place), was sculpted by [Gleichen](Count)(Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg), a relative of [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria), and unveiled on 14 July 1877 by the [Prince](Edward VII) and [of Wales](Princess)(Alexandra of Denmark). The statue was vandalised on New Year's Eve 2007, losing part of its right arm and axe. After the arm and axe were replaced, the statue was again vandalised on Christmas Eve 2008, losing its axe.
### Alfred University, New York
[[File:Statue of King Alfred at Alfred University.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue at [University](Alfred)(Alfred University)]]
The centerpiece of [University](Alfred)(Alfred University)'s quad is a bronze statue of the king, created in 1990 by then-professor [Underhill](William)(William Underhill). It features the king as a young man, holding a shield in his left hand and an open book in his right.Alfred University : About AU : Statue of King Alfred, Alfred University, www.alfred.edu/glance/statue_of_king_alfred.cfm.
### Cleveland, Ohio
A marble statue of Alfred the Great stands on the North side of the [County Courthouse](Cuyahoga)(Cuyahoga County Courthouse) in Cleveland, Ohio. It was sculpted by Isidore Konti in 1910.["Alfred the Great", Isidore Konti, 1910](http://oosi.sculpturecenter.org/items/show/345) . Sculpture Center. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
## Chronology
## Notes
## Citations
## Sources
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* |date=17 January 2014 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-hampshire-25760383 |title=Bone fragment 'could be King Alfred or son Edward' |work=[News](BBC)(BBC News)}}
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* British History Online |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/hants/vol2/pp116-122|access-date=7 October 2020 |website=www.british-history.ac.uk}}
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* |author1=Gregory I, Pope |author2=Alfred, King of England |year=1871 |title=King Alfred's West-Saxon version of Gregory's Pastoral care |editor-last=Sweet |editor-first=Henry |location=London |publisher=N. Trübner & Company for the Early English text society |url=https://archive.org/stream/kingalfredswests00greg#page/2/mode/2up |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322085559/https://archive.org/stream/kingalfredswests00greg#page/2/mode/2up |archive-date=22 March 2016 |url-status=live}}
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## External links
* [Alfred the Great](https://www.royal.uk/alfred-great-r-871-899) at the official website of the British monarchy
* [Alfred the Great](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/alfred_the_great.shtml) at BBC History
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–899}}
[ ](Category:Alfred the Great)
[births](Category:840s)(Category:840s births)
[deaths](Category:899)(Category:899 deaths)
[of birth uncertain](Category:Year)(Category:Year of birth uncertain)
[Christians](Category:9th-century)(Category:9th-century Christians)
[English monarchs](Category:9th-century)(Category:9th-century English monarchs)
[translators](Category:9th-century)(Category:9th-century translators)
[and ship designers](Category:Boat)(Category:Boat and ship designers)
[Christians](Category:English)(Category:English Christians)
[of Wessex](Category:House)(Category:House of Wessex)
[legislators](Category:Medieval)(Category:Medieval legislators)
[of England before 1066](Category:Monarchs)(Category:Monarchs of England before 1066)
[of literature](Category:Patrons)(Category:Patrons of literature)
[from Wantage](Category:People)(Category:People from Wantage)
[from Latin](Category:Translators)(Category:Translators from Latin)
[of philosophy](Category:Translators)(Category:Translators of philosophy)
[Saxon monarchs](Category:West)(Category:West Saxon monarchs)
[saints](Category:Anglican)(Category:Anglican saints)
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Independence Day _United States
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independence_day__united_states
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# Independence Day (United States)
*Revision ID: 1151460732 | Timestamp: 2023-04-24T06:06:45Z*
---
}}
| duration = 1 day
| frequency = Annual
| mdy = yes
| celebrations = [Fireworks](Fireworks), [reunion](family)(family reunion)s, [concert](concert)s, [barbecue](barbecue)s, [picnic](picnic)s, [parade](parade)s, [games](baseball)(baseball)
| type = National
}}
**Independence Day** ([colloquial](colloquial)ly the **Fourth of July**) is a [holiday in the United States](federal)(federal holiday in the United States) commemorating the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence), which was ratified by the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) on July 4, 1776, establishing the [States of America](United)(United States).
The [Father](Founding)(Founding Fathers of the United States) delegates of the Second Continental Congress declared that the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies) were no longer subject (and subordinate) to the [of Britain](monarch)(monarchy of the United Kingdom), [George III](King)(George III of the United Kingdom), and were now united, free, and independent states. The Congress voted to approve independence by passing the [Resolution](Lee)(Lee Resolution) on July 2 and adopted the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4.
Independence Day is commonly associated with [fireworks](fireworks), [parade](parade)s, [barbecue](barbecue)s, [carnivals](traveling carnival), [fairs](funfair), [picnic](picnic)s, [concert](concert)s, [game](baseball)(baseball)s, [reunion](family)(family reunion)s, [speech](political)(political speech)es, and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the [day](national)(national day) of the United States.
## Background
During the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution), the legal separation of the [colonies](thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies) from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) voted to approve a [of independence](resolution)(Lee Resolution) that had been proposed in June by [Henry Lee](Richard)(Richard Henry Lee) of [Virginia](Virginia) declaring the United States independent from Great Britain's rule.Becker, p. 3. After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence), a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a [of Five](Committee)(Committee of Five), with [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) as its principal author.
While Jefferson consulted extensively with the other four members of the Committee of Five, he largely wrote the Declaration of Independence in isolation over 17 days between June 11, 1776 and June 28, 1776 from the second floor he was renting in a three-story private home at 700 [Street](Market)(Market Street (Philadelphia)) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), now known as the Declaration House, and within walking distance of [Hall](Independence)(Independence Hall).["Visit the Declaration House"](https://www.nps.gov/inde/planyourvisit/declarationhouse.htm), [Park Service](National)(National Park Service) official website
Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, removing Jefferson's vigorous denunciation of [George III](King)(George III) for importing the [trade](slave)(Slave Trade), finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, [Adams](John)(John Adams) wrote to his wife [Abigail](Abigail Adams):}}
Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.
Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.Becker, pp. 184–85.For the minority scholarly argument that the Declaration was signed on July 4, see [Wilfred J. Ritz, "The Authentication of the Engrossed Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/743719?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents) , *Law and History Review* 4, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 179–204, via JSTOR.
By a remarkable coincidence, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, the only two signatories of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as [of the United States](presidents)(President of the United States), both died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration, Jefferson even mentioning the fact. Although not a signatory of the Declaration of Independence, [Monroe](James)(James Monroe), another [Father](Founding)(Founding Fathers of the United States) who was elected president, also died on July 4, 1831, making him the third President who died on the anniversary of independence. The only U.S. president to have been born on Independence Day was [Coolidge](Calvin)(Calvin Coolidge), who was born on July 4, 1872.
## Observance
[[File:SaturdayEveningPost5Jul1924.jpg|thumb|Independence Day issue of *[Saturday Evening Post](The)(The Saturday Evening Post)*, 1924]]
* In 1777, thirteen [gunshot](gunshot)s were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in [Rhode Island](Bristol,)(Bristol, Rhode Island). An article in the July 18, 1777 issue of *[Virginia Gazette](The)(The Virginia Gazette)* noted a celebration in Philadelphia in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, [salutes](13-gun)(Saluting guns), speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks. Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting.Heintze, "The First Celebrations".
* In 1778, from his headquarters at [Hall](Ross)(Ross Hall), near [Brunswick, New Jersey](New)(New Brunswick, New Jersey), General [Washington](George)(George Washington) marked July 4 with a double ration of [rum](rum) for his soldiers and an artillery salute (*[de joie](feu)(feu de joie)*). Across the Atlantic Ocean, [ambassadors](Ambassador (diplomacy)) John Adams and [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) held a dinner for their fellow Americans in [Paris](Paris), France.Heintze, "A Chronology of Notable Fourth of July Celebration Occurrences".
[[1902 Fourth of July fireworks.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|American children of many ethnic backgrounds celebrate noisily in a fantasy 1902 *Puck* cartoon](File:American)]
* In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5.
* In 1781, the [General Court](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts General Court) became the first [legislature](state)(State legislature (United States)) to recognize July 4 as a state celebration.
* In 1783, [North Carolina](Salem,)(Old Salem), held a celebration with a challenging music program assembled by [Friedrich Peter](Johann)(Johann Friedrich Peter) entitled *The Psalm of Joy*. The town claims it to be the first public July 4 event, as it was carefully documented by the [Church](Moravian)(Moravian Church), and there are no government records of any earlier celebrations.
* In 1870, the [Congress](U.S.)(United States Congress) made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees.Heintze, "How the Fourth of July was Designated as an 'Official' Holiday".
* In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday.Heintze, "Federal Legislation Establishing the Fourth of July Holiday".
## Customs
[[1825 invitation to an Independence Day celebration](File:InvitationIndependenceDayGreenwichCT06201825.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|An)]
Independence Day is a [holiday](national)(National Day) marked by patriotic displays. Per , Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the [service](postal)(United States Postal Service) and [courts](federal)(United States federal courts)) are closed on that day. While the legal holiday remains on July 4, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then federal government employees will instead take the day off on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively.
Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the [flag](American)(Flag of the United States). Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, sporting venues, fairgrounds, public shorelines, or town squares.
The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating [bonfires](bonfires) as their centerpiece. In [England](New)(New England), towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall to usher in the celebration. The highest were in [Massachusetts](Salem,)(Salem, Massachusetts), with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries and is still practiced in some [England](New)(New England) towns.
Independence Day [fireworks](fireworks) are often accompanied by patriotic songs, such as "[Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner)" (the American [anthem](national)(national anthem)); "[the Gem of the Ocean](Columbia,)(Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean)"; "[Bless America](God)(God Bless America)"; "[the Beautiful](America)(America the Beautiful)"; "[Country, 'Tis of Thee](My)(My Country, 'Tis of Thee)"; "[Land Is Your Land](This)(This Land Is Your Land)"; "[and Stripes Forever](Stars)(Stars and Stripes Forever)"; "[Doodle](Yankee)(Yankee Doodle)"; "[Dixie](Dixie (song))" in southern states; "[Every Voice and Sing](Lift)(Lift Every Voice and Sing)"; and occasionally, but has nominally fallen out of favor, [Columbia](Hail)(Hail Columbia). Some of the lyrics recall images of the [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) or the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812).
[[File:4th of July Independence Day Parade 2014 DC (14466486678).jpg|thumb|Independence Day Parade in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)]]
Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed; for example, the [supply chain crisis](global)(2021–2022 global supply chain crisis) following the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) forced cancellations of shows. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.
New York City has the largest fireworks display in the country sponsored by [Macy's](Macy's), with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded in 2009. It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Seattle on [Union](Lake)(Lake Union); in San Diego over [Bay](Mission)(Mission Bay, San Diego, California); in Boston on the [River](Charles)(Charles River); in Philadelphia over the [Museum of Art](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Museum of Art); in San Francisco over the [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay); and on the [Mall](National)(National Mall) in Washington, D.C.
During the annual [International Freedom Festival](Windsor–Detroit)(Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival), [Michigan](Detroit,)(Detroit) hosts one of the largest fireworks displays in North America, over the [River](Detroit)(Detroit River), to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with [Ontario](Windsor,)(Windsor, Ontario)'s celebration of [Day](Canada)(Canada Day).
The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.["AAA Chicago Projects Increase in Fourth of July Holiday Travelers"](http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/aaa-chicago-projects-increase-in-fourth-of-july-holiday-travelers-96963819.html) , *PR Newswire*, June 23, 2010
## Celebration gallery
File:Independence Day, 1940 Promotion.ogv|Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940
File:July 4th fireworks, Washington, D.C. LOC 8385170598.jpg|Fireworks over the [Mall](National)(National Mall) in Washington, D.C. every July 4 are preceded by a concert known as [Capitol Fourth](A)(A Capitol Fourth), which takes place outside the [Capitol](U.S.)(U.S. Capitol) and is televised on the American public television network [PBS](PBS).
File:Miamifireworks.jpg|In addition to a fireworks show, [Miami](Miami), [Florida](Florida), lights [of its tallest buildings](one)(Miami Tower) with the patriotic red, white and blue [scheme](color)(color scheme) on Independence Day.
File:Fireworks over the East Village of New York City.JPG|New York City's fireworks display, shown above over the [Village](East)(East Village, Manhattan), is sponsored by [Macy's](Macy's) and is the largest[Biggest fireworks show in U.S. lights up sky](https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009-07-04-fourth-of-july_N.htm) , USA Today, July 2009. in the country.
File:Fourth of July Lubec.jpg|Towns of all sizes hold celebrations. Shown here is a fireworks display in America's most eastern town, [Maine](Lubec,)(Lubec, Maine), population 1,300. Canada is across the channel to the right.
File:Fourth of July Cake.jpg|A festively decorated Independence Day cake
File:Narberth Fireworks July 4th 2008.jpg|Fireworks in [Pennsylvania](Narberth,)(Narberth, Pennsylvania).
## Notable celebrations
[[File:Spirit of '76.jpg|thumb|Originally entitled *[Doodle](Yankee)(Yankee Doodle)*, this is one of several versions of a scene painted by [Willard](A. M.)(Archibald MacNeal Willard) that came to be known as ''The Spirit of '76''. Often imitated or parodied, it is a familiar symbol of American patriotism]]
[[Day Parade for the Fourth of July in Washington, DC 2019.webm|thumb|The 2019 Independence Day parade in Washington, D.C.](File:Independence)]
* Held since 1785, the [Fourth of July Parade](Bristol)(Bristol Fourth of July Parade) in [Rhode Island](Bristol,)(Bristol, Rhode Island), is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States.
* Since 1868, [Nebraska](Seward,)(Seward, Nebraska), has held a celebration on the same town square. In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress. Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor [James Exon](J.)(J. James Exon) in proclamation. Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations.
* Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the [Hills](Rebild)(Rebild Hills) of [Denmark](Denmark).
* Since 1959, the [Freedom Festival](International)(Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival) is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan, and [Ontario](Windsor,)(Windsor, Ontario), during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and [Day](Canada)(Canada Day) (July 1). It culminates in a large fireworks display over the [River](Detroit)(Detroit River).
* The famous [Macy's](Macy's) fireworks display usually held over the [River](East)(East River) in New York City has been televised nationwide on [NBC](NBC), and locally on [WNBC-TV](WNBC-TV) since 1976. In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the [River](Hudson)(Hudson River) for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of [Hudson](Henry)(Henry Hudson)'s exploration of that river.
* The [Pops Orchestra](Boston)(Boston Pops Orchestra) has hosted a music and fireworks show over the [River Esplanade](Charles)(Charles River Esplanade) called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1974. Canons are traditionally fired during the [Overture](1812)(1812 Overture). The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on [A&E](A&E (TV channel)), and since 2002 by [CBS](CBS) and its Boston station [WBZ-TV](WBZ-TV). [WBZ/1030](WBZ (AM)) and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime. The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer [G. Mugar](David)(David G. Mugar) believed was the result of decreasing viewership [by](caused)(Counterprogramming (television)) NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks.James H. Burnett III. [Boston gets a nonreality show: CBS broadcasts impossible views of 4th fireworks](http://www.boston.com/ae/tv/articles/2011/07/08/cbs_broadcasts_altered_views_of_bostons_fourth_of_july_fireworks/) . Boston Globe, July 8, 2011 The national broadcast was revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours. In 2017, [Television](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg Television) took over coverage duty, with [WHDH](WHDH (TV)) carrying local coverage beginning in 2018.
* On the [Capitol](United States Capitol) lawn in Washington, D.C., *[Capitol Fourth](A)(A Capitol Fourth)*, a free concert broadcast live by [PBS](Public Broadcasting Service), [NPR](NPR) and the [Forces Network](American)(American Forces Network), precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually.[A Capitol Fourth – The Concert](https://www.pbs.org/capitolfourth/concert.html) , PBS, accessed July 12, 2013
## Other countries
The [Philippines](Philippines) celebrates July 4 as its [Day](Republic)(Republic Day (Philippines)) to commemorate the day in 1946 when it ceased to be a [territory](U.S.)(U.S. territory) and the United States officially recognized [Independence](Philippine)(History of the Philippines (1946–65)).
July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as [Day](Independence)(Independence Day (Philippines)) until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day.
[National Park](Rebild)(Rebild National Park) in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.
## See also
*[holidays in the United States](Federal)(Federal holidays in the United States)
*[National Independence Day](Juneteenth)(Juneteenth National Independence Day)
*[of occasions known by their dates](List)(List of occasions known by their dates)
*
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## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* Republished:
*
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## External links
* [Fourth of July Is Independence Day](https://web.archive.org/web/20150310151451/http://www.usa.gov/Topics/Independence-Day.shtml) [USA.gov](USA.gov), July 4, 2014
* [U.S. Independence Day a Civic and Social Event](https://web.archive.org/web/20080704115447/http://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/June/20060628141729JMnamdeirF0.745434.html) [State Department](U.S.)(United States Department of State), June 22, 2010
* [Fourth of July Orations Collection](https://web.archive.org/web/20110202025214/http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/fourth.htm) at the Division of Special Collections, Archives, and Rare Books, [Library](Ellis)(Ellis Library), [of Missouri](University)(University of Missouri)
[ ](Category:Independence Day (United States))
[events in the United States](Category:Annual)(Category:Annual events in the United States)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[holidays in the United States](Category:Federal)(Category:Federal holidays in the United States)
[in the United States](Category:Fireworks)(Category:Fireworks in the United States)
[of the United States](Category:History)(Category:History of the United States)
[related to the American Revolution](Category:Holidays)(Category:Holidays related to the American Revolution)
[States](United)(Category:Independence days)
[observances](Category:July)(Category:July observances)
[holidays in the United States](Category:Public)(Category:Public holidays in the United States)
[States flag flying days](Category:United)(Category:United States flag flying days)
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Murder of George Floyd
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murder_of_george_floyd
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# Murder of George Floyd
*Revision ID: 1158557002 | Timestamp: 2023-06-04T20:40:29Z*
---
years ago
| time = [CDT](Central Time Zone)}} ([UTC−5](UTC−05:00))
| location = [Minneapolis](Minneapolis), Minnesota, U.S.
| coordinates =
| type =
| perps =
| victim = [Perry Floyd Jr.](George)(George Floyd)
| verdict =
| convictions =
***State convictions:**
*Chauvin:
*
*
*
*Lane, Kueng, and Thao:
*[and abetting](Aiding)(Aiding and abetting) second-degree manslaughter
}}
| sentence =
*Kueng:
*3 years in prison
*Lane:
* years in prison
*Thao:
* years in prison
***State sentences:**
*Chauvin:
* years in prison}}
*Kueng:
* years in prison
*Lane:
*3 years in prison
*Thao:
*In custody awaiting sentencing
| litigation = Civil lawsuit resulting in a $27 million settlement
}}
}}
}}
On May 25, 2020, [Floyd](George)(George Floyd), a 46-year-old [wording, do not modify-->](black police officer. Floyd had been arrested after a store clerk alleged that Floyd made a purchase using a [counterfeit](counterfeit) $20 bill. Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck for over nine minutes while Floyd was handcuffed and lying face-down in a street. Two other police officers, J. Alexander Kueng and Thomas Lane, assisted Chauvin in restraining Floyd. Lane had also pointed a gun at Floyd's head prior to Floyd being put in handcuffs. A fourth police officer, Tou Thao, prevented bystanders from intervening.
Prior to being placed on the ground, Floyd had exhibited signs of [anxiety](anxiety), complaining about having [claustrophobia](claustrophobia), and being unable to breathe. After being restrained, he became more distressed, still complaining of breathing difficulties, of the knee on his neck, and of fear of imminent death. After several minutes, Floyd stopped speaking. For the last few minutes, he lay motionless and Officer Kueng found no pulse when urged to check. Despite this, Chauvin ignored pleas from bystanders to lift his knee from Floyd's neck.
The following day, after videos made by witnesses and security cameras became public, all four officers were fired. Two autopsies, and one autopsy review, found Floyd's death to be a [homicide](homicide). On March 12, 2021, Minneapolis agreed to pay [US$](US$)27 million to settle a [death lawsuit](wrongful)(wrongful death lawsuit) brought by Floyd's family. On April 20, Chauvin [convicted](was)(Trial of Derek Chauvin) of unintentional [murder](second-degree)(Murder (United States law)), [murder](third-degree)(third-degree murder), and [manslaughter](second-degree)(Manslaughter (United States law)), and sentenced to 22.5 years in prison on June 25. All four officers faced federal [rights](civil)(civil rights) charges. In December 2021, Chauvin pled guilty to federal charges of violating Floyd's civil rights by using unreasonable force and ignoring his serious medical distress. The other three officers were also later convicted of violating Floyd's civil rights. Lane pleaded guilty in May 2022 to a state charge for [and abetting](aiding)(aiding and abetting) second-degree manslaughter and on September 21, 2022, was sentenced to three years in prison to be served concurrently with his 2.5-year federal sentence.
Kueng pleaded guilty on October 24, 2022, to the state charges of aiding and abetting manslaughter and was sentenced to 42 months in prison, to be served concurrently with his federal sentence. Thao waived his right to a jury trial on the state charge in lieu of a review of the evidence and a determination by a judge. He was found guilty of aiding and abetting manslaughter in a written verdict delivered on May 2, 2023. His sentencing is scheduled for August 7, 2023.
Floyd's murder led to [protests](worldwide)(George Floyd protests) against [brutality](police)(police brutality), [racism](police)(police racism), and lack of [accountability](police)(police accountability).
## People involved
### George Floyd
George Perry Floyd Jr. was a 46-year-old [American](black)(African Americans) born in [North Carolina](Fayetteville,)(Fayetteville, North Carolina), and raised in the [Ward](Third)(Third Ward, Houston) of Houston, Texas. In 2014, he moved to the Minneapolis, Minnesota, area. He resided in the nearby suburb of [Louis Park](St.)(St. Louis Park, Minnesota), and was a frequent customer at the [Foods](Cup)(Cup Foods) convenience store in [Park, Minneapolis](Powderhorn)(Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis).
### Derek Chauvin
At the time of Floyd's murder, Derek Michael Chauvin, a [American](white)(White Americans), was a 44-year-old police officer in the [Police Department](Minneapolis)(Minneapolis Police Department). He had served in the department since 2001. Chauvin and Floyd sometimes worked overlapping shifts as security guards for a local nightclub, but the club's former owner was unsure of the extent of their acquaintance.
### Tou Thao
Tou Thao, a [Hmong-American](Hmong Americans), was aged 34 at the time of Floyd's murder and started as a part-time community service officer in 2008. He graduated from the police academy in 2009. After a two-year layoff, he resumed police work in 2012. Six complaints had been filed against Thao, none resulting in disciplinary action. In 2014, a man claimed Thao handcuffed him without cause, threw him to the ground, and punched, kicked, and kneed him; the man's teeth were broken and he was hospitalized. The resulting lawsuit was settled for $25,000. Thao kept bystanders away and has been found guilty of violating Floyd's civil rights.
### J. Alexander Kueng and Thomas Lane
J. Alexander Kueng, a Black American then aged 26, and Thomas Kiernan Lane, a White American then aged 37, were licensed as law enforcement officers in August 2019. They had trained together. Chauvin was the superior officer responsible for the majority of Kueng's field training. On May 3, 2020, video of an arrest incident in Minneapolis showed Chauvin, Kueng, Lane, and another officer roughly detaining a man on the ground as bystanders pleaded for the officers to show mercy. Kueng and Lane were with Chauvin as the day was part of their field training. The man, whom they detained wrongfully, said he had trouble breathing, and the incident was later said to be similar to the arrest of George Floyd on May 25, 2020. Kueng and Lane were in their first week as Minneapolis police officers when Floyd was murdered. Lane's application to join the police department had portions covering his prior criminal history redacted, including convictions for obstructing legal process and damaging property when he was 18. Kueng and Lane helped Chauvin to hold Floyd down; both were found guilty of violating Floyd's civil rights. In October 2022, Kueng pleaded guilty to aiding and abetting second-degree manslaughter and in December 2022, he was sentenced to three and a half years in jail.
## Arrest and murder
### Initial events
[[Floyd Memorial at Chicago Avenue & 38th Street (49952803788)x.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|The intersection of Chicago Avenue and on , where Floyd was murdered just left of the awning|alt=Corner store near site of Floyd's murder with crowd of protesters](File:George)] On the evening of May 25, 2020, sometime before 8:00 pm, Floyd purchased cigarettes at Cup Foods, a grocery store at the intersection of East [Street and Chicago](38th)(38th and Chicago) Avenue in the [Park](Powderhorn)(Powderhorn Park, Minneapolis) neighborhood of Minneapolis. A store employee believed Floyd had paid with a [counterfeit](counterfeit currency) $20 bill. ([video @ YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMGUAHBFmjk) ) ([video @ YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vksEJR9EPQ8) ) Employees of the store approached Floyd while he was in his vehicle and demanded that Floyd return the cigarettes; he refused. A store employee called the police to report that Floyd had passed "fake bills", was "awfully drunk", and "not in control of himself". The store owner said later that most patrons who pay in counterfeit bills do not realize they are fake, and that the store called the police to "make sure there is no crime being committed". The interaction between Floyd and the employees was recorded by the restaurant's security camera. The timestamp on the video is 24 minutes ahead of actual time, according to the restaurant's owner.
}}p.m.}}
}}
At 8:08, Kueng and Lane arrived, briefly entering Cup Foods before crossing the street to Floyd's SUV, parked in front of a Dragon Wok Minneapolis restaurant. Lane tapped his flashlight on the window, startling Floyd. He asked Floyd to show his hands, and tapped again when he did not obey. Floyd apologized as he opened the car door. Lane instructed him three more times to show his hands. Seconds after the door opened, he drew his gun and ordered Floyd to show his hands. When Floyd complied, Lane holstered his weapon. Someone parked behind Floyd's SUV began recording a video at 8:10. They briefly struggled, and Lane pulled Floyd from the SUV and handcuffed him. Two other people who were riding in the car with Floyd, including 45-year-old Shawanda Hill, were interrogated. At 8:12, Kueng sat Floyd on the sidewalk against the wall in front of the restaurant.
Lane asked Floyd if he was "on something right now", and Floyd replied "No, nothing". Kueng told Floyd he was acting "real erratic" and Floyd said that he was scared. Kueng asked Floyd about foam around his mouth, to which Floyd responded that he had been "hooping" The *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)*, and *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* suggest "hooping" is a reference to drug use.}} earlier. Floyd then said he was calming down, and remarked, "I'm feeling better now."
At 8:13, Kueng and Lane told Floyd he was under arrest and walked him to their police car across the street. The officers then leaned him against the car's door. Floyd told the officers that he was not resisting, but that he was recovering from [COVID-19](COVID-19), that he was [claustrophobic](Claustrophobia) and had [anxiety](anxiety), and that he did not want to sit in the car. While Kueng and Lane attempted to put him in the car, Floyd begged them not to, repeatedly saying "[can't breathe](I)(I can't breathe)" and offering to lie on the ground instead. A [Park Police](Minneapolis)(Minneapolis Park Police Department) officer arrived and guarded Floyd's vehicle (across the street by the restaurant) and the two people who had been in it with Floyd.
At 8:17, Chauvin and Thao arrived in a third police car joining Kueng and Lane with Chauvin assuming command. He asked if Floyd was going to jail, and Kueng replied that he was arrested for forgery. Floyd said "I can't fucking breathe" twice. Around 8:18, security footage from Cup Foods shows Kueng struggling with Floyd for at least a minute in the driver side backseat while Thao watches. According to *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, at 8:19, Chauvin pulled Floyd across the backseat from the driver side to the passenger side. Then, according to [NPR](NPR), Floyd exited the vehicle while being pulled out by police and falling to the pavement.
### Chauvin kneels on Floyd's neck
}}
While Floyd lay on his chest with his cheek to the ground, Chauvin knelt on his neck. Floyd stopped moving around 8:20, though he was still conscious.
Multiple witnesses began to film the encounter, and their videos were circulated widely on the internet. At 8:20, a witness across the street began recording a video showing Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck, Kueng applying pressure to Floyd's torso, and Lane applying pressure to Floyd's legs, while Thao stood nearby. This witness stopped filming when one of the officers ordered him to leave. Also at 8:20, a second person, standing near the entrance of Cup Foods, began recording the incident. Floyd can be heard repeatedly saying "I can't breathe", "Please", and "Mama"; Lane then asked for an ambulance for Floyd, "for one bleeding from the mouth". Floyd repeated at least 16 times that he could not breathe. At one point a witness said: "You got him down. Let him breathe." After Floyd said, "I'm about to die", Chauvin told him to "relax". An officer asked Floyd, "What do you want?"; Floyd answered, "Please, the knee in my neck, I can't breathe."
At approximately 8:22, the officers called for an ambulance on a non-emergency basis, escalating the call to emergency status a minute later. Chauvin continued to kneel on Floyd's neck. A passerby yelled to Floyd, "Well, get up, get in the car, man", and Floyd, still handcuffed and face down on the pavement, responded, "I can't", while Chauvin's knee remained on his neck. Floyd said, "My stomach hurts, my neck hurts, everything hurts", requested water, and begged, "Don't kill me." One witness pointed out that Floyd was bleeding from the nose. Another told the officers that Floyd was "not even resisting arrest right now". Thao countered that Floyd was "talking, he's fine"; a witness replied that Floyd "ain't fine... Get him off the ground... You could have put him in the car by now. He's not resisting arrest or nothing. You're enjoying it. Look at you. Your body language explains it." As Floyd continued to cry for help, Thao said to witnesses: "This is why you don't do drugs, kids."
By 8:25, Floyd appeared unconscious, and bystanders confronted the officers about Floyd's condition. Chauvin pulled out mace to keep bystanders away as Thao moved between them and Chauvin. Bystanders repeatedly yelled that Floyd was "not responsive right now" and urged the officers to check his pulse. Kueng checked Floyd's wrist but found no pulse; the officers did not attempt to provide Floyd with medical assistance while he was on the ground. According to the criminal complaint against Chauvin, Lane asked Chauvin twice if they should move Floyd onto his side, and Chauvin said no.
### Medical response and death
At 8:27, a [County](Hennepin)(Hennepin County) ambulance arrived. Shortly thereafter, a young relative of the owner of Cup Foods attempted to intervene, but was pushed back by Thao. [medical technician](Emergency)(Emergency medical technician)s checked Floyd's pulse. Chauvin kept his knee on Floyd's neck for almost a minute after the ambulance arrived, despite Floyd being silent and motionless.
Around 8:29, Floyd was lifted by paramedics onto a stretcher,
then loaded into an ambulance. Lane boarded the ambulance and checked Floyd's pulse at his neck, and a medic instructed him to perform [resuscitation](cardiopulmonary)(cardiopulmonary resuscitation). A medical device was placed on Floyd's chest to provide mechanical chest compressions, and the ambulance departed for [County Medical Center](Hennepin)(Hennepin County Medical Center).
En route, the ambulance requested assistance from the [Fire Department](Minneapolis)(Minneapolis Fire Department). At 8:32, firefighters arrived at Cup Foods; according to their report, the police officers gave no clear information regarding Floyd's condition or whereabouts, which delayed their ability to find the ambulance. Meanwhile, the ambulance reported that Floyd was entering cardiac arrest and again requested assistance, asking firefighters to meet them at the corner of 36th Street and Park Avenue. Five minutes later, the fire department reached the ambulance; two fire department medics who boarded the ambulance found Floyd unresponsive and pulseless.
Floyd was [dead](pronounced)(Legal death) at 9:25 at the Hennepin County Medical Center emergency room.
## Investigations and criminal charges
### Minneapolis police response
Early on May 26, the Minneapolis Police Department issued a statement that said nothing about Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck: "After Floyd got out of his car, he physically resisted officers. Officers were able to get the suspect into handcuffs and noted he appeared to be suffering medical distress." Hours later, witness and security camera video circulating on the internet showed Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck.
*
*
*
* The department updated its statement, saying "new information" had "been made available" and that the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) (FBI) was joining the investigation. The four officers were briefly placed on paid administrative leave before being fired later that day.
### Autopsies
Two autopsies—one by a local government official and one by doctors working for Floyd's family—determined that his death was a homicide. Released on June 1, 2020, they differed over whether there were contributing factors, and whether the agreed cause, restraint and neck compression, was combined with subdual or asphyxiation.
Andrew Baker, a [pathologist](pathologist) and the chief medical examiner for Hennepin County since 2004, performed an autopsy examination at on May 26. Prosecutors summarized portions of Baker's preliminary findings in charging documents that were released publicly on . Baker's final autopsy findings, issued June 1, found that Floyd's heart stopped while he was being restrained and that his death was a homicide caused by "[arrest](cardiopulmonary)(cardiopulmonary arrest) complicating law enforcement subdual, restraint, and neck compression".
[Fentanyl](Fentanyl) intoxication and recent [methamphetamine](methamphetamine) use may have increased the likelihood of death. Other significant conditions were [heart disease](arteriosclerotic)(arteriosclerotic heart disease) and hypertensive heart disease, including an enlarged heart, one artery 90% blocked, and two others 75% narrowed. The report said that on April 3 Floyd had tested positive for [SARS-CoV-2](SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes COVID-19, but did not list it as a fatal or other significant condition.
Attorneys for Floyd's family announced on that they would commission a second autopsy. It was carried out on by [Baden](Michael)(Michael Baden), a pathologist and former New York City chief medical examiner, and by Allecia Wilson, a pathologist and director of autopsy and forensic services at the University of Michigan Medical School. They announced their results on June 1, a few hours before Baker's final findings were issued. From the evidence available to them, which did not include a toxicology report or unspecified bodily samples, they found that Floyd's death was a homicide caused by [asphyxia](asphyxia) due to neck and back compression. Also, Floyd had no underlying medical problem that contributed to his death. They said that neck compression affected blood flow to the brain, that ability to speak does not imply ability to breathe, and that Floyd apparently died at the scene.
It was revealed in August 2020 that the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) had the Hennepin County Medical Examiner's official autopsy results reviewed by the Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, which agreed with them. The Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner added that the police "subdual and restraint had elements of [positional](positional asphyxiation) and [asphyxiation](mechanical)(mechanical asphyxiation)".
### Federal investigation
On May 26, the FBI announced it was reviewing the incident at the request of the Minneapolis Police Department. On May 28, the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) released a joint statement with the FBI, saying that their investigation into Floyd's murder was "a top priority" and outlining the investigation's next steps: a "comprehensive investigation will compile all available information and thoroughly evaluate evidence and information obtained from witnesses ... If it is determined that there has been a violation of federal law, criminal charges will be sought".
### Failed plea bargain
On May 28, state and federal prosecutors held a press conference at a regional FBI office in [Center](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Center, Minnesota), a Minneapolis suburb, in what was anticipated to be a major development to the case against the officers who were at the scene of Floyd's murder. Hennepin County Attorney [O. Freeman](Michael)(Michael O. Freeman), the local official with jurisdiction to bring forth criminal charges for police misconduct, said his office needed more time to investigate. In explaining the anticipation of the media briefing and its two-hour delayed start, [Attorney](U.S.)(United States Attorney) [MacDonald](Erica)(Erica MacDonald) said, "I thought we would have another development to talk to you about, but we don't." On June 9, it was revealed that state and federal prosecutors had discussed a plea deal with Chauvin that would have included state [murder](Murder (United States law)) charges and federal civil rights charges, but the deal fell apart when [States Attorney General](United)(United States Attorney General) [Barr](William)(William Barr) rejected it. Chauvin believed his prospects of winning at trial could be poor, and was willing to plead guilty to third-degree murder for a ten-year prison sentence. As he would have gone to federal prison, the federal government was involved. Barr worried that protestors might view the agreement as too lenient and prefer a full investigation.
### State criminal charges
[[Chauvin's indictment.pdf|thumb|Chauvin's criminal indictment, May 29, 2020](File:Derek)]
On May 29, Chauvin was charged with [murder](third-degree)(third-degree murder) and second-degree [manslaughter](manslaughter), and was held at [Park Heights state prison](Oak)(Minnesota Correctional Facility – Oak Park Heights). According to the criminal complaint, police are trained that the neck restraint that he applied "with a subject in prone position is inherently dangerous". He was the first officer in Minnesota to be charged in the death of a black civilian. On , the charge against Chauvin was upgraded to [murder](second-degree)(second-degree murder), and the three other officers were charged with [and abetting](aiding)(aiding and abetting) second-degree murder as well as aiding and abetting second-degree manslaughter. Though a charge of second-degree intentional murder could have exposed Chauvin under state sentencing guidelines to the possibility of a presumptive sentence as long as 306 months, second-degree felony murder carries the same presumptive sentence as the previous charge of third-degree murder: 180 months. Another issue with invoking the felony murder doctrine is that Minnesota law allows the trial court judge to make the requisite finding that the predicate felony posed a "special danger to human life", which may conflict with [case law](federal)(Apprendi v. New Jersey) requiring every fact essential to a criminal sentence to be submitted to the jury at trial.
}} The officers were held in jail after the state criminal charges were filed. Ahead of the trials, the four officers were released on bail. Lane was released first on June 10, Kueng on June 19, and Thao July 4. Chauvin was released on October 7 after posting a $1 million bond.
### State civil rights action
The [Department of Human Rights](Minnesota)(Minnesota Department of Human Rights) opened an investigation into the practices of the Minneapolis Police Department on June 2. On June 5, the Minneapolis City Council authorized the mayor to enter a restraining order with the State of Minnesota banning [chokehold](chokehold)s and neck restraints, requiring police officers to intervene against other officers' use of excessive force, and requiring authorization from the police chief or other designate before using crowd-control weapons such as chemical agents and rubber bullets. On June 8, a Hennepin County Court judge ordered the Minneapolis Police Department to cooperate with a civil rights investigation, and extended the restrictions on the department to require that the chief make discipline decisions in a timely and transparent manner, and that civilian analysts and investigators in the city's Office of Police Conduct Review be given authority to audit body-worn camera footage and to file or amend complaints on behalf of the Minneapolis Civil Rights Department.
In April 2022, the results of the state investigation into the Minneapolis Police were announced and it was found that the city and the police department engaged in a "pattern or practice of race discrimination" and that the organizational culture of the department had "flawed training and emphasized a paramilitary approach" with a lack of accountability.
### Federal civil rights charges
In February 2021, the United States Department of Justice empaneled a [jury](grand)(grand jury) in Minneapolis as part of a federal investigation into Chauvin. On May 7, 2021, all four officers were indicted on federal charges of civil rights violations. Chauvin was indicted for violating George Floyd's civil rights, along with a teenager who survived a similar restraint in 2017. The other three officers also face charges for violating Floyd's civil rights. Thao, Lane, and Kueng appeared at a hearing virtually, and each posted $25,000 bond. Chauvin did not appear at this hearing, and remained in jail while awaiting sentencing for his state charges.
## Civil litigation and settlement
The family of George Floyd filed a [death lawsuit](wrongful)(wrongful death lawsuit) in federal court in July 2020 against the City of Minneapolis and the four former police officers involved in the murder. The complaint said Floyd's [Amendment](Fourth)(Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution) rights were violated by "excessive use of unjustified, excessive, illegal, and deadly force." The lawsuit did not specify the amount of monetary damages the family sought.
On March 12, 2021, the City of Minneapolis announced a [settlement](Settlement (litigation)) with Floyd's family for $27 million. It was approved unanimously by the [Council](City)(Minneapolis City Council). Family lawyer [Crump](Ben)(Ben Crump) described it as the "largest pre-trial settlement in a civil rights wrongful death case in U.S. history." The settlement surpassed the previous record for Minneapolis of $20 million, paid in 2019 in the [of Justine Damond](killing)(killing of Justine Damond). The city allocated $500,000 "for the benefit of the community around 38th and Chicago", the street intersection where Floyd was murdered.
## Trials and plea agreements
### Criminal trial of Chauvin
}}
[[File:Derek Chauvin Post Verdict - Minneapolis - April 20, 2021 (51130937680).jpg|thumb|[County Government Center](Hennepin)(Hennepin County Government Center), the venue of the Chauvin trial, April 20, 2021]]
Chauvin's trial commenced in Minneapolis on March 8, 2021, in Hennepin County District Court. Opening statements occurred on March 29, 2021, and closing arguments on April 19, 2021.
On April 20, 2021, the jury found Chauvin guilty of all charges, including second-degree unintentional murder, third-degree murder, and second-degree manslaughter. He was the first white Minnesota police officer to be convicted of murdering a black person. It was only the second time an officer has been convicted of murder in Minnesota, the first being the third-degree murder conviction of Somali-American officer Mohamed Noor in the [of Justine Damond](shooting)(shooting of Justine Damond), a white woman. Following Chauvin's conviction, Judge Cahill revoked his bail and Chauvin was taken back into police custody due to flight risks and the dangers of publicity that this case has brought.
Chauvin was given a sentence of 22.5 years in custody. On May 12, 2021, Judge Cahill allowed for the prosecution to seek a greater prison sentence than the 12.5-year state guideline after finding that Chauvin treated Floyd "with particular cruelty."
Chauvin filed an appeal for a new trial. A three-judge panel for the [Court of Appeals](Minnesota)(Minnesota Court of Appeals) on April 17, 2023, affirmed the criminal conviction.[STATE OF MINNESOTA IN COURT OF APPEALS A21-1228 State of Minnesota, Respondent, vs. Derek Michael Chauvin, Appellant. Filed April 17, 2023 Affirmed Reyes, Judge Hennepin County District Court File No. 27-CR-20-12646](https://mncourts.gov/mncourtsgov/media/High-Profile-Cases/27-CR-20-12646/Opinion-Published.pdf) On May 18, 2023, Chauvin appealed to the [Supreme Court](Minnesota)(Minnesota Supreme Court), which will decide if it will hear the case or let the lower court ruling stand.
### Federal civil rights proceedings
The federal civil rights trial was initially scheduled to include all four officersChauvin, Kueng, Lane, and Thaoand begin in January 2022 with [District Judge](U.S.)(U.S. district judge) Paul Magnuson presiding. The four officers were charged federally with abusing their positions as police officers, depriving Floyd of his [right](constitutional)(constitutional right)s to be "free from the use of unreasonable force", and failing to give medical aid. All four officers pled not guilty to the charges at a September 14, 2021, arraignment hearing. Chauvin faced an additional federal charge for a 2017 arrest incident of a 14-year old in Minneapolis that he initially pled not guilty to. In late 2020, prior to the trial, lawyers for Thao, Lane, and Kueng had sought to sever their case from Chauvin's. In a hearing on November 29, 2021, Magnuson ruled that all four officers would stand trial together.
#### Chauvin pleads guilty
Chauvin requested a hearing in December 2021 to offer a revised plea to the federal charges, a legal move that did not apply to the other three officers. He pled guilty on December 15, 2021, to the federal charges of violating the rights of Floyd and for the charge related to the 2017 incident. Chauvin admitted to willfully violating Floyd's constitutional right to be free from unreasonable seizure, including the right to be free from unreasonable force by a police officer. Chauvin also admitted to willfully violating Floyd's constitutional right not to be deprived of liberty without due process of law, including the right to be free from a police officer's deliberate indifference to Floyd's serious medical needs. On July 7, 2022, Judge Magnuson sentenced Chauvin to 21 years, with roughly 17 incarcerated and 5 under supervised release, that will be served concurrently with his state criminal sentence.
#### Trial of Kueng, Lane, and Thao
[[E. Burger Federal Building (51840843114).jpg|thumb|Security fencing at the Warren E. Burger Federal Building in Saint Paul, Minnesota, January 23, 2022](File:Warren)]
The federal civil rights trial of Kueng, Lane, and Thao was held at a courtroom in the Warren E. Burger Federal Building in Saint Paul, Minnesota. Jury selection began on January 20, 2022, and opening statements were given by both sides on January 24.
The 12-person jury seated for the trial was drawn from across Minnesota. The racial makeup of the jury was described by *The New York Times* as appearing to be all-white, a contrast to the more racially diverse jury during Chauvin's criminal trial.
The prosecution's first witness, Katie Blackwell, testified for three days about the department's training and policies regarding use of force. During her testimony, Blackwell stated that the officers should have moved Floyd onto his side to prevent him having a cardiac arrest. Andrew Baker, who performed Floyd's autopsy, also took the stand to repeat his testimony from Chauvin's trial. The court postponed trial proceedings until February 7, after Lane tested positive for [COVID-19](COVID-19).
When the trial resumed, officer Nicole Mackenzie testified that Kueng and Lane were in a medical training course that she instructed, and that her course included lessons in [aid](first)(first aid). Dr. David Systrom, a [pulmonologist](Pulmonology), testified that Floyd's chances of survival could have "doubled or tripled" if the officers performed [CPR](Cardiopulmonary resuscitation) on him. Use-of-force expert Tim Longo testified that Chauvin was acting outside of department protocol and the other officers should have intervened to save Floyd, although Lane's defense questioned this view. Testimony was also heard from Darnella Frazier, who filmed the initial arrest and Floyd's subsequent murder. The prosecution rested with this testimony.
Tou Thao took the stand to testify in his own defense. Thao claimed that he was not aware that Floyd was suffering medical problems until he was taken into the ambulance, and that the technique of kneeling on a detainee's neck was "not uncommon", although he denied having ever done so. He admitted that neither Chauvin nor any other officers had administered CPR to Floyd, but claimed he took this to indicate Floyd was breathing. Thao also stated that his main role at the scene was "crowd control" rather than to assess Floyd's condition.
Closing arguments were heard on February 22. Prosecutor Manda Sertich stated that Kueng, Lane, and Thao "chose to do nothing" while Floyd was dying. Defense attorneys stated that the former officers were inexperienced, improperly trained, and that they did not willfully violate Floyd's civil rights. After deliberating for 13 hours over two days, the jury on February 24 found the former officers guilty on all counts they faced at trial. All three officers were convicted of willfully violating Floyd's constitutional rights by not providing medical care when he lost a pulse. Kueng and Thao were also found guilty of failing to intervene to stop Chauvin from using unreasonable force. After finding them guilty, the jury concluded that the cause of Floyd's death was Chauvin's restraint, which permitted the judge to consider a lengthier sentence than the recommended three to four years in prison. The three officers remained free on bond while they awaited a sentencing hearing.
In July 2022, Judge Magnuson sentenced Lane to 2.5 years in prison, Kueng to three years in prison, and Thao to 3.5 years in prison. Lane was ordered to report to [Correctional Institution Englewood](Federal)(Federal Correctional Institution, Englewood) in [Colorado](Littleton,)(Littleton, Colorado) on August 30, 2022.
### Criminal proceedings for Kueng, Lane, and Thao
[[File:05 18 21 George Floyd Square (51191852173).jpg|thumb|A protest sign at [Floyd Square](George)(George Floyd Square) on May 18, 2021, referencing the three police officers]]
#### Kueng and Lane plead guilty
The state criminal trial of Kueng, Lane, and Thao was delayed several times to allow the federal civil rights case to proceed first. In a ruling on April 26, 2022, Judge Peter Cahill, who also presided over Chauvin's trial, ordered that the proceedings of the trial would not be livestreamed.
Lane pleaded guilty in Hennepin County District Court on May 18, 2022, to the charge of aiding and abetting manslaughter related to the murder of George Floyd. The charge against Lane for aiding and abetting second-degree murder was dismissed. Lane agreed to a three-year sentence, with two years in prison, to be served concurrently with his civil rights federal conviction. On September 21, 2022, Lane was formally sentenced by the Hennepin County District Court to three years in prison. In the plea agreement, Lane admitted he knew from his training that the manner of Floyd's restraint created a risk of death, that he heard Floyd say he couldn't breathe, and that he was aware of Floyd's deteriorating condition.
At a pre-trial hearing on June 21, 2022, Judge Cahill rejected a motion by attorneys for Kueng and Thao for a change in venue, and the judge set a trial start date in Hennepin County for October 24, 2022. The state offered Kueng and Thao the same plea deal they offered Lane. In exchange for pleading guilty to the state charge of aiding and abetting manslaughter, the state would drop the abetting second-degree murder charge and the pair would receive a three-year prison sentence to be served consecutively with their federal sentence, but they rejected it at a court hearing on August 15, 2022. In preparation for the trial, unlike the previous criminal trial of Chauvin and the civil rights trial of the other three offices at the scene of Floyd's death, local officials had not surrounded the courtroom building with barbed-wire security fencing and National Guard troops.
The morning of October 24, 2022, a few hours before the jury selection proceedings were set to begin, Kueng pleaded guilty to the criminal state charges of aiding and abetting manslaughter with a recommendation of 42 months in prison, to be served concurrently with his federal sentence at the [Correctional Institution, Elkton](Federal)(Federal Correctional Institution, Elkton) in Ohio. Kueng was formally sentenced by Judge Cahill on December 9, 2022, to the agreed upon sentence which is to be served concurrently to his federal sentence.
#### Evidentiary trial of Thao
The same day Kueng pleaded guilty, on October 24, 2022, Thao waved his right to a jury trial in lieu of a trial by stipulated evidence. The legal move required attorneys to submit evidence to the court for review by Peter Cahill, the same judge in Chauvin's criminal trial. Thao was held in a Hennepin County jail while awaiting the outcome. If found guilty, he faced a potential state sentence from three to five years.
Attorneys for the state and Thao submitted closing arguments to the court on January 31, 2023. The state argued that Thao knew the restraint on Floyd was dangerous and that he encouraged the other officers' actions by holding concerned onlookers back. Attorneys for Thao argued that his role was to control the crowd and the he was unaware that Floyd was not breathing and did not have a pulse. Under Minnesota law, Judge Cahill had 90 days to review evidence agreed to by sets of attorneys—transcripts and exhibits from in the criminal trial of Chauvin and the civil rights trial of Kueng, Lane, and Thao—and issue a determination on Thao's guilt.
In a written verdict issued on May 2, 2023, Judge Cahill found Thao guilty of aiding and abetting manslaughter. Cahill stated that "Thao actively encouraged his three colleagues' dangerous prone restraint of Floyd while holding back a crowd of concerned bystanders" and that Thao knew "Floyd had stopped talking and fallen silent, had stopped moving altogether, and had become totally unresponsive". After the verdict was issued, Thao remained under custody with his sentencing scheduled for August 7, 2023. His attorney said he planned to appeal the guilty verdict.
Thao's guilty verdict was the last case to be prosecuted in state or federal court for the four Minneapolis police officers who had varying roles in the murder of George Floyd on May 25, 2020.
## Reaction
### Protests
[[File:Protest against police violence - Justice for George Floyd, May 26, 2020 11.jpg|alt=Protester holding up a sign reading # I can't breathe George Floyd '93|thumb|A protest march in [Minneapolis](Minneapolis), May 26, 2020]]
Floyd's murder resulted in a global protest movement against historic racism and police brutality. In the United States, protests of racial injustice in mid 2020 were the largest since the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, and gave way to widespread civil unrest. Protests began locally on May 26 in the [Paul](Minneapolis–Saint)(Minneapolis–Saint Paul) metropolitan area before quickly, within a few days, [nationwide](spreading)(List of George Floyd protests in the United States) and in over 60 countries [internationally](List of George Floyd protests outside the United States) supporting Black Lives Matter. Over 2,000 cities in the United States had seen demonstrations as of June 13. Many of the demonstrations involved [die-in](die-in)s, with protestors lying down for [minutes and 46 seconds](8)(8 minutes 46 seconds), the length of time initial reports said Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck. While the majority of protests were peaceful, demonstrations in some cities descended into riots and [looting](looting), with more being marked by street skirmishes and significant [brutality](police)(police brutality), notably against peaceful protesters and reporters. At least 200 cities in the U.S. had imposed [curfew](curfew)s by June 3, while more than 30 states and Washington, D.C, activated over 62,000 [Guard](National)(United States National Guard) personnel due to the mass unrest.
The protests were initially peaceful, but later there was vandalism of stores. At the 3rd Precinct police station in Minneapolis, windows were broken, a fence was pulled down, and the front entrance was broken into, causing police officers to fire [less-than-lethal](less than lethal) rounds at the crowd from the building's roof. After staff evacuated the building, it was set on fire. A six-story, 200-unit apartment building under construction was also burned. Police in [gear](riot)(riot gear) used [gas](tear)(tear gas), [grenade](flash)(flash grenade)s, [bullets](rubber)(rubber bullets) and [bombs](smoke)(smoke bombs), and some protesters threw rocks at the police. The media highlighted the apparent differences in aggression between the police response to these protests versus the more restrained response to the [United States anti-lockdown protests](2020)(2020 United States anti-lockdown protests) featuring gun-wielding white protesters. This sentiment also spread on social media by groups such as Black Lives Matter.
While peaceful protests continued, others again became violent after sundown, with the pattern repeating for several days. More than 1,500 businesses were vandalized or destroyed in the MinneapolisSaint Paul area, including 67 destroyed by fire.
Following the rioting, a nighttime curfew in Minneapolis–Saint Paul and [County](Dakota)(Dakota County, Minnesota) was established on May 29. 500 [National Guard](Minnesota)(Minnesota National Guard) soldiers were later dispatched to the area to enforce the curfew, but to little effect, with about 1,000 protesters being able to march peacefully on [35](Interstate)(Interstate 35) well into curfew.
[[File:Jackyatesgeorgefloyd-13.jpg|thumb|A memorial vigil at [High School](Yates)(Yates High School), from which Floyd graduated, in [Houston](Houston), Texas |alt=Protester holding up a sign reading # I can't breathe George Floyd '93]]
Mass protests demanding justice for George Floyd, in some cases also to demonstrate against issues with police brutality in their own countries, took place in over 2,000 cities in the United States and around the world, By May 30, 12 U.S. states called up the National Guard, and at least 12 major cities imposed curfews that weekend. By June 14, protests had extended into a third week after Floyd's murder in many cities, accompanied by calls to reform and defund police departments throughout the United States.
### Memorials
[[Floyd Tributes Outside Cup Foods Minneapolis.jpg|thumb|A makeshift memorial outside the store where Floyd was murdered](File:George)] [[File:LastmileGeorgeFloydprocession6920-32.jpg|thumb|Along Floyd's funeral procession route in [Texas](Pearland,)(Pearland, Texas), on June 9|alt=Protesters along funeral procession wearing COVID mass and holding signs]]
The area near the location where Floyd was murdered became a makeshift memorial throughout May 26, with many placards paying tribute to him and referencing the [Lives Matter](Black)(Black Lives Matter) movement. As the day progressed, more people came to demonstrate against Floyd's murder. Hundreds of people, then marched to the 3rd Precinct of the Minneapolis Police. Participants used posters and slogans with phrases such as "Justice for George", "[can't breathe](I)(I can't breathe)", and "Black Lives Matter". On September 18, the Minneapolis City Council approved designating the section of Chicago Avenue between 37th and 39th Streets as [Perry Floyd Jr. Place](George)(George Floyd memorial site), with a marker at the intersection with 38th Street where the incident took place. The intersection has been closed and occupied by demonstrators who said they won't leave until their demands regarding anti-racism and property tax are met.
A public memorial, with [Sharpton](Al)(Al Sharpton) delivering the eulogy, was held June 4 at [Central University](North)(North Central University) in Minneapolis. A public viewing and a family memorial was held in [North Carolina](Raeford,)(Raeford, North Carolina) on June 6, near Floyd's hometown. Floyd's family held a public memorial in Houston on June 8, and a private service on June 9. The family said professional boxer [Mayweather](Floyd)(Floyd Mayweather) paid for the services. Floyd's body was on public view on June 8 in his hometown of Houston. Former Vice President and the 2020 presumptive and eventual Democratic nominee, [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden), met with the Floyd family privately and gave a video message at the funeral. Floyd is buried next to his mother in [Texas](Pearland,)(Pearland, Texas).
The length of time that Chauvin was originally reported to have had his knee on Floyd's neck, [8:46](Eight minutes 46 seconds), was widely commemorated as a "moment of silence" to honor Floyd. It was also used in chants, protest signs, and messages, as were the words "I can't breathe".
### Other reactions
A variety of people and organizations reacted to Floyd's murder. Numerous statues and monuments honoring persons or events associated with slavery and racism were [removed, or destroyed during the protests](vandalized,)(List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests) in the U.S. and elsewhere.
## Aftermath
[Frazier](Darnella)(Darnella Frazier), who as a 17-year old filmed Floyd's restraint on her cell phone, received the 2020 PEN/Benenson Courage Award from [America](PEN)(PEN America). The award was presented to her at an awards ceremony in December 2020 by film director [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee). PEN America CEO [Nossel](Suzanne)(Suzanne Nossel) said that Frazier's act sparked a "bold movement demanding an end to systemic anti-black racism and violence at the hands of police." In June 2021, Frazier also received a special citation from the [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) committee in 2021 for her video.[www.pulitzer.org](https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/darnella-frazier) (''For courageously recording the murder of George Floyd, a video that spurred protests against police brutality around the world, highlighting the crucial role of citizens in journalists' quest for truth and justice.*) The staff of the *[Tribune](Star)(Star Tribune)'' received the prize for Breaking News Reporting for their coverage of protests.
Chokeholds and other neck restraints were banned or restricted by at least 17 state legislatures in the year after Floyd's murder.
## See also
* [of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States](List)(List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States)
* [American athlete strikes](2020)(2020 American athlete strikes)
* [Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest](2020–2022)(2020–2022 Minneapolis–Saint Paul racial unrest)
* [of Tony Timpa](Killing)(Killing of Tony Timpa) who died in a similar way while in police custody (Dallas, 2016)
* [of killings by law enforcement officers in Minnesota](List)(List of killings by law enforcement officers in Minnesota)
* [of killings by law enforcement officers in the United States](Lists)(Lists of killings by law enforcement officers in the United States)
* [of law enforcement officers convicted for an on-duty killing in the United States](List)(List of law enforcement officers convicted for an on-duty killing in the United States)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*
*
## External links
* [Complaint – *State of Minnesota v. Derek Michael Chauvin*](https://www.hennepinattorney.org/-/media/Attorney/Derek-Chauvin-Criminal-Complaint.pdf) , Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District, File No. 27-CR-20-12646. May 29, 2020.
* [Amended Complaint – *State of Minnesota v. Derek Michael Chauvin*](http://mncourts.gov/mncourtsgov/media/High-Profile-Cases/27-CR-20-12646/AmendedComplaint06032020.pdf), Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District, File No. 27-CR-20-12646. June 3, 2020.
* [Complaint – *State of Minnesota v. J Alexander Kueng*](https://www.ag.state.mn.us/Office/Communications/2020/docs/Complaint_Kueng.pdf), Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District. June 3, 2020.
* [Complaint – *State of Minnesota v. Thomas Kiernan Lane*](https://www.ag.state.mn.us/Office/Communications/2020/docs/Complaint_Lane.pdf), Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District, File No. 27-CR-20-12951. June 3, 2020.
* [Complaint – *State of Minnesota v. Tou Thao*](https://www.ag.state.mn.us/Office/Communications/2020/docs/Complaint_Thoa.pdf), Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District, File No. 27-CR-20-12949. June 3, 2020.
* [*Press Release Report: Floyd George Perry*](https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/MNHENNE/2020/06/01/file_attachments/1464238/2020-3700%20Floyd,%20George%20Perry%20Update%206.1.2020.pdf), Case No: 2020–3700. Hennepin County Medical Examiner. June 1, 2020.
* [Autopsy Report, George Floyd, Deceased](https://web.archive.org/web/20200604001830/https://www.hennepin.us/-/media/hennepinus/residents/public-safety/documents/Autopsy_2020-3700_Floyd.pdf/), ME No.: 20–3700. Hennepin County Medical Examiner. June 1, 2020. (20 pages.)
* [Stipulation and Order, *State of Minnesota v. City of Minneapolis Police Department*](https://mn.gov/mdhr/assets/Order%20signed%20by%20Judge%206.8.20_tcm1061-435169.pdf), Minnesota District Court, Fourth Judicial District, File No. 27-CV-20-8182. June 8, 2020. Stipulation between City of Minneapolis and Minnesota Department of Human Rights and preliminary injunction.
* [Transcripts of audio](https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/7070-exhibit-final07072020/4b81216735f2203a08cb/optimized/full.pdf#page=1) of Floyd's last moments, as recorded on Minneapolis police body camera footage and publicly filed on the state court record on July 8, 2020
[ ](Category:Murder of George Floyd)
[controversies in the United States](Category:2020)(Category:2020 controversies in the United States)
[controversies](Category:2020)(Category:2020 controversies)
[in Minnesota](Category:2020)(Category:2020 in Minnesota)
[murders in the United States](Category:2020)(Category:2020 murders in the United States)
[scandals](Category:2020)(Category:2020 scandals)
[United States racial unrest](Category:2020–2021)(Category:2020–2021 United States racial unrest)
[in Minneapolis](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s in Minneapolis)
[brutality in the 2020s](Category:Police)(Category:Police brutality in the 2020s)
[2020 crimes in the United States](Category:May)(Category:May 2020 crimes in the United States)
[2020 events in the United States](Category:May)(Category:May 2020 events in the United States)
[history in Minneapolis–Saint Paul](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American history in Minneapolis–Saint Paul)
[controversies](Category:African-American-related)(Category:African-American-related controversies)
[deaths by law enforcement in the United States](Category:Asphyxia-related)(Category:Asphyxia-related deaths by law enforcement in the United States)
[Lives Matter](Category:Black)(Category:Black Lives Matter)
[by person in Minnesota](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths by person in Minnesota)
[in police custody in the United States](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths in police custody in the United States)
[deaths in the United States](Category:Filmed)(Category:Filmed deaths in the United States)
[killings by law enforcement](Category:Filmed)(Category:Filmed killings by law enforcement)
[of racism in Minnesota](Category:History)(Category:History of racism in Minnesota)
[ ](Category:History of Minneapolis)
[enforcement controversies in the United States](Category:Law)(Category:Law enforcement controversies in the United States)
[Police Department](Category:Minneapolis)(Category:Minneapolis Police Department)
[by law enforcement officers in the United States](Category:Murders)(Category:Murders by law enforcement officers in the United States)
[murdered in Minnesota](Category:People)(Category:People murdered in Minnesota)
[brutality in the United States](Category:Police)(Category:Police brutality in the United States)
[of violence against men](Category:Incidents)(Category:Incidents of violence against men)
|
Charles Leclerc
|
charles_leclerc
|
# Charles Leclerc
*Revision ID: 1159920252 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T10:50:54Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Carlo](Monte)(Monte Carlo), Monaco
| parents = Hervé Leclerc (father)Pascale Leclerc (mother)
| relatives = [Leclerc](Arthur)(Arthur Leclerc) (brother)Lorenzo Leclerc (brother)[Bianchi](Jules)(Jules Bianchi) (godfather)
| signature = Charles Leclerc F1-driver signature.png
| module =
| nationality = Monégasque
| Car number = 16
| Races = ( starts)
| Championships = 0
| Wins =
| Podiums =
| Points =
| Poles =
| Fastest laps =
| First race = [Australian Grand Prix](2018)(2018 Australian Grand Prix)
| First win = [Belgian Grand Prix](2019)(2019 Belgian Grand Prix)
| Last win = [Austrian Grand Prix](2022)(2022 Austrian Grand Prix)
| Last race =
| Last season = 2022
| Last position = 2nd (308 pts)
| website =
}}
}}
**Charles Marc Hervé Perceval Leclerc** (; born 16 October 1997) is a [racing driver](Monégasque)(Formula One drivers from Monaco), currently racing in [One](Formula)(Formula One) for [Ferrari](Scuderia)(Scuderia Ferrari). He won the [Series](GP3)(GP3 Series) championship in [2016](2016 GP3 Series) and the [Formula 2 Championship](FIA)(FIA Formula 2 Championship) in .
Leclerc made his Formula One debut in for [Sauber](Sauber Motorsport), a team affiliated with Ferrari, for which he was part of the [Driver Academy](Ferrari)(Ferrari Driver Academy). With Sauber having finished last the year before, Leclerc led the charge to improve its finishing position in the Constructors' Championship to eighth, and was the higher ranked of the two Sauber drivers. He joined Ferrari the next season and became the second-youngest driver to qualify on [position in Formula One](pole)(List of Formula One polesitters) at the [Bahrain Grand Prix](2019)(2019 Bahrain Grand Prix). The [season](2019)(2019 Formula One World Championship) also saw Leclerc take his first career win in [Belgium](2019 Belgian Grand Prix). He won the [Pole Trophy](FIA)(Pole position#Pole position trophy) for most pole positions in the 2019 season, becoming the youngest driver to win it, before winning it again in [2022](2022 Formula One World Championship). Leclerc finished runner-up to [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) in the 2022 World Drivers' Championship.
As of the , Leclerc has achieved race wins and pole positions in Formula One. He scored the first [slam](grand)(Glossary of motorsport terms#G) of his career at the [Australian Grand Prix](2022)(2022 Australian Grand Prix). Leclerc is set to remain at Ferrari until at least the end of the 2024 season.
## Personal life
Born to father Hervé Leclerc and mother Pascale, Leclerc grew up the middle child between older brother, Lorenzo and younger brother, [Arthur](Arthur Leclerc). Throughout his childhood and early career, Leclerc maintained a close relationship with the late [Bianchi](Jules)(Jules Bianchi), to whom he was a godson. His father, Hervé, also raced cars, driving in Formula 3 in the 1980s and 1990s. Hervé died after a long illness, aged 54, just four days before Leclerc would go on to win the feature race at the [Baku Formula 2 round](2017)(2017 Baku Formula 2 round).
Leclerc is trilingual, being fluent in French, Italian, and English. Although the French pronunciation of his name uses silent final consonants, he has stated that when speaking English he often uses the Anglicized pronunciation. He has said "he likes both", and that others using either pronunciation is acceptable to him. Leclerc has described his religious stance as "[believing] in God, but [someone](not) who would pray or go to church."
## Early career
### 2005–2013: Karting
Leclerc began his [karting](karting) career in 2005, winning the French [PACA](Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur) Championship in 2005, 2006, and 2008. In 2009 he became French Cadet champion before moving up to the [KF3](KF3) class in 2010, where he won the [Monaco Kart Cup](Junior)(Junior Monaco Kart Cup). He continued in the KF3 class for 2011, winning the [CIK](Commission Internationale de Karting)-[FIA](Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile) KF3 World Cup, the CIK-FIA Karting Academy Trophy and the ERDF Junior Kart Masters. During the year, Leclerc also became a member of [Todt](Nicolas)(Nicolas Todt)'s All Road Management company.
Leclerc graduated to the [KF2](KF2) category in 2012 with the [factory-backed](factory-backed) [Grand Prix](ART)(ART Grand Prix) team, winning the WSK Euro Series title, as well as finishing runner-up in the CIK-FIA European KF2 Championship and the CIK-FIA Under 18 World Karting Championship. In his final year of karting in 2013, Leclerc won the South Garda Winter Cup and claimed sixth position in the CIK-FIA European [KZ](KZ1 (karting)) Championship and finished second in the CIK-FIA World KZ Championship, behind current [Bull](Red)(Red Bull Racing) [One](Formula)(Formula One) driver [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen).
### 2014–2016: Formula Renault, Formula Three, and GP3
In 2014, Leclerc graduated to [single-seaters](open wheel car), racing in the [Renault 2.0 Alps](Formula)(2014 Formula Renault 2.0 Alps Series) championship for [British](Great Britain) team [Motorsport](Fortec)(Fortec Motorsport)s. During the season, he took seven podium positions, including a double victory at [Monza](Autodromo Nazionale Monza), to finish runner-up in the championship behind [GP](Koiranen)(Koiranen GP)'s [de Vries](Nyck)(Nyck de Vries). Leclerc also won the Junior Championship title at the final race of the season in [Jerez](Circuito de Jerez), finishing ahead of teenager [Isaakyan](Matevos)(Matevos Isaakyan).
Leclerc also took part in a partial [Formula Renault 2.0](Eurocup)(2014 Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0) season with Fortec as a guest driver. In the six races he contested he finished on the podium three times, taking a second place at the [Nürburgring](Nürburgring) followed by a pair of second-place finishes at the [Hungaroring](Hungaroring).
[[File:Charles Leclerc, Formel 3 2015.JPG|thumb|Leclerc racing in the [European Formula 3 Championship](2015)(2015 European Formula 3 Championship)]]
Leclerc graduated to [Three](Formula)(Formula Three) in 2015, racing in the [Formula 3 European Championship](FIA)(2015 FIA Formula 3 European Championship) with [Dutch](Netherlands) team [Amersfoort Racing](Van)(Van Amersfoort Racing). At the opening round of the season in [Silverstone](Silverstone Circuit), Leclerc inherited [position](pole)(pole position) for the second and third races of the weekend after original pole-sitter [Rosenqvist](Felix)(Felix Rosenqvist) was excluded for a technical infringement. He went on to take his first race victory in the third race of the weekend, ahead of [Giovinazzi](Antonio)(Antonio Giovinazzi) and [Dennis](Jake)(Jake Dennis). He took his second victory at the following round in [Hockenheim](Hockenheimring), winning the third race as well as taking two additional podiums and three rookie victories over the course of the event. Leclerc scored his third win in the first race at [Spa-Francorchamps](Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps) which saw him take the lead in the championship. However, Leclerc finished fourth in the standings, mostly due to damage sustained to his car's chassis following a collision with [Stroll](Lance)(Lance Stroll) at [Zandvoort](Circuit Park Zandvoort).
In November 2015, Leclerc finished second at the [Grand Prix](Macau)(2015 Macau Grand Prix).
In December 2015, Leclerc partook in post-season testing with [Grand Prix](ART)(ART Grand Prix) and [International](Arden)(Arden International). In February 2016, de Vries confirmed that Leclerc would race in the [GP3 season](2016)(2016 GP3 Series). ART signed Leclerc the following week. With the team, he claimed three victories and took the title in his first year of the series, despite crashing out in the feature race of the season's final race in Abu Dhabi.
### 2017: FIA Formula 2 Championship
[[File:Charles Leclerc Jerez 2017.jpg|alt=Charles Leclerc crossing the start/finish line at Jerez in 2017|thumb|Leclerc leading the [Jerez Formula 2 round](2017)(2017 Jerez Formula 2 round), on his way to winning the Formula 2 championship]]
The week following his victory in the GP3 title race, Charles Leclerc was confirmed to be graduating to the Formula 2 series for the [season](2017)(2017 FIA Formula 2 Championship) with [Racing](Prema)(Prema Powerteam), alongside fellow GP3 racer and Ferrari junior [Fuoco](Antonio)(Antonio Fuoco).
He made his debut at [Bahrain](2017 Bahrain FIA Formula 2 round), where he took pole position for the feature race, but only finished third. In the sprint race, his Prema team chose to take a mid-race pit stop, which is very uncommon in the shorter sprint races. He pushed harder on his medium [Pirelli](Pirelli) tyres, creating a nine-second lead before pitting. This would drop him down to 14th place, but Leclerc overtook 13 cars and took victory by overtaking [Ghiotto](Luca)(Luca Ghiotto) on the final lap. After taking pole position for the second time in a row, he then fought off Ghiotto to win again in the [Catalunya](2017 Catalunya FIA Formula 2 round) feature race, despite a radio issue.
Leclerc did not score any points at his home round at [Monaco](Circuit de Monaco). He was on pole but retired from the lead of the race with a suspension problem. The retirement also meant he would start the sprint race from the back of the grid, and in this race, he collided with [Nato](Norman)(Norman Nato) whilst trying to make his way up the grid, which ultimately resulted in both drivers retiring from the race. He retained the championship lead despite the bad weekend, which he described as 'hugely disappointing'.
Leclerc took a fourth consecutive pole in [Azerbaijan](Baku City Circuit), which he dedicated to his late father, Hervé. He converted this into another win, although the race was red-flagged five laps before the scheduled end. In the sprint race, he started from eighth, and dropped to tenth early on, but fought back to sixth. The retirement of the race leader, his title rival [Rowland](Oliver)(Oliver Rowland), and De Vries, who was also ahead of Leclerc, meant Leclerc improved to fourth. He then passed [Latifi](Nicholas)(Nicholas Latifi) and [King](Jordan)(Jordan King), and began to close on the new leader, Nato. He passed Nato, but had been given a ten-second penalty for failing to slow for yellow flags, and therefore finished second.
In [Austria](Red Bull Ring) he took his fifth pole position, and then won the feature race from pole despite coming under pressure from teammate Fuoco, and towards the end, the [DAMS](DAMS) of Latifi. He would retire from the sprint race after colliding with Fuoco and spinning out. By taking pole for the sixth time for the next race, at Silverstone, he matched the record for most pole positions in a row, which was set by [Vandoorne](Stoffel)(Stoffel Vandoorne) in [2014](2014 GP2 Series) and [2015](2015 GP2 Series), when the series were called [Series](GP2)(GP2 Series). He won the feature race, even after his car set alight during the race, and even after one of his wing mirrors detached in the closing stages.
He would not start from pole in Hungary, despite taking his seventh successive pole position, as he was disqualified for a technical infringement. Despite starting from the back, he was in 12th position by turn 1. Using an alternative tyre strategy that saw him start on the medium tyres, Leclerc was stuck behind [Albon](Alexander)(Alexander Albon), who was on the same strategy, although he eventually got past and would finish fourth. He would also finish fourth in the sprint race the next day, giving him a 50-point championship lead over Rowland.
For the Belgian rounds, Leclerc again took pole and won the race by a convincing margin of over 20 seconds, however, his win was disqualified as one of his [block](skid)(skid block)s was excessively worn. Having to start in 19th place, Leclerc got back up to fifth place and finished 3.8 seconds behind race winner [Sette Câmara](Sérgio)(Sérgio Sette Câmara).
[[File:F2-Race1のシャルル１ (36974715682).jpg|thumb|left|Leclerc at the [Monza Formula 2 round](2017)(2017 Monza Formula 2 round)]]
For the Italian feature race, Leclerc was battling for the lead; on the final lap, however, he was involved in an accident with De Vries. After starting towards the back of the grid for the second consecutive sprint race, Leclerc managed to fight his way back to ninth position, albeit out of the points.
With a 57-point margin over Rowland heading into the penultimate rounds at Jerez, Leclerc gained his eighth pole position of the season, with both of his timed laps being good enough for pole position. In the feature race, Leclerc dominated most of the early stint on soft tyres and was able to overtake most of the runners on the alternate strategy. With seven laps to go, however, [Matsushita](Nobuharu)(Nobuharu Matsushita) collided with [Ferrucci](Santino)(Santino Ferrucci), which brought out the safety car. At the point that the race resumed, Leclerc was misinformed over team radio that it was the "last lap" even though there were four laps to go, so after pushing hard to build a gap Leclerc's tyres were "overheated badly" with several laps still to run, yet despite his tyres being "completely gone" by the end Leclerc managed to hold off a charging Rowland by 0.23 seconds, and claim the FIA Formula 2 championship in his rookie season in the main F1 feeder series.
In claiming the championship, Leclerc became the youngest ever champion of the main support series for Formula 1 at 19 years, 356 days old, and the first driver since [Hülkenberg](Nico)(Nico Hülkenberg) in 2009 to win the championship in their rookie season (a feat which only [Rosberg](Nico)(Nico Rosberg) and [Hamilton](Lewis)(Lewis Hamilton) have previously accomplished) and is the only driver to claim a championship with the Dallara GP2/11 chassis in their rookie season.
For the sprint race, Leclerc started in eighth place, however, due to his car's aggressive setup, he and his teammate, Antonio Fuoco, had to pit in the sprint race. Due to the aggressive pace of Leclerc however, he rose through the field, yet because of the excessive wear on his tyres, he conceded three positions on the final lap and finished in seventh position.
For the final rounds at Abu Dhabi, Leclerc qualified in sixth place for the Feature race, his lowest starting position all season excluding penalties. Despite this, however, he managed to finish the highest of the alternate strategy runners in Abu Dhabi (Soft then Super Soft) in fourth place (he had made it up till third until the final corner of the final lap where he was pipped by Antonio Fuoco). This position however was subsequently changed to second after the race winner, Oliver Rowland, and Fuoco were disqualified for excessive floor wear and under-inflated front tyres respectively.
For Leclerc's final race, he started in seventh position. He was initially able to make up two places but was running slower than the race leaders [Albon](Alexander)(Alexander Albon) and [Latifi](Nicholas)(Nicholas Latifi). As the race progressed, however, Leclerc started gaining time compared to his rivals and managed to take Latifi with a few laps to go. For the final three laps, DRS was disabled and yellow flags in the final sector meant that Leclerc was stuck behind Albon, however on the final lap, both drivers tangled, triggered by Leclerc nudging Albon, and both had a drag race which they constantly were pushing each other until Leclerc finally took the lead and won by 1.293 seconds, his final victory in his last F2 race.
## Formula One career
### Test driver
[[File:Charles Leclerc - Haas (33107122725).jpg|left|thumb|Leclerc testing for [Haas](Haas F1 Team) in 2016]]
[[File:Charles Leclerc 2017 Malaysia FP1.jpg|thumb|right|Leclerc testing for [Sauber](Sauber Motorsport) at the [Malaysian Grand Prix](2017)(2017 Malaysian Grand Prix)]]
In 2016, Leclerc joined the [Driver Academy](Ferrari)(Ferrari Driver Academy) and he acted as development driver for [F1 Team](Haas)(Haas F1 Team) and [Ferrari](Scuderia)(Scuderia Ferrari). As part of his role as development driver, Leclerc participated in the first practice session of the [British](2016 British Grand Prix) and [Grands Prix](German)(2016 German Grand Prix) driving for [Haas](Haas F1 Team). It was believed that if Leclerc won the [Series](GP3)(GP3 Series) championship, he would follow [Kvyat](Daniil)(Daniil Kvyat) and [Bottas](Valtteri)(Valtteri Bottas) direct from GP3 into F1 with Haas. However this was debunked by Haas team principal [Steiner](Guenther)(Guenther Steiner) who said that Leclerc would progress to the [FIA Formula 2 Championship](2017)(2017 FIA Formula 2 Championship).
In 2017, he took part in the mid-season [Hungaroring](Hungaroring) test following the [Grand Prix](Hungarian)(2017 Hungarian Grand Prix), driving the [SF70H](Ferrari)(Ferrari SF70H). He was the fastest on the first day of the test, running 98 laps in the process and he did not take part in the second day's test. [Räikkönen](Kimi)(Kimi Räikkönen) also praised Leclerc saying "It's not easy to do well in a different car from what you normally drive. But Leclerc has shown great progress, and for sure he will do great things in the future".
### Sauber (2018)
[[File:2018 Chinese Grand Prix FP3 Charles Leclerc (39897914770) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Leclerc racing for Sauber at the [Chinese Grand Prix](2018)(2018 Chinese Grand Prix)]]
For the [Formula One World Championship](2018)(2018 Formula One World Championship), Leclerc signed for the [F1 Team](Sauber)(Sauber F1 Team) as a race driver, replacing [Wehrlein](Pascal)(Pascal Wehrlein) and alongside [Ericsson](Marcus)(Marcus Ericsson). This marked the first appearance of a [Formula One driver](Monégasque)(Monégasque Formula One driver) since [Beretta](Olivier)(Olivier Beretta) in ..}} At the , a sixth-place finish saw him become the second Monégasque driver to score points in Formula One after [Chiron](Louis)(Louis Chiron), who finished third at the [Monaco Grand Prix](1950)(1950 Monaco Grand Prix). At his [home race](first)(2018 Monaco Grand Prix) in Formula One, Leclerc suffered a brake failure in the closing laps, colliding into the back of [Hartley](Brendon)(Brendon Hartley) and forcing both cars into retirement. Three consecutive points finishes followed before a run of five races without points. This run included three retirements; a loose wheel in [Britain](2018 British Grand Prix), suspension damage after colliding with [Pérez](Sergio)(Sergio Pérez) in [Hungary](2018 Hungarian Grand Prix), and a multi-car accident in [Belgium](2018 Belgian Grand Prix) caused by [Hülkenberg](Nico)(Nico Hülkenberg) which resulted in [Alonso](Fernando)(Fernando Alonso) being launched over the top of Leclerc's car.
More points finishes came with ninth in [Singapore](2018 Singapore Grand Prix) and seventh in [Russia](2018 Russian Grand Prix), before retirements from a mechanical failure in [Japan](2018 Japanese Grand Prix) and damage from a collision with [Grosjean](Romain)(Romain Grosjean) in the [States](United)(2018 United States Grand Prix). He ended the season with three consecutive seventh-place finishes in the final three races. Leclerc out-qualified teammate Ericsson seventeen times from twenty-one races and finished 13th in the championship with 39 points.
### Ferrari (2019–present)
#### 2019 season
[[File:2019 Chinese Grand Prix Leclerc (47583134682).jpg|thumb|Leclerc at the [Chinese Grand Prix](2019)(2019 Chinese Grand Prix)]]
[Ferrari](Scuderia)(Scuderia Ferrari) signed Leclerc for the season, replacing World Champion [Räikkönen](Kimi)(Kimi Räikkönen), who took his place at Sauber (now [Romeo](Alfa)(Alfa Romeo in Formula One)). While initially only announced for 2019, a few days later, then-Ferrari team principal [Arrivabene](Maurizio)(Maurizio Arrivabene) indicated that Leclerc's contract was going to be four seasons long, running "at least until 2022." Leclerc made his first test day as an official Ferrari race driver in November 2018 during the end of season test.
In his first Grand Prix driving for Ferrari, he started and finished in the fifth position at the [Grand Prix](Australian)(2019 Australian Grand Prix). In his second qualifying for Ferrari, at the [Grand Prix](Bahrain)(2019 Bahrain Grand Prix), he qualified on pole position for the first time in his Formula One career, having the fastest times in two of the three practice sessions and in all three qualifying sessions, setting a new track record, and becoming the youngest Ferrari pole-sitter. Leclerc led for the majority of the race, but lost the lead and was overtaken by [Hamilton](Lewis)(Lewis Hamilton) and [Bottas](Valtteri)(Valtteri Bottas) due to his engine dropping a cylinder with a failed fuel injector. A late-race [car](safety)(safety car) prevented the charging [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) from taking third place, leading to the first podium of Leclerc's Formula One career.
In [China](2019 Chinese Grand Prix), Leclerc qualified fourth behind his teammate, [Vettel](Sebastian)(Sebastian Vettel). After overtaking Vettel during the start, he was asked to yield and let Vettel pass, eventually finishing the race in fifth. In [Azerbaijan](2019 Azerbaijan Grand Prix), he was the favourite for pole position until a crash in the second qualifying session ended his contention. He started eighth after penalties for the two Alfa Romeos and finished the race fifth with an extra point for the fastest lap of the race. At the following race in [Monaco](2019 Monaco Grand Prix), he was eliminated in Q1 and started 15th due to Ferrari's erroneous strategy that kept him in the garage to save tyres, underestimating track evolution at the end of the qualifying session. He suffered a puncture and severe floor damage after a failed attempt to pass [Hülkenberg](Nico)(Nico Hülkenberg), leading to his second retirement at his home race. Leclerc qualified and finished third in Canada, his second podium finish, behind the controversial 1–2 finish of Hamilton and teammate Sebastian Vettel. He would finish third again in [France](2019 French Grand Prix). At the [Grand Prix](Austrian)(2019 Austrian Grand Prix), he qualified on pole position, the second pole of his Formula One career. He subsequently finished second after colliding with Red Bull's [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen), having led for the major part of the race. The incident was investigated by the stewards after the race, who deemed it a racing incident and decided against taking action.
[[File:FIA F1 Austria 2019 Nr. 16 Leclerc 3.jpg|thumb|right|Leclerc at the [Austrian Grand Prix](2019)(2019 Austrian Grand Prix)]]
At the [Grand Prix](British)(2019 British Grand Prix), Leclerc qualified in third ahead of [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen). He eventually finished the race in third place and was also voted 'Driver of the day' for defending his position against numerous attacks by Verstappen during the early stages of the race. This was his fourth consecutive podium finish of the season. Despite having finished in the top two in all the three practice sessions, Leclerc qualified in tenth place at the [Grand Prix](German)(2019 German Grand Prix) after an issue with the fuel system prevented him from setting a lap time in the final qualifying session. In what turned out to be a sensational rain-hit race, he made his way up to fourth in the early laps. A questionable tactic by his team's strategists of installing soft tyres despite the track being too wet culminated in him losing control and crashing into the barriers on lap 29, leading to his second retirement of the season. At the [Grand Prix](Hungarian)(2019 Hungarian Grand Prix), Leclerc suffered a rear-end crash in qualifying but still completed the session. He ultimately finished the race in fourth place.
[[File:Charles Leclerc, Ferrari SF90 holds off Lewis Hamilton, Mercedes F1 W10, 2019 Italian Grand Prix, Monza, 8th September.jpg|left|thumb|Leclerc (right) defending his position from [Hamilton](Lewis Hamilton) (left) at the [Italian Grand Prix](2019)(2019 Italian Grand Prix)]]
At the first race after the summer break, the [Grand Prix](Belgian)(2019 Belgian Grand Prix), Leclerc took his third pole position of the season alongside teammate Sebastian Vettel in second—the second Ferrari front-row lockout of the season. During the race, Leclerc fended off the charging Mercedes of [Hamilton](Lewis)(Lewis Hamilton) to record his maiden Grand Prix win, making him the youngest ever Ferrari race winner. After the race, he dedicated his maiden victory to his former competitor [Hubert](Anthoine)(Anthoine Hubert), who was killed in an accident during [previous day's Formula 2 feature race](the)(2019 Spa-Francorchamps FIA Formula 2 round) at the same circuit. At the [Grand Prix](Italian)(2019 Italian Grand Prix), Leclerc won the race from pole position after defending his position from both Mercedes drivers and became the first Ferrari driver to win at [Monza](Autodromo Nazionale di Monza) since [Alonso](Fernando)(Fernando Alonso) won there for the team in [2010](2010 Italian Grand Prix). He scored his third consecutive pole in [Singapore](2019 Singapore Grand Prix). Initially leading the race, he finished in second place after he was [undercut](Glossary of motorsport terms#U) by teammate Vettel. In [Russia](2019 Russian Grand Prix), he took his fourth consecutive pole position and his sixth of the season. Vettel passed Leclerc into the first corner and led for the first half of the race before the team orchestrated an undercut in Leclerc's favour to let him retake the lead. Vettel retired from the race shortly after with a hybrid system failure, bringing out the [safety car](virtual)(virtual safety car). This greatly benefited the Mercedes drivers, who made their pit stops and eventually finished the race ahead of Leclerc in third.
Leclerc qualified in second in [Japan](2019 Japanese Grand Prix), but took damage in a first-lap collision with Max Verstappen. He would go on to finish the race in sixth place, his worst finish of the season. Leclerc took his seventh pole position of the year in [Mexico](2019 Mexican Grand Prix) after Verstappen—who had qualified in first place—was handed a grid penalty for a [flag](yellow)(Caution flag) infringement. He went on to finish the race in fourth place. After another fourth-place finish in the [States](United)(2019 United States Grand Prix), a controversial collision with teammate Vettel caused Leclerc's third retirement of the season in [Brazil](2019 Brazilian Grand Prix), ending both drivers' races. Leclerc ended the season with a third-place finish in [Dhabi](Abu)(2019 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix).
Leclerc ended the 2019 season in fourth place in the championship with 264 points, ahead of teammate Vettel. During his first season at Ferrari, he recorded ten podium finishes, two wins, four fastest laps, and the most pole positions of any driver that season, with seven. Leclerc, therefore, became the first non-Mercedes driver to win the [Position Award](Pole)(FIA Pole Trophy). He also became the first Monégasque to win a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix (although Louis Chiron had won several Grands Prix before the inaugural championship in ).
#### 2020 season
[[File:Charles Leclerc 2020 Tuscan Grand Prix - race day.jpg|alt=|thumb|Leclerc driving at the [Tuscan Grand Prix](2020)(2020 Tuscan Grand Prix)]]
Leclerc qualified seventh for the [Austrian Grand Prix](2020)(2020 Austrian Grand Prix). The team struggled for pace in the race but due to the chaotic nature of the race recovered to finish second with Leclerc pulling off crucial overtaking manoeuvres on fresh tyres after the final restart. In the build-up to the [Grand Prix](Styrian)(2020 Styrian Grand Prix) weekend, Leclerc and [Ferrari](Scuderia Ferrari) were investigated by the [FIA](FIA) after allegedly breaching the governing body's strict [COVID-19](COVID-19) safety protocols after returning home to [Monaco](Monaco) (with permission from his team) in between the [Austrian](2020 Austrian Grand Prix) and [Grands Prix](Styrian)(2020 Styrian Grand Prix) events with social media posts showing Leclerc socialising with fans, friends and his girlfriend. Leclerc initially denied any wrongdoing.Noble, Jonathan (9 July 2020) [Mercedes, Ferrari set for COVID protocols warning](https://www.motorsport.com/f1/news/ferrari-mercedes-covid-protocols-warning-bottas-leclerc/4829161/?ic_source=home-page-widget&ic_medium=widget&ic_campaign=widget-22) Motorsport.com However, Leclerc and [Ferrari](Scuderia)(Scuderia Ferrari) were given a warning after it was clear he had been in contact with people not included in his bubble.[Leclerc warned over coronavirus breach](https://www.planetf1.com/news/charles-leclerc-warned-over-breach/) *PlanetF1* In the qualifying session for the [Styrian Grand Prix](2020)(2020 Styrian Grand Prix), he ended up 11th fastest in a full wet session and was knocked out in Q2. He was demoted to 14th after receiving a three-place penalty for impeding [Kvyat](Daniil)(Daniil Kvyat) in the session. In the race, Leclerc collided with his team-mate Sebastian Vettel on the first lap, causing them both to retire. Despite the fact the stewards took no action – viewing the collision as a racing incident and gave no penalties to either driver – Leclerc accepted full responsibility for the collision saying in one of his post-race interviews, "I've been a total asshole, today I fucked it up".
At the next race, the [Grand Prix](Hungarian)(2020 Hungarian Grand Prix), Leclerc qualified sixth, one place behind Vettel. In the race, Leclerc struggled with tyre wear and general lack of speed and finished in 11th place, five places behind teammate Vettel.
Leclerc qualified fourth at the [Grand Prix](British)(2020 British Grand Prix) and went on to finish third, claiming the 12th podium finish of his F1 career and second of the season. For the [Anniversary Grand Prix](70th)(70th Anniversary Grand Prix) Leclerc qualified eighth. He subsequently pulled off a one-stop strategy to advance to fourth in the race.
Before competing in the [Anniversary Grand Prix](70th)(70th Anniversary Grand Prix) in 2020 at [Silverstone](Silverstone Circuit), Leclerc reacted angrily to accusations that he was racist and opposed to the [Lives Matter](Black)(Black Lives Matter) movement, responding by saying racism is "disgusting" and accusing headlines of attempting to manipulate his words. The accusations came after he was one of six drivers who opted not to [a knee](take)(U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)) during the pre-race ceremonies of the opening events of the [Formula One World Championship](2020)(2020 Formula One World Championship) as part of the sports anti-racism campaign. He stated that he chose not to take a knee due to the negative political connotations he felt such a gesture could have.
At the [Italian Grand Prix](2020)(2020 Italian Grand Prix) he qualified thirteenth but in the race, he crashed out at Parabolica on lap 24, while he was in fourth, thanks to a pitstop earlier than others who pitted during a Safety Car period. The crash caused a red flag.
Starting from round 12 at Portimão, Leclerc went on to take three consecutive top-5 finishes. At the rain-hit [Grand Prix](Turkish)(2020 Turkish Grand Prix), Leclerc was running in third place after producing a comeback from 14th on the intermediate tyres. However, a mistake while attempting to pass [Pérez](Sergio)(Sergio Pérez) for second on the final lap resulted in Leclerc running wide and losing the podium to teammate Vettel. The doubleheader in Bahrain was rather forgettable for Leclerc, who finished tenth in the first race and retired after a first-lap collision with Pérez in the second. At the final round in Abu Dhabi, both Ferraris lacked pace and finished outside the points, with Leclerc in 13th ahead of Vettel. Leclerc finished the championship in eighth, scoring 98 points.
#### 2021 season
[[File: FIA F1 Austria 2021 Nr. 16 Leclerc.jpg|thumb|alt=Leclerc at the [Austrian Grand Prix](2021)(2021 Austrian Grand Prix)|Leclerc at the [Austrian Grand Prix](2021)(2021 Austrian Grand Prix)]]
At the beginning of the season, Leclerc extended his contract with Ferrari until the end of 2024. Leclerc had a new teammate at [Ferrari](Scuderia Ferrari) for [2021](2021 Formula One World Championship) with [Sainz Jr.](Carlos)(Carlos Sainz Jr.) replacing Sebastian Vettel, who signed for [Martin](Aston)(Aston Martin in Formula One). Leclerc started the [Grand Prix](Bahrain)(2021 Bahrain Grand Prix) in fourth behind [Bottas](Valtteri)(Valtteri Bottas) and finished sixth. He then started fourth and also finished fourth at the [Romagna Grand Prix](Emilia)(2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix) behind [Norris](Lando)(Lando Norris) after struggling to keep his pace after the red flag at the middle of the race. He spent half of the race without a radio. Leclerc then finished sixth at the [Grand Prix](Portuguese)(2021 Portuguese Grand Prix) which placed him fifth in the points standings, above his teammate Sainz, who finished 11th in the race. He qualified on pole for his home event - the [Grand Prix](Monaco)(2021 Monaco Grand Prix) despite crashing in the final part of qualifying but was unable to start the race due to suffering a driveshaft issue on his way to the grid. He qualified for back-to-back poles during Qualifying for the [Azerbaijan Grand Prix](2021)(2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix)., later finishing fourth. At the [Grand Prix](British)(2021 British Grand Prix) at [Silverstone](Silverstone Circuit), Leclerc qualified fourth but inherited the lead of the race on lap 1, passing [Bottas](Valtteri)(Valtteri Bottas) at the start and taking advantage of a collision between title rivals [Verstappen](Max Verstappen) and [Hamilton](Lewis Hamilton). Leclerc held on to the lead of the race until 2 laps to go when he was ultimately caught and overtaken by Hamilton, finishing the race in second place and claiming his first and only podium of 2021. At the [Grand Prix](Hungarian)(2021 Hungarian Grand Prix), Leclerc was hit from the side by Lance Stroll on turn 1 and did not finish. In [Italy](2021 Italian Grand Prix), Leclerc finished in fifth, promoted to fourth after Sergio Perez's penalty. Leclerc took grid penalties in the [Russian Grand Prix](2021)(2021 Russian Grand Prix) and started from 19th. He was in the top 5 at one point but fell to fifteenth by the end of the race after heavy rain fell and he was the last to pit for intermediate tyres.
In [Turkey](2021 Turkish Grand Prix), Leclerc would qualify fourth, but would start third after engine penalties for [Hamilton](Lewis)(Lewis Hamilton). In [Dhabi](Abu)(2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix), a decision to pit under a virtual safety car proved to be the wrong one as Leclerc failed to make up for the lost track position. This resulted in him finishing only tenth. Meanwhile, teammate Sainz finished third, moving him up to fifth in the drivers' standings and dropping Leclerc to seventh. This marked the first time Leclerc had been beaten by a teammate in his car racing career.
#### 2022 season
[[File:Ferrari F1-75 in Melbourne.jpg|thumb|Leclerc at the [Australian Grand Prix](2022)(2022 Australian Grand Prix)]]
Leclerc took pole in the season opening [Grand Prix](Bahrain)(2022 Bahrain Grand Prix), his tenth career F1 pole. He won the Grand Prix, his and Ferrari's first Formula 1 victory since 2019, battling closely with [Bull](Red)(Red Bull Racing) driver [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) throughout the race. His Ferrari teammate [Sainz Jr.](Carlos)(Carlos Sainz Jr.) finished second for a Ferrari 1–2. Leclerc received 25 points, plus an additional 1 point for the fastest lap of the race, bringing his total to 26. The result meant he and Ferrari took the lead in the Drivers' and Constructors' Championship respectively. In doing so, he led the Formula One World Championship for the first time, and also became the first-ever Monégasque driver to lead the Formula One World Championship. After a second-place finish in the [Arabian Grand Prix](Saudi)(2022 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix), Leclerc took a dominant victory in the [Grand Prix](Australian)(2022 Australian Grand Prix), achieving his first [slam](grand)(grand slam (Formula One)) in Formula One, and Ferrari's first since the 2010 Singapore Grand Prix. At the [Grand Prix](Spanish)(2022 Spanish Grand Prix), Leclerc led the race with a large margin until a power unit issue forced his retirement, handing [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) both the race victory and the World Championship lead. After taking pole position at his home race in the [Grand Prix](Monaco)(2022 Monaco Grand Prix), Leclerc finished the race in 4th place due to strategical error and a wet track. The next race in [Azerbaijan](2022 Azerbaijan Grand Prix) saw Leclerc retire from the lead yet again with a power unit failure, which put him at third in the drivers' standings behind Red Bull drivers [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) and [Pérez](Sergio)(Sergio Pérez). Leclerc started 19th for the [Grand Prix](Canadian)(2022 Canadian Grand Prix) due to a grid penalty for exceeding his allocation for power unit components; he went on to finish the race in fifth.
[[File:FIA F1 Austria 2022 Podium Race Winner Leclerc.jpg|thumb|Leclerc celebrating on the podium after winning the [Austrian Grand Prix](2022)(2022 Austrian Grand Prix)]]
At the [Grand Prix](British)(2022 British Grand Prix), Leclerc finished fourth after losing out on pit strategy to his teammate. Leclerc then took first place at the [Grand Prix](Austrian)(2022 Austrian Grand Prix). At the [Grand Prix](French)(2022 French Grand Prix) he took pole position before crashing out of the race on lap 18, after making a mistake. At the [Grand Prix](Hungarian)(2022 Hungarian Grand Prix) he qualified third behind his teammate but finished the race sixth after a strategic error made by Ferrari to place him on the hard compound tyres, despite other drivers such as [Alonso](Fernando)(Fernando Alonso) losing significant lap time on them, [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) eventually took the win despite qualifying tenth and extended his lead in the Formula One World Championship to Leclerc by 80 points. After the summer break was the [Grand Prix](Belgian)(2022 Belgian Grand Prix) which saw Leclerc start in 15th place, behind Verstappen as both drivers took grid place penalties for the use of additional power unit and gearbox elements. Despite working his way through the grid well he had to pit eventually for mediums due to a tear-off in his brake ducts. The pitstop cost Leclerc a podium finish. In order to gain some more points in the [One World Championship](Formula)(Formula One World Championship) he pitted for soft tyres, the fastest compound tyres, to get the fastest lap point but could not beat Verstappen's time of 1:49.354. Leclerc finished in 5th place in front of [Alonso](Fernando)(Fernando Alonso) but suffered a 5 second time penalty for speeding in the pit lane, consequently finishing in 6th place. At the [Grand Prix](Dutch)(2022 Dutch Grand Prix), he admitted that he had 'stopped counting' the points deficit to Verstappen. He started 2nd and finished 3rd after losing his second place position to Mercedes' [Russell](George)(George Russell (racing driver)). Leclerc took pole position at Ferrari's home race in Italy at the [Circuit](Monza)(Monza Circuit), but due to a team decision from Ferrari to pit under a [safety car](Virtual)(Virtual safety car), he lost the race lead to Red Bull's [Verstappen](Max)(Max Verstappen) and took the checkered flag in second place due to the race ending under a safety car. Leclerc took pole position at the [Grand Prix](Singapore)(2022 Singapore Grand Prix), he finished in second place to Red Bull's [Pérez](Sergio)(Sergio Pérez) who had taken the lead at the first corner.
In the final race of the 2022 season, at the [Dhabi Grand Prix](Abu)(2022 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix), Leclerc and [Perez](Sergio)(Sergio Perez) faced off for second place in the Drivers' Championship tied at an even 290 points each. Despite starting the race in P3, one place behind Perez in P2, Leclerc overtook his competitor and held on to finish P2 in the race, securing both 2nd place in the Drivers' Championship for himself as well as 2nd in the Constructors' Championship for Ferrari.
#### 2023 season
During the [Bahrain Grand Prix](2023)(2023 Bahrain Grand Prix), the first race of [2023 season](the)(2023 Formula One World Championship), Leclerc's car suffered technical problems, forcing the driver to end the race prematurely during lap 41 while on course for a third place finish. The following race, at the [Arabian Grand Prix](Saudi)(2023 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix), Leclerc took a ten-place grid penalty after a new set of control electronics was installed on his car in breach of the allowed quota for the season. Starting from 12th on the grid, Leclerc was able to recover to a seventh place finish behind his teammate [Sainz](Carlos)(Carlos Sainz Jr.). Leclerc retired for the second time in three races following a lap 1 collision with [Stroll](Lance)(Lance Stroll) at the [Grand Prix](Australian)(2023 Australian Grand Prix). Leclerc scored his and Ferrari's first pole position of the 2023 season at the [Grand Prix](Azerbaijan)(2023 Azerbaijan Grand Prix), though he failed to convert it to a victory as [Pérez](Sergio)(Sergio Pérez) took victory in both the sprint and main race. However, he was on the podium during both races.
## Awards and honours
* [Awards](Autosport)(Autosport Awards) Rookie of the Year: 2017
* [FIA](FIA Prize Giving Ceremony) Rookie of the Year: 2017
* [Awards](Autosport)(Autosport Awards) Rookie of the Year: 2018
* [FIA](FIA Prize Giving Ceremony) Rookie of the Year: 2018 Formula 1® |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.leclerc-crowned-fias-rookie-of-the-year.5yXzkd0cV2oA2AOEmsGkEI.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181208165929/https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.leclerc-crowned-fias-rookie-of-the-year.5yXzkd0cV2oA2AOEmsGkEI.html |archive-date=8 December 2018 |access-date=20 January 2021 |website=www.formula1.com |language=en}}
* Confartigianato Motori Best Young Driver: 2018
* [Pirelli](Pirelli) [Pole](Pole position) Position Trophy: 2019
* Confartigianato Motori Driver of the Year: 2020
* Monaco Medal of Honour: 2020.
## Other ventures and philanthropy
Leclerc made an appearance in the film *Le Grand Rendez-vous*, a remake of the 1976 French short film ''[un rendez-vous](C'était)(C'était un rendez-vous).'' In 2020, Leclerc also became an endorsement model for [Armani](Giorgio)(Armani).
In 2018, Leclerc was named Ambassador for the , helping to promote the benefits of learning to swim. In 2020, Leclerc assisted the [Cross of Monaco](Red)(Red Cross of Monaco), delivering meals and transporting hospital equipment amid the [pandemic in Monaco](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Monaco). He also supported the [Red Cross](Italian)(Italian Red Cross) fundraising campaigns, encouraging donations towards its relief efforts.
Leclerc voiced an unspecified character in the Italian language dubbed version of [Pixar's](Pixar) 2022 *[Story](Toy)(Toy Story (franchise))* spin off film *[Lightyear](Lightyear (film))*.
In April 2023, Leclerc released his debut piano-composed single "AUS23 (1:1)", whose title is a reference to Ferrari's internal name for the [Australian Grand Prix](2023)(2023 Australian Grand Prix). His musical endeavors are managed by Verdigris Management.
## Karting record
### Karting career summary
## Racing record
=== Racing career summary ===
As Leclerc was a guest driver, he was ineligible for championship points.
Season still in progress.
### Complete FIA Formula 3 European Championship results
([key](:Template:Motorsport driver results legend)) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position) (Races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)
### Complete GP3 Series results
([key](:Template:Motorsport driver results legend)) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position) (Races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)
### Complete FIA Formula 2 Championship results
([key](:Template:Motorsport driver results legend)) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position) (Races in *italics* indicate points for the fastest lap of top ten finishers)
Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
### Complete Formula One results
([key](:Template:F1 driver results legend 2)) (Races in **bold** indicate pole position; races in *italics* indicate fastest lap)
}} Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
}} Half points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed.
Season still in progress.
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
| after = [Russell](George)(George Russell (racing driver))}}
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|
Bamum people
|
bamum_people
|
# Bamum people
*Revision ID: 1159849787 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T22:46:16Z*
---
The **Bamum**, sometimes called **Bamoum**, **Bamun**, **Bamoun**, or **Mum**, are a [Grassfields](Grassfields languages) [group](ethnic)(ethnic group) located in now [Cameroon](Cameroon). As 1987, the National Demographic Census listed the population as 293,725. The Kingdom of Bamum covers approximately 7,300 km. The Kingdom of Bamum was surrounded to the north by the territory's of Cameroon. To the west and south-west, the kingdom's boundary touches the River Nun. The Rivers Mape and the Mbam, surrounds them to the east.
Climate in the Kingdom consists of two seasons: a long rainy season, and a short dry season. This is mainly due to its location between a forest zone in the south and a tropical savannah grassland in the north. The length of the two seasons last for irregular time lengths.
## Political Structure
The Bamum political activities centered around the king and the king's palace. The palace was structured around the officers of the king and the people that wished to visit the king. This led to the capital of the Bamum Kingdom forming, Foumban. The surrounding villages then worshiped and followed the king as their leader.
As the kingdom developed slowly over the years, a main factor of society was the agricultural farms near the villages. This created an environment of cooperative ideology, through teamwork when it came to handling the work on the farms. Slaves and war captives were used to supply a labor force for farms of kingdom officials and other title holders.
## Religion
The Bamum traditional religion placed great emphasis on ancestral spirits which were embodied in the skulls of the deceased ancestors. The eldest males of each lineage had possession of the skulls of deceased males. When moving a diviner must find an appropriate place to hold the skull. Despite these efforts some men's skulls remained unclaimed and their spirits are deemed restless. Ceremonies are thus done to placate these spirits. There is also respect for female skulls, but the details are less documented.
[[Image:Njoya of Bamun.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Sultan [Njoya](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Njoya).]]
They also believed women made the soil fruitful, thus women did the planting and harvesting. Masks and representations of the head also had importance. In modern times, many Bamum are [Muslim](Islam) or [Christian](Christianity). King [Njoya](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Njoya) himself converted to [Islam](Islam) then to [Christianity](Christianity) and then back to [Islam](Islam) after the [of Versailles](Treaty)(Treaty of Versailles). He is said to have disliked abstaining from [polygamy](polygamy) when Christian, and from [alcohol](alcohol (drug)) when Muslim, so ultimately split the difference toward the end.
## Written Script, "A-ku-u-ku"
[[text from 1910](File:Shumom-text.jpg|thumb|Bamoun)]
[language](Bamum)(Bamum language) (*Shüpamom,* pronounced , "language Bamum"; in the French tradition spelled *Bamoun*) is one of the [languages](Benue–Congo)(Benue–Congo languages) of [Cameroon](Cameroon), with approximately 215,000 speakers. The language is particularly well known for [original phonetic script](its)(Bamum script), developed by Sultan [Njoya](Ibrahim Njoya) and his palace circle around 1895. The development of the script spanned ideographic to syllabic systems, with the script's final and most prominent form known as "A-ka-u-ku."
According to oral history, [Ibrahim Njoya](Sultan)(Ibrahim Njoya) had a dream during the 1890s that inspired him to create a written language. In this dream, he was told to draw an image of a hand on a rock slate then wash it off and drink the water. Taking this dream, he gathered his officers and instructed them to draw symbols for any objects they noticed over some time. This resulted in the earliest form of written language in the Bamum community. Njoya spent the next few decades perfecting the script and teaching his officials. His teachings, allowed over 1,000 subjects at that time to become literate.
During the time of reforming his script, there was political concern with surrounding villages and colonial conquests in the area. Njoya believed creating secure and sustainable communication between him and his officials was important. At first, alongside the creation of his script, he sent officials to a neighboring state, [Hausa](Hausa people), to learn Arabic. However, due to the increase of powerful Hausa influence in his land, Njoya decided that Arabic was not the right language to learn for his people, as Hausa and outside colonial forces could read it as well. He needed to focus on creating and reforming the script he, and his officials, created. The following decades were spent simplifying the number and complexity of the design of the characters.
The script was finalized in 1910, where the “A-ka-u-ku” script was shortened into 80 symbols with more simple graphics that were easier to write and reproduce. Njoya used this script to put together a book that composed of roughly twelve hundred pages. In these pages, Njoya detailed the history and customs of the Bamum people.
This is not to be confused with another of Njoya's inventions, an artificial spoken language known as [Shümom](Shümom language), which was devised after the script. Outsider observers in recent years have tended to confuse the script with the invented language. The French colonials destroyed Njoya's schools and forbade the teaching of the script, which fell into rapid decline and today hovers on the brink of extinction (the [Scripts and Archives Project](Bamum)(Bamum Scripts and Archives Project), in [Foumban](Foumban), is teaching the script to young people to spread literacy), but the Shümom language is spoken as a second language by many people and is taught on the radio throughout the Bamum kingdom. Cameroonian musicians [Ndam](Claude)(Claude Ndam) and Gerryland are native speakers of Bamum and use it in their music.
## Nguon
As the first king of Bamum was crowned, he and seven officers, called Koms, wanted to find a way to maintain and ensure the laws of the state would be followed by the king. The Koms were independent of the state and not controlled under the authority of the king, allowing them to censor any royal actions that went against the common law. To ensure this process is followed, they created a ceremonial ritual called Nguon.
In this celebration, the king is formally dethroned, this gives the kom the right to criticize and condemn the now-former king. Afterward, the king is reinstalled to his throne and formally addresses his nation with a speech. The ceremonial speech is followed by gifts and goods sent to the palace by chiefs, locally and from surrounding villages. Nguon was held every two years and was a major part of the Bamum calendar. For an almost 70-year period, the celebrational ritual was suspended by colonial forces in 1923. The colonial power was attempting to diminish the power and control within the area and the power of the sultan Ibrahim Njoya. It wasn’t until 1992, that the sultan's son, Ibrahim Mbombo Njoya, reestablished the celebration. It now continues to be held every two years once more. To this day, it continues to be a significant holiday for the Bamum people.
## Power in Art
The Bamum territory covered major trade routes, allowing them to gain access to multiple mediums. Those include brass and glass beads, which are a major component in Bamum art. The visual domain is where the Bamum were able to showcase their power and dominance within their state. The art is used as a reminder of the historical development and supremacy of the Bamum people.
To do this, the Bamum artists appropriated the regalia and symbols of defeated leaders from surrounding states. They also take other objects from the leader’s treasures, and they keep the appropriated replica in the Bamum palace. They also created brand new symbols of power for the rulers and male descendants of the court. This symbol is to be a visual representation of their connection to the court and the king. They are commonly displayed as an embellishment to their apparel.
Artists were also known for their work covering wooden sculptures as bead embroiderers. Many works are a part of thrones and statues, often kept within the village palace. These works intended to focus on the expansion of the Bamum land and the warfare used in the expansion, showcasing the strengthened ties in the groups that make up Bamum. Two motifs were common when trying to display the power of the Bamum in warfare. One is a single head, which one can assume it belongs to an enemy. Usually, the head is paired with a spear held in the other hand. This is shown in brass statues that were created showing a Bamum male holding the head of an enemy. Another motif is an equestrian figure made from wood and then covered in beadwork.
## Palace Art
File:Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 23.JPG|Royal headdress (mpelet), ca. 1900 [Museum of Berlin](Ethnological)(Ethnological Museum of Berlin)
File:Helmet Mask MET DT1234.jpg|Helmet Mask - [Museum of Art](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Museum of Art)
File:Königsthron Bamum EthnM IIIC33341.jpg|Throne of King Nsangu, ca. 1880 [Museum of Berlin](Ethnological)(Ethnological Museum of Berlin)
File:Figur Kamerun Bamum Museum Rietberg.jpg|Figural sculpture, 19th century [Rietberg](Museum)(Museum Rietberg)
File:Bamoum Masque Facial MHNT ETH AC AF 114 Labouret.jpg|Facial mask in bronze 1935 [MHNT](MHNT)
File:Art Bamoun - Masque cimier MHNT ETH AC AF 55 Labouret.jpg|Crest mask - 1935 [MHNT](MHNT)
File:Art Bamoun - Marmite MHNT ETH AC 1206 Labouret.jpg|Wooden container 1935 [MHNT](MHNT)
## Bamum Style
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 01.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 08.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 09.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 12.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 07.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 05.JPG
File:CEREMONIE DE FUNERAILLE EN PAYS BAMOUN 03.JPG
File:Kdfvoilef.JPG
File:Kdfvoile0.JPG
File:Kdfvoile03.JPG
File:Kdfvoile007.JPG
File:Kdfvoile08.JPG
File:Kdfvoile1.JPG
File:Kdfportrait5.JPG
File:Kdfamily7.JPG
File:Kdfamily13.JPG
File:Kdfportrait03.JPG
File:Kdfportrait00.JPG
File:Kdfamilychild.JPG
File:Kdfportrait120.JPG
File:Kdfdansetra.JPG
File:Kdfiesta.JPG
File:Kdfiesta0.JPG
File:Kdffete8.JPG
File:Kdffete21.JPG
File:Kdfiesta11.JPG
File:Kdfiesta14.JPG
File:Kdfiesta3.JPG
File:Kdfiesta101.JPG
## See also
*[of rulers of the Bamum](List)(Rulers of the Bamum)
*[kingdom](Bamum)(Bamum kingdom)
## References
## External links
*[Bamum Scripts and Archives Project](https://web.archive.org/web/20070512130641/http://www.bamumscript.org/)
*[University of Iowa on African Art](https://web.archive.org/web/20050728112852/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Bamum.html)
[groups in Cameroon](Category:Ethnic)(Category:Ethnic groups in Cameroon)
[Category:Semi-Bantu](Category:Semi-Bantu)
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1972 United States presidential election
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1972_united_states_presidential_election
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# 1972 United States presidential election
*Revision ID: 1159862377 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T00:48:16Z*
---
6.3 [pp](percentage point)
| image_size = 200x200px
| image1 = Richard Nixon presidential portrait (1).jpg
| nominee1 = **[Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon)**
| party1 = Republican Party (United States)
| home_state1 = [California](California)
| running_mate1 = **[Agnew](Spiro)(Spiro Agnew)**
| electoral_vote1 = **520**
| states_carried1 = **49**
| popular_vote1 = **47,168,710**
| percentage1 = ****
| image2 = George McGovern (D-SD) (3x4-1).jpg
| nominee2 = [McGovern](George)(George McGovern)
| party2 = Democratic Party (United States)
| home_state2 = [Dakota](South)(South Dakota)
| running_mate2 = [Shriver](Sargent)(Sargent Shriver)
| electoral_vote2 = 17
| states_carried2 = 1 + [DC](Washington, D.C.)
| popular_vote2 = 29,173,222
| percentage2 =
| map_size = 350px
| map =
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Nixon/Agnew and Blue denotes those won by McGovern/Shriver. Gold is the electoral vote for [Hospers](John Hospers)/[Nathan](Tonie Nathan) by a [Virginia](Virginia) [elector](faithless)(faithless elector). Numbers indicate [votes](electoral)(electoral votes) cast by each state and the District of Columbia.
| title = President
| before_election = [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon)
| before_party = Republican Party (United States)
| after_election = [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon)
| after_party = Republican Party (United States)
| ongoing =
}}
The **1972 United States presidential election** was the 47th [presidential election](quadrennial)(United States presidential election) held on Tuesday, November 7, 1972. Incumbent [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) president [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) defeated [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) U.S. senator [McGovern](George)(George McGovern) in a landslide.
Nixon swept aside challenges from two Republican representatives in [Republican primaries](the)(1972 Republican Party presidential primaries) to win renomination. McGovern, who had played a significant role in [the Democratic nomination system](changing)(McGovern–Fraser Commission) after [1968 presidential election](the)(1968 United States presidential election), mobilized the [War movement](anti-Vietnam)(anti-Vietnam War movement) and other liberal supporters to win [party's nomination](his)(1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries). Among the candidates he defeated were early front-runner [Muskie](Edmund)(Edmund Muskie), 1968 nominee [Humphrey](Hubert)(Hubert Humphrey), governor [Wallace](George)(George Wallace), and representative [Chisholm](Shirley)(Shirley Chisholm).
Nixon emphasized the strong economy and his success in foreign affairs, while McGovern ran on a platform calling for an immediate end to the Vietnam War, and the institution of a [minimum income](guaranteed)(guaranteed minimum income). Nixon maintained a large, and consistent, lead in polling. Separately, Nixon's [committee](reelection)(Committee for the Re-Election of the President) broke into the [complex](Watergate)(Watergate complex) to wiretap the [National Committee](Democratic)(Democratic National Committee)'s headquarters as part of the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal). McGovern's general election campaign was damaged early on by the revelation that his running mate, [Eagleton](Thomas)(Thomas Eagleton), had undergone [therapy](electroconvulsive)(electroconvulsive therapy) as a treatment for depression. Eagleton was replaced on the ballot by [Shriver](Sargent)(Sargent Shriver) after only nineteen days on the ticket.
Nixon won the election in a [victory](landslide)(landslide victory), taking 60.7% of the popular vote and carrying 49 states and becoming the first Republican to sweep [South](the)(Southern United States), whereas McGovern took just 37.5% of the popular vote. The 1972 election was the first since the ratification of the [Amendment](26th)(Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution), which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, further expanding the electorate. In August 1974, Nixon resigned from office in the face of likely [and conviction](impeachment)(Impeachment in the United States) as a result of the Watergate scandal.
## Republican nomination
Republican candidates:
*[Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon), [of the United States](President)(President of the United States) from [California](California)
*[McCloskey](Pete)(Pete McCloskey), [Representative](United States House of Representatives) from [California](California)
*[M. Ashbrook](John)(John M. Ashbrook), Representative from [Ohio](Ohio)
### Primaries
Nixon was a popular incumbent president in 1972, as he was credited with opening the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China) as a result of [visit](his)(Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China) that year, and achieving [détente](détente) with the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). Polls showed that Nixon held a strong lead in the Republican primaries. He was challenged by two candidates: [liberal](modern liberalism in the United States) [McCloskey](Pete)(Pete McCloskey) from California, and [conservative](conservatism in the United States) [Ashbrook](John)(John Ashbrook) from Ohio. McCloskey ran as an anti-war candidate, while Ashbrook opposed Nixon's détente policies towards [China](People's Republic of China) and the Soviet Union. In the [Hampshire primary](New)(New Hampshire primary), McCloskey garnered 19.8% of the vote to Nixon's 67.6%, with Ashbrook receiving 9.7%. Nixon won 1323 of the 1324 delegates to the Republican convention, with McCloskey receiving the vote of one delegate from New Mexico. Vice President [Agnew](Spiro)(Spiro Agnew) was re-nominated by acclamation; while both the party's moderate wing and Nixon himself had wanted to replace him with a new running-mate (the moderates favoring [Rockefeller](Nelson)(Nelson Rockefeller), and Nixon favoring [Connally](John)(John Connally)), it was ultimately concluded that such action would incur too great a risk of losing Agnew's base of conservative supporters.
### Primary results
}}
### Convention
Seven members of [Veterans Against the War](Vietnam)(Vietnam Veterans Against the War) were brought on federal charges for conspiring to disrupt the Republican convention. They were acquitted by a federal jury in [Gainesville](Gainesville, Florida), [Florida](Florida).
## Democratic nomination
Overall, fifteen people declared their candidacy for the Democratic Party nomination. They were:
*[McGovern](George)(George McGovern), [senator](United States Senate) from [Dakota](South)(South Dakota)
*[Humphrey](Hubert)(Hubert Humphrey), senator from [Minnesota](Minnesota), former [president](vice)(Vice President of the United States), and presidential nominee in 1968
*[Wallace](George)(George Wallace), Governor of Alabama
*[Muskie](Edmund)(Edmund Muskie), senator from Maine, vice presidential nominee in 1968
*[J. McCarthy](Eugene)(Eugene J. McCarthy), former senator from Minnesota
*[M. Jackson](Henry)(Henry M. Jackson), senator from [Washington](Washington (state))
*[Chisholm](Shirley)(Shirley Chisholm), Representative of [York's 12th congressional district](New)(New York's 12th congressional district)
*[Sanford](Terry)(Terry Sanford), former governor of North Carolina
*[Lindsay](John)(John Lindsay), Mayor of New York City
*[Mills](Wilbur)(Wilbur Mills), representative of [2nd congressional district](Arkansas's)(Arkansas's 2nd congressional district)
*[Hartke](Vance)(Vance Hartke), senator from Indiana
*[Harris](Fred)(Fred R. Harris), senator from Oklahoma
*[Yorty](Sam)(Sam Yorty), Mayor of Los Angeles
*[Mink](Patsy)(Patsy Mink), representative of [2nd congressional district](Hawaii's)(Hawaii's 2nd congressional district)
*[Fauntroy](Walter)(Walter Fauntroy), Delegate from Washington, D. C.
### Primaries
[Majority Whip](Senate)(Party leaders of the United States Senate) [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy), the youngest brother of late [President](President of the United States) [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy) and late [States Senator](United)(United States Senator) [F. Kennedy](Robert)(Robert F. Kennedy), was the favorite to win the 1972 nomination, but he announced he would not be a candidate. The favorite for the Democratic nomination then became Senator [Muskie](Ed)(Ed Muskie), the [1968](1968 United States presidential election) vice-presidential nominee. Muskie's momentum collapsed just prior to the New Hampshire primary, when the so-called "[letter](Canuck)(Canuck letter)" was published in the *[Union-Leader](Manchester)(Manchester Union-Leader)*. The letter, actually a forgery from Nixon's "dirty tricks" unit, claimed that Muskie had made disparaging remarks about [French-Canadians](French Canadian) – a remark likely to injure Muskie's support among the French-American population in northern [England](New)(New England). Subsequently, the paper published an attack on the character of Muskie's wife [Jane](Jane Muskie), reporting that she drank and used [off-color](Off-color humor) language during the campaign. Muskie made an emotional defense of his wife in a speech outside the newspaper's offices during a snowstorm. Though Muskie later stated that what had appeared to the press as tears were actually melted snowflakes, the press reported that Muskie broke down and cried, shattering the candidate's image as calm and reasoned."[Remembering Ed Muskie](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/remember/muskie_3-26.html) ", *[NewsHour](Online)(The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer)*, [PBS](Public Broadcasting Service), March 26, 1996.
Nearly two years before the election, South Dakota Senator [McGovern](George)(George McGovern) entered the race as an anti-war, progressive candidate. McGovern was able to pull together support from the anti-war movement and other grassroots support to win the nomination in a primary system he had played a significant part in designing.
On January 25, 1972, New York Representative Shirley Chisholm announced she would run, and became the first African-American woman to run for the Democratic or Republican presidential nomination. Hawaii Representative Patsy Mink also announced she would run, and became the first Asian American person to run for the Democratic presidential nomination.
On April 25, George McGovern won the Massachusetts primary. Two days later, journalist [Novak](Robert)(Robert Novak) quoted a "Democratic senator", later revealed to be Thomas Eagleton, as saying: "The people don't know McGovern is for amnesty, abortion, and legalization of pot. Once middle America – Catholic middle America, in particular – finds this out, he's dead." The label stuck, and McGovern became known as the candidate of "amnesty, abortion, and acid". It became Humphrey's battle cry to stop McGovern—especially in the Nebraska primary.
[Governor](Alabama)(Governor of Alabama) [Wallace](George)(George Wallace), an infamous segregationist who ran on a third-party ticket in [1968](1968 United States presidential election), did well in the [South](Southern United States) (winning nearly every county in the Florida primary) and among alienated and dissatisfied voters in the [North](Northern United States). What might have become a forceful campaign was cut short when [was shot](Wallace)(George Wallace#1972 Democratic presidential primaries and assassination attempt) in an assassination attempt by [Bremer](Arthur)(Arthur Bremer) on May 15. Wallace was struck by five bullets and left [paralyzed](paralysis) from the waist down. The day after the assassination attempt, Wallace won the Michigan and Maryland primaries, but the shooting effectively ended his campaign, and he pulled out in July.
In the end, McGovern won the nomination by winning primaries through grassroots support, in spite of establishment opposition. McGovern had led a commission to re-design the Democratic nomination system after the divisive nomination struggle and convention of [1968](1968 United States presidential election). However, the new rules angered many prominent Democrats whose influence was marginalized, and those politicians refused to support McGovern's campaign (some even supporting Nixon instead), leaving the McGovern campaign at a significant disadvantage in funding, compared to Nixon. Some of the principles of the McGovern Commission have lasted throughout every subsequent nomination contest, but the Hunt Commission instituted the selection of [Superdelegates](Superdelegates) a decade later, in order to reduce the nomination chances of outsiders like McGovern and Carter.
### Primary results
### Notable endorsements
* Senator [Hughes](Harold)(Harold Hughes) from [Iowa](Iowa)
* Senator [Bayh](Birch)(Birch Bayh) from [Indiana](Indiana)
* Senator [Stevenson III](Adlai)(Adlai Stevenson III) from [Illinois](Illinois)
* Senator [Gravel](Mike)(Mike Gravel) of [Alaska](Alaska)
* Former Senator [M. Young](Stephen)(Stephen M. Young) from [Ohio](Ohio)
* [Governor](Governor of Pennsylvania) [Shapp](Milton)(Milton Shapp) of [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania)
* Former [Governor](Governor of Ohio) [DiSalle](Michael)(Michael DiSalle) of [Ohio](Ohio)
* Ohio State Treasurer [W. Donahey](Gertrude)(Gertrude W. Donahey)
* Astronaut [Glenn](John)(John Glenn) from [Ohio](Ohio)
**George McGovern**
* Senator [Church](Frank)(Frank Church) from [Idaho](Idaho)
**George Wallace**
* Former Governor [Maddox](Lester)(Lester Maddox) of [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state))
**Shirley Chisholm**
* Representative [Dellums](Ron)(Ron Dellums) from California
* [leader](Feminist)(Feminist Movement in the United States) and author [Friedan](Betty)(Betty Friedan)
* [leader](Feminist)(Feminist Movement in the United States), journalist, and DNC official [Steinem](Gloria)(Gloria Steinem)
**Terry Sanford**
* Former President [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) from [Texas](Texas)
**Henry M. Jackson**
* Governor [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) of Georgia
}}
### 1972 Democratic National Convention
[[and Republicans in Convention--2 (3525637530).ogv|thumb|right|thumbtime=3.549|300px|Video from the Florida conventions](File:Democrats)]
Results:
*[McGovern](George)(George McGovern) – 1864.95
*[M. Jackson](Henry)(Henry M. Jackson) – 525
*[Wallace](George)(George Wallace) – 381.7
*[Chisholm](Shirley)(Shirley Chisholm) – 151.95
*[Sanford](Terry)(Terry Sanford) – 77.5
*[Humphrey](Hubert)(Hubert Humphrey) – 66.7
*[Mills](Wilbur)(Wilbur Mills) – 33.8
*[Muskie](Edmund)(Edmund Muskie) – 24.3
*[Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy) – 12.7
*[Yorty](Sam)(Sam Yorty) – 10
*[Hays](Wayne)(Wayne Hays) – 5
*[Lindsay](John)(John Lindsay) – 5
*[Harris](Fred)(Fred R. Harris) – 2
*[McCarthy](Eugene)(Eugene McCarthy) – 2
*[Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale) – 2
*[Clark](Ramsey)(Ramsey Clark) – 1
*[Fauntroy](Walter)(Walter Fauntroy) – 1
*[Hartke](Vance)(Vance Hartke) – 1
*[Hughes](Harold)(Harold Hughes) – 1
*[Mink](Patsy)(Patsy Mink) – 1
### Vice presidential vote
Most polls showed McGovern running well behind incumbent President [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon), except when McGovern was paired with [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) Senator [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy). McGovern and his campaign brain trust lobbied Kennedy heavily to accept the bid to be McGovern's [mate](running)(running mate), but he continually refused their advances, and instead suggested [Representative](U.S.)(U.S. Representative) (and [Ways and Means Committee](House)(House Ways and Means Committee) chairman) [Mills](Wilbur)(Wilbur Mills) of [Arkansas](Arkansas) and [Mayor](Boston)(Mayor of Boston) [White](Kevin)(Kevin White (mayor)). Offers were then made to [Humphrey](Hubert)(Hubert Humphrey), Connecticut Senator [Ribicoff](Abraham)(Abraham Ribicoff), and Minnesota Senator [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale), all of whom turned it down. Finally, the vice presidential slot was offered to Senator [Eagleton](Thomas)(Thomas Eagleton) of Missouri, who accepted the offer.
With hundreds of [delegate](Delegate (American politics))s displeased with McGovern, the vote to ratify Eagleton's candidacy was chaotic, with at least three other candidates having their names put into nomination and votes scattered over 70 candidates. A grassroots attempt to displace Eagleton in favor of Texas state representative [Farenthold](Frances)(Frances Farenthold) gained significant traction, though was ultimately unable to change the outcome of the vote."[A Guide to the Frances Tarlton Farenthold Papers, 1913–2013](http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/utcah/00291/cah-00291.html) ", Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, The University of Texas at Austin.
The vice-presidential balloting went on so long that McGovern and Eagleton were forced to begin making their acceptance speeches at around 2 am, local time.
After the convention ended, it was discovered that Eagleton had undergone psychiatric [therapy](electroshock)(electroshock therapy) for [depression](clinical depression) and had concealed this information from McGovern. A *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine poll taken at the time found that 77 percent of the respondents said, "Eagleton's medical record would not affect their vote." Nonetheless, the press made frequent references to his "shock therapy", and McGovern feared that this would detract from his campaign platform. McGovern subsequently consulted confidentially with pre-eminent psychiatrists, including Eagleton's own doctors, who advised him that a recurrence of Eagleton's depression was possible and could endanger the country, should Eagleton become president.McGovern, George S., *Grassroots: The Autobiography of George McGovern*, New York: Random House, 1977, pp. 214–215McGovern, George S., ''Terry: My Daughter's Life-and-Death Struggle with Alcoholism*, New York: Random House, 1996, pp. 97Marano, Richard Michael, *Vote Your Conscience: The Last Campaign of George McGovern*, Praeger Publishers, 2003, pp. 7*The Washington Post*, "George McGovern & the Coldest Plunge", [Hendrickson](Paul)(Paul Hendrickson), September 28, 1983*The New York Times'', "'Trashing' Candidates" (op-ed), George McGovern, May 11, 1983 McGovern had initially claimed that he would back Eagleton "1000 percent", only to ask Eagleton to withdraw three days later. This perceived lack of conviction in sticking with his running mate was disastrous for the McGovern campaign.
McGovern later approached six prominent Democrats to run for vice president: Ted Kennedy, [Muskie](Edmund)(Edmund Muskie), Hubert Humphrey, [Ribicoff](Abraham)(Abraham Ribicoff), [O'Brien](Larry)(Larry O'Brien), and [Askew](Reubin)(Reubin Askew). All six declined. [Shriver](Sargent)(Sargent Shriver), brother-in-law to John, Robert, and Ted Kennedy, former [to France](Ambassador)(United States Ambassador to France), and former [Director](Peace Corps#Directors) of the [Corps](Peace)(Peace Corps), later accepted. He was officially nominated by a special session of the [National Committee](Democratic)(Democratic National Committee). By this time, McGovern's poll ratings had plunged from 41 to 24 percent.
## Third parties
The only major [party](third)(third party (United States)) candidate in the 1972 election was conservative Republican Representative [G. Schmitz](John)(John G. Schmitz), who ran on the [Independent Party](American)(American Independent Party) ticket (the party on whose ballot [Wallace](George)(George Wallace) ran in 1968). He was on the ballot in 32 states and received 1,099,482 votes. Unlike Wallace, however, he did not win a majority of votes cast in any state, and received no electoral votes, although he did finish ahead of McGovern in four of the most conservative [Idaho](United States presidential election in Idaho, 1972) counties.Menendez, Albert J.; *The Geography of Presidential Elections in the United States, 1868–2004*, p. 100 Schmitz's performance in archconservative [County](Jefferson)(Jefferson County, Idaho) was the best by a third-party Presidential candidate in any [free](slave states and free states) or postbellum state county since 1936 when [Lemke](William)(William Lemke) reached over twenty-eight percent of the vote in the North Dakota counties of [Burke](Burke County, North Dakota), [Sheridan](Sheridan County, North Dakota) and [Hettinger](Hettinger County, North Dakota).Scammon, Richard M. (compiler); *America at the Polls: A Handbook of Presidential Election Statistics 1920–1964*; pp. 339, 343 Schmitz was endorsed by fellow [Birch Society](John)(John Birch Society) member [Brennan](Walter)(Walter Brennan), who also served as finance chairman for his campaign.Actor to Aid Schmitz; The New York Times, August 9, 1972
[Hospers](John)(John Hospers) and Tonie Nathan of the newly formed [Party](Libertarian)(Libertarian Party (United States)) were on the ballot only in Colorado and [Washington](Washington (state)), but were official write-in candidates in four others, and received 3,674 votes, winning no states. However, they did receive one Electoral College vote from [Virginia](Virginia) from a Republican [elector](faithless)(faithless elector) (see below). The Libertarian vice-presidential nominee ["Tonie" Nathan](Theodora)(Tonie Nathan) became the first [Jew](Jew) and the first woman in U.S. history to receive an Electoral College vote.
[Jenness](Linda)(Linda Jenness) was nominated by the [Workers Party](Socialist)(Socialist Workers Party (United States)), with [Pulley](Andrew)(Andrew Pulley) as her running-mate. [Spock](Benjamin)(Benjamin Spock) and [Hobson](Julius)(Julius Hobson) were nominated for president and vice-president, respectively, by the [Party](People's)(People's Party (United States, 1970s)).
## General election
### Campaign
[[Nixon greeted by children during campaign 1972.png|left|thumb|Richard Nixon during an August 1972 campaign stop](File:Richard)]
[[McGovern UH.jpeg|left|thumb|upright|George McGovern speaking at an October 1972 campaign rally](File:George)]
McGovern ran on a platform of immediately ending the Vietnam War and instituting [minimum income](guaranteed)(guaranteed minimum income)s for the nation's poor. His campaign was harmed by his views during the primaries (which alienated many powerful Democrats), the perception that his foreign policy was too extreme, and the Eagleton debacle. With McGovern's campaign weakened by these factors, the Republicans successfully portrayed him as a radical left-wing extremist incompetent to serve as president. Nixon [in the polls](led)(Historical polling for U.S. Presidential elections#1972 United States presidential election) by large margins throughout the entire campaign. With an enormous fundraising advantage and a comfortable lead in the polls, Nixon concentrated on large rallies and focused speeches to closed, select audiences, leaving much of the retail campaigning to surrogates like Vice President Agnew. Nixon did not, by design, try to extend his coattails to Republican congressional or gubernatorial candidates, preferring to pad his own margin of victory.
### Results
[[Presidential Election, Results by Congressional District.png|thumb|right|400px|Results by congressional district.](File:1972)]
Nixon's percentage of the popular vote was only marginally less than Lyndon Johnson's record in the [election](1964)(1964 United States presidential election), and his margin of victory was slightly larger. Nixon won a majority vote in 49 states, including McGovern's home state of [Dakota](South)(South Dakota). Only [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) and the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia) voted for the challenger, resulting in an even more lopsided [College](Electoral)(Electoral College (United States)) tally. McGovern garnered only 37.5 percent of the national popular vote, the lowest share received by a Democratic Party nominee since [W. Davis](John)(John W. Davis) won only 28.8 percent of the vote in the [election](1924)(1924 United States presidential election). The only major party candidate since 1972 to receive less than 40 percent of the vote was Republican incumbent President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) who won 37.4 percent of the vote in the [election](1992)(1992 United States presidential election), a race that (as in 1924) was complicated by a strong [party vote](third)(List of third party performances in United States presidential elections).
Although the McGovern campaign believed that its candidate had a better chance of defeating Nixon because of the new [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Twenty-sixth)(Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution) that lowered the national voting age to 18 from 21, most of the youth vote went to Nixon. This was the first election in American history in which a [Republican](Republican Party (U.S.)) candidate carried every single [state](Southern)(American South), continuing the region's transformation from [Democratic bastion](a)(Solid South) into a Republican stronghold as [Arkansas](United States presidential elections in Arkansas) was carried by a Republican presidential candidate for the first time in a century. By this time, all the Southern states, except Arkansas and Texas, had been carried by a Republican in either the previous election or the one in 1964 (although Republican candidates carried Texas in 1928, 1952 and 1956). As a result of this election, Massachusetts became the only state that Nixon did not carry in any of the three presidential elections in which he was a candidate. This is one of only two elections since 1856 that Massachusetts and Rhode Island did not support the same candidate (the other being [1980](1980 United States presidential election)). Notably, Nixon became the first Republican to ever win two terms in the White House without carrying Massachusetts at least once.
This presidential election was the first since [1808](1808 United States presidential election) in which [York](New)(New York (state)) did not have the largest number of electors in the Electoral College, having fallen to 41 electors vs. [California](California)'s 45. Additionally, through [2020](2020 United States presidential election) it remains the last one in which Minnesota was carried by the Republican candidate.Sullivan, Robert David; ['How the Red and Blue Map Evolved Over the Past Century'](http://www.americamagazine.org/content/unconventional-wisdom/how-red-and-blue-map-evolved-over-past-century) ; *America Magazine* in *The National Catholic Review*; June 29, 2016
McGovern won a mere 130 counties, plus the District of Columbia and four county-equivalents in Alaska, easily the fewest counties won by any major-party presidential nominee since the advent of popular presidential elections.Menendez, Albert J.; *The Geography of Presidential Elections in the United States, 1868–2004*, p. 98 In nineteen states, McGovern failed to carry a single county; he carried a mere one county-equivalent in a further nine states, and just two counties in a further seven. In contrast to [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale)'s narrow 1984 win in Minnesota, McGovern comfortably did win Massachusetts, but lost every other state by no less than five percentage points, as well as 45 states by more than ten percentage points – the exceptions being Massachusetts, Minnesota, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and his home state of South Dakota. This election also made Nixon the second former vice president in American history to serve two terms back-to-back, after [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) in [1800](1800 United States presidential election) and [1804](1804 United States presidential election).
Since McGovern carried only one state, bumper stickers reading "Nixon 49 America 1", "Don't Blame Me, I'm From Massachusetts", and "Massachusetts: The One And Only" were popular for a short time in Massachusetts.
Nixon managed to win 18% of the African American vote (Gerald Ford would get 16% in 1976). He also remains the only Republican in modern times to threaten the oldest extant Democratic stronghold of [Texas](South)(South Texas): this is the last election when the Republicans have won [Hidalgo](Hidalgo County, Texas) or [Dimmit](Dimmit County, Texas) counties, the only time Republicans have won [Salle County](La)(La Salle County, Texas) between [McKinley](William)(William McKinley) in 1900 and [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) in 2020, and one of only two occasions since Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 that Republicans have gained a majority in [County](Presidio)(Presidio County, Texas). More significantly, the 1972 election was the most recent time several highly populous urban counties – including [Cook](Cook County, Illinois) in Illinois, [Orleans](Orleans Parish, Louisiana) in Louisiana, [Hennepin](Hennepin County, Minnesota) in Minnesota, [Cuyahoga](Cuyahoga County, Ohio) in Ohio, [Durham](Durham County, North Carolina) in North Carolina, [Queens](Queens County, New York) in New York, and [George's](Prince)(Prince George's County, Maryland) in Maryland – have voted Republican.
The [vote](Wallace)(George Wallace 1968 presidential campaign) had also been crucial to Nixon being able to sweep the states that had narrowly held out against him in 1968 (Texas, Maryland, and West Virginia), as well as the states Wallace won himself (Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia). The pro-Wallace group of voters had only given AIP nominee John Schmitz a depressing 2.4% of its support, while 19.1% backed McGovern, and the majority 78.5% broke for Nixon.
Nixon, who became [term-limited](term limits in the United States) under the provisions of the [Amendment](Twenty-second)(Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution) as a result of his victory, became the first (and, as of 2023, only) presidential candidate to win a significant number of electoral votes in three presidential elections since the ratification of that Amendment. As of 2020, Nixon was the seventh of seven presidential nominees to win a significant number of electoral votes in at least three elections, the others being Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, Grover Cleveland, William Jennings Bryan, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
| ev_footnote=}}
}}| pv_pct=0.11%| ev=0| vp_name=[Pulley](Andrew)(Andrew Pulley)| vp_state=[Illinois](Illinois)}}
| vp_name=[Nathan](Theodora)(Theodora Nathan)| vp_state=[Oregon](Oregon)}}
[[File:John Hospers 1998.jpg|thumb|[Hospers](John)(John Hospers) received one faithless electoral vote from Virginia.]]
|60.67}}
|37.52}}
|1.42}}
}}
|96.65}}
|3.16}}
|0.19}}
}}
[[Electoral Map.png|650px|thumb|left](File:1972)]
Image:1972 United States presidential election results map by county.svg|Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate's percentage of the vote
#### Results by state
;Legend
For the first time since 1828 Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. This was the first time the Congressional District Method had been used since Michigan used it in 1892. Nixon won all four votes.
### Close states
States where margin of victory was more than 5 percentage points, but less than 10 percentage points (43 electoral votes):
#**Minnesota**, 5.51% (95,923 votes)
#**Rhode Island**, 6.19% (25,738 votes)
#**South Dakota**, 8.63% (26,531 votes)
#**Massachusetts**, 8.97% (220,462 votes)
#**Wisconsin**, 9.67% (179,256 votes)
Tipping point states:
#**Ohio**, 21.56% (882,938 votes) (tipping point for a Nixon victory)
#**Maine-1**, 22.85% (50,360 votes) (tipping point for a McGovern victory)Leip, David ["How close were U.S. Presidential Elections?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1972), ''[Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections](Dave)(Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections)''. Retrieved: January 24, 2013.
#### Statistics
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Republican)
# **[County, Georgia](Dade)(Dade County, Georgia) 93.45%**
# **[County, Georgia](Glascock)(Glascock County, Georgia) 93.38%**
# **[County, Mississippi](George)(George County, Mississippi) 92.90%**
# **[County, Florida](Holmes)(Holmes County, Florida) 92.51%**
# **[County, Mississippi](Smith)(Smith County, Mississippi) 92.35%**
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Democratic)
# **[County, Texas](Duval)(Duval County, Texas) 85.68%**
# **[D. C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) 78.10%**
# **[County, South Dakota](Shannon)(Oglala Lakota County, South Dakota) 77.34%**
# **[County, Alabama](Greene)(Greene County, Alabama) 68.32%**
# **[City County, Virginia](Charles)(Charles City County, Virginia) 67.84%**
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Other)
# **[County, Idaho](Jefferson)(Jefferson County, Idaho) 27.51%**
# **[County, Idaho](Lemhi)(Lemhi County, Idaho) 19.77%**
# **[County, Idaho](Fremont)(Fremont County, Idaho) 19.32%**
# **[County, Idaho](Bonneville)(Bonneville County, Idaho) 18.97%**
# **[County, Idaho](Madison)(Madison County, Idaho) 17.04%**
## Voter demographics
Nixon won 36 percent of the Democratic vote, according to an [poll](exit)(exit poll) conducted for [News](CBS)(CBS News) by George Fine Research, Inc. This represents more than twice the percentage of voters who typically defect from their party in presidential elections. Nixon also became the first Republican presidential candidate in American history to win the [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic) vote (53–46), and the first in recent history to win the [blue-collar](blue-collar) vote, which he won by a 5-to-4 margin. McGovern narrowly won the union vote (50–48), though this difference was within the survey's margin of error of 2 percentage points. McGovern also narrowly won the youth vote (i. e., those aged 18 to 24) 52–46, a narrower margin than many of his strategists had predicted. Early on, the McGovern campaign also significantly over-estimated the number of young people who would vote in the election: They predicted that 18 million would have voted in total, but exit polls indicate that the actual number was about 12 million. McGovern did win comfortably among both [African-American](African-American) and Jewish voters, but by somewhat smaller margins than usual for a Democratic candidate. McGovern won the African American vote by 87% to Nixon's 13%.
## Aftermath
On June 17, 1972, five months before election day, five men broke into the [National Committee](Democratic)(Democratic National Committee) headquarters at the [hotel](Watergate)(Watergate hotel) in Washington, D. C.; the resulting investigation led to the revelation of attempted cover-ups of the break-in within the Nixon administration. What became known as the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal) eroded President Nixon's public and political support in his second term, and he resigned on August 9, 1974, in the face of probable [impeachment](Federal impeachment in the United States) by the House of Representatives and removal from office by the Senate.
As part of the continuing Watergate investigation in 1974–1975, federal prosecutors offered companies that had given illegal campaign contributions to President Nixon's re-election campaign lenient sentences if they came forward. Many companies complied, including [Grumman](Northrop)(Northrop Grumman), [3M](3M), [Airlines](American)(American Airlines), and [Airlines](Braniff)(Braniff Airlines). By 1976, prosecutors had convicted 18 American corporations of contributing illegally to Nixon's campaign.
Despite this election delivering Nixon's greatest electoral triumph, Nixon later wrote in his memoirs that "it was one of the most frustrating and in many ways the least satisfying of all".
## See also
*[United States House of Representatives elections](1972)(1972 United States House of Representatives elections)
*[United States Senate elections](1972)(1972 United States Senate elections)
*[United States gubernatorial elections](1972)(1972 United States gubernatorial elections)
*[McGovern 1972 presidential campaign](George)(George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign)
*[inauguration of Richard Nixon](Second)(Second inauguration of Richard Nixon)
*''[and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72](Fear)(Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72)*, a collection of articles by [S. Thompson](Hunter)(Hunter S. Thompson) on the subject of the election, focusing on the McGovern campaign.
## Explanatory notes
## Citations
## Bibliography and further reading
* Alexander, Herbert E. * Financing the 1972 Election* (1976) [online](https://archive.org/details/financing1972ele0000alex)
*
*
*
** Hofstetter, C. Richard. *Bias in the news: Network television coverage of the 1972 election campaign* (Ohio State University Press, 1976) [online](https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159552578.pdf)
* Johnstone, Andrew, and Andrew Priest, eds. *US Presidential Elections and Foreign Policy: Candidates, Campaigns, and Global Politics from FDR to Bill Clinton* (2017) pp 203–228. [online](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/50578/)
* Miller, Arthur H., et al. "A majority party in disarray: Policy polarization in the 1972 election." *American Political Science Review* 70.3 (1976): 753-778; widely cited; [online](https://doi.org/10.2307/1959866)
*
* Perry, James M. *Us & them: how the press covered the 1972 election* (1973) [online](https://archive.org/details/usthemhowpress00perr)
* Simons, Herbert W., James W. Chesebro, and C. Jack Orr. "A movement perspective on the 1972 presidential election." *Quarterly Journal of Speech* 59.2 (1973): 168-179. [online](https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00335637309383165)
* Trent, Judith S., and Jimmie D. Trent. "The rhetoric of the challenger: George Stanley McGovern." *Communication Studies* 25.1 (1974): 11-18.
*
### Primary sources
* Chester, Edward W. (1977). [*A guide to political platforms*](https://archive.org/details/guidetopolitical0000ches).
* Porter, Kirk H. and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. *National party platforms, 1840–1972'' (1973)
## External links
* [The Election Wall's 1972 Election Video Page](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1972)
* [1972 popular vote by counties](http://geoelections.free.fr/USA/elec_comtes/1972.htm)
* [1972 popular vote by states](http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/u/usa/pres/1972.txt)
* [1972 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)](http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/datagraph.php?year=1972&fips=0&f=1&off=0&elect=0)
* [Campaign commercials from the 1972 election](http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1972)
* [C-SPAN segment on 1972 campaign commercials](http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/153283-1)
* [C-SPAN segment on the "Eagleton Affair"](http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/JJosh)
* [Election of 1972 in Counting the Votes](https://web.archive.org/web/20160312073636/http://www.countingthevotes.com/1972)
[ ](Category:1972 United States presidential election)
[of Richard Nixon](Category:Presidency)(Category:Presidency of Richard Nixon)
[Nixon](Category:Richard)(Category:Richard Nixon)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[McGovern](Category:George)(Category:George McGovern)
|
House of Medici
|
house_of_medici
|
# House of Medici
*Revision ID: 1159233484 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T03:05:30Z*
---
[[of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1562-1737).svg|24px|border](File:Flag)] [Duchy of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Tuscany) [[of Arms of the Duchy of Urbino.svg|24px|border](File:Banner)] [of Urbino](Duchy)(Duchy of Urbino)
| etymology=By Medico, Castellan of Potrone, considered the first ancestor of the house
| origin=[Mugello](Mugello), [Tuscia](Tuscia) (present-day Tuscany)
| founded=
| founder=Giambuono de' Medici
| dissolution= ([line](Original)(Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici#Death and legacy))
| cadet branches=14 cadet branches; still alive only 2:}}
| final_ruler=[Gastone de' Medici](Gian)(Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany)
| final_head=[Maria Luisa de' Medici](Anna)(Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici)
| titles=
| members=
| other_families=
| distinctions=[of Saint Stephen](Order)(Order of Saint Stephen)
| traditions=[Catholicism](Catholicism)
| motto=*[lente](Festina)(Festina lente)*
| motto_lang=Latin
| motto_trans="Hurry slowly"
| heirlooms=1494)}}|[Ducal Crown of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Ducal Crown of Tuscany)|[Vase](Medici)(Medici Vase)|[porcelain](Medici)(Medici porcelain)}}|estate=
}}
The **House of Medici** ( , ) was an Italian [family](banking)(banking family) and [dynasty](political)(political dynasty) that first consolidated power in the [of Florence](Republic)(Republic of Florence) under [de' Medici](Cosimo)(Cosimo de' Medici), during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the [region](Mugello)(Mugello region) of [Tuscany](Tuscany), and prospered gradually until it was able to fund the [Bank](Medici)(Medici Bank). This bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century and facilitated the Medicis' rise to political power in [Florence](Florence), although they officially remained citizens rather than monarchs until the 16th century.
The Medici produced four popes of the Catholic Church—[Leo X](Pope)(Pope Leo X) (1513–1521), [Clement VII](Pope)(Pope Clement VII) (1523–1534), [Pius IV](Pope)(Pope Pius IV) (1559–1565)The family of Pius IV, the Medici of [Milan](Milan), considered itself a branch of the House of Medici and was recognized as such by the Florentine [Clement VII](Pope)(Pope Clement VII) and by Cosimo I 'de Medici in the early 16th century. Historians have found no proof of an actual connection between the Medici of Milan and the Medici of Florence, but this belief was widespread during the life of Pius IV and the Medici of Florence allowed the Medici of Milan to use their [of arms](coat)(coat of arms). and [Leo XI](Pope)(Pope Leo XI) (1605)—and two queens of France—[de' Medici](Catherine)(Catherine de' Medici) (1547–1559) and [de' Medici](Marie)(Marie de' Medici) (1600–1610). In 1532, the family acquired the hereditary title [of Florence](Duke)(Duke of Florence). In 1569, the duchy was elevated to the [Duchy of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Tuscany) after territorial expansion. The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy from its inception until 1737, with the death of [Gastone de' Medici](Gian)(Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany). The grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the early grand dukes, but was bankrupt by the time of [III de' Medici](Cosimo)(Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany) (r. 1670–1723).
The Medicis' wealth and influence was initially derived from the textile trade guided by the wool guild of Florence, the *[della Lana](Arte)(Arte della Lana)*. Like other families ruling in Italian , the Medici dominated their city's government, were able to bring Florence under their family's power, and created an environment in which art and [humanism](humanism) flourished. They and other families of Italy inspired the [Renaissance](Italian)(Italian Renaissance), such as the [Visconti](Visconti of Milan) and [Sforza](House of Sforza) in [Milan](Milan), the [Este](House of Este) in [Ferrara](Ferrara), the [Borgia](House of Borgia) and [Rovere](Della)(Della Rovere) in [Rome](Rome), and the [Gonzaga](House of Gonzaga) in [Mantua](Mantua).
The Medici Bank, from when it was created in 1397 to its fall in 1494, was one of the most prosperous and respected institutions in Europe, and the Medici family was considered the wealthiest in Europe for a time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. They were among the earliest businesses to use the [ledger](general)(general ledger) system of accounting through the development of the [bookkeeping system](double-entry)(double-entry bookkeeping system) for tracking credits and debits.
The Medici family have claimed to have funded the invention of the [piano](piano) and [opera](opera), financed the construction of [Peter's Basilica](Saint)(Saint Peter's Basilica) and [Maria del Fiore](Santa)(Santa Maria del Fiore), and were patrons of [Brunelleschi](Brunelleschi), [Botticelli](Botticelli), [da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci), [Michelangelo](Michelangelo), [Raphael](Raphael), [Machiavelli](Machiavelli), [Galileo](Galileo), and [Redi](Francesco)(Francesco Redi), among many others in the arts and sciences. They were also protagonists of the [counter-reformation](counter-reformation), from the beginning of the [reformation](reformation) through the [of Trent](Council)(Council of Trent) and the [wars of religion](French)(French wars of religion).
## History
The Medici family came from the agricultural [region](Mugello)(Mugello region) north of Florence, and they are first mentioned in a document of 1230.The Medieval World – Europe 1100–1350 by Friedrich Heer, 1998 Germany The origin of the name is uncertain. *Medici* is the plural of *[medico](:wiktionary:medico)*, meaning "medical doctor".The name in Italian is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable /ˈmɛ .di.tʃi/ and not on the second vowel.[How to say: Medici](https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/magazinemonitor/2006/10/how_to_say_medici_1.shtml) , [News Magazine Monitor](BBC)(BBC News Magazine Monitor)—*MED-uh-chee* in American English. The dynasty began with the founding of the [Bank](Medici)(Medici Bank) in Florence in 1397.
### Rise to power
[[File:Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici.jpg|thumb|[di Bicci de' Medici](Giovanni)(Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici), founder of the Medici bank]]
[[File:Ghirlandaio a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti 1.jpg|thumb|*The Confirmation of the Rule*, by [Ghirlandaio](Domenico)(Domenico Ghirlandaio)]]
For most of the 13th century, the leading banking centre in Italy was [Siena](Siena). But in 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the [Bonsignori](Gran Tavola)s, went bankrupt, and the city of Siena lost its status as the banking centre of Italy to Florence.Strathern, p 18 Until the late 14th century, the leading family of Florence was the [of Albizzi](House)(Albizzi). In 1293, the [of Justice](Ordinances)(Ordinances of Justice) were enacted; effectively, they became the constitution of the [of Florence](Republic)(Republic of Florence) throughout the Italian Renaissance.Kenneth Bartlett, *The Italian Renaissance*, Chapter 7, p. 37, Volume II, 2005. The city's numerous luxurious [palazzi](palazzo) were becoming surrounded by [townhouses](townhouses) built by the prospering merchant class.
The main challengers to the Albizzi family were the Medici, first under [di Bicci de' Medici](Giovanni)(Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici), later under his son [di Giovanni de' Medici](Cosimo)(Cosimo de' Medici) and great-grandson, [de' Medici](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo de' Medici). The Medici controlled the Medici Bank—then Europe's largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled.Crum, Roger J. ''Severing the Neck of Pride: Donatello's "Judith and Holofernes" and the Recollection of Albizzi Shame in Medicean Florence ''. Artibus et Historiae, Volume 22, Edit 44, 2001. pp. 23–29. The next year, however, a pro-Medici [Signoria](Signoria of Florence) (civic government) led by Tommaso Soderini, Oddo Altoviti and Lucca Pitti was elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the city's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic until 1537, traditionally marking the end of the High Renaissance in Florence, but the instruments of republican government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies, save during intervals after 1494 and 1527. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts but were the unquestioned leaders.
The Medici family was connected to most other elite families of the time through [of convenience](marriages)(marriage of convenience), partnerships, or employment, so the family had a central position in the [network](social)(social network): several families had systematic access to the rest of the elite families only through the Medici, perhaps similar to banking relationships. Some examples of these families include the [Bardi](Bardi family), [Altoviti](House of Altoviti), Ridolfi, Cavalcanti and the Tornabuoni. This has been suggested as a reason for the rise of the Medici family.. This has led to [much more analysis](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&cites=3047393440246405308&q=network) .
Members of the family rose to some prominence in the early 14th century in the wool trade, especially with [France](France) and [Spain](Spain). Despite the presence of some Medici in the city's government [institution](institution)s, they were still far less notable than other outstanding families such as the [Albizzi](Albizzi) or the [Strozzi](Strozzi family). One [de' Medici](Salvestro)(Salvestro de' Medici) was speaker of the woolmakers' [guild](guild) during the [Ciompi](Ciompi) revolt of 1378–82, and one Antonio de' Medici was exiled from Florence in 1396.. Involvement in another plot in 1400 caused all branches of the family to be banned from Florentine politics for twenty years, with the exception of two.
### 15th century
[di Bicci de' Medici](Giovanni)(Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici) (c. 1360–1429), son of [de' Medici](Averardo)(Averardo de' Medici) (1320–1363), increased the wealth of the family through his creation of the Medici Bank, and became one of the richest men in the city of Florence. Although he never held any political office, he gained strong popular support for the family through his support for the introduction of a [system of taxation](proportional)(proportional tax). Giovanni's son [the Elder](Cosimo)(Cosimo de' Medici), (father of the country), took over in 1434 as [maestro](gran)(gran maestro) (the unofficial head of the Florentine Republic).
[[Pater Patriae.jpg|thumb|left|Cosimo *Pater patriae*, Uffizi Gallery, Florence](File:Cosimo)]
Three successive generations of the Medici—Cosimo, Piero, and Lorenzo—ruled over Florence through the greater part of the 15th century. They clearly dominated Florentine [government](representative)(representative government) without abolishing it altogether.*[Prince](The)(The Prince)* [Machiavelli](Niccolò)(Niccolò Machiavelli). A Norton Critical Edition. Translated and edited by Rober M. Adams. New York. W.W. Norton and Company, 1977. p. viii (Historical Introduction). These three members of the Medici family had great skills in the management of so "restive and independent a city" as Florence. When Lorenzo died in 1492, however, his son Piero proved quite incapable of responding successfully to challenges caused by the [invasion of Italy in 1492](French)(Italian War of 1494-98), and within two years, he and his supporters were forced into exile and replaced with a republican government.
[de' Medici](Piero)(Piero di Cosimo de' Medici) (1416–1469), Cosimo's son, was only in power for five years (1464–1469). He was called "Piero the Gouty" because of the [gout](gout) that pained his foot and led to his death. Unlike his father, Piero had little interest in the arts. Due to his illness, he mostly stayed at home bedridden, and therefore did little to further the Medici control of Florence while in power. As such, Medici rule stagnated until the next generation, when Piero's son Lorenzo took over.
[de' Medici](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo de' Medici) (1449–1492), called "the Magnificent", was more capable of leading and ruling a city, but he neglected the family banking business, which led to its ultimate ruin. To ensure the continuance of his family's success, Lorenzo planned his children's future careers for them. He groomed the headstrong [II](Piero)(Piero the Unfortunate) to follow as his successor in civil leadership; Giovanni15th century Italy. (future [Leo X](Pope)(Pope Leo X)) was placed in the church at an early age; and his daughter [Maddalena](Maddalena de' Medici (1473-1528)) was provided with a sumptuous dowry to make a politically advantageous marriage to a son of [Innocent VIII](Pope)(Pope Innocent VIII) that cemented the alliance between the Medici and the Roman branches of the [Cybo](Cybo) and [Altoviti](House of Altoviti) families.Hibbard, pp. 177, 202, 162.
The [conspiracy](Pazzi)(Pazzi conspiracy) of 1478 was an attempt to depose the Medici family by killing Lorenzo with his younger brother [Giuliano](Giuliano de' Medici) during Easter services; the assassination attempt ended with the death of Giuliano and an injured Lorenzo. The conspiracy involved the [Pazzi](Pazzi) and [Salviati](Salviati (bankers)) families, both rival banking families seeking to end the influence of the Medici, as well as the priest presiding over the church services, the [of Pisa](Archbishop)(Francesco Salviati (archbishop)), and even [Sixtus IV](Pope)(Pope Sixtus IV) to a degree. The conspirators approached Sixtus IV in the hopes of gaining his approval, as he and the Medici had a long rivalry themselves, but the pope gave no official sanction to the plan. Despite his refusal of official approval, the pope nonetheless allowed the plot to proceed without interfering, and, after the failed assassination of Lorenzo, also gave [dispensation](Dispensation (Catholic Church)) for crimes done in the service of the church. After this, Lorenzo adopted his brother's illegitimate son Giulio de' Medici (1478–1535), the future Pope [VII](Clement)(Clement VII). Lorenzo's son Piero II took over as the head of Florence after Lorenzo's death. The Medici were expelled from Florence from 1494 to 1512 after Piero acceded to all of the demands of invader [VIII of France](Charles)(Charles VIII of France).
The Medici additionally benefited from the discovery of vast deposits of [alum](Potassium alum) in [Tolfa](Tolfa) in 1461. Alum is essential as a [mordant](mordant) in the dyeing of certain cloths and was used extensively in Florence, where the main industry was textile manufacturing. Before the Medici, the Turks were the only exporters of alum, so Europe was forced to buy from them until the discovery in Tolfa. [II](Pius)(Pope Pius II) granted the Medici family a monopoly on the mining there, making them the primary producers of alum in Europe.
### 16th century
The exile of the Medici lasted until 1512, after which the "senior" branch of the family—those descended from Cosimo the Elder—were able to rule until the assassination of [de' Medici](Alessandro)(Alessandro de' Medici), first [of Florence](Duke)(Duke of Florence), in 1537. This century-long rule was interrupted only on two occasions (between 1494–1512 and 1527–1530), when anti-Medici factions took control of Florence. Following the assassination of Duke Alessandro, power passed to the "junior" Medici branch—those descended from [the Elder](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo the Elder), the youngest son of Giovanni di Bicci, starting with his great-great-grandson [I "the Great."](Cosimo)(Cosimo I de' Medici)
Cosimo the Elder and his father started the Medici foundations in banking and manufacturing—including a form of [franchises](franchising). The family's influence grew with its patronage of wealth, art, and culture. Ultimately, it reached its zenith in the [papacy](pope) and continued to flourish for centuries afterward as Dukes of Florence and Tuscany. At least half, probably more, of Florence's people were employed by the Medici and their foundational branches in business.
#### Medici popes
[[TAPESTRY.jpg|thumb|The Medici Wedding Tapestry of 1589](File:MEDICI)]
The Medici briefly became leaders of [Christendom](Christendom) through their two famous 16th century popes, [X](Leo)(Leo X) and [VII](Clement)(Clement VII). Both also served as *[facto](de)(de facto)* political rulers of Rome, Florence, and large swaths of Italy known as the [States](Papal)(Papal States). They were generous patrons of the arts who commissioned masterpieces such as [Raphael](Raphael)'s *[Transfiguration](Transfiguration (Raphael))* and [Michelangelo](Michelangelo)'s *[Last Judgment](The)(The Last Judgment (Michelangelo))*; however, their reigns coincided with troubles for the [Vatican](Holy See), including [Luther](Martin)(Martin Luther)'s [Reformation](Protestant)(Protestant Reformation) and the infamous [of Rome in 1527](sack)(Sack of Rome (1527)).
Leo X's fun-loving pontificate bankrupted Vatican coffers and accrued massive debts. From Leo's election as pope in 1513 to his death in 1521, Florence was overseen, in turn, by [de' Medici, Duke of Nemours](Giuliano)(Giuliano de' Medici, Duke of Nemours), [de' Medici, Duke of Urbino](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino), and Giulio de' Medici, the latter of whom became [Clement VII](Pope)(Pope Clement VII).
Clement VII's tumultuous pontificate was dominated by a rapid succession of political crises—many long in the making—that resulted in the [of Rome](sack)(Sack of Rome (1527)) by the armies of [Roman Emperor Charles V](Holy)(Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) in 1527 and rise of the Salviati, Altoviti and Strozzi as the leading bankers of the [Curie](Roman)(Roman Curia). From the time of Clement's election as pope in 1523 until the sack of Rome, Florence was governed by the young [de' Medici](Ippolito)(Ippolito de' Medici) (future cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church), [de' Medici](Alessandro)(Alessandro de' Medici) (future duke of Florence), and their guardians. In 1530, after allying himself with Charles V, Pope Clement VII succeeded in securing the engagement of Charles V's daughter [of Austria](Margeret)(Margaret of Parma) to his illegitimate nephew (reputedly his son) [de' Medici](Alessandro)(Alessandro de' Medici). Clement also convinced Charles V to name Alessandro as Duke of Florence. Thus began the reign of Medici monarchs in Florence, which lasted two centuries.
[[File:Cosimo-GDuke-BR.jpg|thumb|left|[I](Cosimo)(Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), founder of the [Duchy of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Tuscany)]]
After securing Alessandro de' Medici's dukedom, Pope Clement VII married off his first cousin, twice removed, [de' Medici](Catherine)(Catherine de' Medici), to the son of Emperor Charles V's arch-enemy, King [I of France](Francis)(Francis I of France)—the future King [II](Henry)(Henry II of France). This led to the transfer of Medici blood, through Catherine's daughters, to the royal family of Spain through [of Valois](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth of Valois), and the [of Lorraine](House)(House of Lorraine) through [of Valois](Claude)(Claude of Valois).
In 1534, following a lengthy illness, Pope Clement VII died—and with him the stability of the Medici's "senior" branch. In 1535, Ippolito Cardinal de' Medici died under mysterious circumstances. In 1536, Alessandro de' Medici married Charles V's daughter, Margaret of Austria; however, the following year he was assassinated by a resentful cousin, [de' Medici](Lorenzino)(Lorenzino de' Medici). The deaths of Alessandro and Ippolito enabled the Medici's "junior" branch to lead Florence.
#### Medici Dukes
Another outstanding figure of the 16th-century Medici family was Cosimo I, who rose from relatively modest beginnings in the [Mugello](Mugello region) to attain supremacy over the whole of [Tuscany](Tuscany). Against the opposition of [de' Medici](Catherine)(Catherine de' Medici), [III](Paul)(Pope Paul III) and their allies, he prevailed in various battles to conquer Florence's hated rival [Siena](Siena) and found the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Cosimo purchased a portion of the island of [Elba](Elba) from the [of Genoa](Republic)(Republic of Genoa) and based the Tuscan navy there. He died in 1574, succeeded by his eldest surviving son [Francesco](Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), whose death without male heirs led to the succession of his younger brother, [Ferdinando](Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), in 1587. Francesco married [of Austria](Johanna)(Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany), and with his consort produced [de' Medici](Eleonora)(Eleonora de' Medici), Duchess of Mantua, and [de' Medici](Marie)(Marie de' Medici), Queen of France and Navarre. Through Marie, all succeeding French monarchs (bar the [Napoleons](House of Bonaparte)) were descended from Francesco.
Ferdinando eagerly assumed the government of Tuscany. He commanded the draining of the Tuscan marshlands, built a road network in southern Tuscany and cultivated trade in [Livorno](Livorno).Hale, p. 150. To augment the Tuscan silk industry, he oversaw the planting of [trees](mulberry)(Morus (plant)) along the major roads (silk worms feed on mulberry leaves).Hale, p. 151. In foreign affairs, he shifted Tuscany away from HabsburgAustria and Spain were ruled by the House of Habsburg; the two are interchangeable terms for the Habsburg domains in the time period in question. [hegemony](hegemony) by marrying the first non-Habsburg marriage candidate since Alessandro, [of Lorraine](Christina)(Christina of Lorraine), a granddaughter of Catherine de' Medici. The Spanish reaction was to construct a [citadel](citadel) on their portion of the island of Elba. To strengthen the new Franco-Tuscan alliance, he married his niece, Marie, to [IV of France](Henry)(Henry IV of France). Henry explicitly stated that he would defend Tuscany from Spanish aggression, but later reneged, after which Ferdinando was forced to marry his heir, Cosimo, to [Maddalena of Austria](Maria)(Maria Maddalena of Austria) to assuage Spain (where Maria Maddalena's sister [Margaret](Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain) was the incumbent Queen consort). Ferdinando also sponsored a Tuscan expedition to the [World](New)(New World) with the intention of establishing a Tuscan colony, an enterprise that brought no result for permanent colonial acquisitions.
Despite all of these incentives for economic growth and prosperity, the population of Florence at the dawn of the 17th century was a mere 75,000, far smaller than the other capitals of Italy: Rome, Milan, Venice, Palermo and Naples.Hale, p. 158. Francesco and Ferdinando, due to lax distinction between Medici and Tuscan state property, are thought to have been wealthier than their ancestor, Cosimo de' Medici, the founder of the dynasty.Hale, p. 160. The Grand Duke alone had the prerogative to exploit the state's mineral and salt resources, and the fortunes of the Medici were directly tied to the Tuscan economy.
### 17th century
[[File:Cosimo ii de' medici adn two.jpg|thumb|From left to right: [Grand Duchess Maria Maddalena](The)(Maria Maddalena of Austria), [Grand Duke Cosimo II](The)(Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), and their elder son, the future [II](Ferdinando)(Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany)]]
Ferdinando, although no longer a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive conclaves. In 1605, Ferdinando succeeded in getting his candidate, Alessandro de' Medici, elected [Leo XI](Pope)(Pope Leo XI). He died the same month, but his successor, [Paul V](Pope)(Pope Paul V), was also pro-Medici.Hale, p. 165. Ferdinando's pro-papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Tuscany was overrun with religious orders, not all of whom were obliged to pay taxes. Ferdinando died in 1609, leaving an affluent realm; his inaction in international affairs, however, would have long-reaching consequences down the line.
In France, Marie de' Medici was acting as regent for her son, [XIII](Louis)(Louis XIII of France). Louis repudiated her pro-Habsburg policy in 1617. She lived the rest of her life deprived of any political influence.
Ferdinando's successor, [II](Cosimo)(Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), reigned for less than 12 years. He married Maria Maddalena of Austria, with whom he had his eight children, including [de' Medici](Margherita)(Margherita de' Medici), [II de' Medici](Ferdinando)(Ferdinando II de' Medici), and an [de' Medici](Anna)(Anna de' Medici).
He is most remembered as the patron of astronomer [Galilei](Galileo)(Galileo Galilei), whose 1610 treatise, [Nuncius](Sidereus)(Sidereus Nuncius), was dedicated to him.Strathen, p. 368. Cosimo died of consumption ([tuberculosis](tuberculosis)) in 1621.Hale, p. 187.
Cosimo's elder son, Ferdinando, was not yet of legal maturity to succeed him, thus Maria Maddalena and his grandmother, Christina of Lorraine, acted as regents. Their collective regency is known as the *Turtici*. Maria Maddelana's temperament was analogous to Christina's, and together they aligned Tuscany with the [papacy](Papal States), re-doubled the Tuscan clergy, and allowed the [heresy](heresy) trial of Galileo Galilei to occur.Acton, p. 111. Upon the death of the last [of Urbino](Duke)(Francesco Maria II della Rovere) (Francesco Maria II), instead of claiming the duchy for Ferdinando, who was married to the Duke of Urbino's granddaughter and heiress, [della Rovere](Vittoria)(Vittoria Della Rovere), they permitted it to be annexed by [Urban VIII](Pope)(Pope Urban VIII). In 1626, they banned any Tuscan subject from being educated outside the Grand Duchy, a law later overturned, but resurrected by Maria Maddalena's grandson, [III](Cosimo)(Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany).Acton, p. 192. [Acton](Harold)(Harold Acton), an Anglo-Italian historian, ascribed the decline of Tuscany to the *Turtici* regency.
Grand Duke Ferdinado was obsessed with new technology, and had a variety of hygrometers, barometers, thermometers, and telescopes installed in the [Pitti](Palazzo)(Palazzo Pitti).Acton, p. 27. In 1657, [de' Medici](Leopoldo)(Leopoldo de' Medici), the Grand Duke's youngest brother, established the [del Cimento](Accademia)(Accademia del Cimento), organized to attract scientists to Florence from all over Tuscany for mutual study.Acton, p. 38.
Tuscany participated in the [of Castro](Wars)(Wars of Castro) (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Pope Urban VIII in 1643.Hale, p. 180. The war effort was costly and the treasury so empty because of it that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds, with the result that the interest rate was lowered by 0.75%.Hale, p. 181. At that time, the economy was so decrepit that [trade](barter)(barter trade) became prevalent in rural market places.
Ferdinando died on 23 May 1670 afflicted by [apoplexy](apoplexy) and [dropsy](dropsy). He was interred in the [of San Lorenzo](Basilica)(Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence), the Medici's necropolis.Acton, p. 108. At the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 730,594; the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in [Pisa](Pisa).Acton, p. 112.
Ferdinando's marriage to Vittoria della Rovere produced two children: Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and [Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro](Francesco)(Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro). Upon Vittoria's death in 1694, her [allodial](Allodial title) possessions, the Duchies of Rovere and [Montefeltro](Montefeltro), passed to her younger son.
### 18th century: the fall of the dynasty
[[Cosimo III de' Medici in grand ducal robes (Warsaw Royal Castle).jpg|thumb|Cosimo III, the Medicean grand duke, in Grand Ducal regalia](File:Volterrano,)]
[[File:Antonio Bellucci 001.jpg|thumb|[Maria Luisa de' Medici](Anna)(Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici), the last of the Grand Ducal line, in ''Minerva, Merkur und Plutus huldigen der Kurfürstin Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici'' () after [Bellucci](Antonio)(Antonio Bellucci), 1706]]
Cosimo III married [Louise d'Orléans](Marguerite)(Marguerite Louise d'Orléans), a granddaughter of [IV of France](Henry)(Henry IV of France) and Marie de' Medici. An exceedingly discontented pairing, this union produced three children, notably [Maria Luisa de' Medici, Electress Palatine](Anna)(Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici), and the last Medicean Grand Duke of Tuscany, [Gastone de' Medici](Gian)(Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany).
[Wilhelm, Elector Palatine](Johann)(Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine), Anna Maria Luisa's spouse, successfully requisitioned the dignity *Royal Highness* for the Grand Duke and his family in 1691, despite the fact that they had no claim to any kingdom.Acton, p. 182. Cosimo frequently paid the Holy Roman Emperor, his nominal feudal overlord, exorbitant dues,Acton, p. 243. and he sent munitions to the emperor during the [of Vienna](Battle)(Battle of Vienna).
The Medici lacked male heirs, and by 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt. In comparison to the 17th century, the population of Florence declined by 50%, and the population of the grand duchy as a whole declined by an estimated 40%.Strathern, p. 392. Cosimo desperately tried to reach a settlement with the European powers, but Tuscany's legal status was very complicated: the area of the grand duchy formerly comprising the [of Siena](Republic)(Republic of Siena) was technically a Spanish fief, while the territory of the old [of Florence](Republic)(Republic of Florence) was thought to be under imperial [suzerainty](suzerainty). Upon the death of his first son, Cosimo contemplated restoring the Florentine republic, either upon Anna Maria Luisa's death, or on his own, if he predeceased her. The restoration of the republic would entail resigning Siena to the Holy Roman Empire, but, regardless, it was vehemently endorsed by his government. Europe largely ignored Cosimo's plan. Only Great Britain and the [Republic](Dutch)(Dutch Republic) gave any credence to it, and the plan ultimately died with Cosimo III in 1723.Hale, p. 191.
On 4 April 1718, Great Britain, France and the Dutch Republic (also later, Austria) selected [Carlos of Spain](Don)(Charles III of Spain), the elder child of [Farnese](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Farnese) and [V of Spain](Philip)(Philip V of Spain), as the Tuscan heir. By 1722, the electress was not even acknowledged as heiress, and Cosimo was reduced to spectator at the conferences for Tuscany's future.Acton, p. 175. On 25 October 1723, six days before his death, Grand Duke Cosimo disseminated a final proclamation commanding that Tuscany stay independent: Anna Maria Luisa would succeed uninhibited to Tuscany after Gian Gastone, and the grand duke reserved the right to choose his successor. However, these portions of his proclamation were completely ignored, and he died a few days later.
Gian Gastone despised the electress for engineering his catastrophic marriage to [Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg](Anna)(Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe-Lauenburg); while she abhorred her brother's liberal policies, he repealed all of his father's anti-Semitic statutes. Gian Gastone revelled in upsetting her.Acton, p. 280. On 25 October 1731, a Spanish detachment occupied Florence on behalf of Don Carlos, who disembarked in Tuscany in December of the same year.
The *Ruspanti*, Gian Gastone's decrepit entourage, loathed the electress, and she them. Duchess [of Bavaria](Violante)(Violante of Bavaria), Gian Gastone's sister-in-law, tried to withdraw the grand duke from the sphere of influence of the *Ruspanti* by organising banquets. His conduct at the banquets was less than regal; he often vomited repeatedly into his napkin, belched, and regaled those present with socially inappropriate jokes.Acton, p. 188. Following a sprained ankle in 1731, he remained confined to his bed for the rest of his life. The bed, often smelling of [faeces](feces), was occasionally cleaned by Violante.
In 1736, following the [of the Polish Succession](War)(War of the Polish Succession), Don Carlos was disbarred from Tuscany, and [III of Lorraine](Francis)(Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor) was made heir in his stead.Acton, p. 301. In January 1737, the Spanish troops withdrew from Tuscany, and were replaced by Austrians.
Gian Gastone died on 9 July 1737, surrounded by prelates and his sister. Anna Maria Luisa was offered a nominal [regency](regent) by the Prince de Craon until the new grand duke could peregrinate to Tuscany, but declined.Acton, p. 304. Upon her brother's death, she received all the House of Medici's allodial possessions.
Anna Maria Luisa signed the *Patto di Famiglia* ("family pact") on 31 October 1737. In collaboration with the Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke Francis of Lorraine, she [willed](will (law)) all the personal property of the Medici to the Tuscan state, provided that nothing was ever removed from Florence.
The "Lorrainers", as the occupying forces were called, were popularly loathed, but the regent, the Prince de Craon, allowed the electress to live unperturbed in the [Pitti](Palazzo)(Palazzo Pitti). She occupied herself with financing and overseeing the construction of the [of San Lorenzo](Basilica)(Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence), started in 1604 by [I](Ferdinando)(Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), at a cost to the state of 1,000 crowns per week.Acton, p. 209.
The electress donated much of her fortune to charity: £4,000 a month.Acton, p. 310. On 19 February 1743, she died, and the grand ducal line of the House of Medici died with her. The Florentines grieved her,Acton, p. 309. and she was interred in the crypt that she helped to complete, San Lorenzo.
The extinction of the main Medici dynasty and the accession in 1737 of [Stephen](Francis)(Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor), [of Lorraine](Duke)(Lorraine (province)) and husband of [Theresa of Austria](Maria)(Maria Theresa of Austria), led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the [Austria](Austria)n crown. The line of the [of Ottajano](Princes)(Princes of Ottajano), an extant branch of the House of Medici who were eligible to inherit the grand duchy of Tuscany when the last male of the senior branch died in 1737, could have carried on as Medici sovereigns but for the intervention of Europe's major powers, which allocated the sovereignty of Florence elsewhere.
As a consequence, the grand duchy expired and the territory became a [secundogeniture](secundogeniture) of the [Habsburg-Lorraine](House of Habsburg) dynasty. The first grand duke of the new dynasty, Francis I, was a great-great-great-grandson of Francesco I de' Medici, thus he continued the Medicean Dynasty on the throne of Tuscany through the female line. The Habsburgs were deposed in favor of the [of Bourbon-Parma](House)(House of Bourbon) in 1801 (themselves deposed in 1807), but were later restored at the [of Vienna](Congress)(Congress of Vienna). Tuscany became a province of the United Kingdom of Italy in 1861. However, several extant branches of the House of Medici survive, including the [of Ottajano](Princes)(Princes of Ottajano), the Medici Tornaquinci, and the Verona Medici Counts of Caprara and [Gavardo](Gavardo).Hibbert, p. 60. (see [family tree](Medici)(Medici family tree#The descendants line))
## Legacy
[[File:Sandro Botticelli 056.jpg|thumb|The family of [de' Medici](Piero)(Piero di Cosimo de' Medici) portrayed by [Botticelli](Sandro)(Sandro Botticelli) in the *[del Magnificat](Madonna)(Madonna del Magnificat)*.]]
The greatest accomplishments of the Medici were in the sponsorship of [art](art) and [architecture](architecture), mainly [early](Renaissance art) and [Renaissance](High)(High Renaissance) art and architecture. The Medici were responsible for a high proportion of the major Florentine works of art created during their period of rule. Their support was critical, since artists generally began work on their projects only after they had received commissions. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, the first patron of the arts in the family, aided [Masaccio](Masaccio) and commissioned [Brunelleschi](Filippo)(Filippo Brunelleschi) for the reconstruction of the [of San Lorenzo, Florence](Basilica)(Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence) in 1419. Cosimo the Elder's notable artistic associates were [Donatello](Donatello) and [Angelico](Fra)(Fra Angelico). In later years the most significant [protégé](protégé) of the Medici family was [Buonarroti](Michelangelo)(Michelangelo) (1475–1564), who produced work for a number of family members, beginning with Lorenzo the Magnificent, who was said to be extremely fond of the young Michelangelo and invited him to study the family collection of antique sculpture.Howard Hibbard, *Michelangelo* (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), p. 21. Lorenzo also served as patron to [da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci) (1452–1519) for seven years. Indeed, Lorenzo was an artist in his own right and an author of poetry and song; his support of the arts and letters is seen as a high point in Medici patronage.
[[File:Gozzoli magi.jpg|thumb|left|Medici family members placed allegorically in the entourage of a king from the [Wise Men](Three)(Biblical Magi) in the Tuscan countryside in a [Gozzoli](Benozzo)(Benozzo Gozzoli) fresco, c. 1459.]]
After Lorenzo's death the puritanical Dominican friar [Savonarola](Girolamo)(Girolamo Savonarola) rose to prominence, warning Florentines against excessive luxury. Under Savonarola's fanatical leadership many great works were "voluntarily" destroyed in the [of the Vanities](Bonfire)(Bonfire of the Vanities) (February 7, 1497). The following year, on 23 May 1498, Savonarola and two young supporters were burned at the stake in the Piazza della Signoria, the same location as his bonfire. In addition to commissions for art and architecture, the Medici were prolific collectors and today their acquisitions form the core of the Uffizi museum in Florence. In architecture, the Medici were responsible for some notable features of Florence, including the [Gallery](Uffizi)(Uffizi), the [Gardens](Boboli)(Boboli Gardens), the [Belvedere](Belvedere (fort)), the [Chapel](Medici)(Medici Chapel) and the [Medici](Palazzo)(Palazzo Medici Riccardi).[Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, *Michelangelo: Mysteries of Medici Chapel*, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006](http://www.florentine-society.ru/Medici_Chapel_Mysteries.htm) .
Later, in Rome, the Medici popes continued in the family tradition of patronizing artists in Rome. Pope Leo X would chiefly commission works from [Raphael](Raphael), whereas Pope Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint the altar wall of the [Chapel](Sistine)(Sistine Chapel) just before the pontiff's death in 1534.Hibbard, p. 240. [of Toledo](Eleanor)(Eleanor of Toledo), a princess of Spain and wife of Cosimo I the Great, purchased the Pitti Palace from [Pitti](Buonaccorso)(Buonaccorso Pitti) in 1550. Cosimo in turn patronized [Vasari](Giorgio Vasari), who erected the Uffizi Gallery in 1560 and founded the [delle Arti del Disegno](Accademia)(Accademia delle Arti del Disegno) – ("Academy of the Arts of Drawing") in 1563.Official site of the *Accademia delle Arti del Disegno* of Florence, Brief History (it. leng.) [de' Medici](Marie)(Marie de' Medici), widow of [IV of France](Henry)(Henry IV of France) and mother of [XIII](Louis)(Louis XIII of France), is the subject of a commissioned cycle of paintings known as the [de' Medici cycle](Marie)(Marie de' Medici cycle), painted for the [Palace](Luxembourg)(Luxembourg Palace) by court painter [Paul Rubens](Peter)(Peter Paul Rubens) in 1622–23.
Although none of the Medici themselves were scientists, the family is well known to have been the patrons of the famous [Galilei](Galileo)(Galileo Galilei), who tutored multiple generations of Medici children and was an important figurehead for his patron's quest for power. Galileo's patronage was eventually abandoned by [II](Ferdinando)(Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), when the [Inquisition](Roman Inquisition) accused Galileo of heresy. However, the Medici family did afford the scientist a safe haven for many years. Galileo named the [largest moons](four)(Galilean moons) of [Jupiter](Jupiter) after four Medici children he tutored, although the names Galileo used are not the names currently used.
## Main genealogical table
The table below shows the origins of the Medici:
[fl.](Floruit) 1306
|giv='''[Giovenco](Giovenco I de' Medici)***? †1320
|con=**[Conte](Conte de' Medici)**[fl.](Floruit) 1330
|sal=**[Salvestro](Salvestro detto Chiarissimo)***? †1346
|guc=**[Guccio](Guccio de' Medici)***1298 †1315
|ard=**[Ardingo](Ardingo de' Medici)**Two more brothers unknown.[fl.](Floruit) 1343
}}
|headerstyle=background:#ccccff|bodystyle=text-align:center}}
This extract shows the branch that gave rise to the celebrated branch of the Medici descending from Giovanni "di Bicci", who founded the Medici fortunes:
This is the branch of Cosimo's brother, Lorenzo, called the "Popolano" Branch, which gave rise to the Grand-Dukes of Tuscany:
## Titles
### List of heads of the Medici
#### *Signore* in the Republic of Florence
#### Dukes of Florence
#### Grand Dukes of Tuscany
## Coats of arms
The origin of the Medici coat of arms is not recorded. One unproven story traces their ancestry to a knight of Charlemagne's, Averardo, who defeated a giant, Mugello. In reward, Charlemagne is said to have rewarded Averardo with the shield mauled by the giant, with the dents in the shape of balls, and the giant's lands in Mugello.
[[delle Arti fiorentine, sec. XVIII - san dl SAN IMG-00003045.jpg|thumb|Florentine Guild Arms with the Moneychangers in top row 3rd.](File:Stemmi)]
[[seen sliced in half, an art historian suggests that whole blood oranges could be the imagery in the Medici coats of arms](File:Blood_Orange_2.jpg|thumb|Here)]
The simplest, though also unproven, theory suggests that the balls represented coins copied from the coat of arms of the Guild of Moneychangers (Arte del Cambio) to which the Medici belonged. That shield was red strewn with Byzantine coins (bezants). The number of balls also varied with time, as shown below. It has also been argued that these coins referenced the three coins or golden balls associated with [Nicholas](St.)(St. Nicholas), particularly as the saint was invoked by Italian bankers as they took oaths.
As an Italian vocabulary word, "medici" means "medical doctors" and identifications with the family members as physicians may be found among their names as early as the eleventh century. Fanciful stories depict the images as pills or cupping glasses, a late-medieval medical instrument used to draw blood. Pills did not exist until much later and bloodletting was not a common practice at the time of the first Medici coat of arms. Art historian Rocky Ruggiero suggests plausibly however, that the images may represent whole ripe [oranges](blood)(blood oranges) that typically are grown in Italy. Although knowledge of vitamins did not exist at the time, the benefit of oranges for certain diseases was recognized and their association with recommendations by medical doctors suggests to Ruggiero that this likely is the imagery intended in the coats of arms for the Medici family.Ruggiero, Rocky, Ph.D., *[Rebuilding The Renaissance, Episode 93 – Florence: The Medici Dynasty](https://rockyruggiero.com/episode-93-florence-the-medici-dynasty/) *, Making Art and History Come to Life, October 28, 2020, an audio file
Alternatively, it has been suggested that the Medici coat of arms was initially inspired by symbols drawn from Etruscan votive sculpture, examples of which feature an oval dome with balls (echoing the forms of the Medici shield), as well as six balls within a triangle (as found in the alternative, triangular version of the Medici emblem). This particular influence offers an explanation for the red hue of the Medici balls, the colour of the terracotta sculpture. It would also have reflected the family's interest in Etruscan art and culture. In addition, the notion of Etruscan votive sculpture would have chimed with the participation of the Medici in the religious custom of offering up votive statues, a practice that recalled the ancient Etruscan convention of donating sculptures in the hope of, or gratitude for, divine favour. Such favours would have included the wish for a strong and healthy family, both for the supplicant and their descendants.
File:Coat of arms of Cosimo il Vecchio (type 2).svg|Old coat of arms of the Medici used by Giovanni di Bicci and Cosimo the Elder
File:Coat of arms of the House of Medici (old) - type 2.svg|The intermediate coat of arms of the Medici, *Or, six balls in orle gules*
File:Augmented Arms of Medici.svg|The "augmented coat of arms of the Medici, *Or, five balls in orle gules, in chief a larger one of the arms of France* (viz. *Azure, three fleurs-de-lis or*) was granted by [XI](Louis)(Louis XI) in 1465.John Woodward, *A Treatise on Ecclesiastical Heraldry*, 1894, [p. 162](https://archive.org/stream/atreatiseoneccl00woodgoog#page/n258/mode/2up)
File:Great coat of arms of the Medici di Ottajano.svg|Great coat of arms of Medici of Ottajano
File:Coat of Arms of the Grand duchy of Tuscany.svg|Coat of Arms of the Grand-Duke of Tuscany
File:Coat of arms of Medici popes.svg|Coat of arms of Medici popes
File:Coat Cardinal De Medici.svg|Coat of arms of the Medici Cardinals
File:Arms of Catherina de' Medici.svg|Coat of Arms of Catherine of Medici, as Queen of France
File:COA french queen Marie de Médicis.svg|Coat of Arms of Maria of Medici, as Queen of France
File:Coat of arms of the House of de' Medici.png|Achievement of the House of de' Medici
## See also
* [family tree](Medici)(Medici family tree)
* [of popes from the Medici family](List)(List of popes from the Medici family)
* [family](Strozzi)(Strozzi family) (surviving), [family](Pazzi)(Pazzi conspiracy) (extinct) rivals of the Medici
* [Baldissera family](Castellini)(Castellini Baldissera) (relatives of the Medici)
## Notes
## References
* a highly readable, non-scholarly general history of the family
* Miles J. Unger, *Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de Medici*, (Simon and Schuster 2008) is a vividly colorful biography of this true "renaissance man", the uncrowned ruler of Florence during its golden age
* [Schevill](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Schevill), *History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance* (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence
* [Booth](Cecily)(Cecily Booth), *Cosimo I, Duke of Florence*, 1921, University Press
* [Acton](Harold)(Harold Acton), *The Last Medici*, Macmillan, London, 1980 [1932],
* [Strathern](Paul)(Paul Strathern), *The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance* (Pimlico, 2005) is an informative and lively account of the Medici family, their finesse and foibles—extremely readable, though with a few factual and typographical errors.
* [Martines](Lauro)(Lauro Martines), *April Blood: Florence and the Plot Against the Medici* (Oxford University Press 2003) a detailed account of the Pazzi Conspiracy, the players, the politics of the day, and the fallout of the assassination plot . Though accurate in historic details, Martines writes with an anti-Medici tone.
* [Accounting in Italy](http://www.franzarlinghaus.de/Arlinghaus%20ArtBookkeeping.pdf)
* [Millingchamp Vaughan](Herbert)(Herbert Millingchamp Vaughan), [*The Medici Popes*](https://archive.org/details/medicipopesleoxc00vauguoft). New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1908.
* [Zophy](Jonathan)(Jonathan Zophy), *A Short History of Renaissance and Reformation Europe, Dances over Fire and Water*. 1996. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.
## Further reading
* [Jean](Lucas-Dubreton,)(Jean Lucas-Dubreton) (1961). *Daily Life in Florence in the Time of the Medici.* New York City: [Publishers](Macmillan)(Macmillan Publishers).
* [Tim](Parks,)(Tim Parks) (2005). *Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth-Century Florence.* New York City: [W. Norton & Company](W.)(W. W. Norton & Company). .
## External links
* [The Medici Archive Project](http://www.medici.org/)
* [Prince Ottaviano de' Medici: Solving a 417-year-old murder mystery (May 4, 2004)](https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/04/world/florence-journal-where-the-bodies-are-buried-modern-day-medici-feud.html/)
* [The Moscow Florentine Society](http://www.florentine-society.ru/index_en.htm)
* [Medici Family Tree, featuring portraits and bios of key members of the Medici Dynasty, 1400–1737](http://beckydaroff.com/arthistory/medici/)
* *The Medici Family*, History Channel. Retrieved 8 April 2016. [The Medici Family](http://www.history.com/topics/medici-family)
* [The Medici Family of Florence](https://www.florenceinferno.com/the-medici-family/)
}}
[ ](Category:House of Medici)
[Medici](Category:Italian noble families)
[Medic](Category:Families of Florence)
[Medici](Category:Papal families)
[of the Republic of Florence](Category:People)(Category:People of the Republic of Florence)
[Medici](Category:Banking families)
[in Florence](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture in Florence)
[of state of Florence](Category:Heads)(Category:Heads of state of Florence)
[of Italy](Category:History)(Category:History of Italy)
[of Tuscany](Category:History)(Category:History of Tuscany)
[culture](Category:Italian)(Category:Italian culture)
[Catholic families](Category:Roman)(Category:Roman Catholic families)
[Medici](Category:Republic of Florence)
[families](Category:Priestly)(Category:Priestly families)
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Body mass index
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body_mass_index
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# Body mass index
*Revision ID: 1159424868 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T07:01:26Z*
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**Body mass index** (**BMI**) is a value derived from the [mass](mass) ([weight](Mass versus weight)) and [height](height) of a person. The BMI is defined as the [mass](body)(human body weight) divided by the [square](square (algebra)) of the [height](body)(human height), and is expressed in [units](Units of measurement) of kg/m2, resulting from mass in [kilogram](kilogram)s and height in [metre](metre)s.
The BMI may be determined using a table}} or [chart](chart) which displays BMI as a function of mass and height using contour lines or colours for different BMI categories, and which may use other units of measurement (converted to [units](metric)(Metric system) for the calculation).}}
The BMI is a convenient [of thumb](rule)(rule of thumb) used to broadly categorize a person as *underweight*, *normal weight*, *overweight*, or *obese* based on tissue mass ([muscle](muscle), fat, and bone) and height. Major adult BMI classifications are underweight (under 18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5 to 24.9), overweight (25 to 29.9), and obese (30 or more). When used to predict an individual's health, rather than as a statistical measurement for groups, the BMI has [limitations](#Limitations) that can make it less useful than some of the [alternatives](#Alternatives), especially when applied to individuals with [obesity](abdominal)(abdominal obesity), [stature](short)(short stature), or [high muscle mass](unusually)(Bodybuilding).
BMIs under 20 and over 25 have been associated with higher all-cause mortality, with the risk increasing with distance from the 20–25 range.
## History
[[& BMI.png|thumb|Obesity and BMI](File:Obesity)]
[Quetelet](Adolphe)(Adolphe Quetelet), a Belgian [astronomer](astronomer), mathematician, [statistician](statistician), and [sociologist](sociologist), devised the basis of the BMI between 1830 and 1850 as he developed what he called "social physics". Quetelet himself never intended for the index, then called the Quetelet Index, to be used as a means of medical assessment. Instead, it was a component of his study of l'homme moyen, or the average man. Quetelet thought of the average man as a social ideal, and developed the body mass index as a means of discovering the socially ideal human person. According to Lars Grue and Arvid Heiberg in the Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, Quetelet's idealization of the average man would be elaborated upon by [Galton](Francis)(Francis Galton) a decade later in the development of [Eugenics](Eugenics).
The modern term "body mass index" (BMI) for the ratio of [body weight](human)(human body weight) to squared height was coined in a paper published in the July 1972 edition of the *[of Chronic Diseases](Journal)(Journal of Chronic Diseases)* by [Keys](Ancel)(Ancel Keys) and others. In this paper, Keys argued that what he termed the BMI was "if not fully satisfactory, at least as good as any other relative weight index as an indicator of relative obesity".
The interest in an index that measures [fat](body)(body fat) came with observed increasing obesity in prosperous [Western](Western world) societies. Keys explicitly judged BMI as appropriate for *population* studies and inappropriate for individual evaluation. Nevertheless, due to its simplicity, it has come to be widely used for preliminary diagnoses. Additional metrics, such as waist circumference, can be more useful.
The BMI is expressed in kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres. If [pounds](Pound (mass)) and [inch](inch)es are used, a conversion factor of 703 (kg/m2)/(lb/in2) is applied. When the term BMI is used informally, the units are usually omitted.
:\mathrm{BMI} = \frac{\text{mass}_\text{kg}}{{\text{height}_\text{m}}^2}
= \frac{\text{mass}_\text{lb}}{{\text{height}_\text{in}}^2}\times 703
BMI provides a simple numeric measure of a person's *thickness* or *thinness*, allowing health professionals to discuss weight problems more objectively with their patients. BMI was designed to be used as a simple means of classifying average sedentary (physically inactive) populations, with an average [composition](body)(body composition). For such individuals, the BMI value recommendations are as follows: 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2 may indicate optimal weight, lower than 18.5 may indicate [underweight](underweight), 25 to 29.9 may indicate [overweight](overweight), and 30 or more may indicate [obese](obesity). Lean male athletes often have a high muscle-to-fat ratio and therefore a BMI that is misleadingly high relative to their body-fat percentage.
## Categories
A common use of the BMI is to assess how far an individual's body weight departs from what is normal for a person's height. The weight excess or deficiency may, in part, be accounted for by body fat ([tissue](adipose)(adipose tissue)) although other factors such as muscularity also affect BMI significantly (see discussion below and [overweight](overweight)). Healthy Weight|date=2017-08-29|website=CDC|language=en-us|access-date=2018-01-26}}
The [WHO](World Health Organization) regards an adult BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight and possibly indicative of [malnutrition](malnutrition), an [disorder](eating)(eating disorder), or other health problems, while a BMI of 25 or more is considered overweight and 30 or more is considered [obese](obesity).}} In addition to the principle, international WHO BMI cut-off points (16, 17, 18.5, 25, 30, 35 and 40), four additional cut-off points for at-risk Asians were identified (23, 27.5, 32.5 and 37.5). These ranges of BMI values are valid only as statistical categories.
## Consequences of elevated level in adults
The BMI ranges are based on the relationship between body weight and disease and death. Overweight and obese individuals are at an increased risk for the following diseases:
* [artery disease](Coronary)(Coronary artery disease)
* [Dyslipidemia](Dyslipidemia)
* [2 diabetes](Type)(Diabetes mellitus type 2)
* [disease](Gallbladder)(Gallbladder disease)
* [Hypertension](Hypertension)
* [Osteoarthritis](Osteoarthritis)
* [apnea](Sleep)(Sleep apnea)
* [Stroke](Stroke)
* [Infertility](Infertility)
* At least 10 cancers, including [endometrial](Endometrial cancer), [breast](Breast cancer), and [cancer](colon)(colon cancer)
* Epidural [lipomatosis](lipomatosis)
Among people who have never smoked, overweight/obesity is associated with 51% increase in mortality compared with people who have always been a normal weight.
## Applications
### Public health
The BMI is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a vague means of estimating [adiposity](adipose tissue). The duality of the BMI is that, while it is easy to use as a general calculation, it is limited as to how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the index is suitable for recognizing trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin of error. The BMI has been used by the [WHO](World Health Organization) as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early 1980s.
This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the [RDA](Recommended Dietary Allowance) for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, since the majority of children are sedentary.
Cross-sectional studies indicated that sedentary people can decrease BMI by becoming more physically active. Smaller effects are seen in prospective cohort studies which lend to support [mobility](active)(active mobility) as a means to prevent a further increase in BMI.
### Legislation
In France, Italy, and Spain, legislation has been introduced banning the usage of fashion show models having a BMI below 18. In Israel, a BMI below 18.5 is banned. This is done to fight [anorexia](Anorexia nervosa) among models and people interested in fashion.
## Relationship to health
A study published by *[of the American Medical Association](Journal)(Journal of the American Medical Association)* (*JAMA*) in 2005 showed that *overweight* people had a death rate similar to *normal* weight people as defined by BMI, while *underweight* and *obese* people had a higher death rate.
A study published by *[Lancet](The)(The Lancet)* in 2009 involving 900,000 adults showed that *overweight* and *underweight* people both had a mortality rate higher than *normal* weight people as defined by BMI. The optimal BMI was found to be in the range of 22.5–25. The average BMI of athletes is 22.4 for women and 23.6 for men.
High BMI is associated with [diabetes](type 2)(diabetes mellitus type 2) only in people with high serum [transpeptidase](gamma-glutamyl)(gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase).
In an analysis of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, patients with coronary artery disease with *normal* BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the *overweight* range (BMI 25–29.9).
One study found that BMI had a good general correlation with body fat percentage, and noted that obesity has overtaken smoking as the world's number one cause of death. But it also notes that in the study 50% of men and 62% of women were obese according to body fat defined obesity, while only 21% of men and 31% of women were obese according to BMI, meaning that BMI was found to underestimate the number of obese subjects.
A 2010 study that followed 11,000 subjects for up to eight years concluded that BMI is not a good measure for the risk of heart attack, stroke or death. A better measure was found to be the [ratio](waist-to-height)(waist-to-height ratio). A 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that [ratio](waist–hip)(waist–hip ratio) was a better predictor of ischaemic heart disease mortality.
## Limitations
[[File:Correlation between BMI and Percent Body Fat for Men in NCHS' NHANES 1994 Data.PNG|right|395px|thumb|This graph shows the correlation between body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage (BFP) for 8550 men in [NCHS](National Center for Health Statistics)' [NHANES](National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) 1994 data. Data in the upper left and lower right quadrants suggest the limitations of BMI.]]
The medical establishment and statistical community have both highlighted the limitations of BMI. Part of the statistical limitations of the BMI scale is the result of Quetelet's original sampling methods. As noted in his original work, A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties, the data from which Quetelet derived his formula was taken mostly from Scottish Highland soldiers and French [Gendarmerie](Gendarmerie). The BMI was always designed as a metric for European men. For women, and people of non-European origin, the scale is often biased. As noted by Sabrina Strings in her book Fearing the Black Body: The Racial Origins of Fat Phobia, the BMI is largely inaccurate for black people especially, disproportionately labelling them as overweight even for healthy individuals.
### Scaling
The exponent in the denominator of the formula for BMI is arbitrary. The BMI depends upon weight and the *square* of height. Since mass increases to the *third power* of linear dimensions, taller individuals with exactly the same body shape and relative composition have a larger BMI. BMI is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the height. So, if all body dimensions double, and mass scales naturally with the cube of the height, then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same. This results in taller people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high, compared to their actual body fat levels. In comparison, the [index](Ponderal)(Ponderal index) is based on the natural scaling of mass with the third power of the height.
However, many taller people are not just "scaled up" short people but tend to have narrower frames in proportion to their height. Carl Lavie has written that "The B.M.I. tables are excellent for identifying obesity and body fat in large populations, but they are far less reliable for determining fatness in individuals."
For US adults, exponent estimates range from 1.92 to 1.96 for males and from 1.45 to 1.95 for females.
### Physical characteristics
The BMI overestimates roughly 10% for a large (or tall) frame and underestimates roughly 10% for a smaller frame (short stature). In other words, people with small frames would be carrying more fat than optimal, but their BMI indicates that they are *normal*. Conversely, large framed (or tall) individuals may be quite healthy, with a fairly low [fat percentage](body)(body fat percentage), but be classified as *overweight* by BMI.
For example, a height/weight chart may say the ideal weight (BMI 21.5) for a man is . But if that man has a slender build (small frame), he may be overweight at and should reduce by 10% to roughly (BMI 19.4). In the reverse, the man with a larger frame and more solid build should increase by 10%, to roughly (BMI 23.7). If one teeters on the edge of small/medium or medium/large, common sense should be used in calculating one's ideal weight. However, falling into one's ideal weight range for height and build is still not as accurate in determining health risk factors as [ratio](waist-to-height)(waist-to-height ratio) and actual body fat percentage.
Accurate frame size calculators use several measurements (wrist circumference, elbow width, neck circumference, and others) to determine what category an individual falls into for a given height. The BMI also fails to take into account loss of height through ageing. In this situation, BMI will increase without any corresponding increase in weight.
### Muscle versus fat
Assumptions about the distribution between muscle mass and fat mass are inexact. BMI generally overestimates [adiposity](adipose tissue) on those with leaner body mass (e.g., athletes) and underestimates excess adiposity on those with fattier body mass.
A study in June 2008 by Romero-Corral et al. examined 13,601 subjects from the United States' third [Health and Nutrition Examination Survey](National)(National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) (NHANES III) and found that BMI-defined obesity (BMI ≥ 30) was present in 21% of men and 31% of women. Body fat-defined obesity was found in 50% of men and 62% of women. While BMI-defined obesity showed high [specificity](Sensitivity and specificity) (95% for men and 99% for women), BMI showed poor [sensitivity](Sensitivity and specificity) (36% for men and 49% for women). In other words, the BMI will be mostly correct when determining a person to be obese, but can err quite frequently when determining a person not to be. Despite this undercounting of obesity by BMI, BMI values in the intermediate BMI range of 20–30 were found to be associated with a wide range of body fat percentages. For men with a BMI of 25, about 20% have a body fat percentage below 20% and about 10% have body fat percentage above 30%.
Body composition for athletes is often better calculated using measures of body fat, as determined by such techniques as skinfold measurements or underwater weighing and the limitations of manual measurement have also led to new, alternative methods to measure obesity, such as the [volume indicator](body)(Classification of obesity#Body Volume Index).
### Variation in definitions of categories
It is not clear where on the BMI scale the threshold for *[overweight](overweight)* and *[obese](obesity)* should be set. Because of this, the standards have varied over the past few decades. Between 1980 and 2000 the U.S. Dietary Guidelines have defined overweight at a variety of levels ranging from a BMI of 24.9 to 27.1. In 1985 the [Institutes of Health](National)(National Institutes of Health) (NIH) consensus conference recommended that overweight BMI be set at a BMI of 27.8 for men and 27.3 for women.
In 1998, an NIH report concluded that a BMI over 25 is overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese. In the 1990s the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization) (WHO) decided that a BMI of 25 to 30 should be considered overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese, the standards the NIH set. This became the definitive guide for determining if someone is overweight.
The current WHO and NIH ranges of *normal* weights are proved to be associated with decreased risks of some diseases such as diabetes type II; however using the same range of BMI for men and women is considered arbitrary and makes the definition of underweight quite unsuitable for men.
One study found that the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death. In a quantitative analysis of several studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk.
## Alternatives
### Corpulence index (exponent of 3)
The [index](corpulence)(corpulence index) uses an exponent of 3 rather than 2. The corpulence index yields valid results even for very short and very tall people, which is a problem with BMI. For example, a tall person at an ideal body weight of gives a normal BMI of 20.74 and CI of 13.6, while a tall person with a weight of gives a BMI of 24.84, very close to an overweight BMI of 25, and a CI of 12.4, very close to a normal CI of 12.
### New BMI (exponent of 2.5)
The exponent of 5/2 was proposed by Quetelet himself in the 19th century:Quetelet A., A Treatise on Man and the Development of his Faculties
In general, we do not err much when we assume that during development the squares of the weight at different ages are as the fifth powers of the height
However, it was not used much later, until the following formula for computing Body Mass Index that accounts for the distortions of the traditional BMI formula for shorter and taller individuals has been proposed by [Trefethen](Nick)(Nick Trefethen), Professor of numerical analysis at the [of Oxford](University)(University of Oxford):
:\mathrm{BMI}_\text{new} = 1.3 \times \frac{\text{mass}_\text{kg}}{\text{height}_\text{m}^{2.5}}
The scaling factor of 1.3 was determined to make the proposed new BMI formula align with the traditional BMI formula for adults of average height, while the exponent of 2.5 is a compromise between the exponent of 2 in the traditional formula for BMI and the exponent of 3 that would be expected for the scaling of weight (which at constant density would theoretically scale with volume, i.e., as the cube of the height) with height; however, in Trefethen's analysis, an exponent of 2.5 was found to fit empirical data more closely with less distortion than either an exponent of 2 or 3.
### BMI prime (exponent of 2, normalization factor)
BMI Prime, a modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit optimal BMI (currently defined at 25 kg/m2), i.e., the actual BMI expressed as a proportion of upper limit optimal. BMI Prime is a [number](dimensionless)(dimensionless number) independent of units. Individuals with BMI Prime less than 0.74 are underweight; those with between 0.74 and 1.00 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight. BMI Prime is useful clinically because it shows by what ratio (e.g. 1.36) or percentage (e.g. 136%, or 36% above) a person deviates from the maximum optimal BMI.
For instance, a person with BMI 34 kg/m2 has a BMI Prime of 34/25 = 1.36, and is 36% over their upper mass limit. In South East Asian and South Chinese populations (see [international variations](§)(#International variations)), BMI Prime should be calculated using an upper limit BMI of 23 in the denominator instead of 25. BMI Prime allows easy comparison between populations whose upper-limit optimal BMI values differ.
### Waist circumference
Waist circumference is a good indicator of [fat](visceral)(visceral fat), which poses more health risks than fat elsewhere. According to the U.S. [Institutes of Health](National)(National Institutes of Health) (NIH), waist circumference in excess of for men and for (non-pregnant) women is considered to imply a high risk for type 2 diabetes, [dyslipidemia](dyslipidemia), [hypertension](hypertension), and [disease](cardiovascular)(cardiovascular disease) CVD. Waist circumference can be a better indicator of obesity-related disease risk than BMI. For example, this is the case in populations of Asian descent and older people. for men and for women has been stated to pose "higher risk", with the NIH figures "even higher".
Waist-to-hip circumference ratio has also been used, but has been found to be no better than waist circumference alone, and more complicated to measure.
A related indicator is waist circumference divided by height. The values indicating increased risk are: greater than 0.5 for people under 40 years of age, 0.5 to 0.6 for people aged 40–50, and greater than 0.6 for people over 50 years of age.
### Surface-based body shape index
The Surface-based Body Shape Index (SBSI) is far more rigorous and is based upon four key measurements: the [surface area](body)(body surface area) (BSA), vertical trunk circumference (VTC), waist circumference (WC) and height (H). Data on 11,808 subjects from the National Health and Human Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 1999–2004, showed that SBSI outperformed BMI, waist circumference, and [Body Shape Index (ABSI)](A)(Body Shape Index), an alternative to BMI. RealClearScience|url = http://www.realclearscience.com/journal_club/2015/12/30/a_new_potential_replacement_for_body_mass_index_109492.html|website = www.realclearscience.com|access-date = 2015-12-31|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101113606/http://www.realclearscience.com/journal_club/2015/12/30/a_new_potential_replacement_for_body_mass_index_109492.html|archive-date = 2016-01-01}}
: \mathrm{SBSI} = \frac{(\text{H}^{7/4})(\text{WC}^{5/6})}{\text{BSA VTC}}
A simplified, dimensionless form of SBSI, known as SBSI*, has also been developed.
: \mathrm{SBSI^\star} = \frac{(\text{H}^2)(\text{WC})}{\text{BSA VTC}}
### Modified body mass index
Within some medical contexts, such as [amyloid polyneuropathy](familial)(familial amyloid polyneuropathy), serum albumin is factored in to produce a modified body mass index (mBMI). The mBMI can be obtained by multiplying the BMI by [albumin](serum)(human serum albumin), in grams per litre.
## See also
* [Allometry](Allometry)
* [water](Body)(Body water)
* [of anthropometry](History)(History of anthropometry)
* [of countries by body mass index](List)(List of countries by body mass index)
* [paradox](Obesity)(Obesity paradox)
* [Fat Mass](Relative)(Relative Fat Mass)
* [and constitutional psychology](Somatotype)(Somatotype and constitutional psychology)
## Explanatory notes
}}
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
## External links
* U.S. National Center for Health Statistics:
**
**
[inventions](Category:Belgian)(Category:Belgian inventions)
[shape](Category:Body)(Category:Body shape)
[of obesity](Category:Classification)(Category:Classification of obesity)
[body weight](Category:Human)(Category:Human body weight)
[height](Category:Human)(Category:Human height)
[in medicine](Category:Mathematics)(Category:Mathematics in medicine)
[signs](Category:Medical)(Category:Medical signs)
[Category:Ratios](Category:Ratios)
|
American Graffiti
|
american_graffiti
|
# American Graffiti
*Revision ID: 1157400658 | Timestamp: 2023-05-28T10:16:48Z*
---
| starring =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor = [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 112 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $777,000
| gross = $140 million
}}
***American Graffiti*** is a 1973 American [coming-of-age](Coming-of-age story) comedy-drama film directed by [Lucas](George)(George Lucas), produced by [Ford Coppola](Francis)(Francis Ford Coppola), written by [Huyck](Willard)(Willard Huyck), [Katz](Gloria)(Gloria Katz) and Lucas, and starring [Dreyfuss](Richard)(Richard Dreyfuss), [Howard](Ron)(Ron Howard), [Le Mat](Paul)(Paul Le Mat), [Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford), [Martin Smith](Charles)(Charles Martin Smith), [Williams](Cindy)(Cindy Williams), [Clark](Candy)(Candy Clark), [Phillips](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Phillips), [Hopkins](Bo)(Bo Hopkins), and [Jack](Wolfman)(Wolfman Jack). Set in [California](Modesto,)(Modesto, California), in 1962, the film is a study of the [cruising](cruising (driving)) and early ['n' roll](rock)(rock and roll) cultures popular among Lucas's age group at that time. Through a series of [vignettes](vignette (literature)), it tells the story of a group of teenagers and their adventures over the course of a night.
While Lucas was working on his first film, *[1138](THX)(THX 1138)*, Coppola asked him to write a coming-of-age film. The genesis of *American Graffiti* took place in Modesto in the early 1960s, during Lucas's teenage years. He was unsuccessful in [pitching](pitch (filmmaking)) the concept to financiers and distributors, but found favor at [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) after every other major film studio turned him down. Filming began in [Rafael, California](San)(San Rafael, California), but the production crew was denied permission to shoot beyond a second day. As a result, production was moved to [Petaluma](Petaluma, California). The film is the first movie to be produced by George Lucas's [Lucasfilm](Lucasfilm).
*American Graffiti* premiered on August 2, 1973, at the [International Film Festival](Locarno)(Locarno International Film Festival) in Switzerland, and was released on August 11, 1973, in the United States. The film received widespread critical acclaim and was nominated for the [Award for Best Picture](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Picture). Produced on a $777,000 budget, it has become one of the most profitable films ever. Since its initial release, *American Graffiti* has earned an estimated return well over $200 million in box-office gross and home video sales, not including merchandising. In 1995, the United States [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry). A sequel, *[American Graffiti](More)(More American Graffiti)*, was released in 1979.
## Plot
On their last evening of [vacation](summer)(summer vacation) in 1962, high school graduates Curt Henderson and Steve Bolander meet two other friends, confident drag-racing king John Milner and unpopular but well-meaning Terry "The Toad" Fields in the parking lot of [Drive-In](Mel's)(Mel's Drive-In) in [California](Modesto,)(Modesto, California). Steve and Curt are to travel "[East](Back)(Northeastern United States)" in the morning and start college but the latter has second thoughts about leaving. Laurie, Steve's girlfriend and Curt's sister, arrives moments later, Steve suggesting to her that they see other people while he is away at college to "strengthen" their relationship. Though not openly upset, it affects her interactions with him through the night.
Curt, Steve and Laurie attend the high-school [hop](sock)(sock hop). En route, Curt sees a beautiful blonde woman driving a white [Thunderbird](Ford)(Ford Thunderbird) next to them, who mouths "I love you" before turning a right. The interaction causes Curt to desperately search for her throughout the night. After leaving the hop, he is coerced into joining a group of [greasers](greaser (subculture)) called "The Pharaohs", who force him into several tasks including stealing coins from arcade machines and hooking a chain to a police car, ripping out its back axle. During a tense ride, the Pharaoh leader tells Curt that "The Blonde" is a prostitute, which he does not believe.
With Steve allowing Terry to take care of his car while he's studying at college, Terry cruises around the strip and picks up rebellious Debbie. Now calling himself "Terry The Tiger", he attempts all night to impress her by lying about the car being his and purchasing alcohol with no ID. While he and Debbie leave Steve's car in a rural spot in order to share a romantic interlude, thieves steal the car. Later, after the alcohol has made Terry violently sick, he sees Steve's car and attempts to steal it back. The car thieves appear and beat him up until John intervenes. Terry eventually admits to Debbie that he's been lying about the car all along and he actually drives a scooter; she suggests it is "almost a motorcycle" and says she had fun with him, agreeing to meet up with him again.
In an attempt to get cruising company for the evening, John inadvertently picks up Carol, a precocious 12-year-old who manipulates him into driving her around all night. Lying to suspicious friends that she's a cousin and he's stuck with babysitting duty, they have a series of petty arguments until another car's occupants verbally harass her as she attempts to walk home alone, John then deciding to protect her. Meanwhile, skilled racer Bob Falfa is searching out John to challenge him to the defining race for John's drag-racing crown. During his night of goading anyone he comes across for a challenge, he picks up an emotional Laurie after the argument with Steve that was brewing all night.
After leaving the Pharaohs, Curt drives to the radio station to ask omnipotent disc jockey "[Jack](Wolfman)(Wolfman Jack)" to read a message out on air for the blonde in the White Thunderbird. He encounters an employee who tells him the Wolfman does not work there and that the shows are pre-taped for replay, claiming the Wolfman "is everywhere" but promises to have the Wolfman air the request. As Curt leaves, he notices the employee talking into the microphone and realizes he is in fact the Wolfman, who reads the message for the blonde asking her to call Curt on the pay phone at Mel's Drive-In.
After taking Carol home, John is found by Bob Falfa, successfully goading him into the definitive race along Paradise Road outside the city, with some spectators appearing to watch. As Terry starts the drag race, John takes the lead but Bob's tire blows out, swerving into a ditch and rolling over before bursting into flames. Steve, aware that Laurie was Bob's passenger, rushes to the wreck as she and Bob crawl out and stagger away before the car explodes. While John helps his rival to safety, Laurie begs Steve not to leave her, he assures her that he will stay with her in Modesto.
Exhausted, Curt is awakened by the pay phone. He finally speaks to the blonde, who does not reveal her identity but hints at the possibility of meeting that night. Curt replies that he is leaving town. Later at the airfield, he says goodbye to his parents and friends before boarding the plane. After take off, he looks down at the ground from the window and sees the white Thunderbird driving along the road below. Curt thoughtfully gazes into the sky.
An epilogue prior to the end credits reveals that John was killed by a drunk driver in 1964, Terry was reported [in action](missing)(missing in action) near [Lộc](An)(An Lộc, Bình Phước) in 1965, Steve is an insurance agent in Modesto and Curt is a writer living in Canada.
## Cast
### Main credits
### Notable ensemble
* Jana Bellan as Budda (the carhop who hits on Steve)
* [Marie Stewart](Lynne)(Lynne Marie Stewart) as Bobbie (girl with the [Beetle](VW)(Volkswagen Beetle))
* [Quinlan](Kathleen)(Kathleen Quinlan) as Peg (Laurie dances with her boyfriend)
* [Beach](Scott)(Scott Beach) as Mr. Gordon (the Pharoahs steal from his pinball arcade)
* [Richardson](Susan)(Susan Richardson) as Judy (tells Steve about Laurie and Falfa)
* [Lenz](Kay)(Kay Lenz) as Jane (meets teacher outside dance, credited as Kay Ann Kemper)
* [Spano](Joe)(Joe Spano) as Vic (hits on Debbie at Mel's Drive-In)
* [Scott](Debralee)(Debralee Scott) as Falfa's Girl
* [Close](Del)(Del Close) as man at bar
* [Somers](Suzanne)(Suzanne Somers) as the blonde in the T-Bird
## Development
### Inspiration
During the production of *[1138](THX)(THX 1138)* (1971), producer [Ford Coppola](Francis)(Francis Ford Coppola) challenged co-writer/director George Lucas to write a script that would appeal to mainstream audiences. Lucas embraced the idea, using his early 1960s teenage experiences [cruising](cruising (driving)) in Modesto, California. "Cruising was gone, and I felt compelled to document the whole experience and what [generation](my)(Silent Generation) used as a way of meeting girls," Lucas explained. As he developed the story in his mind, Lucas included his fascination with Wolfman Jack. Lucas had considered doing a documentary about the Wolfman when he attended the [School of Cinematic Arts](USC)(USC School of Cinematic Arts), but he ultimately dropped the idea.Baxter, pp. 70, 104, 148, 254
Adding in semiautobiographical connotations, Lucas set the story in his hometown of 1962 Modesto. The characters Curt Henderson, John Milner, and Terry "The Toad" Fields also represent different stages from his younger life. Curt is modeled after Lucas's personality during USC, while John is based on Lucas's teenaged [street-racing](street racing) and junior-college years, and [rod](hot)(hot rod) enthusiasts he had known from the [Kulture](Kustom)(Kustom Kulture) in Modesto. Terry represents Lucas's [nerd](nerd) years as a freshman in high school, specifically his "bad luck" with dating. The filmmaker was also inspired by [Fellini](Federico)(Federico Fellini)'s *[Vitelloni](I)(I Vitelloni)* (1953).Baxter, pp. 106–118
After the financial failure of *THX 1138*, Lucas wanted the film to act as a release for a world-weary audience:Sturhahn, Larry (March 1974). "The Filming of *American Graffiti*". *Filmmakers Newsletter*.
### United Artists
After [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) abandoned Lucas's early version of *[Now](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse Now)* (during the post-production of *THX 1138*), the filmmaker decided to continue developing *Another Quiet Night in Modesto*, eventually changing its title to *American Graffiti*. To co-write a 15-page [treatment](film)(film treatment), Lucas hired [Huyck](Willard)(Willard Huyck) and [Katz](Gloria)(Gloria Katz), who also added semiautobiographical material to the story.(DVD) *The Making of American Graffiti*. [Studios Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Studios Home Entertainment). 1998. Lucas and his colleague [Kurtz](Gary)(Gary Kurtz) began [pitching](pitch (filmmaking)) the *American Graffiti* treatment to various Hollywood studios and production companies in an attempt to secure the financing needed to expand it into a screenplay, but they were unsuccessful. The potential financiers were concerned that [licensing](music)(music licensing) costs would cause the film to go way over budget. Along with *[Rider](Easy)(Easy Rider)* (1969), *American Graffiti* was one of the first films to eschew a traditional [score](film)(film score) and successfully rely instead on synchronizing a series of popular hit songs with individual scenes.
*THX 1138* was released in March 1971,Hearn, pp. 10–11, 42–47 and Lucas was offered opportunities to direct *[Ice](Lady)(Lady Ice)*, *[Tommy](Tommy (1975 film))*, or *[Hair](Hair (film))*. He turned down those offers, determined to pursue his own projects despite his urgent desire to find another film to direct. During this time, Lucas conceived the idea for a [opera](space)(space opera) (as yet untitled) which later became the basis for his *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)* franchise. At the [Cannes Film Festival](1971)(1971 Cannes Film Festival), *THX* was chosen for the [Fortnight](Directors')(Directors' Fortnight) competition. There, Lucas met [Picker](David)(David Picker), then president of [Artists](United)(United Artists), who was intrigued by *American Graffiti* and Lucas's space opera. Picker decided to give Lucas $10,000 to develop *Graffiti* as a screenplay.
Lucas planned to spend another five weeks in Europe and hoped that Huyck and Katz would agree to finish the screenplay by the time he returned, but they were about to start on their own film, *[of Evil](Messiah)(Messiah of Evil)*, so Lucas hired [Walter](Richard)(Richard Walter (screenwriter)), a colleague from the [School of Cinematic Arts](USC)(USC School of Cinematic Arts) for the job. Walter was flattered, but initially tried to sell Lucas on a different screenplay called *Barry and the Persuasions*, a story of [Coast](East)(East Coast of the United States) teenagers in the late 1950s. Lucas held firm—his was a story about [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States) teenagers in the early 1960s. Walter was paid the $10,000, and he began to expand the Lucas/Huyck/Katz treatment into a screenplay.
Lucas was dismayed when he returned to America in June 1971 and read Walter's script, which was written in the style and tone of an [film](exploitation)(exploitation film), similar to 1967's *[Rods to Hell](Hot)(Hot Rods to Hell)*. "It was overtly sexual and very fantasy-like, with [chicken](playing)(chicken (game)) and things that kids didn't really do," Lucas explained. "I wanted something that was more like the way I grew up." Walter's script also had Steve and Laurie going to Nevada to get married without their parents' permission. Walter rewrote the screenplay, but Lucas nevertheless fired him due to their creative differences.
After paying Walter, Lucas had exhausted his development fund from United Artists. He began writing a script, completing his first draft in just three weeks. Drawing upon his large collection of vintage records, Lucas wrote each scene with a particular song in mind as its musical backdrop.Hearn, pp. 52–53 The cost of licensing the 75 songs Lucas wanted was one factor in United Artists' ultimate decision to reject the script; the studio also felt it was too experimental—"a musical montage with no characters". United Artists also passed on *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars (film))*, which Lucas shelved for the time being.
### Universal Pictures
Lucas spent the rest of 1971 and early 1972 trying to raise financing for the *American Graffiti* script.Hearn, pp. 54–55 During this time, [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer), [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures), [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox), and [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) all turned down the opportunity to co-finance and distribute the film. Lucas, Huyck and Katz rewrote the second draft together, which, in addition to Modesto, was also set in [Valley](Mill)(Mill Valley, California) and [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles, California). Lucas also intended to end *American Graffiti* showing a title card detailing the fate of the characters, including the death of Milner and the disappearance of Toad in Vietnam. Huyck and Katz found the ending depressing and were incredulous that Lucas planned to include only the male characters. Lucas argued that mentioning the girls meant adding another title card, which he felt would prolong the ending. Because of this, [Kael](Pauline)(Pauline Kael) later accused Lucas of [chauvinism](chauvinism).
Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz took the script to [International Pictures](American)(American International Pictures), who expressed interest, but ultimately believed *American Graffiti* was not violent or sexual enough for the studio's standards.Baxter, pp. 120–123 Lucas and Kurtz eventually found favor at [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Studios), who allowed Lucas total [control](artistic)(artistic control) and the right of [cut privilege](final)(final cut privilege) on the condition that he make *American Graffiti* on a strict low budget. This forced Lucas to drop the opening scene in which the Blonde Angel, Curt's image of the perfect woman, drives through an empty drive-in cinema in her Ford Thunderbird, her transparency revealing she does not exist.
Universal initially projected a $600,000 budget but added an additional $175,000 once producer Francis Ford Coppola signed on. This would allow the studio to advertise *American Graffiti* as "from the man who gave you *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)*". The proposition also gave Universal [deal](first-look)(first-look deal)s on Lucas's next two planned projects, *Star Wars* and *[Murders](Radioland)(Radioland Murders)*. As he continued to work on the script, Lucas encountered difficulties on the Steve and Laurie storyline. Lucas, Katz, and Huyck worked on the third draft together, specifically on the scenes featuring Steve and Laurie.
Production proceeded with virtually no input or interference from Universal since *American Graffiti* was a [film](low-budget)(low-budget film), and executive [Tanen](Ned)(Ned Tanen) had only modest expectations of its commercial success. However, Universal did object to the film's title, not knowing what "American Graffiti" meant; Lucas was dismayed when some executives assumed he was making an Italian movie about feet. The studio, therefore, submitted a long list of over 60 alternative titles, with their favorite being *Another Slow Night in Modesto* and Coppola's *Rock Around the Block*. They pushed hard to get Lucas to adopt any of the titles, but he was displeased with all the alternatives and persuaded Tanen to keep *American Graffiti*.Hearn, pp. 58–60
## Production
### Casting
The film's lengthy casting process was overseen by [Roos](Fred)(Fred Roos), who worked with producer Francis Ford Coppola on *The Godfather*. Because *American Graffiti*'s main cast was for younger actors, the casting call and notices went through numerous high-school drama groups and community theaters in the [Francisco Bay Area](San)(San Francisco Bay Area). Among the actors was [Hamill](Mark)(Mark Hamill), the future [Skywalker](Luke)(Luke Skywalker) in Lucas's *Star Wars* trilogy.
Over 100 unknown actors auditioned for Curt Henderson before Richard Dreyfuss was cast; George Lucas was impressed with Dreyfuss's thoughtful analysis of the role, and as a result, offered the actor his choice of Curt or Terry "The Toad" Fields. Roos, a former casting director on *[Andy Griffith Show](The)(The Andy Griffith Show)*, suggested Ron Howard for Steve Bolander; Howard accepted the role to break out of the mold of his career as a child actor.Hearn, pp. 56–57 Howard would later appear in the very similar role of [Cunningham](Richie)(Richie Cunningham) on the *[Days](Happy)(Happy Days)* sitcom. [Balaban](Bob)(Bob Balaban) turned down Terry out of fear of becoming typecast, a decision he later regretted. Charles Martin Smith, who, in his first year as a professional actor, had already appeared in two feature films, including 20th Century Fox's *[Culpepper Cattle Co.](The)(The Culpepper Cattle Co.)* and four TV episodes, was eventually cast in the role.
Although Cindy Williams was cast as Laurie Henderson and enjoyed working with both Lucas and Howard, the actress hoped she would get the part of Debbie Dunham, which ended up going to Candy Clark. [Phillips](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Phillips), who portrays Carol, was only 12, and under California law, producer Gary Kurtz had to become her legal guardian for the duration of filming.Baxter, pp. 124–128 For Bob Falfa, Roos cast [Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford), who was then concentrating on a carpentry career. Ford agreed to take the role on the condition that he would not have to cut his hair. The character has a flattop in the script, but a compromise was eventually reached whereby Ford wore a [Stetson](Stetson) to cover his hair. Producer Coppola encouraged Lucas to cast Wolfman Jack as himself in a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance). "George Lucas and I went through thousands of Wolfman Jack phone calls that were taped with the public," Jack reflected. "The telephone calls [on the broadcasts](heard) in the motion picture and on the soundtrack were actual calls with real people."
### Filming
Although *American Graffiti* is set in 1962 Modesto, Lucas believed the city had changed too much in ten years and initially chose [Rafael](San)(San Rafael, California) as the primary shooting location. Filming began on June 26, 1972. However, Lucas soon became frustrated at the length of time it was taking to fix camera mounts to the cars. A key member of the production had also been arrested for growing marijuana,Pollock, pp. 105–111 and in addition to already running behind the [schedule](shooting)(shooting schedule), the San Rafael City Council immediately became concerned about the disruption that filming caused for local businesses, so withdrew permission to shoot beyond a second day.
[Petaluma](Petaluma, California), a similarly small town about north of San Rafael, was more cooperative, and *American Graffiti* moved there without the loss of a single day of shooting. Lucas convinced the San Rafael City Council to allow two further nights of filming for general cruising shots, which he used to evoke as much of the intended location as possible in the finished film. Shooting in Petaluma began June 28 and proceeded at a quick pace. Lucas mimicked the filmmaking style of [B-movie](B movie) producer [Katzman](Sam)(Sam Katzman) (*[Around the Clock](Rock)(Rock Around the Clock (film))*, ''[Cheatin' Heart](Your)(Your Cheatin' Heart (film))*, and the aforementioned *[Rods to Hell](Hot)(Hot Rods to Hell)'') in attempting to save money and authenticated low-budget filming methods.
In addition to Petaluma, other locations included [Drive-In](Mel's)(Mel's Drive-In) in San Francisco, [Sonoma](Sonoma, California), [Richmond](Richmond, California), [Novato](Novato, California), and the [Field Airport](Buchanan)(Buchanan Field Airport) in [Concord](Concord, California). The freshman hop dance was filmed in the Gus Gymnasium, previously known as the Boys Gym, at [High School](Tamalpais)(Tamalpais High School) in [Valley](Mill)(Mill Valley, California).
More problems ensued during filming; Paul Le Mat was sent to the hospital after an allergic reaction to walnuts. Le Mat, Harrison Ford, and Bo Hopkins were claimed to be drunk most nights and every weekend, and had conducted climbing competitions to the top of the local [Inn](Holiday)(Holiday Inn) sign.Baxter, p. 129. One actor set fire to Lucas's motel room. Another night, Le Mat threw Richard Dreyfuss into a swimming pool, gashing Dreyfuss's forehead on the day before he was due to have his close-ups filmed. Dreyfuss also complained over the wardrobe that Lucas had chosen for the character. Ford was kicked out of his motel room at the Holiday Inn. In addition, two camera operators were nearly killed when filming the climactic race scene on Frates Road outside Petaluma.Baxter, pp. 129–130. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) ended August 4, 1972.
The final scenes in the film, shot at Buchanan Field, feature a [DC-7C](Douglas)(Douglas DC-7) airliner of Magic Carpet Airlines, which had previously been leased from owner Club America Incorporated by the rock band [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad) from March 1971 to June 1971.[American Graffiti Filming Locations (June – August 1972)](http://www.americangraffiti.net/movie_locations.html)
### Cinematography
Lucas considered covering duties as the sole cinematographer, but dropped the idea. Instead, he elected to shoot *American Graffiti* using two cinematographers (as he had done in *THX 1138*) and no formal director of photography. Two cameras were used simultaneously in scenes involving conversations between actors in different cars, which resulted in significant production time savings. After [CinemaScope](CinemaScope) proved to be too expensive, Lucas decided *American Graffiti* should have a [documentary](documentary film)-like feel, so he shot the film using [Techniscope](Techniscope) cameras. He believed that Techniscope, an inexpensive way of shooting on [mm film](35)(35mm movie film) and using only half of the film's frame, would give a perfect widescreen format resembling [mm](16)(16 mm film). Adding to the documentary feel was Lucas's openness for the cast to [improvise](improvisation) scenes. He also used [goof](goof)s for the final cut, notably Charles Martin Smith's arriving on his scooter to meet Steve outside Mel's Drive-In. [D'Alquen and Ron Eveslage](Jan)(Jan D'Alquen and Ron Eveslage) were hired as the cinematographers, but filming with Techniscope cameras brought lighting problems. As a result, Lucas commissioned help from friend [Wexler](Haskell)(Haskell Wexler), who was credited as the "visual consultant".Hearn, pp. 61–63
### Editing
Lucas had wanted his then wife, [Marcia](Marcia Lucas), to edit *American Graffiti*, but Universal executive Ned Tanen insisted on hiring [Fields](Verna)(Verna Fields), who had just finished editing [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg)'s *[Sugarland Express](The)(The Sugarland Express)*.Baxter, pp. 132–135. Fields worked on the first [cut](rough)(rough cut) of the film before she left to resume work on ''[Up, Doc?](What's)(What's Up, Doc? (1972 film))''. After Fields's departure, Lucas struggled with editing the film's story structure. He had originally written the script so that the four (Curt, Steve, John, and Toad) storylines were always presented in the same sequence (an "ABCD" plot structure). The first cut of *American Graffiti* was three and a half hours long, and to whittle the film down to a more manageable two hours, many scenes had to be cut, shortened, or combined. As a result, the film's structure became increasingly loose and no longer adhered to Lucas's original "ABCD" presentation. Lucas completed his final cut of *American Graffiti*, which ran 112 minutes, in December 1972. [Murch](Walter)(Walter Murch) assisted Lucas in post-production for [mixing](audio)(audio mixing (film and television)) and [design](sound)(sound design) purposes.Hearn, pp. 64–66 Murch suggested making Wolfman Jack's radio show the "backbone" of the film. "The Wolfman was an ethereal presence in the lives of young people," said producer Gary Kurtz, "and it was that quality we wanted and obtained in the picture."Baxter, pp. 129–135.
## Soundtrack
The choice of music was crucial to the mood of each scene; it is [music](diegetic)(diegetic music) that the characters themselves can hear and therefore becomes an integral part of the action. George Lucas had to be realistic about the complexities of copyright clearances, though, and suggested a number of alternative tracks. Universal wanted Lucas and producer Gary Kurtz to hire an orchestra for [sound-alike](sound-alike)s. The studio eventually proposed a flat deal that offered every music publisher the same amount of money. This was acceptable to most of the companies representing Lucas's first choices, but not to [RCA](RCA)—with the consequence that [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) is conspicuously absent from the soundtrack. Clearing the [licensing](music)(music licensing) rights had cost approximately $90,000, and as a result, no money was left for a traditional [score](film)(film score). "I used the absence of music, and sound effects, to create the drama," Lucas later explained.
A [album](soundtrack)(soundtrack album) for the film, *[Original Hits from the Soundtrack of American Graffiti](41)(41 Original Hits from the Soundtrack of American Graffiti)*, was issued by [Records](MCA)(MCA Records). The album contains all the songs used in the film (with the exception of "Gee" by the Crows, which was subsequently included on a second soundtrack album), presented in the order in which they appeared in the film.
## Release
Despite unanimous praise at a January 1973 [screening](test)(test screening) attended by Universal executive Ned Tanen, the studio told Lucas they wanted to re-edit his original cut of *American Graffiti*.Hearn, pp. 67–69 Producer Coppola sided with Lucas against Tanen and Universal, offering to "buy the film" from the studio and reimburse it for the $775,000 (equivalent to $}} million in ) it had cost to make it. 20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures made similar offers to the studio. Universal refused these offers and told Lucas they planned to have [Hornbeck](William)(William Hornbeck) re-edit the film.
When Coppola's *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)* won the [Award for Best Picture](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Picture) in March 1973, Universal relented and agreed to cut only three scenes (amounting to a few minutes) from Lucas's cut. These include an encounter between Toad and a fast-talking car salesman, an argument between Steve and his former teacher Mr. Kroot at the sock hop, and an effort by Bob Falfa to serenade Laurie with "[Enchanted Evening](Some)(Some Enchanted Evening (song))". The studio initially thought that the film was only fit for release as a [movie](television)(television movie).
Various studio employees who had seen the film began talking it up, and its reputation grew through [of mouth](word)(word of mouth). The studio dropped the TV movie idea and began arranging for a [release](limited)(limited release) in selected theaters in Los Angeles and New York. Universal presidents [Sheinberg](Sidney)(Sidney Sheinberg) and [Wasserman](Lew)(Lew Wasserman) heard about the praise the film had been garnering in LA and New York, and the marketing department amped up its promotion strategy for it, investing an additional $500,000 (equivalent to $}} million in ) in marketing and promotion. The film was released in the United States on August 11, 1973 to [hit](sleeper)(sleeper hit) reception. The film had cost only $1.27 million (equivalent to $}} million in ) to produce and market, but yielded worldwide [office](box)(box office) gross revenues of more than $55 million (equivalent to $}} million in ). It had only modest success outside the United States, but became a [film](cult)(cult film) in France.
Universal reissued *Graffiti* on May 26, 1978, with [Dolby](Dolby) sound and earned an additional $63 million (equivalent to $}} million in ), which brought the total revenue for the two releases to $118 million (equivalent to $}} million in ). The reissue included [sound](stereophonic)(stereophonic sound) and a couple of minutes the studio had removed from Lucas's original cut. All [video](home)(home video) releases also included these scenes. Also, the date of John Milner's death was changed from June 1964 to December 1964 to fit the narrative structure of the upcoming sequel, *More American Graffiti*. At the end of its theatrical run, *American Graffiti* had one of the greatest profit-to-cost ratios of a motion picture ever.
Producer Francis Ford Coppola regretted having not financed the film himself. Lucas recalled, "He would have made $30 million (equivalent to $}} million in ) on the deal. He never got over it and he still kicks himself."Pollock, pp. 120–128 It was the 13th-highest-grossing film of all time in 1977 and, adjusted for inflation, is currently the 43rd highest. By the 1990s, *American Graffiti* had earned more than $200 million (equivalent to $}} million in ) in box-office gross and home video sales. In December 1997, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* reported that the film had earned an additional $55.13 million in rental revenue (equivalent to $}} million in ).
[Studios](Universal)(Universal Pictures Home Entertainment) first released the film on DVD in September 1998, and once more as a [feature](double)(double feature) with *[American Graffiti](More)(More American Graffiti)* (1979) in January 2004. The 1978 version of the film was used, with an additional digital change to the sky in the opening title sequence. Universal released the film on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) with a new digitally remastered picture supervised by George Lucas on May 31, 2011.
## Reception
*American Graffiti* received widespread critical acclaim. Based on reviews collected by [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), of the critics enjoyed the film with an average score of . The consensus reads: "One of the most influential of all teen films, *American Graffiti* is a funny, nostalgic, and bittersweet look at a group of recent high school grads' last days of innocence."|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604175432/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/american_graffiti|archive-date=June 4, 2020|url-status=live}} [Metacritic](Metacritic) calculated a score of 97 out of 100, indicating “universal acclaim”. [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave the film a full four stars and praised it for being "not only a great movie, but a brilliant work of historical fiction; no sociological treatise could duplicate the movie's success in remembering exactly how it was to be alive at that cultural instant". [Siskel](Gene)(Gene Siskel) awarded three-and-a-half stars out of four, writing that although the film suffered from an "overkill" of nostalgia, particularly with regards to a soundtrack so overstuffed that it amounted to "one of those golden-oldie TV blurbs," it was still "well-made, does achieve moments of genuine emotion, and does provide a sock (hop) full of memories."[Gene](Siskel,)(Gene Siskel) (August 24, 1973). "'Graffiti'—How many golden oldies can you handle?" *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*. Section 2, p. 1.
[Canby](Vincent)(Vincent Canby) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* wrote, "*American Graffiti* is such a funny, accurate movie, so controlled and efficient in its narrative, that it stands to be overpraised to the point where seeing it will be an anticlimax."[Vincent](Canby,)(Vincent Canby) (September 16, 1973). "'Heavy Traffic' and 'American Graffiti'-Two of the Best". *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Section 2, p. 1, 3. A.D. Murphy from *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* felt *American Graffiti* was a vivid "recall of teenage attitudes and morals, told with outstanding empathy and compassion through an exceptionally talented cast of unknown actors". [Champlin](Charles)(Charles Champlin) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* called it a "masterfully executed and profoundly affecting movie."[Charles](Champlin,)(Charles Champlin) (July 29, 1973). "A New Generation Looks-Back in 'Graffiti'". *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*. Calendar, p. 1. [Cocks](Jay)(Jay Cocks) of *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine wrote that *American Graffiti* "reveals a new and welcome depth of feeling. Few films have shown quite so well the eagerness, the sadness, the ambitions and small defeats of a generation of young Americans." [Kael](Pauline)(Pauline Kael) of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* was less enthused, writing that the film "fails to be anything more than a warm, nice, draggy comedy, because there's nothing to back up the style. The images aren't as visually striking as they would be if only there were a mind behind them; the movie has no resonance except from the jukebox sound and the eerie, nocturnal jukebox look." She also noted with disdain that the epilogue did not bother to mention the fates of any of the women characters.[Pauline](Kael,)(Pauline Kael) (October 29, 1973). "The Current Cinema". *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)*. 154–155. [Kehr](Dave)(Dave Kehr), writing in the *[Reader](Chicago)(Chicago Reader)*, called the film a brilliant work of popular art that redefined nostalgia as a marketable commodity, while establishing a new narrative style.
### Themes
*American Graffiti* depicts multiple characters going through a [of age](coming)(coming of age), such as the decisions to attend college or reside in a small town. The 1962 setting represents nearing an end of an era in American society and pop culture. The early 1960s musical backdrop also links between the early years of rock 'n' roll in the mid- to late 1950s (i.e., [Haley & His Comets](Bill)(Bill Haley & His Comets), [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley), and [Holly](Buddy)(Buddy Holly)), and mid-1960s, beginning with the January 1964 arrival of [Beatles](The)(The Beatles) and the following [Invasion](British)(British Invasion), which [McLean](Don)(Don McLean)'s "[Pie](American)(American Pie (song))" and the early 1970s revival of 1950s acts and oldies paralleled during the conception and filming.
The setting is two months before the [Missile Crisis](Cuban)(Cuban Missile Crisis), and before the outbreak of the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) and the [F. Kennedy assassination](John)(John F. Kennedy assassination) and before the peak years of the [movement](counterculture)(counterculture of the 1960s). *American Graffiti* evokes mankind's relationship with machines, notably the elaborate number of [rod](hot)(hot rod)s—having been called a "classic-car flick", representative of the motor car's importance to American culture at the time it was made. Another theme is teenagers' obsession with radio, especially with the inclusion of Wolfman Jack and his mysterious and mythological faceless (to most) voice.
### Accolades
The film is recognized by [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) in these lists:
* 1998: [100 Years...100 Movies](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies) – #77
* 2000: [100 Years...100 Laughs](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs) – #43
* 2007: [100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)) – #62
## Legacy
Internet reviewer MaryAnn Johanson acknowledged that *American Graffiti* rekindled public and entertainment interest in the 1950s and early 1960s, and influenced other films such as *[Lords of Flatbush](The)(The Lords of Flatbush)* (1974) and *[High](Cooley)(Cooley High)* (1975) and the TV series *[Days](Happy)(Happy Days)*. Alongside other films from the [Hollywood](New)(New Hollywood) era, *American Graffiti* is often cited for helping give birth to the [blockbuster](summer)(blockbuster (entertainment)). The film's box-office success made George Lucas an instant millionaire. He gave an amount of the film's profits to [Wexler](Haskell)(Haskell Wexler) for his visual consulting help during filming, and to Wolfman Jack for "inspiration". Lucas's net worth was now $4 million, and he set aside a $300,000 independent fund for his long-cherished space opera project, which would eventually become the basis for *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars (film))* (1977).Hearn, pp. 70–75
The financial success of *Graffiti* also gave Lucas opportunities to establish more elaborate development for [Lucasfilm](Lucasfilm), [Sound](Skywalker)(Skywalker Sound), and [Light & Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light & Magic). Based on the success of the 1978 [reissue](reissue), Universal began production for the sequel *[American Graffiti](More)(More American Graffiti)* (1979). Lucas and writers Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz later collaborated on *[Murders](Radioland)(Radioland Murders)* (1994), also released by Universal Pictures, for which Lucas acted as executive producer. The film features characters intended to be Curt and Laurie Henderson's parents, Roger and Penny Henderson.Hearn, pp. 79–86, 122 In 1995, *American Graffiti* was deemed culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant by the United States [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) and selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry). In 1997 the city of [California](Modesto,)(Modesto, California), honored Lucas with a statue dedication of *American Graffiti* at George Lucas Plaza.
Director [Fincher](David)(David Fincher) credited *American Graffiti* as a visual influence for *[Club](Fight)(Fight Club (film))* (1999). Lucas's *[Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones](Star)(Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones)* (2002) features references to the film. The yellow [airspeeder](airspeeder) that [Skywalker](Anakin)(Anakin Skywalker) and [Kenobi](Obi-Wan)(Obi-Wan Kenobi) use to pursue bounty hunter [Wesell](Zam)(Zam Wesell) is based on John Milner's yellow [coupe](deuce)(Ford Model B (1932)#Deuce coupe), while Dex's Diner is reminiscent of [Drive-In](Mel's)(Mel's Drive-In). [Savage](Adam)(Adam Savage) and [Hyneman](Jamie)(Jamie Hyneman) conducted the "rear axle" experiment on the January 11, 2004, episode of *[MythBusters](MythBusters)*."Explosive Decompression/Frog Giggin'/Rear Axle". [Savage](Adam)(Adam Savage), [Hyneman](Jamie)(Jamie Hyneman). *[MythBusters](MythBusters)*. January 11, 2004. No. 13, season 1.
Given the popularity of the film's cars with [customizers](custom car) and [rod](hot)(hot rod)ders in the years since its release, their fate immediately after the film is surprising. All were offered for sale in San Francisco newspaper ads; only the [Impala]('58)(Chevrolet Impala#First generation (1958)) (driven by Ron Howard) attracted a buyer, selling for only a few hundred dollars. The yellow Deuce and the white [T-bird](Ford Thunderbird) went unsold, despite being priced as low as $3,000.*Rod and Custom* Magazine, 12/91, pp. 11–12. The registration plate on Milner's yellow deuce coupe is THX 138 on a yellow, California license plate, slightly altered, reflecting Lucas's earlier science-fiction film (*THX 1138*).
## See also
* [of American films of 1973](List)(List of American films of 1973)
* [States in the 1950s](United)(United States in the 1950s)
* [in the United States](1960s)(1960s in the United States)
* *[Grease](Grease (film))*
* *[Pizza](Licorice)(Licorice Pizza)*
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [*American Graffiti* Filmsite.org](http://www.filmsite.org/amerg.html)
* [The City of Petaluma's salute to *American Graffiti*](http://www.americangraffiti.net)
*
* *American Graffiti* essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 693-694 [https://books.google.com/books?id=deq3xI8OmCkC]
}}
[films](Category:1973)(Category:1973 films)
[American films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s American films)
[coming-of-age comedy-drama films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s coming-of-age comedy-drama films)
[English-language films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s English-language films)
[high school films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s high school films)
[teen comedy-drama films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s teen comedy-drama films)
[auto racing films](Category:American)(Category:American auto racing films)
[coming-of-age comedy-drama films](Category:American)(Category:American coming-of-age comedy-drama films)
[high school films](Category:American)(Category:American high school films)
[teen comedy-drama films](Category:American)(Category:American teen comedy-drama films)
[Zoetrope films](Category:American)(Category:American Zoetrope films)
[Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners)
[directed by George Lucas](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by George Lucas)
[produced by Francis Ford Coppola](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Francis Ford Coppola)
[produced by Gary Kurtz](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Gary Kurtz)
[set in the 1960s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1960s)
[set in 1962](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1962)
[set in California](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in California)
[shot in San Francisco](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in San Francisco)
[with screenplays by George Lucas](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by George Lucas)
[with screenplays by Gloria Katz](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Gloria Katz)
[with screenplays by Willard Huyck](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Willard Huyck)
[Kulture](Category:Kustom)(Category:Kustom Kulture)
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Big O notation
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big_o_notation
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# Big O notation
*Revision ID: 1159443760 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T10:20:00Z*
---
[[of Big O notation: {\color{red}f(x)} \in O{\color{blue}(g(x))} as there exists M>0 (e.g., M=1) and x_0 (e.g.,x_0=5) such that {\color{red}f(x)}\leq {\color{blue}Mg(x)} whenever x\geq x_0.](File:Big-O-notation.png|300px|thumb|Example)]
'*Big *O* notation** is a mathematical notation that describes the [behavior](limiting)(asymptotic analysis) of a [function](function (mathematics)) when the [argument](Argument of a function) tends towards a particular value or infinity. Big O is a member of a [of notations](family)(#Related asymptotic notations) invented by [Bachmann](Paul)(Paul Gustav Heinrich Bachmann), [Landau](Edmund)(Edmund Landau), and others, collectively called **Bachmann–Landau notation** or **asymptotic notation*'. The letter O was chosen by Bachmann to stand for *[Ordnung](:wikt:Ordnung#German)*, meaning the [of approximation](order)(order of approximation).
In [science](computer)(computer science), big O notation is used to [algorithms](classify)(Computational complexity theory) according to how their run time or space requirements grow as the input size grows. In [number theory](analytic)(analytic number theory), big O notation is often used to express a bound on the difference between an [function](arithmetical)(arithmetic function) and a better understood approximation; a famous example of such a difference is the remainder term in the [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem). Big O notation is also used in many other fields to provide similar estimates.
Big O notation characterizes functions according to their growth rates: different functions with the same asymptotic growth rate may be represented using the same O notation. The letter O is used because the growth rate of a function is also referred to as the **order of the function**. A description of a function in terms of big O notation usually only provides an [bound](upper)(upper bound) on the growth rate of the function.
Associated with big O notation are several related notations, using the symbols , and , to describe other kinds of bounds on asymptotic growth rates.
## Formal definition
Let f, the function to be estimated, be a [real](Real number) or [complex](Complex number) valued function and let g, the comparison function, be a real valued function. Let both functions be defined on some [unbounded](Bounded set) [subset](subset) of the positive [number](real)(real number)s, and g(x) be strictly positive for all large enough values of x. One writes
f(x) = O\bigl( g(x)\bigr)\quad\text{ as }x\to\infty
and it is read "f(x) is big O of g(x)" if the [value](absolute)(absolute value) of f(x) is at most a positive constant multiple of g(x) for all sufficiently large values of x. That is, f(x) =O\bigl(g(x)\bigr) if there exists a positive real number M and a real number x_0 such that
|f(x)| \le M g(x) \quad \text{ for all } x \ge x_0.
In many contexts, the assumption that we are interested in the growth rate as the variable x goes to infinity is left unstated, and one writes more simply that
f(x) = O\bigl( g(x) \bigr).
The notation can also be used to describe the behavior of f near some real number a (often, a=0): we say
f(x) = O\bigl( g(x) \bigr)\quad\text{ as }x \to a
if there exist positive numbers \delta and M such that for all defined x with
|f(x)| \le M g(x).
As g(x) is chosen to be strictly positive for such values of x, both of these definitions can be unified using the [superior](limit)(limit superior):
f(x) = O\bigl( g(x) \bigr) \quad \text{ as } x \to a
if
\limsup_{x\to a} \frac{\left|f(x)\right|}{g(x)}
And in both of these definitions the [point](limit)(limit point) a (whether \infty or not) is a [point](cluster)(cluster point) of the domains of f and g, i. e., in every neighbourhood of a there have to be infinitely many points in common. Moreover, as pointed out in the article about the [inferior and limit superior](limit)(Limit inferior and limit superior#Real-valued functions), the \textstyle \limsup_{x\to a} (at least on the [real number line](extended)(extended real number line)) always exists.
In computer science, a slightly more restrictive definition is common: f and g are both required to be functions from some unbounded subset of the [integers](positive)(natural numbers) to the nonnegative real numbers; then f(x) = O\bigl(g(x)\bigr) if there exist positive integer numbers M and n_0 such that f(n) \le M g(n) for all n \ge n_0. Here: Def.7.2, p.227
## Example
In typical usage the notation is asymptotical, that is, it refers to very large . In this setting, the contribution of the terms that grow "most quickly" will eventually make the other ones irrelevant. As a result, the following simplification rules can be applied:
*If is a sum of several terms, if there is one with largest growth rate, it can be kept, and all others omitted.
*If is a product of several factors, any constants (factors in the product that do not depend on ) can be omitted.
For example, let , and suppose we wish to simplify this function, using notation, to describe its growth rate as approaches infinity. This function is the sum of three terms: , , and . Of these three terms, the one with the highest growth rate is the one with the largest exponent as a function of , namely . Now one may apply the second rule: is a product of and in which the first factor does not depend on . Omitting this factor results in the simplified form . Thus, we say that is a "big O" of . Mathematically, we can write . One may confirm this calculation using the formal definition: let and . Applying the [definition](formal)(#Formal definition) from above, the statement that is equivalent to its expansion,
|f(x)| \le M x^4
for some suitable choice of a real number and a positive real number and for all . To prove this, let and . Then, for all :
\begin{align}
|6x^4 - 2x^3 + 5| &\le 6x^4 + |2x^3| + 5\\
&\le 6x^4 + 2x^4 + 5x^4\\
&= 13x^4
\end{align}
so
|6x^4 - 2x^3 + 5| \le 13 x^4 .
## Usage
Big O notation has two main areas of application:
* In [mathematics](mathematics), it is commonly used to describe [closely a finite series approximates a given function](how)(Big O notation#Infinitesimal asymptotics), especially in the case of a truncated [series](Taylor)(Taylor series) or [expansion](asymptotic)(asymptotic expansion)
* In [science](computer)(computer science), it is useful in the [of algorithms](analysis)(Big O notation#Infinite asymptotics)
In both applications, the function appearing within the is typically chosen to be as simple as possible, omitting constant factors and lower order terms.
There are two formally close, but noticeably different, usages of this notation:
* [infinite](Infinity) asymptotics
* [infinitesimal](infinitesimal) asymptotics.
This distinction is only in application and not in principle, however—the formal definition for the "big O" is the same for both cases, only with different limits for the function argument.
### Infinite asymptotics
[[computational complexity.svg|thumb|Graphs of functions commonly used in the analysis of algorithms, showing the number of operations versus input size for each function](File:comparison)]
Big O notation is useful when [algorithms](analyzing)(analysis of algorithms) for efficiency. For example, the time (or the number of steps) it takes to complete a problem of size might be found to be . As grows large, the [term](Summand) will come to dominate, so that all other terms can be neglected—for instance when , the term is 1000 times as large as the term. Ignoring the latter would have negligible effect on the expression's value for most purposes. Further, the [coefficient](coefficient)s become irrelevant if we compare to any other [order](Orders of approximation) of expression, such as an expression containing a term or . Even if , if , the latter will always exceed the former once grows larger than (). Additionally, the number of steps depends on the details of the machine model on which the algorithm runs, but different types of machines typically vary by only a constant factor in the number of steps needed to execute an algorithm. So the big O notation captures what remains: we write either
:T(n)= O(n^2)
or
:T(n) \in O(n^2)
and say that the algorithm has *order of * time complexity. The sign "" is not meant to express "is equal to" in its normal mathematical sense, but rather a more colloquial "is", so the second expression is sometimes considered more accurate (see the "[sign](Equals)(#Equals sign)" discussion below) while the first is considered by some as an [of notation](abuse)(abuse of notation).
### Infinitesimal asymptotics
Big O can also be used to describe the [term](error)(Taylor series#Approximation error and convergence) in an approximation to a mathematical function. The most significant terms are written explicitly, and then the least-significant terms are summarized in a single big O term. Consider, for example, the [series](exponential)(Exponential function#Formal definition) and two expressions of it that are valid when is small:
:\begin{align}
e^x &=1+x+\frac{x^2}{2!}+\frac{x^3}{3!}+\frac{x^4}{4!}+\dotsb &\text{for all } x\\[4pt]
&=1+x+\frac{x^2}{2}+O(x^3) &\text{as } x\to 0\\[4pt]
&=1+x+O(x^2) &\text{as } x\to 0
\end{align}
The second expression (the one with *O*(*x*3)) means the absolute-value of the error *e**x* − (1 + *x* + *x*2/2) is at most some constant times *x*3 when *x* is close enough to 0.
## Properties
If the function can be written as a finite sum of other functions, then the fastest growing one determines the order of . For example,
:f(n) = 9 \log n + 5 (\log n)^4 + 3n^2 + 2n^3 = O(n^3) \qquad\text{as } n\to\infty .
In particular, if a function may be bounded by a polynomial in , then as tends to *infinity*, one may disregard *lower-order* terms of the polynomial. The sets and are very different. If is greater than one, then the latter grows much faster. A function that grows faster than for any is called *superpolynomial*. One that grows more slowly than any exponential function of the form is called *subexponential*. An algorithm can require time that is both superpolynomial and subexponential; examples of this include the fastest known algorithms for [factorization](integer)(integer factorization) and the function .
We may ignore any powers of inside of the logarithms. The set is exactly the same as . The logarithms differ only by a constant factor (since ) and thus the big O notation ignores that. Similarly, logs with different constant bases are equivalent. On the other hand, exponentials with different bases are not of the same order. For example, and are not of the same order.
Changing units may or may not affect the order of the resulting algorithm. Changing units is equivalent to multiplying the appropriate variable by a constant wherever it appears. For example, if an algorithm runs in the order of , replacing by means the algorithm runs in the order of , and the big O notation ignores the constant . This can be written as . If, however, an algorithm runs in the order of , replacing with gives . This is not equivalent to in general. Changing variables may also affect the order of the resulting algorithm. For example, if an algorithm's run time is when measured in terms of the number of *digits* of an input number , then its run time is when measured as a function of the input number itself, because .
### Product
: f_1 = O(g_1) \text{ and } f_2 = O(g_2) \Rightarrow f_1 f_2 = O(g_1 g_2)
:f\cdot O(g) = O(f g)
### Sum
If f_1 = O(g_1) and f_2= O(g_2) then f_1 + f_2 = O(\max(g_1, g_2)). It follows that if f_1 = O(g) and f_2 = O(g) then f_1+f_2 \in O(g) . In other words, this second statement says that O(g) is a [cone](convex)(convex cone).
### Multiplication by a constant
Let be a nonzero constant. Then O(|k| \cdot g) = O(g). In other words, if f = O(g), then k \cdot f = O(g).
## Multiple variables
Big *O* (and little o, Ω, etc.) can also be used with multiple variables. To define big *O* formally for multiple variables, suppose f and g are two functions defined on some subset of \R^n. We say
:f(\mathbf{x})\text{ is }O(g(\mathbf{x}))\quad\text{ as }\mathbf{x}\to\infty
if and only if there exist constants M and C > 0 such that |f(\mathbf{x})| \le C |g(\mathbf{x})| for all \mathbf{x} with x_i \geq M for some i.
Equivalently, the condition that x_i \geq M for some i can be written \|\mathbf{x}\|_{\infty} \ge M, where \|\mathbf{x}\|_{\infty} denotes the [norm](Chebyshev)(Chebyshev norm). For example, the statement
:f(n,m) = n^2 + m^3 + O(n+m) \quad\text{ as } n,m\to\infty
asserts that there exist constants *C* and *M* such that
: |f(n,m) - (n^2 + m^3)| \le C |n+m|
whenever either m \geq M or n \geq M holds. This definition allows all of the coordinates of \mathbf{x} to increase to infinity. In particular, the statement
:f(n,m) = O(n^m) \quad \text{ as } n,m\to\infty
(i.e., \exists C \,\exists M \,\forall n \,\forall m\,\cdots) is quite different from
:\forall m\colon~f(n,m) = O(n^m) \quad\text{ as } n\to\infty
(i.e., \forall m \, \exists C \, \exists M \, \forall n \, \cdots).
Under this definition, the subset on which a function is defined is significant when generalizing statements from the univariate setting to the multivariate setting. For example, if f(n,m)=1 and g(n,m)=n, then f(n,m) = O(g(n,m)) if we restrict f and g to [1,\infty)^2, but not if they are defined on [0,\infty)^2.
This is not the only generalization of big O to multivariate functions, and in practice, there is some inconsistency in the choice of definition.
## Matters of notation
### Equals sign
The statement "*f*(*x*) is *O*(*g*(*x*))" as defined above is usually written as . Some consider this to be an [of notation](abuse)(abuse of notation), since the use of the equals sign could be misleading as it suggests a symmetry that this statement does not have. As [Bruijn](de)(Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn) says, is true but is not. [Knuth](Donald Knuth) describes such statements as "one-way equalities", since if the sides could be reversed, "we could deduce ridiculous things like from the identities and ." In another letter, Knuth also pointed out that "the equality sign is not symmetric with respect to such notations", as, in this notation, "mathematicians customarily use the = sign as they use the word "is" in English: Aristotle is a man, but a man isn't necessarily Aristotle". ([Unabridged version](http://www-cs-staff.stanford.edu/~knuth/ocalc.tex) )
For these reasons, it would be more precise to use [notation](set)(set notation) and write (read as: "*f*(*x*) [an element of](is)(Element (mathematics)#Notation and terminology) *O*(*g*(*x*))", or "*f*(*x*) is in the set *O*(*g*(*x*))"), thinking of *O*(*g*(*x*)) as the class of all functions *h*(*x*) such that |*h*(*x*)| ≤ *Cg*(*x*) for some positive real number *C*. However, the use of the equals sign is customary.
### Other arithmetic operators
Big O notation can also be used in conjunction with other arithmetic operators in more complicated equations. For example, denotes the collection of functions having the growth of *h*(*x*) plus a part whose growth is limited to that of *f*(*x*). Thus,
:g(x) = h(x) + O(f(x))
expresses the same as
:g(x) - h(x) = O(f(x)).
#### Example
Suppose an [algorithm](algorithm) is being developed to operate on a set of *n* elements. Its developers are interested in finding a function *T*(*n*) that will express how long the algorithm will take to run (in some arbitrary measurement of time) in terms of the number of elements in the input set. The algorithm works by first calling a subroutine to sort the elements in the set and then perform its own operations. The sort has a known time complexity of *O*(*n*2), and after the subroutine runs the algorithm must take an additional steps before it terminates. Thus the overall time complexity of the algorithm can be expressed as . Here the terms are subsumed within the faster-growing *O*(*n*2). Again, this usage disregards some of the formal meaning of the "=" symbol, but it does allow one to use the big O notation as a kind of convenient placeholder.
### Multiple uses
In more complicated usage, *O*(·) can appear in different places in an equation, even several times on each side. For example, the following are true for n\to\infty:
\begin{align}
(n+1)^2 & = n^2 + O(n), \\
(n + O(n^{1/2})) \cdot (n + O(\log n))^2 & = n^3 + O(n^{5/2}), \\
n^{O(1)} & = O(e^n).
\end{align}
The meaning of such statements is as follows: for *any* functions which satisfy each *O*(·) on the left side, there are *some* functions satisfying each *O*(·) on the right side, such that substituting all these functions into the equation makes the two sides equal. For example, the third equation above means: "For any function *f*(*n*) = *O*(1), there is some function *g*(*n*) = *O*(*e**n*) such that *n**f*(*n*) = *g*(*n*)." In terms of the "set notation" above, the meaning is that the class of functions represented by the left side is a subset of the class of functions represented by the right side. In this use the "=" is a formal symbol that unlike the usual use of "=" is not a [relation](symmetric)(symmetric relation). Thus for example does not imply the false statement .
### Typesetting
Big O is typeset as an italicized uppercase "O", as in the following example: O(n^2).Donald E. Knuth, The art of computer programming. Vol. 1. Fundamental algorithms, third edition, Addison Wesley Longman, 1997. Section 1.2.11.1.Ronald L. Graham, Donald E. Knuth, and Oren Patashnik, *Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science (2nd ed.)*, Addison-Wesley, 1994. Section 9.2, p. 443. In [TeX](TeX), it is produced by simply typing O inside math mode. Unlike Greek-named Bachmann–Landau notations, it needs no special symbol. Yet, some authors use the calligraphic variant \mathcal{O} instead.Sivaram Ambikasaran and Eric Darve, An \mathcal O (N \log N) Fast Direct Solver for Partial Hierarchically Semi-Separable Matrices, *J. Scientific Computing* **57** (2013), no. 3, 477–501.Saket Saurabh and Meirav Zehavi, (k,n-k)-Max-Cut: An \mathcal{O}^*(2^p)-Time Algorithm and a Polynomial Kernel, *Algorithmica* **80** (2018), no. 12, 3844–3860.
## Orders of common functions
Here is a list of classes of functions that are commonly encountered when analyzing the running time of an algorithm. In each case, *c* is a positive constant and *n* increases without bound. The slower-growing functions are generally listed first.
The statement f(n) = O(n!) is sometimes weakened to f(n) = O\left(n^n\right) to derive simpler formulas for asymptotic complexity. For any k>0 and O(n^c(\log n)^k) is a subset of O(n^{c+\varepsilon}) for any so may be considered as a polynomial with some bigger order.
## Related asymptotic notations
Big *O* is widely used in computer science. Together with some other related notations, it forms the family of Bachmann–Landau notations.
===Little-o notation===
Intuitively, the assertion " is " (read " is little-o of ") means that grows much faster than . As before, let *f* be a real or complex valued function and *g* a real valued function, both defined on some unbounded subset of the positive [number](real)(real number)s, such that *g*(*x*) is strictly positive for all large enough values of *x*. One writes
:f(x) = o(g(x)) \quad \text{ as } x \to \infty
if for every positive constant there exists a constant x_0 such that
:|f(x)| \leq \varepsilon g(x) \quad \text{ for all } x \geq x_0.
For example, one has
: 2x = o(x^2) and 1/x = o(1), both as x \to \infty .
The difference between the definition of the [notation](big-O)(#Formal definition) and the definition of little-o is that while the former has to be true for *at least one* constant *M*, the latter must hold for *every* positive constant , however small.Thomas H. Cormen et al., 2001, [Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition, Ch. 3.1](http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070131511/) In this way, little-o notation makes a *stronger statement* than the corresponding big-O notation: every function that is little-o of *g* is also big-O of *g*, but not every function that is big-O of *g* is also little-o of *g*. For example, 2x^2 = O(x^2) but
As *g*(*x*) is nonzero, or at least becomes nonzero beyond a certain point, the relation f(x) = o(g(x)) is equivalent to
:\lim_{x \to \infty}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = 0 (and this is in fact how Landau originally defined the little-o notation).
Little-o respects a number of arithmetic operations. For example,
: if is a nonzero constant and f = o(g) then c \cdot f = o(g), and
: if f = o(F) and g = o(G) then f \cdot g = o(F \cdot G).
It also satisfies a [transitivity](Transitive relation) relation:
: if f = o(g) and g = o(h) then f = o(h).
### Big Omega notation
Another asymptotic notation is \Omega, read "big omega". There are two widespread and incompatible definitions of the statement
:f(x)=\Omega(g(x)) as x \to a,
where *a* is some real number, ∞, or −∞, where *f* and *g* are real functions defined in a neighbourhood of *a*, and where *g* is positive in this neighbourhood.
The Hardy–Littlewood definition is used mainly in [number theory](analytic)(analytic number theory), and the Knuth definition mainly in [complexity theory](computational)(computational complexity theory); the definitions are not equivalent.
#### The Hardy–Littlewood definition
In 1914 [Harold Hardy](Godfrey)(Godfrey Harold Hardy) and [Edensor Littlewood](John)(John Edensor Littlewood) introduced the new symbol \Omega, which is defined as follows:
:f(x) = \Omega(g(x)) as x\to\infty if \limsup_{x \to \infty} \left|\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}\right| > 0.
Thus f(x)=\Omega(g(x)) is the negation of f(x)=o(g(x)).
In 1916 the same authors introduced the two new symbols \Omega_R and \Omega_L, defined as:G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood, « Contribution to the theory of the Riemann zeta-function and the theory of the distribution of primes », *[Mathematica](Acta)(Acta Mathematica)*, vol. 41, 1916.
:f(x)=\Omega_R(g(x)) as x\to\infty if \limsup_{x \to \infty} \frac{f(x)}{g(x)}> 0;
:f(x)=\Omega_L(g(x)) as x\to\infty if \liminf_{x \to \infty} \frac{f(x)}{g(x)}
These symbols were used by [Landau](Edmund)(Edmund Landau), with the same meanings, in 1924.E. Landau, "Über die Anzahl der Gitterpunkte in gewissen Bereichen. IV." Nachr. Gesell. Wiss. Gött. Math-phys. Kl. 1924, 137–150. After Landau, the notations were never used again exactly thus; \Omega_R became \Omega_+ and \Omega_L became \Omega_-.
These three symbols \Omega, \Omega_+, \Omega_-, as well as f(x)=\Omega_\pm(g(x)) (meaning that f(x)=\Omega_+(g(x)) and f(x)=\Omega_-(g(x)) are both satisfied), are now currently used in [number theory](analytic)(analytic number theory).Aleksandar Ivić. The Riemann zeta-function, chapter 9. John Wiley & Sons 1985.Gérald Tenenbaum, Introduction to analytic and probabilistic number theory, Chapter I.5. American Mathematical Society, Providence RI, 2015.
##### Simple examples
We have
:\sin x=\Omega(1) as x\to\infty,
and more precisely
:\sin x=\Omega_\pm(1) as x\to\infty.
We have
:\sin x+1=\Omega(1) as x\to\infty,
and more precisely
:\sin x+1=\Omega_+(1) as x\to\infty;
however
:\sin x+1\not=\Omega_-(1) as x\to\infty.
#### The Knuth definition
In 1976 [Knuth](Donald)(Donald Knuth) published a paper to justify his use of the \Omega-symbol to describe a stronger property. Knuth wrote: "For all the applications I have seen so far in computer science, a stronger requirement ... is much more appropriate". He defined
:f(x)=\Omega(g(x))\Leftrightarrow g(x)=O(f(x))
with the comment: "Although I have changed Hardy and Littlewood's definition of \Omega, I feel justified in doing so because their definition is by no means in wide use, and because there are other ways to say what they want to say in the comparatively rare cases when their definition applies."
### Family of Bachmann–Landau notations
{g(n)} > 0
|}
The limit definitions assume g(n) > 0 for sufficiently large n. The table is (partly) sorted from smallest to largest, in the sense that o,O,\Theta,\sim, (Knuth's version of) \Omega, \omega on functions correspond to \geq,> on the real line (the Hardy–Littlewood version of \Omega , however, doesn't correspond to any such description).
Computer science uses the big O , big Theta \Theta , little o , little omega \omega and Knuth's big Omega \Omega notations. Analytic number theory often uses the big O , small o , Hardy–Littlewood's big Omega \Omega (with or without the +, − or ± subscripts) and \sim notations. The small omega \omega notation is not used as often in analysis.for example it is omitted in:
### Use in computer science
Informally, especially in computer science, the big *O* notation often can be used somewhat differently to describe an asymptotic [tight](Upper and lower bounds#Tight bounds) bound where using big Theta Θ notation might be more factually appropriate in a given context. For example, when considering a function *T*(*n*) = 73*n*3 + 22*n*2 + 58, all of the following are generally acceptable, but tighter bounds (such as numbers 2 and 3 below) are usually strongly preferred over looser bounds (such as number 1 below).
#
#
#
The equivalent English statements are respectively:
#*T*(*n*) grows asymptotically no faster than *n*100
#*T*(*n*) grows asymptotically no faster than *n*3
#*T*(*n*) grows asymptotically as fast as *n*3.
So while all three statements are true, progressively more information is contained in each. In some fields, however, the big O notation (number 2 in the lists above) would be used more commonly than the big Theta notation (items numbered 3 in the lists above). For example, if *T*(*n*) represents the running time of a newly developed algorithm for input size *n*, the inventors and users of the algorithm might be more inclined to put an upper asymptotic bound on how long it will take to run without making an explicit statement about the lower asymptotic bound.
### Other notation
In their book *[to Algorithms](Introduction)(Introduction to Algorithms)*, [Cormen](Thomas H. Cormen), [Leiserson](Charles E. Leiserson), [Rivest](Ronald L. Rivest) and [Stein](Clifford Stein) consider the set of functions *f* which satisfy
: f(n) = O(g(n))\quad(n\to\infty)~.
In a correct notation this set can, for instance, be called *O*(*g*), where
O(g) = \{ f : \text{there exist positive constants}~c~\text{and}~n_0~\text{such that}~0 \le f(n) \le c g(n) \text{ for all } n \ge n_0 \}.{{cite book | isbn=978-0-262-53305-8 |author1=Cormen, Thomas H. |author2=Leiserson, Charles E. |author3=Rivest, Ronald L. |title=Introduction to Algorithms |location=Cambridge/MA |publisher=MIT Press |edition=3rd |year=2009 |page=47 |quote=When we have only an asymptotic upper bound, we use O-notation. For a given function *g*(*n*), we denote by *O*(*g*(*n*)) (pronounced "big-oh of *g* of *n*" or sometimes just "oh of *g* of *n*") the set of functions *O*(*g*(*n*)) = { *f*(*n*) : there exist positive constants *c* and *n*0 such that 0 ≤ *f*(*n*) ≤ *cg*(*n*) for all *n* ≥ *n*0} }}
The authors state that the use of equality operator (=) to denote set membership rather than the set membership operator (∈) is an abuse of notation, but that doing so has advantages. Inside an equation or inequality, the use of asymptotic notation stands for an anonymous function in the set *O*(*g*), which eliminates lower-order terms, and helps to reduce inessential clutter in equations, for example:
: 2n^2 + 3n + 1=2n^2 + O(n).
### Extensions to the Bachmann–Landau notations
Another notation sometimes used in computer science is *[Õ](Õ)* (read *soft-O*), which hides polylogarithmic factors. There are two definitions in use: some authors use *f*(*n*) = *Õ*(*g*(*n*)) as [shorthand](shorthand) for for some *k*, while others use it as shorthand for . When is polynomial in *n*, there is no difference; however, the latter definition allows one to say, e.g. that n2^n = \tilde O(2^n) while the former definition allows for \log^k n = \tilde O(1) for any constant *k*. Some authors write *O** for the same purpose as the latter definition. See sect.2.3, p.551. Essentially, it is big *O* notation, ignoring [factors](logarithmic)(Polylogarithmic function) because the [growth-rate](Asymptotic analysis) effects of some other super-logarithmic function indicate a growth-rate explosion for large-sized input parameters that is more important to predicting bad run-time performance than the finer-point effects contributed by the logarithmic-growth factor(s). This notation is often used to obviate the "nitpicking" within growth-rates that are stated as too tightly bounded for the matters at hand (since log*k* *n* is always *o*(*n*ε) for any constant *k* and any ).
Also the [notation](*L*)(L-notation), defined as
:L_n[\alpha,c] = e^{(c + o(1))(\ln n)^\alpha(\ln\ln n)^{1-\alpha}}
is convenient for functions that are between [polynomial](Time complexity#Polynomial time) and [exponential](Time complexity#Exponential time) in terms of
## Generalizations and related usages
The generalization to functions taking values in any [vector space](normed)(normed vector space) is straightforward (replacing absolute values by norms), where *f* and *g* need not take their values in the same space. A generalization to functions *g* taking values in any [group](topological)(topological group) is also possible.
The "limiting process" *x* → *x*o can also be generalized by introducing an arbitrary [base](filter)(filter base), i.e. to directed [nets](net (mathematics)) *f* and *g*. The *o* notation can be used to define [derivative](derivative)s and [differentiability](differentiability) in quite general spaces, and also (asymptotical) equivalence of functions,
: f\sim g \iff (f-g) \in o(g)
which is an [relation](equivalence)(equivalence relation) and a more restrictive notion than the relationship "*f* is Θ(*g*)" from above. (It reduces to lim *f* / *g* = 1 if *f* and *g* are positive real valued functions.) For example, 2*x* is Θ(*x*), but is not *o*(*x*).
## History (Bachmann–Landau, Hardy, and Vinogradov notations)
The symbol O was first introduced by number theorist [Bachmann](Paul)(Paul Bachmann) in 1894, in the second volume of his book *Analytische Zahlentheorie* ("[number theory](analytic)(analytic number theory)"). The number theorist [Landau](Edmund)(Edmund Landau) adopted it, and was thus inspired to introduce in 1909 the notation o; hence both are now called Landau symbols. These notations were used in applied mathematics during the 1950s for asymptotic analysis.
The symbol \Omega (in the sense "is not an *o* of") was introduced in 1914 by Hardy and Littlewood. Hardy and Littlewood also introduced in 1916 the symbols \Omega_R ("right") and \Omega_L ("left"), precursors of the modern symbols \Omega_+ ("is not smaller than a small o of") and \Omega_- ("is not larger than a small o of"). Thus the Omega symbols (with their original meanings) are sometimes also referred to as "Landau symbols". This notation \Omega became commonly used in number theory at least since the 1950s.E. C. Titchmarsh, The Theory of the Riemann Zeta-Function (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1951)
In the 1970s the big O was popularized in computer science by [Knuth](Donald)(Donald Knuth), who introduced the related Theta notation, and proposed a different definition for the Omega notation.
Landau never used the big Theta and small omega symbols.
Hardy's symbols were (in terms of the modern *O* notation)
: f \preccurlyeq g\iff f \in O(g) and f\prec g\iff f\in o(g);
(Hardy however never defined or used the notation \prec\!\!\prec, nor \ll, as it has been sometimes reported).
Hardy introduced the symbols \preccurlyeq and \prec (as well as some other symbols) in his 1910 tract "Orders of Infinity", and made use of them only in three papers (1910–1913). In his nearly 400 remaining papers and books he consistently used the Landau symbols O and o.
Hardy's notation is not used anymore. On the other hand, in the 1930s,See for instance "A new estimate for *G*(*n*) in Waring's problem" (Russian). Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 5, No 5-6 (1934), 249–253. Translated in English in: Selected works / Ivan Matveevič Vinogradov; prepared by the Steklov Mathematical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on the occasion of his 90th birthday. Springer-Verlag, 1985. the Russian number theorist [Matveyevich Vinogradov](Ivan)(Ivan Matveyevich Vinogradov) introduced his notation \ll, which has been increasingly used in number theory instead of the O notation. We have
: f\ll g \iff f \in O(g),
and frequently both notations are used in the same paper.
The big-O originally stands for "order of" ("Ordnung", Bachmann 1894), and is thus a Latin letter. Neither Bachmann nor Landau ever call it "Omicron". The symbol was much later on (1976) viewed by Knuth as a capital [omicron](omicron), probably in reference to his definition of the symbol [Omega](Omega). The digit [zero](0) should not be used.
## See also
* [expansion](Asymptotic)(Asymptotic expansion): Approximation of functions generalizing Taylor's formula
* [optimal algorithm](Asymptotically)(Asymptotically optimal algorithm): A phrase frequently used to describe an algorithm that has an upper bound asymptotically within a constant of a lower bound for the problem
* [O in probability notation](Big)(Big O in probability notation): *Op*, *op*
* [inferior and limit superior](Limit)(Limit inferior and limit superior): An explanation of some of the limit notation used in this article
* [theorem (analysis of algorithms)](Master)(Master theorem (analysis of algorithms)): For analyzing divide-and-conquer recursive algorithms using Big O notation
* [theorem](Nachbin's)(Nachbin's theorem): A precise method of bounding [analytic](complex)(complex analytic) functions so that the domain of convergence of [transform](integral)(integral transform)s can be stated
* [of approximation](Order)(Order of approximation)
* [complexity of mathematical operations](Computational)(Computational complexity of mathematical operations)
## References and notes
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Growth of sequences — OEIS (Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences) Wiki](http://oeis.org/wiki/Growth_of_sequences)
* [Introduction to Asymptotic Notations](https://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cse102/Fall21/Handouts/AsymptoticGrowth.pdf)
* [Big-O Notation – What is it good for](http://www.perlmonks.org/?node_id=573138)
*[An example of Big O in accuracy of central divided difference scheme for first derivative](https://autarkaw.org/2013/01/30/making-sense-of-the-big-oh/)
*[A Gentle Introduction to Algorithm Complexity Analysis](https://discrete.gr/complexity/)
[notation](Category:Mathematical)(Category:Mathematical notation)
[analysis](Category:Asymptotic)(Category:Asymptotic analysis)
[of algorithms](Category:Analysis)(Category:Analysis of algorithms)
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Laurence Fox
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laurence_fox
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# Laurence Fox
*Revision ID: 1160181300 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T21:57:58Z*
---
| birth_place = [Leeds](Leeds), England
| occupation =
| party = [Reclaim](Reclaim Party)
| spouse =
| children = 2
| years_active = 2001–present
| family = [Fox](Robin Fox family)
}}
**Laurence Paul Fox** (born 1978) is an English actor, musician, broadcaster and political activist. A member of the entertainment industry's [family](Fox)(Robin Fox family), he graduated from the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) and debuted in the film *[Hole](The)(The Hole (2001 film))* (2001). His best known role is [Hathaway](James)(Sergeant Hathaway) in the drama series *[Lewis](Lewis (TV series))* (2006–2015). He has also released a studio album titled *Holding Patterns* (2016).
A [conservative](Conservatism in the United Kingdom), Fox publicly spoke out against the [Floyd protests](George)(George Floyd protests) and [vaccines](COVID-19)(COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy) in 2020. After founding the [populist](right-wing)(Right-wing populism) political party [Reclaim](Reclaim Party), he stood unsuccessfully in the [London mayoral election](2021)(2021 London mayoral election) in opposition to what he deemed "extreme [correctness](political)(political correctness)". He gained 1.9% of the vote, thus losing his [deposit](election)(election deposit).
## Early life
Laurence Paul Fox was born into the [family](Fox)(Robin Fox family) in [Leeds](Leeds) in 1978,. the son of Mary Elizabeth Piper and actor [Fox](James)(James Fox). His paternal grandfather was talent agent [Fox](Robin)(Robin Fox (theatrical agent)) and his paternal grandmother was actress Angela Worthington, whose father was playwright [Lonsdale](Frederick)(Frederick Lonsdale). He has two older brothers named Tom and Robin, a younger sister named Lydia, and a younger brother named [Jack](Jack Fox (actor)). Robin is a film producer, while Lydia and Jack are actors; Lydia is married to comedian and filmmaker [Ayoade](Richard)(Richard Ayoade).. Fox's uncles are actor [Fox](Edward)(Edward Fox (actor)) and producer [Fox](Robert)(Robert Fox (producer)). He is also the cousin of actors [Emilia](Emilia Fox) and [Fox](Freddie)(Freddie Fox (actor)), the children of his uncle Edward.
Fox was raised as an [Christian](evangelical)(Evangelicalism). At the age of 13, he was enrolled at [School](Harrow)(Harrow School). and was expelled a few weeks before taking his [A-Level](Advanced Level (UK)) exams. He was unable to obtain a place at any university due to a report about him from Harrow.. After working as a gardener and in an office, he decided to follow his family into acting and successfully auditioned for the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) (RADA). During his time there, he appeared in numerous theatre productions, including the lead roles of Gregers Werle in [Ibsen](Henrik Ibsen)'s *[Wild Duck](The)(The Wild Duck)*, Marcus Andronicus in *[Andronicus](Titus)(Titus Andronicus)*, and [Daedalus](Stephen)(Stephen Daedalus) in an adaptation of [Joyce](James)(James Joyce)'s novel *[Ulysses](Ulysses (novel))*.. He graduated in 2001.; .
## Acting career
Fox made his acting debut in the horror-thriller film *[Hole](The)(The Hole (2001 film))* (2001). He next appeared in [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman)'s film *[Park](Gosford)(Gosford Park)* (2001). He then donned uniforms in a slew of film and television features, including roles as a German airman in *[at War](Island)(Island at War)* (2004), an [SS](Schutzstaffel) officer in *[Last Drop](The)(The Last Drop)* (2005), and as British soldiers in the 2002 films *[Deathwatch](Deathwatch (2002 film))* and *[Force](Ultimate)(Ultimate Force)*, and in *[Colditz](Colditz (2005 TV series))* (2005). In the last made-for-television film, Fox played Capt. Tom Willis who, after an unsuccessful attempt to break out of a [camp](prisoner-of-war)(prisoner-of-war camp), is brought to [IV-C](Oflag)(Oflag IV-C) in [Castle](Colditz)(Colditz Castle), one of the most infamous [German](Nazi Germany) POW camps for officers in [War II](World)(World War II). Actor [Whately](Kevin)(Kevin Whately) caught Fox's performance in the last ten minutes of the film. The next day, at a meeting regarding a new project, Whately mentioned that Fox "would be worth taking a look at"..
As a result, Fox was cast in the [ITV](ITV Network) detective drama *[Lewis](Lewis (TV series))* as [Sergeant James Hathaway](Detective)(Detective Sergeant James Hathaway), who becomes the partner of [Inspector](Detective)(Inspector) [Lewis](Robert)(Inspector Lewis), played by Whately. The pilot of this spin-off from *[Morse](Inspector)(Inspector Morse (TV series))* (1987–2000) was ITV's highest-rated drama of 2006..
Fox has also portrayed [Charles](Prince)(Charles, Prince of Wales), in *Whatever Love Means* (2005);; . Wisley, one of [Austen](Jane)(Jane Austen)'s suitors, in *[Jane](Becoming)(Becoming Jane)* (2007); and Sir [Hatton](Christopher)(Christopher Hatton), the [Chancellor](Lord)(Lord Chancellor) of England in *[The Golden Age](Elizabeth:)(Elizabeth: The Golden Age)*, also released in 2007. In addition, in that year Fox was seen on ITV as Cecil Vyse in [Davies](Andrew)(Andrew Davies (writer))'s adaptation of *[Room with a View](A)(A Room with a View (2007 film))* based on [Forster](E.M.)(E. M. Forster)'s [novel](1908)(A Room with a View).
On stage, Fox appeared in ''[Warren's Profession](Mrs.)(Mrs. Warren's Profession)'' by [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw) at the Strand Theatre (now the [Theatre](Novello)(Novello Theatre)) in London in 2002,. and [Ford](John)(John Ford (dramatist))'s 17th-century play ''[Pity She's a Whore]('Tis)('Tis Pity She's a Whore)'' in 2005.; . Between 2006 and 2007 he starred in *[Treats](Treats (play))* by [Hampton](Christopher)(Christopher Hampton) with his future wife, [Piper](Billie)(Billie Piper).; ; ; ; ; ; ; . In April 2007, Fox received a [caution](police)(police caution) after he was arrested for assault when he punched a photographer outside the [Theatre](Garrick)(Garrick Theatre) in London where he was performing in *Treats*. The caution remained on his [record](criminal record) for three years. In 2013, Fox played Guy Haines in *[on a Train](Strangers)(Strangers on a Train (play))* at [London](London)'s [Theatre](Gielgud)(Gielgud Theatre). On 9 May 2015, he read a letter written by a soldier three days prior to his death in the Second World War, as part of *[Day 70: A Party to Remember](VE)(VE Day 70: A Party to Remember)*, an anniversary concert for [Day](VE)(Victory in Europe Day).
Fox released his debut album *Holding Patterns* in 2016 through his own label Fox Cub Records. His second album *A Grief Observed* was released in 2019. *Holding Patterns* peaked at number 89 in the UK album chart.
In 2018, Fox joined the cast of the ITV series *[Victoria](Victoria (UK TV series))*, playing [Palmerston](Lord)(Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston), for its third season, which first aired on [PBS](PBS) in January 2019.
In November 2020, Fox was dropped by his talent agency Artists Rights Group after claiming on *[Time](Question)(Question Time (TV programme))* that an audience member's description of him as a "[privilege](white)(white privilege)d male" was "racist". He had been dropped by his previous managers Authentic Talent earlier in the year.
In 2021, Fox portrayed [Biden](Hunter)(Hunter Biden) in conservative filmmaker [Davi](Robert)(Robert Davi)'s biopic *[Son Hunter](My)(My Son Hunter)*, notably starring alongside fellow conservatives [Carano](Gina)(Gina Carano) and [James](John)(John James (actor)), the former of whom was also dropped by her agent after spreading some of the same right-wing conspiracy theories as Fox. The film was distributed by [far-right](Far-right politics) website *[News](Breitbart)(Breitbart News)*.
## Views
### Political correctness
In 2019, Fox told *[Times](The)(The Times)* that [YouTube](YouTube) videos had "totally radicalised" him against "[culture](woke)(woke culture)" and "[correctness](political)(political correctness)".
### COVID-19
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom), Fox frequently criticised the [government's response](British)(British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic) to the pandemic and encouraged people to break the government's [distancing](social)(social distancing) rules and disobey other public health restrictions. During an interview on *[Morning Britain](Good)(Good Morning Britain (2014 TV programme))*, he said that "if the [NHS](National Health Service) can't cope, then the NHS isn't fit for purpose". The show's hosts, [Morgan](Piers)(Piers Morgan) and [Reid](Susanna)(Susanna Reid), condemned his comments. During a national [lockdown](COVID-19 lockdowns) in March 2021, he participated in an [protest](anti-lockdown)(COVID-19 anti-lockdown protests in the United Kingdom). He was also visited by police after being reported for allegedly breaking rules during his election campaign, although no action was taken.
### Racial issues
Appearing as a panellist on the BBC's political debate programme *[Time](Question)(Question Time (TV programme))* in January 2020, Fox said that [Markle](Meghan)(Meghan Markle) was not a victim of racism and described an audience member who called him a "white privileged male" as racist. The British actors' union [Equity](Equity (British trade union)) called him "a disgrace to our industry" for his views, but withdrew its criticism and apologised two months later.
In January 2020, Fox attracted media attention for stating that the depiction of a [Sikh](Sikhs) soldier in the film *[1917](1917 (2019 film))* was "forced diversity" in spite of [soldiers](Sikh)(Sikhs in the British Indian Army) having fought on the Western Front in [War I](World)(World War I). When interviewed, he explained, "I suppose it would have been less incongruous to me if he'd got on the truck to a whole regiment of Sikh soldiers. [...] I mean, as you've noticed, I say quite a lot of unfortunate things, but I think it's really important that one is able to express one's opinion." He followed by apologising on Twitter to "fellow humans who are Sikhs" and wrote, "I am as moved by the sacrifices your relatives made as I am by the loss of all those who die in war, whatever creed or colour. Please accept my apology for being clumsy in the way I expressed myself."
In September 2020, Fox said that he had been "[cancelled](Cancel culture)" by his *Lewis* co-star [Front](Rebecca)(Rebecca Front) because she had blocked him on Twitter over his use of the [Lives Matter](All)(All Lives Matter) counter-slogan in response to the [Lives Matter](Black)(Black Lives Matter) movement. He later apologised for revealing this information by posting private text messages between the two, in which Front told him why she blocked him.
In August 2021, Fox posted a tweet stating "get [kneeling](Taking the knee), fuckers" about the recent arrest of black footballer [Mendy](Benjamin)(Benjamin Mendy) on charges of rape and sexual assault. The tweet was removed by Twitter and the account was temporarily locked for violating its rules against "hateful conduct".
### Views on progress pride flag
In June 2022 Fox [tweeted](Twitter) an image of a [swastika](swastika) made from the LGBTQ+ [Pride flag](Progress)(Progress Pride flag) with the caption, "You can openly call the [Jack](Union) a symbol of fa[s]cism and totalitarianism on Twatter. You cannot criticise the holy flags." This led to him being suspended from Twitter for a day. His actions were publicly condemned by the [Memorial Day Trust](Holocaust)(Holocaust Memorial Day Trust) and the [Against Antisemitism](Campaign)(Campaign Against Antisemitism).
## Broadcasting
Fox presents a regular Friday night slot on [News](GB)(GB News).
## Political ambitions
### Reclaim Party
In September 2020, Fox attracted funding for a new political party, provisionally called Reclaim, and dubbed "[UKIP](UK Independence Party) for culture". In October 2020 Fox became leader of the party, in succession to Jeremy Hosking.
It emerged in October 2020 that the party name had yet to be successfully registered with the [Commission](Electoral)(Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)) and that there was a naming conflict with the "Reclaim Project" of Manchester, an established charity in Manchester endeavouring to give opportunities to working-class children. The name Reclaim Party was approved in February 2021 as an identity mark for [Express](Brexit)(Brexit Express).
In May 2023 the Reclaim Party gained its first MP, [Bridgen](Andrew)(Andrew Bridgen), after he was expelled from the [Party](Conservative)(Conservative Party (UK)).
In June 2023, Fox announced his intention to stand in the upcoming [Uxbridge and South Ruislip by-election](2023)(2023 Uxbridge and South Ruislip by-election) as a Reclaim Party candidate.
### 2021 candidacy for London mayor
In March 2021, Fox announced he would stand in the [mayoral elections](London)(2021 London mayoral election), in order to "fight against extreme political correctness" and pledging to "end the [Met](Metropolitan Police)'s obsession with diversity and inclusivity." His candidacy was endorsed by [UK](Reform)(Reform UK), who stood aside for him in the election, and [Farage](Nigel)(Nigel Farage). In mid-April 2021 Fox was polling at around 1%, tied with [Binface](Count)(Count Binface). The major source of Fox's campaign funds was Brexit backer [Hosking](Jeremy)(Jeremy Hosking), who, in the first quarter of 2021, gave the Reclaim Party more than £1,000,000 in cash and services. Fox finished in sixth place with 47,634 votes (1.9%) in the mayoral election, one place behind YouTuber Niko Omilana. He lost his £10,000 [deposit](election)(election deposit).
## Legal issues
### Defamation lawsuit
In October 2020, Fox announced he would boycott [Sainsbury's](Sainsbury's) because they "support racial segregation and discrimination" referencing the store establishing [space](safe)(safe space)s for black employees, while asking others to do the same. Sainsbury's later clarified that the safe spaces were online support groups established in response to [Lives Matter](Black)(Black Lives Matter) and were promoted as part of support for [History Month](Black)(Black History Month). Feeling he was "falsely smeared as a racist", Fox replied to a number of tweets reacting to that announcement by calling their authors [paedophiles](Pedophilia). Two of those people, ''[Drag Race UK](RuPaul's)(RuPaul's Drag Race UK)'' contestant [Crystal](Crystal (drag queen)) and Simon Blake, deputy chair of the LGBT rights charity [Stonewall](Stonewall (charity)), both gay men, later announced they would sue Fox for defamation. Fox deleted the tweets and explained in further tweets that he wanted to teach people a lesson in calling people something which they are not.
In April 2021, Crystal and Blake lodged a claim for defamation in the High Court and were joined in the legal action by actress [Thorp](Nicola)(Nicola Thorp), whom Fox also called a paedophile. In response, Fox filed a countersuit over the accusations of racism.
In April 2022, Fox requested a jury trial and claimed that "a judge could show involuntary bias". Court documents revealed that this request cost Fox legal fees of more than £116,000. In May 2022 the request was refused. Later that month the High Court ruled that Fox must pay more than £36,000 in legal fees to Crystal, Blake and Thorp.
## Personal life
Fox met actress [Piper](Billie)(Billie Piper) while they were performing together in the play *Treats* in 2006. They started dating soon after, and were married on 31 December 2007..; ; They had two sons together, Winston (born 2008); . and Eugene (born 2012), before divorcing in May 2016.
In an October 2012 *[Independent](The Independent)* interview, Fox described himself as a "vaguely lapsed [Christian](Christianity)" who occasionally prays and thinks "the world is a better place for people who believe in God" despite not having "[that circle](squared)(wikt:square the circle)" himself.
On 10 January 2022, Fox's engagement to Arabella Neagle was announced in *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)*.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
Some information in this table was obtained from .
### Theatre
Some information in this table was obtained from the following websites: ; .
## Discography
;Albums
**Holding Patterns* (2016)
**A Grief Observed* (2019)
;Singles/EPs
*"Gunfight" (2012)
*"So Be Damned" (2013).
**Sorry for My Words* EP (2013)
*"Headlong" (2015)
*"Rise Again" (2016)
## References
## External links
* – official site
*
*
*[Laurence Fox](http://www.hellomagazine.com/profiles/laurence-fox) at [Hello!](Hello! (magazine))
[births](Category:1978)(Category:1978 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from Leeds](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Leeds)
[of RADA](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of RADA)
[male film actors](Category:English)(Category:English male film actors)
[male stage actors](Category:English)(Category:English male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:English)(Category:English male television actors)
[educated at Harrow School](Category:People)(Category:People educated at Harrow School)
[actors from Yorkshire](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Yorkshire)
[Fox family](Category:Robin)(Category:Robin Fox family)
[English male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English male actors)
[political party founders](Category:British)(Category:British political party founders)
[of political parties in the United Kingdom](Category:Leaders)(Category:Leaders of political parties in the United Kingdom)
|
Yugoslav Wars
|
yugoslav_wars
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# Yugoslav Wars
*Revision ID: 1160117539 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T14:23:13Z*
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**[War of Independence](Slovenian)(Ten-Day War):**27 June – 7 July 1991()**[War of Independence](Croatian)(Croatian War of Independence):**31 March 1991 – 12 November 1995 followed by the [Lakes incident](Plitvice)(Plitvice Lakes incident) on 31 March 1991, when the first fatalities occurred. The last major combat operation was [Storm](Operation)(Operation Storm), from 5–8 August 1995. Formally, hostilities ceased when the [Agreement](Erdut)(Erdut Agreement) was signed on 12 November 1995.|group="A"}}()**[War](Bosnian)(Bosnian War):**6 April 1992 – 14 December 1995()**[in Kosovo](Insurgency)(Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)):**27 May 1995 – 27 February 1998()**[War](Kosovo)(Kosovo War):**28 February 1998 – 11 June 1999()**[in the Preševo Valley](Insurgency)(Insurgency in the Preševo Valley):**12 June 1999 – 1 June 2001()**[in Macedonia](Insurgency)(2001 insurgency in Macedonia):**22 January – 12 November 2001()
| place = [Serbia](Serbia), [Croatia](Croatia), [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina), [Slovenia](Slovenia),
[Montenegro](Montenegro), [Kosovo](Kosovo), and [Macedonia](North)(North Macedonia)
| result = [of Yugoslavia](Breakup)(Breakup of Yugoslavia) and the formation of independent [states](successor)(Yugoslavia#New states)
| notes = 130,000–140,000+ }} 4,000,000+}}
| campaignbox =
}}
The **Yugoslav Wars** were a series of separate but related[(2004)](Finlan)(#Finlan), p. 8.[(2003)](Naimark)(#Naimark), p. xvii. [conflict](ethnic)(ethnic conflict)s, wars of independence, and [insurgencies](Insurgency) that took place in the [Yugoslavia](SFR)(Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) from 1991 to 2001. Others also include the [Valley insurgency](Preševo)(Insurgency in the Preševo Valley) and [Macedonian insurgency](2001)(2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia).|group="A"}} The conflicts both led up to and resulted from the [of Yugoslavia](breakup)(breakup of Yugoslavia), which began in mid-1991, into six independent countries matching the six entities known as republics which previously comprised Yugoslavia: [Slovenia](Slovenia), [Croatia](Croatia), [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina), [Montenegro](Montenegro), [Serbia](Serbia), and [Macedonia](North)(North Macedonia) (previously named *Macedonia*). Yugoslavia's constituent republics declared independence due to unresolved tensions between ethnic minorities in the new countries, which fuelled the wars. While most of the conflicts ended through peace accords that involved full international recognition of new states, they resulted in a massive number of deaths as well as severe economic damage to the region.
During the initial stages of the breakup of Yugoslavia, the [People's Army](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav People's Army) (JNA) sought to preserve the unity of the Yugoslav nation by crushing all secessionist governments. However, it increasingly came under the influence of [Milošević](Slobodan)(Slobodan Milošević), whose government invoked [nationalism](Serbian)(Serbian nationalism) as an ideological replacement for the weakening [system](communist)(Communist state). As a result, the JNA began to lose [Slovenes](Slovenes), [Croats](Croats), [Albanians](Kosovar)(Kosovo Albanians), [Bosniaks](Bosniaks), and [Macedonians](Macedonians (ethnic group)), and effectively became a fighting force of only [Serbs](Serbs) and [Montenegrins](Montenegrins). According to a 1994 report by the [Nations](United)(United Nations) (UN), the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia; instead, it aimed to create a "[Serbia](Greater)(Greater Serbia)" from parts of [Croatia](Croatia) and [Bosnia](Bosnia (region)).[IV – II. The politics of creating a Greater Serbia: nationalism, fear and repression](Annex)(#Bassiouni) Other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the Yugoslav Wars, such as "[Albania](Greater)(Greater Albania)" (from [Kosovo](Kosovo), abandoned following international diplomacy) and "[Croatia](Greater)(Greater Croatia)" (from parts of [Herzegovina](Herzegovina), abandoned in 1994 with the [Agreement](Washington)(Washington Agreement (1994))).
Often described as one of [deadliest armed conflicts](Europe's)(List of conflicts in Europe) since [War II](World)(World War II), the Yugoslav Wars were marked by many [crime](war)(war crime)s, including [genocide](genocide), [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity), [cleansing](ethnic)(ethnic cleansing), and [wartime rape](mass)(Wartime sexual violence). The [genocide](Bosnian)(Bosnian genocide) was the first European wartime event to be formally classified as genocidal in character since the military campaigns of [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany), and many of the key individuals who perpetrated it were subsequently charged with war crimes; the [Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia](International)(International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia) (ICTY) was established by the UN in [Hague, Netherlands](The)(The Hague), to prosecute all individuals who had committed war crimes during the conflicts. According to the [Center for Transitional Justice](International)(International Center for Transitional Justice), the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, while the [Law Center](Humanitarian)(Humanitarian Law Center) estimates at least 130,000 casualties. Over their decade-long duration, the conflicts resulted in major refugee and humanitarian crises.
## Naming
The Yugoslav Wars have alternatively been referred to as:
*"Wars in the [Balkans](Balkans)"
*"Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia"
*"Wars of Yugoslav Secession/Succession"
*"Third Balkan War": a term used in the title of a book by British journalist [Glenny](Misha)(Misha Glenny) which alludes to the two previous [Wars](Balkan)(Balkan Wars) waged from 1912 to 1913.[(1996)](Glenny)(#Glenny), p. 250 However, some contemporary historians have previously applied this term to [War I](World)(World War I), because they believe it to be a direct sequel to the 1912–13 wars.[& Jeffries (2007)](Bideleux)(#Bideleux & Jeffries), p. 429
*"Yugoslav/Yugoslavia/Yugoslavian Civil War", "Civil War in Yugoslavia"
## Background
[[en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map of the six Yugoslav republics and the two autonomous provinces between 1945 and 1992](File:SocialistYugoslavia)]
The state of [Yugoslavia](Yugoslavia) was created in the [of World War I](aftermath)(aftermath of World War I), and its population was mostly composed of [Slavic](South)(South Slavs) [Christians](Christianity), though the nation also had a substantial [Muslim](Islam) minority. Clear ethnic conflict between the Yugoslav peoples only became prominent in the 20th century, beginning with tensions over the constitution of the [of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes) in the early 1920s and escalating into violence between Serbs and Croats in the late 1920s after the assassination of Croatian politician [Radić](Stjepan)(Stjepan Radić). This nation lasted from 1918 to 1941, when it was [by the Axis powers](invaded)(Invasion of Yugoslavia) during World War II, which provided support to the Croatian [fascist](Fascism) [Ustaše](Ustaše) (founded in 1929), whose [regime](Independent State of Croatia) carried out the [of Serbs](genocide)(Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia), [Jews](The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia) and [Roma](Genocide of Romani people in the Independent State of Croatia) by [people in concentration camps](executing)(Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia) and committing other systematic and mass crimes inside its territory.
The predominantly Serb [Chetniks](Chetniks), a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and [force](guerrilla)(Guerrilla warfare), committed [crimes](mass)(Chetnik war crimes in World War II) against Muslims and Croats which are considered a genocide by several authors, and they also supported the instatement of a Serbian monarchy and the establishment of a Yugoslav federation. The [Communist](Communist Party of Yugoslavia)-led [Partisans](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav Partisans) were able to appeal to all groups, including Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, and also engaged in mass killings. In 1945, the [People's Republic of Yugoslavia](Federal)(Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia) (FPRY) was established under [Broz Tito](Josip)(Josip Broz Tito), who maintained a strongly authoritarian leadership that suppressed [nationalism](nationalism).[III – The Balkan wars and the world wars](Annex)(#Bassiouni)
After [death](Tito's)(Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito) in 1980, relations between the six republics of the federation deteriorated. [Slovenia](Socialist Republic of Slovenia), [Croatia](Socialist Republic of Croatia) and [Kosovo](Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo) desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clear that there was no solution which was agreeable to all parties, Slovenia and Croatia moved towards [secession](secession). Although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, events in 1990 proved to be decisive. In the midst of economic hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no effective authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, two provinces and the Yugoslav People's Army, and the communist leadership was divided along national lines.
[[in Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia, 1981.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The distribution of Serbs and Montenegrins in Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia in 1981.](File:Serbs)]
The representatives of [Vojvodina](Vojvodina), Kosovo and [Montenegro](Montenegro) were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, [Milošević](Slobodan)(Slobodan Milošević). Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes[& Karim (1995)](Brown)(#Brown & Karim), p. 116 and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded an even more centralized federation and Serbia's dominant role in it.[IV – Prelude to the breakup](Annex)(#Bassiouni)
At the [Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia](14th)(14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia) in January 1990, the [Serbian](SR Serbia)-dominated assembly agreed to abolish the single-party system. However, Slobodan Milošević, the head of the Serbian Party branch ([of Communists of Serbia](League)(League of Communists of Serbia)) used his influence to block and vote down all other proposals from the [Croatian](SR Croatia) and [Slovene](SR Slovenia) party delegates. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the [break-up](Breakup of Yugoslavia) of the party, a symbolic event representing the end of "[and unity](brotherhood)(brotherhood and unity)".
The survey of Yugoslav citizens which was conducted in 1990 showed that ethnic animosity existed on a small scale. Compared to the results from 25 years before, there was significant increase of ethnic distance among [Serbs](Serbs) and [Montenegrins](Montenegrins) toward [Croats](Croats) and [Slovenes](Slovenes) and vice versa.
Upon Croatia and Slovenia's declarations of independence in 1991, the Yugoslav federal government attempted to forcibly halt the impending [of the country](breakup)(Breakup of Yugoslavia), with Yugoslav Prime Minister [Marković](Ante)(Ante Marković) declaring that the secessions of Slovenia and Croatia were both illegal and contrary to the constitution of Yugoslavia, and he also expressed his support for the Yugoslav People's Army in order to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia.[& Dragović-Saso (2008)](Cohen)(#Cohen-Dragović-Saso), p. 323
According to Stephen A. Hart, author of *Partisans: War in the Balkans 1941–1945*, the ethnically mixed region of [Dalmatia](Dalmatia) held close and amicable relations between the Croats and Serbs who lived there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many early proponents of a united Yugoslavia came from this region, such as [Trumbić](Ante)(Ante Trumbić), a Croat from Dalmatia. However, by the time of the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, any hospitable relations between Croats and Serbs in Dalmatia had broken down, with Dalmatian Serbs fighting on the side of the self-declared [proto-state](proto-state) [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina).
Even though the policies throughout the entire socialist period of Yugoslavia seemed to have been the same (namely that all Serbs should live in one state), political scientist Dejan Guzina argues that "different contexts in each of the subperiods of socialist Serbia and Yugoslavia yielded entirely different results (e.g., in favour of Yugoslavia, or in favour of a [Serbia](Greater)(Greater Serbia))". He assumes that the Serbian policy changed from conservative–socialist at the beginning to [xenophobic](xenophobic) nationalist in the late 1980s and 1990s.
In Serbia and Serb-dominated territories, violent confrontations occurred, particularly between nationalists and non-nationalists who criticized the Serbian government and the Serb political entities in Bosnia and Croatia.[(2004)](Gagnon)(#Gagnon), p. 5 Serbs who publicly opposed the nationalist political climate during the Yugoslav wars were reportedly harassed, threatened, or killed. However, following Milošević's rise to power and the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, numerous [movement](anti-war)(anti-war movement)s developed in Serbia. [Protests](1991–1992 anti-war protests in Belgrade) were held against the actions of the Yugoslav People's Army, while protesters demanded the [referendum](referendum) on a declaration of war and disruption of [conscription](military)(Conscription), resulting in numerous [desertion](desertion)s and emigrations.
With the escalation of the Yugoslav crisis, the [JNA](Yugoslav People's Army) became
heavily dominated by Serbs. According to former commander of the fifth army in Zagreb [Špegelj](Martin)(Martin Špegelj), 50% of the command positions were previously held by Croats, while a few years later at the beginning of the war all key positions were held by Serbs.Lenard J. Cohen, Jasna Dragovic-Soso; (2007) ''State Collapse in South-Eastern Europe: New Perspectives on Yugoslavia's Disintegration'' p. 309; Purdue University Press,
## History
### Conflicts
#### Slovenian War of Independence (1991)
[[File:Teritorialci so z armbrustom zadeli tank v križišču pred MMP Rožna Dolina..jpg|alt=damaged JNA tanks on the road|thumb|Ambushed JNA tanks near [Gorica](Nova)(Nova Gorica), on the border with Italy]]
The first of the conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA (Yugoslav People's Army) on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991.
Initially, the federal government ordered the Yugoslav People's Army to secure border crossings in Slovenia. Slovenian police and [Territorial Defence](Slovenian)(Slovenian Territorial Defence) blockaded barracks and roads, leading to stand-offs and limited skirmishes around the republic. After several dozen casualties, the limited conflict was stopped through negotiation at [Brioni](Brijuni) on 7 July 1991, when Slovenia and Croatia [agreed](Brioni Agreement) to a three-month moratorium on secession. The Federal army completely withdrew from Slovenia by 26 October 1991.
#### Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995)
[[File:Balkans War 1991, Dubrovnik - Flickr - Peter Denton 丕特 . 天登 (1).jpg|thumb|Damage after the bombing of [Dubrovnik](Dubrovnik)]]
[[File:Croatian War 1991 Vukovar destroyed tank.jpg|thumb|A JNA [tank](M-84)(M-84) disabled by a mine laid by Croat soldiers in [Vukovar](Vukovar), November 1991]]
Fighting in Croatia had begun weeks prior to the Ten-Day War in Slovenia. The Croatian War of Independence began when [in Croatia](Serbs)(Serbs of Croatia), who were opposed to [independence](Croatian)(Independence of Croatia), announced their secession from Croatia.
In the [parliamentary elections](1990)(1990 Croatian parliamentary election) in Croatia, [Tuđman](Franjo)(Franjo Tuđman) became the first [of Croatia](President)(President of Croatia). He promoted nationalist policies and had a primary goal of the establishment of an independent Croatia. The new government proposed [changes](constitutional)(Constitution of Croatia), reinstated the traditional [flag](Croatian)(Flag of Croatia) and [of arms](coat)(Coat of arms of Croatia), and removed the term "Socialist" from the title of the republic. The new Croatian government implemented policies that were seen as openly nationalistic and anti-Serbian in nature, such as the removal of the [Cyrillic script](Serbian)(Serbian Cyrillic script) from correspondence in public offices. In an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution, local Serb politicians organized a referendum on "Serb sovereignty and autonomy" in August 1990. Their boycott escalated into an insurrection in areas populated by ethnic Serbs, mostly around Knin, known as the [Revolution](Log)(Log Revolution).
Local police in Knin sided with the growing Serbian insurgency, while many government employees, mostly police where commanding positions were mainly held by Serbs and Communists, lost their jobs. The new Croatian constitution was ratified in December 1990, and the Serb National Council formed [Krajina](SAO)(SAO Krajina), a self-proclaimed Serbian autonomous region.
Ethnic tensions rose, fueled by [propaganda](Propaganda during the Yugoslav Wars) in both Croatia and Serbia. On 2 May 1991, one of the first armed clashes between Serb paramilitaries and Croatian police occurred in the [of Borovo Selo](Battle)(Battle of Borovo Selo). On 19 May an [referendum](independence)(1991 Croatian independence referendum) was held, which was largely boycotted by [Serbs](Croatian)(Croatian Serbs), and the majority voted in favour of the independence of Croatia. Croatia declared independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991. Due to the [Agreement](Brioni)(Brioni Agreement), a three-month moratorium was placed on the implementation of the decision that ended on 8 October.
The armed incidents of early 1991 escalated into an all-out war during the summer, with fronts being formed around the areas of the breakaway SAO Krajina. The JNA had disarmed the Territorial Units of Slovenia and Croatia prior to the declaration of independence, at the behest of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević.[III – The Conflict in Slovenia](Annex)(#BassiouniIII) This was greatly aggravated by an arms embargo, imposed by the UN on Yugoslavia. The JNA was ostensibly ideologically unitarian, but its officer corps was predominantly staffed by Serbs or Montenegrins (70 percent).[III – General structure of the Yugoslav armed forces](Annex)(#BassiouniIII)
As a result, the JNA opposed Croatian independence and sided with the Croatian Serb rebels. The Croatian Serb rebels were unaffected by the embargo because they were supported and supplied by the JNA. By mid-July 1991, the JNA moved an estimated 70,000 troops to Croatia. The fighting rapidly escalated, eventually spanning hundreds of square kilometers from western Slavonia through [Banija](Banija) to Dalmatia.[III – Forces operating in Croatia](Annex)(#BassiouniIII)
Border regions faced direct attacks from forces within Serbia and Montenegro. In August 1991, the [of Vukovar](Battle)(Battle of Vukovar) began, where fierce fighting took place with around 1,800 Croat fighters blocking the JNA's advance into Slavonia. By the end of October, the town was almost completely devastated as a result of land shelling and air bombardment. The [of Dubrovnik](Siege)(Siege of Dubrovnik) started in October with the shelling of [UNESCO](UNESCO) [Heritage Site](World)(World Heritage Site) [Dubrovnik](Dubrovnik), where the international press was criticised for focusing on the city's architectural heritage, instead of reporting the destruction of Vukovar in which many civilians were killed.
On 18 November 1991, the battle of Vukovar ended after the city ran out of ammunition. The [massacre](Ovčara)(Vukovar massacre) occurred shortly after Vukovar's capture by the JNA. Meanwhile, control over central Croatia was seized by Croatian Serb forces in conjunction with the JNA Corps from Bosnia and Herzegovina, under the leadership of [Mladić](Ratko)(Ratko Mladić).
[[File:Sunja (Croatia).JPG|thumb|A destroyed [Serbian](Serbs in Croatia) house in [Sunja](Sunja, Sisak-Moslavina County), Croatia. Most Serbs fled during [Storm](Operation)(Operation Storm) in 1995.]]
In January 1992, the [Plan](Vance)(Vance plan) established UN controlled (UNPA) zones for [Serbs](Serbs) in the territory which was claimed by the Serbian rebels as the self-proclaimed [proto-state](proto-state) [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina) (RSK) and brought an end to major military operations, but sporadic artillery attacks on Croatian cities and occasional intrusions into UNPA zones by Croatian forces continued until 1995. The majority of Croatian population in RSK suffered heavily, fleeing or evicted with numerous killings, leading to [cleansing](ethnic)(ethnic cleansing).[ICTY evidence; Babic pleads guilty to crimes](http://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/Archive/2004/Jan/29-319268.html) The fighting in Croatia ended in mid-1995, after [Flash](Operation)(Operation Flash) and [Storm](Operation)(Operation Storm). At the end of these operations, Croatia had reclaimed all of its territory except the UNPA Sector East portion of Slavonia, bordering Serbia. Most of the Serb population in the reclaimed areas fled and became refugees. The areas of "Sector East", unaffected by the Croatian military operations, came under UN administration ([UNTAES](UNTAES)), and were reintegrated to Croatia in 1998 under the terms of the [Agreement](Erdut)(Erdut Agreement).
#### Bosnian War (1992–1995)
On 2 April 1992, a conflict engulfed [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina) as it also declared independence from [rump](Rump state) Yugoslavia. The war was predominantly a territorial conflict between the [Bosniaks](Bosniaks), who wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the newly independent [of Bosnia and Herzegovina](Republic)(Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina), and the self-proclaimed [Serb](Bosnian)(Bosnian Serb) [proto-state](proto-state) [Srpska](Republika)(Republika Srpska (1992–1995)) and the self-proclaimed Croat [Herzeg-Bosnia](Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia), which were led and supplied by Serbia and Croatia respectively, reportedly with a goal of the [of Bosnia](partition)(partition of Bosnia), which would leave only a small part of land for the Bosniaks. On 18 December 1992, the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) issued resolution 47/121 in which it condemned Serbian and Montenegrin forces for trying to acquire more territories by force.
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg|thumb|People waiting in line to gather water during the [of Sarajevo](Siege)(Siege of Sarajevo), 1992]]
The Yugoslav armed forces had disintegrated into a largely Serb-dominated military force. The JNA opposed the Bosnian-majority led government's agenda for independence, and along with other armed nationalist Serb militant forces attempted to prevent Bosnian citizens from voting in the 1992 referendum on independence.[(1996)](Meštrović)(#Meštrović), p. 36. They failed to persuade people not to vote, and instead the intimidating atmosphere combined with a Serb boycott of the vote resulted in a resounding 99% vote in support for independence.
On 19 June 1992, the war in Bosnia broke out, though the [of Sarajevo](Siege)(Siege of Sarajevo) had already begun in April after Bosnia and Herzegovina had declared independence. The conflict, typified by the years-long Sarajevo siege and the [massacre](Srebrenica)(Srebrenica massacre), was by far the bloodiest and most widely covered of the Yugoslav wars. The Bosnian Serb faction led by ultra-nationalist [Karadžić](Radovan)(Radovan Karadžić) promised independence for all Serb areas of Bosnia from the majority-Bosniak government of Bosnia. To link the disjointed parts of territories populated by Serbs and areas claimed by Serbs, Karadžić pursued an agenda of systematic ethnic cleansing primarily against Bosnians through massacre and forced removal of Bosniak populations.[(1996)](Meštrović)(#Meštrović), pg. 7. [ethnic cleansing](Prijedor)(Prijedor ethnic cleansing), [massacres](Višegrad)(Višegrad massacres), [ethnic cleansing](Foča)(Foča ethnic cleansing), [massacre](Doboj)(Doboj massacre), [massacre](Zvornik)(Zvornik massacre), [of Goražde](siege)(siege of Goražde) and others were reported.
[[File:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-woman-cries-at-grave.jpg|thumb|A Serb woman mourns at a grave at the Lion's cemetery in [Sarajevo](Sarajevo), 1992]]
At the end of 1992, tensions between [Croats](Bosnian)(Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina) and Bosniaks rose and their collaboration fell apart. In January 1993, the two former allies engaged in open conflict, resulting in the [War](Croat–Bosniak)(Croat–Bosniak War).|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/delic/tjug/en/080915.pdf|title=Prosecutor v. Rasim Delić Judgement|publisher=International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia|date=15 September 2008|page=24|access-date=8 February 2023|archive-date=25 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325034056/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/delic/tjug/en/080915.pdf|url-status=live}} In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian [of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina](Army)(Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina) with the [Agreement](Washington)(Washington Agreement). After the successful Flash and Storm operations, the Croatian Army and the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina conducted an operation codenamed [Mistral](Operation)(Operation Mistral 2) in September 1995 to push back Bosnian Serb military gains.
The advances on the ground along with [air strikes](NATO)(Operation Deliberate Force) put pressure on the Bosnian Serbs to come to the negotiating table. Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and [an end](negotiate)(Peace plans offered before and during the Bosnian War) to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the [Agreement](Dayton)(Dayton Agreement) on 14 December 1995, with the formation of [Srpska](Republika)(Republika Srpska) as an entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA) in the United States reported in April 1995 that 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been committed by Serb militants.[(1996)](Meštrović)(#Meštrović), p. 8. Most of these atrocities occurred in [Bosnia](Bosnia (region)).
#### Insurgency in Kosovo (1995-1998)
In the 1990's, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was formed. They started carrying out attacks on Serb civilians. By the early 1990s, there were attacks on Serbian police forces and secret-service officials in retaliation for the abuse and murder of Albanian civilians. A Serbian policeman was killed in 1995, allegedly by the KLA. The KLA sought to destabilize the region, hoping the United States and NATO would intervene. Serbian patrols were ambushed and policemen were killed. It was only in the next year that the KLA organization took responsibility for these attacks.
The KLA, originally composed of a few hundred Albanians, attacked several police stations and wounded many police officers in 1996–1997. In February 1996 the KLA undertook a series of attacks against police stations and Yugoslav government employees, saying that the Yugoslav authorities had killed Albanian civilians as part of an ethnic cleansing campaign. On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in several parts of Kosovo.
In January 1997, Serbian security forces assassinated KLA commander [Pajaziti](Zahir)(Zahir Pajaziti) and two other leaders in a highway attack between Pristina and Mitrovica, and arrested more than 100 Albanian militants.Adem Jashari, as one of the founders and leaders of the KLA, was convicted of [terrorism](terrorism) *[absentia](in)(Trial in absentia)* by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997. [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) subsequently described the trial, in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted, as "[failing] to conform to international standards".
The NATO [Atlantic Council](North)(North Atlantic Council) claimed the KLA was "the main initiator of the violence" and that it had "launched what appears to be a deliberate campaign of provocation". Pursuing Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman, the Serbian forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on 22 January 1998. Between 1991 and 1997, mostly in 1996–97, 39 persons were killed by the KLA. Attacks between 1996 and February 1998 led to the deaths of 10 policemen and 24 civilians.
#### Kosovo War (1998–1999)
[[File:Tomahawk-launch.jpg|thumb|A [cruise missile](Tomahawk)(Tomahawk cruise missile) launches from the aft missile deck of the US warship [*Gonzalez*](USS)(USS Gonzalez (DDG-66)) on March 31, 1999]]
[[File:Нато бомбе изазивале еколошку катастрофу у Новом Саду.jpeg|thumb|Smoke rising in [Sad](Novi)(Novi Sad), Serbia after NATO bombardment in 1999]]
After September 1990 when the [Yugoslav Constitution](1974)(1974 Yugoslav Constitution) had been unilaterally repealed by the [Republic of Serbia](Socialist)(Socialist Republic of Serbia), Kosovo's autonomy suffered and so the region was faced with state-organized oppression: from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, the post office and schools. In June 1991, the [of Priština](University)(University of Priština) assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new school year beginning in September 1991, forcing students to study at home.[Prosecutor vs Milan Milutinović et al. – Judgement*, 26 February 2009](*The)(#Milutinovic et al.), pp. 88–89
A [NATO](NATO)-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed. When the killing of 45 Kosovar Albanians in the [massacre](Račak)(Račak massacre) was reported in January 1999, NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force to forcibly restrain the two sides.[Prosecutor vs Milan Milutinović et al. – Judgement*, 26 February 2009](*The)(#Milutinovic et al.), p. 416. Yugoslavia refused to sign the [Accords](Rambouillet)(Rambouillet Accords), which among other things called for 30,000 NATO peacekeeping troops in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory; immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law; and the right to use local roads, ports, railways, and airports without payment and requisition public facilities for its use free of cost.
NATO then prepared to install the peacekeepers by force, using this refusal to justify the bombings.
The [bombing of Yugoslavia](NATO)(NATO bombing of Yugoslavia) followed, an intervention against Serbian forces with a mainly bombing campaign, under the command of [Wesley Clark](General)(Wesley Clark). Hostilities ended months later with the [Agreement](Kumanovo)(Kumanovo Agreement). Kosovo was placed under the governmental control of the [Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo](United)(United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo) and the military protection of the [Force](Kosovo)(Kosovo Force) (KFOR). The 15-month war had left thousands of civilians killed on both sides and over a million displaced.
#### Insurgency in the Preševo Valley (1999–2001)
The Insurgency in the Preševo Valley was an armed conflict between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and ethnic-Albanian insurgents of the [Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac](Liberation)(Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac) (UÇPMB), beginning in June 1999. There were instances during the conflict in which the Yugoslav government requested KFOR support in suppressing UÇPMB attacks, since the government could only use lightly armed military forces as part of the Kumanovo Agreement, which created a buffer zone so the bulk of the Yugoslav armed forces could not enter. Yugoslav president [Koštunica](Vojislav)(Vojislav Koštunica) warned that fresh fighting would erupt if KFOR units did not act to prevent the attacks that were coming from the UÇPMB.
#### Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia (2001)
The insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia was an armed conflict in [Tetovo](Tetovo) which began when the ethnic [Albanian](Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia) [Liberation Army](National)(National Liberation Army (Albanians of Macedonia)) (NLA) militant group began attacking the [forces](security)(Military of the Republic of Macedonia) of the [of Macedonia](Republic)(Republic of Macedonia) at the beginning of February 2001, and ended with the [Agreement](Ohrid)(Ohrid Agreement). The goal of the NLA was to give greater rights and autonomy to the country's Albanian minority, who made up 25.2% of the population of the Republic of Macedonia (54.7% in Tetovo). There were also claims that the group ultimately wished to see Albanian-majority areas secede from the country, although high-ranking NLA members have denied this.
## Arms embargo
The [Nations Security Council](United)(United Nations Security Council) had imposed an arms embargo in September 1991. Nevertheless, various states had been engaged in, or facilitated, arms sales to the warring factions. In 2012, Chile convicted nine people, including two retired generals, for their part in arms sales.
## War crimes
### Genocide
[[File:Srebrenica Massacre - Massacre Victim 2 - Potocari 2007.jpg|thumb|The skull of a victim of the July 1995 [massacre](Srebrenica)(Srebrenica massacre) in an exhumed mass grave outside [Potočari](Donji Potočari), 2007]]
It is widely believed that [murders](mass)(mass murders) against Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina escalated into genocide. On 18 December 1992, the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) issued resolution 47/121 condemning "aggressive acts by the Serbian and Montenegrin forces to acquire more territories by force" and called such ethnic cleansing "a form of [genocide](genocide)". In its report published on 1 January 1993, [Watch](Helsinki)(Helsinki Watch) was one of the first [rights organisations](civil)(Civil rights organization) that warned that "the extent of the violence and its selective nature along ethnic and religious lines suggest crimes of genocidal character against Muslim and, to a lesser extent, Croatian populations in Bosnia-Hercegovina".
A telegram sent to the [House](White)(White House) on 8 February 1994 by U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, [W. Galbraith](Peter)(Peter W. Galbraith), stated that genocide was occurring. The telegram cited "constant and indiscriminate shelling and gunfire" of Sarajevo by Karadzic's Yugoslav People Army; the harassment of minority groups in Northern Bosnia "in an attempt to force them to leave"; and the use of detainees "to do dangerous work on the front lines" as evidence that genocide was being committed. In 2005, the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) passed a resolution declaring that "the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide".[A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate regarding the massacre at Srebrenica in July 1995](http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:s.res.00134:) , thomas.loc.gov; accessed 25 April 2015.
A trial took place before the [Court of Justice](International)(International Court of Justice), following a [suit](1993)(Bosnian Genocide Case) by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro alleging [genocide](genocide). The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 indirectly determined the war's nature to be international, though clearing Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by the forces of [Srpska](Republika)(History of Republika Srpska#1991–1995) in [Srebrenica](Srebrenica massacre). The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica and failed to punish those responsible, and bring them to justice.
War crimes were conducted simultaneously by different Serb forces in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in [Bijeljina](Bijeljina massacre), [Sarajevo](Siege of Sarajevo), [Prijedor](Prijedor massacre), [Zvornik](Zvornik massacre), [Višegrad](Višegrad massacres) and [Foča](Foča massacre). The judges however ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (*[specialis](dolus)(dolus specialis)*) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica in 1995. The court concluded that other crimes, outside Srebrenica, committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity) according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide per se.
The crime of genocide in the Srebrenica enclave was confirmed in several guilty verdicts handed down by the ICTY, most notably in the conviction of the Bosnian Serb leader [Karadžić](Radovan)(Radovan Karadžić).
### Ethnic cleansing
[[File:Manjača Camp.jpg|thumb|Detainees in the [camp](Manjača)(Manjača camp), near Banja Luka, 1992]]
[cleansing](Ethnic)(Ethnic cleansing) was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, [expulsion](forced)(forced expulsion), or [killing](Murder) of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority. These examples of [nationalism](territorial)(territorial nationalism) and [aspirations](territorial)(Irredentism) are part of the goal of an [ethno-state](Ethnic nationalism). Detention camps such as [Omarska](Omarska camp) and [Trnopolje](Trnopolje camp) were also designated as an integral part of the overall ethnic cleansing strategy of the authorities.
According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb and Croat forces performed [cleansing](ethnic)(ethnic cleansing) of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states ([Srpska](Republika)(History of Republika Srpska#1991–1995) and [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina) by the Serbs; and [Herzeg-Bosnia](Herzeg-Bosnia) by the Croats).
According to the ICTY, Serb forces from the SAO Krajina deported at least 80–100,000 Croats
and other non-Serb civilians in 1991–92. The total number of exiled Croats and other non-Serbs range from 170,000 ([ICTY](ICTY))
up to a quarter of a million people ([Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch)). Also, at least 700,000 Albanians in Kosovo in 1999. Further hundreds of thousands of Muslims were forced out of their homes by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By one estimate, the Serb forces drove at least 700,000 Bosnian Muslims from the area of Bosnia under their control.
Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.
### Wartime sexual violence and rape
[rape](War)(War rape) occurred as a matter of official orders as part of [cleansing](ethnic)(ethnic cleansing), to displace the targeted ethnic group.[Brouwer (2005)](de)(#Brouwer), p. 10 According to the Trešnjevka Women's Group, more than 35,000 women and children were held in such Serb-run "rape camps".[Brouwer (2005)](de)(#Brouwer), pp. 9–10[Netherlands Institute for War Documentation](http://srebrenica.brightside.nl/srebrenica/) Part 1 Chapter 9 [Kunarac](Dragoljub)(Dragoljub Kunarac), [Kovač](Radomir)(Radomir Kovač), and [Vuković](Zoran)(Zoran Vuković) were convicted of [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity) for rape, torture, and enslavement committed during the [massacres](Foča)(Foča massacres).
The evidence of the magnitude of rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina prompted the ICTY to openly deal with these abuses. Reports of sexual violence during the [War](Bosnian)(Bosnian War) (1992–1995) and Kosovo War (1998–1999) perpetrated by the Serbian regular and irregular forces have been described as "especially alarming". The NATO-led Kosovo Force documented rapes of Albanian, Roma and Serbian women by both Serbs and members of the Kosovo Liberation Army.[Brouwer (2005)](de)(#Brouwer), p. 11
Others have estimated that during the Bosnian War, between 20,000 and 50,000 women, mostly Bosniak, were raped. There are few reports of rape and sexual assault between members of the same ethnic group.
War rape in the Yugoslav Wars has often been characterized as a [against humanity](crime)(crime against humanity). Rapes which were perpetrated by Serb forces served to destroy the cultural and social ties which existed between the victims and their communities. Serbian policies allegedly urged soldiers to rape Bosniak women until they became pregnant as an attempt towards ethnic cleansing. Serbian soldiers hoped to force Bosniak women to carry Serbian children through repeated rape.[(1996)](Allen)(#Allen), p. 77 Often Bosniak women were held in captivity for an extended period of time and only released slightly before the birth of a child conceived of rape. The systematic rape of Bosniak women may have carried further-reaching repercussions than the initial displacement of rape victims. Stress, caused by the trauma of rape, coupled with the lack of access to reproductive health care often experienced by displaced peoples, led to serious health risks for victimized women.
During the Kosovo War, thousands of Kosovo Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence. War rape was used as a weapon of war and it was also used as an instrument of systematic [cleansing](ethnic)(ethnic cleansing); rape was used to terrorize the civilian population, extort money from families, and force people to flee their homes. According to a report by the [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) group in 2000, rape in the Kosovo War can generally be subdivided into three categories: rapes in women's homes, rapes during flight, and rapes in detention. The majority of the perpetrators were Serbian paramilitaries, but also included Serbian special police or Yugoslav army soldiers. Virtually all of the sexual assaults Human Rights Watch documented were gang rapes involving at least two perpetrators. Since the end of the war, rapes of Serbian, Albanian, and Roma women by ethnic Albanians — sometimes by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) – have been documented, but they have not occurred on a similar scale. Rapes frequently occurred in the presence, and with the acquiescence, of military officers. Soldiers, police, and paramilitaries often raped their victims in the full view of numerous witnesses.
A 2013 report by the [Nations Development Programme](United)(United Nations Development Programme) (UNDP) in Croatia entitled 'Assessment of the Number of Sexual Violence Victims during the Homeland War on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia and Optimal Forms of Compensation and Support of Victims', determined the estimated victims (male and female) of [rape](rape) and other forms of [assault](sexual)(sexual assault) on both sides to number between approximately 1,470 and 2,205 or 1,501 and 2,437 victims. Most victims were non-Serbs assaulted by Serbs. By region, the largest number of rapes and acts of sexual violence occurred in Eastern Slavonia, with an estimated 380-570 victims. According to the UNDP report, between 300 and 600 men (4.4%-6.6% of those imprisoned) and between 279 and 466 women (or 30%-50% of those imprisoned) suffered from various forms of sexual abuse while being held in Serbian detention camps and prisons (including those in Serbia proper). Between 412 and 611 Croat women were raped in the Serb-occupied territories, outside of detention camps, from 1991 to 1995. Croat forces were also known to have committed rapes and acts of sexual violence against Serb women during Operations [Flash](Operation Flash) and [Storm](Operation Storm), with an estimated 94-140 victims. Sexual abuse of Serb prisoners also occurred in the Croat-run [Lora](Lora prison camp) and [Kerestinec](Kerestinec camp) camps.
## Consequences
### Casualties
[[File:Ahmici massacre.jpg|thumb|UN peacekeepers collecting corpses after the [massacre](Ahmići)(Ahmići massacre)]]
Some estimates put the number of killed in the Yugoslav Wars at 140,000. The [Law Center](Humanitarian)(Humanitarian Law Center) estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. Slovenia's involvement in the conflicts was brief, thus avoiding higher casualties, and around 70 people were killed in its ten-day conflict. The War in Croatia left an estimated 22,000 people dead, of which 15,000 were Croats and 7,000 Serbs.
Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the heaviest burden of the fighting: between 97,207 and 102,622 people were killed in the war, including 64,036 Bosniaks, 24,905 Serbs, and 7,788 Croats. By share, 65% of the killed were Bosniaks, 25% Serbs, and 8% Croats. In the Kosovo conflict, 13,535 people were killed, including 10,812 Albanians (80%) and 2,197 Serbs (16%). The highest death toll was in [Sarajevo](Sarajevo): with around 14,000 killed during the siege, the city lost almost as many people as the entire war in Kosovo.
In relative and absolute numbers, Bosniaks suffered the heaviest losses: 64,036 of their people were killed in Bosnia, which represents a death toll of over 3% of their entire ethnic group. They experienced the worst plight in the [massacre](Srebrenica)(Srebrenica massacre), where the [rate](mortality)(mortality rate) of the Bosniak men (irrespective of their age or civilian status) reached 33% in July 1995.
The share of Bosniaks among all the civilian fatalities during the Bosnian War was around 83%, rising to almost 95% in Eastern Bosnia.
During the War in Croatia, 43.4% of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians.
### Internally displaced persons and refugees
[[refugees in 1993](File:Evstafiev-bosnia-travnik-girl-doll-refugee.jpg|thumb|Bosnian)]
[[99 Kukes.JPG|thumb|Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999](File:Eksodi)]
[[Serb refugees in 1999](File:Kosovo-metohija-koreni-duse004.jpg|thumb|Kosovo)]
The Yugoslav Wars caused [of the largest refugee crises](one)(List of largest refugee crises) in European history. It is estimated that the wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo produced about 2.4 million [refugees](refugees) and an additional 2 million [displaced](internally)(internally displaced) persons.
The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused 2.2 million refugees or displaced, of which over half were Bosniaks. Up until 2001, there were still 650,000 displaced Bosniaks, while 200,000 left the country permanently.
The Kosovo War caused 862,979 Albanian refugees who were either expelled from the Serb forces or fled from the battle front. In addition, 500,000 to 600,000 were [displaced](internally)(internally displaced), which means that, according to the [OSCE](OSCE), almost 90% of all Albanians were displaced from their homes in Kosovo by June 1999. After the end of the war, Albanians returned, but over 200,000 Serbs, Romani and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo. By the end of 2000, Serbia thus became the host of 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced from Kosovo, Croatia and Bosnia.
From the perspective of [asylum](Right of asylum) for internally displaced or refugees, Croatia took the brunt of the crisis. According to some sources, in 1992 Croatia was the host to almost 750,000 refugees or internally displaced, which represents a quota of almost 16% of its population of 4.7 million inhabitants: these figures included 420 to 450,000 Bosnian refugees, 35,000 refugees from Serbia (mostly from Vojvodina and Kosovo) while a further 265,000 persons from other parts of Croatia itself were internally displaced. This would be equivalent of Germany being a host to 10 million displaced people or France to 8 million people.
Official [UNHCR](UNHCR) data indicate that Croatia was the host to 287,000 refugees and 344,000 internally displaced in 1993. This is a ratio of 64.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants.[2002](UNHCR)(#UNHCRHR), p. 1 In its 1992 report, UNHCR placed Croatia #7 on its list of 50 most refugee burdened countries: it registered 316 thousand refugees, which is a ratio of 15:1 relative to its total population. Together with those internally displaced, Croatia was the host to at least 648,000 people in need of an accommodation in 1992. In comparison, [Macedonia](Republic of Macedonia) had 10.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants in 1999.[2000](UNHCR)(#UNHCRMK), p 319
Slovenia was the host to 45,000 refugees in 1993, which is 22.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants.[2002](UNHCR)(#UNHCRSL), p. 1 [and Montenegro](Serbia)(Serbia and Montenegro) were the host to 479,111 refugees in 1993, which is a ratio of 45.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants. By 1998 this grew to 502,037 refugees (or 47.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants). By 2000 the number of refugees fell to 484,391 persons, but the number of internally displaced grew to 267,500, or a combined total of 751,891 persons who were displaced and in need of an accommodation.[2002](UNHCR)(#UNHCRSR), p. 1
### Material damage
[[Facade - Sarajevo - Bosnia and Herzegovina.jpg|thumb|War damage on a Sarajevo building](File:Siege-Shattered)]
Material and economic damages brought by the conflicts were catastrophic. Bosnia and Herzegovina had a [GDP](GDP) of between $8–9 billion before the war. The government estimated the overall war damages at $50–$70 billion. It also registered a GDP decline of 75% after the war. 60% of the housing in the country had been either damaged or destroyed, which proved a problem when trying to bring all the refugees back home. Bosnia also became the most [landmine](landmine) contaminated country of Europe: 1820 km2 of its territory were contaminated with these explosives, which represent 3.6% of its land surface. Between 3 and 6 million landmines were scattered throughout Bosnia. Five thousand people died from them, of which 1,520 were killed after the war.
In 1999, the [Parliament](Croatian)(Croatian Parliament) passed a bill estimating war damages of the country at $37 billion. The government alleges that between 1991 and April 1993 an estimated total of 210,000 buildings in Croatia (including schools, hospitals and [camp](refugee)(refugee camp)s) were either damaged or destroyed from shelling by the [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina) and the JNA forces. Cities affected by the shelling were [Karlovac](Karlovac), [Gospić](Gospić), [Ogulin](Ogulin), [Zadar](Zadar), [Biograd](Biograd) and others. The Croatian government also acknowledged that 7,489 buildings belonging to Croatian Serbs were damaged or destroyed by explosives, arson or other deliberate means by the end of 1992. From January to March 1993 another 220 buildings were also damaged or destroyed. Criminal charges were brought against 126 Croats for such acts.
[against FR Yugoslavia](Sanctions)(Sanctions against Yugoslavia) created a [hyperinflation](hyperinflation) of 300 million percent of the [dinar](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav dinar). By 1995, almost 1 million workers lost their jobs while the gross domestic product had fallen 55 percent since 1989. The [NATO bombing of Serbia](1999)(NATO bombing of Yugoslavia) resulted in additional damages. One of the most severe was the bombing of the [Pančevo](Pančevo) petrochemical factory, which caused the release of 80,000 tonnes of burning fuel into the environment. Approximately 31,000 rounds of [Uranium](depleted)(depleted Uranium) ammunition were used during this bombing.
### ICTY/IRMCT
The [Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia](International)(International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia) (ICTY) was a body of the [Nations](United)(United Nations) established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars, and to try their perpetrators. The tribunal was an [hoc](ad)(ad hoc) court located in [Hague](The)(The Hague), [Netherlands](Netherlands). One of the most prominent [involved ex-Serbian President Slobodan Milošević](trials)(Trial of Slobodan Milošević), who was in 2002 indicted on 66 counts of [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity), [crimes](war)(war crimes) and [genocide](genocide) allegedly committed in wars in Kosovo, Bosnia and Croatia. His trial remained incomplete since he died in 2006, before a verdict was reached. Nonetheless, ICTY's trial "helped to delegitimize Milosevic's leadership", as one scholar put it.
Several convictions were handed over by the ICTY and its successor, the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT). The first notable verdict confirming genocide in Srebrenica was the case against Serb General [Krstić](Radislav)(Radislav Krstić): he was sentenced in 2001, while the Appeals Chamber confirmed the verdict in 2004. Another verdict was against ex-Bosnian Serb leader, [Karadžić](Radovan)(Radovan Karadžić), who was also convicted for genocide. On 22 November 2017, general [Mladić](Ratko)(Ratko Mladić) was sentenced to a [in prison](life)(life in prison).
Other important convictions included those of ultranationalist [Šešelj](Vojislav)(Vojislav Šešelj), paramilitary leader [Lukić](Milan)(Milan Lukić), Bosnian Serb politician [Krajišnik](Momčilo)(Momčilo Krajišnik), Bosnian Serb general [Galić](Stanislav)(Stanislav Galić), who was convicted for the [of Sarajevo](siege)(siege of Sarajevo), the former Assistant Minister of the [Ministry of Internal Affairs](Serbian)(Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs) and Chief of its Public Security Department, [Đorđević](Vlastimir)(Vlastimir Đorđević), who was convicted for crimes in Kosovo, ex-JNA commander [Mrkšić](Mile)(Mile Mrkšić) as well as both of [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina) ex-Presidents [Martić](Milan)(Milan Martić) and [Babić](Milan)(Milan Babić).
Several Croats, Bosniaks and Albanians were convicted for crimes, as well, including ex-Herzegovina Croat leader [Prlić](Jadranko)(Jadranko Prlić) and commander [Praljak](Slobodan)(Slobodan Praljak), Bosnian Croat military commander [Naletilić](Mladen)(Mladen Naletilić), ex-Bosnian Army commander [Hadžihasanović](Enver)(Enver Hadžihasanović) and ex-Kosovo commander [Bala](Haradin)(Haradin Bala).
In the [of Gotovina et al](Trial)(Trial of Gotovina et al), Croatian Generals [Gotovina](Ante)(Ante Gotovina) and [Markač](Mladen)(Mladen Markač) were ultimately acquitted on appeal in 2012.
By 2019, based on its statute, the ICTY found that the Serb officials were found guilty of [persecutions](persecutions), [deportation](deportation) and/or [transfer](forcible)(forcible transfer) ([against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity), Article 5) in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and [Vojvodina](Vojvodina). They were also found guilty of [murder](murder) (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo; as well as [terror](Terror (politics)) (violations of [laws or customs of war](the)(Law of war), Article 3) and genocide (Article 4) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croat forces were not found guilty of anything in Croatia, but were found guilty of deportation, other inhumane acts (forcible transfer), murder and persecutions (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Bosniak forces were found guilty of inhuman treatment (grave breaches of the [Conventions](Geneva)(Geneva Conventions), Article 2), murder; cruel treatment (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. One Albanian official was found guilty of torture, cruel treatment, murder (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Kosovo.
### Gunrunning
After the fighting ended, millions of weapons were left with civilians who held on to them in case violence should resurface. These weapons later turned up on the arms black market of Europe.
In 2018 there were no exact official figures on how many firearms are missing; in Serbia authorities have given estimates ranging from 250,000 to 900,000 of different kinds are in circulation. In Bosnia, public reports state a figure of 750,000. At the end of 2017, a man entered a bus in Banja Luka carrying two bags with 36 hand grenades, three assault rifles, seven handguns, a mine and hundreds of cartridges with Gothenburg as the destination. He was stopped in the neighbouring country of Slovenia. A 26-year-old woman was stopped at the border to Croatia with three antitank weapons and a hand grenade. Police found four machine guns, three battle rifles, three assault rifles and a large quantity of explosives at the home of a 79-year-old man. According to a UNDP official, getting civilians to give up their arms to state authorities is complicated as people are then forced to trust that authorities will protect them. Instead, criminals collect the weapons. Some of the missing weapons were used in the [2015 Paris attacks](November)(November 2015 Paris attacks) during which 130 people were killed by jihadists. Other arms were assault rifles used in the [Gothenburg pub shooting](2015)(2015 Gothenburg pub shooting).
Successor-state government efforts to reduce the prevalence of illegally held arms are co-ordinated through a Regional Approach to Stockpile Reduction (RASR) focused on reducing stockpiles, arms diversion and unexplained explosions in South-east Europe. Partners include the European Union, the US Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement, the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) and NATO's Support and Procurement Agency. Funded by the US Government, activities include annual workshops attended by US government officials from the Departments of State and Defense and defense ministry representatives from the Yugoslav successor states .
### Drug trafficking
Since the beginning of hostilities between warring factions in the former [Yugoslavia](Yugoslavia), the [Liberation Army](Kosovo)(Kosovo Liberation Army) as well as the [mafia](Serbian)(Serbian mafia) have been involved in the [drug trade](illegal)(illegal drug trade), particularly with [Asian heroin](West)(heroin) entering Central and [Europe](Western)(Western Europe). In the early 1990's, 2,000 Albanians from [Kosovo](Kosovo) were held in Swiss jails on charges of arms and drug smuggling. Over the course of the war, a total of several tons of heroin were confiscated by [Interpol](Interpol) and local law enforcement. Illegal drug smuggling operations also led to additional crimes all across Western Europe, which included bank robberies and extortion committed by criminal gangs operating out of [Europe](Eastern)(Eastern Europe). The intensification of heroin consumption in Western Europe led to the expansion of open air drug markets, particularly in [Switzerland](Switzerland). Bosnian criminal gangs continue to have a significant impact on global drug trafficking, through entering the lucrative [trade](cocaine)(cocaine trade).Drozdiak, William (November 6, 1993). ["Balkan War Victor: Heroin"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/11/06/balkan-war-victor-heroin/ae8f3ea1-1fd2-4bf5-90c1-48f7ecd803c3/). *The Washington Post*. Retrieved 3 May 2021.["Kosovo PM is head of human organ and arms ring, Council of Europe reports"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/14/kosovo-prime-minister-llike-mafia-boss) . *theguardian.com*. Retrieved 3 May 2021.["Balkan Cartel Trafficking Cocaine Around the Globe in Private Planes Busted"](https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/news/balkan-cartel-trafficking-cocaine-around-globe-in-private-planes-busted) . *Europol*. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
## Timeline
**1990**
*[Revolution](Log)(Log Revolution). [Krajina](SAO)(SAO Krajina) is proclaimed over an indefinite area of Croatia.
**1991**
[[File:Balkans War 1991, Latest deaths - Flickr - Peter Denton 丕特 . 天登.jpg|thumb|People observing new death notifications on a wall in [Dubrovnik](Dubrovnik) during the siege, December 1991]]
*Slovenia and Croatia declare independence in June, North Macedonia in September. [in Slovenia](War)(Ten-Day War) lasts ten days, and results in dozens of fatalities. The Yugoslav army leaves Slovenia after intervention of the UN which insisted that Slovenia be allowed to leave, but supports rebel Serb forces in Croatia. The [War of Independence](Croatian)(Croatian War of Independence) begins in Croatia. Serb areas in Croatia declare independence, but are recognized only by Belgrade.
*[Vukovar](Vukovar) is devastated by bombardments and shelling, and other cities such as [Dubrovnik](Dubrovnik), [Karlovac](Karlovac) and [Osijek](Osijek) sustain extensive damage. Refugees from war zones overwhelm Croatia, while Europe is slow to accept refugees.
*In Croatia, about 250,000 Croats and other non-Serbs forced from their homes or fled the violence.
**1992**
[[File:Sarajevo Siege firewood couple 1992.jpg|thumb|Besieged residents collect firewood in the bitter winter of 1992 during the [of Sarajevo](Siege)(Siege of Sarajevo).]]
*[Plan](Vance)(Cyrus Vance) signed, creating four [Nations Protection Force](United)(United Nations Protection Force) zones for Serbs and ending large-scale fighting in Croatia.
*Bosnia declares independence. [war](Bosnian)(Bosnian war) begins with the Bosnian Serb military leadership, most notably [Mladić](Ratko)(Ratko Mladić), trying to create a new, separate Serb state, [Srpska](Republika)(Republika Srpska), through which they would conquer as much of Bosnia as possible for the vision of either a Greater Serbia or a [rump](rump state) Yugoslavia.
*[Republic of Yugoslavia](Federal)(Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) proclaimed, consisting of [Serbia](Serbia) and [Montenegro](Montenegro), the two remaining republics.
*United Nations impose [against FR Yugoslavia](sanctions)(Sanctions against Yugoslavia) for its support of the unrecognized [of Serbian Krajina](Republic)(Republic of Serbian Krajina) in Croatia and [Srpska](Republika)(Republika Srpska) in Bosnia. In May 1992, Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia become UN members. FR Yugoslavia claims being sole legal heir to SFRY, which is disputed by other republics. UN envoys agree that Yugoslavia had 'dissolved into constituent republics'.
*The Yugoslav army retreats from Bosnia, but leaves its weapons to the army of Republika Srpska, which attacks poorly armed Bosnian cities of Zvornik, Kotor Varoš, Prijedor, Foča, [Višegrad](Višegrad (municipality)), Doboj. [ethnic cleansing](Prijedor)(Prijedor ethnic cleansing) and [of Sarajevo](siege)(siege of Sarajevo) start. Hundreds of thousands of non-Serbian refugees flee.
*[conflict](Bosniak-Croat)(Croat–Bosniak War) begins in Bosnia.
**1993**
[[File:HVO Army T-55 Glamoc setup.jpg|thumb|Two [Defense Council](Croatian)(Croatian Defense Council) (HVO) [T-55](T-54/55) Main Battle Tanks pull into firing position during a three-day exercise held at the Barbara Range in [Glamoč](Glamoč), [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina).]]
[[File:SrebrenicaStone.jpg|thumb|[Genocide Memorial](Srebrenica)(Srebrenica Genocide Memorial) Stone at [Potočari](Donji Potočari)]]
*[begins in the Bihać](Fighting)(Siege of Bihać) region between Bosnian Government forces loyal to [Izetbegović](Alija)(Alija Izetbegović), and Bosniaks loyal to [Abdić](Fikret)(Fikret Abdić), also supported by the Serbs.
*Sanctions in FR Yugoslavia, now isolated, create hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar.
*[massacre](Ahmići)(Ahmići massacre): the Croat forces kill over a hundred Bosnian Muslims.
*[of Mostar](Battle)(Siege of Mostar). [World Heritage Site](UNESCO)(UNESCO World Heritage Site) [Most](Stari)(Stari Most) (The Old Bridge) in [Mostar](Mostar), built in 1566, was destroyed by Croatian [HVO](Croatian Defense Council) forces. It was rebuilt in 2003.
*[ARBiH](Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina) launch [Neretva '93](Operation)(Operation Neretva '93) against [HVO](Croatian Defence Council) in [Herzegovina](Herzegovina) which ended in a stalemate.
**1994**
*[market shelling](Markale)(Markale massacres) in Sarajevo.
*[treaty](Peace)(Washington Agreement) between Bosniaks and Croats arbitrated by the United States, [of Bosnia and Herzegovina](Federation)(Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) formed.
*FR Yugoslavia starts slowly suspending its financial and military support for Republika Srpska.
**1995**
*[massacre](Srebrenica)(Srebrenica massacre) reported. 8,000 Bosniaks killed by Serb forces.
*Croatia launches [Flash](Operation)(Operation Flash), recapturing a part of its territory, but tens of thousands of Serb civilians flee from the area. The RSK responds with the [rocket attack](Zagreb)(Zagreb rocket attack).
*Croatia launches [Storm](Operation)(Operation Storm), reclaiming all UNPA zones except Eastern Slavonia, and resulting in exodus of 150,000–200,000 Serbs from the zones. Yugoslav forces do not intervene. War in Croatia ends.
*[launches a series of air strikes](NATO)(1995 NATO bombing in Bosnia and Herzegovina) on Bosnian Serb artillery and other military targets. Croatian and Bosnian army start a joint offensive against [Srpska](Republika)(Republika Srpska).
*[Agreement](Dayton)(Dayton Agreement) signed in Paris. War in Bosnia and Herzegovina ends. Aftermath of war is over 100,000 killed and missing and two million people internally displaced or refugees.
**1996**
*FR Yugoslavia recognizes Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.
*Fighting breaks out in Kosovo between Albanians rebels and FR Yugoslav authorities.
*Following allegations of fraud in local elections, tens of thousands of Serbs demonstrate in Belgrade against the Milošević government for three months.
**1998**
*[Slavonia](Eastern)(UNTAES) peacefully reintegrated into Croatia, following a gradual three-year handover of power.
*Fighting in Kosovo gradually escalates between Albanians demanding independence and the state.
**1999**
*[massacre](Račak)(Račak massacre), Rambouillet talks fail. NATO starts a military campaign in Kosovo and bombards FR Yugoslavia in [Allied Force](Operation)(1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia).
*Following Milošević's signing of an agreement, control of Kosovo is handed to the United Nations, but still remains a part of Yugoslavia's federation. After losing wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Kosovo, numerous Serbs leave those regions to find refuge in remainder of Serbia. In 1999, Serbia was host to some 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced.
*[fighting](Fresh)(Preševo Valley Conflict) erupts between Albanians and Yugoslav security forces in Albanian populated areas outside of Kosovo, with the intent of joining three municipalities to Kosovo ([Preševo](Preševo), [Bujanovac](Bujanovac) and [Medveđa](Medveđa)).
*[Tuđman](Franjo)(Franjo Tuđman) dies. Shortly after, his party loses the elections.
[[File:NATO damage in Belgrade.jpg|thumb|right|[Ministry of Defence](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav Ministry of Defence) building in Belgrade, destroyed during the [NATO bombing](1999)(1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)]]
**2000**
*Slobodan Milošević is voted out of office, and [Koštunica](Vojislav)(Vojislav Koštunica) becomes the new president of Yugoslavia. With Milošević ousted and a new government in place, FR Yugoslavia restores ties with the west. The political and economic sanctions are suspended in total, and FRY is reinstated in many political and economic organizations, as well as becoming a candidate for other collaborative efforts.
**2001**
*An Albanian [insurgency](2001 insurgency in Macedonia) begins in [Macedonia](North Macedonia).
*Conflict in Southern Serbia ends in defeat for Albanians.
*Conflict in Macedonia ends with the [Agreement](Ohrid)(Ohrid Agreement).
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### General and cited sources
#### Books
* Allcock, John B. *Explaining Yugoslavia* (Columbia University Press, 2000)
* Allcock, John B. et al. eds., *Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia* (1998)
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* Hall, Richard C. ed. *War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia* (2014)
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* |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=it1IAQAAIAAJ |title = Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995 |author = [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency), Office of Russian and European Analysis |publisher = Central Intelligence Agency |location = Washington, D.C. |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-16-066472-4 |access-date = 8 February 2023 |archive-date = 8 February 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230208124148/https://books.google.com/books?id=it1IAQAAIAAJ |url-status = live }}
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#### Scholarly journal articles
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#### Other sources
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* Ferguson, Kate. An investigation into the irregular military dynamics in Yugoslavia, 1992–1995. Diss. University of East Anglia, 2015.
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## External links
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* [Video on the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia](https://web.archive.org/web/20121215042159/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552526) from the [Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives](https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title)
* [Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991–2001)](http://www.historyguy.com/balkan_war_third.htm)
* Nation, R. Craig. ["War in the Balkans 1991–2002"](http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/00117.pdf)
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* [Bitter Land](https://massgravesmap.balkaninsight.com/), a multilingual database of mass graves in the Yugoslav Wars by [Investigative Reporting Network](Balkan)(Balkan Investigative Reporting Network)
[ ](Category:Yugoslav Wars)
[of the Cold War](Category:Aftermath)(Category:Aftermath of the Cold War)
[in 1991](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1991)
[in 1992](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1992)
[in 1993](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1993)
[in 1994](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1994)
[in 1995](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1995)
[wars](Category:Proxy)(Category:Proxy wars)
[involving NATO](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving NATO)
[involving the Balkans](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving the Balkans)
[of independence](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars of independence)
|
Albert I _monkey
|
albert_i__monkey
|
# Albert I (monkey)
*Revision ID: 1160287326 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T14:20:38Z*
---
**Albert I** was a [macaque](rhesus)(rhesus macaque) [monkey](monkey) and the first [mammal](mammal) launched on a rocket ([Rocket](V-2)(V-2 rocket) "Blossom No. 3") on June 18, 1948.Beischer, Dietrich E. Fregly, Alfred R. (1962) [ANIMALS AND MAN IN SPACE. A CHRONOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY THROUGH THE YEAR 1960](https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD0272581.pdf), NAVAL SCHOOL OF AVIATION MEDICINE PENSACOLA FL.
The launch was staged at [Sands Proving Ground](White)(White Sands Missile Range), [Cruces](Las)(Las Cruces, New Mexico), [Mexico](New)(New Mexico). Albert I, a nine-pound monkey, was [anesthetized](Anesthesia) and placed inside the rocket's crew capsule in the nose of the V-2 rocket.
## Background
The "Albert" project was plagued by numerous operational failures. The respiratory apparatus failed before launch, and the parachute system also failed. Albert likely died due to breathing problems, but since the capsule's parachute failed to open, Albert I would have died on impact anyway. The V-2 Blossom (designated "missile number 37") reached an altitude of 39 miles (62 km), reaching the [mesosphere](mesosphere), but due to a failed valve, the rocket's ascent to space was cut short.
The project continued with the successful June 14, 1949, launch of [II](Albert)(Albert II (monkey)) into space in a suborbital flight, though he also died (on impact).
## See also
* [and apes in space](Monkeys)(Monkeys and apes in space)
* [in space](Animals)(Animals in space)
* [Laika](Laika), a [space dog](Russian)(Russian space dog), the first animal to orbit the Earth (November 3, 1957)
* [Ham](Ham (chimpanzee)), a chimpanzee, the first [ape](great)(Hominidae) in space (January 31, 1961)
* [Enos](Enos (chimpanzee)), the first chimpanzee and third primate to orbit the Earth (November 29, 1961)
* [of individual monkeys](List)(List of individual monkeys)
## References
[monkeys](Category:Individual)(Category:Individual monkeys)
[primate astronauts of the American space program](Category:Non-human)(Category:Non-human primate astronauts of the American space program)
[before 1951](Category:Spaceflight)(Category:Spaceflight before 1951)
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Portugal national football team
|
portugal_national_football_team
|
# Portugal national football team
*Revision ID: 1160308875 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T17:12:40Z*
---
| FIFA max = 3
| FIFA max date = May–June 2010, October 2012, April–June 2014, September 2017–April 2018
| FIFA min = 43
| FIFA min date = August 1998
| Elo Rank =
| Elo max = 2
| Elo max date = June 2006
| Elo min = 42
| Elo min date = November 1962
| pattern_la1 = _por22h
| pattern_b1 = _por22h
| pattern_ra1 = _por22h
| pattern_sh1 = _por22h
| pattern_so1 = _por22hl
| leftarm1 = CA0014
| body1 = CA0014
| rightarm1 = CA0014
| shorts1 = 0D6938
| socks1 = CA0014
| pattern_la2 = _por22a
| pattern_b2 = _por22a
| pattern_ra2 = _por22a
| pattern_sh2 = _por22a
| pattern_so2 = _por22al
| leftarm2 = FFFFF
| body2 = FFFFF
| rightarm2 = FFFFF
| shorts2 = FFFFF
| socks2 = FFFFF
| First game = 3–1 ([Madrid](Madrid), Spain; 18 December 1921)
| Largest win = 8–0 ([Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal; 18 November 1994) 8–0 ([Coimbra](Coimbra), Portugal; 9 June 1999) 8–0 ([Leiria](Leiria), Portugal; 19 November 2003)
| Largest loss = 0–10 ([Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal; 25 May 1947)
| World cup apps = 8
| World cup first = 1966
| World cup best = Third place ([1966](1966 FIFA World Cup))
| Confederations cup apps = 1
| Confederations cup first = [2017](2017 FIFA Confederations Cup)
| Confederations cup best = Third place ([2017](2017 FIFA Confederations Cup))
| Regional name = [Championship](European)(UEFA European Championship)
| Regional cup apps = 8
| Regional cup first = [1984](UEFA Euro 1984)
| Regional cup best = **Champions** ([2016](UEFA Euro 2016))
| 2ndRegional name = [League Finals](Nations)(UEFA Nations League)
| 2ndRegional cup apps = 1
| 2ndRegional cup first = [2019](2019 UEFA Nations League Finals)
| 2ndRegional cup best = **Champions** ([2019](2019 UEFA Nations League Finals))
| website = [fpf.pt](https://www.fpf.pt/)
| 3rdRegional name = [Games](Olympic)(Football at the Summer Olympics)
| 3rdRegional cup apps = 1
| 3rdRegional cup first = [1928](Football at the 1928 Summer Olympics)
| 3rdRegional cup best = Quarter-finals ([1928](Football at the 1928 Summer Olympics))
| medaltemplates =
}}
The **Portugal national football team** () has represented [Portugal](Portugal) in international men's [football](Association football) competition since 1921. The national team is controlled by the [Football Federation](Portuguese)(Portuguese Football Federation) (FPF), the governing body for [in Portugal](football)(football in Portugal). Portugal's home matches are played at various stadiums throughout Portugal, and its primary [ground](training)(Training ground (association football)) and technical headquarters, [do Futebol](Cidade)(Portuguese Football Federation), is located in [Oeiras](Oeiras, Portugal). The head coach of the team is [Martínez](Roberto)(Roberto Martínez) and the captain is [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo), who also holds the team records for most caps and most goals.
Portugal's first participation in a major tournament finals was at the [World Cup](1966)(1966 FIFA World Cup), which saw a team featuring [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or) winner [Eusébio](Eusébio) finish in third place. Portugal also made it to the semi-finals of the [Euro 1984](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 1984), losing to hosts and eventual winners [France](France national football team). Under the team's first [generation](golden)(golden generation) in the 1990s, Portugal began consistently featuring in the European Championship and World Cup; they made the semi-finals of the [World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup), finishing in fourth place, along with placing as runners-up at [2004](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2004) as hosts, and reaching the semi-finals of [2000](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2000) and [2012](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2012). This was in great part due to the production of several players, such as [Figo](Luís)(Luís Figo), [Costa](Rui)(Rui Costa), [Carvalho](Ricardo)(Ricardo Carvalho), and Cristiano Ronaldo, who is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time.
In 2016, Portugal won its first-ever major trophy, [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016), defeating hosts [France](France national football team) in the [final](UEFA Euro 2016 Final). With the win, Portugal qualified and made its only appearance in the [Confederations Cup](FIFA)(FIFA Confederations Cup) held in [Russia](2017 FIFA Confederations Cup), where they finished in third place. Portugal qualified for and hosted the brand new [Nations League finals](2019)(2019 UEFA Nations League Finals) where they triumphed, defeating the [Netherlands](Netherlands national football team) and earning their second major tournament victory in three finals.
Portugal is colloquially referred to as the *Seleção das [Quinas](Coat of arms of Portugal)* (a synecdoche based on the flag of the country) and has notable rivalries with [Brazil](Brazil national football team), due to shared cultural traits and heritage, [France](France national football team), due to several important meetings between the two teams at Euro and World Cup, and [Spain](Spain national football team), known as *A Guerra Ibérica* in Portuguese or *The Iberian War* in English, with the rivalry between two countries going back to 1581.
## History
### Early World Cup attempts
Portugal was not invited to the [World Cup](1930)(1930 FIFA World Cup), which only featured a final stage and no [round](qualification)(FIFA World Cup qualification). The team took part in the [FIFA World Cup qualification](1934)(1934 FIFA World Cup qualification), but failed to eliminate their Spanish opponents, aggregating two defeats in the two-legged round, with a 9–0 loss in [Madrid](Madrid) and 2–1 loss in [Lisbon](Lisbon) for an aggregate score of 11–1.
In the [FIFA World Cup qualification](1938)(1938 FIFA World Cup qualification), the *Seleção* played one game against Syria held in neutral ground in [Milan](Milan). They lost 2–1 and failed to qualify for the finals. The Second World War delayed the World Cup until [1950](1950 FIFA World Cup) and subsequently, the national team rarely played. A 10–0 home friendly loss against [England](England national football team), two years after the war, still stands as their biggest ever defeat.
### 1950s and early 1960s
Similar to 1934, Portugal [to play](were)(1950 FIFA World Cup qualification#Group 6) a two-legged round against [Spain](Spain national football team). After a 5–1 defeat in Madrid, they managed to draw in the second game 2–2. With a 7–3 aggregate score, they did not qualify on the pitch, however they would later be invited to replace [Turkey](Turkey national football team), which had withdrawn from participating. Portugal refused to participate.
For the [of the 1954 World Cup](qualification)(1954 FIFA World Cup qualification), the team would play [Austria](Austria national football team); the Austrians won the first game with a 9–1 result. The best the Portuguese could do was hold the Austrians to a goalless draw in Lisbon, resulting in a 9–1 aggregate defeat. In the [World Cup qualification](1958)(1958 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA - Group 8)), Portugal won a qualifying match for the first time, a 3–0 home victory over [Italy](Italy national football team). Nevertheless, they finished last in a group that also featured [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland national football team); only the first-placed team, Northern Ireland, would qualify.
1960 was the year that UEFA created the [Championship](European)(UEFA European Football Championship). The [edition](first)(Euro 1960) was a knock-out tournament, the last four teams participating in the final stage that only featured one leg while the earlier stages had two legs. In the first round, the *Seleção das Quinas* won 2–0 at [Germany](East)(East Germany national football team) and then 3–2 in [Porto](Porto), advancing with a 5–2 two-legged win. The quarter-final opponent was Yugoslavia, who won 6–3 on aggregate.[Matateu. Ele é que foi o D. Sebastião (Matateu. The real D. Sebastião)](http://www1.ionline.pt/conteudo/43822-matateu-ele-e-que-foi-o-d-sebastiao) ; [i](i (newspaper)), 27 January 2010 (in Portuguese)
England and [Luxembourg](Luxembourg national football team) were the [FIFA World Cup qualification](1962)(1962 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA - Group 6)) adversaries of the national team. Portugal ended second in the group, behind England. Only the top team would qualify. In the [European Championship](1964)(1964 European Nations' Cup), Portugal played against [Bulgaria](Bulgaria national football team) in the [rounds](qualifying)(1964 European Nations' Cup qualifying). The Portuguese lost in [Sofia](Sofia) and won in Lisbon. With the round tied 4–4, a replay was needed in a neutral country. In the [Olimpico](Stadio)(Stadio Olimpico) in Rome, Portugal lost 1–0 thanks to a late strike from [Asparuhov](Georgi)(Georgi Asparuhov).
### 1966 World Cup and 1970s
In the [World Cup qualification](1966)(1966 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA - Group 4)), Portugal was drawn into the same group as [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovakia national football team), [Romania](Romania national football team) and Turkey. They topped the group with only one draw and one defeat during all the six games and finally qualified for a FIFA World Cup, that year the final stage would be held in England. Notable results were both 1–0 away wins against Czechoslovakia and Turkey and a 5–1 home win against the Turks.
The team started out with three wins in the group stage where they were in Group C when they beat [Hungary](Hungary national football team) 3–1, Bulgaria 3–0, and two-time defending champions [Brazil](Brazil national football team) 3–1. Secondly, they beat surprise quarter-finalist [Korea](North)(Korea DPR national football team) 5–3, with [Eusébio](Eusébio) getting four markers to overturn a 3–0 deficit. Later, they reached the semi-finals where they were beaten by hosts England 2–1; in this game, Portugal would have played in [Liverpool](Liverpool), but as England were the hosts, FIFA decided that the game should have been in the English capital, which led the Portuguese team travel unexpectedly from Liverpool to London. Portugal then defeated the [Union](Soviet)(USSR national football team) 2–1 in the third place match for their best World Cup finish to date. Eusébio was the top scorer of the World Cup with nine goals.
In the [1972 qualifiers](Euro)(UEFA Euro 1972 qualifying), Portugal finished second in a [that comprised](group)(UEFA Euro 1972 qualifying#Group 5) the teams of [Belgium](Belgium national football team), [Denmark](Denmark national football team) and [Scotland](Scotland national football team) to advance to the finals.
For the [World Cup qualification stages](1974)(1994 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 1), Portugal were [to defeat](unable)(1994 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 1#Result) Bulgaria (drawing 2–2) in the decisive match, and thus failed to qualify. Portugal faced tough competition from [Poland](Poland national football team) for the place in the [World Cup](1978)(1978 FIFA World Cup) in Argentina, and finished in second place behind the Poles.
### Late 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s
Portugal [put](was)(UEFA Euro 1980 qualifying Group 2) alongside Austria, Belgium, Norway and Scotland to fight for the first spot in the group, which would allow them to go to the final stage of [Euro 1980](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 1980); they finished third.
[[File:Luis Figo.jpg|thumb|[Figo](Luís)(Luís Figo) playing for Portugal at the [FIFA World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup).]]
For the [qualification](1982)(1982 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)#UEFA Group 6), the Portuguese team faced [Israel](Israel national football team), Northern Ireland, Scotland and Sweden, finishing fourth and failing to qualify.
During the [campaign for Euro 1984](qualifying)(UEFA Euro 1984 qualifying#Group 2), Portugal was grouped with [Finland](Finland national football team), Poland and the Soviet Union. Portugal won the group with a win over the Soviet Union, which allowed them to qualify and be placed in Group B alongside Spain, [Germany](West)(Germany national football team) and Romania. In the first two matches, they tied 0–0 and 1–1 against West Germany and Spain, respectively. A 1–0 win over Romania gave them second place in the group, to go through to the knockout stage, where they were matched against the hosts, [France](France national football team). The game was tied after 90 minutes and went into extra time; Portugal made the score 2–1, but France scored in the 114th and 119th minutes to eliminate Portugal 3–2 and go through to the final.
[the 1986 tournament](For)(1986 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)#Group 2), the *Seleção* played against Czechoslovakia, [Malta](Malta national football team), Sweden and West Germany for the two spots that would guarantee them a ticket to Mexico. Needing a win in the last game against West Germany in [Stuttgart](Stuttgart), Portugal won the game to become the first team to beat West Germany at their home ground in an official match. The team exited early in the group stages after a win and two losses. They started with a 1–0 win to England, but later were beaten by Poland and [Morocco](Morocco national football team) 1–0 and 3–1 respectively. Their staying in Mexico was marked by the [Affair](Saltillo)(Saltillo Affair), where players refused to train in order to win more prizes from the [Football Federation](Portuguese)(Portuguese Football Federation).
For the [Euro 1988](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 1988) the Portuguese team attempted to top their [group](qualifying)(UEFA Euro 1988 qualifying#Group 2) in a group with Italy, Malta, Sweden and Switzerland; however, they finished third. The [World Cup qualification](1990)(1990 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA Group 7) was in a group along with Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Luxembourg and Switzerland, Portugal fought to get one of the first two spots of the group; playing at home against Czechoslovakia, the game ended 0–0 allowing the Central Europeans to get the second place.
During [1992 qualifying](Euro)(UEFA Euro 1992 qualifying Group 6), the [Netherlands](Netherlands national football team), Greece, Finland and Malta were the Portuguese opponents; Portugal ended second behind the Dutch.
For the [World Cup qualification](1994)(1994 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)#Group 1), Portugal ended third in a group with [Estonia](Estonia national football team), Italy, Malta, Scotland and Switzerland, failing to qualify.
### 1995 to 2006: The golden generation
At [Euro 1996](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 1996), Portugal finished first in Group D, and in the [quarter-finals](UEFA Euro 1996 knockout stage#Quarter-finals), they lost 1–0 to the [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic national football team).
[[File:Charisteas' Siegtreffer im Finale der Euro 2004.jpg|thumb|left|Portugal lost the [2004 final](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2004 Final) 0–1 to Greece with a header from [Charisteas](Angelos)(Angelos Charisteas) (pictured).]]
Portugal failed to [qualify](1998 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)#Group 9) for the [FIFA World Cup](1998)(1998 FIFA World Cup). In [2000 qualifying](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying#Group 7), Portugal finished second in their group, one point short of first-placed Romania. However, after finishing as the top runner-up nation in qualifying, Portugal nonetheless secured passage to the tournament final stage. They then defeated England 3–2, Romania 1–0 and Germany 3–0 to finish first in [A](Group)(UEFA Euro 2000 Group A), then defeated Turkey in the quarter-finals. In the semi-final against France, Portugal were eliminated in extra time when [Zidane](Zinedine)(Zinedine Zidane) converted a [penalty](Penalty kick (association football)). Referee [Benkö](Günter)(Günter Benkö) awarded the spot kick for a handball after [Xavier](Abel)(Abel Xavier) blocked a shot. Xavier, [Gomes](Nuno)(Nuno Gomes) and [Bento](Paulo)(Paulo Bento) were all given lengthy suspensions for subsequently shoving the referee. The final result was 2–1.
During [FIFA World Cup qualifying](2002)(2002 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA Group 2), Portugal won the group. Several problems and poor judgement decisions occurred during the preparation and tournament itself – shopping sprees by players were widely reported in the Portuguese press. Questionable managing choices and some amateurism, including the same lack of agreement on prizes. Portugal entered the tournament as favourites to win Group D. However, they were upset 3–2 by the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team). They then rebounded with a 4–0 smashing of Poland. Needing a draw to advance, they lost the final group game to hosts [Korea](South)(South Korea national football team). Portugal underachieved and ended third in its group stage, subsequently eliminated. Manager [Oliveira](António)(António Oliveira (footballer, born 1952)) was fired after the World Cup.
[[File:Cristiano Ronaldo 20120609.jpg|thumb|upright|Ronaldo, pictured playing against [Germany](Germany national football team) at [2012](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2012), assumed the captaincy in the wake of Euro 2008.]]
The next major competition, the [Euro 2004](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2004), was held in Portugal. On the preparation, the Football Federation made a contract with [Felipe Scolari](Luiz)(Luiz Felipe Scolari) to manage the team until the tournament ended. The Portuguese team entered the tournament being a favourite to win it.
The host nation lost the first game against Greece 1–2. They got their first win against [Russia](Russia national football team) 2–0 and also beat Spain 1–0. They went on to play against England, in a 2–2 draw that went into penalties, with Portugal winning. Portugal beat the Netherlands 2–1 in the semi-final. They were beaten by Greece 1–0 in the final.
After the tournament ended, a lot of players belonging to the *Geração de Ouro* (Golden Generation), abandoned their international footballing careers, with only [Figo](Luís)(Luís Figo) remaining in the team, despite a temporary retirement.
The silver lining for Portugal was the emergence of Cristiano Ronaldo. Ronaldo was selected in the UEFA Euro All Stars Team. While Portugal was playing in the competition, Scolari agreed in a new two-year deal with the Federation.
Portugal finished first in the [round for the 2006 World Cup](qualifying)(2006 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA Group 3).
Portugal finished first place in Group D of the World Cup, with victories over [Angola](Angola national football team) (1–0), [Iran](Iran national football team) (2–0) and [Mexico](Mexico national football team) (2–1).
Portugal defeated the Netherlands 1–0 in the Round of 16 in [Nuremberg](Max-Morlock-Stadion) in an [match](acrimonious)(Battle of Nuremberg (2006 FIFA World Cup)) marked by 16 yellow cards, with four players sent off. Portugal drew 0–0 after extra-time with England, but won 3–1 on [penalties](Penalty shoot-out (association football)) to reach their first World Cup semi-final since 1966. Portugal lost 1–0 against France in the semi-finals. Portugal faced Germany in the third place play-off match in a 3–1 defeat.["Germany 3-1 Portugal"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991644.stm) . BBC. Retrieved 28 May 2014
Ultimately, the team won the "Most Entertaining Team" award for their play during the World Cup. Once again Scolari was asked to accept a new deal with the Federation that would maintain with as the manager until the end of the next competition.
### 2006 to 2014: Post-golden generation and mixed results
For [2008](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2008) Portugal finished second in [qualification](UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group A) behind Poland, and won their first two group games against Turkey and the Czech Republic, although a loss to co-hosts Switzerland set up a quarter-final matchup with Germany which the team lost 3–2. After the tournament, Scolari left to take over at [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.). Afterwards, [Queiroz](Carlos)(Carlos Queiroz) was appointed as the head coach of the Portugal national team.
Portugal [second in the qualifying stages](came)(2010 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA Group 1) for the [FIFA World Cup](2010)(2010 FIFA World Cup) under Carlos Queiroz, then beat [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team) in a [play-off](2010 FIFA World Cup qualification - UEFA second round), thereby reaching every tournament in the decade. A 19-match undefeated streak, in which the team conceded only three goals, ended with a loss to eventual champions Spain in the round of 16, 1–0.["World Cup 2010: David Villa raises the roof as Spain push past Portugal"](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2010/jun/29/spain-portugal-world-cup-2010-report) . *The Guardian* (London). Retrieved 28 May 2014 Queiroz was later criticized for setting up his team in an overly cautious way. After the World Cup, squad regulars [Simão](Simão Sabrosa), [Ferreira](Paulo)(Paulo Ferreira), [Miguel](Miguel Monteiro) and [Tiago](Tiago Mendes) all retired from international football. Queiroz was banned from coaching the national team for one month after he tried to block a doping test to the team while preparing for the World Cup, as well as directing insulting words to the testers. In consequence, he received a further six-month suspension. Several media outbursts from Queiroz against the heads of the Portuguese Football Federation followed, which partly prompted his dismissal. Paulo Bento was appointed as his replacement at head coach.
Bento's team qualified for Euro 2012, They were drawn with Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands in a widely speculated "[of death](group)(group of death)". They lost their first game 0–1 to Germany, then beat Denmark 3–2. The final group stage match was against the Netherlands. After [der Vaart](Van)(Rafael van der Vaart) had given the Dutch a 1–0 lead, Ronaldo netted twice to ensure a 2–1 victory. Portugal finished second in the group and qualified for the knockout phase. Portugal defeated the Czech Republic 1–0 in the quarter-finals with a header from Ronaldo. The semi-final match was against Spain. The game ended 0–0 and Portugal lost 4–2 on penalties.
In [FIFA World Cup qualifying](2014)(2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)), Portugal won 4–2 on aggregate in a play-off against Sweden with all four goals being scored by Ronaldo, and was drawn into [G](Group)(2014 FIFA World Cup Group G) with the United States, Germany and [Ghana](Ghana national football team). Their first match against the Germans was their worst-ever defeat in a World Cup, a 4–0 loss. They went on to draw 2–2 against the United States and won 2–1 against Ghana.["Portugal 2–1 Ghana"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/25285312) . BBC Sport. Retrieved 26 June 2014 However, the team were eliminated due to inferior goal difference to the Americans.
### 2016–present: Euro 2016 and first international glories
Portugal began the [2016 qualifiers](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying) with a 0–1 home defeat against Albania, which resulted in Bento being dismissed from his managerial post to be replaced by [Santos](Fernando)(Fernando Santos (Portuguese footballer)) in September 2014. Under Santos, the team qualified as group winners and were drawn in Group F alongside newcomers [Iceland](Iceland national football team), Austria and Hungary; the Portuguese advanced into the knockout stage as the third-best third place team following three straight draws. Portugal beat Croatia 1–0 in the Round of 16 after a goal from [Quaresma](Ricardo)(Ricardo Quaresma) in extra time and then defeated Poland 5–3 on penalties to reach the semi-finals, where they defeated [Wales](Wales national football team) 2–0 in regulation time with goals from Ronaldo and Nani to reach the [final](UEFA Euro 2016 Final) at the [de France](Stade)(Stade de France) against hosts France. The early stages of the final saw Ronaldo limp off the pitch injured; in extra time, substitute [Eder](Eder (Portuguese footballer)) turned hero when he scored the match's only goal in the 109th minute, defying all odds. Ronaldo won the Silver Boot, scoring three goals and providing three assists.
Following their [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016) victory, Portugal participated in the [FIFA Confederations Cup](2017)(2017 FIFA Confederations Cup). Portugal faced Mexico on 17 June in their opening match, which ended in a 2–2 draw. Three days later, Portugal faced hosts Russia 1–0 winning effort, with the only goal of the match being scored by [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo). On 24 June, Portugal defeated [Zealand](New)(New Zealand national football team) 4–0 to top their group and advance to the semi-finals of the competition. Ronaldo was also man of the match in all three of Portugal's group stage matches. Awards Man of the Match|publisher=FIFA|access-date=26 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621031639/http://www.fifa.com/confederationscup/awards/man-of-the-match/index.html|archive-date=21 June 2017|url-status=dead}} Portugal lost to [Chile](Chile national football team) on penalties after a goalless draw in the [semi-finals](2017 FIFA Confederations Cup#Semi-finals), but rebounded in the [place game](third)(2017 FIFA Confederations Cup#Third place play-off), defeating Mexico 2–1 after extra time.
[[File:Portugal national football team World Cup 2018.jpg|thumb|Portugal lining up before a match at the [FIFA World Cup](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup)]]
In the [FIFA World Cup preliminary draw](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)), Portugal were placed in [B](Group)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group B) along with Switzerland, Hungary, [Islands](Faroe)(Faroe Islands national football team), [Andorra](Andorra national football team) and [Latvia](Latvia national football team). Portugal would only lose one match against Switzerland 2–0. However, Portugal got their revenge on their last group stage match defeating Switzerland 2–0, to top their group and qualify for the 2018 World Cup.
In the [FIFA World Cup](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup), Portugal were drawn into [B](Group)(2018 FIFA World Cup Group B) with Spain, Morocco and Iran. In their opening match on 15 June, Portugal were against Spain, which ended in a 3–3 draw, with Cristiano Ronaldo scoring a [hat-trick](List of FIFA World Cup hat-tricks). Ronaldo scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory against Morocco, breaking Puskás' record. Portugal faced Iran on 25 June, in their final group match, which ended in a 1–1 draw, leading Portugal to progress to the knockout round as group runners-up behind Spain. On 30 June, Portugal were eliminated following a 2–1 defeat to [Uruguay](Uruguay national football team) in the [of 16](round)(2018 FIFA World Cup knockout stage).
[[File:Gonçalo Guedes (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[Guedes](Gonçalo)(Gonçalo Guedes), who scored the winning goal against the [Netherlands](Netherlands national football team) in the [UEFA Nations League Final](2019)(2019 UEFA Nations League Final)]]
Following the World Cup, Portugal was part of the inaugural [Nations League](UEFA)(2018–19 UEFA Nations League), were the *Seleção* were placed in [A](league)(2018–19 UEFA Nations League A) and were drawn into [3](Group)(2018–19 UEFA Nations League A#Group 3) with Italy and Poland. On 9 March 2018, UEFA announced that Portugal had expressed interest in bidding for the [League finals](Nations)(2019 UEFA Nations League Finals), which was later announced that the group winners would be appointed as the host. Portugal started the league defeating Italy in a home 1–0 victory, with [Silva](André)(André Silva (footballer, born 1995)) scoring the match's only goal. In their second match, Portugal defeated Poland in a 3–2 away victory. In the two remaining matches, Portugal faced Italy and Poland in a 0–0 away draw and Poland 1–1 home, respectively, to advance to the Nations League finals, thereby automatically winning hosting rights, which were confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee on 3 December 2018. In the semi-finals on 5 June 2019, Cristiano Ronaldo made his return to the team scoring a hat-trick against Switzerland to secure the hosts a spot in [final](the)(2019 UEFA Nations League Final). Four days later, in the finals at the [do Dragão](Estádio)(Estádio do Dragão) in Porto, Portugal defeated the Netherlands 1–0, with the only being scored by [Guedes](Gonçalo)(Gonçalo Guedes) in the 60th minute.
Portugal was drawn in [B](Group)(UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying Group B) for the [Euro 2020 qualifying](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying) with [Lithuania](Lithuania national football team), Luxembourg, [Ukraine](Ukraine national football team), and [Serbia](Serbia national football team). Portugal won five games, drew two and lost one to qualify for the final tournament from the second place. In the process, Fernando Santos overtook Luiz Felipe Scolari's record as Portugal's coach with the most victories overall. Santos' team was drawn with [France](France national football team), [Germany](Germany national football team) and [Hungary](Hungary national football team) in a widely speculated "group of death". Portugal advanced to the [round](next)(UEFA Euro 2020 knockout phase) by defeating Hungary, drawing with France and losing to Germany. There, they faced [Belgium](Belgium national football team) and lost 0–1, finishing 13th overall, which is Portugal's lowest placement in Euros history.
Portugal was drawn into Group A of the [FIFA World Cup qualifiers](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group A) with [Azerbaijan](Azerbaijan national football team), Luxembourg, [of Ireland](Republic)(Republic of Ireland national football team), and Serbia. After losing to Serbia at home on the final matchday, Portugal finished second and advanced to the [playoffs](2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA second round) as opposed to qualifying directly. On 24 March 2022, Portugal beat [Turkey](Turkey national football team) 3–1 in the playoff semi-final, and five days later they defeated [Macedonia](North)(North Macedonia national football team) 2–0 in the playoff final to secure a berth in the 2022 FIFA World Cup.
At the 2022 World Cup, Portugal defeated [Ghana](Ghana national football team) 3–2 in their first group game and then beat [Uruguay](Uruguay national football team) 2–0 to qualify for the knockout stages. In the last group game, Portugal lost 2–1 to [Korea](South)(South Korea national football team), but still managed to top their group. The match was marked by a controversy between national team captain Cristiano Ronaldo and national team coach Fernando Santos, with Ronaldo receiving criticism from his own coach for his reaction at being substituted. He was dropped from the starting line-up for Portugal's last 16 match against [Switzerland](Switzerland national football team), marking the first time since Euro 2008 that he had not started a game for Portugal in a major international tournament, and the first time Portugal had started a knockout game without Ronaldo in the starting line-up at an international tournament since Euro 2000. The Portuguese would eventually demolish [Switzerland](Switzerland national football team) 6–1, their highest tally in a World Cup knockout game since the [World Cup](1966)(1966 FIFA World Cup), with Ronaldo's replacement [Ramos](Gonçalo)(Gonçalo Ramos) scoring a hat-trick. Tipped as favourites, Portugal employed the same strategy in the quarter-finals against [Morocco](Morocco national football team) but lost 1–0, making the Atlas Lions the first African semi-finalists at the World Cup. Following a disappointing World Cup campaign, which was marked by criticism over Santos defensive tactics and style of play, including the inability to utilise Portugal's attacking talent and the fracturing of his relationship Ronaldo, he was dismissed on 15 December.
On 9 January 2023, [Martinez](Roberto)(Roberto Martinez) was announced as the head coach of Portugal, replacing Fernando Santos. Portugal was drawn in [I](Group)(UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying#Group I) for [Euro 2024](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2024) [qualifying](UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying) with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, [Liechtenstein](Liechtenstein national football team), Luxembourg and Slovakia.
After having [Inc.](Nike,)(Nike, Inc.) as its kit manufacturer since 1997, the team chose in 2023 to replace it by [SE](Puma)(Puma (brand)), starting in 2025.
## Team image
### Kits
Portugal's traditional [kit](home)(kit (association football)) is mainly red with a green trim, reflecting the colors of the nation's [flag](Flag of Portugal). Over the years, the particular shade of red has alternated between a darker [burgundy](burgundy (colour)) and a lighter [scarlet](scarlet (colour)). Both green and red shorts have been used to complete the strip.
The team's away kits, on the other hand, have varied more considerably. White has typically been preferred as a dominant color, either with blue shorts, or red and green highlights. In recent times, all-black has been utilized, as has a turquoise-teal color, the latter of which was prominently featured during the title-winning [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016) campaign.
### Media coverage
Portugal's [qualifying](UEFA European Championship qualifying), [League](Nations)(UEFA Nations League) and friendly matches are broadcast by free-to-air public broadcaster [RTP](Rádio e Televisão de Portugal) and pay-TV network [TV](Sport)(Sport TV).
## Coaching staff
[[File:Roberto Martínez 2018.jpg|thumb|247x247px|[Martínez](Roberto)(Roberto Martínez), the current coach.]]
## Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
### 2022
|score = 0–4
|report = https://www.uefa.com/uefanationsleague/match/2034542/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[Dalot](Diogo Dalot)
*[Fernandes](Bruno Fernandes)
*[Jota](Diogo Jota)
|stadium = [Stadium](Sinobo)(Sinobo Stadium)
|location = [Prague](Prague), Czech Republic
|attendance = 19,322
|referee = [Jovanović](Srđan)(Srđan Jovanović (referee)) ([Serbia](Football Association of Serbia))
|result = W
}}
|score = 0–1
|report = https://www.uefa.com/uefanationsleague/match/2034566/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 = [Morata](Álvaro Morata)
|stadium = [Municipal](Estádio)(Estádio Municipal de Braga)
|location = [Braga](Braga), Portugal
|attendance = 28,196
|referee = [Orsato](Daniele)(Daniele Orsato) ([Italy](Italian Football Federation))
|result = L
}}
|time = 19:45
|team1 =
|score = 4–0
|report = https://int.soccerway.com/matches/2022/11/17/world/friendlies/portugal/nigeria/3960194/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Fernandes](Bruno Fernandes)
*[Ramos](Gonçalo Ramos)
*[Mário](João)(João Mário (footballer, born January 1993))
|goals2 =
|stadium = [José Alvalade](Estádio)(Estádio José Alvalade)
|location = [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal
|attendance = 43,621
|referee = Chrysovalantis Theouli ([Cyprus](Cyprus Football Association))
|result = W
}}
|score = 3–2
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235493
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Ronaldo](Cristiano Ronaldo)
*[Félix](João Félix)
*[Leão](Rafael Leão)
|goals2 =
*[Ayew](A.)(André Ayew)
*[Bukari](Osman Bukari)
|stadium = [974](Stadium)(Stadium 974)
|location = [Doha](Doha), Qatar
|attendance = 42,662
|referee = [Elfath](Ismail)(Ismail Elfath) ([States](United)(United States Soccer Federation))
|result = W
}}
|score = 2–0
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235492
|team2 =
|goals1 =
* [Fernandes](Bruno Fernandes)
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Iconic Stadium](Lusail)(Lusail Iconic Stadium)
|location = [Lusail](Lusail), Qatar
|attendance = 88,668
|referee = [Faghani](Alireza)(Alireza Faghani) ([Iran](Football Federation Islamic Republic of Iran))
|result = W
}}
|score = 2–1
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235490
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Young-gwon](Kim)(Kim Young-gwon)
*[Hee-chan](Hwang)(Hwang Hee-chan)
|goals2 =
*[Horta](Ricardo Horta)
|stadium = [City Stadium](Education)(Education City Stadium)
|location = [Rayyan](Al)(Al Rayyan), Qatar
|attendance = 44,097
|referee = [Tello](Facundo)(Facundo Tello) ([Argentina](Argentine Football Association))
|result = l
}}
|score = 6–1
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285073/400128130
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Ramos](Gonçalo Ramos)
*[Pepe](Pepe (footballer, born 1983))
*[Guerreiro](Raphaël Guerreiro)
*[Leão](Rafael Leão)
|goals2 =
*[Akanji](Manuel Akanji)
|stadium = [Iconic Stadium](Lusail)(Lusail Iconic Stadium)
|location = [Lusail](Lusail), Qatar
|attendance = 83,720
|referee = [Arturo Ramos](César)(César Arturo Ramos) ([Mexico](Mexican Football Federation))
|result = W
}}
|score = 1–0
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285074/400128140
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[En-Nesyri](Youssef En-Nesyri)
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Thumama Stadium](Al)(Al Thumama Stadium)
|location = [Doha](Doha), Qatar
|attendance = 44,198
|referee = [Tello](Facundo)(Facundo Tello) ([Argentina](Argentine Football Association))
|result = l
}}
### 2023
|score = 4–0
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036310/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Cancelo](João Cancelo)
*[Silva](B.)(Bernardo Silva)
*[Ronaldo](Cristiano Ronaldo)
|goals2 =
|stadium = [José Alvalade](Estádio)(Estádio José Alvalade)
|location = [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal
|attendance = 45,378
|referee = [Eskås](Espen)(Espen Eskås) ([Norway](Norwegian Football Federation))
|result = W
}}
|score = 0–6
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036335/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[Ronaldo](Cristiano Ronaldo)
*[Félix](João Félix)
*[Silva](B.)(Bernardo Silva)
*[Otávio](Otávio (footballer, born 1995))
*[Leão](Rafael Leão)
|stadium = [de Luxembourg](Stade)(Stade de Luxembourg)
|location = [City](Luxembourg)(Luxembourg City), Luxembourg
|attendance = 9,231
|referee = [Petrescu](Radu)(Radu Petrescu (referee, born 1982)) ([Romania](Romanian Football Federation))
|result = W
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036358/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [da Luz](Estádio)(Estádio da Luz)
|location = [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036379/
|goals1 =
|team2 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Laugardalsvöllur](Laugardalsvöllur)
|location = [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), Iceland
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036402/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Antona Malatinského](Štadión)(Štadión Antona Malatinského)
|location = [Trnava](Trnava), Slovakia
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036426/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Algarve](Estádio)(Estádio Algarve)
|location = [Faro](Faro, Portugal)/[Loulé](Loulé), Portugal
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036449/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [do Dragão](Estádio)(Estádio do Dragão)
|location = [Porto](Porto), Portugal
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036472/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Polje](Bilino)(Bilino Polje)
|location = [Zenica](Zenica), Bosnia and Herzegovina
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036496/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [Stadion](Rheinpark)(Rheinpark Stadion)
|location = [Vaduz](Vaduz), Liechtenstein
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
|score =
|report = https://www.uefa.com/european-qualifiers/match/2036517/
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = [José Alvalade](Estádio)(Estádio José Alvalade)
|location = [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal
|attendance =
|referee =
|result =
}}
## Players
### Current squad
The following 26 players were called up for [Euro 2024 qualifying](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying Group J) matches against [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina national football team) and [Iceland](Iceland national football team) on 17 and 20 June 2023, respectively.
* **Caps and goals correct as of:** 26 March 2023, after the match against [Luxembourg](Luxembourg national football team)
|caps=107|goals=0|club=[Roma](A.S. Roma)|clubnat=ITA|other=[captain](3rd)(Captain (association football)#Vice-captain)}}
|caps=12|goals=0|club=[Porto](FC Porto)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=133|goals=8|club=[Porto](FC Porto)|clubnat=POR|other=[vice-captain](Captain (association football)#Vice-captain)}}
|caps=66|goals=2|club=[Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.)|clubnat=FRA}}
|caps=62|goals=4|club=[Dortmund](Borussia)(Borussia Dortmund)|clubnat=GER}}
|caps=46|goals=2|club=[City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=42|goals=8|club=[Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich)|clubnat=GER}}
|caps=24|goals=0|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=11|goals=2|club=[United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=3|goals=0|club=[Benfica](S.L. Benfica)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=1|goals=0|club=[CP](Sporting)(Sporting CP)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=55|goals=13|club=[United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=39|goals=0|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=32|goals=3|club=[Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.)|clubnat=FRA}}
|caps=20|goals=2|club=[Fulham](Fulham F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=12|goals=3|club=[Porto](FC Porto)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=9|goals=0|club=[Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.)|clubnat=FRA}}
|caps=198|goals=[122](List of international goals scored by Cristiano Ronaldo)|club=[Al-Nassr](Al Nassr FC)|clubnat=KSA|other=[captain](Captain (association football))}}
|caps=80|goals=10|club=[City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=30|goals=10|club=[Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=30|goals=5|club=[Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=18|goals=3|club=[Milan](AC)(A.C. Milan)|clubnat=ITA}}
|caps=9|goals=2|club=[Braga](S.C. Braga)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=7|goals=4|club=[Benfica](S.L. Benfica)|clubnat=POR}}
### Recent call-ups
The following players have also been called up to the Portugal squad within the last 12 months.
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[de Guimarães](Vitória)(Vitória S.C.)|clubnat=POR|latest=v. , 26 March 2023}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Berlin](Union)(1. FC Union Berlin)|clubnat=GER|latest=v. , 26 March 2023}}
|caps=19|goals=0|club=[Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.)|clubnat=FRA|latest=v. , 26 March 2023}}
|caps=12|goals=0|club=[Napoli](S.S.C. Napoli)|clubnat=ITA|latest=v. , 27 September 2022}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Lille](Lille OSC)|clubnat=FRA|latest=v. , 27 September 2022}}
|caps=56|goals=3|club=[Benfica](S.L. Benfica)|clubnat=POR|latest=v. , 26 March 2023}}
|caps=11|goals=1|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG|latest=v. , 26 March 2023}}
|caps=80|goals=5|club=[Betis](Real Betis)|clubnat=ESP|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=53|goals=19|club=[Leipzig](RB)(RB Leipzig)|clubnat=GER|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=3|goals=1|club=[Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.)|clubnat=ENG|latest=v. , 27 September 2022}}
|caps=25|goals=0|club=[Benfica](S.L. Benfica)|clubnat=POR|latest=v. , 24 September 2022}}
COV Player withdrew from the squad due to contracting [COVID-19](COVID-19).
INJ Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury.
PRE Preliminary squad.
RET Player retired from international football.
OTH Player withdrew from the squad due to other reasons.
## Individual records
### Most capped players
[[Ronaldo Portugal 2018.jpg|thumb|upright|Cristiano Ronaldo is Portugal's most capped player and all-time top scorer.](File:Cristiano)]
:
:*Players in **bold** are still active with Portugal.*
### Top goalscorers
:*Players in **bold** are still active for the national team.*
### Goal records
;Most goals scored in one World Cup : 9 – [Eusébio](Eusébio) ([1966](1966 FIFA World Cup))
;Most goals scored in World Cups : 9 – [Eusébio](Eusébio) ([1966](1966 FIFA World Cup))
;Most goals scored in one European Championship : 5 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) ([2020](UEFA Euro 2020))
;Most goals scored in European Championships : 14 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) ([2004](UEFA Euro 2004), [2008](UEFA Euro 2008), [2012](UEFA Euro 2012), [2016](UEFA Euro 2016) and [2020](UEFA Euro 2020))
;Oldest goalscorer: 39 years, 9 months and 10 days – [Pepe](Pepe (footballer, born 1983)) (6–1 against [Switzerland](Switzerland national football team) on 6 December 2022)
;Youngest goalscorer: 17 years, 9 months and 25 days – [Chalana](Fernando)(Fernando Chalana) (2–1 against [Cyprus](Cyprus national football team) on 5 December 1976)
;Most hat-tricks: 10 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) (includes four goals against [Andorra](Andorra national football team) on 7 October 2016 and [Lithuania](Lithuania national football team) on 10 September 2019)
;Most pokers: 2 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo)
;Youngest player to score a hat-trick: 20 years, 11 months and 4 days – [Silva](André)(André Silva (footballer, born 1995)) (6–0 against [Islands](Faroe)(Faroe Islands national football team) on 10 October 2016)
### Other records
;Most matches played in World Cup : 22 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) ([2006](2006 FIFA World Cup), [2010](2010 FIFA World Cup), [2014](2014 FIFA World Cup), [2018](2018 FIFA World Cup) and [2022](2022 FIFA World Cup))
;Most matches played in European Championship : 25 – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) ([2004](UEFA Euro 2004), [2008](UEFA Euro 2008), [2012](UEFA Euro 2012), [2016](UEFA Euro 2016) and [2020](UEFA Euro 2020))
;Oldest player (outfield and goalkeeper): 39 years, 9 months and 14 days – [Pepe](Pepe (footballer, born 1983)) (0–1 against [Morocco](Morocco national football team) on 10 December 2022)
;Longest national career: 19 years, 7 months and 6 days – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) (from 20 August 2003 to 26 March 2023)
;Longest national career for an outfield player: 19 years, 7 months and 6 days – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) (from 20 August 2003 to 26 March 2023)
;Youngest debutant: 17 years, 6 months and 24 days – [Futre](Paulo)(Paulo Futre) (5–0 against [Finland](Finland national football team) on 21 September 1983)
;Youngest player to reach 100 caps: 27 years, 8 months and 11 days – [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo) (1–1 against [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland national football team) on 16 October 2012)
## Competitive record
**Champions** **Runners-up** Third place Fourth place
### FIFA World Cup
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
### UEFA European Championship
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)). Red border colour indicates that the tournament was held on home soil.*
### UEFA Nations League
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
:***Group stage played home and away. Flag shown represents host nation for the finals stage. Red border colour indicates the finals stage will be held on home soil*
### FIFA Confederations Cup
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
### Olympics Games
From [1968](Football at the 1968 Summer Olympics)–[1988](Football at the 1988 Summer Olympics) Portugal was represented by the national amateur football team. Football at the Summer Olympics has been an under-23 tournament since 1992.
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
### Minor tournaments
:**Draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
### All-time results
The following table shows Portugal's all-time international record, correct as of 29 March 2022.
Source: [Portugal - Historical results](https://www.worldfootball.net/teams/portugal-team/21/)
## Honours
**Major:**
***[World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup)**
**Third place: [1966](1966 FIFA World Cup)
**Fourth place: [2006](2006 FIFA World Cup) Awards |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/awards/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070603190545/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/germany2006/awards/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 June 2007 |publisher=FIFA |access-date=19 March 2018 }}
***[European Championship](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship)**
****Winners**: [2016](UEFA Euro 2016)
**Runners-up: [2004](UEFA Euro 2004)
***[Nations League](UEFA)(UEFA Nations League)**
****Winners**: [2018–19](2018–19 UEFA Nations League)
***[Confederations Cup](FIFA)(FIFA Confederations Cup)**
**Third place: [2017](2017 FIFA Confederations Cup)
**Minor:**
***[Cup](SkyDome)(SkyDome Cup)**
****Winners:** [1995](SkyDome Cup)
***[Independence Cup](Brazil)(Brazil Independence Cup)**
**Runners-up: [1972](Brazil Independence Cup)
**Other:**
***[World Cup Most Entertaining Team](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup awards#Most Entertaining Team)**: [2006](2006 FIFA World Cup)
***[World Sports Award for Team of the Year](Laureus)(Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year)**:
**Nominations: 2017
## Rivalries
* [football rivalry](Portugal–Spain)(Portugal–Spain football rivalry)
* [football rivalry](France–Portugal)(France–Portugal football rivalry)
## Footnotes
## See also
* [of national sport teams of Portugal](List)(:Category:National sports teams of Portugal)
## References
## External links
*[Portuguese Football Federation official website](https://www.fpf.pt)
*[UEFA profile](http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/association=por/index.html)
*[FIFA profile](https://web.archive.org/web/20080531013145/http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=por/) (archived 31 May 2008)
*[RSSSF archive of results 1921–2003](https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/port-intres.html)
*[RSSSF archive of most capped players and highest goalscorers](https://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/port-recintlp.html)
*[RSSSF archive of coaches 1921–](https://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/port-coach-triv.html)
*[Full reports of all matches of the Portugal National Football Team 1921–1979](http://eu-football.info/_matches.php?id=159)
}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Portugal national football team)
[national association football teams](Category:European)(Category:European national association football teams)
[European Championship-winning countries](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA European Championship-winning countries)
[Nations League-winning countries](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Nations League-winning countries)
|
The Hunger Games _film
|
the_hunger_games__film
|
# The Hunger Games (film)
*Revision ID: 1158032173 | Timestamp: 2023-06-01T14:58:21Z*
---
| screenplay =
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Newton Howard](James)(James Newton Howard)
| cinematography = [Stern](Tom)(Tom Stern (cinematographer))
| editing =
| production_companies =
| distributor = Lionsgate
| released = |ref2=}}
| runtime = 142 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $78 million
| gross = $694.4 million
}}
***The Hunger Games*** is a 2012 American [dystopian](Dystopian film) [film](action)(action film) directed by [Ross](Gary)(Gary Ross), who co-wrote the screenplay with [Collins](Suzanne)(Suzanne Collins) and [Ray](Billy)(Billy Ray (screenwriter)), based on the 2008 novel [the same name](of)(The Hunger Games (novel)) by Collins. It is the first installment in [Hunger Games* film series](*The)(The Hunger Games (film series)). The film stars [Lawrence](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lawrence), [Hutcherson](Josh)(Josh Hutcherson), [Hemsworth](Liam)(Liam Hemsworth), [Harrelson](Woody)(Woody Harrelson), [Banks](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Banks), [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz), [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci), and [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland). In the film, [Everdeen](Katniss)(Katniss Everdeen) (Lawrence) and [Mellark](Peeta)(Peeta Mellark) (Hutcherson) are forced to compete in the Hunger Games, an elaborate televised fight to the death consisting of adolescent contestants from the 12 Districts of [Panem](Panem).
Development of a film adaptation of Collins' original novel began in March 2009 when [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films) entered into a co-production agreement with [Force](Color)(Color Force), which had acquired the rights a few weeks earlier. As the novel is in Katniss' [first-person](First-person narrative) point of view, its screenplay develops ancillary characters and locations for the film. Ross was confirmed as director in November 2010 and the rest of the main cast was rounded out by May 2011. Principal photography began that month and ended that September, with filming primarily taking place in [Carolina](North)(North Carolina).
*The Hunger Games* premiered at the [Theater](Nokia)(Nokia Theatre L.A. Live) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) on March 12, 2012, and was released in the United States on March 23, by Lionsgate. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its themes and messages, Lawrence's performance, and faithfulness to the source material, although there was some criticism for its use of [cam](shaky)(Shaky camera). It grossed over $694 million, setting the then-records for both the opening day and opening weekend gross for a non-sequel, becoming the [film of 2012](ninth-highest-grossing)(2012 in film#Highest-grossing films).
Among its accolades, the song "[& Sound](Safe)(Safe & Sound (Taylor Swift song))" from [soundtrack](the)(The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond), performed by [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) and the [Civil Wars](The)(The Civil Wars), won a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media) and was nominated for a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for [Original Song](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song). For her performance, Lawrence won the [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) for [Actress](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Actress), the [Film Critics Association Award](Broadcast)(Broadcast Film Critics Association Award) for Best Actress in an Action Movie, the [Award](Empire)(Empire Award) for [Actress](Best)(Empire Award for Best Actress), and was also nominated for the [York Film Critics Circle Award](New)(New York Film Critics Circle Award) for [Actress](Best)(New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress).
The film was followed by *[Hunger Games: Catching Fire](The)(The Hunger Games: Catching Fire)* in 2013.
## Plot
The nation of [Panem](Fictional world of The Hunger Games) is divided into 12 districts, ruled from the Capitol. As punishment for a failed revolt, each district is forced to select two tributes, one boy and one girl between the ages of 12 and 18, to fight to the death in the annual Hunger Games until there is only one survivor, and the entire event is televised.
Sixteen-year-old [Everdeen](Katniss)(Katniss Everdeen) of District 12 volunteers to take her younger sister Primrose's place in the 74th Hunger Games. She and fellow tribute [Mellark](Peeta)(Peeta Mellark) are escorted to the Capitol by their chaperone Effie Trinket and mentor Haymitch Abernathy, the Games' only living winner from District 12. Haymitch stresses the importance of gaining sponsors, as they can provide potentially life-saving gifts during the Games. While training, Katniss observes the "Careers" (Marvel, Glimmer, Cato, and Clove), volunteers from the wealthy Districts 1 and 2 who have trained for the Games from an early age. During a televised interview with Caesar Flickerman, Peeta expresses his love for Katniss, which she initially sees as an attempt to attract sponsors; she later learns his admission is genuine.
At the start of the Games, Katniss grabs some of the supplies placed around the Cornucopia, a structure at the starting point, and narrowly escapes death. Half of the 24 tributes die in the initial melee, and only 11, including all four Careers, survive the first day. Katniss tries to stay away from the others, but Seneca Crane, the Head Gamemaker, triggers a forest fire to drive her towards them. She runs into the Careers, with whom Peeta has seemingly allied, and flees up a tree. Peeta advises the Careers to wait her out. The next morning, Katniss notices Rue, District 11's young female tribute, hiding in an adjacent tree. Rue draws her attention to a nest of [modified venomous wasps](genetically)(The Hunger Games universe#Tracker jackers). Using a knife, Katniss causes the nest to fall on the Careers sleeping below; Glimmer dies, but the others escape. Katniss becomes disoriented from being stung a few times. Peeta returns and tells her to flee.
Rue helps Katniss recover, and they become friends and allies. Katniss destroys the supplies the Careers stockpiled by detonating mines guarding them, while Rue provides a distraction. Katniss later finds and frees Rue from a trap, but Marvel throws a spear which impales Rue. Katniss kills him with an arrow. She comforts Rue by singing to her and, after she dies, adorns her body with flowers, triggering a riot in District 11. [Coriolanus Snow](President)(President Coriolanus Snow) warns Crane about the unrest.
Haymitch persuades Crane to change the rules to allow two winners provided they are from the same district, suggesting that this will pacify the public. After the announcement, Katniss finds a gravely wounded Peeta. Another announcement promises that what each survivor needs the most will be provided at the Cornucopia the next morning. Despite Peeta's vehement opposition, Katniss leaves to get medicine for him, but she is ambushed and overpowered by Clove, who gloats about Rue's death and prepares to dispatch her. [Thresh](List of The Hunger Games characters#Thresh), District 11's male tribute, overhears and kills Clove. He spares Katniss once, for Rue's sake. The medicine heals Peeta overnight.
While hunting for food, Katniss hears a cannon go off, signaling a death. She races to Peeta, who has unwittingly collected deadly nightlock berries. They discover "Foxface", District 5's female tribute, poisoned by the nightlock she collected after watching Peeta. Crane then unleashes genetically modified beasts that kill Thresh and force Katniss, Peeta, and Cato – the last three survivors – to climb onto the Cornucopia's roof. Cato gets Peeta in a headlock and uses him as a human shield against Katniss's bow. Peeta directs Katniss to shoot Cato's hand, enabling Peeta to throw him to the beasts below. Katniss kills him with an arrow to end his suffering.
Crane then revokes the rule change allowing two victors to win. Peeta urges Katniss to shoot him, but she convinces him to eat nightlock berries together. Just before they do, Crane hastily declares them co-victors. Afterward, Haymitch warns Katniss that she has made enemies through these acts of defiance. Snow has Crane locked in a room with nightlock berries, after which the wily President considers his next move.
## Cast
[[File:Jennifer Lawrence SDCC 2015.jpg|thumb|198px|[Lawrence](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lawrence) dyed her hair to play Katniss in *The Hunger Games*, but wore a wig for *Mockingjay Part 1* and *2*.]]
## Production
### Development
In March 2009, [Gate Entertainment](Lions)(Lions Gate Entertainment) (known as Lionsgate) entered into a co-production agreement for *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games)* with [Jacobson](Nina)(Nina Jacobson)'s production company [Force](Color)(Color Force (film company)), which had acquired worldwide [rights](distribution)(film distribution) to the novel a few weeks earlier, reportedly for $200,000. [Shearmur](Alli)(Allison Shearmur) and Jim Miller, president and senior vice president of motion picture production at Lionsgate, took charge of overseeing the production of the film, which they described as "an incredible property ... a thrill to bring home to Lionsgate". The studio, which had not made a profit for five years, raided the budgets of other productions and sold assets to secure a budget of $88,000,000 for the film. [Collins](Suzanne)(Suzanne Collins)' agent Jason Dravis remarked that "they [Lionsgate] had everyone but the valet call us" to help secure the franchise. Lionsgate subsequently acquired [breaks](tax)(Movie production incentives in the United States) of $8 million for shooting the film in [Carolina](North)(North Carolina). [Ross](Gary)(Gary Ross), [Mendes](Sam)(Sam Mendes), [Slade](David)(David Slade), [Adamson](Andrew)(Andrew Adamson), [White](Susanna)(Susanna White), [Sanders](Rupert)(Rupert Sanders) and [Lawrence](Francis)(Francis Lawrence) were listed as possible directing candidates, but in the end, Ross was announced as the film's director in November 2010. Ross became interested in directing the film after his agent notified him about that a film adaptation of *The Hunger Games* was in development; having heard about the book due to his children reading it, Ross read the book quickly and called his agent to tell her that he wanted the job.
Ross had many conversations with Collins about how to adapt the story, and was fascinated by how [Roman culture](Ancient)(Ancient Roman culture) inspired the books. Collins adapted the novel for film herself, in collaboration with screenwriter [Ray](Billy)(Billy Ray (screenwriter)) and Ross. The screenplay remains extremely faithful to the original novel, Gary Ross|publisher=[Guild of America](Writers)(Writers Guild of America)|date=March 23, 2012|access-date=April 25, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006044319/http://wga.org/content/default.aspx?id=4831|archive-date=October 6, 2012|df=mdy-all}} with Ross saying he "felt the only way to make the film really successful was to be totally subjective", echoing Collins' presentation of the novel in the [person](first)(first person narrative) [present](present tense). Ross felt that, to preserve the novel's first person point of view, the audience could know little more than what protagonist [Everdeen](Katniss)(Katniss Everdeen) knows about the story's developments. Instead of presenting Katniss' [monologue](internal)(internal monologue)s about the Capitol's machinations through actual [monologue](monologue)s or [voice-over](voice-over) narrations, the screenplay expanded on the character of Seneca Crane, the Head Gamemaker, to allow several developments for which Katniss is not present to be shown directly to the audience. Ross explained, "In the book, Katniss speculates about the game-makers' manipulations ... in the film, we can't get inside Katniss's head, but we do have the ability to cut away and actually show the machinations of the Capitol behind the scenes. I created the game centre and also expanded the role of Seneca Crane for those reasons. I thought it was totally important." Ross also added several scenes between Crane and [Snow](Coriolanus)(Coriolanus Snow), the elderly President of Panem, noting that "I thought that it was very interesting that there would be one generation [Panem citizens](of) who knew that [Games](the) were actually an instrument of political control, and there would be a successive generation who was so enamoured with the ratings and the showbiz and the sensations and the spectacle that was subsuming the actual political intention, and that's really where the tension is".
The Gamemakers' control center, about which Katniss can only speculate in the novel, was also developed as a location, helping to remind the audience of the artificial nature of the arena. Ross commented, "so much of the film happens in the woods that it's easy to forget this is a futuristic society, manipulating these events for the sake of an audience. The look of the control center, the antiseptic feeling of it and the use of holograms were all intended to make the arena feel 'constructed' even when you weren't seeing the control room." Ross and [effects supervisor](visual)(visual effects supervisor) Sheena Duggal were keen to use the omniscient view that the setting provided to justify the literal [ex machina](dei)(dei ex machina) Katniss experiences in the arena; Duggal explained that "we really didn't want to have to explain things ... how do you get compelled by these [animals] that just appear at the end of the movie? We wanted to find a way to introduce them without having to explain specifically and exactly what they were and the game room was a really great opportunity for us to be able to do that."
### Casting
[[File:Josh Hutcherson SDCC 2015.jpg|thumb|200px|[Hutcherson](Josh)(Josh Hutcherson) also dyed his hair for the role of Peeta Mellark.]]
Ross had a general idea of who he wanted to cast in some roles, but the studio insisted to hold auditions for the roles, which he accepted. He found the castings of [Everdeen](Katniss)(Katniss Everdeen), [Mellark](Peeta)(Peeta Mellark) and Gale Hawthorne as "honestly easy". Lionsgate confirmed in March 2011 that about 30 actresses auditioned or read for the role of Katniss Everdeen, including [Steinfeld](Hailee)(Hailee Steinfeld), [Breslin](Abigail)(Abigail Breslin), [Roberts](Emma)(Emma Roberts), [Ronan](Saoirse)(Saoirse Ronan), [Grace Moretz](Chloë)(Chloë Grace Moretz), [Ferland](Jodelle)(Jodelle Ferland), [Fonseca](Lyndsy)(Lyndsy Fonseca), [Browning](Emily)(Emily Browning), [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley), [Scodelario](Kaya)(Kaya Scodelario) and [Bellisario](Troian)(Troian Bellisario). On March 16, 2011, it was announced that [Lawrence](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lawrence) (who was at the time filming for *[First Class](X-Men:)(X-Men: First Class)*) had landed the role. Feeling that Lawrence "blew the doors off the place", Ross described Lawrence as having "an incredible amount of self-assuredness, you got the sense that this girl knew exactly who she was. And then she came in and read for me and just knocked me out; I'd never seen an audition like that before in my life. It was one of those things where you just glimpse your whole movie in front of you."
Though Lawrence was 20 when filming began, four years older than the character, Collins said that the role demanded "a certain maturity and power" and said she would rather the actress be older than younger. She added that Lawrence was the "only one who truly captured the character I wrote in the book" and that she had "every essential quality necessary to play Katniss". Lawrence, a fan of the books, was originally intimidated by the size of the production, and took three days to accept the role.
Contenders for the role of Peeta other than [Hutcherson](Josh)(Josh Hutcherson), included [Ludwig](Alexander)(Alexander Ludwig), [Parrish](Hunter)(Hunter Parrish), [Till](Lucas)(Lucas Till) and [Peters](Evan)(Evan Peters). Ross felt that Hutcherson was a "pitch perfect". Other actors considered for the role of Gale Hawthrone included [Henrie](David)(David Henrie), [Roy](Drew)(Drew Roy) and [Amell](Robbie)(Robbie Amell) before [Hemsworth](Liam)(Liam Hemsworth) was cast. In April 2011, [C. Reilly](John)(John C. Reilly) was in talks with Lionsgate to portray [Abernathy](Haymitch)(Haymitch Abernathy). The following month, Lionsgate announced that the role had gone to Oscar nominee [Harrelson](Woody)(Woody Harrelson). Harrelson initially passed on the role, but Ross called him up and convinced him to accept the role. The casting of Grammy winner [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz) as Cinna, Oscar nominee [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci) as Caesar Flickerman, and [Jones](Toby)(Toby Jones) as Claudius Templesmith, soon followed. Tucci and Ross had previously worked together in *[Tale of Despereaux](The)(The Tale of Despereaux (film))*, leading Tucci to immediately accept the role of Flickerman when Ross offered it to him in an Italian restaurant of [York City](New)(New York City) during [Year's Eve](New)(New Year's Eve). Multiple-[Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) winner [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland) was cast as [Coriolanus Snow](President)(President Coriolanus Snow) in late May 2011. Following his casting, Sutherland wrote Ross a letter explaining him how much his role meant to the narrative, which impressed Ross and led him to incorporate some of Sutherland's suggestions to Snow's scenes in the film.
### Filming
[[File:Bridal Veil Falls DuPont State Forest.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The scene where Katniss tracks down Peeta was filmed at [Veil Falls](Bridal)(Bridal Veil Falls (DuPont State Forest)) in [State Forest](DuPont)(DuPont State Forest).]]
[Fund Insurance Company](Fireman's)(Fireman's Fund Insurance Company) insured the production, but as part of the [underwriting](underwriting) process, insisted on a thorough risk analysis of hazards as diverse as wayward arrows, poison ivy, bears, bugs and a chase across fast-running water.Janet Morrissey (March 24, 2012). ["Insuring Hollywood Against Falls (but Not Flops)"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/25/business/insuring-hollywood-against-falls-but-not-flops.html) . *The New York Times*. BU1.
Lawrence dyed her naturally blonde hair dark for the part of Katniss. Other stars who dyed their hair for the movie include Josh Hutcherson as Peeta and Liam Hemsworth as Gale. Lawrence also underwent extensive training to get in shape for the role, including [archery](archery), rock and tree climbing, combat, running, [parkour](parkour) and [yoga](yoga). On the last day of her six-week training phase, she had an accident in which she hit a wall while running at full speed, but was not seriously injured. Lionsgate hired Olympic bronze medal-winning archer [Lorig](Khatuna)(Khatuna Lorig) to teach Lawrence how to shoot.
With an initial budget of $75 million, [photography](principal)(principal photography) began near [Brevard](Brevard, North Carolina) in [County](Transylvania)(Transylvania County, North Carolina) in [North Carolina](Western)(Western North Carolina) in May 2011 and concluded on September 15, 2011, with a final budget reported as between $90 and $100 million, reduced to $78 million after subsidies. [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh) served as a [unit director](second)(second unit director), and filmed much of the District 11 riot scene. The movie was shot on film as opposed to digital, due in part to the tightness of the schedule; as Ross said in an interview with *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, "I didn't want to run the risk of the technical issues that often come with shooting digitally—we simply couldn't afford any delays."
Virtually all production photography took place in [Carolina](North)(North Carolina), with Lionsgate receiving tax credits of around $8 million from the state government to do so. Most outdoor scenes, both from the arena and from the outskirts of District 12, were filmed in [State Forest](DuPont)(DuPont State Forest); the [River](Little)(Little River (North Carolina)), with its multiple waterfalls, provided several locations for shooting the river running through the arena. To run across [Falls](Triple)(Triple Falls (DuPont State Forest)), Lawrence was attached to wires and ran on a board.
Many of the urban and interior locations, in the Capitol and elsewhere, were filmed in [Shelby](Shelby, North Carolina) and [Charlotte](Charlotte, North Carolina); other scenes were filmed in the [Asheville](Asheville, North Carolina) area. Ross and [designer](production)(production designer) Phil Messina drew on the buildings of the [New York World's Fair](1939)(1939 New York World's Fair) and symbols of political power including [Square](Tiananmen)(Tiananmen Square) and [Square](Red)(Red Square), when designing the Capitol architecture, which they wanted "to be set in the future but have a sense of its own past ... it's festive and alluring and indulgent and decadent but it also has to have the kind of might and power behind it". For Katniss' neighborhood in District 12, the production team used [River Mill Village](Henry)(Henry River Mill Village, North Carolina), an abandoned mill town which Ross said "just worked perfectly for the movie to evoke the scene"; Messina explained that "originally we talked about maybe building one house and the facade of the house next door and redressing it, and maybe doing some CG extensions ... we ended up finding a whole abandoned mill town ... it was absolutely perfect".
For the costume design, [Makovsky](Judianna)(Judianna Makovsky) and her crew looked at photographs of coal mining districts from the 1950s, in the search of an "American" feel. The idea was to create clothing unique for every character, and to strongly differentiate the people in Capitol and in districts. Grey and blue prevailed in the color palette for the District, while the people in Capitol were chosen to look bright in theatrical hats, flowers, ruffles, with powdered and eyebrowless faces.
## Music
### Soundtrack
The soundtrack album for *The Hunger Games* contains songs inspired by the film; only three of them ("Abraham's Daughter", "[& Sound](Safe)(Safe & Sound (Taylor Swift song))", and "Kingdom Come", respectively) appear in the film itself, during the closing credits. The first single from the film's companion album, "Safe & Sound" by [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) featuring [Civil Wars](The)(The Civil Wars), was released on December 23, 2011. Along with separate songs from Swift and The Civil Wars, the soundtrack also features songs by [Decemberists](The)(The Decemberists), [Fire](Arcade)(Arcade Fire), [Secret Sisters](The)(The Secret Sisters), [Lambert](Miranda)(Miranda Lambert) featuring The [Annies](Pistol)(Pistol Annies), [Case](Neko)(Neko Case), [Cudi](Kid)(Kid Cudi), [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) winner [Hansard](Glen)(Glen Hansard), [Low Anthem](The)(The Low Anthem), [Brothers](Punch)(Punch Brothers), [Birdy](Birdy (musician)), [5](Maroon)(Maroon 5), Jayme Dee, and [Chocolate Drops](Carolina)(Carolina Chocolate Drops). The soundtrack was released on March 20, 2012.
### Score
|rev2 = Film Score Reviews
|rev2score =
}}
Lionsgate originally announced that [Elfman](Danny)(Danny Elfman) and [Burnett](T-Bone)(T-Bone Burnett) would [score](film score) *The Hunger Games*, with Burnett also acting as the film's executive music producer to produce songs for the soundtrack. Due to scheduling conflicts, Elfman was replaced by [Newton Howard](James)(James Newton Howard). The score album was released on March 26, 2012.
Arcade Fire also contributed to the movie's original score. The group composed the fascistic-inspired Panem national anthem, entitled "Horn of Plenty", a [leitmotif](leitmotif) appearing throughout the film. "We were interested in making music that would be more integral in the movie, just as a mental exercise," Butler, who co-wrote the song with Chassagne, explained. "And there's an anthem that runs throughout the books, the national anthem of the fascist Capitol. So as a thought experiment, we tried to write what that might sound like. It's like the Capitol's idea of itself, basically." He further added that "it's not a pop song or anything. More of an anthem that could be playing at a big sporting event like the [Hunger] Games. So we did a structure for that, and then James Newton Howard made a movie-score version of it that happens in several places in the film." According to *[Spin](Spin (magazine))*, "'Horn of Plenty' pulls off the neat feat of sounding both exactly like Arcade Fire and exactly like a futuristic anthem. It still has one foot in the band's uncorrupted neighborhoods, but another is up on the podium at the end of *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)* accepting an Olympic gold medal or something. Horns blare, a choir booms, strings swell, the martial percussion steals the show, and we just realized how much we love [Brother](Big)(Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four))."
The film also features an obscure analog track from the 1970s, titled "Sediment", composed by [Spiegel](Laurie)(Laurie Spiegel) for its "cornucopia scene", as well as music by [Reich](Steve)(Steve Reich), [Arnalds](Ólafur)(Ólafur Arnalds), and the [Brass Ensemble](Hypnotic)(Hypnotic Brass Ensemble). These do not appear on the soundtrack or score releases.
## Release
### Home media
The film was released in North America and the Netherlands on DVD and [Disc](Blu-ray)(Blu-ray Disc) on August 18, 2012. Extras include *The World is Watching: Making The Hunger Games*, numerous featurettes, the propaganda video in its entire form, a talk with the director Gary Ross and also Elvis Mitchell and a marketing archive.
In its first weekend on sale, Lionsgate reported that 3.8 million DVD/Blu-ray Disc copies of the movie were sold, with more than one-third in the Blu-ray Disc format. Three weeks after the release of the movie to home media formats in the US, over 5 million DVD units and 3.7 million Blu-ray Disc units have been sold. With 10,336,637 units sold by the end of the year, it became the top-selling video of 2012. The entire *Hunger Games* series was released on [UHD Blu-Ray](4K)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on November 8, 2016.
## Reception
### Box office
*The Hunger Games* earned $408 million in the United States and Canada, and $286.4 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $694.4 million.
In North America, *The Hunger Games* is the 22nd-highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing film released outside the summer or holiday period, and the highest-grossing film distributed by Lionsgate. [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) estimates that the film sold more than 50 million tickets in the US. At the time of its release, the film set a midnight-gross record for a non-sequel ($19.7 million), the tenth-highest midnight gross overall. On its opening day, it topped the box office at $67.3 million (including midnight showings), setting opening-day and single-day records for a non-sequel. The film also achieved the sixteenth-highest opening-day and nineteenth-highest single-day grosses of all time. For its opening weekend, the film earned the No. 1 spot and grossed $152.5 million, breaking *[in Wonderland](Alice)(Alice in Wonderland (2010 film))*s opening-weekend records for a film released in March, for any spring release, and for a non-sequel at the time of its release. On its second day of release, the film had surpassed *[9/11](Fahrenheit)(Fahrenheit 9/11)* to become [Lionsgate](Lionsgate)s highest-grossing film worldwide, a record that would later be surpassed by its sequel *[Hunger Games: Catching Fire](The)(The Hunger Games: Catching Fire)* a year later. Its opening weekend gross was the third highest of 2012 behind *[Avengers](The)(The Avengers (2012 film))* ($207.4 million) and *[Dark Knight Rises](The)(The Dark Knight Rises)* ($160.8 million) as well as the largest for any film released outside the summer season and the eighth-largest overall. The film held the March and spring opening weekend records for four years until they were broken by *[v Superman: Dawn of Justice](Batman)(Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice)*. It remained in first place at the North American box office for four consecutive weekends, becoming the first film since *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* to achieve this. On June 10, 2012 (its 80th day in theaters), it became the 14th movie to pass the $400-million-mark. On April 20, 2012, Lionsgate and [Corporation](IMAX)(IMAX Corporation) announced that due to "overwhelming demand", *The Hunger Games* would return to North American IMAX cinemas on April 27 for a further one-week engagement.
Outside North America, the film was released in most countries during March and April 2012, with the exception of China, where it was released in June 2012. On its first weekend (March 23–25, 2012), the film topped the box office outside North America with $59.25 million from 67 markets, finishing at first place in most of them. The largest opening weekends were recorded in China ($9.6 million), Australia ($9.48 million), and the UK, Ireland and Malta ($7.78 million). In total earnings, its highest-grossing markets after North America are the UK ($37.3 million), Australia ($31.1 million) and China ($27.0 million).
Also in its release, *The Hunger Games* broke the record for first-day advance ticket sales on [Fandango](Fandango (ticket service)) on February 22, 2012, topping the previous record of *[Twilight Saga: Eclipse](The)(The Twilight Saga: Eclipse)*. The sales were reported to be 83 percent of the site's totals for the day. According to first tracking, unaided awareness for *The Hunger Games* was 11%, definite interest was 54%, first choice was 23% and total awareness was 74%. In the week leading up to its release, the film sold-out over 4,300 showings via Fandango and MovieTickets.com On Fandango alone, it ranks as the third-highest advance ticket seller ever, behind *[Twilight Saga: New Moon](The)(The Twilight Saga: New Moon)* and *[Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2)*. According to Fandango, it broke the site's single-day sales record (March 23), the mobile sales record for a weekend ( March 23–25, 2012) and the site's highest share of a film's opening weekend (Fandango sold 22% of the film's opening weekend tickets).
### Critical response
The [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) reported an approval rating of with an average score of , based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling and superbly acted, *The Hunger Games* captures the dramatic violence, raw emotion, and ambitious scope of its source novel." [Metacritic](Metacritic), which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 68 out of 100 based on 49 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Several critics have reviewed the film favorably and compared it with other [adult fiction](young)(young adult fiction) adaptations such as *[Potter](Harry)(Harry Potter (film series))* and *[Twilight](The Twilight Saga (film series))*, while praising Jennifer Lawrence for her portrayal as Katniss Everdeen, as well as most of the main cast. According to *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, Lawrence embodies Katniss, "just as one might imagine her from the novel". *[Empire](Empire (magazine))* magazine said "Lawrence is perfect as Katniss, there's very little softness about her, more a melancholy determination that good must be done even if that requires bad things." Justin Craig of [News](Fox)(Fox News) rated the film as "[e]xcellent" and stated: "Move over Harry Potter. A darker, more mature franchise has come to claim your throne." Rafer Guzman of *[Newsday](Newsday)* referred to *The Hunger Games* as being "darker than '*Harry Potter*,' more sophisticated than '*Twilight*'." David Sexton of *[Evening Standard](The)(The Evening Standard)* stated that *The Hunger Games* "is well cast and pretty well acted, certainly when compared with *Harry Potter* juvenile leads".
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* gave the film three stars out of four, praising the movie as "effective entertainment" and Lawrence's performance. Despite a largely positive review, he criticized the film for being too long and noted that the film misses opportunities for social criticism. Simon Reynolds of [Spy](Digital)(Digital Spy) gave the film four stars out of five, calling it "enthralling from beginning to end, science fiction that has depth and intelligence to match its pulse-racing entertainment value". Reynolds also spoke highly of Lawrence's performance and director Gary Ross, whose "rough and ready handheld camerawork" meant that viewers were "with Katniss for every blood-flecked moment of her ordeal in the combat arena". However, film critic David Thomson of the magazine *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)* called it a "terrible movie", criticizing it for a lack of character development and unclear presentation of the violence, describing the latter as "un-American".
Eric Goldman of [IGN](IGN) awarded the film four out of five stars, stating that director Gary Ross "gets the tone of The Hunger Games right. This is a grounded, thoughtful and sometimes quite emotional film, with its dark scenario given due weight. Ross doesn't give the film a glossy, romanticized 'Hollywood' feel, but rather plays everything very realistically and stark, as Katniss must endure these outrageous and horrible scenarios." The film received some criticism for its [camera](shaky)(shaky camera) style, but it was said to "add to the film in certain ways". The violence drew commentary as well. *[Time](Time (magazine))* critic Mary Pols considered that the film was too violent for young children, even though the violence had been toned down compared with the novel, while critic Théoden Janes of *[Charlotte Observer](The)(The Charlotte Observer)* found that "[...] the violence is so bland it dilutes the message". Also writing in *Time*, psychologist Christopher J. Ferguson argued that parents' fears of the effect of the film's violent content on their children were unnecessary, and that children are capable of viewing violent content without being psychologically harmed.
### Themes
Interpretations of the film's themes and messages have been widely discussed among critics and general commentators. In his review for *[Washington Times](The)(The Washington Times)*, Peter Suderman expressed that "[m]aybe it's a liberal story about inequality and the class divide. Maybe it's a libertarian epic about the evils of authoritarian government. Maybe it's a [feminist](feminism) revision on the sci-fi action blockbuster. Maybe it's a bloody satire of reality television", but concludes the film only proposes these theories and brings none of them to a reasonable conclusion.
Reviewers and critics have differing views on whether the film represents feminist issues. Historically, among the "top 200 worldwide box-office hits ever ($350 million and up), not one has been built around a female action star". [Dargis](Manohla)(Manohla Dargis) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* sees Katniss Everdeen as a female hero following in the lineage of "archetypal figures in the literature of the American West" such as [Bumppo](Natty)(Natty Bumppo), as well as characters portrayed by American actors such as [Wayne](John)(John Wayne) and [Eastwood](Clint)(Clint Eastwood). Katniss is also seen as defying normative gender roles: she exhibits both "masculine" and "feminine" traits equally. Dargis also notes that Katniss is a female character with significant agency: "Katniss is a fantasy figure, but partly what makes her powerful—and, I suspect, what makes her so important to a lot of girls and women—is that she's one of the truest feeling, most complex female characters to hit American movies in a while. She isn't passive, she isn't weak, and she isn't some random girl. She's active, she's strong and she's the girl who motivates the story." Similarly, Shelley Bridgeman of *[New Zealand Herald](The)(The New Zealand Herald)* wrote that because the characteristics of "athleticism, strength, courageousness and prowess at hunting" are not given to a male protagonist, but to Katniss, her character is an abrupt departure from the stereotypical depiction of women as being innately passive or helpless. Mahvesh Murad of *[Express Tribune](The)(The Express Tribune)* said that the film's triumph is "a young female protagonist with agency", comparing her with [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon)'s [Summers](Buffy)(Buffy Summers).
The film has drawn varying interpretations for its political overtones, including arguments in favor of [left-wing](Left-wing politics), [right-wing](Right-wing politics), and [libertarian](Libertarianism) viewpoints. Bob Burnett of *[Huffington Post](The)(Huffington Post)* observed the film displays a general distrust of government, regardless of the audience's political party affiliation. Steven Zeitchik and Emily Rome, in the *[Morning News](Dallas)(Dallas Morning News)*, also stated that some viewers formed an opinion about *The Hunger Games* as a [parable](parable) of the [Wall Street](Occupy)(Occupy Wall Street) activity. *The Huffington Post* reported that [Badgley](Penn)(Penn Badgley), a supporter of Occupy Wall Street, saw the film as a social commentary on the movement. Burnett also states that "Collins doesn't use the terms 1 percent and 99 percent, but it's clear that those in the Capitol are members of the 1 percent and everyone in the Panem districts is part of the 99 percent".
Steven Zeitchik and Emily Rome, in the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* and the *Dallas Morning News* reported that, among other disparate interpretations, some viewers saw *The Hunger Games* as a Christian [allegory](allegory). 'The Hunger Games' really means|quote=And undeniably a Christian allegory about the importance of finding Jesus.|date=March 24, 2012|work=The Los Angeles Times|url-access=subscription|access-date=April 1, 2012|archive-date=March 31, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331152806/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/mar/24/entertainment/la-et-hunger-politics-20120324|url-status=live}} Jeffrey Weiss of Real Clear Religion, published in the *[Tribune](Star)(Star Tribune)*, has remarked on what he saw as the intentional absence of religion in *The Hunger Games* universe, and has commented that, while the stories contain no actual religion, people are "find[ing] aspects that represent their own religious values" within it.
### *Battle Royale* and other precedents
Several critics compared *The Hunger Games* unfavorably to [Fukasaku](Kinji)(Kinji Fukasaku)'s [film](Japanese)(Cinema of Japan) *[Royale](Battle)(Battle Royale (film))*; the novel had earlier faced criticism for its similarities to the novel *[Royale](Battle)(Battle Royale (novel))* by [Takami](Koushun)(Koushun Takami). Jonathan Looms of *[Oxford Student](The)(The Oxford Student)* argues that it is "unfair that the film is only drawing comparisons with *Battle Royale*" but that it "is a veritable pastiche of other movies" as well, comparing it to *[Truman Show](The)(The Truman Show)*, *[Race](Death)(Death Race (2008 film))*, the *[Bourne](Bourne (film series))* films, and *[Zoolander](Zoolander)*, and that it is common for artists to borrow from and "improve on many sources. [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) has built his career on this principle." *The Hunger Games* is considered to be part of a wider [royale genre](battle)(battle royale genre), which had earlier been defined by *Battle Royale*. Prior to *The Hunger Games*, the battle royale genre was largely limited to Japan, where *Battle Royale* had inspired a wave of [manga](manga), [anime](anime) and [novel](visual)(visual novel) works, such as *[Gantz](Gantz)* (2000), *[When They Cry](Higurashi:)(Higurashi: When They Cry)* (2002), *[Diary](Future)(Future Diary)* (2006), *[Btooom!](Btooom!)* (2009), *[Escape](Zero)(Zero Escape)* (2009) and *[Danganronpa](Danganronpa)* (2010).
[Winston Dixon](Wheeler)(Wheeler Winston Dixon), a film professor at the [of Nebraska-Lincoln](University)(University of Nebraska-Lincoln), listed several precedents: *Battle Royale*, Jackson's "The Lottery", [Golding](William)(William Golding)'s *[of the Flies](Lord)(Lord of the Flies)*, *[Metropolis](Metropolis (2001 film))*, *[Runner](Blade)(Blade Runner)*, *[Race 2000](Death)(Death Race 2000)*, and [Orwell](George)(George Orwell)'s *[Eighty-Four](Nineteen)(Nineteen Eighty-Four)*. [Dargis](Manohla)(Manohla Dargis) in *The New York Times* compares it to *Battle Royale*, ''[Game](Ender's)(Ender's Game)*, and *Twilight*, but contrasts *The Hunger Games* in terms of how its "exciting" female protagonist Katniss "rescues herself with resourcefulness, guts and true aim". Steve Rose of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* refers to the film as "think *Battle Royale* meets *[Running Man](The)(The Running Man (1987 film))* meets *[Survivor](Survivor (TV series))''.
Charles McGrath, writing for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, said that the film will remind viewers of the television series *[Survivor](Survivor (TV series))*, a little of *[Bachelorette](The)(The Bachelorette (American TV series))*, and of the short story "[Lottery](The)(The Lottery)" by [Jackson](Shirley)(Shirley Jackson), published in 1948 by *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)*. It reminded an author at *[Salon](Salon (website))* of the 1932 film *[Most Dangerous Game](The)(The Most Dangerous Game (film))*. *The Hunger Games* has also been conceptually compared to [Sheckley](Robert)(Robert Sheckley)'s 1953 short story "[Victim](Seventh)(Seventh Victim)" and its 1965 [film](Italian)(Cinema of Italy) adaptation by [Petri](Elio)(Elio Petri), *[10th Victim](The)(The 10th Victim)*, as the story and film feature a government-endorsed, televised (in the film's case) "Big Hunt", featuring contestants from around the world acting as "hunters" and "victims". Writing in *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)*, Govindini Murty made a list of touchstones the film alludes to, from the [Greek](ancient)(Ancient Greece), [Roman](Roman Empire) and [civilizations](Egyptian)(Ancient Egypt) to modern references such as the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), [Vietnam](the)(Vietnam War) and [War](Iraq)(Iraq War)s, and reality television. For her part, author Collins cites the myth of [Theseus](Theseus), the modern [Games](Olympic)(Olympic Games), reality television, and [of the Iraq War](coverage)(Media coverage of the Iraq War) as her inspiration.
In 2022, while on [Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!), Quentin Tarantino accused The Hunger Games of plagiarizing Battle Royale.
### Controversies
#### Race and ethnicity
During the film's opening weekend, controversial statements about various members of the cast arose, sparking open dialogue about issues of racism, sexism and unrealistic [image](body)(body image). Comparisons were also made between *The Hunger Games* premise of children killing each other, and the child soldiers of the [Resistance Army](Lord's)(Lord's Resistance Army) led by [Kony](Joseph)(Joseph Kony). In a *[Jezebel](Jezebel (website))* article published March 26, 2012, Dodai Stewart reported that several users on Twitter posted racist tweets, criticizing the portrayals of Rue, Thresh and Cinna by African American actors. In a 2011 interview with *Entertainment Weekly*, Collins stated that while she did not have any ethnic background in mind for lead characters Katniss and Gale because the book is written in "a time period where hundreds of years have passed" and there would be "a lot of ethnic mixing", she explains "there are some characters in the book who are more specifically described", and states that both Rue and Thresh are African American. Lyneka Little of *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* states that although it is easy to find bigoted or offensive postings online, "the racist 'Hunger Games' tweets, because they are so shockingly ignorant even by the standards of the fringes of the internet, have kicked up a storm".
Fahima Haque of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, [Adewunmi](Bim)(Bim Adewunmi) of *The Guardian*, and Christopher Rosen of *[Huffington Post](The)(The Huffington Post)* all reiterate the fact that Rue and Thresh are described in *The Hunger Games* as having dark brown skin, as well as Collins's assertion that they were intended to be depicted as African Americans. Adewunmi remarked that "it comes to this: if the casting of Rue, Thresh and Cinna has left you bewildered and upset, consider two things. One: you may be a racist—congrats! Two: you definitely lack basic reading comprehension. Mazel tov!" Erik Kain of *[Forbes](Forbes)* saw the controversy as a way to appreciate the value of free speech. He states that while society may never be free of racism, "racist comments made on Facebook and Twitter quickly become public record. Aggregations of these comments, like the Jezebel piece, expose people for what they are. Sure, many hide under the cloak of anonymity, but many others cannot or choose not to. And as the internet becomes more civilized and its denizens more accountable, this sort of thing carries more and more weight." Amandla Stenberg responded to the controversy with the following statement: "As a fan of the books, I feel fortunate to be part of The Hunger Games family ... It was an amazing experience; I am proud of the film and my performance. I want to thank all of my fans and the entire Hunger Games community for their support and loyalty." Dayo Okeniyi was quoted saying "I think this is a lesson for people to think before they tweet" and "It's sad ... We could now see where society is today. But I try not to think about stuff like that."
#### Casting of Lawrence
A number of critics expressed disappointment in Lawrence's casting as Katniss because her weight was not representative of a character who has suffered a life of starvation. Manohla Dargis, in her review of the film for *The New York Times*, stated "[a] few years ago Ms. Lawrence might have looked hungry enough to play Katniss, but now, at 21, her seductive, womanly figure makes a bad fit for a dystopian fantasy about a people starved into submission". Todd McCarthy of *The Hollywood Reporter* said that, in certain scenes, Lawrence displays "lingering baby fat". These remarks have been rebuked by a number of journalists for pushing unrealistic body image expectations for women.
L.V. Anderson of *[Slate](Slate (magazine))* states that, "[j]ust as living in a world with abundant calories does not automatically make everyone fat, living in a dystopian world like Panem with sporadic food access would not automatically make everyone skinny. Some bodies, I daresay, would be even bigger than Lawrence's." Since none of Lawrence's male co-stars have come under the same scrutiny, Anderson concludes that complaints about Lawrence's weight are inherently sexist. [MTV](MTV) asked for responses from audiences on the controversy and reported that most found criticism of Lawrence's weight "misguided". One response pointed to Collins's physical description of Katniss in *The Hunger Games* novel which reads: "I stand straight, and while I'm thin, I'm strong. The meat and plants from the woods combined with the exertion it took to get them have given me a healthier body than most of those I see around me." *Los Angeles Times* writer Alexandra Le Tellier commented that "[T]he sexist commentary along with the racist barbs made by so-called fans are as stomach-churning as the film's cultural commentary, which, in part, shines a light on the court of public opinion and its sometimes destructive power to determine someone else's fate".
#### Violence
The film has been rated 12A by the [Board of Film Classification](British)(British Board of Film Classification) (BBFC) in the UK for "intense threat, moderate violence and occasional gory moments". To achieve that rating, Lionsgate had to cut or substitute seven seconds of film by "digitally removing blood splashes and the sight of blood on wounds and weapons." The uncut version was ultimately released on Blu-ray in the UK with a 15 certificate. In the United States, the film was granted a [PG-13](PG-13 (Motion Picture Association)) rating from the [Picture Association of America](Motion)(Motion Picture Association of America) (MPAA) for "intense violent thematic material and disturbing images—all involving teens"; as Collins had originally anticipated.
Screening of *The Hunger Games* was delayed indefinitely in Vietnam. The film was to be released on March 30, 2012, but, according to a member of the Vietnamese National Film Board, the Board considers the film to be too violent and unanimously voted for the indefinite delay. It was later banned.
### Accolades
*The Hunger Games* received fifty-one nominations, and won twenty-eight. The song "[& Sound](Safe)(Safe & Sound (Taylor Swift song))" won a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media) and was nominated for a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for [Original Song](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song). For her performance, Lawrence won the [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Award) and the [Award](Empire)(Empire Award) for Best Actress, and the [Choice Awards](Critics')(Critics' Choice Awards) for Best Actress in an Action Movie. The film itself received twelve nominations, winning the award for Favorite Movie at the [Choice Awards](People's)(People's Choice Awards) and at the [Choice Awards](Kids')(Kids' Choice Awards). Meanwhile, Hutcherson won a [Movie Award for Best Male Performance](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Best Performance), a [Choice Award for Choice Movie Actor – Sci-Fi/Fantasy](Teen)(Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actor – Sci-Fi/Fantasy) and a [Something! Awards](Do)(Do Something) for Best Male Movie Star, and [Banks](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Banks) won the [Movie Award for Best On-Screen Transformation](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Transformation).
## Sequels
On August 8, 2011, while still shooting the film, Lionsgate announced that a film adaptation of the second novel in *The Hunger Games* trilogy, *[Hunger Games: Catching Fire](The)(The Hunger Games: Catching Fire)*, was scheduled to be released on November 22, 2013. In November 2011, Lionsgate entered negotiations with screenwriter [Beaufoy](Simon)(Simon Beaufoy) to adapt the novel for screen, since the post-production schedule for *The Hunger Games* was too crowded for Ross and Collins to adapt the next film as originally planned. *The Hunger Games: Catching Fire* began production in the summer of 2012. Gary Ross did not return for *Catching Fire*, and instead [Lawrence](Francis)(Francis Lawrence) directed the film. On May 6, 2012, it was reported that [Arndt](Michael)(Michael Arndt) was in talks to re-write the script for *Catching Fire*. Arndt officially signed on as the new script writer on May 24, 2012. *The Hunger Games: Catching Fire* began filming September 10, 2012, and concluded December 21, 2012; it premiered in London on November 11, 2013, before premiering on November 22, 2013 in the US as was originally scheduled.
In July 2012, release dates were confirmed for two films based on the last book *[Mockingjay](Mockingjay)*. *[Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1](The)(The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1)* was released November 21, 2014, and *[Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2](The)(The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2)* was released November 20, 2015. Lawrence, Hutcherson, Hemsworth, and Harrelson were all signed on to the whole franchise.
## Prequel
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
}}
[films](Category:2012)(Category:2012 films)
[science fiction action films](Category:2012)(Category:2012 science fiction action films)
[science fiction drama films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s science fiction drama films)
[science fiction thriller films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s science fiction thriller films)
[survival films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s survival films)
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[science fiction action films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction action films)
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[1](Category:The Hunger Games (film series))
[English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films)
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[scored by James Newton Howard](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by James Newton Howard)
[with screenplays by Billy Ray](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Billy Ray)
[with screenplays by Gary Ross](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Gary Ross)
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Ivana Trump
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ivana_trump
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# Ivana Trump
*Revision ID: 1158428555 | Timestamp: 2023-06-04T01:42:18Z*
---
| birth_place = [Gottwaldov](Zlín), [Moravia](Moravia), [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovak Socialist Republic)(now Zlín, [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic))
| death_date =
| death_place = [Manhattan](Manhattan), New York City, U.S.
| resting_place = [National Golf Club](Trump)(Trump National Golf Club Bedminster), [New Jersey](Bedminster,)(Bedminster, New Jersey), U.S.
| resting_place_coordinates =
| occupation =
| citizenship =
| education = [University](Charles)(Charles University)
| years_active = 1970–2022
| works = *[Love Alone](For)(Michael Lindsay-Hogg#Filmography)*, 1996 *[Trump](Raising)(Raising Trump)*, 2017*[list](See)(#Written works) *
| height_m = 1.8
| television = *[Tau](Pan)(Pan Tau)*, 1970 (as Ivana Zelníčková)*[Love Alone](For)(Michael Lindsay-Hogg#Filmography)*, 1996 *[Wives Club](First)(The First Wives Club)*, 1996*[Young Man](Ivana)(Ivana Young Man)*, 2006
| spouse =
*
*
*
}}
| children =
| family = [Trump](Family of Donald Trump)
| signature = Ivana Trump Original Signature.png
}}
**Ivana Marie Trump** (** **Zelníčková**, ; February 20, 1949 – July 14, 2022) was a Czech-American businesswoman, media personality, [socialite](socialite), fashion designer, author, and model. Ivana lived in Canada in the 1970s, before relocating to the United States and marrying [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) in 1977. She held key managerial positions in [Trump Organization](The)(The Trump Organization), as vice president of interior design, as CEO and president of Trump's Castle casino resort, and as manager of the [Hotel](Plaza)(Plaza Hotel).
Ivana and Donald Trump were prominent figures in New York society throughout the 1980s. The couple's divorce, granted in 1990, was the subject of extensive media coverage. Following the divorce, she developed her own lines of clothing, fashion jewelry, and beauty products which were sold on [UK](QVC)(QVC (British TV channel)) and the [Shopping Network](Home)(Home Shopping Network). She wrote an advice column for *[Globe](Globe (tabloid))* called "Ask Ivana" from 1995 through 2010, and published several books, including works of fiction, self-help, and the autobiography *Raising Trump*.
## Early life and education
Ivana Marie Zelníčková was born on February 20, 1949, in the [Moravia](Moravia)n city of [Zlín](Zlín) (known between 1949 and 1990 as Gottwaldov), [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovakia), the daughter of Miloš Zelníček and Marie Zelníčková (née Francová). Her father was an electrical engineer and her mother worked as a telephone operator. He encouraged his daughter's [skiing](skiing) abilities, a practice she began at age four. After developing skills as a skier, she joined the junior national ski team, which offered her opportunities to travel beyond the [Soviet-era](Soviet-era) communist boundaries of what was then the [Socialist Republic](Czechoslovak)(Czechoslovak Socialist Republic). She attended [University](Charles)(Charles University) in Prague and earned a master's degree in [education](physical)(physical education) in 1972. In 1970, Ivana appeared on [Television](Czechoslovak)(Czechoslovak Television) in the children's television series *[Tau](Pan)(Pan Tau)*.
Accounts differ as to Ivana's history in competitive skiing. It was reported that she was selected as an alternate on the Czechoslovak ski team during the [Winter Olympics](1972)(Czechoslovakia at the 1972 Winter Olympics), specializing in [downhill](Downhill (ski competition)) and [slalom](Slalom skiing). However, in 1989, Petr Pomezný, Secretary General of the [Olympic Committee](Czechoslovak)(Czech Olympic Committee), denied the claim and stated that despite searching extensively, no record could be found of her involvement.
## Immigration to Canada
In 1971, Zelníčková married Alfred Winklmayr, an Austrian ski instructor and her platonic friend, in order to obtain Austrian citizenship. The marriage granted her the freedom to leave Czechoslovakia without defection so she could retain the right to return to visit her parents. As Ivana Winklmayr, she received her Austrian passport in March 1972. The following year, she obtained an absentee divorce from Alfred Winklmayr in Los Angeles, California, where he had moved to teach skiing.
Zelníčková was romantically involved with the lyricist and playwright [(Jiři) Staidl](George)(:cs:Jiří Štaidl) who was killed in a car accident in 1973. After Staidl's death, Zelníčková moved to Canada where she lived with George (Jiři) Syrovatka whom she had dated since 1967; Syrovatka had defected to Canada in 1971 and owned a ski boutique in Montreal. Zelníčková worked as a ski instructor while living in Canada. She lived in [Montreal](Montreal) for two years where she continued to improve her English via night courses at [University](McGill)(McGill University). Working as a model, Zelníčková told the *[Gazette](Montreal)(Montreal Gazette)* in 1975 that she considered modelling to be a job, rather than a career. Her modelling clients included [Eaton's](Eaton's) department store and the fashion designer Auckie Sanft, along with promotional work for the [Summer Olympics](1976)(1976 Summer Olympics) in Montreal.
## Marriage to Donald Trump
[[File:Ivana Trump shakes hands with Fahd of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|Ivana and Donald Trump in receiving line of state dinner for King [of Saudi Arabia](Fahd)(Fahd of Saudi Arabia) in 1985, with U.S. president [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) and First Lady [Reagan](Nancy)(Nancy Reagan)]]
Ivana was in New York City with a group of models in 1976 when she met Donald Trump. On April 9, 1977, the couple married at [Collegiate Church](Marble)(Marble Collegiate Church) in a wedding officiated by [Vincent Peale](Norman)(Norman Vincent Peale). They became tabloid figures in New York society during the 1980s and worked together on several large projects, including the [Tower](Trump)(Trump Tower (New York)) on [Avenue](Fifth)(Fifth Avenue) in Manhattan, the renovation of the [Hyatt Hotel](Grand)(Grand Hyatt New York) in New York City, and the construction of the [Taj Mahal Casino Resort](Trump)(Trump Taj Mahal Casino Resort) in [City, New Jersey](Atlantic)(Atlantic City, New Jersey).
[[File:Estee Lauder with Ivana Trump (1).jpg|thumb|upright|Ivana (on the right) and [Lauder](Estée)(Estée Lauder (businesswoman)) at a [Cross](Red)(Red Cross) ball in Palm Beach in 1986]]
During the marriage, Ivana and Donald had three children: [Jr.](Donald)(Donald Trump Jr.) (born 1977), [Marie](Ivanka)(Ivanka Trump) (born 1981), and [Eric](Eric Trump) (born 1984). Donald Jr. learned to speak fluent [Czech](Czech (language)) (with the help of his maternal grandfather), while Ivanka gained only a basic understanding of her mother's native tongue, and Eric was not exposed to the language since, by the time of his birth, his grandparents were comfortable using English.
A reviewer of the 2018 [Netflix](Netflix) documentary miniseries on Donald, *[An American Dream](Trump:)(Trump: An American Dream),* described Ivana as a "charismatic workaholic, a career woman, an equal", and a life partner deliberately chosen by Trump to "work beside him and challenge him."
The Trumps' troubled marriage became the subject of public interest over the Christmas holiday in 1989 when—on vacation in [Colorado](Aspen,)(Aspen, Colorado)—they were observed fighting after Ivana encountered Donald's mistress [Maples](Marla)(Marla Maples). The *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)* reported that by February 1990, Donald had locked Ivana out of her office at the [Hotel](Plaza)(Plaza Hotel), and a legal battle ensued over the legitimacy of the four [prenuptial](Prenuptial agreement) agreements the pair had successively negotiated over the years.
In October 1990, Ivana's 63-year-old father, Miloš Zelníček, died suddenly from a heart attack. According to *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, her father was an informer for Czechoslovakia's [bezpečnost](Státní)(Státní bezpečnost) (StB) [service](intelligence)(intelligence service) who relayed information from his daughter, including a correct prediction that [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) would win the [presidential election](1988)(1988 United States presidential election). Despite their marital troubles and pending divorce, Donald stood at her side at her father's funeral in [Zlín](Zlín) held in November 1990.
The Trumps' divorce proceedings received worldwide publicity. Front-page coverage appeared in New York tabloid newspapers for eleven days in a row, and the story was the subject of [Smith's](Liz)(Liz Smith (journalist)) entire news coverage for three months. In a deposition relating to their divorce, Ivana accused Donald of rape and of pulling out handfuls of her hair. In [Hurt III](Harry)(Harry Hurt III)'s book *Lost Tycoon: The Many Lives of Donald J. Trump*, she confirmed that she had "felt violated". However, in a statement provided by Donald and his lawyers, she said that she had used the word "rape", but she did not "want [her] words to be interpreted in a literal or criminal sense." The uncontested divorce was granted in December 1990 on the grounds of cruel and inhumane treatment by Donald. Ivana had to sign a [agreement](non-disclosure)(non-disclosure agreement) as a condition of the divorce settlement, and she was required to seek Donald's permission before publicly discussing their marriage. *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* reported in 1991 that Ivana's divorce settlement included $14 million, a 45-room Connecticut mansion, an apartment in the [Plaza](Trump)(Trump Plaza (New York City)), and the use of [Mar-a-Lago](Mar-a-Lago) for one month a year.
## Career
During her marriage to Donald, Ivana took on major roles in [Trump Organization](The)(The Trump Organization), working as a senior executive for seven years, including executive vice president for interior design. She led the interior design of Trump Tower with its signature pink marble. Ivana was appointed CEO Vanity Fair February 2017|url=https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/share/a82ef66c-786f-4437-8f94-4333a3f0fb72?itm_content=footer-recirc|access-date=January 12, 2021|website=Vanity Fair The Complete Archive|language=en-US|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114052422/https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/share/a82ef66c-786f-4437-8f94-4333a3f0fb72?itm_content=footer-recirc|url-status=live}} and president of the [Castle Hotel and Casino](Trump)(Trump Castle Hotel and Casino) in [City](Atlantic)(Atlantic City, New Jersey), later becoming the manager of the [Hotel](Plaza)(Plaza Hotel) in [Manhattan](Manhattan).
### Business ventures
Soon after the divorce, Trump developed lines of clothing, fashion jewelry, and beauty products which have been sold through television shopping channels, including the [Shopping Network](Home)(HSN) and [London](QVC)(QVC (British TV channel)). In 1995, she presided over the House of Ivana, a fashion and fragrance company with a showroom located on [Avenue](Park)(Park Avenue) in New York.
In 1998, she pursued business interests in [Croatia](Croatia) (a vacation destination her parents frequently visited), which included the purchase of 33% of the nation's second largest daily newspaper, Polo+10.
The Ivana-branded Bentley Bay development in [Florida](Miami,)(Miami, Florida), filed for bankruptcy in 2004. The following year, she was involved in several proposed condominium projects, including the never-built [Las Vegas](Ivana)(Ivana Las Vegas).
In 2010, she sued Finnish fashion company [Helsinki](Ivana)(Ivana Helsinki), accusing it of selling women's clothing that incorporated her name without permission.
### Writing
Trump wrote several books, including *For Love Alone* (1992), *Free to Love*, (1993) and a [self-help](self-help) book called *The Best Is Yet to Come: Coping with Divorce and Enjoying Life Again* (1995). Trump wrote an advice column about love and life for *[Globe](Globe (tabloid))*, titled Ask Ivana, from June 1995 through January 2010.
In February 1999, Trump launched her own lifestyle magazine titled ''Ivana's Living in Style*. She contributed an advice column for *Divorce Magazine'' in 2001.Zwecker, Bill, "Ivana's trump? Divorce column that shares all she's learned", *Chicago Sun-Times*, January 24, 2001
Trump released an autobiography, *Raising Trump*, in 2017. It covered her own upbringing and the early years of raising her children with Donald.
## Media appearances
[[File:Life Ball 2009 (arrivals) Ivana Trump.jpg|thumb|upright|Ivana Trump at the [Ball](Life)(Life Ball) 2009 in [Vienna](Vienna)]]
Ivana and Donald made several appearances together on television programs including *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)* in April 1988, followed by the BBC's *[Wogan](Wogan)* in May 1988. After her divorce from Donald, Ivana was interviewed by [Walters](Barbara)(Barbara Walters) for ABC's *[20/20](20/20 (American TV program))*. In 1991, Donald cut off her [alimony](alimony) payments after the interview and announced his intention to sue Ivana for monetary damages. She returned to *The Oprah Winfrey Show* in 1992 with the message, "I will not let men dominate me anymore."
Trump had a cameo role in the [Hollywood](Hollywood (film industry)) film *[First Wives Club](The)(The First Wives Club)* (1996) with the line, "Ladies, you have to be strong and independent. And remember: don't get mad, get everything." She was the host of a reality TV special titled *[Young Man](Ivana)(Ivana Young Man)*, which aired on [Network](Oxygen)(Oxygen (TV network)) in 2006. In the reality dating program, she helped a wealthy, middle-aged woman find a younger partner. In 2010, Trump appeared in UK television series, *[Big Brother 7](Celebrity)(Celebrity Big Brother (British series 7))*, which she placed 7th.
## Personal life
Ivana Trump was married four times. Her first marriage, to Alfred Winklmayr, was for the goal of securing [nationality](Austrian)(Austrian nationality law), according to a biographer.
Ivana was married to Donald from 1977 to 1990, and they had three children, [Jr.](Donald)(Donald Trump Jr.) in 1977, [Ivanka](Ivanka Trump) in 1981, and [Eric](Eric Trump) in 1984. She became a naturalized [States citizen](United)(Citizenship of the United States) in 1988.
Trump married Italian entrepreneur and international businessman [Mazzucchelli](Riccardo)(Riccardo Mazzucchelli) in November 1995. They divorced in 1997. That same year, she filed a $15 million breach of contract suit against Mazzucchelli for violating the confidentiality clause in their prenuptial agreement, while Mazzucchelli sued Ivana and her ex-husband Donald in a British court for libel. The suit was later settled under undisclosed terms.
In the summer of 1997, she began dating Italian aristocrat Count Roffredo [dell'Aquila d'Aragona](Gaetani)(Gaetani dell'Aquila d'Aragona) Lovatelli. Their relationship continued until his death in 2005.
Trump dated Italian actor and model Rossano Rubicondi for six years before they married on April 12, 2008. The marriage to Rubicondi, 36, was the fourth for Ivana, who was 23 years his senior at the age of 59. The couple's $3 million wedding for 400 guests was hosted by ex-husband Donald at [Mar-a-Lago](Mar-a-Lago) with daughter Ivanka as her maid of honor. The wedding was officiated by Ivana Trump's ex-sister-in-law Judge [Trump Barry](Maryanne)(Maryanne Trump Barry). Although Ivana and Rubicondi divorced less than a year later, their [off-again relationship](on-again,)(on-again, off-again relationship) continued until 2019, when Ivana announced they had once again "called it quits". Rubicondi died on October 29, 2021, at the age of 49, reportedly from [melanoma](melanoma).
Trump had ten grandchildren. In the late 2010s, she reportedly split her time between New York City, Miami, and [Saint-Tropez](Saint-Tropez). She stated she was fluent in German, French, Czech, and Russian.
## FBI inquiry
On February 14, 1989, FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C., recommended a preliminary inquiry into Trump's connections to Czechoslovakia based on information from a confidential source. The inquiry was initiated by the FBI New York Field Office the following week, and is reported to have spanned at least two years. In March 2023, it was revealed that Ivana was investigated by the FBI's counterintelligence division into allegations connected to her native Czechoslovakia.
## Death
On July 14, 2022, at the age of 73, Ivana died of [impact injuries](blunt)(Blunt trauma) to the [torso](torso) after falling down stairs at her home on the [East Side](Upper)(Upper East Side) of [Manhattan](Manhattan). Her ex-husband Donald and their three children, alongside a number of politicians and celebrities, posted condolences on social media. Her funeral was held on July 20 at the [of St. Vincent Ferrer](Church)(Church of St. Vincent Ferrer (Manhattan)), a [Catholic](Roman)(Catholic Church) church near her home. Ivana was buried at the [National Golf Club Bedminster](Trump)(Trump National Golf Club Bedminster) in [New Jersey](Bedminster,)(Bedminster, New Jersey).
Ivana left behind an estate worth $32 million. In her will, the majority of her assets were to be divided among Don Jr, Ivanka, and Eric. Other beneficiaries include personal friend Evelyne Galet and the family's former nanny, Dorothy Curry.
## Written works
## Awards and honors
* She was awarded [of Merit](Medal)(Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)) by President of the Czech Republic [Zeman](Miloš)(Miloš Zeman) on 28 October 2022.
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Cited sources
* Paperback title: *The Greatest Show on Earth: The Deals, the Downfall, the Reinvention''.
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
* [Ivana and Donald Trump video clip](http://www.oprah.com/own-oprahshow/donald-trump-ultimately-ivana-does-exactly-as-i-tell-her-to-do) from *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)*, on April 24, 1988
* [Ivana and Donald Trump video clip](https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/donald-trump-dame-edna-wogan/zjxcf4j) appearance with [Edna](Dame)(Dame Edna Everage) on *[Wogan](Wogan)*, BBC, on May 23, 1988
[births](Category:1949)(Category:1949 births)
[deaths](Category:2022)(Category:2022 deaths)
[American businesswomen](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American businesswomen)
[American businesspeople](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American businesspeople)
[American novelists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American novelists)
[American women writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women writers)
[American women writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women writers)
[deaths from falls](Category:Accidental)(Category:Accidental deaths from falls)
[deaths in New York (state)](Category:Accidental)(Category:Accidental deaths in New York (state))
[autobiographers](Category:American)(Category:American autobiographers)
[people of Moravian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Moravian descent)
[women novelists](Category:American)(Category:American women novelists)
[from New York City](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from New York City)
[University alumni](Category:Charles)(Category:Charles University alumni)
[businesspeople](Category:Czech)(Category:Czech businesspeople)
[expatriates in Canada](Category:Czech)(Category:Czech expatriates in Canada)
[female models](Category:Czech)(Category:Czech female models)
[socialites](Category:Czech)(Category:Czech socialites)
[women in business](Category:Czech)(Category:Czech women in business)
[emigrants to the United States](Category:Czechoslovak)(Category:Czechoslovak emigrants to the United States)
[citizens of the United States](Category:Naturalized)(Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States)
[from the Upper East Side](Category:People)(Category:People from the Upper East Side)
[from Zlín](Category:People)(Category:People from Zlín)
[Ivana](Category:Trump family)
[autobiographers](Category:Women)(Category:Women autobiographers)
[of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic)](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic))
|
Kourtney Kardashian
|
kourtney_kardashian
|
# Kourtney Kardashian
*Revision ID: 1159959963 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T16:37:48Z*
---
| birth_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| other_names = Gayane Kourtney Kardashian Barker
| alma_mater = [of Arizona](University)(University of Arizona) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| years active = 2005–present
| occupation =
| spouse =
| partner = [Disick](Scott)(Scott Disick) (2006–2015)
| father = [Kardashian](Robert)(Robert Kardashian)
| mother = [Jenner](Kris)(Kris Jenner)
| relatives = [family](Kardashian)(Kardashian family)
| children = 3
}}
**Kourtney Mary Kardashian** (born April 18, 1979) is an American media personality and socialite. In 2007, she and her family began starring in the [television](reality)(reality television) series *[Up with the Kardashians](Keeping)(Keeping Up with the Kardashians)*. Its success led to the creation of [spin-off](Spin-off (media))s including *[and Khloé Take Miami](Kourtney)(Kourtney and Kim Take Miami)* and *[and Kim Take New York](Kourtney)(Kourtney and Kim Take New York)*.
With sisters [Kim](Kim Kardashian) and [Khloé](Khloé Kardashian), Kardashian is involved in the retail and [fashion](fashion industry) industries. They have launched several clothing collections and fragrances, and additionally released the book *[Konfidential](Kardashian)(Kardashian Konfidential)* in 2010. Kourtney launched her own website called Poosh in early 2019.
Kardashian and her siblings are popular on [media](social)(social media) and endorse products such as waist slimming pants, beauty products, Coca-Cola, and [drugs](prescription)(prescription drugs), for which they are paid (as of 2016) between $75,000 and $300,000 per [post](Social media marketing) on [Instagram](Instagram), [Facebook](Facebook), and [Twitter](Twitter).
## Early life
Kourtney Mary Kardashian was born in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), on April 18, 1979, to [Kardashian](Robert)(Robert Kardashian) and [Kris](Kris Jenner) ([née](née) Houghton). She has two younger sisters, [Kim](Kim Kardashian) and [Khloé](Khloé Kardashian), and a younger brother, [Rob](Rob Kardashian). In 1991, her parents divorced and her mother married [Jenner](Bruce)(Caitlyn Jenner), the [Summer Olympics](1976)(1976 Summer Olympics) decathlon winner (in 2015, Jenner changed her name to Caitlyn}}), later that year. Through their marriage, Kardashian gained stepbrothers ["Burt"](Burton)(Burt Jenner), [Brandon](Brandon & Leah#Brandon Jenner), and [Brody](Brody Jenner); stepsister Casey; and later half-sisters [Kendall](Kendall Jenner) and [Kylie](Kylie Jenner).
Kardashian attended [High School](Marymount)(Marymount High School), a [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic) all-girls school in Los Angeles. Following graduation, she moved to [Dallas](Dallas), [Texas](Texas), to attend [Methodist University](Southern)(Southern Methodist University) for two years. Kardashian then lived in [Arizona](Tucson,)(Tucson, Arizona), where she graduated from the [of Arizona](University)(University of Arizona) with a bachelor's degree in [Arts](Theatre)(Theatre Arts) and a minor in Spanish. Her classmates included [Richie](Nicole)(Nicole Richie) and [Walton](Luke)(Luke Walton). In 1994, her father garnered public attention as an additional defense lawyer for football player [J. Simpson](O.)(O. J. Simpson) during his [trial](murder)(O. J. Simpson murder case).
## Career
Kardashian first became known to reality-television audiences on the 2005 series, *[Rich: Cattle Drive](Filthy)(Filthy Rich: Cattle Drive)*, on which she earned money for charity. In February 2007, a [tape](sex)(Celebrity sex tape) made by her sister Kim and former boyfriend [J](Ray)(Ray J) in 2003, *[Kardashian, Superstar](Kim)(Kim Kardashian, Superstar)*, was leaked, which largely contributed to her rise to prominence. Later that year, Kardashian, in addition to her mother Kris; her stepfather Bruce (now known as Caitlyn); her siblings Kim, Khloé, and Rob; and half-sisters Kendall and Kylie were commissioned to star in the [television](reality)(reality television) series *[Up with the Kardashians](Keeping)(Keeping Up with the Kardashians)*. The series proved successful for [E!](E!), the network on which it is broadcast, and led to several [spin-off](Spin-off (media))s, including *[and Khloé Take Miami](Kourtney)(Kourtney and Kim Take New York)*, *[& Lamar](Khloé)(Khloé & Lamar),* and *[and Kim Take New York](Kourtney)(Kourtney and Kim Take New York)* .
Kardashian and her mother opened children's clothing boutiques called Smooch in the Los Angeles area and New York City; the boutiques carry the brand Crib Rock Couture. With sisters Kim and Khloe, Kardashian co-owns and operates D-A-S-H, a clothing boutique in Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, and a [store](pop-up)(pop-up retail) in the Hamptons.
In the spring of 2010, Kardashian and her sisters released a clothing line for [Bebe](Bebe Stores). In August 2010, Kardashian announced that she and her sisters were working on another clothing line called K-Dash, sold on [QVC](QVC). Kardashian and her sisters created a sunless tanner called *Kardashian Glamour Tan* in 2010. Kardashian wrote the book *[Konfidential](Kardashian)(Kardashian Konfidential)* with her sisters Khloe and Kim; it was released in November 2010.
Kardashian made her acting debut with a guest appearance on the ABC soap *[Life to Live](One)(One Life to Live)* on March 28, 2011, appearing as attorney Kassandra Kavanaugh. Kardashian, who had grown up watching the soap opera and described her appearance as the realization of a "lifelong dream," had reservations about her acting debut, stating: "I'd thought I'd only have two lines. But my script is so long... I'm not an actress." Her performance was met with negative reviews from critics. In November 2011 she released a novel *[Dollhouse](Dollhouse (book))* along with sisters Khloe and Kim.
In September 2012, she and younger sister Kim created another spinoff reality television series, *[and Kim Take Miami](Kourtney)(Kourtney and Kim Take Miami), *which began airing in January 2013. It features their mother [Jenner](Kris)(Kris Jenner), Kardashian's boyfriend at the time, [Disick](Scott)(Scott Disick), and sister [Kardashian](Khloé)(Khloé Kardashian).
The Kardashian sisters were spokeswomen for the diet supplement Quick Trim, for weight loss. In March 2012 the three sisters were named in a $5 million class-action lawsuit against QuickTrim. The complaint, filed in the [States District Court for the Southern District of New York](United)(United States District Court for the Southern District of New York), accused the Kardashians, along with QuickTrim's manufacturer Windmill Health Products; the retailer GNC; and others in the sales and marketing chain, of false and deceptive marketing. The plaintiffs, from several states, brought claims under their respective states' consumer protection laws.
Kardashian also represents the skincare line *PerfectSkin* with her sisters, which was developed by Dr. Ron DiSalvo for Perfect Science Labs. The three sisters also released a 20-piece collection of jewelry line for the company Virgins, Saints, and Angels, in March 2010. The jewelry is reflective of their partial Armenian background. In 2017, Kardashian launched her first solo fashion line as part of a collaboration with the site [PrettyLittleThing](PrettyLittleThing). According to the website, the 32-piece line was inspired by [54](Studio)(Studio 54), [Hollywood cinema](classical)(classical Hollywood cinema), and the 1970s. She endorsed [Klein](Calvin)(Calvin Klein) along with her sisters in 2018. In the same year, she partnered with her younger half-sister [Kylie](Kylie Jenner) to launch a collection of lipsticks and palettes with [Cosmetics](Kylie)(Kylie Cosmetics).
On March 5, 2019, Kardashian released her lifestyle website named Poosh. In November 2019, Kardashian partnered with her sisters Kim and Khloé to create three new perfumes (one for each sister) for Kim's brand KKW Fragrance. The collection introduces Yellow Diamond (Kourtney's fragrance), Pink Diamond (Khloé's fragrance) and pure Diamond (Kim's fragrance). Each scent is individually inspired by and unique to her, Kim, and Khloé.
On 12 September 2022, Kardashian announced the launch of her new health brand *Lemme*, which started selling three products. The brand specialises in vitamins and supplements.
## Personal life
[[File:Scott Disick & Kourtney Kardashian 2010.jpg|thumb|Kardashian and [Disick](Scott)(Scott Disick) in 2010]]
In October 2019, Kardashian and her children were baptized in an [Apostolic](Armenian)(Armenian Apostolic Church) ceremony at the [Cathedral](Etchmiadzin)(Etchmiadzin Cathedral) in [Vagharshapat](Vagharshapat), Armenia. During the ceremony, she was christened with the Armenian [name](Christian name) Gayane.
In October 2020, Kardashian posted messages and retweets in support of [Armenia](Armenia) and [Artsakh](Republic of Artsakh) in regards to the [war](Nagorno-Karabakh)(2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict).
### Relationships and children
From 2006 to 2015, Kardashian was in an [off-again relationship](on-again,)(on-again, off-again relationship) with [Disick](Scott)(Scott Disick). The two met at mutual friend [Francis](Joe)(Joe Francis)'s house party in Mexico. Kardashian has three children with Disick: son Mason Dash Disick (born December 14, 2009), daughter Penelope Scotland Disick (born July 8, 2012), and son Reign Aston Disick (born December 14, 2014).
Kardashian and Disick's relationship has been shown on *Keeping Up With the Kardashians* and its numerous spin offs. Kardashian's pregnancies and the births of all three of her children have also been featured on the show.
In 2007, during the first season of *Keeping Up with the Kardashians* while on a trip to Las Vegas, Disick and Kardashian were going to get married, but her mother [Kris](Kris Jenner) convinced her to wait.
In early 2010, the couple temporarily moved to Miami with their son and Kardashian's sister Kim. During this time, Kardashian believed Disick had an alcohol problem. After regularly attending therapy and temporarily giving up alcohol, Disick and Kardashian reconciled and they continued their relationship in mid-2010.
In 2011, during the final episode in the first season of *Kourtney and Kim Take New York*, Disick purchased an engagement ring and planned to propose to Kardashian during an evening meal in [York City](New)(New York City). However, when Disick asked Kardashian's opinion on marriage, she responded with, "If things are so good now...why would we want to change that?", so he did not propose.
Kardashian was in another on-again, off-again relationship with model Younes Bendjima from 2016 to 2020.
In January 2021, it was confirmed that Kardashian was in a relationship with musician [Barker](Travis)(Travis Barker). In October 2021, Kardashian and Barker got engaged after he proposed to her at a beachside hotel in Montecito, California. They had an unofficial wedding on April 3, 2022, in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), after the [Annual Grammy Awards](64th)(64th Annual Grammy Awards). The couple officially married on May 15, 2022, in [Barbara, California](Santa)(Santa Barbara, California), with a religious wedding ceremony in [Italy](Portofino,)(Portofino) on May 22, 2022.
## Filmography
### As actress
### As herself
## Written works
*
*
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[births](Category:1979)(Category:1979 births)
[people of Armenian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Armenian descent)
[people of Dutch descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Dutch descent)
[people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scottish descent)
[socialites](Category:American)(Category:American socialites)
[Oriental Orthodox Christians](Category:American)(Category:American Oriental Orthodox Christians)
[Apostolic Christians](Category:Armenian)(Category:Armenian Apostolic Christians)
[Kourtney](Category:Kardashian family)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[in American reality television series](Category:Participants)(Category:Participants in American reality television series)
[Methodist University alumni](Category:Southern)(Category:Southern Methodist University alumni)
[of Arizona alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Arizona alumni)
[women in business](Category:American)(Category:American women in business)
|
List of animated feature films of 2013
|
list_of_animated_feature_films_of_2013
|
# List of animated feature films of 2013
*Revision ID: 1159180276 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T19:23:00Z*
---
A list of [animated](animation) [film](feature)(feature film)s that were released in [2013](2013 in film).
## Highest-grossing animated films of 2013
The top ten animated films by worldwide gross in 2013 as of 16 of January 2015 are as follows:
*[Frozen](Frozen (2013 film))* grossed over $1.2 billion, making it the 15th [film](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing films) of all time, and the eighteenth film to surpass the billion dollar mark, respectively. It also became the second animated film after *[Story 3](Toy)(Toy Story 3)* to gross $1 billion, and is the [highest-grossing animated film](second)(List of highest-grossing animated films) of all time worldwide.
## See also
* [of animated television series of 2013](List)(List of animated television series of 2013)
## References
[*](Category:2013 animated films)
[2013](Category:Lists of animated feature films by year)
[lists](Category:2013-related)(Category:2013-related lists)
[(2013年)](zh:日本動畫列表)(zh:日本動畫列表 (2013年))
|
Lauryn Hill
|
lauryn_hill
|
# Lauryn Hill
*Revision ID: 1158802870 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T09:43:52Z*
---
Lauren Hill}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Orange, New Jersey](East)(East Orange, New Jersey), U.S.
| genre = }}
| occupation =
| instrument =
| years_active = 1988–present
| label =
| current_member_of =
}}
}}
**Lauryn Noelle Hill** (born May 26, 1975) is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer. She is regarded as one of the greatest rappers of all time, as well as one of the most influential musicians of her generation. Hill is credited for breaking barriers for female rappers, popularizing melodic rapping and for bringing [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) and [soul](neo)(neo soul) to [music](popular)(popular music). She was the frontwoman of [Fugees](The)(Fugees) and her 1998 solo album *[Miseducation of Lauryn Hill](The)(The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill)* became one of the [albums of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling albums). Hill has won [accolades](many)(List of awards and nominations received by Lauryn Hill), including eight [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s, the [for a female rapper](most)(Grammy Award records#Most Grammys won by a rapper) to this day.
Hill starred in the film *[Act 2: Back in the Habit](Sister)(Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit)* (1993). Afterwards, she released two albums as a member of The Fugees. Their album *[Score](The)(The Score (Fugees album))* (1996), received the [Award for Best Rap Album](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Rap Album), for which she became the first woman to win the award. The album contained the hit single "[Me Softly](Killing)(Killing Me Softly with His Song#Fugees version)", with her on lead vocals. Hill then collaborated with [Nas](Nas) ("[I Ruled the World (Imagine That)](If)(If I Ruled the World (Imagine That))") and [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin) ("[Rose Is Still a Rose](A)(A Rose Is Still a Rose (song))"). The band split in 1997, and soon after she began work on her solo album.
Her sole studio album, *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* (1998), launched atop the U.S. [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) with the highest first-week sales for a debut album by a woman in the 20th century. It included the songs "[Ex-Factor](Ex-Factor)" and "[Ones](Lost)(Lost Ones (Lauryn Hill song))". The lead single "[Wop (That Thing)](Doo)(Doo Wop (That Thing))" debuted at No. 1 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100), and made her the first artist to have debuted at No. 1 on both the *Billboard* 200 and Hot 100 with their first entries. She also was the first woman rapper to earn a No. 1 on each chart. At the [Grammy Awards](41st)(41st Annual Grammy Awards), Hill set a record for the [nominations in one night for a woman](most)(Grammy Award records#Most nominations in one night), with ten. She won five awards including [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year), and became the first hip hop act to win the award. The album was later selected for the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)' [Recording Registry](National)(National Recording Registry).
Hill then produced music for [Santana](Santana (band)) and [J. Blige](Mary)(Mary J. Blige). Her new-material live album *[Unplugged No. 2.0](MTV)(MTV Unplugged No. 2.0)* (2002), was later certified [platinum](Platinum certification) by the [RIAA](Recording Industry Association of America). Ultimately, Hill dropped out of the public eye, only periodically releasing singles. *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* placed her seventh on their "10 Best Rappers of All Time" list (2015), with her being the sole woman on the list. She has also been ranked as one of the Greatest Singers of All Time by *[of Sound](Consequence)(Consequence of Sound)* and *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*. Throughout her career, Hill has earned several [World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records), which include being the first woman rapper to earn a [Diamond-certification](Diamond Certified) by RIAA. Hill was the first rapper to grace the cover of [*Time*](Time (magazine)) magazine. She has received the [NAACP](NAACP)'s [Award](President's)(NAACP Image Award – President's Award) for her humanitarian work, and was inducted into the [Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame](Black)(Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame).
## Early life
Lauryn Noelle Hill was born on May 26, 1975, in [Orange, New Jersey](East)(East Orange, New Jersey). Her mother, Valerie Hill, was an English teacher and her father, Mal Hill, a computer and management consultant. She has one older brother named Malaney who was born in 1972. Her [Baptist](Baptists) family moved to New York for a short period before settling in South Orange, New Jersey.
Hill has said of her musically oriented family: "there were so many records, so much music constantly being played. My mother played the piano, my father sang, and we were always surrounded by music." Her father sang in local nightclubs and at weddings. While growing up, Hill frequently listened to [Mayfield](Curtis)(Curtis Mayfield), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin), and [Knight](Gladys)(Gladys Knight); years later she recalled playing [Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye)'s ''[Going On](What's)(What's Going On (Marvin Gaye album))* repeatedly until she fell asleep to it.
In middle school, Lauryn Hill performed "[Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner)" before a basketball game. Due to its popularity, subsequent games featured a recording of her rendition. In 1988, Hill appeared as an Amateur Night contestant on *[Showtime at the Apollo](It's)(Showtime at the Apollo)''. She sang her version of the [Robinson](Smokey)(Smokey Robinson) track "[Lovin' You](Who's)(Who's Lovin' You)", garnering an initially harsh reaction from the crowd. She persevered through the performance.
Hill attended [High School](Columbia)(Columbia High School (New Jersey)), where she was a member of the track team, cheerleading squad and was a classmate of actor [Braff](Zach)(Zach Braff). She also took violin lessons, went to dance class, and founded the school's gospel choir. Academically, she took advanced placement classes and received primarily [grades]('A')(Academic grading in the United States). School officials recognized her as a leader among the student body. Later recalling her education, Hill commented, "I had a love for—I don't know if it was necessarily for academics, more than it just was for achieving, period. If it was academics, if it was sports, if it was music, if it was dance, whatever it was, I was always driven to do a lot in whatever field or whatever area I was focusing on at the moment."
## Career
### 1991–1993: Career beginnings
While a freshman in high school, through mutual friends, ["Pras" Michel](Prakazrel)(Pras) approached Hill about a music group he was creating. Hill and Pras began under the name Translator Crew. They came up with this name because they wanted to rhyme in different languages. Another female vocalist was soon replaced by Michel's cousin, multi-instrumentalist [Jean](Wyclef)(Wyclef Jean). The group began performing in local showcases and high school talent shows. Hill was initially only a singer, but then learned to rap too; instead of modeling herself on female rappers like [Salt-N-Pepa](Salt-N-Pepa) and [Lyte](MC)(MC Lyte), she preferred male rappers like [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube) and developed her [flow](Flow (rapping)) from listening to them. Hill later said, "I remember doing my homework in the bathroom stalls of hip-hop clubs."
While growing up, Hill took acting lessons in [Manhattan](Manhattan). She began her acting career in 1991 appearing with Jean in *Club XII*, MC Lyte's [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) hip-hop rendering of Shakespeare's *[Night](Twelfth)(Twelfth Night)*. While the play was not a success, an agent noticed her. Later that year, Hill began appearing on the soap opera *[the World Turns](As)(As the World Turns)* in a recurring role as troubled teenager Kira Johnson. She subsequently co-starred alongside [Goldberg](Whoopi)(Whoopi Goldberg) in the 1993 release *[Act 2: Back in the Habit](Sister)(Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit)*, playing Rita Louise Watson, an inner-city Catholic school teenager with a surly, rebellious attitude. In it, she performed the songs "[Eye Is on the Sparrow](His)(His Eye Is on the Sparrow)" (a duet with [Blount](Tanya)(Tanya Blount)) and "[Joyful](Joyful,)(Joyful, Joyful We Adore Thee)".
Director [Duke](Bill)(Bill Duke) credited Hill with improvising a rap in a scene: "None of that was scripted. That was all Lauryn. She was amazing." Critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) called her "the girl with the big joyful voice", although he thought her talent was wasted, while *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* said she "performed marvelously against type ... in the otherwise perfunctory [film]". Hill also appeared in [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)'s 1993 motion picture *[of the Hill](King)(King of the Hill (1993 film))*, in a minor but pivotal role as a 1930s gum-popping elevator operator. Soderbergh biographer Jason Wood described her as supplying one of the warmest scenes in the film. Hill graduated from Columbia High School in 1993.
### 1994–1996: The Fugees
#### *Blunted on reality* and *The Score*
Pras, Hill and Jean renamed their group [Fugees](Fugees), a derivative of the word "refugee", which was a derogatory term for [Americans](Haitian)(Haitian Americans). Hill began a romantic relationship with Jean. The Fugees, who signed a contract with [Columbia](Columbia Records)/[Records](Ruffhouse)(Ruffhouse Records) in 1993, became known for their genre blending, particularly of reggae, rock and soul, which was first experimented on their debut album, *[on Reality](Blunted)(Blunted on Reality)*, released in 1994. It reached No. 62 on the *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* [R&B/Hip-Hop Albums](Top)(Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums) chart|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))|access-date=June 7, 2013}} but overall sold poorly and was met by poor critical reviews due to their management's insistence they adopt [rap](gangsta)(gangsta rap) attitudes. Although the album made little impact, Hill's rapping on "Some Seek Stardom" was seen as a highlight. Within the group, she was frequently referred to by the nickname "L. Boogie". Hill's image and artistry, as well as her full, rich, raspy [alto](alto) voice, placed her at the forefront of the band, with some fans urging her to begin a solo career.
The Fugees' second album, *[Score](The)(The Score (Fugees album))* (1996), peaked at No. 1 on the U.S. [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200)|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))|access-date=June 7, 2013}} and stayed in the top ten of that chart for over half a year. It sold about seven million copies in the United States and more than 20 million copies worldwide. In the 1996 [& Jop Critics Poll](Pazz)(Pazz & Jop), *The Score* came second in the list of best albums and three of its tracks placed within the top 20 best singles. It won the [Award for Best Rap Album](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Rap Album), and was later included on *Rolling Stone*s [of the 500 greatest albums of all time](list)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time). *The Score* garnered praise for being a strong alternative to the gangsta idiom, and Hill stated, "We're trying to do something positive with the music because it seems like only the negative is rising to the top these days. It only takes a drop of purity to clean a cesspool."
Singles from *The Score* included "[Fu-Gee-La](Fu-Gee-La)" and "[or Not](Ready)(Ready or Not (Fugees song))", which highlighted Hill's singing and rapping abilities, and the [Marley](Bob)(Bob Marley) cover "[Woman, No Cry](No)(No Woman, No Cry)". Her rendition of "[Me Softly](Killing)(Killing Me Softly with His Song)" became the group's breakout hit. Buttressed by what *Rolling Stone* publications later called Hill's "evocative" vocal line and her "amazing pipes", the track became pervasive on pop, R&B, hip hop, and [contemporary](adult)(Adult contemporary music) radio formats. [The Fugees entry online](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/fugees/biography) It won the [Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals). On the album, Hill combined [music](African-American)(African-American music) and [music](Caribbean)(List of Caribbean music genres) influences with socially conscious lyrics. *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* mentioned Hill's "irresistibly cute looks" and proclaimed her "the most powerful new voice in rap".
#### Disbandment and motherhood
At 21 years old, Hill was still living at home with her parents. She had been enrolled at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) during this period, and considered majoring in history as she became a sophomore, but left after about a year of total studies once sales of *The Score* went into the millions. In 1996, she responded to a false rumor on *[Howard Stern Show](The)(The Howard Stern Show)* that she had made a racist comment on [MTV](MTV), saying "How can I possibly be a racist? My music is universal. And I believe in God. If I believe in God, then I have to love all of God's creations. There can be no segregation."
In 1996, Hill founded the Refugee Project, a non-profit outreach organization that sought to transform the attitudes and behavior of at-risk urban youth. Part of this was Camp Hill, which offered stays in the [Mountains](Catskill)(Catskill Mountains) for such youngsters; another was production of an annual [Halloween](Halloween) haunted house in East Orange. Hill also raised money for Haitian refugees, supported clean water well-building projects in Kenya and Uganda, and staged a rap concert in [Harlem](Harlem) to promote [registration](voter)(voter registration). A 1997 benefit event for the Refugee Project introduced a board of trustees for the organization that included [Combs](Sean)(Sean Combs), [Carey](Mariah)(Mariah Carey), [Rhymes](Busta)(Busta Rhymes), [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee), and others as members.
In 1997, the Fugees split to work on solo projects, which Jean later blamed on his tumultuous relationship with Hill and the fact he married his wife Claudinette while still involved with Hill. Meanwhile, in the summer of 1996 Hill had met [Marley](Rohan)(Rohan Marley), a son of [Marley](Bob)(Bob Marley) and a former [of Miami football player](University)(Miami Hurricanes football). Hill subsequently began a relationship with him, while still also involved with Jean. Hill became pregnant in late 1996, and on August 3, 1997, Marley and Hill's first child, Zion David, was born. The couple lived in Hill's childhood house in South Orange after she bought her parents a new house down the street.
Hill had a cameo appearance in the 1997 film *[Plenty](Hav)(Hav Plenty)*. In 1998, Hill took up another small, but important role in the film *[Restaurant](Restaurant (1998 film))*; *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* praised her portrayal of the protagonist's pregnant former girlfriend as bringing vigor to the film.
### 1997–1999: *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill*
Hill recorded her solo record *[Miseducation of Lauryn Hill](The)(The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill)* from late 1997 through June 1998 at [Gong Studios](Tuff)(Bob Marley Museum) in [Jamaica](Jamaica). The title was inspired by the book *[Mis-Education of the Negro](The)(The Mis-Education of the Negro)* (1933) by [G. Woodson](Carter)(Carter G. Woodson) and *[Education of Sonny Carson](The)(The Education of Sonny Carson)*, a film and autobiographical novel. The album featured contributions from [D'Angelo](D'Angelo), [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana), [J. Blige](Mary)(Mary J. Blige) and the then-unknown [Legend](John)(John Legend). Wyclef Jean initially did not support Hill recording a solo album, but eventually offered his production help; Hill turned him down.
Several songs on the album concerned her frustration with the Fugees; "I Used to Love Him" dealt with the breakdown of the relationship between Hill and Wyclef Jean. Other songs such as "To Zion" spoke about her decision to have her first baby, even though many at the time encouraged her to have an abortion so to not interfere with her blossoming career. "To Zion" was written to her son, Zion David Marley, who she had with one of [Marley](Bob)(Bob Marley)'s sons, [Marley](Rohan)(Rohan Marley). Zion was the first of 5 children they had together. Indeed, Hill's pregnancy revived her from a period of [block](writer's)(writer's block).
In terms of production, Hill collaborated with a group of musicians known as New Ark, consisting of [Nobles](Vada)(Vada Nobles), Rasheem Pugh, Tejumold Newton, and Johari Newton. Hill later said that she wanted to "write songs that lyrically move me and have the integrity of reggae and the knock of hip-hop and the instrumentation of classic soul" and that the production on the album was intended to make the music sound raw and not computer-aided. Hill spoke of pressure from her label to emulate [Prince](Prince (musician)), wherein all tracks would be credited as written and produced by the artist with little outside help. She also wanted to be appreciated as an auteur as much as Jean had within the Fugees. She also saw a feminist cause: "But step out and try and control things and there are doubts. This is a very sexist industry. They'll never throw the 'genius' title to a sister." While recording the album, when Hill was asked about providing contracts or documentation to the musicians, she replied, "We all love each other. This ain't about documents. This is blessed."
Released on August 25, 1998, the album received rave reviews from contemporary music critics, and was the most acclaimed album of 1998. Critics lauded the album's blending of the R&B, doo-wop, pop, hip-hop, and reggae genres and its honest representation of a woman's life and relationships. [Browne](David)(David Browne (journalist)), writing in *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*, called it "an album of often-astonishing power, strength, and feeling", and praised Hill for "easily flowing from singing to rapping, evoking the past while forging a future of her own". [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau) quipped, "[PC](wikt:politically correct) record of the year—songs soft, singing ordinary, rapping skilled, rhymes up and down, skits [trop](de)(wikt:de trop), production subtle and terrific". In 2017, [NPR](NPR) rated the album as the second-best album of all time created by a woman.
It sold nearly 423,000 copies in its first week (boosted by advance radio play of two non-label-sanctioned singles, "[Ones](Lost)(Lost Ones (Lauryn Hill song))" and "Can't Take My Eyes Off You") and topped the *Billboard* 200 for four weeks and the *Billboard* R&B Albums chart for six weeks. It went on to sell about 10 million copies in the United States, and 20 million copies worldwide. During 1998 and 1999, Hill earned $25 million from record sales and touring. Hill, along with Blige, [Elliott](Missy)(Missy Elliott), [Ndegeocello](Meshell)(Meshell Ndegeocello), [Badu](Erykah)(Erykah Badu), and others, found a voice with the [soul](neo)(neo soul) genre.
The first single released from the album was "[Wop (That Thing)](Doo)(Doo Wop (That Thing))", which debuted at No. 1 on the *Billboard* Hot 100 chart.|access-date=June 8, 2013|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))}} It exemplified Hill's appeal, combining feelings of self-empowerment with self-defense. Other charted singles from the album were "[Ex-Factor](Ex-Factor)", which has been sampled by [Drake](Drake (musician)) and [B](Cardi)(Cardi B), "[Is Everything](Everything)(Everything Is Everything (Lauryn Hill song))" and "To Zion". In the 1998 [& Jop Critics Poll](Pazz)(Pazz & Jop), *Miseducation* came second in the list of best albums and "Doo Wop (That Thing)" second in best singles.
In November 1998, Marley and Hill's second child, [Louise](Selah)(Selah Marley), was born. Of being a young mother of two, Hill said, "It's not an easy situation at all. You have to really pray and be honest with yourself."
In the run-up to the [Grammy Awards](1999)(41st Annual Grammy Awards), Hill became the first woman to be nominated in ten categories in a single year. In addition to *Miseducation* works, the nominations included her rendition of "[Take My Eyes Off You](Can't)(Can't Take My Eyes Off You)" for the 1997 film *[Theory](Conspiracy)(Conspiracy Theory (film))*, which had appeared on *Billboard* charts, and Hill's writing and producing of "[Rose Is Still a Rose](A)(A Rose Is Still a Rose (song))", which became a late-in-career hit for [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin). She appeared on several magazine covers, including *[Time](Time (magazine))*, *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))*, *Rolling Stone*, *[People](Teen)(People (magazine))*, and *[New York Times Fashion Magazine](The)(T: The New York Times Style Magazine)*. During the ceremony, Hill broke another record by becoming the first woman to win five times in one night, taking home the awards for [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year), [R&B Album](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Album), [R&B Song](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Song), [Female R&B Vocal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance), and [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist). During an acceptance speech, she said, "This is crazy. This is hip-hop!" Hill had brought forth a new, mainstream acceptance of the genre.
In February 1999, Hill received four awards at the 30th Annual [Image Award](NAACP)(NAACP Image Award)s. In May 1999, she became the youngest woman ever named to [magazine](*Ebony*)(Ebony (magazine))'s 100+ Most Influential Black Americans list; in November of that year, the same publication named her as one of "10 For Tomorrow" in the "Ebony 2000: Special Millennium Issue". In May 1999, she made [magazine](*People*)(People (magazine))'s [Most Beautiful People](50)(50 Most Beautiful People) list. The publication, which has called her "model-gorgeous", praised the Hill for her idiosyncratic sense of personal style. In June 1999, she received an [Award](Essence)(Essence Award), but her acceptance speech, where she said there was no contradiction in religious love and servitude and "[being] who you are, as fly and as hot and as whatever", drew reaction from those in the public who thought she was not a good role model as a young, unwed mother of two. This was a repetition of criticism she had received after the birth of her first child, and she had said that she and Marley would soon be married. In early 2000, Hill was one of the producers to share the Grammy Award for Album of the Year awarded for [Santana](Santana (band))'s 1999 multi-million-selling *[Supernatural](Supernatural (Santana album))*, whereon she had written, produced, and rapped on the track "Do You Like the Way" (a rumination on the direction the world was headed, it also featured the singing of [Green](CeeLo)(CeeLo Green) and the signature guitar runs of [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana)). She was also nominated for Best R&B Song for "[That I Can Say](All)(All That I Can Say)", which she had written and produced for [J. Blige](Mary)(Mary J. Blige). Also, her concocted duet with Bob Marley on "[Your Lights Down Low](Turn)(Turn Your Lights Down Low)" for the 1999 remix tribute album *[Down Babylon](Chant)(Chant Down Babylon)* additionally appeared in the 1999 film *[Best Man](The)(The Best Man (1999 film))* and later received a Grammy nomination for [Pop Collaboration with Vocals](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals).
In November 1998, New Ark filed a fifty-page lawsuit against Hill, her management, and record label, claiming that Hill "used their songs and production skills, but failed to properly credit them for the work" on *Miseducation*. The musicians claimed to be the primary songwriters on two tracks, and major contributors on several others, though Gordon Williams, a prominent recorder, engineer, and mixer on *Miseducation*, described the album as a "powerfully personal effort by Hill" and said, "It was definitely her vision." Hill responded that New Ark had been appropriately credited and now were seeking to take advantage of her success. New Ark requested partial writing credits on most of the tracks on the album as well as monetary reimbursement. After many delays, depositions took place during the latter part of 2000. In part, the case illustrated the difficult boundaries between songwriting and all other aspects that went into contemporary arranging, sampling, and recording. The suit was eventually settled out of court in February 2001, with Hill paying New Ark a reported $5 million. A friend of Hill's later said of the suit, "That was the beginning of a chain effect that would turn everything a little crazy."
### 2000–2003: Self-imposed exile and *MTV Unplugged No. 2.0*
Hill began writing a screenplay about the life of [Marley](Bob)(Bob Marley), in the production of which she planned to play his wife [Rita](Rita Marley). She also began producing a [comedy](romantic)(romantic comedy) about [food](soul)(soul food) with a working title of *Sauce*, and accepted a starring role in the [adaptation](film)(Beloved (1998 film)) of [Morrison](Toni)(Toni Morrison)'s novel *[Beloved](Beloved (novel))*; she later dropped out of both projects due to pregnancy. She also reportedly turned down acting roles in the remake for [Star Is Born*](*A)(A Star Is Born (2018 film)) (the movie was later released in 2018, with the part going to [Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga)), [*Dreamgirls*](Dreamgirls (film)) (the role of Deena, later played by [Beyoncé](Beyoncé)), ''[Angels](Charlie's)(Charlie's Angels (2000 film))* (the part that went to [Liu](Lucy)(Lucy Liu)), *[Bourne Identity](The)(The Bourne Identity (2002 film))*, *[Mexican](The)(The Mexican)*, *[Matrix Reloaded](The)(The Matrix Reloaded)*, and *[Matrix Revolutions](The)(The Matrix Revolutions)''.
During 2000, Hill dropped out of the public eye. The pressures of fame began to overwhelm her. She disliked not being able to go out of her house to do simple errands without having to worry about her physical appearance. She fired her management team and began attending [study classes](Bible)(Bible study (Christian)) five days a week; she also stopped doing interviews, watching television and listening to music. She started associating with a "spiritual advisor" named Brother Anthony. Some familiar with Hill believe Anthony more resembled a [cult](cult) leader than a spiritual advisor, and thought his guidance probably inspired much of Hill's more controversial public behavior.
She later described this period of her life to *[Essence](Essence (magazine))* saying "People need to understand that the Lauryn Hill they were exposed to in the beginning was all that was allowed in that arena at that time ... I had to step away when I realized that for the sake of the machine, I was being way too compromised. I felt uncomfortable about having to smile in someone's face when I really didn't like them or even know them well enough to like them." She also spoke about her emotional crisis, saying, "For two or three years I was away from all social interaction. It was a very introspective time because I had to confront my fears and master every demonic thought about inferiority, about insecurity or the fear of being black, young and gifted in this western culture." She went on to say that she had to fight to retain her identity, and was forced "to deal with folks who weren't happy about that."
In July 2001, while pregnant with her third child, Hill unveiled her new material to a small crowd, for a taping of an *[Unplugged](MTV)(MTV Unplugged)* special. A live album of the concert, titled *[Unplugged No. 2.0](MTV)(MTV Unplugged No. 2.0)*, was released in May 2002 and featured only her singing and playing an acoustic guitar. Unlike the near-unanimous praise of *Miseducation*, *2.0* sharply divided critics. [AllMusic](AllMusic) gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, saying that the recording "is the unfinished, unflinching presentation of ideas and of a person. It may not be a proper follow-up to her first album, but it is fascinating." *Rolling Stone* called the album "a public breakdown", and [Hilburn](Robert)(Robert Hilburn) of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* said the album's title opened Hill up for jokes that she had become unhinged. *[NME](NME)* wrote that "*Unplugged 2.0* is a sparse and often gruelling listen, but there is enough genius shading these rough sketches to suggest that all might not yet be lost." With the mixed reviews and no significant radio airplay, *2.0* debuted at No. 3 on the *Billboard* 200. The album was later certified [Platinum](Music recording certification) in the US by the [RIAA](RIAA); and has received retrospective praise by music critics.
Her song "Mystery of Iniquity" from the album was nominated for a [Award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance), and was used as an [interpolation](Interpolation (popular music)) by hip-hop producer/songwriter [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) for his single "[Falls Down](All)(All Falls Down)" featuring [Johnson](Syleena)(Syleena Johnson), leading to Hill being credited as a songwriter on the song.
Around 2001, Marley and Hill's third child, Joshua Omaru, was born. He was followed a year later by their fourth, John Nesta. While Hill sometimes had spoken of Marley as her husband, they never married, and along the way she was informed that Marley had been previously married at a young age. According to a 2003 *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* report, he had never secured a divorce. Marley later disputed this and made public to a blog a 1996 divorce document from [Haiti](Haiti). The two had been living in a high-end Miami hotel, but around 2003 she moved out into her own place in that city. Hill later said that she and Marley "have had long periods of separation over the years". Hill slowly worked on a new album and it was reported that by 2003, [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) had spent more than $2.5 million funding it, including installing a recording studio in the singer's Miami apartment and flying different musicians around the country.
By 2002, Hill had shut down her non-profit Refugee Project. She said, "I had a nonprofit organization and I had to shut all that down. You know, smiling with big checks, obligatory things, not having things come from a place of passion. That's slavery. Everything we do should be a result of our gratitude for what God has done for us. It should be passionate."
In December 2003, Hill, during a performance in [City](Vatican)(Vatican City), spoke of the "corruption, exploitation, and abuses" in reference to the [of boys by Catholic priests](molestation)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases) in the United States and the cover-up of offenses by Catholic Church officials. High-ranking church officials were in attendance, but [John Paul II](Pope)(Pope John Paul II) was not present. The [League](Catholic)(Catholic League (U.S.)) called Hill "pathologically miserable" and claimed her career was "in decline". The following day, several reporters suggested that Hill's comments at the Vatican may have been influenced by her spiritual advisor, Brother Anthony.
### 2004–2009: Sporadic touring and recording
[[performing in 2005](File:LaurynHill.jpg|thumb|Hill)]
In 2004, Hill contributed a new song, "The Passion", to *[Passion of the Christ: Songs](The)(The Passion of the Christ: Songs)*. A remix version with [Legend](John)(John Legend) of his "[High](So)(So High (John Legend song))" ended up receiving a Grammy Award nomination for [R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals). Around this time, Hill began selling a [pay-per-view](pay-per-view) music video of the song "Social Drugs" through her website. Those who purchase the $15 video would only be able to view it three times before it expired. In addition to the video, Hill began selling autographed posters and [Polaroids](Instant film) through her website, with some items listed at upwards of $500.
For the first time since 1997, the Fugees performed in September 2004 at ''[Chappelle's Block Party](Dave)(Dave Chappelle's Block Party)'' in the [Bedford–Stuyvesant](Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn) neighborhood of [Brooklyn](Brooklyn). The concert featured Hill's nearly [cappella](a)(a cappella) rendition of "Killing Me Softly". The event was recorded by director [Gondry](Michel)(Michel Gondry) and was released on March 3, 2006, to universal acclaim. The Fugees also appeared at [Awards 2005](BET)(BET Awards 2005) during June 2005, where they opened the show with a 12-minute set. One track, "Take It Easy", was leaked online and thereafter was released as an Internet single in late September. It peaked at No. 40 on the *Billboard* [Chart](R&B)(Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs).|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))|access-date=June 8, 2013}}
In 2005, she told *[Today](USA)(USA Today)*, "If I make music now, it will only be to provide information to my own children. If other people benefit from it, then so be it." When asked how she now felt about the songs on *2.0*, she stated "a lot of the songs were transitional. The music was about how I was feeling at the time, even though I was documenting my distress as well as my bursts of joy."
The Fugees embarked on a European tour in late 2005. Old tensions between Hill and the other members of the group soon resurfaced, and the reunion ended before an album could be recorded; Jean and Michel both blamed Hill for the split. Hill reportedly demanded to be addressed by everyone, including her bandmates, as "Ms. Hill"; she also considered changing her moniker to "Empress". Hill's tardiness was also cited as a contributing factor.
Hill began touring on her own, although to mixed reviews; often arriving late to concerts (sometimes by over two hours), performing unpopular reconfigurations of her songs and sporting an exaggerated appearance. On some occasions, fans have booed her and left early. In June 2007, [Records](Sony)(Sony Music) said Hill had been recording through the past decade, had accumulated considerable unreleased material and had re-entered the studio with the goal of making a new album. Later that same year, an album titled *Ms. Hill*, which featured cuts from *Miseducation*, various soundtracks contributions and other "unreleased" songs, was released. It features guest appearances from D'Angelo, [Digga](Rah)(Rah Digga) and [Forté](John)(John Forté). Also in June 2007, Hill released a new song, "[Myself](Lose)(Lose Myself)", on the soundtrack to the film ''[Up](Surf's)(Surf's Up (film))''.
In early 2008, Marley and Hill's fifth child, Sara, was born. The couple were not living together, although Marley considered them "spiritually together" even while listing himself as single on social media. Hill later said that she and Marley "have [had] a long and complex history about which many inaccuracies have been reported since the beginning" and that they both valued their privacy. By August 2008, Hill was living with her mother and children in her hometown of South Orange, New Jersey.
Reports in mid-2008 claimed that Columbia Records then believed Hill to be on hiatus. Marley disputed these claims, telling an interviewer that Hill has enough material for several albums: "She writes music in the bathroom, on toilet paper, on the wall. She writes it in the mirror if the mirror smokes up. She writes constantly. This woman does not sleep". One of the few public appearances Hill made in 2008 was at a [Stewart](Martha)(Martha Stewart) book-signing in New Jersey, perplexing some in the press.
In April 2009, it was reported that Hill would engage in a 10-day tour of European summer festivals during mid-July of that year. She performed two shows for the tour and passed out on stage during the start of her second performance and left the stage. She refused to provide refunds for angry consumers. On June 10, Hill's management informed the promoters of the [Jazz Festival](Stockholm)(Stockholm Jazz Festival), which she was scheduled to headline, that she would not be performing due to unspecified "health reasons." Shortly afterward, the rest of the tour was canceled as well.
### 2010–present: Further activities and imprisonment
In January 2010, Hill returned to the live stage and performed in stops across New Zealand and Australia on the [Music Festival](Raggamuffin)(Raggamuffin Music Festival). Many of the songs that Hill had performed and recorded over the past six years were included on an April 2010 unofficial [album](compilation)(compilation album) titled *Khulami Phase*. The album also features a range of other material found on the *Ms. Hill* compilation. Hill appeared at the Harmony Festival in [Rosa, California](Santa)(Santa Rosa, California), in June 2010, her first live American performance in several years. An unreleased song called "[Repercussions](Repercussions (Lauryn Hill song))" was leaked via the Internet in late July 2010, debuting at No. 94 on [*Billboard*](Billboard (magazine))'s [R&B/Hip-Hop Songs](Hot)(Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs) (and peaked at No. 83 the following week), making it her first Billboard chart appearance as a lead artist since 1999.
[[Image:Lauryn Hill 2011.png|thumb|Hill and her backing musicians performing at the [Valley Music and Arts Festival](Coachella)(Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival), 2011]]
Hill joined the [the Bells](Rock)(Rock the Bells) hip-hop festival series in the U.S. during August 2010, and as part of that year's theme of rendering classic albums, she performed *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* in its entirety for the first time. She increased the tempo and urgency from the original recording, but at times had difficulty in communicating with her band. Hill continued touring, including a set at the 6th Annual Jazz in the Gardens, in [Gardens](Miami)(Miami Gardens), Florida in December. In Spring 2011, Hill performed at the [Valley Music Festival](Coachella)(Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival), [Orleans Jazz Fest](New)(New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival), and at the [of Las Vegas](Cosmopolitan)(Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas). In July 2011, Hill gave birth to her sixth child, Micah, her first not with Rohan Marley; the father remains publicly unknown.
In February 2012, Hill performed a new song titled "Fearless Vampire Killer", during a sold-out performance at the [Theater](Warner)(Warner Theatre (Washington, D.C.)) in Washington, D.C. In late 2012, Hill toured with rapper [Nas](Nas); her portion of the tour, titled Black Rage, is named after her song, released October 30. Hill has described the song as being "about the derivative effects of racial inequity and abuse" and "a juxtaposition to the statement 'life is good,' which she believes can only be so when these long standing issues are addressed and resolved."
In June 2012, Hill was charged with three counts of tax fraud or failing to file taxes (Title 26 USC § 7202 Willful failure to collect or pay over tax) not [evasion](tax)(tax evasion) on $1.8 million of income earned between 2005 and 2007. During this time she had toured as a musical artist, earned royalties from both her records and from films she had appeared in, and had owned and been in charge of multiple corporations. In a long post to her [Tumblr](Tumblr), Hill said that she had gone "underground" and had rejected pop culture's "climate of hostility, false entitlement, manipulation, racial prejudice, sexism, and ageism." She added, "When I was working consistently without being affected by the interferences mentioned above, I filed and paid my taxes. This only stopped when it was necessary to withdraw from society, in order to guarantee the safety and well-being of myself and my family."
In June 2012, Hill appeared in the [States District Court for the District of New Jersey](United)(United States District Court for the District of New Jersey) in Newark and pleaded guilty to the charges. Her attorney said she would make restitution for the back taxes she owed. By April 2013, Hill had paid back only $50,000 of the $554,000 she owed immediately. U.S. Magistrate Judge Madeline Cox Arleo criticized Hill, saying "This is not someone who stands before the court penniless. This is a criminal matter. Actions speak louder than words, and there has been no effort here to pay these taxes." Hill faced possible eviction from her rented home in South Orange as well as a civil lawsuit from the town for running a business out of a home without a zoning permit.
On May 4, 2013, Hill released her first official single in over a decade, "[Society (Compulsory Mix)](Neurotic)(Neurotic Society (Compulsory Mix))". She later published a message on her Tumblr describing how she was "required to release [it] immediately, by virtue of the impending legal deadline." The release received some criticism for lyrics that appeared to tie societal decay to certain [social movements](LGBT)(LGBT social movements). Hill responded that the song was not targeted at any particular group but was instead focused on anyone hiding behind neurotic behavior. Following a deal with [Music](Sony)(Sony Music), which involves Hill creating a new record label within the company, Hill was said to be scheduled to release her first album in fifteen years during 2013.
On May 6, 2013, Hill was sentenced by Judge Arleo to serve three months in prison for failing to file taxes/tax fraud and three months' [arrest](house)(house arrest) afterwards as part of a year of supervised probation. She had faced a possible sentence of as long as 36 months, and the sentence given took into account her lack of a prior criminal record and her six minor-aged children. By this point Hill had fully paid back $970,000 in back taxes and penalties she owed, which also took into account an additional $500,000 that Hill had in unreported income for 2008 and 2009. In the courtroom, Hill said that she had lived "very modestly" considering how much money she had made for others, and that "I am a child of former slaves who had a system imposed on them. I had an economic system imposed on me." Hill reported to the minimum-security [Correctional Institution, Danbury](Federal)(Federal Correctional Institution, Danbury) on July 8, 2013, to begin serving her sentence.
Hill was released from prison on October 4, 2013, a few days early for good behavior, and began her home confinement and probationary periods. She put out a single called "Consumerism" that she had finished, via verbal and e-mailed instructions, while incarcerated. Judge Arleo allowed her to postpone part of her confinement in order to tour in late 2013 under strict conditions.
During 2014, Hill was heard as the narrator of *[Violence](Concerning)(Concerning Violence)*, an award-winning Swedish documentary on the [liberation struggles of the 1960s and 1970s](African)(Decolonisation of Africa). She also continued to draw media attention for her erratic behavior, appearing late twice in the same day for sets at [Fest](Voodoo)(Voodoo Fest) in November 2014.
In May 2015, Hill canceled her scheduled concert outside [Aviv](Tel)(Tel Aviv) in Israel following a social media campaign from activists promoting the [Divestment and Sanctions](Boycott,)(Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions) campaign. She said she had wanted to also perform a show in [Ramallah](Ramallah) in the [Bank](West)(West Bank) but logistical problems had proved too great. Hill stated: "It is very important to me that my presence or message not be misconstrued, or a source of alienation to either my Israeli or my Palestinian fans."
Hill contributed her voice to the soundtrack for *[Happened, Miss Simone?](What)(What Happened, Miss Simone?)*, a 2015 documentary about the life of [Simone](Nina)(Nina Simone), an American singer, pianist, and civil rights activist. Hill was originally supposed to record only two songs for the record, but ended up recording six. She also served as a producer on the compilation alongside [Glasper](Robert)(Robert Glasper). Hill said of her connection to Simone: "Because I fed on this music ... I believed I always had a right to have a voice. Her example is clearly a form of sustenance to a generation needing to find theirs. What a gift." [NPR](NPR) critically praised Hill's performance on the soundtrack, stating: "This album mainly showcases Lauryn Hill's breadth and dexterity. Not formally marketed as Hill's comeback album, her six tracks here make this her most comprehensive set of studio recordings since *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* in 1998."
In April 2016, Hill hosted and headlined what was billed as the inaugural *Diaspora Calling!* festival at the [Theatre](Kings)(Kings Theatre (Brooklyn)) in Brooklyn. The festival's purpose was to showcase the efforts of musicians and artists from around the [diaspora](African)(African diaspora) like Brooklyn Haitian Rara band Brother High Full tempo. The following month, Hill was approximately 2 hours and 20 minutes late for her show at the [Park](Chastain)(Chastain Park) Amphitheatre in Atlanta, though members of Hill's team claimed it was only an hour after their scheduled start time. Moments after the less-than-40-minute show ended due to the venue's strict 11:00 p.m. closing time, Hill said her driver had gotten lost and she could not help that. Less than 48 hours later, after a large backlash from her fans on Twitter, she took to her [Facebook](Facebook) page and stated she was late for the concert because of certain needs, including her need to "align her energy with the time."
[[Hill Kongsberg Jazzfestival 2019 (221423).jpg|thumb|right|Hill performing at the Kongsberg Jazzfestival 2019](File:Lauryn)]
Hill recorded a studio version of her song, "Guarding the Gates", for the movie *[& Slim](Queen)(Queen & Slim)* which was released on November 27, 2019. She had been singing this song during live performances for several years prior to the recording for the movie. This song appears on the album, *[& Slim: The Soundtrack](Queen)(Queen & Slim (soundtrack))*.
## Legacy and impact
[[Lauryn Hill @ The Mayan 10 18 2019 (49311868692).jpg|thumb|Hill performing in 2019](File:Ms.)]
Hill is widely considered* * * to be one of the greatest rappers of all time,* * NME|url=https://www.nme.com/photos/greatest-rappers-ever-voted-for-by-you-1430325|date=August 8, 2013|website=NME|language=en-GB|access-date=May 26, 2020|archive-date=June 6, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606000705/https://www.nme.com/photos/greatest-rappers-ever-voted-for-by-you-1430325|url-status=live}} * * * and has often been called the greatest female rapper. * * Hip-Hop Wired |access-date=May 26, 2020|archive-date=April 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422021953/https://hiphopwired.com/453614/wired-25-the-best-female-rappers-of-all-time-as-of-march-2015-photos/|url-status=live}} * *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* once referred to Hill as "the most popular woman in hip-hop". Rapper [Moe Dee](Kool)(Kool Moe Dee) gave Hill the highest score of any rapper on his rap 'Report Cards' list from the book, ''Ego Trip's Book of Rap Lists.* HipHopDX |url=https://hiphopdx.com/news/id.1820/title.kool-moe-dee-writes-book |access-date=2022-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505060459/https://hiphopdx.com/news/id.1820/title.kool-moe-dee-writes-book |archive-date=May 5, 2022 }} Furthermore, [Beyoncé](Beyoncé) once stated that she is "one of the best hip-hop rappers ever". In 1998, [*Time*](Time (magazine)) declared her as the "[of Hip Hop](Queen)(Honorific nicknames in popular music#H)"; while [of Achievement](Academy)(Academy of Achievement), *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)*, and [*Billboard''](Billboard (magazine)), among others, * * have also crowned her with the same title. In 2015, *Billboard* ranked Hill as the seventh greatest rapper of all time on their "10 Best Rappers of All Time" list, with her being the only woman on the list. Greatest of All Time |url=http://www.billboard.com/photos/6723017/the-10-best-rappers-of-all-time |url-status=dead |magazine=Billboard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609154924/https://www.billboard.com/photos/6723017/the-10-best-rappers-of-all-time |archive-date=June 9, 2020 |access-date=May 26, 2020}}
Music critic Brandon Tensley argued that "few artists have marked culture as profoundly as Hill did with her solo debut". Time |url=https://time.com/5377938/miseducation-lauryn-hill-anniversary/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108080459/https://time.com/5377938/miseducation-lauryn-hill-anniversary/ |archive-date=January 8, 2019 }} In 2012, *[VH1](VH1)* ranked Hill as one of the Greatest Woman in Music. In 2014, she was named the most influential woman in hip hop history by *[AllHipHop](AllHipHop)*. Hill was also included on the *[NPR](NPR)* list of the '50 Great Voices'; and on the *[of Sound](Consequence)(Consequence of Sound)* list of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. In 2019, Hill ranked No. 1 on the *[Ranker](Ranker)* poll of the greatest singer/rappers. In 2023, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked Hill at number 136 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. American Journalist [Touré](Touré (journalist)) stated that "She was—she is—the greatest female MC of all time".
### Musical impact
With her solo music and work with Fugees, Hill is often credited as the artist who popularized the technique of blending rap and melodic singing together into one single song, sometimes referred to as [rap](melodic)(melodic rap); this has since become popular, with many modern artists like Beyoncé, [Drake](Drake (musician)), [Minaj](Nicki)(Nicki Minaj) and [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) emulating it.* * Writing for [Ringer*](*The)(The Ringer (website)), author [Okwonga](Musa)(Musa Okwonga) wrote "Decades before the ubiquity of the MC who could also croon, she could channel the greatness of [Simone](Nina)(Nina Simone) and [Rakim](Rakim) in the same set." In [Complex](Complex Networks), Andy Gee commented that "the modern music landscape is dominated by artists like Drake and Nicki Minaj, who fall in the Lauryn Hill archetype as traditionalist-appeasing MCs who have records where they’re singing their hearts out." [*XXL*](XXL (magazine)) argued that "she set the bar high, not just for woman creators, but for anyone who wanted to rap or sing."
Former RIAA president [Rosen](Hilary)(Hilary Rosen), recognized Hill as a leading contributor to the blurring of lines that distinguished hip hop and R&B. Minaj alluded to Hill's impact on melodic rap on the song "[Anybody Hear Me](Can)(Beam Me Up Scotty (mixtape))", where she mentions that prior to fame, [Jam Recordings](Def)(Def Jam Recordings) wouldn't sign her because she wanted to integrate rapping and singing on her album, but the record label told her she "wasn't Lauryn Hill". [Lizzo](Lizzo) who started her career as a rapper, later incorporated singing into her debut record. She stated in an interview in 2018, "I was always afraid of being a singer, but then when I heard Lauryn Hill, I was like, maybe I can do both", further adding that her [album](debut)(Lizzobangers) drew influence from *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill*, "rapping, singing, being political". According to [Brat](Da)(Da Brat), Hill's "sound shifted the whole game".
In 1999, *Billboard* considered Hill's success to be a breakthrough for female rappers, which resulted in a brief increase of female rappers in the music industry at the time, that the publication dubbed 'The Lauryn Hill Effect'. Author [George](Nelson)(Nelson George) noted, "the presence of women is increasing"; while [Elliott](Missy)(Missy Elliott) also added that "[Latifah](Queen Latifah) opened the door for doing TV, and she might have opened it for [Brandy](Brandy Norwood). Now, it's open for everybody. This is just the beginning". That same year, a public survey was conducted by [MTV](MTV), which directly impacted its programming. In the survey, she was ranked the most respected solo artist, and placed among the acts that participants thought best defined their generation; with former [Viacom](Viacom (1952–2006)) executive Todd Cunningham referring to Hill as a "massive phenomenon". Music journalist [Smith](Danyel)(Danyel Smith) credited Hill with reviving the hip hop genre, following the murders of [Notorious B.I.G.](The)(The Notorious B.I.G.) and [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur).
### Influence on other artists
Hill has often been cited as one of the most influential entertainers of her generation.* CBC Music |language=en-US |publisher=CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.5074083 |access-date=February 25, 2021}} * * * * * In 2021, *[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))* named her as one of the 200 most influential artists since 1996. Many artists have named Lauryn Hill as an inspiration to their careers, including pop artists [Adele](Adele), [Beyoncé](Beyoncé), [Lipa](Dua)(Dua Lipa), [Aguilera](Christina)(Christina Aguilera), [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears), [& Sons](Mumford)(Mumford & Sons), [SZA](SZA), [Cat](Doja)(Doja Cat), [H.E.R.](H.E.R.), [P!nk](Pink (singer)), [Clarkson](Kelly)(Kelly Clarkson); [Babyface](Babyface (musician)), rappers [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), [Elliott](Missy)(Missy Elliott), [Minaj](Nicki)(Nicki Minaj), [Nas](Nas), [Kim](Lil')(Lil' Kim), [Faiyaz](Brent)(Brent Faiyaz), [Rapsody](Rapsody); [Afrobeats](Afrobeats) singers [Tems](Tems (singer)), and [Wizkid](Wizkid); and [K-pop](K-pop) artists [Jennie](Kim Jennie) of [Blackpink](Blackpink), [CL](CL (rapper)) of [2NE1](2NE1), and [RM](RM (rapper)) of [BTS](BTS).
Nicki Minaj has made mention of Hill's influence on her on multiple occasions; Including on 2020 US number one single "[So Remix](Say)(Say So Remix)", In which Minaj raps, "Spittin' like Weezy, Foxy, plus Lauryn". Minaj has also referred to Hill as her idol and quoted the artist in her high school yearbook. [Legend](John)(John Legend) attributes his early career success and his launch into the music industry to Hill, who gave him his first major opportunity as a pianist on the song "[Is Everything](Everything)(Everything Is Everything (Lauryn Hill song))". [Rapsody](Rapsody) and [Rexha](Bebe)(Bebe Rexha) have both cited Hill as their biggest musical inspiration, as well as UK [grime](Grime (music genre)) rapper [Stormzy](Stormzy) naming her his biggest female musical influence. RWD|url=http://rwdmag.com/exclusive-interview-stormzy-it-used-to-grind-my-gears-but-now-i-actually-love-rap/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205170211/http://rwdmag.com/exclusive-interview-stormzy-it-used-to-grind-my-gears-but-now-i-actually-love-rap/|archive-date=December 5, 2014|access-date=2021-11-17}}
Furthermore musicians [Badu](Erykah)(Erykah Badu) and [Sullivan](Jazmine)(Jazmine Sullivan) have both mentioned her as their musical hero. In addition [Kehlani](Kehlani) has a tattoo of Hill on her arm. After performing with Hill, [Weeknd](The)(The Weeknd) described the experience as the "most important experience of my life". During her 2018 Grammy award acceptance speech, Spanish singer [Rosalía](Rosalía (singer)) thanked her for being influential to her.
### Music sampling
*[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* stated that Hill "is to hip-hop as a [is to soil](gardener)(Gardening)", and added that "the rapper/singer planted classic gems in her catalog — especially her pristine 1998 debut *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* — that have become samples for many rap game MVPs".
Her single "Doo Wop (That Thing)", was sampled by [Drake](Drake (musician)) (on the song "[Day](Draft)(Draft Day (Drake song))"), Kanye West (on "[What I Say](Believe)(Believe What I Say)"), and [interpolated](Interpolation (popular music)) by Lizzo (on the song "[up Twice](Break)(Break Up Twice)" from her album [*Special*](Special (Lizzo album))). In 2018, Hill became one of the most sampled artists of the year, when her single "[Ex-Factor](Ex-Factor)" was sampled on [B](Cardi)(Cardi B)'s "[Careful](Be)(Be Careful (Cardi B song))" and Drake's "[for What](Nice)(Nice for What)", while [Rocky](A$AP)(A$AP Rocky) and [Ocean](Frank)(Frank Ocean) released "[Purity](Purity (ASAP Rocky song))" which sampled "[Gotta Find Peace of Mind](I)(MTV Unplugged No. 2.0)". Billboard|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8458658/lauryn-hill-samples-list-drake-cardi-b-asap-rocky|access-date=March 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528061953/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8458658/lauryn-hill-samples-list-drake-cardi-b-asap-rocky|archive-date=May 28, 2019}} [Cole](J.)(J. Cole)'s songs "Cole Summer" and "Can I Holla At Ya" from his EP [Yours*](*Truly)(Truly Yours (EP)), both contain samples of songs from *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill.* Pitchfork|website=[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))|url=https://pitchfork.com/thepitch/6-rap-songs-that-sample-lauryn-hill-masterfully/|access-date=March 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330064719/https://pitchfork.com/thepitch/6-rap-songs-that-sample-lauryn-hill-masterfully/|archive-date=March 30, 2020}}
#### Additional sampling
Hill's vocals from the her work with the Fugees has been sampled or interpolated by countless artists, including [Khaled](Dj)(DJ Khaled) & [Nas](Nas), [Rhymes](Busta)(Busta Rhymes), [Weeknd](The)(The Weeknd) & [Lamar](Kendrick)(Kendrick Lamar), [Mill](Meek)(Meek Mill), [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), and [Carey](Mariah)(Mariah Carey) (on the single "[the Day](Save)(Save the Day (Mariah Carey song))", from her [album](compilation)(compilation album) *[Rarities](The)(The Rarities (Mariah Carey album))*). Furthermore, multiple artists have sampled Hill's songs from her live album *[Unplugged No. 2.0](MTV)(MTV Unplugged No. 2.0)* including Frank Ocean (on the [Sullivan](Jazmine)(Jazmine Sullivan)-featured "Rushes" from his 2016 album [*Endless*](Endless (Frank Ocean album))), [Man](Method)(Method Man) ("[Say](Say (Method Man song))"). and most notably Kanye West ("[Falls Down](All)(All Falls Down)" featuring [Johnson](Syleena)(Syleena Johnson)).
### Film and stage
The Broadway musical [*Hamilton*](Hamilton (musical)) was heavily influenced by Hill, with creator [Miranda](Lin-Manuel)(Lin-Manuel Miranda) naming Hill as his favorite rapper, and referencing Hill's single "[Ones](Lost)(Lost Ones (Lauryn Hill song))" on the song "[Know](We)(We Know)", and Hill's verse from the Fugees single "[or Not](Ready)(Ready or Not (Fugees song))", on the song "[Helpless](Helpless (Hamilton song))" from the musical. *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)* episode "[Miseducation of Lisa Simpson](The)(The Miseducation of Lisa Simpson)" was titled after Hill's debut solo album. The [BET](BET) network series *[Tales](Tales (TV series))*, episode "Ex-Factor", was based on and titled after Hill's single of the same name. Film director [Prince-Bythewood](Gina)(Gina Prince-Bythewood) stated that she was also inspired by "Ex-Factor" and Hill, when she was shooting the movie *[& Basketball](Love)(Love & Basketball)* (2000). Actress [Demie](Alexa)(Alexa Demie) mentioned that she drew inspiration from Hill's song "To Zion" for her role in the [HBO](HBO) drama series *[Euphoria](Euphoria (American TV series))*.
## Fashion and endorsements
### Endorsements
In 1999, Hill partnered with [Strauss & Co.](Levi)(Levi Strauss & Co.) to create custom outfits for her *Miseducation Tour*. The partnership ushered in a new generation of black musicians partnerships with major brands, with journalist Thembisa Mshaka of *[Okayplayer](Okayplayer)* proclaiming "when Levi Strauss put its name next to Lauryn Hill, a new course was charted. The Fortune 500 brand partnerships with black musicians that are ubiquitous today were seeded by the success of Lauryn's solo debut". A custom ensemble made for Hill by Levi's was put on display during the *Levi Strauss: A History of American Style* exhibit at the [Jewish Museum](Contemporary)(Contemporary Jewish Museum). Hill also partnered with [Armani](Armani) during the late 1990s, the brand designed multiple custom looks for Hill and helped sponsored her *Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* world Tour. A design created by Armani for the tour was on put display for the 1999 "Rock Style" themed [Gala](Met)(Met Gala).
### Influence on hair and beauty
Well known for styling her hair in [locs](dreadlocks), [braid](braid)s, [knot](bantu)(bantu knot)s and [afro](afro)s, Hill is often associated with the revival of the [hair movement](natural)(natural hair movement). Fashionista |url=https://fashionista.com/.amp/2017/08/female-rappers-fashion-beauty-influencers |access-date=2022-07-09 |website=fashionista.com}} * She has been credited as one of the people who’ve helped normalize locs, and introduced them to pop culture. * Rhythm Wigs |url=https://rhythmwigs.com/rhythm-wigs-provides-options-for-women-with-locs/,%20https://rhythmwigs.com/rhythm-wigs-provides-options-for-women-with-locs/ |access-date=2022-07-13}} * * * Author [Morgan](Joan)(Joan Morgan (American author)) noted that "for a young person who was growing up in the '90s and liked that natural look but didn't want to identify as [Rasta](Rastafari), there was really no example until Lauryn Hill." Hill is also frequently listed among the people who've defined modern bantu knots * * and afros. * * * [*Ebony*](Ebony (magazine)) noted that she "helped to usher in a new standard of beauty for Black women -one grounded in the richness and authenticity of their African heritage."
[PopSugar](PopSugar) placed her on their list of the '18 Moments in Hair History That Changed the World', and wrote "When searching for the originator in the recent natural hair revival, you must look to Lauryn Hill. She emerged as the feminine lead in The Fugees and broke Grammy records as a soloist, all while popularizing dreadlocks in the mainstream." [*Stylist*](Stylist (magazine)) mentioned Hill gracing the cover of *[Time](Time (magazine))* in locs, and being named on of [*People*](People (magazine))'s [Most Beautiful People](50)(50 Most Beautiful People) in 1999, as one of the most definitive moments in the history of black hair.
In an interview with *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))*, R&B singer [SZA](SZA), stated "The only girl that I could look to for natural hair inspiration growing up was Lauryn Hill." According to celebrity hairstylist Yusef Williams, who styled [Rihanna](Rihanna)'s hair on the set of ''[8](Ocean's)(Ocean's 8)'', the singer "channeled her inner Lauryn Hill" while wearing locs for her role in the movie. [Bailey](Halle)(Halle Bailey) named Hill as one of her beauty icons, while mentioning "I love Lauryn Hill's hair".
### Impact on fashion
In 2015, *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))* mentioned her as one of the female hip hop entertainers of [1990s](1990s in music), whose style they considered to be influential to [fashion](2010s)(2010s fashion), with Emily Barasch of *Vogue*, writing "Lauryn Hill's sense of style endures today, as nineties nostalgia continues to pervade the runways." She was hailed as a "fashion and music icon" by *[Fashion Book](CR)(CR Fashion Book)* and was also included on the list of the most stylish rappers of all time by [Complex](Complex Networks).
She is often named as a leading contributor in the modern popularization of the [earring](hoop)(hoop earring), * * * * * which first grew in popularity among black women in the [1970s](1970s in fashion), before reaching a wider audience after female hip hop artists like Hill wore them in the [1980s](1980s in fashion) and 1990s. * * Considered as an inspiration for [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s fashion; R&B singer [Solange](Solange (singer)) also cited Hill among her style influences in an interview for *[Fashionista](Fashionista (website)).*
### Influence on fashion designers
British fashion designer [Galliano](John)(John Galliano) chose Hill as his muse for the 2000 Spring/Summer [Dior](Dior) collection, he designed; The Hill-inspired collection featured models wearing dreadlocks and hoop earrings, and introduced the Dior [Bag']('Saddle)(It bag), which was made famous by the character [Bradshaw](Carrie)(Carrie Bradshaw) in the television series *[and the City](Sex)(Sex and the City)*; and according to *Who What Wear*, it is one of the ten most popular designer handbags ever. In 2017, the hip hop-based collection designed by [Wang](Alexander)(Alexander Wang (designer)), as well as [Burch](Tory)(Tory Burch)'s resort collection, were both inspired by Hill.
The Men's Spring/Summer 2021 [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton) collection designed by [Abloh](Virgil)(Virgil Abloh), drew influence from Hill, with Abloh mentioning Hill as his "forever muse". Pitchfork|url=https://pitchfork.com/news/watch-lauryn-hill-perform-in-new-video-for-louis-vuitton/amp/|access-date=January 6, 2021|website=pitchfork.com}} Hill later performed at Abloh's memorial service after he died from a rare form of cancer in December 2021. She was also named among [Roseberry](Daniel)(Daniel Roseberry)'s influences for the Spring/Summer 2022 [Schiaparelli](Schiaparelli (fashion house)) collection. Designers [Cortazar](Esteban)(Esteban Cortázar), [Jean-Raymond](Kerby)(Kerby Jean-Raymond) of [Moss](Pyer)(Pyer Moss), and [Leon](Humberto)(Humberto Leon) of [Kenzo](Kenzo (brand)), and [Gvasalia](Demna)(Demna Gvasalia) of [Balenciaga](Balenciaga), have also noted her as an inspiration.
## Achievements
Hill has won numerous accolades throughout her career, including eight [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s (including [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year)), the most won by a female rapper, six [Video Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards) (including [of the Year](Video)(MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year)), four [Image Awards](NAACP)(NAACP Image Awards) (including the [Award](President's)(NAACP Image Award – President's Award)), four [World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records), and three [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards). In 2021, she was among the inaugural nominees for the [Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame](Black)(Black Music and Entertainment Walk of Fame), and was inducted in 2022.
Hill won the [Award for Best Rap Album](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Rap Album) as a member of The Fugees, for their album *The Score*, becoming the first woman to win the award. *The Score* peaked at No. 1 on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart, making Hill the first female rapper to top the chart as a member of The Fugees; her first solo studio album, *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill*, also peaked at No. 1, making Hill the first solo female hip hop act to reach No. 1 on that chart. The album sold more than 422,000 copies in its first week, which had broke the record previously held by [Madonna](Madonna), for highest first-week sales by a female artist. Both *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* and its lead single "Doo Wop (That Thing)" debuted at No. 1 in the US, making Hill the first act to have debuted at No. 1 on both the *Billboard* 200 and [100](Hot)(Hot 100) with their first entries on each chart. The album also topped the [Year-End](*Billboard*)(Billboard Year-End) [R&B/Hip-Hop Albums](Top)(Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums) chart, making it the only album by a female artist to accomplish this feat.
At the [Annual Grammy Awards](41st)(41st Annual Grammy Awards), Hill received ten Grammy Award nominations and won five that night, including Album of the Year, with *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* being the first Hip hop album to win the award. She also set the record for most nominations for a female artist in one night, broke the record at the time previously set by [King](Carole)(Carole King) for the most wins by a female artist in one night, and became the first female rapper to win the [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist) award. Pitchfork|url=https://pitchfork.com/thepitch/grammys-2021-predictions-who-will-win-and-who-should-win/amp/|access-date=March 13, 2021|website=pitchfork.com}} Furthermore, she also became the first black solo act to win MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year at the [MTV Video Music Awards](1999)(1999 MTV Video Music Awards).
In 1999, following the success of her first solo album, Hill landed on the cover of *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine, being the only black musician to land on the cover during that decade. With *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill*, she became a pioneer in the neo soul movement, when the album was one of the first in the genre to achieve mainstream success, and became the best-selling neo soul album of all time. The album has also been inducted into the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress). *[NPR](NPR)* ranked it 2nd on its list of "The 150 Greatest Albums Made by Women". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* listed it as the 10th-Greatest Album of All Time, on their [Greatest Albums of All Time](500)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time) list, in 2020.
In 2021, *The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill* was certified [Diamond](Diamond Certified) by the [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America)(RIAA), making Hill the first female hip hop artist to ever receive a Diamond certification in the United States. That same year, *Rolling Stone* placed her single "Doo Wop (That Thing)" and the Fugees version of "Killing Me Softly" on their revised list of the [Greatest Songs](500)(500 Greatest Songs). The [National Museum of African American History and Culture](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture) included "Doo Wop (That Thing)" on their *Anthology of Hip-Hop and Rap* box set.
Along with having a successful music career as a member of The Fugees and as a solo artist, Hill also achieved success as a songwriter and producer for other artists. Hill has written songs for [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin), [J. Blige](Mary)(Mary J. Blige), [Winans](CeCe)(CeCe Winans) and produced songs for [Houston](Whitney)(Whitney Houston) and [Santana](Santana (band)), among others. In 2015, she received the Golden Note Award from [Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers](American)(American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers)(ASCAP); while additionally winning songwriting awards for her songwriting credits on [Drake](Drake (musician))'s "[for What](Nice)(Nice for What)", [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin)'s "[Rose Is Still a Rose](A)(A Rose Is Still a Rose (song))", [B](Cardi)(Cardi B)'s "[Careful](Be)(Be Careful (Cardi B song))", [J. Blige](Mary)(Mary J. Blige)'s "[That I Can Say](All)(All That I Can Say)", and [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s "[Falls Down](All)(All Falls Down)".
## Discography
* *[Miseducation of Lauryn Hill](The)(The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill)* (1998)
## Filmography
## Tours
* Smokin' Grooves Tour (with [Fugees](Fugees), [Hill](Cypress)(Cypress Hill), [Marley](Ziggy)(Ziggy Marley), [Tribe Called Quest](A)(A Tribe Called Quest), [Rhymes](Busta)(Busta Rhymes) and [Spearhead](Michael Franti)) (1996)
* Refugee Camp Tour (with Fugees) (1997)
* The Miseducation Tour (1999)
* Smokin' Grooves Tour (with [Roots](The)(The Roots) and [Outkast](Outkast)) (2002)
* Reunion Tour (with Fugees) (2005)
* Moving Target: Extended Intimate Playdate Series Tour (2011)
* Life Is Good / Black Rage Tour (with [Nas](Nas)) (2012)
* Homecoming Tour (2013-2014)
* Small Axe Tour (2015)
* MLH Caravan: A Diaspora Calling! Tour (2016-2017)
* PowerNomics Tour (with Nas) (2017)
* The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill 20th Anniversary World Tour (2018-2019)
* Ms. Lauryn Hill Live in Concert (2020)
## See also
* [of artists who reached number one in the United States](List)(List of artists who reached number one in the United States)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
* [Lauryn Hill](http://www.mtv.com/artists/lauryn-hill) at [MTV](MTV)
* [Lauryn Hill](https://pitchfork.com/artists/1944-lauryn-hill) at Pitchfork
* [Lauryn Hill](https://www.npr.org/artists/114242154/lauryn-hill) at NPR
}}
[ ](Category:Lauryn Hill)
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[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
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[American rappers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American rappers)
[American singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American singers)
[American women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women singers)
[actresses](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American actresses)
[women rappers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American women rappers)
[women singers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American women singers)
[women rappers](Category:American)(Category:American women rappers)
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[contemporary R&B singers](Category:American)(Category:American contemporary R&B singers)
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[musicians](Category:Feminist)(Category:Feminist musicians)
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[from East Orange, New Jersey](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from East Orange, New Jersey)
[from East Orange, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from East Orange, New Jersey)
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[American female guitarists](Category:African)(Category:African American female guitarists)
[women rappers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century women rappers)
|
Orangutan
|
orangutan
|
# Orangutan
*Revision ID: 1159699236 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T00:36:05Z*
---
| image = Orang Utan, Semenggok Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.JPG
| image_caption = [orangutan](Bornean)(Bornean orangutan)(*Pongo pygmaeus*)
| taxon = Pongo
| authority = [Lacépède](Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède), 1799
| type_species = *[pygmaeus](Pongo)(Bornean orangutan)*
| type_species_authority = [Lacépède](Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède), 1799 (*Simia satyrus* [Linnaeus](Carl Linnaeus), 1760)
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = *[pygmaeus](Pongo)(Bornean orangutan)*
*[abelii](Pongo)(Sumatran orangutan)*
*[tapanuliensis](Pongo)(Tapanuli orangutan)*
*[hooijeri](Pongo)(Pongo hooijeri)*†
*[weidenreichi](Pongo)(Pongo weidenreichi)*†
| range_map = Orangutan distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Range of the three [species](extant)(Neontology)
| synonyms = *Faunus* Oken, 1816
*Lophotus* Fischer, 1813
*Macrobates* Billberg, 1828
*Satyrus* Lesson, 1840
}}
**Orangutans** are [apes](great)(Hominidae) native to the [rainforest](rainforest)s of [Indonesia](Indonesia) and [Malaysia](Malaysia). They are now found only in parts of [Borneo](Borneo) and [Sumatra](Sumatra), but during the [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) they ranged throughout [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia) and [China](South)(South China). Classified in the [genus](genus) ***Pongo***, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. From 1996, they were divided into two species: the [orangutan](Bornean)(Bornean orangutan) (*P. pygmaeus*, with three subspecies) and the [orangutan](Sumatran)(Sumatran orangutan) (*P. abelii*). A third species, the [orangutan](Tapanuli)(Tapanuli orangutan) (*P. tapanuliensis*), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving species of the [subfamily](subfamily) [Ponginae](Ponginae), which diverged genetically from the other hominids ([gorilla](gorilla)s, [chimpanzee](Pan (genus))s, and [human](human)s) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago.
The most [arboreal](Arboreal locomotion) of the great apes, orangutans spend most of their time in trees. They have proportionally long arms and short legs, and have reddish-brown hair covering their bodies. Adult males weigh about , while females reach about . [Dominant](Dominance hierarchy) adult males develop distinctive cheek pads or flanges and make long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals; younger subordinate males do not and more resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes: social bonds occur primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet; but they will also eat vegetation, [bark](Bark (botany)), [honey](honey), insects and bird eggs. They can live over 30 years, both in the wild and in captivity.
Orangutans are among the most intelligent [primate](primate)s. They [a variety of sophisticated tools](use)(Tool use by animals#Orangutans) and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes' learning abilities have been studied extensively. There may be distinctive cultures within populations. Orangutans have been featured in literature and art since at least the 18th century, particularly in works that comment on human society. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by [primatologist](Primatology) [Galdikas](Birutė)(Birutė Galdikas) and they have been kept in captive facilities around the world since at least the early 19th century.
All three orangutan species are considered [endangered](critically)(critically endangered). Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include [poaching](poaching) (for [bushmeat](bushmeat) and retaliation for consuming [crop](crop)s), [destruction](habitat)(habitat destruction) and [deforestation](deforestation) (for [oil](palm)(palm oil) cultivation and [logging](logging)), and the illegal [trade](pet)(Exotic pet). Several [conservation](Conservation movement) and [rehabilitation](Wildlife rehabilitation) organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
## Etymology
The name "orangutan" (also written orang-utan, orang utan, orangutang, and ourang-outang) is derived from the [Malay](Malay language) words *orang*, meaning "person", and *hutan*, meaning "forest". The locals originally used the name to refer to actual forest-dwelling human beings, but the word underwent a semantic extension to include apes of the *Pongo* genus at an early stage in the history of Malay.
The word *orangutan* appears in its older form *urangutan*, in a variety of premodern sources in the [Javanese](Old)(Kawi language) language. The earliest of these is the [Ramayana](Kakawin)(Kakawin Ramayana), a ninth-century or early tenth-century Javanese adaption of the Sanskrit [Ramayana](Ramayana). In these Old Javanese sources, the word *urangutan* refers only to apes and not to forest-dwelling human beings. The word was not originally Javanese, but was borrowed from an early [language](Malayic)(Malayic languages) at least a thousand years ago. Hence the ultimate origin of the term "orangutan" as denoting the *Pongo* ape was most likely [Malay](Old)(Old Malay).
[[File:Man-of-the-Woods.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Orangutan sketch by George Edwards|Sketch of "The Man of the Woods" by [Edwards](George)(George Edwards (naturalist)), 1758]]
In Western sources, the first printed attestation of the word for the apes is in Dutch physician [Bontius](Jacobus)(Jacobus Bontius)' 1631 *Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis*. He reported that Malays had informed him the ape could talk, but preferred not to "lest he be compelled to labour". The word appeared in several German-language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century. It has been argued that the word comes specifically from the [Banjarese](Banjar language) variety of Malay, but the age of the Old Javanese sources mentioned above make Old Malay a more likely origin for the term. Cribb and colleagues (2014) suggest that Bontius' account referred not to apes (as this description was from Java where the apes were not known from) but to humans suffering some serious medical condition (most likely [cretinism](cretinism)) and that his use of the word was misunderstood by [Tulp](Nicolaes)(Nicolaes Tulp), who was the first to use the term in a publication a decade later.
The word was first attested in English in 1693 by physician [Bulwer](John)(John Bulwer) in the form *Orang-Outang*, and variants ending with *-ng* are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present but has come to be regarded as [incorrect](Linguistic prescription). The loss of "h" in *utan* and the shift from -ng to -n has been taken to suggest the term entered English through [Portuguese](Portuguese language). In Malay, the term was first attested in 1840, not as an indigenous name but referring to how the English called the animal. The word 'orangutan' in Malay and Indonesian today was borrowed from English or Dutch in the 20th century—explaining why the initial 'h' of 'hutan' is also missing.
The name of the genus, *Pongo*, comes from a 16th-century account by [Battel](Andrew)(Andrew Battel), an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in [Angola](Angola), which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. He is now believed to have been describing [gorilla](gorilla)s, but in the 18th century, the terms orangutan and pongo were used for all [apes](great)(Hominidae). French naturalist [Germain de Lacépède](Bernard)(Bernard Germain de Lacépède) used the term *Pongo* for the genus in 1799. Battel's "Pongo", in turn, is from the [Kongo](Kongo language) word *mpongi* or other [cognates](cognates) from the region: [Lumbu](Lumbu language) *pungu*, [Vili](Vili (language)) *mpungu*, or [Yombi](Yombi) *yimpungu*.
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
The orangutan was first [scientifically](described)(Species description) in 1758 in the *[Naturae](Systema)(Systema Naturae)* of [Linnaeus](Carl)(Carl Linnaeus) as *Homo troglodytes*. It was renamed *Simia [pygmaeus](Bornean orangutan)* in 1760 by his student [Emmanuel Hopp](Christian)(Christian Emmanuel Hopp) and given the name *Pongo* by Lacépède in 1799. The populations on the two islands were suggested to be separate species when *[abelii](P.)(Sumatran orangutan)* was described by French naturalist [Lesson](René)(René Lesson) in 1827. In 2001, *P. abelii* was confirmed as a full species based on molecular evidence published in 1996, and three distinct populations on [Borneo](Borneo) were elevated to subspecies (*P. p. pygmaeus*, *P. p. morio* and *P. p. wurmbii*). The description in 2017 of a third species, *[tapanuliensis](P.)(Tapanuli orangutan)*, from Sumatra south of [Toba](Lake)(Lake Toba), came with a surprising twist: it is more closely related to the Bornean species, *P. pygmaeus* than to its fellow Sumatran species, *P. abelii*.
[[File:Bornean, Sumatran & Tapanuli orangs (horizontal).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|alt= Head shots of male Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutans|Flanged male [Bornean](Bornean orangutan), [Sumatran](Sumatran orangutan) and [Tapanuli](Tapanuli orangutan) orangutans]]
The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and [chimpanzee](chimpanzee)s, the Sumatran orangutan became the third species of [ape](great)(great ape) to have its genome sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species had its genome sequenced. Bornean orangutans (*P. pygmaeus*) have less [diversity](genetic)(genetic diversity) than in Sumatran ones (*P. abelii*), despite populations being six to seven times higher in Borneo. The researchers hope these data may help conservationists preserve the endangered ape, as well as learn more about human [diseases](genetic)(genetic diseases). Similarly to gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans have 48 [diploid](diploid) [chromosome](chromosome)s, in contrast to humans, [have 46](which)(Chromosome 2#Evolution).
According to [evidence](molecular)(Molecular clock), within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the [gibbon](gibbon)s diverged during the early [Miocene](Miocene) between 24.1 and 19.7 million years ago (mya), and the orangutans diverged from the African great ape lineage between 19.3 and 15.7 mya. Israfil and colleagues (2011) estimated based on [mitochondrial](Mitochondrial DNA), [Y-linked](Y chromosome), and [X-linked](X chromosome) [loci](Locus (genetics)) that the Sumatran and Bornean species diverged 4.9 to 2.9 mya. By contrast, the 2011 genome study suggested that these two species diverged as recently as circa 400,000 years ago. The study also found that orangutans evolved at a slower pace than both chimpanzees and humans. A 2017 genome study found that the Bornean and Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4 mya, and from each other around 2.4 mya. Millions of years ago, orangutans travelled from mainland Asia to Sumatra and then Borneo as the islands were connected by [bridge](land)(land bridge)s during the [glacial periods](recent)(Quaternary glaciation) when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia.
[[sivalensis.JPG|thumb|right|upright|alt=Partial fossil skull of ape|Fossil skull of *Sivapithecus sivalensis*, an extinct relative of orangutan](File:Sivapithecus)]
### Fossil record
The three orangutan species are the only extant members of the [subfamily](subfamily) [Ponginae](Ponginae). This subfamily also includes extinct [ape](ape)s such as *[Lufengpithecus](Lufengpithecus)*, which occurred 8–2 [mya](wikt:mya) in southern China and Thailand. *[Indopithecus](Indopithecus)*, which lived in India from 9.2 to 8.6 mya; and *[Sivapithecus](Sivapithecus)*, which lived in India and Pakistan from 12.5 mya until 8.5 mya. These animals likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. *[Khoratpithecus](Khoratpithecus) piriyai*, which lived 5–7 mya in Thailand, is believed to be the closest known relative of the living orangutans and inhabited similar environments. The largest known primate, *[Gigantopithecus](Gigantopithecus)*, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, from 2 mya to 300,000 years ago.
The oldest known record of *Pongo* is from the [Pleistocene](Early)(Early Pleistocene) of [Chongzuo](Chongzuo), consisting of teeth ascribed to extinct species *[weidenreichi](P.)(Pongo weidenreichi)*. *Pongo* is found as part of the faunal complex in the Pleistocene cave assemblage in Vietnam, alongside *Giganopithecus*, though it is known only from teeth. Some [fossils](fossils) described under the name *[P. hooijeri](Pongo hooijeri)* have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to *P. pygmaeus* or *P. abelii* or, in fact, represent distinct species. During the Pleistocene, *Pongo* had a far more extensive range than at present, extending throughout [Sundaland](Sundaland) and mainland Southeast Asia and South China. Teeth of orangutans are known from [Malaysia](Peninsular)(Peninsular Malaysia) that date to 60,000 years ago. The youngest remains from South China, which are teeth assigned to *P. weidenreichi,* date to between 66 and 57,000 years ago. The range of orangutans had contracted significantly by the end of the Pleistocene, most likely because of the reduction of forest habitat during the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum).Though they may have survived into the Holocene in Cambodia and Vietnam.
## Characteristics
[[tapanuliensis male female.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Head and shoulder shots of an adult male and female orangutan|Adult male (left) and female Tapanuli orangutans](File:Pongo)]
Orangutans display significant [dimorphism](sexual)(sexual dimorphism); females typically stand tall and weigh around , while adult males stand tall and weigh . Compared to humans, they have proportionally long arms, a male orangutan having an [span](arm)(arm span) of about , and short legs. They are covered in long reddish hair that starts out bright orange and darkens to [maroon](maroon) or [chocolate](chocolate (color)) with age, while the skin is grey-black. Though largely hairless, males' faces can develop some hair, giving them a beard.
Orangutans have small ears and noses; the ears are unlobed. The mean [endocranial](Endocranium) volume is 397 cm3. The cranium is elevated relative to the face, which is incurved and [prognathous](prognathous). Compared to chimpanzees and gorillas, the [ridge](brow)(brow ridge) of an orangutan is underdeveloped. Females and juveniles have relatively circular skulls and thin faces while mature males have a prominent [crest](sagittal)(sagittal crest), large cheek pads or flanges, extensive throat pouches and long [canines](Canine tooth). The cheek pads are made mostly of fatty tissue and are supported by the musculature of the face. The throat pouches act as [resonance](Vocal resonation) chambers for making long calls.
[[Tournai.jpg|thumb|upright|alt= An orangutan skeleton|Skeleton of subadult Bornean orangutan](File:Orang-Utan)]
Orangutan hands have four long fingers but a dramatically shorter [thumb](opposable)(opposable thumb) for a strong grip on branches as they travel high in the trees. The resting configuration of the fingers is curved, creating a suspensory hook grip. With the thumb out of the way, the fingers (and hands) can grip securely around objects with a small diameter by resting the tops of the fingers against the inside of the palm, thus creating a double-locked grip. Their feet have four long toes and an opposable big toe, giving them hand-like dexterity. The hip joints also allow for their legs to rotate similarly to their arms and shoulders.
Orangutans move through the trees by both vertical climbing and [suspension](Suspensory behavior). Compared to other great apes, they infrequently descend to the ground where they are more cumbersome. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans are not true [knuckle-walkers](Knuckle-walking), instead bending their digits and walking on the sides of their hands and feet.
Compared to their relatives in Borneo, Sumatran orangutans are more slender with paler and longer hair and a longer face. Tapanuli orangutans resemble Sumatran orangutans more than Bornean orangutans in body build and hair colour. They have shaggier hair, smaller skulls, and flatter faces than the other two species.
## Ecology and behaviour
[[File:Video wild orangutan Borneo.webm|thumb|alt= Video of a wild orangutan in Malaysia|Wild orangutan in the Danum Valley ([Sabah](Sabah), Malaysia, Borneo island)]]
Orangutans are mainly [arboreal](Arboreal locomotion) and inhabit [rainforest](tropical)(tropical rainforest), particularly lowland [dipterocarp](Dipterocarpaceae) and old [forest](secondary)(secondary forest). Populations are more concentrated near riverside habitats, such as [freshwater](Freshwater swamp forest) and [swamp forest](peat)(peat swamp forest), while drier forests away from the flooded areas have less apes. Population density also decreases at higher elevations. Orangutans occasionally enter grasslands, cultivated fields, gardens, young [forest](secondary)(secondary forest), and shallow lakes.
Most of the day is spent feeding, resting, and travelling. They start the day feeding for two to three hours in the morning. They rest during midday, then travel in the late afternoon. When evening arrives, they prepare their nests for the night. Potential predators of orangutans include [tiger](Sumatran tiger)s, [leopards](clouded)(Sunda clouded leopard) and [dogs](wild)(dhole). The most common orangutan parasites are [nematode](nematode)s of the genus *[Strongyloides](Strongyloides)* and the [ciliate](ciliate) *[coli](Balantidium)(Balantidium coli)*. Among *Strongyloides*, the species *S. fuelleborni* and *S. stercoralis* are reported in young individuals. Orangutans also use the plant species *[cantleyi](Dracaena)(Dracaena (plant))* as an anti-inflammatory balm. Captive animals may suffer an upper respiratory tract disease.
### Diet and feeding
[[-Zoologischer Garten Berlin-8a.jpg|thumb|upright=.75|right|alt=Orangutan on a branch eating some leaves|Although orangutans may consume leaves, shoots, and bird eggs, fruit is the most important part of their diet.](File:Orangutan)]
Orangutans are primarily [fruit-eaters](frugivore), which can take up 57–80% of their foraging time. Even during times of scarcity, fruit is 16% of their feeding time. Fruits with soft pulp, [aril](aril)s or seed-walls are consumed the most, particularly [fig](Common fig)s but also [drupe](drupe)s and berries. Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the [vine](vine) species *[ignatii](Strychnos)(Strychnos ignatii)* which contains the toxic [alkaloid](alkaloid) [strychnine](strychnine).
Orangutans also include leaves in their diet, which take up 25% of their average foraging time. Leaves are eaten more when fruit is less available, but even during times of fruit abundance, orangutans will eat leaves 11–20% of the time. They appear to depend on the leaf and stem material of *[borneensis](Borassodendron)(Borassodendron borneensis)* during times of low fruit abundance. Other food items consumed by the apes include [bark](Bark (botany)), [honey](honey), bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates including [loris](slow)(slow loris)es.
In some areas, orangutans may practice [geophagy](geophagy), which involves consuming soil and other earth substances. They will uproot soil from the ground as well as eat [tubes](shelter)(Termite#Shelter tubes) from tree trunks. Orangutans also visit the sides of cliffs or earth depressions for their [lick](mineral)(mineral lick)s. Orangutans may eat soils for their anti-toxic [kaolin](kaolin) minerals, since their diet contains toxic [tannin](tannin)s and [acid](phenolic)(phenolic acid)s.
### Social life
[[09N8683.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Two orangutans swinging on tree branches|Orangutans are the least social of the great apes.](File:Leuser-orangs)]
The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as [but social](solitary)(solitary but social); they live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Bornean orangutans are generally more solitary than Sumatran orangutans. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, which may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner. Interactions between adult females range from friendly to avoidance to antagonistic. Flanged males are hostile to both other flanged males and unflanged males, while unflanged males are more peaceful towards each other.
Orangutans [disperse](biological dispersal) and establish their home ranges by age 11. Females tend to live near their birth range, while males disperse farther but may still visit their birth range within their larger home range. They enter a transient phase, which lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form travelling groups with members moving between different food sources. They are often consortships between an adult male and a female. [grooming](Social)(Social grooming) is uncommon among orangutans.
### Communication
Orangutans communicate with various vocals and sounds. Males will make long calls, both to attract females and to advertise themselves to other males. These calls have three components; they begin with grumbles, peak with pulses and end with bubbles. Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low frequency noises known collectively as the "rolling call". When uncomfortable, an orangutan will produce a "kiss squeak", which involves sucking in air through pursed lips. Mothers produce throatscrapes to keep in contact with their offspring. Infants make soft hoots when distressed. When building a nest, orangutans will produce smacks or [raspberries](blow)(blowing a raspberry). Orangutan calls display consonant- and vowel-like components and they maintain their meaning over great distances.
Mother orangutans and offspring also use several different gestures and expressions such as beckoning, stomping, lower lip pushing, object shaking and "presenting" a body part. These communicate goals such as "acquire object", "climb on me", "climb on you", "climb over", "move away", "play change: decrease intensity", "resume play" and "stop that".
### Reproduction and development
Males become sexually mature at around age 15. They may exhibit [development](arrested)(Neoteny) by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur, or long calls until a resident dominant male is absent. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur quickly. Flanged males attract females in [oestrous](oestrous) with their characteristic long calls, which may also suppress development in younger males.
Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, will [copulation](force)(Sexual coercion among animals) on her, the occurrence of which is unusually high among mammals. Females prefer to mate with the fitter flanged males, forming pairs with them and benefiting from their protection. Non-[ovulating](ovulation) females do not usually resist copulation with unflanged males, as the chance of conception is low. [behaviour](Homosexual)(Homosexual behavior in animals) has been recorded in the context of both affiliative and aggressive interactions.
[[Lawang, orangutans (6785217748).jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A mother orangutan with her offspring|Mother orangutan with young](File:Bukit)]
Unlike females of other non-human great ape species, orangutans do not exhibit [swelling](sexual)(sexual swelling)s to signal fertility. A female first gives birth around 15 years of age and they have a six to nine year interbirth interval, the longest among the great apes. Gestation is around nine months long and infants are born at a weight of . Usually only a single infant is born; twins are a rare occurrence. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practice [infanticide](Infanticide (zoology)). This may be because they cannot ensure they will sire a female's next offspring, because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies. There is evidence that females with offspring under six years old generally avoid adult males.
Females do most of the caring of the young. The mother will carry the infant while travelling, suckle it and sleep with it. During its first four months, the infant is almost never without physical contact and clings to its mother's belly. In the following months, the amount of physical contact the infant has with its mother declines. When an orangutan reaches the age of one-and-a-half years, its climbing skills improve and it will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behaviour known as "buddy travel". After two years of age, juvenile orangutans will begin to move away from their mothers temporarily. They reach adolescence at six or seven years of age and are able to live alone but retain some connections with their mothers. Females may nurse their offspring for up to eight years, which is more than any mammal. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years both in the wild and in captivity.
### Nesting
[[Orangutan in nest.jpg|thumb|right|An orangutan lying in its nest|alt=Orangutan lying on its back in a nest](File:Bornean)]
Orangutans [nests](build)(Nest-building in primates) specialised for either day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behaviour. In fact, nest-building allows young orangutans to become less dependent on their mother. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practice nest-building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps. Initially, a suitable tree is located. Orangutans are choosy about sites, though nests can be found in many tree species. To establish a foundation, the ape grabs the large branches under it and bends them so they join together. The orangutan then does the same to smaller, leafier branches to create a "mattress". After this, the ape stands and braids the tips of branches into the mattress. Doing this increases the stability of the nest. Orangutans make their nests more comfortable by creating "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds".
## Intelligence
[[orangutan imitating human speech|alt=Captive orangutan muttering from behind a cage](File:Orangutanspeech.webm|thumb|right|An)]
Orangutans are among the most intelligent non-human primates. Experiments suggest they can [the displacement of objects](track)(Object permanence#In animals) both visible and hidden. [Atlanta](Zoo)(Zoo Atlanta) has a touch-screen computer on which their two Sumatran orangutans play games. A 2008 study of two orangutans at the [Zoo](Leipzig)(Leipzig Zoological Garden) showed orangutans may practice "calculated [reciprocity](Reciprocity (evolution))", which involves an individual aiding another with the expectation of being paid back. Orangutans are the first nonhuman species documented to do so.
In a 1997 study, two captive adult orangutans were tested with the [pulling paradigm](cooperative)(cooperative pulling paradigm). Without any training, the orangutans succeeded in pulling off an object to get food in the first session. Over the course of 30 sessions, the apes succeeded more quickly, having learned to coordinate. An adult orangutan has been documented to pass the [test](mirror)(mirror test), indicating [self-awareness](self-awareness). Mirror tests with a 2-year-old orangutan failed to reveal self-recognition.
Studies in the wild indicate that flanged male orangutans plan their movements in advance and signal them to other individuals. Experiments have also suggested that orangutans can [about things that are not present](communicate)(Displacement (linguistics)): mother orangutans remain silent in the presence of a perceived threat but when it passes, the mother produces an alarm call to their offspring to teach them about the danger. Orangutans and other great apes show [laughter](Laughter in animals)-like vocalisations in response to physical contact such as wrestling, play chasing or tickling. This suggests that laughter derived from a common origin among primate species and therefore evolved before the origin of humans. Orangutans can learn to mimic new sounds by purposely controlling the vibrations of their vocal folds, a trait that led to speech in humans. [Bonnie](Bonnie (orangutan)), an orangutan at the [National Zoo](US)(National Zoological Park (United States)), was recorded spontaneously whistling after hearing a caretaker. She appears to whistle without expecting a food reward.
### Tool use and culture
[[File:Orangutan using precision grip.jpg|thumb|An orangutan at the [Diego Zoo](San)(San Diego Zoo) using a tool to extract orange-juice concentrate|alt=An orangutan using a stick to pick at a hole in a rock with a cup of orange-juice concentrate.]]
Tool use in orangutans was observed by [primatologist](Primatology) [Galdikas](Birutė)(Birutė Galdikas) in ex-captive populations. Orangutans in Suaq Balimbing were recorded to develop a tool kit for use in foraging which consisted of both insect-extraction sticks for use in the hollows of trees and seed-extraction sticks for harvesting seeds from hard-husked fruit. The orangutans adjusted their tools according to the task at hand, and preference was given to oral tool use. This preference was also found in an experimental study of captive orangutans. Orangutans have been observed to use sticks to poke at catfish, causing them to leap out of the water so the orangutan can grab them. Orangutan have also been documented to keep tools for later. When building a nest, orangutans appear to able to determine which branches would better support their body weight.
Primatologist [P. van Schaik](Carel)(Carel van Schaik) and biological anthropologist Cheryl D. Knott further investigated tool use in different wild orangutan populations. They compared geographic variations in tool use related to the processing of *Neesia* fruit. The orangutans of Suaq Balimbing were found to be avid users of insect and seed-extraction tools when compared to other wild orangutans. The scientists suggested these differences are cultural as they do not correlate with habitat. The orangutans at Suaq Balimbing are closely spaced and relatively tolerant of each other; this creates favourable conditions for the spreading of new behaviours. Further evidence that highly social orangutans are more likely to exhibit cultural behaviours came from a study of leaf-carrying behaviours of formerly captive orangutans that were being rehabilitated on the island of Kaja in Borneo.
Wild orangutans in Tuanan, Borneo, were reported to use tools in acoustic communication. They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce. The apes may employ this method of amplification to [deceive](Deception in animals) the listener into believing they are larger animals. In 2003, researchers from six different orangutan field sites who used the same behavioural coding scheme compared the behaviours of the animals from each site. They found each orangutan population used different tools. The evidence suggested the differences were cultural: first, the extent of the differences increased with distance, suggesting cultural diffusion was occurring, and second, the size of the orangutans' cultural repertoire increased according to the amount of social contact present within the group. Social contact facilitates cultural transmission.
### Personhood
In June 2008, Spain would become the first country to recognise the rights of some non-human great apes, based on the guidelines of the [Ape Project](Great)(Great Ape Project), which are that chimpanzees, [bonobo](bonobo)s, orangutans, and gorillas not to be used for animal experiments. In December 2014, a court in Argentina ruled that an orangutan named Sandra at the [Aires Zoo](Buenos)(Buenos Aires Zoo) must be moved to a sanctuary in Brazil to provide her "partial or controlled freedom". Animal rights groups like Great Ape Project Argentina argued the ruling should apply to all species in captivity, and legal specialists from the Argentina's Federal Chamber of [Cassatio](Criminal)(Court of cassation) considered the ruling applicable only to non-human hominids.
## Orangutans and humans
[[File:Birute Galdikas.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Birutė Galdikas shown speaking into a microphone|Orangutan researcher [Galdikas](Birutė)(Birutė Galdikas) presenting her book about the apes]]
Orangutans were known to the native people of Sumatra and Borneo for millennia. The apes are known as *maias* in [Sarawak](Sarawak) and *mawas* in other parts of Borneo and in Sumatra. While some communities hunted them for food and decoration, others placed taboos on such practices. In central Borneo, some traditional folk beliefs consider it bad luck to look an orangutan in the face. Some folk tales involve orangutans mating with and kidnapping humans. There are even stories of hunters being captured by female orangutans.
Europeans became aware of the existence of the orangutan in the 17th century. Explorers in Borneo hunted them extensively during the 19th century. In 1779, Dutch anatomist [Camper](Petrus)(Petrus Camper), who observed the animals and dissected some specimens, give the first scientific description of the orangutan. Camper mistakenly thought that flanged and unflanged male orangutans were different species, a misconception corrected after his death.
Little was known about orangutan behaviour until the field studies of Birutė Galdikas, who became a leading authority on the apes. When she arrived in Borneo in 1971, Galdikas settled into a primitive bark-and-thatch hut at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey, in [Puting](Tanjung)(Tanjung Puting). She studied orangutans for the next four years and developed her [PhD](PhD) thesis for [UCLA](UCLA). Galdikas became an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being devastated by [loggers](logging industry), [oil](palm)(palm oil) plantations, [miner](gold)(gold miner)s, and unnatural [fires](forest)(Wildfire). Along with [Goodall](Jane)(Jane Goodall) and [Fossey](Dian)(Dian Fossey), Galdikas is considered to be one of [Angels](Leakey's)(Leakey's Angels), named after anthropologist [Leakey](Louis)(Louis Leakey).
### In fiction
[[File:Daniel Urrabieta y Vierge - The Murders in the Rue Morgue.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Illustration of an orangutan attacking a woman from The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Daniel Vierge|1870 illustration for "[Murders in the Rue Morgue](The)(The Murders in the Rue Morgue)" by [Vierge](Daniel)(Daniel Vierge)]]
Orangutans first appeared in Western fiction in the 18th century and have been used to comment on human society. Written by the pseudonymous A. Ardra, *Tintinnabulum naturae* (The Bell of Nature, 1772) is told from the point of view of a human-orangutan hybrid who calls himself the "metaphysician of the woods". Around 50 years later, the anonymously written work *The Orang Outang* is narrated by a pure orangutan in captivity in the US, writing a letter critiquing Boston society to her friend in Java.
[Love Peacock](Thomas)(Thomas Love Peacock)'s 1817 novel *[Melincourt](Melincourt (novel))* features Sir Oran Haut Ton, an orangutan who lives among English people and becomes a candidate for [of Parliament](Member)(Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)). The novel satirises the class and political system of Britain. Oran's purity and status as a "natural man" stand in contrast to the immorality and corruption of the "civilised" humans. In [Challice Constable](Frank)(Frank Challice Constable)'s *The Curse of Intellect* (1895), the protagonist Reuben Power travels to Borneo and captures an orangutan to train it to speak so he can "know what a beast like that might think of us". Orangutans are featured prominently in the 1963 science fiction novel *[of the Apes](Planet)(Planet of the Apes (novel))* by [Boulle](Pierre)(Pierre Boulle) and the [franchise](media)(Planet of the Apes) derived from it. They are typically portrayed as [bureaucrat](bureaucrat)s like [Zaius](Dr.)(Dr. Zaius), the science minister.
Orangutans are sometimes portrayed as antagonists, notably in the 1832 [Scott](Walter)(Walter Scott) novel *[Robert of Paris](Count)(Count Robert of Paris)* and the 1841 [Allan Poe](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe) short story *[Murders in the Rue Morgue](The)(The Murders in the Rue Morgue)*. [Disney](Walt Disney Company)'s 1967 [musical adaptation](animated)(The Jungle Book (1967 film)) of *[Jungle Book](The)(The Jungle Book)* added a jazzy orangutan named [Louie](King)(King Louie), who tries to get [Mowgli](Mowgli) to teach him how to make fire. The 1986 horror film *[Link](Link (film))* features an intelligent orangutan which serves a university professor but has sinister motives; he plots against humanity and stalks a female student assistant. Other stories have portrayed orangutans helping humans, such as [Librarian](The)(The Librarian (Discworld)) in [Pratchett](Terry)(Terry Pratchett)'s fantasy novels *[Discworld](Discworld)* and in [Smith](Dale)(Dale Smith (poet))'s 2004 novel *What the Orangutan Told Alice*. More comical portrayals of the orangutan include the 1996 film *[Checks In](Dunston)(Dunston Checks In)*.
### In captivity
[[File:The Female Orang - Utan.png|thumb|right|upright|alt= Sketch of the female orangutan known as Jenny sitting in a chair|*The Female Orang – Utan* ([Jenny](Jenny (orangutan)) sitting in a chair) c. 1830s]]
By the early 19th century, orangutans were being kept in captivity. In 1817, an orangutan joined several other animals in London's [Exchange](Exeter)(Exeter Exchange). The ape was recorded to have rejected the company of other animals, aside from a dog, and preferred to be with humans. He was occasionally taken on coach rides clothed in a [smock-frock](smock-frock) and hat and even given drinks at an inn where he behaved politely for the hosts. The [Zoo](London)(London Zoo) housed a female orangutan named [Jenny](Jenny (orangutan)) who was dressed in human clothing and learned to drink tea. She is remembered for her meeting with [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) who compared her reactions to those of a human child.
Zoos and circuses in the Western world would continue to use orangutans and other [simian](simian)s as sources for entertainment, training them to behave like humans at [parties](tea)(Chimpanzees' tea party) and to perform tricks. Notable orangutan "character actors" include Jacob and Rosa of the [Hagenbeck](Tierpark)(Tierpark Hagenbeck) in the early 20th century, [Martin](Joe)(Joe Martin (orangutan)) of [City Zoo](Universal)(Universal City Zoo) in the 1910s and 1920s, and [Jiggs](Jiggs (orangutan)) of the [Diego Zoo](San)(San Diego Zoo) in the 1930s and 1940s. [rights](Animal)(Animal rights) groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive. Starting in the 1960s, zoos became more concerned with education and orangutans exhibits were designed to mimic their natural environment and displayed their natural behaviours.
[Allen](Ken)(Ken Allen), an orangutan of the San Diego Zoo, became world famous in the 1980s for multiple escapes from his enclosures. He was nicknamed "the [Houdini](hairy)(Harry Houdini)" and was the subject of a fan club, T-shirts, bumper stickers and a song titled *The Ballad of Ken Allen*.
Galdikas reported that her cook was sexually assaulted by a captive male orangutan. The ape may have suffered from a skewed species identity and forced copulation is a standard mating strategy for low-ranking male orangutans. American animal trafficker [Buck](Frank)(Frank Buck (animal collector)) claimed to have seen human mothers acting as [nurse](wet)(wet nurse)s to orphaned orangutan babies in hopes of keeping them alive long enough to sell to a trader, which would be an instance of [breastfeeding](human–animal)(human–animal breastfeeding).
## Conservation
### Status and threats
All three species are critically endangered according to the [Red List](IUCN)(IUCN Red List) of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under [I](Appendix)(CITES#Appendix I) by [CITES](CITES), which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become more fragmented, with few or no apes documented in the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the [River](Sabangau)(Sabangau River), but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the [Ecosystem](Leuser)(Leuser Ecosystem). The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the [Toru](Batang)(Batang Toru) forest of Sumatra.
[[File:Riau palm oil 2007.jpg|thumb|alt= A view of deforested land|Deforestation for [oil production in Indonesia](palm)(palm oil production in Indonesia)]]
Birutė Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by [poaching](poaching) and [deforestation](deforestation) when she began studying them in 1971. By the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and [fragmentation](Habitat fragmentation) by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of [forest](tropical)(subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest) to [oil](palm)(palm oil) [plantation](plantation)s in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal [trade](pet)(Exotic pet).
Orangutans may be killed for the [bushmeat](bushmeat) trade and bones are secretly sold in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of their perceived danger. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets. Between 2012 and 2017, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, seized 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets.
Estimates in the 2000s found that around 6,500 Sumatran orangutans and around 54,000 Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, twice that of previous population estimates, while 2016 estimates suggest 104,700 Bornean orangutans exist in the wild. A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015. Less than 800 Tapanuli orangutan are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes.
### Conservation centres and organisations
[[File:FZS Programm Director Peter Pratje working with orangutans in Bukit Tigapulu, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Peter Pratje with a orangutan|Zoologische Gesellschaft Frankfurt Programm Director Peter Pratje works with orangutans in [Tigapuluh](Bukit)(Bukit Tigapuluh), Indonesia.]]
Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the [Orangutan Survival](Borneo)(Borneo Orangutan Survival) (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist [Smits](Willie)(Willie Smits) and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist [Drøscher Nielsen](Lone)(Lone Drøscher Nielsen).
A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity.
Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at [Puting National Park](Tanjung)(Kumai District#Tanjung Puting National Park), [National Park](Sebangau)(Sebangau National Park), [Palung National Park](Gunung)(Gunung Palung National Park) and [Baka Bukit Raya National Park](Bukit)(Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park) in Borneo and the [Leuser National Park](Gunung)(Gunung Leuser National Park) and [Lawang](Bukit)(Bukit Lawang) in Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the [Orang Utan Sanctuary](Sepilok)(Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary) in Sabah. Major conservation centres headquartered outside the orangutans' home countries include [Zoological Society](Frankfurt)(Frankfurt Zoological Society), [Foundation International](Orangutan)(Orangutan Foundation International), which was founded by Galdikas, and the [Orangutan Project](Australian)(Australian Orangutan Project). Conservation organisations such as the [Land Trust](Orangutan)(Orangutan Land Trust) work with the palm oil industry to improve [sustainability](sustainability) and encourages the industry to establish [area](conservation)(conservation area)s for orangutans.
## See also
* [Primate Day](International)(International Primate Day)
* [of individual apes](List)(List of individual apes)
* [Day](Monkey)(Monkey Day)
* [Pendek](Orang)(Orang Pendek)
* *[Island](Orangutan)(Orangutan Island)*
* [(1970 film)](*Skullduggery*)(Skullduggery (1970 film))
## References
## External links
* [Orangutan Foundation International](http://www.orangutan.org/)
* [AZA's Orangutan Conservation Education Center](https://web.archive.org/web/20130830125746/http://engage.aza.org/orangutans/)
* [Orangutan Language Project](https://web.archive.org/web/20090318005138/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ThinkTank/ResearchProjects/OLP/default.cfm)
* [The Orangutan Foundation](http://www.orangutan.org.uk/)
* [Orangutan Land Trust](http://www.forests4orangutans.org/)
[ ](Category:Orangutans)
[of Indonesia](Category:Primates)(Category:Primates of Indonesia)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[endangered by the pet trade](Category:Species)(Category:Species endangered by the pet trade)
[mammals](Category:Tool-using)(Category:Tool-using mammals)
[of Southeast Asia](Category:Fauna)(Category:Fauna of Southeast Asia)
[named by Bernard Germain de Lacépède](Category:Taxa)(Category:Taxa named by Bernard Germain de Lacépède)
[described in 1799](Category:Taxa)(Category:Taxa described in 1799)
|
American Mafia
|
american_mafia
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# American Mafia
*Revision ID: 1160045335 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T03:02:28Z*
---
Hunt, Thomas, "Timeline Part 1. 1282-1899," The American Mafia, https://mafiahistory.us/maf-chr1.html, accessed September 23, 2022}}
| founding location = [York City](New)(New York City), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Chicago](Chicago), [Detroit](Detroit), [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), [Boston](Boston), and various other [Northeastern](Northeastern United States) and [Midwestern](Midwestern United States) cities in the United States
| years active = Since the mid-19th century
| territory = Primarily in [Northeast](the)(Northeastern United States), [Midwestern](Midwestern United States) cities, [Phoenix](Phoenix, Arizona), [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), and [Florida](Florida), with smaller operations elsewhere in the U.S.Factions in [Ontario](Southern)(Southern Ontario) and [Montreal](Montreal) in Canada
| ethnic makeup = Full members ([men](made)(Made man)) are of [descent](Italian)(Italians)Other criminals of any ethnicity are employed as "associates"
| membership est = Over 3,000 members and associates
| criminal activities = [trafficking](Arms)(Arms trafficking), arson, assault, bribery, [theft](car)(Motor vehicle theft), counterfeiting, [trafficking](drug)(Illegal drug trade), extortion, fencing, fraud, [gambling](illegal)(Gambling), [shark](loan)(loan shark)ing, money laundering, murder, pornography, [prostitution](prostitution), racketeering, robbery, smuggling, theft
| allies = [Mafia](Sicilian)(Sicilian Mafia)[Camorra](Camorra)['Ndrangheta]('Ndrangheta)[Corona Unita](Sacra)(Sacra Corona Unita)various independent Italian-American gangs (such as the [& Oregon Crew](10th)(10th & Oregon Crew), [Gang](Purple)(East Harlem Purple Gang), [Brooklyn Boys](South)(South Brooklyn Boys), and [Boys](Tanglewood)(Tanglewood Boys))[mafia](Jewish)(Jewish mafia)[Mafia](Romanian)(Romanian Mafia)[mafia](Lebanese)(Lebanese mafia)[mafia](Greek)(Greek mafia)[mafia](Corsican)(Corsican mafia)[Mafia](Dixie)(Dixie Mafia)various motorcycle gangs (such as the [Angels](Hells)(Hells Angels Motorcycle Club), [Outlaws](Outlaws Motorcycle Club) and [Pagans](Pagan's Motorcycle Club))[*Outlaw motorcycle gangs – USA overview*](https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/147691NCJRS.pdf) [Institute of Justice](National)(National Institute of Justice) (1991various street gangs (such as the [Bloods](Bloods), [Crips](Crips) and [Kings](Latin)(Latin Kings (gang)))[mafia](Russian)(Russian mafia)
| rivals = Various gangs and organized crime groups Historically rivals of the [Mob](Irish)(Irish Mob) [mafia](Albanian)(Albanian mafia)
}}
The **American Mafia**, commonly referred to in North America as the **Italian American Mafia**, **the Mafia**, or **the Mob**, is a highly organized [American](Italian)(Italian Americans) [society](criminal)(Secret society) and [crime](organized)(organized crime) group. The organization is often referred to by its members as **Cosa Nostra** (, "our thing" or "this thing of ours") and by the American government as **La Cosa Nostra** (**LCN**). The organization's name is derived from the original *Mafia* or *Cosa Nostra*, the [Mafia](Sicilian)(Sicilian Mafia), with "American Mafia" originally referring simply to Mafia groups from [Sicily](Sicily) operating in the United States, as the organization initially emerged as an offshoot of the Sicilian Mafia formed by [immigrants](Italian)(Italian diaspora) in the United States. However, the organization gradually evolved into a separate entity partially independent of the original Mafia in Sicily, and it eventually encompassed or absorbed other Italian immigrant and Italian American [gangster](gangster)s and Italian American crime groups (such as the [Camorra](American)(Camorra in New York City)) active in the United States and Canada that were not of [Sicilian](Sicilian people) origin. In North America, it is often colloquially referred to as the **Italian Mafia** or **Italian Mob**, though these terms may also apply to the separate yet related Sicilian Mafia or other [crime groups in Italy](organized)(Organized crime in Italy) or ethnic Italian crime groups in other countries.
The Mafia in the United States emerged in impoverished Italian immigrant [or ghettos](neighborhoods)(Little Italy) in New York's [Harlem](East)(East Harlem) (or [Harlem](Italian)(East Harlem#Italian Harlem)), the [East Side](Lower)(Lower East Side), and [Brooklyn](Brooklyn); also emerging in other areas of the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States) and several other major metropolitan areas (such as [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) and [Chicago](Chicago)) during the late 19th century and early 20th century, following waves of Italian immigration especially from Sicily and other regions of [Italy](Southern)(Southern Italy). It has its roots in the Sicilian Mafia but is a separate organization in the United States. [Campania](Campania)n, [Calabria](Calabria)n and other Italian criminal groups in the U.S., as well as independent Italian American criminals, eventually merged with Sicilian Mafiosi to create the modern pan-Italian Mafia in North America. Today, the American Mafia cooperates in various criminal activities with Italian organized crime groups, such as the Sicilian Mafia, the [Camorra](Camorra) of Campania and the ['Ndrangheta]('Ndrangheta) of Calabria. The most important unit of the American Mafia is that of a "[family](Crime family)", as the various criminal organizations that make up the Mafia are known. Despite the name of "family" to describe the various units, they are not familial groupings.Roberto M. Dainotto (2015) *The Mafia: A Cultural History* pp.7-44
The Mafia is currently most active in the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States), with the heaviest activity in [York](New)(New York metropolitan area), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Jersey](New)(New Jersey), [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), [Buffalo](Buffalo, New York), and [England](New)(New England), in areas such as [Boston](Boston), [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island), and [Hartford](Hartford, Connecticut). It also remains heavily active in [Chicago](Chicago) and has a significant and powerful presence in other [Midwestern](Midwestern United States) metropolitan areas such as [City](Kansas)(Kansas City), [Detroit](Detroit), [Milwaukee](Milwaukee), [Cleveland](Cleveland), and [Louis](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri). Outside of these areas, the Mafia is also very active in [Florida](Florida), [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), and [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). Mafia families have previously existed to a greater extent and continue to exist to a lesser extent in [Pennsylvania](Northeastern)(Bufalino crime family), [Dallas](Dallas crime family), [Denver](Denver crime family), [Orleans](New)(New Orleans crime family), [Rochester](Rochester crime family), [Francisco](San)(San Francisco crime family), [Jose](San)(San Jose crime family), [Seattle](Seattle crime family), and [Tampa](Tampa crime family). While some of the regional crime families in these areas may no longer exist to the same extent as before, descendants have continued to engage in criminal operations, while consolidation has occurred in other areas, with rackets being controlled by more powerful crime families from nearby cities. At the Mafia's peak, there were at least 26 cities around the United States with Cosa Nostra families, with many more offshoots and associates in other cities. There are five main New York City Mafia families, known as the [Families](Five)(Five Families): the [Gambino](Gambino crime family), [Lucchese](Lucchese crime family), [Genovese](Genovese crime family), [Bonanno](Bonanno crime family), and [Colombo](Colombo crime family) families. The Italian American Mafia has long dominated organized crime in the United States. Each crime family has its own territory and operates independently, while nationwide coordination is overseen by [Commission](the)(The Commission (American Mafia)), which consists of the bosses of each of the strongest families. Though the majority of the Mafia's activities are contained to the Northeastern United States and Chicago, they continue to dominate organized crime in the United States, despite the increasing numbers of other crime groups.
## Terminology
The word *mafia* () derives from the [Sicilian](Sicilian language) adjective *mafiusu*, which, roughly translated, means "swagger", but can also be translated as "boldness" or "[bravado](wikt:bravado)". In reference to a man, *mafiusu* (*mafioso* in Italian) in 19th-century [Sicily](Sicily) signified "fearless", "enterprising", and "proud", according to scholar [Gambetta](Diego)(Diego Gambetta).This etymology is based on the books *Che cosa è la mafia?* by [Mosca](Gaetano)(Gaetano Mosca), *Mafioso* by Gaia Servadio, *The Sicilian Mafia* by Diego Gambetta, *Mafia & Mafiosi* by Henner Hess, and *Cosa Nostra* by John Dickie (see [Books](#Books) below). In reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective *mafiusa* means 'beautiful' or 'attractive'. In North America, the Italian-American Mafia may be colloquially referred to as simply "The Mafia" or "The Mob". However, without context, these two terms may cause confusion; "The Mafia" may also refer to the [Mafia](Sicilian)(Sicilian Mafia) specifically or [organized crime](Italian)(Italian organized crime) in general, while "The Mob" can refer to other similar organized crime groups (such as the [Mob](Irish)(Irish Mob)) or organized crime in general.
## History
### Origins: The Black Hand
[[File:Paul Kelly-2.jpg|thumb|Paolo Antonio Vaccarelli (also known as [Kelly](Paul)(Paul Kelly (criminal))), founder of the [Points Gang](Five)(Five Points Gang)]]
The first published account of what became the Mafia in the United States dates to the spring of 1869. The *[Orleans Times](New)(Times-Picayune)* reported that the city's Second District had become overrun by "well-known and notorious Sicilian murderers, counterfeiters and burglars, who, in the last month, have formed a sort of general co-partnership or stock company for the plunder and disturbance of the city." Emigration from southern [Italy](Italy) to the Americas was primarily to [Brazil](Brazil) and [Argentina](Argentina), and New Orleans had a heavy volume of port traffic to and from both locales.
Mafia groups in the [States](United)(United States) first became influential in the [York metropolitan area](New)(New York metropolitan area), gradually progressing from small neighborhood operations in poor [ghettos](Italian)(Little Italy) to citywide and eventually national organizations. "The Black Hand" was a name given to an [extortion](extortion) method used in Italian neighborhoods at the turn of the 20th century. It has been sometimes mistaken for the Mafia itself, which it is not. The Black Hand was a criminal society, but there were many small Black Hand gangs. Black Hand extortion was often (wrongly) viewed as the activity of a single organization, because Black Hand criminals in Italian communities throughout the United States used the same methods of extortion.
Giuseppe Esposito was the first known Mafia member to emigrate to the United States. He and six other Sicilians fled to New York after murdering eleven wealthy landowners, the chancellor and a vice-chancellor of a Sicilian province. He was arrested in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) in 1881 and extradited to Italy.
From the 1890s to 1920 in [York City](New)(New York City) the [Points Gang](Five)(Five Points Gang), founded by [Kelly](Paul)(Paul Kelly (criminal)), were very powerful in the [ Little Italy](Little Italy, Manhattan ) of the Lower East Side. Kelly recruited some street hoodlums who later became some of the most famous [boss](crime)(crime boss)es of the century - such as [Torrio](Johnny)(Johnny Torrio), [Capone](Al)(Al Capone), [Luciano](Lucky)(Lucky Luciano) and [Yale](Frankie)(Frankie Yale). They were often in conflict with the [ Jewish Eastmans](Eastman Gang) of the same area. There was also an influential Mafia family in East Harlem. The Neapolitan [Camorra](Camorra) was very active in Brooklyn. In Chicago, the 19th Ward was an Italian neighborhood that became known as the "Bloody Nineteenth" due to the frequent violence in the ward, mostly as a result of Mafia activity, [feud](feud)s, and vendettas.
New Orleans was possibly the site of the first Mafia incident in the United States that received both national and international attention. On October 15, 1890, New Orleans Police Superintendent [Hennessy](David)(David Hennessy) was murdered execution-style. It is still unclear whether Italian immigrants actually killed him, or whether it was a [frame-up](frame-up) by nativists against the reviled underclass immigrants. Hundreds of Sicilians were arrested on mostly baseless charges, and nineteen were eventually indicted for the murder. An acquittal followed, with rumors of bribed and intimidated witnesses. On [14, 1891](March)(1891 New Orleans lynchings ), after the acquittal, the outraged citizens of New Orleans organized a [lynch](Lynching ) mob and proceeded to kill eleven of the nineteen defendants. Two were hanged, nine were shot, and the remaining eight escaped.["Under Attack"](https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/italian8.html) . *[Memory](American)(American Memory)*, [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress). Retrieved February 26, 2010.["1891 New Orleans prejudice and discrimination results in lynching of 11 Italians, the largest mass lynching in United States history"](http://www.niaf.org/milestones/year_1891.asp) , *Milestones of the Italian American Experience*, [Italian American Foundation](National)(National Italian American Foundation). Retrieved February 26, 2010.
===Prohibition era===
On January 16, 1919, [prohibition](Prohibition in the United States) began in the United States with the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](18th)(Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) making it illegal to manufacture, transport, or sell [alcohol](alcohol (drug)). Despite these bans, there was still a very high demand for it from the public. This created an atmosphere that tolerated crime as a means to provide liquor to the public, even among the police and city politicians. While not explicitly related to Mafia involvement, the murder rate during the Prohibition era rose over }}from 6.8 per 100,000 individuals to }}and within the first three months proceeding the Eighteenth Amendment, a half-million dollars in [whiskey](bonded)(bonded whiskey) was stolen from government warehouses.Abadinsky, Howard. *Organized Crime*. 7th ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2003. pg. 67 The profits that could be made from selling and distributing alcohol were worth the risk of punishment from the government, which had a difficult time enforcing prohibition. There were over 900,000 cases of liquor shipped to the borders of U.S. cities.Gervais, C.H, *The Rum Runners: A Prohibition Scrapbook*. 1980. Thornhill: Firefly Books. Pg 9 Criminal gangs and politicians saw the opportunity to make fortunes and began shipping larger quantities of alcohol to U.S. cities. The majority of the alcohol was imported from Canada,Phillip. *Rum Running and the Roaring Twenties*. 1995. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Pg 16Butts, Edward, *Outlaws of The Lakes – Bootlegging and Smuggling from Colonial Times To Prohibition*. 2004.Toronto: Linx Images Inc. Pg 110. the Caribbean, and the American Midwest where [still](still)s manufactured illegal alcohol.
[[File:AlCaponemugshotCPD.jpg|thumb|left|[Capone](Al)(Al Capone)'s [publicized](culturally)(Al Capone#In popular culture) violent rise to power in [Chicago](Chicago) made him an ever-lasting criminal figure of the Prohibition era.]]
In the early 1920s, fascist [Mussolini](Benito)(Benito Mussolini) took control of Italy and waves of Italian immigrants fled to the United States. Sicilian Mafia members also fled to the United States, as Mussolini cracked down on Mafia activities in Italy. Most Italian immigrants resided in [tenement](tenement) buildings. As a way to escape the poor lifestyle, some Italian immigrants chose to join the American Mafia.
The Mafia took advantage of prohibition and began selling illegal alcohol. The profits from bootlegging far exceeded the traditional crimes of protection, extortion, gambling, and prostitution. Prohibition allowed Mafia families to make fortunes.Butts, Edward, *Outlaws of The Lakes – Bootlegging and Smuggling from Colonial Times To Prohibition*. 2004.Toronto: Linx Images Inc. Pg 109Hallowell, *Prohibition In Ontario, 1919-1923*. 1972. Ottawa: Love Printing Service. Pg ix As prohibition continued, victorious factions went on to dominate organized crime in their respective cities, setting up the family structure of each city. The bootlegging industry organized members of these gangs before they were distinguished as today's known families. The new industry required members at all different employment levels, such as bosses, lawyers, truckers, and even members to eliminate competitors through threat/force. Gangs hijacked each other's alcohol shipments, forcing rivals to pay them for "protection" to leave their operations alone, and armed guards almost invariably accompanied the caravans that delivered the liquor.Mason, Phillip. *Rum Running and the Roaring Twenties*. 1995. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Pg 42Butts, Edward, *Outlaws of The Lakes – Bootlegging and Smuggling from Colonial Times To Prohibition*. 2004.Toronto: Linx Images Inc. Pg 230
In the 1920s, Italian Mafia families began waging wars for absolute control over lucrative bootlegging rackets. As the violence erupted, Italians fought Irish and Jewish ethnic gangs for control of bootlegging in their respective territories. In New York City, [Yale](Frankie)(Frankie Yale) waged war with the Irish American [Hand Gang](White)(White Hand Gang). In Chicago, [Capone](Al)(Al Capone) and his [family](Chicago Outfit) massacred the [Side Gang](North)(North Side Gang), another Irish American outfit.Gervais, C.H, *The Rum Runners: A Prohibition Scrapbook*. 1980. Thornhill: Firefly Books. Pg10 In New York City, by the end of the 1920s, two factions of organized crime had emerged to fight for control of the criminal }}one led by [Masseria](Joe)(Joe Masseria) and the other by [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano). This caused the [War](Castellammarese)(Castellammarese War), which led to Masseria's murder in 1931. Maranzano then divided New York City into [families](five)(Five Families). Maranzano, the first leader of the American Mafia, established the code of conduct for the organization, set up the "family" divisions and structure, and established procedures for resolving disputes. In an unprecedented move, Maranzano set himself up as [of all bosses](boss)(Capo di tutti capi) and required all families to pay tribute to him. This new role was received negatively, and Maranzano was murdered within six months on the orders of ["Lucky" Luciano](Charles)(Lucky Luciano). Luciano was a former Masseria underling who had switched sides to Maranzano and orchestrated the killing of Masseria.
### The Commission
[[File:CommissionChart1963.jpg|thumb|[FBI](FBI) chart of American Mafia bosses across the country in 1963.]]
As an alternative to the previous despotic Mafia practice of naming a single Mafia boss as *[di tutti capi](capo)(capo di tutti capi)*, or "boss of all bosses", Luciano created [Commission](The)(The Commission (mafia)) in 1931, where the bosses of the most powerful families would have equal say and vote on important matters and solve disputes between families. This group ruled over the [Crime Syndicate](National)(National Crime Syndicate) and brought in an era of peace and prosperity for the American Mafia.*King of the Godfathers: Big Joey Massino and the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family* By Anthony M. DeStefano. Kensington Publishing Corp., 2008 By mid-century, there were 26 official Commission-sanctioned Mafia crime families, each based in a different city (except for the [Families](Five)(Five Families) which were all based in New York). Each family operated independently from the others and generally had exclusive territory it controlled. As opposed to the older generation of "[Pete](Mustache)(Mustache Pete)s" such as Maranzano and Masseria, who usually worked only with fellow Italians, the "Young Turks" led by Luciano were more open to working with other groups, most notably the [criminal syndicates](Jewish-American)(Jewish-American organized crime) to achieve greater profits. The Mafia thrived by following a strict set of rules that originated in Sicily that called for an organized hierarchical structure and a [of silence](code)(code of silence) that forbade its members from cooperating with the police ([Omertà](Omertà)). Failure to follow any of these rules was punishable by death.
The rise of power that the Mafia acquired during prohibition would continue long after alcohol was made legal again. Criminal empires which had expanded on bootleg money would find other avenues to continue making large sums of money. When alcohol ceased to be prohibited in 1933, the Mafia diversified its money-making criminal activities to include (both old and new): illegal gambling operations, [shark](loan)(loan shark)ing, [extortion](extortion), [racket](protection)(protection racket)s, drug trafficking, [fencing](Fence (criminal)), and labor racketeering through control of labor unions.Dubro, James. *Mob Rule – Inside the Canadian Mafia*. 1985. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. Pg, 277 In the mid-20th century, the Mafia was reputed to have infiltrated many [union](labor)(labor union)s in the United States, most notably the [Teamsters](Teamsters) and [Longshoremen's Association](International)(International Longshoremen's Association). This allowed crime families to make inroads into very profitable legitimate businesses such as construction, demolition, waste management, trucking, and in the waterfront and garment industry.*Busting the Mob: United States v. Cosa Nostra* James B. Jacobs, Christopher Panarella, Jay Worthington. NYU Press, 1996. . pages 3–5 In addition they could raid the unions' health and pension funds, extort businesses with threats of a workers' strike and participate in [rigging](bid)(bid rigging). In New York City, most construction projects could not be performed without the [Families](Five)(Five Families)' approval. In the [port](port) and [dock](loading)(loading dock) industries, the Mafia bribed union members to tip them off to valuable items being brought in. Mobsters would then steal these products and [fence](fence (criminal)) the stolen merchandise.
[[File:Charles Lucky Luciano (Excelsior Hotel, Rome).jpg|thumb|left|["Lucky" Luciano](Charles)(Lucky Luciano) in 1948]]
[Lansky](Meyer)(Meyer Lansky) made inroads into the casino industry in Cuba during the 1930s while the Mafia was already involved in exporting Cuban sugar and rum. When his friend [Batista](Fulgencio)(Fulgencio Batista) became president of Cuba in 1952, several Mafia bosses were able to make legitimate investments in legalized casinos. One estimate of the number of casinos mobsters owned was no less than 19. However, when Batista was overthrown following the [Revolution](Cuban)(Cuban Revolution), his successor [Castro](Fidel)(Fidel Castro) banned U.S. investment in the country, putting an end to the Mafia's presence in Cuba. Las Vegas was seen as an "open city" where any family can work. Once Nevada legalized gambling, mobsters were quick to take advantage and the casino industry became very popular in Las Vegas. Since the 1940s, Mafia families from New York, Cleveland, Kansas City, Milwaukee and Chicago had interests in Las Vegas casinos. They got loans from the [Teamsters](Teamsters)' pension fund, a union they effectively controlled, and used legitimate front men to build casinos. When money came into the [room](counting)(Count room), hired men [skimmed](Skimming (casinos)) cash before it was recorded, then delivered it to their respective bosses. This money went unrecorded, but the amount is estimated to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars.
Operating in the shadows, the Mafia faced little opposition from law enforcement. Local law enforcement agencies did not have the resources or knowledge to effectively combat organized crime committed by a secret society they were unaware existed. Many people within police forces and courts were simply bribed, while witness intimidation was also common. In 1951, a U.S. Senate committee called the [Hearings](Kefauver)(United States Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce) determined that a "sinister criminal organization" known as the Mafia operated in the nation. Many suspected mobsters were subpoenaed for questioning, but few testified and none gave any meaningful information. In 1957, New York State Police uncovered a meeting and arrested major figures from around the country in [New York](Apalachin,)(Apalachin, New York). The event (dubbed the "[Meeting](Apalachin)(Apalachin Meeting)") forced the [FBI](FBI) to recognize organized crime as a serious problem in the United States and changed the way law enforcement investigated it. In 1963, [Valachi](Joe)(Joe Valachi) became the first Mafia member to [state's evidence](turn)(turn state's evidence), and provided detailed information of its inner workings and secrets. More importantly, he revealed the Mafia's existence to the law, which enabled the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) to begin an aggressive assault on the Mafia's National Crime Syndicate. Following Valachi's testimony, the Mafia could no longer operate completely in the shadows. The FBI put a lot more effort and resources into organized crime activities nationwide and created the [Crime Strike Force](Organized)(United States Organized Crime Strike Force) in various cities. However, while all this created more pressure on the Mafia, it did little to curb their criminal activities. Success was made by the beginning of the 1980s, when the FBI was able to rid Las Vegas casinos of Mafia control and made a determined effort to loosen the Mafia's stronghold on labor unions.
### Mafia involvement in the US economy
[[File:Carlo_Gambino.jpg|thumb|[Gambino](Carlo)(Carlo Gambino), head of the Gambino crime family]]
By the late 1970s, the Mafia were involved in many industries, including betting on college sports. Several Mafia members associated with the [crime family](Lucchese)(Lucchese crime family) participated in a [shaving scandal involving the Boston College basketball team](point)(1978–79 Boston College basketball point shaving scandal). Rick Kuhn, [Hill](Henry)(Henry Hill), and others associated with the Lucchese crime family, manipulated the results of the games during the 19781979 basketball season. Through bribing and intimidating several members of the team, they ensured their bets on the point spread of each game would go in their favor.
One of the most lucrative gains for the Mafia was through gas-tax fraud. They created schemes to keep the money that they owed in taxes after the sale of millions of dollars' worth of wholesale petroleum. This allowed them to sell more gasoline at even lower prices. [Franzese](Michael)(Michael Franzese), also known as the Yuppie Don, ran and organized a gas scandal and stole over $290 million in gasoline taxes by evading the [Revenue Service](Internal)(Internal Revenue Service) (IRS) and shutting down the gas station before government officials could make him pay what he owed. Franzese was caught in 1985.
Labor racketeering helped the Mafia control many industries from a macroeconomic scale. This tactic helped them grow in power and influence in many cities with big labor unions such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit and many others. Many members of the Mafia were enlisted in unions and even became union executives. The Mafia has controlled unions all over the U.S. to extort money and resources out of big business, with recent indictments of corruption involving the New Jersey Waterfront Union, the Concrete Workers Union, and the [Union](Teamster)(Teamster Union).
Restaurants were yet another powerful means by which the Mafia could gain economic power. A large concentration of Mafia-owned restaurants was in New York City. Not only were they the setting of many killings and important meetings, but they were also an effective means of smuggling drugs and other illegal goods. From 1985 to 1987, Sicilian Mafiosi in the U.S. imported an estimated $1.65 billion worth of heroin [pizzerias](through)(Pizza Connection Trial), hiding the cargo in various food products.["Gaetano Badalamenti, 80; Led Pizza Connection Ring (Obituary)"](https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/03/nyregion/gaetano-badalamenti-80-led-pizza-connection-ring.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm). *The New York Times*. May 3, 2004.
Another one of the areas of the economy that the Mafia was most influential was [Vegas, Nevada](Las)(Las Vegas, Nevada), beginning just after World War II with the opening of the first gambling resort "[Flamingo](The)(Flamingo Las Vegas)". Many credit the Mafia with being a big part of the city's development in the mid-20th century, as millions of dollars in capital flowing into new casino resorts laid the foundation for further economic growth. This capital didn't come from one Mafia family alone, but many throughout the country seeking to gain even more power and wealth. Large profits from casinos, run as legitimate businesses, would help to finance many of the illegal activities of the Mafia from the 1950s into the 1980s. In the 1950s more Mafia-financed casinos were constructed, such as the [Stardust](Stardust Resort and Casino), [Sahara](Sahara Casino), [Tropicana](Tropicana Las Vegas), [Inn](Desert)(Desert Inn), and [Riviera](Riviera (hotel and casino)). Tourism in the city greatly increased through the 1960s and strengthened the local economy.
However, the 1960s was also when the Mafia's influence in the Las Vegas economy began to dwindle. The Nevada State government and Federal government had been working to weaken Mafia activity on [Strip](the)(Las Vegas Strip). In 1969, the Nevada State Legislature passed a law that made it easier for corporations to own casinos. This brought new investors to the local economy to buy casinos from the Mafia. The U.S. Congress passed the [Act](RICO)(RICO Act) a year later. This law gave more authority to law enforcement to pursue the Mafia for its illegal activities. There was a sharp decline in mob involvement in Las Vegas in the 1980s. Through the RICO law, many in the Mafia were convicted and imprisoned.
### RICO Act
[[File:Sammy Gravano (arrest photo - 1990).jpg|thumb|[Gravano](Sammy)(Sammy Gravano)]]
When the [Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act](Racketeer)(Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act) (RICO Act) became federal law in 1970, it became a highly effective tool in prosecuting mobsters. It provides for extended criminal penalties for acts performed as part of an ongoing criminal organization. Violation of the act is punishable by up to 20 years in prison per count, up to $25,000 in fines, and the violator must forfeit all properties attained while violating the RICO Act.Abadinsky, Howard. *Organized Crime*. 7th ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2003. pg. 319 The RICO Act has proven to be a very powerful weapon because it attacks the entire corrupt entity instead of individuals who can easily be replaced with other organized crime members. Between 1981 and 1992, 23 bosses from around the country were convicted under the law while between 1981 and 1988, 13 underbosses and 43 captains were convicted. Over 1,000 crime family figures were convicted by 1990. While this significantly crippled many Mafia families around the country, the most powerful families continued to dominate crime in their territories, even if the new laws put more mobsters in jail and made it harder to operate.
[[Gotti.jpg|thumb|right| John Gotti just after his arrest in 1990.](File:John)]
A high-profile RICO case sentenced [Gotti](John)(John Gotti) and [Locascio](Frank)(Frank Locascio) to life in prison in 1992, with the help of informant [Gravano](Sammy)(Sammy Gravano) in exchange for [from prosecution](immunity)(immunity from prosecution) for his crimes.[Sammy "The Bull" Gravano](http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/gangsters_outlaws/mob_bosses/gravano/commitment_21.html) By Allan May. TruTV Aside from avoiding long prison stretches, the FBI could put mobsters in the [States Federal Witness Protection Program](United)(United States Federal Witness Protection Program), changing their identities and supporting them financially for life. This led to dozens of mobsters testifying and providing information during the 1990s, which led to the imprisonment of hundreds of other members. As a result, the Mafia has seen a major decline in its power and influence in organized crime since the 1990s.
On January 9, 2003, [crime family](Bonanno)(Bonanno crime family) boss [Massino](Joseph)(Joseph Massino) was arrested and indicted, alongside [Vitale](Salvatore)(Salvatore Vitale), [Lino](Frank)(Frank Lino) and capo Daniel Mongelli, in a comprehensive racketeering indictment. The charges against Massino himself included ordering the 1981 murder of ["Sonny Black" Napolitano](Dominick)(Dominick Napolitano). Massino's trial began on May 24, 2004, with judge [Garaufis](Nicholas)(Nicholas Garaufis) presiding and Greg D. Andres and Robert Henoch heading the prosecution. He now faced 11 RICO counts for seven murders (due to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty for the Sciascia murder, that case was severed to be tried separately), arson, extortion, loansharking, illegal gambling, and money laundering.Raab, p. 679 After deliberating for five days, the jury found Massino guilty of all 11 counts on July 30, 2004. His sentencing was initially scheduled for October 12, and he was expected to receive a sentence of [imprisonment](life)(life imprisonment) with no possibility of parole. The jury also approved the prosecutors' recommended $10 million [forfeiture](Asset forfeiture) of the proceeds of his reign as Bonanno boss on the day of the verdict.DeStefano 2007, p. 312
Immediately after his July 30 conviction, as court was adjourned, Massino requested a meeting with Judge Garaufis, where he made his first offer to cooperate.DeStefano 2007, pp. 314–315 He did so in hopes of sparing his life; he was facing the death penalty if found guilty of Sciascia's murder. Indeed, one of [Ashcroft](John)(John Ashcroft)'s final acts as Attorney General was to order federal prosecutors to seek the death penalty for Massino. Massino thus stood to be the first Mafia boss to be executed for his crimes, and the first mob boss to face the death penalty since [Buchalter](Lepke)(Louis Buchalter) was executed in 1944. Massino was the first sitting boss of a New York crime family to turn state's evidence, and the second in the history of the American Mafia to do soRaab, p. 688. ([crime family](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia crime family) boss [Natale](Ralph)(Ralph Natale) had flipped in 1999 when facing drug charges, though Natale was mostly a "front" boss while the real boss of the Philadelphia Mafia used Natale as a diversion for authorities.)
In the 21st century, the Mafia has continued to be involved in a broad spectrum of illegal activities. These include murder, extortion, corruption of public officials, gambling, infiltration of legitimate businesses, labor racketeering, loan sharking, [fraud](tax)(Tax evasion) schemes and [manipulation](stock)(stock manipulation) schemes. Although the Mafia used to be nationwide, today most of its activities are confined to the Northeast and Chicago. While other criminal organizations such as the [Mafia](Russian)(Russian Mafia), Chinese [Triad](Triad (underground society))s, Mexican [cartel](drug)(drug cartel)s and others have all grabbed a share of criminal activities, the Mafia continues to be the dominant criminal organization in these regions, partly due to its strict [hierarchical](hierarchy) structure. Law enforcement is concerned with the possible resurgence of the Mafia as it regroups from the turmoil of the 1990s, although FBI and local law enforcement agencies now focus more on homeland security and less on organized crime since the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks).''Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires'' by Selwyn Raab. 2005[Mafia is like a chronic disease, never cured](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/mafia_is_like_chronic_disease_never_eB8faBP3FzhgvJbZ0ftXDM) By Edwin Stier. January 22, 2011 To avoid FBI attention and prosecution, the modern Mafia also outsources a lot of its work to other criminal groups, such as motorcycle gangs.
## Structure
[[family structure tree.en.svg|right|400px](File:Mafia)]
The American Mafia operates on a strict hierarchical structure. While similar to its Sicilian origins, the American Mafia's modern organizational structure was created by Salvatore Maranzano in 1931. He created the [Families](Five)(Five Families), each of which would have a [boss](crime boss), [underboss](underboss), [capos](caporegime), [soldiers](soldato)—all only full-blooded Italian Americans—while associates could come from any background. All inducted members of the Mafia are called [men]("made")(Made man). This signifies that they are untouchable in the criminal underworld and any harm brought to them will be met with retaliation. With the exception of associates, all mobsters within the Mafia are "made" official members of a crime family. The three highest positions make up the administration. Below the administration, there are factions each headed by a *caporegime* (captain), who leads a crew of soldiers and associates. They report to the administration and can be seen as equivalent to managers in a business. When a boss makes a decision, he rarely issues orders directly to workers who would carry it out but instead passes instructions down through the [of command](chain)(chain of command). This way, the higher levels of the organization are insulated from law enforcement attention if the lower level members who actually commit the crime should be captured or investigated, providing [deniability](plausible)(plausible deniability).
There are occasionally other positions in the family leadership. Frequently, ruling panels have been set up when a boss goes to jail to divide the responsibility of the family (these usually consist of three or five members). This also helps divert police attention from any one member. The family messenger and street boss were positions created by former Genovese family leader [Gigante](Vincent)(Vincent Gigante).
* **Boss** – The [boss](Crime boss) is the head of the family, usually reigning as a dictator, sometimes called the Don or "Godfather". The boss receives a cut of every operation. Operations are taken on by every member of the family and of the region's occupying family.Abadinsky, Howard. *Organized Crime*. 7th ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2003. Depending on the family, the boss may be chosen by a vote from the caporegimes of the family. In the event of a tie, the underboss must vote. In the past, all the members of a family voted on the boss, but by the late 1950s, any gathering such as that usually attracted too much attention.Capeci, Jerry. ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Mafia''. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, 2002 In practice, many of these elections are seen as having an inevitable result, such as that of [Gotti](John)(John Gotti) in 1986. According to [Gravano](Sammy)(Sammy Gravano), a meeting was held in a basement during which all capos were searched and Gotti's men stood ominously behind them. Gotti was then proclaimed boss.
* **Underboss** – The [underboss](underboss), usually appointed by the boss, is the second in command of the family. The underboss often runs the day-to-day responsibilities of the family or oversees its most lucrative rackets. He usually gets a percentage of the family's income from the boss's cut. The underboss is usually first in line to become acting boss if the boss is imprisoned, and is also frequently seen as a logical successor.
* **Consigliere** – The [consigliere](consigliere) is an advisor to the family and sometimes seen as the boss's "right-hand man". He is used as a mediator of disputes and often acts as a representative or aide for the family in meetings with other families, rival criminal organizations, and important business associates. In practice, the consigliere is normally the third-ranking member of the administration of a family and was traditionally a senior member carrying the utmost respect of the family and deeply familiar with the inner-workings of the organization. A boss will often appoint a trusted close friend or personal advisor as his official consigliere.
* **Caporegime** (or capo) – A [caporegime](caporegime) (also captain or skipper) is in charge of a crew, a group of soldiers who report directly to him. Each crew usually contains 10–20 soldiers and many more associates. A capo is appointed by the boss and reports to him or the underboss. A captain gives a percentage of his (and his underlings') earnings to the boss and is also responsible for any tasks assigned, including murder. In labor racketeering, it is usually a capo who controls the infiltration of union locals. If a capo becomes powerful enough, he can sometimes wield more power than some of his superiors. In cases like [Corallo](Anthony)(Anthony Corallo) they might even bypass the normal Mafia structure and lead the family when the boss dies.
* **Soldier** (Soldato in Italian) – A [soldato](soldato) or "soldier" is an inducted (or "made") member of the Mafia in general and an inducted member of a particular Mafia crime family, and traditionally they can only be of full Italian background (although today many families require men to be of only half Italian descent, on their father's side). Once a member is made he is untouchable, meaning permission from a soldier's boss must be given before he is murdered. When the books are open, meaning that a family is accepting new members, a made man may recommend an up-and-coming associate to be a new soldier. Soldiers are the main workers of the family, usually committing crimes like assault, murder, extortion, intimidation, etc. In return, they are given profitable rackets to run by their superiors and have full access to their family's connections and power.
[[File:Meyer Lansky NYWTS 3.jpg|thumb|Jewish associate [Lansky](Meyer)(Meyer Lansky)'s (right) work with [Luciano](Lucky)(Lucky Luciano) made him an important figure in developing the American Mafia.]]
* **Associate** – An associate is not a member of the Mafia, but works for a crime family nonetheless. Associates can include a wide range of people who work for the family. An associate can have a wide range of duties, from virtually carrying out the same duties as a soldier to being a simple errand boy. This is where prospective mobsters ("[guys](connected)(connected guys)") start out to prove their worth. Once a crime family is accepting new members, the best associates of Italian descent are evaluated and picked to become soldiers. An associate can also be a criminal who serves as a go-between in criminal transactions or sometimes deals in drugs to keep police attention off the actual members, or they can simply be people the family does business with (restaurant owners, etc.) In other cases, an associate might be a corrupt [union](labor)(labor union) delegate or businessman. Non-Italians will never go any further than this, although many non-Italian associates of the Mafia, such as [Lansky](Meyer)(Meyer Lansky), [Siegel](Bugsy)(Bugsy Siegel), [Humphreys](Murray)(Murray Humphreys), [Cohen](Mickey)(Mickey Cohen), [Rosenthal](Frank)(Frank Rosenthal), [Alex](Gus)(Gus Alex), [Johnson](Bumpy)(Bumpy Johnson), [Sheeran](Frank)(Frank Sheeran), [Hoffa](Jimmy)(Jimmy Hoffa), [Guzik](Jake)(Jake Guzik), [Korshak](Sidney)(Sidney Korshak), [Ouimette](Gerard)(Gerard Ouimette), and [Burke](James)(James Burke (gangster)), wielded extreme power within their respective crime families and carried the respect of actual Mafia members.
## Rituals and customs
The [initiation ritual](Mafia)(Mafia initiation ritual) to become a [man](made)(made man) in the Mafia emerged from various sources, such as [Catholic](Roman)(Catholic Church) confraternities, [Lodges](Masonic)(Freemasonry) in mid-19th century Sicily."Mafia's arcane rituals, and much of the organization's structure, were based largely on those of the Catholic confraternities and even Freemasonry, colored by Sicilian familial traditions and even certain customs associated with military-religious orders of chivalry like the Order of Malta." [The Mafia](http://www.bestofsicily.com/mafia.htm) from [bestofsicily.com](http://www.bestofsicily.com) At the initiation ceremony, the inductee would have his finger pricked with a needle by the officiating member; a few drops of blood are spilled on a card bearing the likeness of a saint; the card is set on fire; finally, while the card is passed rapidly from hand to hand to avoid burns, the novice takes an oath of loyalty to the Mafia family. The oath of loyalty to the Mafia Family is called the Omerta. This was confirmed in 1986 by the [pentito](pentito) [Buscetta](Tommaso)(Tommaso Buscetta).
A hit, or murder, of a made man must be approved by the leadership of his family, or retaliatory hits would be made, possibly inciting a war. In a state of war, families would "go to the mattresses"—means to prepare for a war or be prepared in a war-like stance. It was mainly derived from the film, *The Godfather* as the origin of the phrase, is [unknown](https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/mafia-family-tree.pdf/view). [Omertà](Omertà) is a key oath or [of silence](code)(code of silence) in the Mafia that places importance on silence in the face of questioning by authorities or outsiders; non-cooperation with authorities, the government, or outsiders. Traditionally, to become a [man](made)(made man), or full member of the Mafia, the inductee was required to be a male of full Sicilian descent, later extended to males of full Italian descent, and later further extended to males of half-Italian descent through their father's lineage. According to [Vitale](Salvatore)(Salvatore Vitale), it was decided during a [Commission](The Commission (mafia)) meeting in 2000 to restore the rule requiring both parents to be of Italian descent. It is also common for a Mafia member to have a [mistress](mistress (lover)). Traditionally, made members were also not allowed to have mustaches—part of the [Pete](Mustache)(Mustache Pete) custom.Frankie Saggio and Fred Rosen. ''Born to the Mob: The True-Life Story of the Only Man to Work for All Five of New York's Mafia Families''. 2004 Thunder's Mouth Press publishing. pg.12) [Homosexuality](Homosexuality) is reportedly incompatible with the American Mafia code of conduct. In 1992, [D'Amato](John)(John D'Amato), acting boss of the DeCavalcante family, was killed when he was suspected of engaging in homosexual activity.["Wiseguy Gets Life for Hit On Gay Mob Boss"](http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2006/06/13/2006-06-13_wiseguy_gets_life_for_hit_on.html) by Thomas Zambito. *New York Daily News*, June 13, 2006
## List of Mafia families
[[of mafia in the us.png|thumb|Map of mafia groups in the us by state](File:Map)]
The following is a list of Mafia families that have been active in the U.S. Note that some families have members and associates working in other regions as well. The organization is not limited to these regions. The Bonanno crime family and the Buffalo crime family also had influence in several factions in Canada including the [crime family](Rizzuto)(Rizzuto crime family) and [crime family](Cotroni)(Cotroni crime family),Auger and Edwards *The Encyclopedia of Canadian Organized Crime* p.63. and the [crime family](Luppino)(Luppino crime family) and [crime family](Papalia)(Papalia crime family), respectively.
[[File:Vito Genovese NYWTS.jpg|thumb|[Vito" Genovese]("Don)(Vito Genovese) became leader of the [crime family](Genovese)(Genovese crime family). Genovese served as mentor to the future boss of the Genovese crime family ["Chin" Gigante](Vincent)(Vincent Gigante).]]
* [crime family](Bufalino)(Bufalino crime family) ([Pennsylvania](Northeastern)(Northeastern Pennsylvania))
* [Outfit](Chicago)(Chicago Outfit) ([Illinois](Chicago,)(Chicago))
* [crime family](Cleveland)(Cleveland crime family) ([Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland))
* [crime family](Dallas)(Dallas crime family) ([Texas](Dallas,)(Dallas))
* [crime family](DeCavalcante)(DeCavalcante crime family) ([New Jersey](Northern)(Northern New Jersey))
* [crime family](Denver)(Denver crime family) ([Colorado](Denver,)(Denver))
* [Partnership](Detroit)(Detroit Partnership) ([Michigan](Detroit,)(Detroit))
* The [Families](Five)(Five Families) ([York, New York](New)(New York City))
** [crime family](Bonanno)(Bonanno crime family)
** [crime family](Colombo)(Colombo crime family)
** [crime family](Gambino)(Gambino crime family)
** [crime family](Genovese)(Genovese crime family)
** [crime family](Lucchese)(Lucchese crime family)
* [City crime family](Kansas)(Kansas City crime family) ([City, Missouri](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri))
* [Angeles crime family](Los)(Los Angeles crime family) ([Angeles, California](Los)(Los Angeles))
* [crime family](Magaddino)(Magaddino crime family) ([New York](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York))
* [crime family](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee crime family) ([Wisconsin](Milwaukee,)(Milwaukee))
* [Orleans crime family](New)(New Orleans crime family) ([Orleans, Louisiana](New)(New Orleans))
* [crime family](Patriarca)(Patriarca crime family) ([England](New)(New England))
* [crime family](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia crime family) ([Pennsylvania](Philadelphia,)(Philadelphia))
* [crime family](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh crime family) ([Pennsylvania](Pittsburgh,)(Pittsburgh))
* [crime family](Rochester)(Rochester crime family) ([New York](Rochester,)(Rochester, New York))
* [Francisco crime family](San)(San Francisco crime family) ([Francisco, California](San)(San Francisco))
* [Jose crime family](San)(San Jose crime family) ([Jose, California](San)(San Jose, California))
* [crime family](Seattle)(Seattle crime family) ([Washington](Seattle,)(Seattle, Washington))
* [Louis crime family](St.)(St. Louis crime family) ([Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis))
* [crime family](Trafficante)(Trafficante crime family) ([Florida](Tampa,)(Tampa, Florida))
## Cooperation with the U.S. government
### During World War II
U.S. Naval Intelligence entered into an agreement with [Luciano](Lucky)(Lucky Luciano) to gain his assistance in keeping the New York waterfront free from saboteurs after the destruction of the *[Normandie](SS)(SS Normandie)*.Tim Newark *Mafia Allies*, p. 288, 292, MBI Publishing Co., 2007
This spectacular disaster convinced both sides to talk seriously about protecting the United States' East Coast on the afternoon of February 9, 1942. While it was in the process of being converted into a troopship, the luxury ocean liner, *SS Normandie*, mysteriously burst into flames with 1,500 sailors and civilians on board. All but one escaped, but 128 were injured and by the next day the ship was a smoking hull. In his report, twelve years later, William B. Herlands, Commissioner of Investigation, made the case for the U.S. government talking to top criminals, stating "The Intelligence authorities were greatly concerned with the problems of sabotage and espionage…Suspicions were rife with respect to the leaking of information about convoy movements. The *Normandie*, which was being converted to war use as the Navy auxiliary *Lafayette*, had burned at the pier in the North River, New York City. Sabotage was suspected."
### Plots to assassinate Fidel Castro
In August 1960, Colonel Sheffield Edwards, director of the Office of Security of the [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA), proposed the assassination of [Cuba](Cuba)n head of state [Castro](Fidel)(Fidel Castro) by Mafia assassins. Between August 1960 and April 1961, the CIA, with the help of the Mafia, pursued a series of plots to poison or shoot Castro. Those allegedly involved included [Giancana](Sam)(Sam Giancana), [Marcello](Carlos)(Carlos Marcello), [Trafficante Jr.](Santo)(Santo Trafficante Jr.), and [Roselli](John)(John Roselli).Ambrose & Immerman ''Ike's Spies*, p. 303, 1999
### Recovery of murdered Mississippi civil rights workers
In 2007, Linda Schiro testified in an unrelated court case that her late boyfriend, [Scarpa](Gregory)(Gregory Scarpa), a *capo'' in the Colombo family, had been recruited by the FBI to help find the bodies of three civil rights workers who had been [in Mississippi](murdered)(Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner) in 1964 by the Ku Klux Klan. She said that she had been with Scarpa in Mississippi at the time and had witnessed him being given a gun, and later a cash payment, by FBI agents. She testified that Scarpa had threatened a [Klansman](Ku Klux Klan) by placing a gun in the Klansman's mouth, forcing the Klansman to reveal the location of the bodies. Similar stories of Mafia involvement in recovering the bodies had been circulating for years, and had been previously published in the New York *[News](Daily)(Daily News (New York))*, but had never before been introduced in court.["Witness: FBI used mob muscle to crack '64 case"](http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21534657) , *[News](NBC)(NBC News)*, October 29, 2007. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
## Law enforcement and the Mafia
In several Mafia families, killing a state authority is forbidden due to the possibility of extreme police retaliation. In some rare strict cases, conspiring to commit such a murder is punishable by death. Jewish mobster and Mafia associate [Schultz](Dutch)(Dutch Schultz) was reportedly killed by his Italian peers out of fear that he would carry out a plan to kill [York City](New)(New York City) prosecutor [Dewey](Thomas)(Thomas Dewey) and thus bring unprecedented police attention to the Mafia. However, the Mafia has carried out hits on law enforcement, especially in its earlier history. New York police officer [Petrosino](Joe)(Joe Petrosino) was shot by Sicilian mobsters while on duty in Sicily. A statue of him was later erected across the street from a Lucchese hangout.''Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires''
### Kefauver Committee
In 1951, a U.S. Senate [committee](special)(Select or special committee (United States Congress)), chaired by Democratic Tennessee Senator [Kefauver](Estes)(Estes Kefauver), determined that a "sinister criminal organization" known as the Mafia operated around the United States. The [States Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce](United)(United States Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce) (known as the "Kefauver Hearings"), televised nationwide, captured the attention of the American people and forced the FBI to recognize the existence of organized crime. In 1953, the FBI initiated the "Top Hoodlum Program". The purpose of the program was to have agents collect information on the mobsters in their territories and report it regularly to Washington to maintain a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers.
### Apalachin meeting
The Apalachin meeting was a historic [summit](summit (meeting)) of the American Mafia held at the home of mobster ["Joe the Barber" Barbara](Joseph)(Joseph Barbara (mobster)), at 625 McFall Road in [New York](Apalachin,)(Apalachin, New York), on November 14, 1957. Allegedly, the meeting was held to discuss various topics including loansharking, narcotics trafficking, and gambling, along with dividing the illegal operations controlled by the recently murdered [Anastasia](Albert)(Albert Anastasia). An estimated 100 [Mafiosi](Mafiosi) from the United States, Italy, and Cuba are thought to have attended this meeting. Immediately after the Anastasia murder that October, and after taking control of the [crime family](Luciano)(Luciano crime family), renamed the Genovese crime family, from [Costello](Frank)(Frank Costello), [Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese) wanted to legitimize his new power by holding a national Cosa Nostra meeting. As a result of the Apalachin meeting, the membership books to become a [man](made)(made man) in the mob were closed, and were not reopened until 1976.
Local and state law enforcement became suspicious when numerous expensive cars bearing license plates from around the country arrived in what was described as "the sleepy hamlet of Apalachin". After setting up roadblocks, the police raided the meeting, causing many of the participants to flee into the woods and area surrounding the Barbara estate. More than 60 underworld bosses were detained and indicted following the raid. Twenty of those who attended the meeting were charged with "Conspiring to obstruct justice by lying about the nature of the underworld meeting" and found guilty in January 1959. All were fined, up to $10,000 each, and given prison sentences ranging from three to five years. All the convictions were overturned on appeal the following year. One of the most direct and significant outcomes of the Apalachin Meeting was that it helped to confirm the existence of a nationwide criminal conspiracy, a fact that some, including [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) director [Edgar Hoover](J.)(J. Edgar Hoover), had long refused to acknowledge.Sifakis, p. 19-20
### Valachi hearings
[crime family](Genovese)(Genovese crime family) soldier [Valachi](Joe)(Joe Valachi) was convicted of narcotics violations in 1959 and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Valachi's motivations for becoming an informer had been the subject of some debate: Valachi claimed to be testifying as a public service and to expose a powerful criminal organization that he had blamed for ruining his life, but it is also possible he was hoping for government protection as part of a [bargain](plea)(plea bargain) in which he was sentenced to [imprisonment](life)(life imprisonment) instead of the [penalty](death)(death penalty) for a murder, which he had committed in 1962 while in prison for his narcotics violation.
Valachi murdered a man in prison who he feared mob boss, and fellow prisoner, [Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese) had ordered to kill him. Valachi and Genovese were both serving sentences for [trafficking](heroin)(illegal drug trade#Heroin and opium trade).Jerry Capeci. (2002) ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Mafia'', Alpha Books. p. 200. On June 22, 1962, using a pipe left near some construction work, Valachi [bludgeoned](bludgeoned) an inmate to death who he had mistaken for Joseph DiPalermo, a Mafia member who he believed had been contracted to kill him. After time with [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) handlers, Valachi came forward with a story of Genovese giving him a kiss on the cheek, which he took as a "[of death](kiss)(kiss of death (mafia))". A $100,000 [bounty](Bounty (reward)) for Valachi's death had been placed by Genovese.
Soon after, Valachi decided to cooperate with the [Justice Department](U.S.)(United States Department of Justice). In October 1963, Valachi testified before [Arkansas](Arkansas) Senator [L. McClellan](John)(John L. McClellan)'s [Subcommittee on Investigations](Permanent)(United States Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations) of the [Senate Committee on Government Operations](U.S.)(United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs), known as the [hearings](Valachi)(Valachi hearings), stating that the Italian-American Mafia actually existed, the first time a member had acknowledged its existence in public."Killers in Prison", *Time*, October 4, 1963. ."The Smell of It", *Time*, October 11, 1963. . Valachi's testimony was the first major violation of [omertà](omertà), breaking his [oath](blood)(Initiation ritual (mafia)). He was the first member of the [Mafia](Italian-American)(Italian-American Mafia) to acknowledge its existence publicly, and is credited with popularization of the term *[nostra](cosa)(cosa nostra)*.
Although Valachi's disclosures never led directly to the prosecution of any Mafia leaders, he provided many details of [of the Mafia](history)(history of the Mafia), operations and rituals, aided in the solution of several unsolved murders, and named many members and the major crime families. The trial exposed American organized crime to the world through Valachi's televised testimony.
### Commission Trial
As part of the [Commission Trial](Mafia)(Mafia Commission Trial), on February 25, 1985, nine New York Mafia leaders were indicted for narcotics trafficking, loansharking, gambling, labor racketeering and extortion against construction companies under the [Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act](Racketeer)(Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act). On July 1, 1985, the original nine men, with the addition of two more New York Mafia leaders, pleaded not guilty to a second set of racketeering charges as part of the trial. Prosecutors aimed to strike at all the crime families at once using their involvement in the Commission. On December 2, 1985, [family](Gambino)(Gambino crime family) underboss [Dellacroce](Neil)(Neil Dellacroce) died of cancer. Gambino boss and *de facto* [commission](The Commission (American Mafia)) head [Castellano](Paul)(Paul Castellano) was later murdered on December 16, 1985.
In the early 1980s, the Bonanno family were kicked off the Commission due to the [Brasco](Donnie)(Donnie Brasco) infiltration, and although Rastelli was one of the men initially indicted, this removal from the Commission actually allowed Rastelli to be removed from the Commission Trial as he was later indicted on separate labor racketeering charges. Having previously lost their seat on the Commission, the Bonannos suffered less exposure than the other families in this case.
Eight defendants were convicted of racketeering on November 19, 1986, with the exception of Indelicato who was convicted of murder, and were sentenced on January 13, 1987, as follows:
In the early 1990s, as the [crime family](Colombo)(Colombo crime family) war raged, the Commission refused to allow any Colombo member to sit on the CommissionMcPhee, Michele (July 7, 2002) ["Furgebbaboud the Old Mob; After Gotti, Mafia ordered to clean house"](http://articles.nydailynews.com/2002-07-07/news/18213849_1_mafia-commission-colombo-family-allie-boy) *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* and considered dissolving the family.
### 2011 indictments
On January 20, 2011, the [States Justice Department](United)(United States Justice Department) issued 16 indictments against Northeast American Mafia families resulting in 127 charged defendants and more than 110 arrests. The charges included murder, murder conspiracy, loansharking, arson, robbery, narcotics trafficking, extortion, illegal gambling and labor racketeering. It has been described as the largest operation against the Mafia in U.S. history. Families that have been affected included the [Families](Five)(Five Families) of New York as well as the [crime family](DeCavalcante)(DeCavalcante crime family) of New Jersey and [crime family](Patriarca)(Patriarca crime family) of New England.[New York FBI press release January 20, 2011](https://archive.today/2011.08.05-165858/http://newyork.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel11/nyfo012011.htm). The release mentioned the 'New England LCN', but follow the article for [Manocchio](Luigi)(Luigi Manocchio) to see the Patriarca name
## In popular culture
### Film
The film *[Scarface](Scarface (1932 film))* (1932) is loosely based on the story of [Capone](Al)(Al Capone).
In 1968, [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) released the film *[Brotherhood](The)(The Brotherhood (1968 film))* starring [Douglas](Kirk)(Kirk Douglas) as a Mafia don, which was a financial flop. Nevertheless, Paramount's production chief [Evans](Robert)(Robert Evans (producer)) subsidized the completion of a [Puzo](Mario)(Mario Puzo) novel with similar themes and plot elements and bought the screen rights *before* completion. Directed by [Ford Coppola](Francis)(Francis Ford Coppola), *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)* became a huge success, both critically and financially (it won the [Picture Oscar](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) and for a year was the [film ever made](highest-grossing)(Timeline of highest-grossing films)). It immediately inspired other Mafia-related films, including a direct sequel, *[Godfather Part II](The)(The Godfather Part II)* (1974), also (partly) based on [novel](Puzo's)(The Godfather (novel)), and yet another big winner at the [Awards](Academy)(47th Academy Awards), as well as films based on real Mafiosi like *[Thy Father](Honor)(Honor Thy Father)* and *[Luciano](Lucky)(Lucky Luciano (film))* (both in 1973) and *[Lepke](Lepke (film))* and *[Capone](Capone (1975 film))* (both in 1975).
### Television
An ambitious 13-part miniseries by [NBC](NBC) called *[Gangster Chronicles](The)(The Gangster Chronicles)* based on the rise of many major crime bosses of the 1920s and 1930s, aired in 1981.Roberto M. Dainotto (2015) *The Mafia: A Cultural History* pp. 55–60 *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)* was an award-winning HBO television show that depicted modern day American-Italian mob culture in New Jersey. Although the show is fictional, the general storyline is based on its creator [Chase's](David)(David Chase) experiences growing up and interacting with New Jersey crime families. Ex-members of the Mafia came together in *[the American Mob](Inside)(Inside the American Mob)* documentary where they spoke about the different rules of the five families, and how they remained virtually untouchable for quite some time. The documentary also features the Mob's decline over time due to infiltration by the FBI.
[Tony in *The Simpsons*](Fat)(Fat Tony (The Simpsons)) is described as "a mobster and the underboss of the Springfield Mafia".
### Video games
The Mafia has been the subject of multiple crime-related video games. The *[Mafia](Mafia (series))* series by [Czech](2K)(2K Czech) and [13](Hangar)(Hangar 13 (company)) consists of three games that follow the story of individuals who inadvertently become caught up with one or multiple fictional Mafia families while attempting to rise in their ranks or bring them down as revenge for something they did to them. The *[Theft Auto](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto)* series by [Games](Rockstar)(Rockstar Games) also features the Mafia prominently, mainly in the games set within the fictional Liberty City (based on New York); the games set in the "3D universe" [canon](Canon (fiction)) feature the Forelli, Leone and Sindacco families, while those in the "HD universe" have the Ancelotti, Gambetti, Lupisella, Messina and Pavano families (a reference to the [Families](Five)(Five Families)), as well as the less-influential Pegorino family. In all games, the different Mafia families serve as either employers or enemies to the player. In 2006, *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather (2006 video game))* was released, based on the 1972 film of the same name; it spawned a [sequel](The Godfather II (video game)), itself based on the film's sequel.
## See also
* [City Conference](Atlantic)(Atlantic City Conference)
* [Corporation](The)(Jose Miguel Battle) ("Cuban mafia")
* [D-Company](D-Company) ("Indian mafia")
* [Conference](Havana)(Havana Conference)
* [organized crime](Jewish-American)(Jewish-American organized crime)
* [organized crime](Irish-American)(Irish-American organized crime)
* [Eme](La)(Mexican Mafia) ("Mexican Mafia")
* [of organized crime](Timeline)(Timeline of organized crime)
* [Triad](Triad (organized crime)) ("Chinese mafia")
* [Corse](Unione)(Unione Corse) ("Corsican mafia")
* [Yakuza](Yakuza) ("Japanese mafia")
* [Bratva](Bratva) ("Russian mafia")
* [Mafia](Sicilian)(Sicilian Mafia)
* [Camorra](Camorra)
* [Ndrangheta](Ndrangheta)
* [Corona Unita](Sacra)(Sacra Corona Unita)
## Citations
## General and cited references
* Arlacchi, Pino (1988). *Mafia Business: The Mafia Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism*, Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
* Chubb, Judith (1989). ["The Mafia and Politics"](https://web.archive.org/web/20041223024115/http://www.holycross.edu/departments/history/tmcbride/mafia1.htm), Cornell Studies in International Affairs, Occasional Papers No. 23.
* Critchley, David (2008). *The Origin of Organized Crime: The New York City Mafia, 1891–1931*. New York: Routledge.
* |page=239}}
* [Mike](Dash,)(Mike Dash). *The First Family: Terror, Extortion and the Birth of the American Mafia*. London, Simon & Schuster, 2009.
* Servadio, Gaia (1976). *Mafioso: A History of the Mafia from Its Origins to the Present Day*. London: Secker & Warburg. .
## Further reading
*
*
* }}
*
*
* Reuter, Peter (Summer (Northern Hemisphere) 1995). "[The Decline of the American Mafia](http://www.nationalaffairs.com/doclib/20080709_19951207thedeclineoftheamericanmafiapeterreuter.pdf)" ([Archive](https://www.webcitation.org/6F6iMIpxf?url=http://www.nationalaffairs.com/doclib/20080709_19951207thedeclineoftheamericanmafiapeterreuter.pdf), [Info page](http://www.nationalaffairs.com/public_interest/detail/the-decline-of-the-american-mafia), [Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20130601132953/http://www.nationalaffairs.com/public_interest/detail/the-decline-of-the-american-mafia)). *[Affairs](National)(National Affairs)*. No. 120. pp. 89–99.
* United States. Congress. Senate. Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor or Management Field Publication. 1959.
*
*
* For sale by the Supt. of Docs., Congressional Sales Office, U.S. G.P.O., 1988.
*
*
## External links
[Italian Mafia Terms Defined](https://web.archive.org/web/20100125031341/http://www.fanabala.com/)
* [The 26 Original American Mafia Families – AmericanMafia.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20101212044523/http://americanmafia.com/26_Family_Cities.html)
* [Mafia Today daily updated mafia news site and Mafia resource](http://MafiaToday.com/)
[ ](Category:American Mafia)
[States relations](Category:Italy–United)(Category:Italy–United States relations)
[Category:Mafia](Category:Mafia)
[crime by ethnic or national origin](Category:Organized)(Category:Organized crime by ethnic or national origin)
[crime groups in Canada](Category:Organized)(Category:Organized crime groups in Canada)
[crime groups in the United States](Category:Organized)(Category:Organized crime groups in the United States)
[societies related to organized crime](Category:Secret)(Category:Secret societies related to organized crime)
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Sarah Paulson
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sarah_paulson
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# Sarah Paulson
*Revision ID: 1159661883 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T18:57:50Z*
---
| birth_place = [Florida](Tampa,)(Tampa, Florida), U.S.
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1994–present
| partner = [Taylor](Holland)(Holland Taylor) (2015–present)
| works = [list](Full)(Sarah Paulson on screen and stage)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Sarah Paulson)
}}
**Sarah Catharine Paulson** (born December 17, 1974) is an American actress. She is the recipient of [accolades](numerous)(List of awards and nominations received by Sarah Paulson), including a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) and a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award). In 2017, [magazine](*Time*)(Time (magazine)) named her one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100).
Paulson began her acting career in [York City](New)(New York City) stage productions before starring in the short-lived television series *[Gothic](American)(American Gothic (1995 TV series))* (1995–1996) and *[& Jill](Jack)(Jack & Jill (TV series))* (1999–2001). She later appeared in comedy films such as *[Women Want](What)(What Women Want)* (2000) and *[with Love](Down)(Down with Love)* (2003), and drama films such as *[to War](Path)(Path to War)* (2002) and *[Notorious Bettie Page](The)(The Notorious Bettie Page)* (2005). From 2006 to 2007, she starred as [Hayes](Harriet)(Harriet Hayes) in the NBC comedy-drama series *[60 on the Sunset Strip](Studio)(Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip)*, for which she received her first Golden Globe Award nomination. In 2008, she starred as [Dolan](Ellen)(Ellen Dolan (comics)) in the superhero noir film *[Spirit](The)(The Spirit (film))*.
Paulson appeared on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) in the plays *[Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie)* (2005) and *[Stories](Collected)(Collected Stories (play))* (2010). She also starred in a number of independent films and had a leading role in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) comedy series *[Cupid](Cupid (2009 TV series))* (2009). She later starred in the independent drama film *[Marcy May Marlene](Martha)(Martha Marcy May Marlene)* (2011) and received Primetime Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her portrayal of [Wallace](Nicolle)(Nicolle Wallace) in the [HBO](HBO Films) political drama film *[Change](Game)(Game Change (film))* (2012). She was featured as Mary Epps in the 2013 historical drama film *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))*, Abby Gerhard in the 2015 romantic drama film *[Carol](Carol (film))*, and Toni Bradlee in the 2017 political drama film *[Post](The)(The Post (film))*, all of which were nominated for multiple [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards). Her other films include *[Serenity](Serenity (2005 film))* (2005), ''[Year's Eve](New)(New Year's Eve (2011 film))* (2011), *[Mud](Mud (2012 film))* (2012), *[Jay](Blue)(Blue Jay (film))* (2016), *[8](Ocean's)(Ocean's 8)* (2018), *[Box](Bird)(Bird Box (film))* (2018), *[Glass](Glass (2019 film))* (2019), and *[Run](Run (2020 American film))* (2020).
In 2011, Paulson began starring in the [FX](FX (TV channel)) [anthology](Anthology series) series *[Horror Story](American)(American Horror Story)'', playing different characters in many of the show's 11 seasons. For her performances in the series, she received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations and won two [Choice Television Awards](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Movie/Miniseries). In 2016, she portrayed real-life prosecutor [Clark](Marcia)(Marcia Clark) in the first season of the FX anthology series *[Crime Story](American)(American Crime Story)*, subtitled *[People v. O. J. Simpson](The)(The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story)*, for which she garnered critical acclaim and numerous accolades, including a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie) and a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film). In 2020, Paulson appeared in the FX limited series *[America](Mrs.)(Mrs. America (miniseries))*, and began starring as [Mildred Ratched](Nurse)(Nurse Ratched) in the [Netflix](Netflix) psychological thriller series *[Ratched](Ratched (TV series))*. In 2021, she returned to *American Crime Story* to portray [Tripp](Linda)(Linda Tripp) in the third season of the series, subtitled *[Impeachment](Impeachment: American Crime Story)*, which earned her a Primetime Emmy Award nomination.
## Early life
Sarah Catharine Paulson was born in [Florida](Tampa,)(Tampa, Florida), on December 17, 1974, the daughter of Catharine Gordon (née Dolcater) and Douglas Lyle Paulson II. She spent her early life in [Tampa](South)(South Tampa) until her parents' divorce when she was five. After her parents' separation, she relocated with her mother and sister to [Maine](Maine), then to [York City](New)(New York City). Her mother worked as a waitress, and Paulson lived in [Queens](Queens) and [Park](Gramercy)(Gramercy Park) before settling in [Slope](Park)(Park Slope, Brooklyn). She recalled of this period, "My mom was 27 years old [we moved](when). She didn't know a single person in New York City. She got a job at [Restaurant](Sardi's)(Sardi's)." Throughout her childhood, Paulson spent her summers with her father in Florida, who was an executive at a Tampa door manufacturing company. She attended [29](P.S.)(List of public elementary schools in New York City) and [Carroll School](Berkeley)(Berkeley Carroll School)berkeleycarroll.org/alumni/alumni-news/~post/former-bc-student-wins-first-emmy-20160923 in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) before attending [Manhattan](Manhattan)'s [H. LaGuardia High School](Fiorello)(Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School) and the [Academy of Dramatic Arts](American)(American Academy of Dramatic Arts).
## Career
### 1994–2007
[[File:SarahPaulson06.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Paulson at the [Drama Desk Awards](2006)(Drama Desk Awards)]]
Paulson began working as an actress right out of high school. She appeared in the [Foote](Horton)(Horton Foote) play *Talking Pictures* at the [Theatre](Signature)(Signature Theatre Company (New York City)), and in an episode of *[& Order](Law)(Law & Order)* in 1994. The next year, Paulson appeared in the [Hallmark](Hallmark) television film *Friends at Last* (1995) opposite [Turner](Kathleen)(Kathleen Turner), playing the adult version of Turner's character's daughter. She also starred in the short-lived television series *[Gothic](American)(American Gothic (1995 TV series))* (also 1995), playing the ghost of a murdered woman.
In 1997, Paulson made her feature film debut in the independent thriller film *[Levitation](Levitation (film))*, playing a woman who discovers she is pregnant after an anonymous sexual encounter. Leonard Klady of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* noted that Paulson and her co-stars are "not supported by the script", concluding: "*Levitation* is a grim, convoluted saga of identity and belonging. An ill-fitting combination of melodrama and [realism](magic)(magic realism), the indie effort will have a decidedly difficult time in the theatrical arena."
In 1997, Paulson was a featured actress (Janice/Nina) in the two-part episode "True Romance" of *[Cracker](Cracker (American TV series))*, which starred Robert Pastorelli.
She also appeared [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) in a fall 1998 production of *[Joe](Killer)(Killer Joe (play))*. She subsequently played Elisa Cronkite in [WB](The)(The WB Television Network) comedy-drama series *[& Jill](Jack)(Jack & Jill (TV series))* (1999). The same year, she was also cast opposite [Lewis](Juliette)(Juliette Lewis) and [Keaton](Diane)(Diane Keaton) in the drama *[Other Sister](The)(The Other Sister)*, playing the [lesbian](lesbian) sister of a [developmentally-disabled](developmental disability) woman in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), and in a supporting part playing a hostage in the comedy *[Up](Held)(Held Up)*, opposite [Foxx](Jamie)(Jamie Foxx). The following year, she had a small supporting role in the comedy *[Women Want](What)(What Women Want)*, starring [Gibson](Mel)(Mel Gibson) and [Hunt](Helen)(Helen Hunt).
Paulson had a minor recurring role in the [HBO](HBO) series *[Deadwood](Deadwood (TV series))* (2005–2006), and was a focal character in an episode of the [FX](FX Networks) series *[Nip/Tuck](Nip/Tuck)*. She starred as the main character in the [NBC](NBC) series *[of Faith](Leap)(Leap of Faith (TV series))*. She was then cast in the period comedy *[with Love](Down)(Down with Love)* (2003) in a central role, portraying the friend and editor of a writer (portrayed by [Zellweger](Renee)(Renee Zellweger)).
In 2004, she had a supporting role in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) series *The D.A.*, which was cancelled after only four episodes. In the spring of 2005, Paulson starred in a revival of *[Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie)* on [Broadway](Broadway theatre), opposite future *American Horror Story* co-star [Lange](Jessica)(Jessica Lange). [Brantley](Ben)(Ben Brantley) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* deemed the production as "misdirected and miscast... reality never makes an appearance in this surreally blurred production." Later that year, Paulson appeared Off-Broadway in a production of *Colder Than Here*, opposite [Rabe](Lily)(Lily Rabe) (also her future co-star on *American Horror Story*). The production received an unfavorable review from *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*, with critic Dave Rooney writing: "Rabe speaks in an affected monotone while Sarah Paulson has the measured, upward-inflected delivery of a children's TV presenter... this mannered, melancholy play elicits a mainly impassive response, which is no small obstruction in a work dealing with loss."
Also in 2005, Paulson had a small role in the [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon)-directed science fiction film *[Serenity](Serenity (2005 film))*. In the 2006–07 television season, Paulson co-starred in NBC's *[60 on the Sunset Strip](Studio)(Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip)*, playing [Hayes](Harriet)(Harriet Hayes), one of the stars of the show-within-a-show. This role earned her a nomination for [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film). In December 2008, Paulson appeared in the [adaptation](screen)(The Spirit (film)) of [Eisner](Will)(Will Eisner)'s comic book *[Spirit](The)(Spirit (comics))*, playing an updated version of the character [Dolan](Ellen)(Ellen Dolan (comics)).
### 2008–2015
[[File:Sarah Paulson TIFF 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Paulson at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2011)(2011 Toronto International Film Festival)]]
In 2008, [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) cast Paulson in the pilot *[Cupid](Cupid (2009 TV series))*, which was ordered to series. It was a remake of the [series](1998)(Cupid (TV series)) starring [Piven](Jeremy)(Jeremy Piven) and [Marshall](Paula)(Paula Marshall). In the new version, Paulson starred opposite [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale). It debuted in late March 2009 on ABC but was cancelled on May 19, 2009, after six episodes. In February 2010, Paulson was cast as the [circa](Wiktionary:circa) 1982 mother of main character [Grey](Meredith)(Meredith Grey), on the ABC drama ''[Anatomy](Grey's)(Grey's Anatomy)'', appearing in a flashback sequence in a season-six episode. She then played [Wallace](Nicolle)(Nicolle Wallace) in the [film](HBO)(HBO Films) *[Change](Game)(Game Change (film))* (2012), based on events of the [U.S. presidential election campaign](2008)(2008 United States presidential election). For her performance, she earned [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) and [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nominations.
In the spring of 2010, she starred in [Margulies](Donald)(Donald Margulies)'s *[Stories](Collected)(Collected Stories (play))* alongside [Lavin](Linda)(Linda Lavin) on Broadway. The same year, Paulson filmed the independent drama *[Marcy May Marlene](Martha)(Martha Marcy May Marlene)*, in which she starred opposite [Olsen](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Olsen) and [Dancy](Hugh)(Hugh Dancy), portraying the wealthy sister of a woman who has escaped a [cult](cult). The film was released in the fall of 2011. Simultaneously, Paulson guest-starred in three episodes of the [FX](FX (TV channel)) [series](anthology)(anthology series) *[Horror Story](American)(American Horror Story)*, playing medium Billie Dean Howard. Paulson returned the following year for season two, *[Horror Story: Asylum](American)(American Horror Story: Asylum)*, in which she played a new character, Lana Winters, a writer who is committed to an asylum for being a [lesbian](lesbian). During this time, she also played the supporting role of Mary Lee in the acclaimed 2012 drama film *[Mud](Mud (2012 film))*, starring [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey).
Paulson returned to theater in March 2013, appearing in an Off-Broadway production of ''[Folly](Talley's)(Talley's Folly)'' opposite [Burstein](Danny)(Danny Burstein). She then starred in the third season of *American Horror Story*, titled *[Coven](American Horror Story: Coven)* (2013) as [Foxx](Cordelia)(Cordelia Foxx), a witch who runs an academy for other young witches. The same year, she starred as Mary Epps, an abusive slave-owner, in the historical drama film *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))*. The film was a critical success, earning numerous accolades.
In 2014, Paulson appeared in the fourth season of series of *American Horror Story*, titled *[Show](Freak)(American Horror Story: Freak Show)*, playing the roles of [twin](conjoined)(conjoined twin) sisters Bette and Dot Tattler, who are members of a circus [show](freak)(freak show). She returned for the fifth season, subtitled *[Hotel](American Horror Story: Hotel)*, in the role of Hypodermic Sally, the ghost of a drug addict trapped in a Hollywood hotel. She also reprised the character of Billie Dean Howard in the last episode of the season, making a [crossover](crossover (fiction)) appearance. During this time, Paulson also took on the role of Abby Gerhard in the [Haynes](Todd)(Todd Haynes)-directed romantic drama *[Carol](Carol (film))* (2015), a period piece in which she played the supporting role of [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett)'s close friend.
### 2016–present
[[File:TIFF 2019 sarah paulson (48700773398) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Paulson at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2019)(2019 Toronto International Film Festival)]]
Beginning in February 2016, Paulson starred in the first season of the true crime [series](anthology)(anthology series) *[Crime Story](American)(American Crime Story)*, subtitled *[People v. O.J. Simpson](The)(The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story)*, portraying prosecutor [Clark](Marcia)(Marcia Clark). She garnered widespread critical acclaim for her performance and won various awards, including the [Award for Individual Achievement in Drama](TCA)(TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama), the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie), and the [Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film).
In June 2016, the [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign) released a video in tribute to the victims of the [nightclub shooting](Orlando)(Orlando nightclub shooting); in the video, Paulson and others told the stories of the people killed there. In the fall of 2016, she starred in the sixth iteration of *American Horror Story*, subtitled *[Roanoke](American Horror Story: Roanoke)*; in it, she was cast in the dual roles of British actress Audrey Tindall and tortured wife and yoga instructor Shelby Miller, the latter of whom is portrayed by Tindall's character in *My Roanoke Nightmare*, a [within the series](documentary)(story within a story). She also reprised her role of Lana Winters in the final episode of *Roanoke*, in which the character makes a crossover appearance.
After completing *Roanoke*, Paulson appeared in the series' seventh season, *[Cult](American Horror Story: Cult)* (2017), in which she played restaurant owner Ally Mayfair-Richards, as well as Susan Atkins in the 10th episode of the season.
She also starred as [Page](Geraldine)(Geraldine Page) in one episode of the first season of drama anthology series *[Feud](Feud (TV series))* (2017), which chronicles the turbulent working relationship between actresses [Davis](Bette)(Bette Davis) and [Crawford](Joan)(Joan Crawford). Paulson was then cast in the heist film ''[8](Ocean's)(Ocean's 8)'' (2018), co-starring with [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett), [Bullock](Sandra)(Sandra Bullock), [Hathaway](Anne)(Anne Hathaway), [Kaling](Mindy)(Mindy Kaling), [Awkwafina](Awkwafina), and [Rihanna](Rihanna). The film was a commercial success, grossing nearly $300million at the worldwide box office. In 2017, she was invited to join the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences).
Paulson returned for the eighth season of *American Horror Story*, titled *[Apocalypse](American Horror Story: Apocalypse)*, which premiered on September 12, 2018. In *Apocalypse*, Paulson reprised both the *Murder House* and *Coven'' roles of Billie Dean Howard and Cordelia Foxx, respectively, and also starred as the villainous Miss Wilhemina Venable. In addition to appearing as three characters, Paulson also directed one of the season's episodes, marking her directorial debut. She played Sandra Bullock's character's sister, Jessica, in the drama horror film *[Box](Bird)(Bird Box (film))*, which was released on [Netflix](Netflix) in December 2018.
In 2019, Paulson starred as Dr. Ellie Staple in the superhero thriller film *[Glass](Glass (2019 film))*, Xandra in the drama film *[Goldfinch](The)(The Goldfinch (film))*, and Dr. Zara in the animated adventure film *[Abominable](Abominable (2019 film))*. Paulson then starred as Alice Macray in the [FX](FX Network) limited drama series *[America](Mrs.)(Mrs. America (miniseries))*, which premiered in April 2020. She also starred as Clarissa Montgomery in the [HBO](HBO) satirical comedy television film *[Elites](Coastal)(Coastal Elites)*, which premiered in September 2020. In September 2017, it was announced that Paulson would star as a younger version of [Mildred Ratched](Nurse)(Nurse Ratched), the villain of the novel ''[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel))'' and its [1975 film adaptation](acclaimed)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)), in the [Netflix](Netflix) drama series *[Ratched](Ratched (TV series))*, a [prequel](prequel) to the novel which would portray the character's origins. The first season was released on September 18, 2020.
In November 2020, Paulson starred in the psychological thriller film *[Run](Run (2020 American film))*, opposite [Allen](Kiera)(Kiera Allen). It went on to become the most watched original film on the streaming platform [Hulu](Hulu).
In 2021, she portrayed [Tripp](Linda)(Linda Tripp) in the third season of the true crime anthology series *American Crime Story*, subtitled *[Impeachment](Impeachment: American Crime Story)*. For her performance in the series, Paulson received a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie) nomination. In 2021, she returned to *American Horror Story* for its [season](tenth)(American Horror Story: Double Feature), after being absent for the [season](ninth)(American Horror Story: 1984). She portrayed the character Tuberculosis Karen and a fictional version of former [Lady of the United States](First)(First Lady of the United States), [Eisenhower](Mamie)(Mamie Eisenhower).
In February 2022, it was announced that Paulson had been tapped to portray author [Doyle](Glennon)(Glennon Doyle) in a television series based on Doyle's memoir, *[Untamed](Untamed (memoir))*.
## In the media
In 2017, [*Time*](Time (magazine)) named Paulson one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100).
In 2018, Paulson was ranked one of the best dressed women by fashion website [Net-a-Porter](YOOX Net-a-Porter Group).
## Personal life
Paulson lives in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). She is a supporter of the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)). She was diagnosed with [melanoma](melanoma) on her back when she was 25, though the growth was removed before the cancer could spread.
Addressing her sexuality, Paulson called it "a fluid situation" and later said, "If my life choices had to be predicated based on what was expected of me from a community on either side, that's going to make me feel really straitjacketed, and I don't want to feel that." She dated actress [Jones](Cherry)(Cherry Jones) from 2004 to 2009. She had dated only men before this relationship, including her former fiancé, playwright [Letts](Tracy)(Tracy Letts). Since early 2015, she has been in a relationship with actress [Taylor](Holland)(Holland Taylor).
## Filmography
Paulson appeared in such films as *[Women Want](What)(What Women Want)* (2000), *[with Love](Down)(Down with Love)* (2003), *[Serenity](Serenity (2005 film))* (2005), *[Notorious Bettie Page](The)(The Notorious Bettie Page)* (2005), *[Spirit](The)(The Spirit (film))* (2008), *[Marcy May Marlene](Martha)(Martha Marcy May Marlene)* (2011), ''[Year's Eve](New)(New Year's Eve (2011 film))* (2011), *[Mud](Mud (2012 film))* (2012), *[Change](Game)(Game Change (film))* (2012), *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))* (2013), *[Carol](Carol (film))* (2015), *[Jay](Blue)(Blue Jay (film))* (2016), *[Post](The)(The Post (film))* (2017), *[8](Ocean's)(Ocean's 8)* (2018), *[Box](Bird)(Bird Box (film))* (2018), *[Glass](Glass (2019 film))* (2019), *[Abominable](Abominable (2019 film))* (2019), and *[Run](Run (2020 American film))* (2020).
On television, Paulson starred in *[Gothic](American)(American Gothic (1995 TV series))* (1995–1996), *[& Jill](Jack)(Jack & Jill (TV series))* (1999–2001), *[Deadwood](Deadwood (TV series))* (2006), *[60 on the Sunset Strip](Studio)(Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip)* (2006–2007), *[Cupid](Cupid (2009 TV series))* (2009), *[Horror Story](American)(American Horror Story)* (2011–2021), *[Crime Story](American)(American Crime Story)* (2016–present), *[America](Mrs.)(Mrs. America (miniseries))* (2020), and *[Ratched](Ratched (TV series))* (2020–present).
Paulson has also appeared on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) in the plays *[Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie)* (2005) and *[Stories](Collected)(Collected Stories (play))* (2010), and the [off-Broadway](off-Broadway) plays *[of the Heart](Crimes)(Crimes of the Heart)* (2008) and *[Folly](Talley's)(Talley's Folly)* (2013).
## Awards and nominations
Paulson has accumulated nominations for seven [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s, five [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), and two [Actors Guild Awards](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards), receiving one of each for her role in the limited series *[People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story](The)(The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story)*. She was also nominated for her work on other television programs, such as the comedy-drama series *[60 on the Sunset Strip](Studio)(Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip)*, the political drama film *[Change](Game)(Game Change (film))*, and the horror anthology series *[Horror Story](American)(American Horror Story)*. For her performance in the [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards)-winning period drama film *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))'', she was nominated for the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture).
## References
**Notes**
**Bibliography**
*
*
## External links
*
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}}
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Judi Dench
|
judi_dench
|
# Judi Dench
*Revision ID: 1159198678 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T21:42:35Z*
---
| image = JudiDenchFeb07 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Dench in 2007
| birth_name = Judith Olivia Dench
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [York](Heworth,)(Heworth, York), England
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1957–present
| education = [Central School of Speech and Drama](Royal)(Royal Central School of Speech and Drama)
| spouse =
| partner = David Mills (2010–present)
| children = [Williams](Finty)(Finty Williams)
| relatives =
| works = [list](Full)(List of Judi Dench performances)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Judi Dench)
}}
**Dame Judith Olivia Dench** (born 9 December 1934) is an English actress. Widely considered one of Britain's greatest actresses, she is noted for her versatile work in various films and television programmes encompassing several genres, as well as for her numerous roles on the stage. Dench has garnered [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Judi Dench) throughout a career spanning over six decades, including an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award), a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award), two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), four [Academy Television Awards](British)(British Academy Television Awards), six [Academy Film Awards](British)(British Academy Film Awards) and seven [Awards](Olivier)(Olivier Awards).
Dench made her professional debut in 1957 with the [Vic](Old)(Old Vic) Company. Over the following few years, she performed in several of [plays](Shakespeare's)(Shakespeare's plays), in such roles as [Ophelia](Ophelia) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)*, [Juliet](Juliet) in *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)* and [Macbeth](Lady)(Lady Macbeth) in *[Macbeth](Macbeth)*. Although most of Dench's work during this period was in theatre, she also branched into film work and won a [Award as Most Promising Newcomer](BAFTA)(BAFTA Film Award for Newcomer to Leading Film Roles). In 1968, she drew excellent reviews for her leading role of [Bowles](Sally)(Sally Bowles) in the musical *[Cabaret](Cabaret (musical))*.
Over the next two decades, Dench established herself as one of the most significant British theatre performers, working for the [Theatre Company](National)(Royal National Theatre) and the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company). She received critical acclaim for her work on television during this period, in the series *[Fine Romance](A)(A Fine Romance (1981 TV series))* (1981–1984) and *[Time Goes By](As)(As Time Goes By (TV series))* (1992–2005), in both of which she held starring roles. Her film appearances were infrequent, and included supporting roles in major films, such as [Ivory](James)(James Ivory)'s *[Room with a View](A)(A Room with a View (1985 film))* (1985), before she rose to international fame as [M](M (James Bond)) in *[GoldenEye](GoldenEye)* (1995), a role she continued to play in eight James Bond films, until her final cameo appearance in *[Spectre](Spectre (2015 film))* (2015).
An eight-time [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominee, Dench won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for her performance as [Elizabeth I](Queen)(Elizabeth I of England) in *[in Love](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in Love)* (1998); her other Oscar-nominated roles were for *[Brown](Mrs)(Mrs Brown)* (1997), *[Chocolat](Chocolat (2000 film))* (2000), *[Iris](Iris (2001 film))* (2001), *[Henderson Presents](Mrs)(Mrs Henderson Presents)* (2005), *[on a Scandal](Notes)(Notes on a Scandal (film))* (2006), *[Philomena](Philomena (film))* (2013) and *[Belfast](Belfast (film))* (2021). She is also the recipient of several honorary awards, including the [Fellowship](BAFTA)(BAFTA Fellowship) Award, the [of London Theatre Special Award](Society)(Society of London Theatre Special Award) and the [Film Institute Fellowship](British)(British Film Institute Fellowship) Award.
## Early life and background
Judith Olivia Dench was born in the [Heworth](Heworth, York) area of [York](York) on 9 December 1934, the daughter of an Irish mother and English father. Her mother, Eleanora Olive (née Jones), was born in [Dublin](Dublin); her father, Reginald Arthur Dench [MC](Military Cross) & [Bar](Medal bar) (1897–1964), was a doctor from [Dorset](Dorset) who grew up primarily in Dublin and who fought on the [Front](Western)(Western Front (World War I)) in World War I.
Her parents met while studying at [College Dublin](Trinity)(Trinity College Dublin).
Dench attended [Mount School](the)(The Mount School, York), a [Quaker](Quakers) independent secondary school in York, and became a Quaker. She had two elder brothers named Peter (1925–2017) and [Jeffery](Jeffery Dench) (1928–2014), the latter of whom also became an actor. She is a cousin of Greek-Australian actors [Elmaloglou](Rebekah)(Rebekah Elmaloglou) and [Elmaloglou](Sebastian)(Sebastian Elmaloglou). Her niece, [Dench](Emma)(Emma Dench), is a historian of [Rome](ancient)(ancient Rome). In October 2021 Dench was the subject of BBC One's [Do You Think You Are?*](*Who)(Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)), where it was revealed that she is descended from the [family](Bille)(Bille (noble family)) of [Danish](Danes) aristocrats, and [Andersen Bille](Steen)(Steen Andersen Bille) (1624–1698), the illegitimate son of Anders Steensen Bille ([da](:da:Anders Steensen Bille)) (1578–1633), as well as [Bille](Claus)(Claus Bille) (1490–1558), a grandfather of Danish astronomer [Brahe](Tycho)(Tycho Brahe) (1546–1601).
Through her parents, Dench had regular contact with the theatre: her father was the [GP](General practitioner) for [Theatre Royal](York)(York Theatre Royal), and her mother was its wardrobe mistress. Actors often stayed in the Dench household. During these years, Judi Dench was involved on a non-professional basis in the first three productions of the modern revival of the [Mystery Plays](York)(York Mystery Plays) in 1951, 1954 and 1957. In the third production she played the role of the [Mary](Virgin)(Mary (mother of Jesus)), performed on a fixed stage in the [Gardens](Museum)(York Museum Gardens). Though she initially trained as a set designer, she became interested in drama school as her brother Jeff attended the [School of Speech and Drama](Central)(Central School of Speech and Drama). She was also inspired by seeing [Ashcroft](Peggy)(Peggy Ashcroft) play [Cleopatra](Antony and Cleopatra) on stage, which she later said "changed my life". She applied and was accepted by the Central School, then based at the [Albert Hall](Royal)(Royal Albert Hall), London, where she was a classmate of [Redgrave](Vanessa)(Vanessa Redgrave), graduating and being awarded four acting prizes, including the Gold Medal as Outstanding Student.
## Career
### 1950s1960s: Early work and breakthrough
[[File:Judi Dench 1959.jpg|thumb|upright|Dench during an [Vic](Old)(Old Vic) tour at [Belgrade](Belgrade), Serbia in 1959]]
Dench made her first professional stage appearance in September 1957 with the [Vic](Old)(Old Vic) Company at the [Court Theatre](Royal)(Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool) in [Liverpool](Liverpool), as [Ophelia](Ophelia (character)) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)*. According to the reviewer for *[Evening Standard](London)(London Evening Standard)*, Dench had "talent which will be shown to better advantage when she acquires some technique to go with it". Dench then made her London debut in the same production at the Old Vic. She remained a member of the company for four seasons, 1957–1961, her roles including Katherine in *[V](Henry)(Henry V (play))* in 1958 (which was also her New York City debut) and Juliet in *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)* in 1960, both directed and designed by [Zeffirelli](Franco)(Franco Zeffirelli).
During this period, Dench toured the United States and Canada and appeared in [Yugoslavia](Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) and at the [Festival](Edinburgh)(Edinburgh Festival). She joined the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company) in December 1961, playing Anya in *[Cherry Orchard](The)(The Cherry Orchard)* at the [Theatre](Aldwych)(Aldwych Theatre) in London and made her [Stratford-upon-Avon](Stratford-upon-Avon) debut in April 1962 as Isabella in *[for Measure](Measure)(Measure for Measure)*. She subsequently spent seasons in [repertory](repertory) both with the [Playhouse](Nottingham Playhouse) in [Nottingham](Nottingham) from January 1963 (including a West African tour as [Macbeth](Lady)(Lady Macbeth) for the [Council](British)(British Council)), and with the [Company](Playhouse)(Oxford Playhouse) in [Oxford](Oxford) from April 1964.
In 1964, Dench appeared on television as Valentine Wannop in [625](Theatre)(Theatre 625)'s adaptation of ''[End](Parade's)(Parade's End)*, shown in three episodes, and also played a juvenile trouble maker in an episode of the police series *[Z-Cars](Z-Cars)*. That same year, she made her film debut in *[Third Secret](The)(The Third Secret (film))*, before featuring in a small role in the [Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes) thriller *[Study in Terror](A)(A Study in Terror)* (1965) with her Nottingham Playhouse colleague [Neville](John)(John Neville (actor)). She performed again in *Theatre 625* in 1966, as Terry in the four-part series *[to a Stranger](Talking)(Talking to a Stranger)*, for which she won a BAFTA for Best Actress.
The 1966 [Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles) was made to Dench for her performance in *[in the Morning](Four)(Four in the Morning (film))'' and this was followed in 1968 by a BAFTA [Actress Award](Best)(British Academy Television Award for Best Actress) for her role in [Hopkins](John)(John Hopkins (screenwriter))' 1966 BBC drama *[to a Stranger](Talking)(Talking to a Stranger)*.
In 1968, she was offered the role of Sally Bowles in the musical *[Cabaret](Cabaret (musical))*. As [Morley](Sheridan)(Sheridan Morley) later reported: "At first she thought they were joking. She had never done a musical and she has an unusual croaky voice which sounds as if she has a permanent cold. So frightened was she of singing in public that she auditioned from the wings, leaving the pianists alone on stage". But when it opened at the [Theatre](Palace)(Palace Theatre, London) in February 1968, [Marcus](Frank)(Frank Marcus), reviewing for *Plays and Players*, commented that: "She sings well. The title song, in particular, is projected with great feeling."
### 1970s1980s: Rise to prominence and established actress
After a long run in *Cabaret*, Dench rejoined the [RSC](Royal Shakespeare Company), making numerous appearances with the company in Stratford and London for nearly twenty years, winning several "best actress" awards. Among her roles with the RSC, she was the Duchess in [Webster](John)(John Webster)'s *[Duchess of Malfi](The)(The Duchess of Malfi)* in 1971. In the Stratford 1976 season, and then at the Aldwych in 1977, she gave two comedy performances, first in [Nunn](Trevor)(Trevor Nunn)'s musical staging of *[Comedy of Errors](The)(The Comedy of Errors)* as Adriana, then partnered with [Sinden](Donald)(Donald Sinden) as Beatrice and Benedick in [Barton](John)(John Barton (director))'s "British Raj" revival of *[Ado About Nothing](Much)(Much Ado About Nothing)*. As [Levin](Bernard)(Bernard Levin) wrote in *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)*: "... demonstrating once more that she is a comic actress of consummate skill, perhaps the very best we have." One of her most notable achievements with the RSC was her performance as Lady Macbeth in 1976. Nunn's acclaimed production of *[Macbeth](Macbeth)* was first staged with a [minimalist](minimalism) design at [Other Place](The)(The Other Place (theatre)) theatre in Stratford. Its small round stage focused attention on the [psychological](psychology) dynamics of the characters, and both [McKellen](Ian)(Ian McKellen) in the title role, and Dench, received exceptionally favourable notices. "If this is not great acting I don't know what is", wrote [Billington](Michael)(Michael Billington (critic)) in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*. "It will astonish me if the performance is matched by any in this actress's generation", commented [C Trewin](J)(John Courtenay Trewin) in *[Lady](The)(The Lady (magazine))*. The production transferred to London, opening at the [Warehouse](Donmar)(Donmar Warehouse) in September 1977, and was adapted for television, later released on VHS and DVD. Dench won the [SWET](The Society of West End Theatre) Best Actress Award in 1977.
Dench was nominated for a [BAFTA](British Academy of Film and Television Arts) for her role as Hazel Wiles in the 1979 [BBC](BBC) drama ''[Giant's Shoulders](On)(On Giant's Shoulders)''. She had a romantic role in the BBC television film *[Go Down](Langrishe,)(Langrishe, Go Down (film))'' (1978), with [Irons](Jeremy)(Jeremy Irons) and a screenplay by [Pinter](Harold)(Harold Pinter) from the [Higgins](Aidan)(Aidan Higgins) novel, directed by [Jones](David)(David Jones (director)), in which she played one of three spinster sisters living in a fading Irish mansion in the [Waterford](County Waterford) countryside. Dench made her debut as a director in 1988 with the [Theatre Company](Renaissance)(Renaissance Theatre Company)'s touring season, *Renaissance Shakespeare on the Road*, co-produced with the [Rep](Birmingham)(Birmingham Rep), and ending with a three-month repertory programme at the [Theatre](Phoenix)(Phoenix Theatre (London)) in London. Dench's contribution was a staging of *[Ado About Nothing](Much)(Much Ado About Nothing)*, set in the [era](Napoleonic)(Napoleonic era), which starred [Branagh](Kenneth)(Kenneth Branagh) and [Thompson](Emma)(Emma Thompson) as Benedick and Beatrice. She has made numerous appearances in the West End including the role of Miss Trant in the 1974 musical *[Good Companions](The)(The Good Companions (musical))* at [Majesty's Theatre](Her)(Her Majesty's Theatre). In 1981, Dench was due to play [Grizabella](Grizabella) in the original production of *[Cats](Cats (musical))*, but was forced to pull out due to a torn Achilles tendon, leaving [Paige](Elaine)(Elaine Paige) to play the role.
From 1981 to 1984, Dench starred in Britain's BAFTA award-winning [Fine Romance*](*A)(A Fine Romance (1981 TV series)) with her husband [Williams](Michael)(Michael Williams (actor)). In 1987, Dench played a supporting role in Columbia Pictures film *[Charing Cross Road](84)(84 Charing Cross Road (film))*, with Anne Bancroft and Anthony Hopkins. The film dramatizes a delightful and tender correspondence, of the same title, between American writer, Helene Hanff and British bookshop manager, Frank Doel, which began after WWII, in 1949, and ended in 1969. She also acted with the [Theatre](National)(Royal National Theatre) in London where she played Cleopatra in *Antony and Cleopatra* (1987). In 1989, she appeared in David Tucker's *[Badly](Behaving)(Behaving Badly (TV serial))* for Channel 4, based on Catherine Heath's novel of the same name.
That same year, she was cast as Pru Forrest, the long-time silent wife of Tom Forrest, in the [BBC](BBC) soap opera *[Archers](The)(The Archers)* on its 10,000th edition.
### 1990s: Further critical and commercial success
After the long period between [Bond films](James)(James Bond films) *[to Kill](Licence)(Licence to Kill)* (1989) and *[GoldenEye](GoldenEye)* (1995), the producers brought in Dench to take over as the role of [M](M (James Bond)), [Bond](James)(James Bond (literary character))'s boss. The character was reportedly modeled on Dame [Rimington](Stella)(Stella Rimington), the real-life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996; Dench became the first woman to portray M, succeeding [Brown](Robert)(Robert Brown (British actor)). The seventeenth [film](spy)(spy film) in the [series](James Bond in film) and the first to star [Brosnan](Pierce)(Pierce Brosnan) as the fictional [MI6](Secret Intelligence Service) officer, *GoldenEye* marked the first Bond film made after the [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union) and the end of the [War](Cold)(Cold War), which provided the plot's back story. The film earned a worldwide gross of US$350.7 million, with critics viewing the film as a modernisation of the series. She also starred in BBC1's [Time Goes By*](*As)(As Time Goes By (TV series)), a romantic comedy. Several series of the show were made between 1992 and 2005. In 1995, she played Desiree Armfeldt in a major revival of [Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim)'s *[Little Night Music](A)(A Little Night Music)*, for which she won an Olivier Award.
In 1997, Dench appeared in her first starring film role as [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria) in [Madden](John)(John Madden (director))'s teleplay *[Brown](Mrs)(Mrs Brown)*, which depicts Victoria's relationship with her personal servant and [favourite](favourite) [Brown](John)(John Brown (servant)), played by [Connolly](Billy)(Billy Connolly). Filmed with the intention of being shown on [One](BBC)(BBC One) and on [WGBH](WGBH-TV)'s *[Theatre](Masterpiece)(Masterpiece Theatre)*, it was eventually acquired by [Miramax](Miramax) mogul [Weinstein](Harvey)(Harvey Weinstein), who felt the drama film should receive a theatrical release after seeing it and took it from the BBC to US cinemas. Released to generally positive reviews and unexpected commercial success, going on to earn more than $13 million worldwide, the film was screened in the [Certain Regard](Un)(Un Certain Regard) section at the [Cannes Film Festival](1997)(1997 Cannes Film Festival). For her performance, Dench garnered universal acclaim by critics and was awarded her fourth [BAFTA](BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role) and first [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) nomination at the [Academy Awards](70th)(70th Academy Awards). In 2011, while accepting a [Film Institute](British)(British Film Institute) Award in London, Dench commented that the project launched her Hollywood career and joked that "it was thanks to Harvey, whose name I have had tattooed on my bum".
Dench's other film of 1997 was [Spottiswoode](Roger)(Roger Spottiswoode)'s *[Never Dies](Tomorrow)(Tomorrow Never Dies)*, her second film in the [Bond series](James)(James Bond in film). The same year, Dench reteamed with director John Madden to film *[in Love](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in Love)* (1998), a romantic comedy drama that depicts a love affair involving playwright [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare), played by [Fiennes](Joseph)(Joseph Fiennes), while he was writing the play *Romeo and Juliet*. On her performance as [Elizabeth I](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth I), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* commented that "Dench's shrewd, daunting Elizabeth is one of the film's utmost treats". The following year, she was nominated for most of the high-profile awards, winning both the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) and the [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role). On her Oscar win, Dench joked on-stage, "I feel for eight minutes on the screen, I should only get a little bit of him."
Also in 1999, Dench won the [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) for her 1999 Broadway performance in the role of Esme Allen in [David Hare](Sir)(David Hare (dramatist))'s ''[View](Amy's)(Amy's View)''. The same year, she co-starred along with [Cher](Cher), [Plowright](Joan)(Joan Plowright), [Smith](Maggie)(Maggie Smith), and [Tomlin](Lily)(Lily Tomlin) in [Zeffirelli](Franco)(Franco Zeffirelli)'s semi-autobiographical period drama *[with Mussolini](Tea)(Tea with Mussolini)* which tells the story of young Italian boy Luca's upbringing by a circle of British and American women, before and during [War II](World)(World War II). 1999 also saw the release of Pierce Brosnan's third Bond film, *[World Is Not Enough](The)(The World Is Not Enough)*. This film portrayed M in a larger role with the villain, Renard, coming back to haunt her when he engineers the murder of her old friend Sir Robert King and seemingly attempts to kill his daughter Elektra.
### 2000s: Continued screen and stage work
In January 2001, Dench's husband [Williams](Michael)(Michael Williams (actor)) died of lung cancer. Dench went to [Scotia](Nova)(Nova Scotia) in Canada almost immediately after his funeral to begin production on [Hallström](Lasse)(Lasse Hallström)'s drama film *[Shipping News](The)(The Shipping News (film))*, a therapy she later credited as her rescue: "People, friends, kept saying, 'You are not facing up to it; you need to face up to it', and maybe they were right, but I felt I was – in the acting. Grief supplies you with an enormous amount of energy. I needed to use that up." In between, Dench finished work on [Eyre](Richard)(Richard Eyre)'s film *[Iris](Iris (2001 film))* (2001), in which she portrayed novelist [Murdoch](Iris)(Iris Murdoch). Dench shared her role with [Winslet](Kate)(Kate Winslet), both actresses portraying Murdoch at different phases of her life. Each of them was nominated for an [Oscar](Academy Award) the following year, earning Dench her fourth nomination in five years. In addition, she was awarded both an [Award](ALFS)(ALFS Award) and the [Leading Actress Award](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role) at the [British Academy Film Awards](55th)(55th British Academy Film Awards).
After *Iris*, Dench immediately returned to Canada to finish *The Shipping News* alongside [Spacey](Kevin)(Kevin Spacey) and [Moore](Julianne)(Julianne Moore). Based on the [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)-winning [novel](The Shipping News) by [Annie Proulx](E.)(E. Annie Proulx), the drama revolves around a quiet and introspective typesetter (Spacey) who, after the death of his daughter's mother, moves to [Newfoundland](Newfoundland and Labrador) along with his daughter and his aunt, played by Dench, in hopes of starting his life anew in the small town where she grew up. The film earned mixed reviews from critics, and was financially unsuccessful, taking in just US$24 million worldwide with a budget of US$35 million. Dench received BAFTA and SAG Award nominations for her performance.
In 2002, Dench was cast opposite [Everett](Rupert)(Rupert Everett), [Firth](Colin)(Colin Firth), and [Witherspoon](Reese)(Reese Witherspoon) in [Parker](Oliver)(Oliver Parker)'s *[Importance of Being Earnest](The)(The Importance of Being Earnest (2002 film))*, a comedy about mistaken identity set in English high society during the [Era](Victorian)(Victorian Era). Based on [Wilde](Oscar)(Oscar Wilde)'s classic [of manners](comedy)(comedy of manners) [the same name](of)(The Importance of Being Earnest), she portrayed Lady Bracknell, a role she had repeatedly played before, including a stint at the [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre) in 1982. The film was released to lukewarm reactions by critics – who called it "breezy entertainment, helped by an impressive cast", but felt that it also suffered "from some peculiar directorial choices" – and earned just US$17.3 million during its limited release. Dench's other film of 2002 was *[Another Day](Die)(Die Another Day)*, the twentieth instalment in the [Bond series](James)(James Bond in film). The spy film, directed by [Tamahori](Lee)(Lee Tamahori), marked her fourth appearance as [MI6](MI6) head M and the franchise's last performance by [Brosnan](Pierce)(Pierce Brosnan) as Bond. *Die Another Day* received mixed reviews
Regardless, it became the highest-grossing James Bond film up to that time. In the 2002 animated children's series *[Ballerina](Angelina)(Angelina Ballerina (TV series))*, Dench lent her voice to Miss Lilly, Angelina's ballet teacher, and her daughter, [Williams](Finty)(Finty Williams), provided the voice of Angelina herself.
In 2004, Dench appeared as Aereon, an ambassador of the [race](Elemental)(Riddick (character)) who helps uncover the mysterious past of [B. Riddick](Richard)(Richard B. Riddick), played by [Diesel](Vin)(Vin Diesel), in [Twohy](David)(David Twohy)'s science fiction sequel *[Chronicles of Riddick](The)(The Chronicles of Riddick)*. Selected by Diesel, who prompted writers to re-create the character to fit a female persona because he wanted to work with the actress, she called filming "tremendous fun", although she "had absolutely no idea what was going on in the plot". The film was a critical and box office failure. In his review of the film, [Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli) from *[ReelViews](James Berardinelli)* remarked that he felt that Dench's character served no more "useful purpose than to give [her] an opportunity to appear in a science-fiction movie".
She followed *Riddick* with a more traditional role in [Dance](Charles)(Charles Dance)'s English drama *[in Lavender](Ladies)(Ladies in Lavender)*, also starring friend [Smith](Maggie)(Maggie Smith). In the film, Dench plays one half of a sister duo and takes it upon herself to nurse a washed up stranger to health, eventually finding herself falling for a man many decades younger than she. The specialty release garnered positive reviews from critics, with [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* calling it "perfectly sweet and civilized [and] a pleasure to watch Smith and Dench together; their acting is so natural it could be breathing". Also in 2004, Dench provided her voice for several smaller projects. In [Disney](Walt)(Walt Disney Animation Studios)'s *[on the Range](Home)(Home on the Range (2004 film))*, she, along with [Barr](Roseanne)(Roseanne Barr) and [Tilly](Jennifer)(Jennifer Tilly), voiced a mismatched trio of [cow](dairy)(dairy cow)s who must capture an infamous cattle rustler, for his [bounty](Bounty (reward)), in order to save their idyllic farm from foreclosure. The film was mildly successful for Disney.
A major hit for Dench came with [Wright](Joe)(Joe Wright)'s *[& Prejudice](Pride)(Pride & Prejudice (2005 film))*, a 2005 adaptation of the novel by [Austen](Jane)(Jane Austen), starring [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley) and [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland). Wright persuaded Dench to join the cast as [Catherine de Bourgh](Lady)(Lady Catherine de Bourgh) by writing her a letter that read: "I love it when you play a bitch. Please come and be a bitch for me." Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes, forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming. With both a worldwide gross of over US$121 million and several Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations, the film became a critical and commercial success.
Dench, in her role as M, was the only cast member carried through from the [films](Brosnan)(Pierce Brosnan) to appear in *[Royale](Casino)(Casino Royale (2006 film))* (2006), Martin Campbell's [reboot](reboot (fiction)) of the James Bond film series, starring [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) in his debut performance as the fictional MI6 agent. The thriller received largely positive critical response, with reviewers highlighting Craig's performance and the reinvention of the character of Bond. It earned over US$594 million worldwide, ranking it among the highest-grossing James Bond films ever released. Also in April 2006, Dench returned to the West End stage in *[Fever](Hay)(Hay Fever (play))* alongside [Bowles](Peter)(Peter Bowles), [Medcalf](Kim)(Kim Medcalf) and [Lang](Belinda)(Belinda Lang). She finished off 2006 with the role of Mistress Quickly in the RSC's new musical *The Merry Wives*, a version of *[Merry Wives of Windsor](The)(The Merry Wives of Windsor)*.
[[File:Flickr - Siebbi - A rose for Dame Judi Dench (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Dench attending the premiere of *[on a Scandal](Notes)(Notes on a Scandal (film))* at the [Berlin International Film Festival](2007)(57th Berlin International Film Festival)]]
Dench appeared opposite [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett) as a London teacher with a dedicated fondness for vulnerable women in [Eyre](Richard)(Richard Eyre)'s 2006 drama film *[on a Scandal](Notes)(Notes on a Scandal (film))*, an adaption from the 2003 [of the same name](novel)(Notes on a Scandal) by [Heller](Zoë)(Zoë Heller). A fan of Heller's book, Dench "was thrilled to be asked to ... play that woman, to try to find a humanity in that dreadful person". The specialty film opened to generally positive reviews and commercial success, grossing US$50 million worldwide, exceeding its £15 million budget. In his review for *Chicago Sun-Times*, Roger Ebert declared the main actresses "perhaps the most impressive acting duo in any film of 2006. Dench and Blanchett are magnificent." The following year, Dench earned her sixth [Academy](Academy Award for Best Actress) nomination and went on to win a [Award](BIFA)(BIFA Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film) and an [Standard Award](Evening)(Evening Standard Award). Dench, as Miss Matty Jenkyns, co-starred with [Atkins](Eileen)(Eileen Atkins), [Gambon](Michael)(Michael Gambon), [Staunton](Imelda)(Imelda Staunton), and [Annis](Francesca)(Francesca Annis) in the [One](BBC)(BBC One) five-part series *[Cranford](Cranford (TV series))*. The first season of the series began transmission in November 2007.
That same year, Dench narrated "Go Inside to Greet the Light," a film about the [spiritual](spiritualism) experience of [Quaker](Quaker) meetings for worship in [Turrell](James)(James Turrell)'s Deershelter Skyspace.
Dench became the voice for the narration for the updated [Disney World](Walt)(Walt Disney World) [Epcot](Epcot) attraction [Earth](Spaceship)(Spaceship Earth (Epcot)) in February 2008. The same month, she was named as the first official patron of the York Youth Mysteries 2008, a project to allow young people to explore the York Mystery Plays through dance, film-making and circus. Her only film of 2008 was [Forster](Marc)(Marc Forster)'s *[of Solace](Quantum)(Quantum of Solace)*, the twenty-second [Eon](Eon Productions)-produced [Bond film](James)(James Bond in film), in which she reprised her role as M along with Daniel Craig. A direct sequel to the 2006 film *Casino Royale*, Forster felt Dench was underused in the previous films, and wanted to make her part bigger, having her interact with Bond more. The project received mixed reviews from critics, who mainly felt that *Quantum of Solace* was not as impressive as the predecessor *Casino Royale*, but became another hit for the franchise with a worldwide gross of US$591 million. For her performance, Dench was nominated for a [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Award) the following year.
Dench returned to the West End in mid-2009, playing Madame de Montreuil in [Mishima](Yukio)(Yukio Mishima)'s play *[de Sade](Madame)(Madame de Sade)*, directed by [Grandage](Michael)(Michael Grandage) as part of the Donmar season at [Theatre](Wyndham's)(Wyndham's Theatre). The same year, she appeared in [Potter](Sally)(Sally Potter)'s experimental film *[Rage](Rage (2009 American film))*, a project that featured 14 actors playing fictional figures in and around the fashion world, giving monologues before a plain backdrop. Attracted to the fact that it was unlike anything she had done before, Dench welcomed the opportunity to work with Potter. "I like to do something that's not expected, or predictable. I had to learn to smoke a joint, and I set my trousers alight", she said about filming. Her next film was [Marshall](Rob)(Rob Marshall)'s musical film *[Nine](Nine (2009 live-action film))*, based on [Kopit](Arthur)(Arthur Kopit)'s [book](libretto) for the 1982 [of the same name](musical)(Nine (musical)), itself suggested by [Fellini](Federico)(Federico Fellini)'s semi-autobiographical film *[8½](8½)*. Also starring [Day-Lewis](Daniel)(Daniel Day-Lewis), [Cotillard](Marion)(Marion Cotillard), [Cruz](Penélope)(Penélope Cruz), and [Loren](Sophia)(Sophia Loren), she played Lilli La Fleur, an eccentric but motherly French costume designer, who performs the song "[Bergères](Folies)(Folies Bergères)" in the film. *Nine* was nominated for four [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards), and awarded both the [Award for Best Film](Satellite)(Satellite Award for Best Film) and [Cast](Best)(Satellite Award for Best Cast – Motion Picture). Also in 2009, Dench reprised the role of Matilda Jenkyns in *[to Cranford](Return)(Return to Cranford)*, the two-part second season of a [Curtis](Simon)(Simon Curtis (filmmaker)) television series. Critically acclaimed, Dench was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, a Primetime Emmy Award, and a Satellite Award.
### 2010s
In 2010, Dench renewed her collaboration with [Hall](Peter)(Peter Hall (director)) at the [Theatre](Rose)(Rose Theatre, Kingston) in [upon Thames](Kingston)(Kingston upon Thames) in ''[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream)'', which opened in February 2010; she played Titania as [Elizabeth I](Queen)(Elizabeth I of England) in her later years – almost 50 years after she first played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company. In July 2010, Dench performed "[in the Clowns](Send)(Send in the Clowns)" at a special celebratory promenade concert from the [Albert Hall](Royal)(Royal Albert Hall) as part of the proms season, in honour of composer [Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim)'s 80th birthday.
In 2011, Dench starred in *[Eyre](Jane)(Jane Eyre (2011 film))*, *[Week with Marilyn](My)(My Week with Marilyn)* and *[Edgar](J.)(J. Edgar)*. In [Joji Fukunaga](Cary)(Cary Joji Fukunaga)'s period drama *Jane Eyre*, based on the 1847 [of the same name](novel)(Jane Eyre) by [Brontë](Charlotte)(Charlotte Brontë), she played the role of Alice Fairfax, housekeeper to Rochester, the aloof and brooding master of Thornfield Hall, where main character Jane, played by [Wasikowska](Mia)(Mia Wasikowska), gets employed as a [governess](governess). Dench reportedly signed to the project after she had received a humorous personal note from Fukunaga, in which he "promised her that she'd be the sexiest woman on set if she did the film". Acclaimed among critics, it was a mediocre arthouse success at the box office, grossing US$30.5 million worldwide. In [Curtis](Simon)(Simon Curtis (filmmaker))' *My Week with Marilyn*, which depicts the making of the 1957 film *[Prince and the Showgirl](The)(The Prince and the Showgirl)* starring [Monroe](Marilyn)(Marilyn Monroe) and [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier), Dench played actress [Thorndike](Sybil)(Sybil Thorndike). The film garnered largely positive reviews, and earned Dench a [Actress in a Supporting Role](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role) nomination at the [BAFTA Awards](65th)(65th British Academy Film Awards). Supporting Actress in 2012|publisher=BAFTA|access-date=18 September 2018}}
Dench's last film of 2011 was [Eastwood](Clint)(Clint Eastwood)'s *J. Edgar*, a biographical drama film about the career of [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) director [Edgar Hoover](J.)(J. Edgar Hoover), played by [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio), from the [Raids](Palmer)(Palmer Raids) onwards, including an examination of his private life as a [closeted](closeted) homosexual. Hand-picked by Eastwood to play Anna Marie Hoover, Hoover's mother, Dench initially thought a friend was setting her up upon receiving Eastwood's phone call request. "I didn't take it seriously to start with. And then I realised it was really him and that was a tricky conversation", she stated. Released to mixed reception, both with critics and commercially, the film went on to gross US$79 million worldwide. The same year, Dench reunited with [Marshall](Rob)(Rob Marshall) and [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) for a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in *[of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides)*, playing a noblewoman who is robbed by [Jack Sparrow](Captain)(Captain Jack Sparrow), played by Depp. She made a second cameo that year in [Cooney](Ray)(Ray Cooney)'s *[for Your Wife](Run)(Run for Your Wife (2012 film))*.
In 2011, Dench reunited with director [Madden](John)(John Madden (director)) on the set of the [drama](comedy)(comedy drama) *[Best Exotic Marigold Hotel](The)(The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel)* (2012), starring an [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) also consisting of [Imrie](Celia)(Celia Imrie), [Nighy](Bill)(Bill Nighy), [Pickup](Ronald)(Ronald Pickup), [Smith](Maggie)(Maggie Smith), [Wilkinson](Tom)(Tom Wilkinson), and [Wilton](Penelope)(Penelope Wilton), as a group of British [pensioner](pensioner)s moving to a retirement hotel in India, run by the young and eager Sonny ([Patel](Dev)(Dev Patel)). Released to positive reviews by critics, who declared the film a "sweet story about the senior set featuring a top-notch cast of veteran actors", it became a surprise box-office hit following its international release, eventually grossing $US134 million worldwide, mostly from its domestic run. *Best Exotic Marigold Hotel* was ranked among the highest-grossing specialty releases of the year, and Dench, whom [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) from *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* called "resilient marvel", garnered a [Actress](Best)(BIFA Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film) nod at both the [Independent Film Awards](British)(British Independent Film Awards) and Golden Globe Awards.
[[File:Judy and Ben (8749969035) (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Dench with *[Skyfall](Skyfall)* co-star [Whishaw](Ben)(Ben Whishaw) at the [Coward Theatre](Noël)(Noël Coward Theatre) in 2013]]
Also in 2012, *[Request Pending](Friend)(Friend Request Pending)*, an indie short film which Dench had filmed in 2011, received a wide release as part of the feature films *[in Shorts](Stars)(Stars in Shorts)*, "Camden Clog dancing Nelson Mills" by Pat Tracey, and *The Joy of Six*. In the 12-minute comedy, directed by *My Week with Marilyn* assistant director [Foggin](Chris)(Chris Foggin) on a budget of just £5,000, she portrays a pensioner grappling with a crush on her church choirmaster and the art of cyber-flirting via [networking](social)(social networking). Dench made her seventh and final appearance as M in the 23rd [Bond film](James)(James Bond in film), *[Skyfall](Skyfall)* (2012), directed by [Mendes](Sam)(Sam Mendes). In the film, Bond investigates an attack on MI6; it transpires that it is part of an attack on M by former MI6 operative Raoul Silva (played by [Bardem](Javier)(Javier Bardem)) to humiliate, discredit and kill M as revenge against her for betraying him. Dench's position as M was subsequently filled by [Fiennes](Ralph)(Ralph Fiennes)' character. Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond series, *Skyfall* was positively received by critics and at the box office, grossing over $1 billion worldwide, and became the [film of all time in the UK](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing films in the United Kingdom) and the highest-grossing film in the James Bond series. Critics called Dench's [Awards](Saturn)(Saturn Awards)-nominated performance "compellingly luminous".
In 2013, Dench starred as the title character in the [Frears](Stephen)(Stephen Frears)-directed film *[Philomena](Philomena (film))*, which was inspired by true events of a woman looking for the son which the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) took from her a half-century before. The film was screened in the main competition section at the [Venice International Film Festival](70th)(70th Venice International Film Festival), where it was very favorably received by critics. On Dench's performance, *[Magazine](Time)(Time Magazine)* commented that "this is Dench's triumph. At 78, she has a golden career behind her, often as queens and other frosty matriarchs. So the warmth under pressure she radiates here is nearly a surprise [...] Dench gives a performance of grace, nuance, and cinematic heroism." She was subsequently nominated for many major acting awards, including a seventh [Oscar](Academy Awards) nomination.
In 2015, Dench appeared opposite [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) in [Walsh](Dearbhla)(Dearbhla Walsh)'s [screen adaptation](small)(Roald Dahl's Esio Trot) of [Dahl](Roald)(Roald Dahl)'s children's novel *[Trot](Esio)(Esio Trot)* (1990), in which a retired bachelor falls in love with his widowed neighbour, played by Dench, who keeps a [tortoise](tortoise) as a companion after the death of her husband, First broadcast on [One](BBC)(BBC One) on New Year's Day 2015, it became one of the most-watched programmes of the week, and earned Dench her first [Actress](Best)(International Emmy Award for Best Actress) nomination at the [International Emmy Awards](2016)(44th International Emmy Awards). On her performance, *[Telegraph](The Daily Telegraph)*s Michael Hogan commented: "We've grown accustomed to seeing Dench in forbidding roles, but here, she recalled her footloose, flirtatious side, displayed in sitcoms as *[Fine Romance](A)(A Fine Romance (1981 TV series))* and *[Time Goes By](As)(As Time Goes By (UK TV series))*. The Dame was sparkly and downright ravishing."
[[File:Judi Dench 2015.jpg|thumb|upright|Dench at [Paul's Covent Garden](St)(St Paul's Covent Garden) in 2015]]
As with most of the original cast, Dench reprised the role of Evelyn in John Madden's *[Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel](The)(The Second Best Exotic Marigold Hotel)* (2015), the sequel to the [sleeper hit](2011)(The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel). The comedy drama was released to lukewarm reviews from critics, who found it "as original as its title – but with a cast this talented and effortlessly charming, that hardly matters". From April to May 2015, Dench played a mother, with her real-life daughter [Williams](Finty)(Finty Williams) playing her character's daughter, in *[Vote](The)(The Vote (play))* at the [Warehouse](Donmar)(Donmar Warehouse). The final performance was broadcast live on [More4](More4) at 8:25 pm; the time when the events in the play take place. The appearance marked her first performance at the theatre since 1976. On 20 September 2015, she was the guest on [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4)'s *[Island Discs](Desert)(Desert Island Discs)* for the third time, in which she revealed that her first acting performance was as a snail. She reprised her role as M in the 2015 James Bond film *Spectre*, in the form of a recording that was delivered to Bond.
In 2016, Dench made [Award](Olivier)(Olivier Award) history when she won [Actress in a Supporting Role](Best)(Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role) for her rôle as Paulina in ''[Winter's Tale](The)(The Winter's Tale)'', breaking her own record with her eighth win as a performer. Next, she co-starred as [Neville, Duchess of York](Cecily)(Cecily Neville, Duchess of York) to [Cumberbatch](Benedict)(Benedict Cumberbatch)'s [III](Richard)(Richard III of England) in the second series of the [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) historical series *[Hollow Crown](The)(The Hollow Crown (TV series))*. The same year, she was cast alongside [Green](Eva)(Eva Green) and [Butterfield](Asa)(Asa Butterfield) in [Burton](Tim)(Tim Burton)'s dark fantasy film ''[Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children](Miss)(Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (film))''. Dench played Miss Esmeralda Avocet, a headmistress who can manipulate time and can transform into a bird. The film garnered mixed reviews from critics, who felt it was "on stronger footing as a visual experience than a narrative one". Budgeted on US$110 million, it became a commercial hit, grossing nearly US$300 million worldwide.
Dench's first film of 2017 was [Chadwick](Justin)(Justin Chadwick)'s *[Fever](Tulip)(Tulip Fever)*, alongside [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander) and [Waltz](Christoph)(Christoph Waltz). Set during the period of the [mania](tulip)(tulip mania), the historical drama follows a [17th-century](Tulip mania) painter in [Amsterdam](Amsterdam) who falls in love with a married woman whose portrait he has been hired to paint. Filmed in 2014, the film went through [delays](several)(Production hell) and earned largely negative reviews from critics, who called it a "handsomely-mounted period piece undone by uninspired dialogue and excessive plotting". Also in 2017, Dench reprised the role of [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria) when she headlined [Frears](Stephen)(Stephen Frears)'s *[& Abdul](Victoria)(Victoria & Abdul)*. The biographical comedy drama depicts the real-life relationship between the monarch and her Indian Muslim servant [Karim](Abdul)(Abdul Karim (the Munshi)), played by opposite [Fazal](Ali)(Ali Fazal). While the film was met with lukewarm reviews for its "imbalanced narrative", Dench earned specific praise for her performance, earning the actress her 12th [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nomination.
In September 2017, the website [LADBible](LADBible) posted a video of Dench rapping with UK [Grime](Grime music) MC [Bizzle](Lethal)(Lethal Bizzle). The collaboration came about because the [slang](British slang) term "dench", which is used as a compliment, features in Bizzle's lyrics and on his clothing brand Stay Dench which Dench had previously helped to promote. Dench's last film that year was [Branagh](Kenneth)(Kenneth Branagh)'s *[on the Orient Express](Murder)(Murder on the Orient Express (2017 film))*, based on the 1934 novel [the same name](of)(Murder on the Orient Express) by [Christie](Agatha)(Agatha Christie). The [mystery](mystery film)–[drama](drama film) [film](ensemble)(ensemble film) follows world-renowned detective [Poirot](Hercule)(Hercule Poirot), who seeks to solve a murder on the [European train](famous)(Orient Express) in the 1930s. Dench portrayed Princess Dragomiroff opposite [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp), [Pfeiffer](Michelle)(Michelle Pfeiffer), and [Cruz](Penélope)(Penélope Cruz). The film has grossed $351 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, with praise for the cast's performances, but criticism for not adding anything new to previous adaptations.
Dench was cast as the elder version of titular character Joan Elizabeth Stanley in [Nunn](Trevor)(Trevor Nunn)'s spy drama film *[Joan](Red)(Red Joan)* (2018). Based on Jennie Rooney's same-titled novel, it was inspired by the life of [KGB](KGB) intelligence source [Norwood](Melita)(Melita Norwood). While the film earned generally negative reviews, Dench was applauded for her performance, with *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* agreeing that "Dench is wasted in this absurd portrayal." Her other film of 2018 was *[Is True](All)(All Is True)*, a fictional historical film for which she reunited with Kenneth Branagh to portray [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare)'s wife [Hathaway](Anne)(Anne Hathaway (wife of Shakespeare)). Released to favorable reviews, critics called the film "impressively cast and beautifully filmed. *All Is True* takes an elegiac look at Shakespeare's final days." Also in 2018, Dench appeared alongside [Atkins](Eileen)(Eileen Atkins), [Plowright](Joan)(Joan Plowright) and [Smith](Maggie)(Maggie Smith) in [Michell](Roger)(Roger Michell)'s documentary film *[Like a Dame](Nothing)(Nothing Like a Dame (film))* which documents conversations between the actresses, interspersed with scenes from their career on film and stage. It received rave reviews, with *The Guardian* declaring it an "outrageously funny film".
In 2019, Dench presented a two-part nature documentary series for the [ITV](ITV (TV Network)) network called ''Judi Dench's Wild Borneo Adventure'' in which she and her partner travelled across [island](the)(Borneo), looking at its remarkable wildlife and efforts by conservationists to preserve it for future generations. In autumn 2019, she starred as [Deuteronomy](Old)(Old Deuteronomy) in [Hooper](Tom)(Tom Hooper)'s [adaptation](film)(Cats (2019 film)) of *[Cats](Cats (musical))* alongside [Hudson](Jennifer)(Jennifer Hudson), [McKellen](Ian)(Ian McKellen), and [Corden](James)(James Corden). The film received overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics, who criticized the [effects](CGI)(Computer-generated imagery), plot, and tone, with many calling it one of the worst films of 2019. Also, the film became a [bomb](box-office)(box-office bomb), having so far grossed $62 million on a budget as high as $100 million. In May 2020, Dench became the oldest British person to be featured on the cover of British *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))*.
### 2020s
In 2020, Dench reteamed with Kenneth Branagh in his science fantasy adventure film *[Fowl](Artemis)(Artemis Fowl (film))*, based on the first novel in the [series](same-titled)(Artemis Fowl) by [Colfer](Eoin)(Eoin Colfer). The film received generally negative reviews from critics, who criticised the plot, dialogue, characters, and visual effects. She also appeared as a headmistress alongside [Izzard](Eddie)(Eddie Izzard), [Juri](Carla)(Carla Juri), and [D'Arcy](James)(James D'Arcy) in [Goddard](Andy)(Andy Goddard)'s war drama film *[Minutes to Midnight](Six)(Six Minutes to Midnight)* (2020) about a discovery at a school for the daughters of the [Nazi](Nazi) elite that leads to a series of deadly events. The film received largely mixed reviews from critics who found it a "fascinating fact-based [WWII](WWII)-era story to tell," but also remarked that it "largely loses it in muddled spy [shenanigan](Practical joke)s." Dench's third film in 2020 was *[Spirit](Blithe)(Blithe Spirit (2020 film))*, a comedy film based upon the [play of the same name](1941)(Blithe Spirit (play)), in which she played a talentless but eccentric medium named Madame Arcati. Directed by [Hall](Edward)(Edward Hall (director)), it was released to negative reviews, with Sheila O'Malley from [RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com) calling it "aggressively un-funny," though Dench was named the "only bright spot" in the film.
In 2021, Dench had a brief role in Jules Williamson's comedy drama *[the Rails](Off)(Off the Rails (2021 film))*, starring [Preston](Kelly)(Kelly Preston), [Seagrove](Jenny)(Jenny Seagrove), and [Phillips](Sally)(Sally Phillips), about three friends in their 50s who embark on a European train adventure to celebrate the life of their recently deceased friend. The film earned largely negative reviews. Her other film that year was Kenneth Branagh's *[Belfast](Belfast (film))*, a black-and-white [of age](coming)(coming of age) [drama](comedy)(comedy drama) that centres on a young boy's childhood amid [tumult](the)(The Troubles) of [Belfast](Belfast), Northern Ireland, in the 1960s. Released to rave reviews, the film won the [Choice Award](People's)(Toronto International Film Festival People's Choice Award) at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2021)(2021 Toronto International Film Festival) and earned Dench her eighth Academy Award nomination.Steve Pond, ["‘Belfast’ Wins Toronto Film Festival’s People’s Choice Award"](https://www.thewrap.com/belfast-wins-toronto-film-festivals-peoples-choice-award/). *[TheWrap](TheWrap)*, 29 September 2021. In October 2021, it was announced that Dench would be joining the cast of *[Allelujah](Allelujah (film))*, a film adaptation of [Bennett](Alan)(Alan Bennett)'s [of the same name](play)(Allelujah!) directed by [Eyre](Richard)(Richard Eyre), which will also star [Saunders](Jennifer)(Jennifer Saunders), [Tovey](Russell)(Russell Tovey), [Bradley](David)(David Bradley (English actor)), and [Jacobi](Derek)(Derek Jacobi). In November 2022, the BBC aired *Louis Theroux Interviews: Dame Judi Dench* featuring Dench and documentarian [Theroux](Louis)(Louis Theroux).
In January 2023, Dench appeared in the [BBC](BBC) concert, ''[Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim)'s Old Friends* where she sang "[in the Clowns](Send)(Send in the Clowns)" from *[Little Night Music](A)(A Little Night Music)''. In March 2023, it was announced that Dench would be appearing in a one-off show at that year's [Festival Fringe](Edinburgh)(Edinburgh Festival Fringe), discussing her life and career with [Brandreth](Gyles)(Gyles Brandreth), and would also sing and perform excerpts from her past works. The show is titled *I Remember It Well: Judi Dench in Conversation with Gyles Brandreth*. In April 2023, Dench was the subject of a [5](Channel)(Channel 5 (British TV channel)) documentary, titled *The Divine Judi Dench: Our National Treasure*.
## Public image
In March 2013, Dench was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*. One of the highest-profile actresses in [popular culture](British)(British popular culture), Dench appeared on [Debrett's](Debrett's) 2017 list of the most influential people in the UK.
## Personal life
Dench is a long-time resident of [Surrey](Outwood,)(Outwood, Surrey). A [Quaker](Quakers) since her school years, she said of her faith in 2013, "I think it informs everything I do. [...] I couldn't be without it."[The Telegraph – I take memory supplements to help recall my lines, says Judi Dench](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-news/9941570/I-take-memory-supplements-to-help-recall-my-lines-says-Judi-Dench.html) Retrieved 17 March 2014 She is a long-time supporter of [Liverpool](Liverpool)-based football team [F.C.](Everton)(Everton F.C.), and has been an honorary patron of [charity branch](its)(Everton in the Community) since 2012.
Dench married actor [Williams](Michael)(Michael Williams (actor)) in 1971; they remained together until his death from lung cancer in 2001. Their only child, daughter [Williams](Finty)(Finty Williams), was born in 1972 and became an actress. Through her daughter, Dench has a grandson who was born in 1997.
Dench has been in a relationship with David Mills, a [conservationist](Conservationism), since 2010. In a 2014 interview with *[Times](The)(The Times)* magazine, she discussed how she never expected to find love again after her husband's death and said, "I wasn't even prepared to be ready for it. It was very, very gradual and grown up. It's just wonderful." The couple met when Mills invited her to open a squirrel enclosure at the wildlife centre he runs near her home in Surrey.
In early 2012, Dench discussed her [degeneration](macular)(macular degeneration), with one eye "dry" and the other "wet", for which she has been treated with injections into the eye. She said that she needs someone to read scripts to her.[Judi Dench says she isn't going blind](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-02-21/judi-dench-says-she-isn27t-going-blind/3841484), [Reuters](Reuters) per [Online](ABC)(ABC Online), 21 February 2012 She also underwent knee surgery in 2013, but recovered from the procedure well and stated that her knee was no longer an issue.
Dench has been an outspoken critic of prejudice in the movie industry against older actresses. She stated in 2014, "I'm tired of being told I'm too old to try something. I should be able to decide for myself if I can't do things and not have someone tell me I'll forget my lines or I'll trip and fall on the set. [...] Age is a number. It's something imposed on you. It drives me absolutely [spare](wiktionary:spare#Adjective) when people say, 'Are you going to retire? Isn't it time you put your feet up?' Or tell me [my] age."
At [Hogmanay](Hogmanay) on 31 December 2022, she joined [Spiteri](Sharleen)(Sharleen Spiteri) in an impromptu performance of [Abba](ABBA)'s "[Waterloo](Waterloo (ABBA song))" at the Fife Arms hotel in [Braemar](Braemar), where they were both staying. The owner of the hotel described her as an 'honorary Scot', from her persona as 'Mrs Brown'.
### Political views and interests
Dench has worked with the non-governmental indigenous organisation [International](Survival)(Survival International), campaigning in the defence of the [people](San)(San people) of [Botswana](Botswana) and the [people](Arhuaco)(Arhuaco) of [Colombia](Colombia). She made a supporting video saying the San are victims of tyranny, greed, and racism. Dench is also a patron of the [Trust](Karuna)(Karuna Trust (UK)), a charity that supports work amongst some of India's poorest and most oppressed people, mainly, though not exclusively, [Dalits](Dalits).
On 22 July 2010, Dench was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (DLitt) by [Trent University](Nottingham)(Nottingham Trent University). The [Hadwen Trust](Dr)(Dr Hadwen Trust) announced on 15 January 2011 that Dench had become a patron of the trust, joining, among others, [Lumley](Joanna)(Joanna Lumley) and [Shepherd](David)(David Shepherd (artist)). On 19 March 2012, it was announced that Dench was to become honorary patron of [in the Community](Everton)(Everton in the Community), the charity branch of [Liverpool](Liverpool)-based football team Everton, of which she is a long-time supporter.
Dench is an advisor to the [Shakespeare Center](American)(American Shakespeare Center). She is a patron of the [Schools Festival](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare Schools Festival), a charity that enables school children across the UK to perform Shakespeare in professional theatres. She is also a patron of [North](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare North), a playhouse project due to be completed in 2022 in the town of [Prescot](Prescot) near Liverpool. She is patron of East Park Riding for the Disabled, a riding school for disabled children at [Surrey](Newchapel,)(Newchapel, Surrey). Dench is also a vice-president of national charity Revitalise, that provides accessible holidays for those with disabilities. In 2011, along with musician [Sting](Sting (musician)) and billionaire entrepreneur [Branson](Richard)(Richard Branson), she publicly urged policy-makers to adopt more progressive drug policies by decriminalizing drug use.
In 2014, Dench was one of 200 celebrities to sign an open letter to the people of Scotland asking them to vote to remain part of the UK in [year's referendum](that)(2014 Scottish independence referendum).*The Telegraph*, 10 August 2014
In a 2022 opinion piece for *[Times](The)(The Times)* following the death of [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth II), Dench expressed criticism of the [Netflix](Netflix) show *[Crown](The)(The Crown (TV series))* accusing it "crude sensationalism" and being "cruelly unjust to the individuals and damaging to the institution they represent," as well as having the potential to mislead non-British viewers through dramatic license. She furthermore argued the show should add a disclaimer warning to remind viewers that it is a fictional drama.
## Philanthropy and advocacy
Dench is the Patron and President of the alumni foundation of [Studio London](Drama)(Drama Studio London), a Patron of the British Shakespeare Association, and a vice-president of [conservation](wildlife)(wildlife conservation) NGO [and Flora International](Fauna)(Fauna and Flora International). Fauna & Flora International|url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/people|access-date=2020-12-05|newspaper=Fauna & Flora International }} She has participated multiple times in the [against Extinction](Explorers)(Explorers against Extinction) wildlife conservation fundraiser Sketch For Survival, in which celebrity artists join prominent wildlife artists in sketching wildlife as well as they can in 26 minutes, and the results are auctioned off.
In a [biography](biography) by John Miller it was noted that in the late 1990s Dench was the patron of over 180 charities, many of which were related either to the theatre or to medical causes, for example [Against Cancer](York)(York Against Cancer). Dench is a patron of [Leaveners](the)(the Leaveners), The [Theatre](Archway)(Archway Theatre), [Horley](Horley), Surrey, and the relationship research and innovation charity OnePlusOne (formally known as OnePlusOne Marriage and Partnership Research, London.)
She became president of [Academy of Theatre Arts](Mountview)(Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts) in London in 2006, taking over from Sir [Mills](John)(John Mills). She has been president of [Theatre](Questors)(Questors Theatre), [Ealing](Ealing), since 1985, where the main auditorium is known as The Judi Dench Playhouse, being the only theatre to bear her name. She was also patron of [Hall School](Ovingdean)(Ovingdean Hall School), a special day and boarding school for the deaf and hard of hearing in [Brighton](Brighton), which closed in 2010, and Vice President of [Little Foundation](The)(The Little Foundation). Dame Judi is also a long-standing and active Vice President of the national disabled people's charity Revitalise.
## Acting credits
## Awards and honours
Among her [accolades](numerous)(List of awards and nominations received by Judi Dench) for her acting work, Dench has won an [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for her role as [Elizabeth I](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth I) in the romantic comedy *[in Love](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in Love)* (1998). She has received five [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) nominations, and three Best Supporting Actress nominations. She also has earned six [Academy Film Awards](British)(British Academy Film Awards), four [Academy Television Awards](British)(British Academy Television Awards), two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), and two [Actors Guild Awards](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards), a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award), and seven [Olivier Awards](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Awards).
Over her distinguished career she has been recognized by the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) for the following performances:
*[Academy Awards](70th)(70th Academy Awards): [Actress in a Leading Role](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress), nomination, for *[Brown](Mrs.)(Mrs. Brown)* (1997)
*[Academy Awards](71st)(71st Academy Awards): [Actress in a Supporting Role](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), **win**, *[in Love](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in Love)* (1998)
*[Academy Awards](73rd)(73rd Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Supporting Role, nomination, *[Chocolat](Chocolat (2000 film))* (2000)
*[Academy Awards](74th)(74th Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, *[Iris](Iris (2001 film))* (2001)
*[Academy Awards](78th)(78th Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for *[Henderson Presents](Mrs)(Mrs Henderson Presents)* (2005)
*[Academy Awards](79th)(79th Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, for *[on a Scandal](Notes)(Notes on a Scandal (film))* (2006)
*[Academy Awards](86th)(86th Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Leading Role, nomination, *[Philomena](Philomena (film))* (2013)
*[Academy Awards](94th)(94th Academy Awards): Best Actress in a Supporting Role, nomination, *[Belfast](Belfast (film))* (2021)
Dench was appointed [of the Order of the British Empire](Officer)(Officer of the Order of the British Empire) (OBE) in the [Birthday Honours](1970)(1970 Birthday Honours) and [Commander of the Order of the British Empire](Dame)(Order of the British Empire) (DBE) in the [New Year Honours](1988)(1988 New Year Honours). She was appointed [of the Order of the Companions of Honour](Member)(Order of the Companions of Honour) (CH) in the [Birthday Honours](2005)(2005 Birthday Honours). She has also earned a variety of [Commonwealth, and Honorary awards titles, and degrees](Scholastic,)(List of awards and nominations received by Judi Dench#Honors, degrees, and titles).
## Discography
* *[Pericles](Pericles, Prince of Tyre)* (1968) Shakespeare Recording Society, Caedmon Records
* *[Cabaret](Cabaret (musical))* (1968), Original London cast album CBS (1973)
* *[Good Companions](The)(The Good Companions (musical))* (1974), Original London cast recording (1974)
* ''[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (Seiji Ozawa recording))* (1995) by [Mendelssohn](Felix)(Felix Mendelssohn), conducted by [Ozawa](Seiji)(Seiji Ozawa) (as Narrator)
* *[Little Night Music](A)(A Little Night Music)* (1995) by [Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim), [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre) Cast
* *[Nine](Nine (2009 live-action film))'' (2009) Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
*[Earth (Epcot)](Spaceship)(Spaceship Earth (Epcot)) narrator of the current version of the attraction. (2008)
## See also
*[of British Academy Award nominees and winners](List)(List of British Academy Award nominees and winners)
*[of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees](List)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees)
*[of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
*[of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories](List)(List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories)
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
*[Judi Dench](https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b9f01aa4a) at the [Film Institute](British)(British Film Institute)
}}
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[F.C. non-playing staff](Category:Everton)(Category:Everton F.C. non-playing staff)
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|
Sword Art Online
|
sword_art_online
|
# Sword Art Online
*Revision ID: 1157327652 | Timestamp: 2023-05-27T22:46:04Z*
---
|[fiction](Science)(Science fiction)}}
}}
| demographic = Male
| imprint = [Bunko](Dengeki)(Dengeki Bunko)
| magazine =
| first = April 10, 2009
| last =
| volumes = 27
| volume_list = List of Sword Art Online light novels
}}
| writer =
}}
| music = [Kajiura](Yuki)(Yuki Kajiura)
| studio = [Pictures](A-1)(A-1 Pictures)
| licensee =
| network = [MX](Tokyo)(Tokyo MX), [GTV](Gunma TV), [GYT](Tochigi TV), [tvk](Television Kanagawa), [TVS](Television Saitama), [TVA](Aichi Television Broadcasting), [RKB](RKB Mainichi Broadcasting), [HBC](Hokkaido Broadcasting), [MBS](MBS TV), [AT-X](AT-X (TV network)), [TV](Chiba)(Chiba TV), [BS11](Nippon BS Broadcasting)
| network_en =
| first = July 8, 2012
| last = December 23, 2012
| episodes = 25
| episode_list = Sword Art Online (season 1)
}}
| demographic = Male
| imprint = Dengeki Bunko
| magazine =
| first = October 10, 2012
| last =
| volumes = 8
| volume_list = List of Sword Art Online light novels#Sword Art Online: Progressive
}}
| writer =
| music = Yuki Kajiura
| studio = A-1 Pictures
| licensee =
| network = Tokyo MX, BS11
| released = December 31, 2013
| runtime = 100 minutes
}}
| writer =
}}
| music = Yuki Kajiura
| studio = A-1 Pictures
| licensee =
| network = Tokyo MX, GTV, GYT, tvk, TVS, CTC, TVA, MBS, [TVQ](TVQ Kyushu Broadcasting), [TVh](Television Hokkaido), AT-X, BS11
| network_en =
| first = July 5, 2014
| last = December 20, 2014
| episodes = 24
| episode_list = Sword Art Online II
}}
|Sword Art Online: Alicization War of Underworld }}
| director = Manabu Ono
| producer =
| writer =
|Kōhei Urushihara War of Underworld}}}}
}}
| music = Yuki Kajiura
| studio = A-1 Pictures
| licensee =
| network = Tokyo MX, GYT, GTV, BS11, MBS, AT-X, TV Aichi
| network_en =
| first = October 7, 2018
| last = September 20, 2020
| episodes = 47
| episode_list = Sword Art Online: Alicization
}}
is a Japanese [novel](light)(light novel) series written by [Kawahara](Reki)(Reki Kawahara) and illustrated by abec. The series takes place in the then-near future and focuses on protagonists ["Kirito" Kirigaya](Kazuto)(Kirito (Sword Art Online)) and [Yuuki](Asuna)(Asuna (Sword Art Online)) as they play through various [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) [MMORPG](Massively multiplayer online role-playing game) worlds. Kawahara originally wrote the series as a web novel on his website from 2002 to 2008. The light novels began publication on [Media Works](ASCII)(ASCII Media Works)' [Bunko](Dengeki)(Dengeki Bunko) imprint from April 10, 2009, with a spin-off series launching in October 2012. The series has spawned twelve manga adaptations published by ASCII Media Works and [Kadokawa](Kadokawa Corporation). The novels and the manga adaptations have been licensed for release in North America by [Press](Yen)(Yen Press).
An [anime](anime) television series produced by [Pictures](A-1)(A-1 Pictures), known simply as *[Art Online](Sword)(Sword Art Online (2012 TV series))*, aired in Japan between July and December 2012, with a television film *Sword Art Online: Extra Edition* airing on December 31, 2013, and a second season, titled *[Art Online II](Sword)(Sword Art Online II)*, airing between July and December 2014. An animated film titled *[Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale](Sword)(Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale)*, featuring an original story by Kawahara, premiered in Japan and Southeast Asia on February 18, 2017, and was released in the United States on March 9, 2017. A spin-off anime series titled *[Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online](Sword)(Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online)* premiered in April 2018, while a third season titled *[Art Online: Alicization](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Alicization)* aired from October 2018 to September 2020. An anime film adaptation of *Sword Art Online: Progressive* titled *[Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night](Sword)(Sword Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night)* premiered on October 30, 2021. A second film titled *[Art Online Progressive: Scherzo of Deep Night](Sword)(Sword Art Online Progressive: Scherzo of Deep Night)* premiered on October 22, 2022. A live-action series based on the light novels is set to be produced by [Netflix](Netflix). Six video games based on the series have been released for multiple consoles.
*Sword Art Online* has received widespread commercial success, with the light novels having over 30 million copies sold worldwide. The light novel series had good reviews, mainly on later arcs, while other series like *Progressive* were praised since the beginning. The anime series has received mixed to positive reviews, with praise for its animation, musical score and exploration of the psychological aspects of virtual reality, but criticisms for its pacing and writing.
## Synopsis
### Setting
The light novel series spans several [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) worlds, beginning with the game, *Sword Art Online* (*SAO*), which is set in a world known as *Aincrad*. Each world is built on a [engine](game)(game engine) called the World Seed, which was initially developed specifically for *SAO* by [Kayaba](Akihiko)(List of Sword Art Online characters#Heathcliff), but was later duplicated for *Alfheim Online* (*ALO*), and later willed to Kirito, who had it leaked online with the successful intention of reviving the virtual reality industry. A third world known as *[Gale Online](Gun)(Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online)* (*GGO*) appears in the third arc and is stylized as an [FPS](first-person shooter) game instead of an RPG, and is the main setting of *Alternative Gun Gale Online*. It was created using the World Seed by an American company. A fourth world appears in the fourth arc known as the Underworld (UW). The world itself was created using the World Seed as a base, but it is as realistic as the real world due to using many powerful government resources to keep it running.
### Plot
List of *Sword Art Online* characters}}
In 2022, a virtual reality [multiplayer online role-playing game](massively)(massively multiplayer online role-playing game) (VRMMORPG) called *Sword Art Online* (*SAO*) was released. With the NerveGear, a helmet that stimulates the user's five senses via their brain, players can experience and control their in-game characters with their minds. Both the game and the NerveGear were created by Akihiko Kayaba. On November 6, 10,000 players log into *SAO*s mainframe cyberspace for the first time, only to discover that they are unable to log out. Kayaba appears and tells the players that they must beat all 100 floors of Aincrad, a steel castle which is the setting of *SAO*, if they wish to be free. He also states that those who suffer in-game deaths or forcibly remove the NerveGear out-of-game will suffer real-life deaths.
A player named ["Kirito" Kirigaya](Kazuto)(Kirito (Sword Art Online)) is one of 1,000 testers in the game's previous [beta](closed)(closed beta). With the advantage of previous VR gaming experience and a drive to protect other beta testers from discrimination, he isolates himself from the greater groups and plays the game alone, bearing the mantle of "beater", a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of "beta tester" and "cheater". As the players progress through the game Kirito eventually befriends a young girl named [Yuuki](Asuna)(Asuna (Sword Art Online)), forming a relationship with and later marrying her in-game. After the duo discover the identity of Kayaba's secret ID, who was playing as "Heathcliff", the leader of the guild Asuna joined in, they confront and destroy him, freeing themselves and the other players from the game.
In the real world, Kazuto discovers that 300 *SAO* players, including Asuna, remain trapped in their NerveGear. As he goes to the hospital to see Asuna, he meets Asuna's father Shouzou Yuuki who is asked by an associate of his, Nobuyuki Sugou, to make a decision, which Sugou later reveals to be his marriage with Asuna, angering Kazuto. Several months later, he is informed by Agil, another *SAO* survivor, that a figure similar to Asuna was spotted on "The [Tree](World)(Yggdrasil)" in another VRMMORPG cyberspace called *Alfheim Online* (*ALO*). Assisted in-game by his cousin and adoptive sister ["Leafa" Kirigaya](Suguha)(Leafa) and Yui, a navigation pixie (originally an AI from *SAO*), he quickly learns that the trapped players in *ALO* are part of a plan conceived by Sugou to perform illegal experiments on their minds. The goal is to create the perfect mind-control for financial gain and to subjugate Asuna, whom he intends to marry in the real world, to assume control of her family's corporation. Kirito eventually stops the experiment and rescues the remaining 300 *SAO* players, foiling Sugou's plans. Before leaving *ALO* to see Asuna, Kayaba, who has uploaded his mind to the Internet using an experimental and destructively high-power version of NerveGear at the cost of his life, entrusts Kirito with The Seed a [package](Package (package management system)) program designed to create virtual worlds. Kazuto eventually reunites with Asuna in the real world after thwarting an attack from Sugou and The Seed is released onto the Internet, reviving Aincrad as other VRMMORPGs begin to thrive.
One year after the events of SAO, at the prompting of a government official investigating strange occurrences in VR, Kazuto takes on a job to investigate a series of murders involving another VRMMORPG called *Gun Gale Online* (*GGO*), the AmuSphere (the successor of the NerveGear), and a player called Death Gun. Aided by a female player named ["Sinon" Asada](Shino)(Sinon (Sword Art Online)), he participates in a gunfight tournament called the Bullet of Bullets (BoB) and discovers the truth behind the murders, which originated with a player who participated in a player-killing guild in *SAO*. Through his and Sinon's efforts, two suspects are captured, though the third suspect, Johnny Black, escapes.
Kazuto is later recruited to test an experimental FullDive machine, Soul Translator (STL), which has an interface far more realistic and complex than the previous machine he had played, to help RATH, a research and development organization under the [of Defense](Ministry)(Ministry of Defense (Japan)) (MOD), develop an artificial intelligence named A.L.I.C.E. He tests the STL by entering the Underworld (UW), a virtual reality cyberspace created with The Seed package. In the UW, the flow of time proceeds a thousand times faster than in the real world, and Kirito's memories of what happens inside are restricted. However, when Johnny Black ambushes and mortally wounds Kazuto with [chloride](suxamethonium)(suxamethonium chloride), RATH recovers Kazuto and places him back into the STL to preserve his mind while attempts are made to save him. During his time in Underworld, Kirito befriends Eugeo, a carver in a small village of Rulid, and helps him on a journey to save Alice Zuberg, his friend who was taken by a group of highly skilled warriors known as the Integrity Knights for accidentally breaking a rule of the Axiom Church, the leaders of the Human Empire. He and Eugeo soon find themselves uncovering the secrets of the Axiom Church, led by a woman only known as "The Administrator", and the true purpose of Underworld itself, while unbeknownst to them, a war against the opposing Dark Territory is brewing on the horizon. They meet Alice, now an Integrity Knight, and though she does not remember them, Kirito helps her remember her true identity: a form of true artificial intelligence known as A.L.I.C.E. In the battle against the Administrator, Kirito manages to slay her, though Eugeo dies in the process, to Kirito's dismay.
Meanwhile, in the real world, conflict escalates as American forces raid RATH's facility in the Ocean Turtle in an effort to take A.L.I.C.E. for purposes unknown. Two of the attackers - Gabriel "Vecta" Miller and Vassago "Prince of Hell" Cassals - take control of two Dark Territory characters as they unite the Dark Territory's inhabitants to aid them. With help from all his friends, Kirito manages to stop the attackers as well as foreign players lured by Vassago, and safely extract A.L.I.C.E. from UW, who gains a physical body - with Gabriel and Vassago being killed both virtually and physically in the process. However, Kirito does not log out in time before the flow of time is restored and spends 200 years in UW (about 2 weeks in the real world) with Asuna, who stayed behind for Kirito. After awakening they have their memories of 200 years in underworld removed under Kirito's request, though RATH employee Takeru Higa secretly keeps a backup consciousness of his 200 year self, who have unknown plans for the Underworld.
One month later, Kirito, Asuna, and the others have their accounts forcibly migrated to *Unital Ring*, a new VRMMORPG which incorporates locations from all the other environments they previously visited, and investigate the cause while meeting some familiar faces.
## Production
[Kawahara](Reki)(Reki Kawahara) wrote the first volume in 2001 as a competition entry for the 2002 [Media Works](ASCII)(ASCII Media Works) , but refrained from submitting it as he had exceeded the page limit; he instead published it as a web novel under the pseudonym Fumio Kunori.Afterword of the first light novel volume Over time, he added three further main arcs and several short stories which, like the first arc "Aincrad", were later adapted into the light novels.Afterword of the sixth light novel volume In 2008, he participated in the competition again by writing *[World](Accel)(Accel World)*, this time winning the Grand Prize. Aside from *Accel World*, he was requested to get his earlier work, *Sword Art Online*, published by ASCII Media Works. He agreed and withdrew his web novel versions.
For the protagonist Kirito, Kawahara was asked if Kirito's personality and character were based on his own; he answered that he usually does not put aspects of himself into his characters, and jokingly remarked: "but if I had to say there was a point of similarity between Kirito and myself, it is the fact that neither of us are good at forming [parties](Party (role-playing games)). We [both] tend to play solo in these games a lot." He also noted that the female characters in the story were not based on anyone he knew in the real world, stating: "I don't usually make a character, setting, or anything before I start writing. As I write the story, the girls become what they are now. So, somehow, I don't know exactly, but somehow, my subliminal idea or some hidden emotion creates the characters to be strong and capable." He added that he wrote the series to demonstrate that he views online gaming not as a social ill or escape from real life, but rather decided to show games in a more positive light in his light novels. Kawahara also noted that the character of Asuna might have been created a little too perfectly.
## Publication
List of *Sword Art Online* light novels}}
After Kawahara's request for *Sword Art Online* to be published was approved, he started working with illustrator abec on the light novel series. The first volume was published in print on April 10, 2009,|date=April 2009}} and 27 volumes have been published as of October 7, 2022. The first eight volumes of the light novel series told the story arcs for *Sword Art Online*, *Alfheim Online*, and *Gun Gale Online*. The Alicization story arc was covered by volumes 9 through 18, while volumes 19 and 20 told a side story called Moon Cradle. Kawahara plans on writing "one more big arc" called Unital Ring that will go back to the real world, and it is the first arc not based on the original web novel. The Unital Ring story arc began in volume 21, which was released in Japan on December 7, 2018.
Kawahara also writes the *Sword Art Online: Progressive* series, which covers Kirito's adventures on the first few floors of Aincrad. The first volume of *Progressive* was released on October 10, 2012,}} and eight volumes have been released as of June 10, 2021. The first volume of a light novel series based on *Sword Art Online* titled *[Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online](Sword)(Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online)*, written by [Sigsawa](Keiichi)(Keiichi Sigsawa) with illustrations by [Kuroboshi](Kouhaku)(Kouhaku Kuroboshi), was published by ASCII Media Works on December 10, 2014. An original 100-page prequel novel to *[Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale](Sword)(Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale)* written by Kawahara, titled *Hopeful Chant*, was released to people who watched the film in Japan during March 4–10, 2017.
At their [Expo USA](Japan)(Japan Expo USA) panel, [Press](Yen)(Yen Press) announced the rights to publish the light novels; the first volume was released on April 22, 2014. Yen Press later announced their license of the *Sword Art Online: Progressive* series, which is scheduled for release in 2015. The novels are also published in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand and Vietnam, with future plans for publications in France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Switzerland and others.
There are a number of *[dōjinshi](dōjinshi)* (fan works) written by Kawahara under the pseudonym Fumio Kunori, titled . An 80-page assemblage of some of the *Material Edition* volumes was published on February 13, 2011; another, *Material Edition: Remix*, was published on September 6, 2019. The latest release is *Material Edition* volume 29 on May 12, 2019. The author has also created some other *dōjinshi* including *Lisbeth Edition*, *Silica Edition* and *Pina Edition* under cooperation with Kurusu Tatsuya from ponz.info. It is reported that these *dōjinshi* gain traction from the involvement of the original author in its creation process, as well as from supplying more details on characters from the original work.
## Media
### Manga
List of *Sword Art Online* manga volumes}}
There are ten manga adaptations of the series, all written by Reki Kawahara and published by [Media Works](ASCII)(ASCII Media Works). , illustrated by Tamako Nakamura, was serialized in *[Bunko Magazine](Dengeki)(Dengeki Bunko Magazine)* between the September 2010 and May 2012 issues. Two *[tankōbon](tankōbon)* volumes of *Aincrad* were released on September 27, 2012. A comedy [four-panel](Yonkoma) manga, titled and illustrated by Jūsei Minami, began serialization in the September 2010 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*. The first volume of *Sword Art Online* was released on September 27, 2012. A third manga, titled and illustrated by Hazuki Tsubasa, began serialization in the May 2012 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*. The first volume of *Fairy Dance* was released on October 27, 2012; the third volume was released on June 27, 2014. The *Aincrad* and *Fairy Dance* manga have been acquired for release in North America by Yen Press. The first volume of *Aincrad* was published on March 25, 2014.
A spin-off manga starring Lisbeth, Silica, and Leafa, titled and illustrated by Neko Nekobyō, began serialization in the July 2013 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*. Following the discontinuation of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine* in April 2020, the manga was moved to the DenPlay Comic website. *Girls Ops* was licensed by Yen Press in November 2014, the first volume of which was released on May 19, 2015. A manga adaption of *Sword Art Online: Progressive*, illustrated by Kiseki Himura, began serialization in the August 2013 issue of ''[G's Magazine](Dengeki)(Dengeki G's Magazine)''. The manga ended serialization in the magazine's May 2014 issue and was transferred to ''[G's Comic](Dengeki)(Dengeki G's Comic)'' starting with the June 2014 issue. The *Progressive* manga adaption has been licensed by Yen Press, with the first two volumes released in January and April 2015, respectively.
A sixth manga, titled *Sword Art Online: Phantom Bullet* and illustrated by Kōtarō Yamada, had its first chapter serialized in the May 2014 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*, with following chapters being digitally serialized on [Kadokawa's](Kadokawa Corporation) Comic Walker website. A seventh manga, titled *Sword Art Online: Calibur* and illustrated by Shii Kiya, was serialized in ''Dengeki G's Comic'' between the September 2014 and July 2015 issues. A single compilation volume was released on August 10, 2015. An eighth manga, titled ''Sword Art Online: Mother's Rosario* and also by Tsubasa, is based on the seventh volume of the novel series and began serialization in the July 2014 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine''. A ninth manga, an adaptation of *Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online*, began serialization in the November 2015 issue of *[Maoh](Dengeki)(Dengeki Maoh)*.
A tenth manga, titled *Sword Art Online: Project Alicization* and illustrated by Kōtarō Yamada, based on the Alicization arc of the light novel series, began serialization in the September 2016 issue of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*. It moved to *Web DenPlay Comic* due to the discontinuation of *Dengeki Bunko Magazine*.
### Anime series
List of *Sword Art Online* episodes}}
An [anime](anime) adaptation of *Sword Art Online* was announced at Dengeki Bunko Autumn Festival 2011, along with Reki Kawahara's other light novel series, *[World](Accel)(Accel World)*. The anime is produced by [Aniplex](Aniplex) and [Genco](Genco), animated by [Pictures](A-1)(A-1 Pictures) and directed by Tomohiko Ito with music by [Kajiura](Yuki)(Yuki Kajiura).s Kajiura Scores *Sword Art Online*|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|date=March 31, 2011|access-date=June 19, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606194719/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2012-03-31/madoka-magica-and-.hack-kajiura-scores-sword-art-online|archive-date=June 6, 2012}} The anime aired on [MX](Tokyo)(Tokyo MX), [tvk](Television Kanagawa), [TVS](Television Saitama), [Aichi](TV)(TV Aichi), [RKB](RKB Mainichi Broadcasting), [HBC](Hokkaido Broadcasting) and [MBS](MBS TV) between July 7 and December 22, 2012, and on [AT-X](AT-X (TV network)), [TV](Chiba)(Chiba Television Broadcasting) and [BS11](Nippon BS Broadcasting) at later dates. The series was also streamed on [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) and [Hulu](Hulu). The anime is adapted from the first four novels and parts of volume eight.
The anime has been licensed in North America by [of America](Aniplex)(Aniplex of America) and an English-language dub premiered on [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim)'s [Toonami](Toonami) from July 27, 2013 to February 15, 2014. The series was released by Aniplex of America in four DVD and Blu-ray sets, with special extras on the BD sets, between August 13 and November 19, 2013. [Entertainment](Manga)(Manga Entertainment) released the first series on BD/DVD in the United Kingdom in December 2013, whilst [Entertainment](Madman)(Madman Entertainment) released the series in Australia and the English-language version began airing on [Me](ABC)(ABC Me) on June 7, 2014. *Sword Art Online* has been available on [Netflix](Netflix) in North America since March 15, 2014.
A year-end special, titled *Sword Art Online Extra Edition*, aired on December 31, 2013. The special recapped the previously aired anime series and included some new footage. *Extra Edition* was streamed worldwide a few hours after its airing in Japan. The two-hour-long special was available on [Daisuki](Daisuki) worldwide except for French-speaking areas, as well as China and Korea. Daisuki offered subtitles in various languages such as English, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and German. English-speaking countries, Mexico, Central and South America could also watch the stream on [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll). *Extra Edition* was also [simulcast](simulcast) in Korea on Aniplus cable channel and in China on the LeTV streaming website. French-speaking countries could watch on the Wakanim streaming website. The Blu-ray Disc and DVD of *Extra Edition* was released on April 23, 2014 in Japan. The limited edition included a Yui [song](character)(Image song) titled "Heart Sweet Heart" by [Itō](Kanae)(Kanae Itō) and an original side story written by Kawahara titled .
At the end of the special, the anime television series was confirmed for a second season, titled *Sword Art Online II*, which premiered on July 5, 2014. The first 14 episodes of the second season are an adaptation of volumes five and six the light novels that cover the Phantom Bullet arc. Episodes 15 to 17 cover the Calibur arc from volume 8 of the novels, with episodes 18 to 24 covering volume 7 of the novels, the Mother's Rosario arc. Premiere screening events of the second season were held in the United States, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea and Japan before the television premiere between June 29 and July 4, 2014. At [Katsucon](Katsucon), it was announced that the English dub of the second season would air on Toonami beginning March 28, 2015.
The third season of *Sword Art Online*, titled *Sword Art Online: Alicization*, and a spin-off anime, titled *[Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online](Sword)(Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online)*, were announced in 2017. *Sword Art Online Alternative Gun Gale Online*, animated by [3Hz](3Hz), premiered in April 2018. *Sword Art Online: Alicization* aired from October 6, 2018 to March 30, 2019, with a one-hour world premiere which aired in Japan, the United States, Australia, France, Germany, Russia and South Korea on September 15, 2018. The English dub of the third season premiered on February 9, 2019 on Toonami. The season was originally announced to air for four [cours](Cours (TV production)), and adapt from the novel's ninth volume, *Alicization Beginning*, to the eighteenth volume, *Alicization Lasting*. However, the season ended at episode 24 on March 30, 2019 (completing the fourteenth volume of the novel, *Alicization Uniting*), and continued on October 12, 2019 with a second part titled *War of Underworld*. War of Underworld Anime's Teaser Reveals October Premiere|date=March 30, 2019|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|access-date=March 30, 2019|archive-date=December 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203200506/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-03-30/sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-teaser-reveals-october-premiere/.145214|url-status=live}} War of Underworld Anime Premieres on October 12|date=September 10, 2019|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|access-date=September 10, 2019|archive-date=September 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929092606/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/daily-briefs/2019-09-10/sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-premieres-on-october-12/.150939|url-status=live}} The second half of the *War of Underworld* series was originally scheduled to premiere in April 2020, but due to the effects of the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) in Japan, it was rescheduled to air from July 11 to September 19, 2020.
#### Music
Yuki Kajiura composed the soundtrack for the *Sword Art Online* anime, which was later released in the limited edition of the anime's fourth and seventh Blu-ray and DVD volumes. The first volume of the second season's soundtrack was bundled with the limited edition of the season's third and seventh Blu-ray and DVD volumes.
For the first 14 episodes of season one, the opening theme song is "Crossing Field" by [LiSA](LiSA (Japanese musician, born 1987)), and the ending theme song is by [Tomatsu](Haruka)(Haruka Tomatsu). From episode 15 onward, the opening theme is "Innocence" by [Aoi](Eir)(Eir Aoi), and the ending theme is "Overfly" by [Haruna](Luna)(Luna Haruna). The main theme for *Sword Art Online: Extra Edition* is by Eir Aoi.s Theme Song|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013-11-12/eir-aoi-sings-sword-art-online/extra-edition-theme-song|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|date=November 12, 2013|access-date=November 13, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407222414/http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2013-11-12/eir-aoi-sings-sword-art-online/extra-edition-theme-song|archive-date=April 7, 2014}}
For the second season, the first opening theme is "[Ignite](Ignite (Eir Aoi song))" by Eir Aoi, and the first ending theme is "Startear" by Haruna. The second opening theme is "Courage" by Tomatsu, and the second ending theme is "No More Time Machine" by LiSA, with the third ending theme being , also by LiSA. The song "Catch the Moment" by LiSA is used as the theme song to *Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale*.
For the third season, the first opening theme is "Adamas" by LiSA, and the first ending theme is by Eir Aoi. The second opening theme is "[Resister](Resister (song))" by [Asca](Asuka Ōkura), and the second ending theme is "Forget-me-not" by [ReoNa](ReoNa), with episode 19 featuring , also sung by ReoNa.
For the second part of the third season, the first opening theme is "Resolution" by Tomatsu, and the first ending theme is "[Unlasting](Unlasting)" by LiSA. War of Underworld Anime's New Promo Video Reveals Haruka Tomatsu's Opening Theme|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-09-21/sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-new-promo-video-reveals-haruka-tomatsu-opening-theme/.151382|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|date=September 21, 2019|access-date=September 21, 2019|archive-date=September 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921112229/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-09-21/sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-new-promo-video-reveals-haruka-tomatsu-opening-theme/.151382|url-status=live}} War of Underworld Anime's Ending Theme|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-10-06/lisa-performs-sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-ending-theme/.151928|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|date=October 6, 2019|access-date=October 6, 2019|archive-date=June 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624224145/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2019-10-06/lisa-performs-sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-ending-theme/.151928|url-status=live}} The second opening theme is "Anima" by ReoNa, and the second ending theme is "I will..." by Eir Aoi. War of Underworld Anime's New Opening |url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2020-02-10/reona-sings-sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-new-opening/.156278 |access-date=February 13, 2020 |date=February 10, 2020 |archive-date=February 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213130527/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2020-02-10/reona-sings-sword-art-online-alicization-war-of-underworld-anime-new-opening/.156278 |url-status=live }} The song by LiSA was used as the theme song to *Sword Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night*, while the song by Eir Aoi was used as the theme song to *Sword Art Online Progressive: Scherzo of Deep Night*.
A number of character songs were included in the Blu-ray and DVD volume releases of the anime. These were collected into two compilation albums: *Sword Art Online Song Collection*, which included character songs released in the season one volumes, was released on August 27, 2014, while *Sword Art Online Song Collection II*, which included character songs released in the season two volumes, was released on March 22, 2017.
In celebration of the anime's 10th anniversary, the song was used as the theme song for the commemorative event "Sword Art Online: Full Dive", held on November 6, 2022. The song was composed by Yuki Kajiura and performed by ReoNa, ASCA and Eir Aoi, who were in charge of previous opening and ending themes for the series.
### Theatrical films
An animated film titled *[Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale](Sword)(Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale)*, featuring an original story by Kawahara set after the events of *Sword Art Online II*, premiered in Japan and Southeast Asia on February 18, 2017, and was released in the United States on March 9, 2017.
After the finale of *Sword Art Online: Alicization - War of Underworld*, an anime adaptation of *Sword Art Online: Progressive* was announced. It was later revealed to be a new film titled *[Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night](Sword)(Sword Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night)*, which premiered on October 30, 2021. [Minase](Inori)(Inori Minase) is joining the cast as the new character Mito. Ayako Kōno is directing the film, with Kento Toya designing the characters, Yuki Kajiura returning to compose the music, and A-1 Pictures returning for production.
After the premiere of *Sword Art Online Progressive: Aria of a Starless Night*, a sequel film titled *[Art Online Progressive: Scherzo of Deep Night](Sword)(Sword Art Online Progressive: Scherzo of Deep Night)* was announced. The film was scheduled for September 10, 2022, but was later delayed due to production issues caused by the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). It is premiered on October 22, 2022.
During the commemorative event "Sword Art Online: Full Dive", a new film project was announced. The project is described as an original work with stories not used in the light novels.
### Video games
A stage event at the Dengeki Bunko Autumn Festival 2011 revealed that Reki Kawahara's light novels would get video game adaptations. The first *Sword Art Online* adaptation, titled , was published by [Bandai Games](Namco)(Namco Bandai Games) for the [Portable](PlayStation)(PlayStation Portable). The game follows an alternate storyline, in which a glitch causes Kirito and the other players to remain in Sword Art Online despite defeating Heathcliff, and players from other VMMORPGs such as Leafa and Sinon get sucked into the game themselves. The game was released in both regular and limited edition box sets on March 14, 2013.
*[Art Online: Hollow Fragment](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Hollow Fragment)* is a [Vita](PlayStation)(PlayStation Vita) game released in Japan on April 24, 2014. Hold Hands With A Heroine And Other Tidbits|publisher=Siliconera|date=October 8, 2013|access-date=April 3, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320213823/http://www.siliconera.com/2013/10/08/sword-art-online-hollow-fragment-lets-players-hold-hands-heroine-tidbits/|archive-date=March 20, 2014}} *Sword Art Online: Hollow Fragment* takes place in the same alternative storyline as *Sword Art Online: Infinity Moment*,The *Sword Art Online History Chart* bundled with the May 2014 edition of Dengeki Bunko Magazine. and it includes all content of "Floor Clearing" from that previous game with the addition of new unexplored "Hollow Area" of Aincrad. The protagonist Kirito will cross swords with a mysterious player who would become one of the key characters in the game. The game sold 145,029 physical retail copies within the first week of release in Japan, topping the Japanese software sales charts for that particular week. 4/27/14|url=http://gematsu.com/2014/04/media-create-sales-42114-42714|publisher=Gematsu|date=April 30, 2014|access-date=April 30, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502000609/http://gematsu.com/2014/04/media-create-sales-42114-42714|archive-date=May 2, 2014}} The game had also been released in Taiwan by Namco Bandai Games Taiwan with Chinese and English subtitles. A digital-only North American, European and Australian release was released in August 2014.
A third video game developed by [Artdink](Artdink) and titled *[Art Online: Lost Song](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Lost Song)* was released in Japan on March 26, 2015 on the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) and Vita platforms, with an English version being released in Asia. The game's producer revealed in October 2014 that the game is an open-world action RPG featuring an original storyline, set within *Alfheim Online*, where characters are able to fly. The game sold 139,298 physical retail copies on the PlayStation Vita in addition to another 55,090 units on the PlayStation 3 within its first week of release in Japan, ranking second and sixth place respectively within the Japanese software sales charts for that particular week, narrowly behind *[Bloodborne](Bloodborne)* taking the top spot. 3/29/15|date=April 1, 2015|website=Gematsu|access-date=April 1, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092342/http://gematsu.com/2015/04/media-create-sales-32315-32915|archive-date=April 2, 2015}}
A fourth game titled *[Art Online: Hollow Realization](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Hollow Realization)* was released in Japan for the PS4, Vita, and Windows on October 27, 2016 and worldwide on November 8, 2016 for the PS4 and Vita.
A [network game](social)(social network game) called *Sword Art Online: End World* was released for Japanese feature phones and smartphones on February 28, 2013 with more than 1 million registered users. It was discontinued in September 2017. Another [freemium](freemium) game for [Android](Android (operating system)) and [iOS](iOS) titled *[Art Online: Code Register](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Code Register)* launched in 2014, and over 3,000,000 users have downloaded the game. Another game called *Sword Art Online: Progress Link* designed for the [Mobage](Mobage) [game](browser)(browser game) platform on smartphones was released on February 10, 2015. The game was terminated on July 29, 2016.
Kirito, Asuna, Leafa, Yuuki and *SAO Alternative: Gun Gale Online* protagonist LLENN appear in *[Bunko: Fighting Climax](Dengeki)(Dengeki Bunko: Fighting Climax)*, a [game](fighting)(fighting game) by [Sega](Sega) featuring various characters from works published under the *Dengeki Bunko* imprint. A browser game titled *Sword Art Quest* and its sequel smartphone game, *Sword Art Quest II* provide challenges to users to upgrade their characters to receive rewards. アニメ！アニメ！ |publisher=Animeanime.jp |date=September 1, 2012 |access-date=June 20, 2014 |language=ja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715070816/http://animeanime.jp/article/2012/09/01/11300.html |archive-date=July 15, 2014 }} There is also a paid Android game titled *SAO -Log Out-* that users can download and play with characters from the series and obtain wallpapers from it.
A virtual reality massive multiplayer online game was in development by [Kadokawa](Kadokawa Corporation) and [Japan](IBM)(IBM), but was only a demo and will not be released as a full game.
An action role-playing game titled *[World vs. Sword Art Online: Millennium Twilight](Accel)(Accel World vs. Sword Art Online: Millennium Twilight)* was announced in October 2016. The game is a crossover with *[World](Accel)(Accel World)*, published by Bandai Namco Entertainment for [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4), [Vita](PlayStation)(PlayStation Vita), and [Windows](Microsoft Windows) via [Steam](Steam (service)), and was released to western audiences on July 7, 2017.
is a Chinese 3D role-playing game where the player can control 3D characters and experience *Sword Art Online*, *Alfheim Online*, and *Gun Gale Online*. It is developed by Yun Chang Game under Bandai Namco's supervision. The game is being distributed and is operating under Bandai Namco Shanghai, Bandai Namco Entertainment and [360](Qihoo)(Qihoo 360) on Chinese platforms. The game was launched on Android on May 26, 2016 and on iOS on June 9, 2016 after a brief period of closed beta, though it is officially still in an "open beta" phase.
Bandai Namco released *Sword Art Online: Memory Defrag* RPG for Android and iOS in August 2016. It was released outside of Japan on January 24, 2017. Featuring content from the anime series, *Ordinal Scale*, and some original shorts written for event characters, players are allowed to play solo and progress through the story, or join up with others online to farm special items, equipment, and materials. バンダイナムコエンターテインメント公式サイト |url= http://sao-md.bn-ent.net |publisher= [Namco Games](Bandai)(Bandai Namco Games) |access-date= March 27, 2018 |language= ja |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180327212249/http://sao-md.bn-ent.net/ |archive-date= March 27, 2018 |url-status= live |df= mdy-all }} Common events include ranked challenges against other players, floor clearing, character introductions and seasonal events. Players have the choice of spending real money to speed-up their progress. However, the game was discontinued in August 30, 2021. While *Memory Defrag* is delisted from the app stores, the game is still available to play via offline version of the app if the person downloaded the game before the termination date.
Bandai Namco released the *[Art Online: Integral Factor](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Integral Factor)* free-to-play MMORPG for Android and iOS in December 2017, created in conjunction with prolific mobile MMO developer . The English version was released in March 2018. It adapts the Aincrad arc starting from Floor 1 and gradually exploring every floor one-by-one. It allows playing as a player-created avatar.
A game based on *Gun Gale Online*, *[Art Online: Fatal Bullet](Sword)(Sword Art Online: Fatal Bullet)*, was released for the PlayStation 4, [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) and Windows on February 23, 2018.
[Namco Entertainment](Bandai)(Bandai Namco Entertainment) released the *Sword Art Online VR: Lovely Honey Days* mobile game for iOS and Android devices in Japan in October 2018. The game's first episode is free-to-play, while the second episode and so on can be purchased as additional content.
Bandai Namco released *Sword Art Online Arcade: Deep Explorer* in Japanese arcades on March 19, 2019. It is an exploration action RPG that supports up to three players in online co-op and it is the first arcade game in the *Sword Art Online* series.
A video game based in the Underworld of Project Alicization, *Sword Art Online: Alicization Lycoris*, was announced by Bandai Namco for release on the PS4, Xbox One, and Windows. The game is also the first game in the franchise to faithfully follow the canon storyline in the initial stage, adapting from *Alicization Beginning*, volume 9, to *Alicization Uniting*, volume 14. Following that, the game features a different arc focusing on Medina Orthinanos. Originally, the game was going to be released in May 2020, but it was delayed to July 10, 2020 due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
A China-exclusive mobile MMO, *Sword Art Online: Black Swordsman Ace*, was released in 2021.
In 2022, the mobile game *Sword Art Online: Variant Showdown* was released to coincide with the anime's 10th anniversary. In the future it will feature a [royale](battle)(battle royale game) mode, a first for an *SAO* game.
Bandai Namco has announced the video game *Sword Art Online: Last Recollection*, set to be released worldwide on October 6, 2023. ReoNa will perform the game's theme song, "VITA".
### Live-action series
| developer =
| writer = [Kalogridis](Laeta)(Laeta Kalogridis)
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| language = English
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| company = [Television](Skydance)(Skydance Media)
| distributor = [Netflix](Netflix)
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[Television](Skydance)(Skydance Media) announced on August 2, 2016 that they had acquired the global rights to produce a live-action television adaptation of *Sword Art Online* light novel series. [Kalogridis](Laeta)(Laeta Kalogridis) has been attached to write a script for the [pilot](Television pilot), and will also serve as [producer](executive)(executive producer) for the series alongside Skydance CEO [Ellison](David)(David Ellison), Dana Goldberg, and Marcy Ross. Skydance has stated their intent to "fast-track" the launch of the series, along with plans to follow the TV series with the release of a *Sword Art Online* [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) experience. In February 2018, it was reported that the live-action series had been sold to [Netflix](Netflix).
## Reception
### Sales
According to [Oricon](Oricon), *Sword Art Online* was the top selling light novel series of 2012, with eight volumes figuring among the top selling light novels. It was ranked first in the 2012 and 2013 *[Light Novel ga Sugoi!](Kono)(Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!)* rankings, as well as top five placement in 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and top 10 in 2019. It was also the second best selling light novel series in the first half of 2016 in Japan, selling 489,374 copies. *Sword Art Online: Progressive* sold 321,535 copies in the same time period. As of 2017, the series has an estimated 20 million copies in print worldwide. As of 2021, the series has 26 million copies in print. The number of sales have reached 30 million in 2022.
### Critical response
Richard Eisenbeis of *[Kotaku](Kotaku)* hails *Sword Art Online* as the smartest series in recent years, praising its deep insight on the psychological aspects of [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) on the human psyche, its sociological views on creating a realistic economy and society in a [multiplayer online game](massively)(massively multiplayer online game) setting, and the writing staff's ability to juggle a wide variety of genres within the series. Eisenbeis particularly noted how the romance between Kirito and Asuna is explored bringing "definition to exactly what love is like in a virtual world." However, at the time of this preliminary review, he had only watched the first 12 episodes of the series. He has since gone on to review the second half of the series, lauding its excellent use of plot twists and praising its well-written and believable villain. However, he felt that some of the initial positive aspects of the series were lost in the second half, such as the focus on psychological repercussions and social interactions that could be realistically seen in an online game. Criticism was also levied towards the aspect of turning Asuna into a damsel in distress, stating that a female lead as strong as her was "reduced to nothing but the quest item the male lead is hunting for." Eisenbeis closes his review of the series by stating in regards to the two halves, "Both, however, are enjoyable for what they are."s Second Half Isn't Quite as Brilliant as Its First|last1=Eisenbeis|first1=Richard|date=December 26, 2012|website=[Kotaku](Kotaku)|publisher=[Communications](Univision)(Univision Communications)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710060539/https://kotaku.com/sword-art-onlines-second-half-isnt-quite-as-brilliant-5971194|archive-date=July 10, 2019|url-status=live|access-date=July 10, 2019}}
Rebecca Silverman of *[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)* has criticized the series as having pacing problems, logical gaps and "sloppy writing". Aincrad Part 1 [Edition](Limited)|last1=Silverman|first1=Rebecca|date=September 9, 2013|website=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710055659/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/sword-art-online/blu-ray-1|archive-date=July 10, 2019|url-status=live|access-date=July 10, 2019}} Theron Martin of the same website criticized the story as struggling "to achieve and maintain the level of gravitas that life-or-death danger should have", while calling it unwilling to commit to Kirito's "lone wolf" image. DeviceCritique explained that *Sword Art Online* influences the virtual reality market to grow, and referenced the [Rift](Oculus)(Oculus Rift) as a prime example of the starting point of virtual reality. It also praised *Sword Art Online* for exploring the psychological and social aspects of virtual reality gaming.
While the anime received criticism in western media, the later light novel arcs, such as Mother's Rosario and Alicization, received praise. *Anime News Network* reviewer Theron Martin praised many of the volumes of the Alicization arc, saying that the author's writing had improved. Alicization Exploding|publisher=[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)|date=May 29, 2019|access-date=September 10, 2019|archive-date=September 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911062920/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/sword-art-online/novel-16/.147199|url-status=live}} Martin also praised the anime adaptation of the Alicization arc, describing the opening episode as "about the best adaptation that could be hoped for of the relevant source material".
## Cultural impact
Kirito makes a cameo appearance in the eighth episode of the anime series *[Sensei](Eromanga)(Eromanga Sensei)*, with [Matsuoka](Yoshitsugu)(Yoshitsugu Matsuoka) reprising his role.
*Sword Art Online* is sometimes considered to be part of the [isekai](isekai) genre, although Kawahara himself does not agree. The 2012 anime adaptation of *Sword Art Online* popularized the isekai genre in anime, which led to more *isekai* web novels being published on the website [ni Narō](Shōsetsuka)(Shōsetsuka ni Narō) ("Let's Become Novelists") and a number of Narō isekai novels being adapted into anime.
[Cline](Ernest)(Ernest Cline), the writer of 2011 novel *[Player One](Ready)(Ready Player One)*, discussed *Sword Art Online* in an interview, noting how he met its writer Reki Kawahara at an event in Japan where they discussed how they independently developed similar ideas related to virtual reality. It has also been noted that the Phantom Bullet (Gun Gale Online) arc released in print in 2010 depicts an early fictional [royale game](battle)(battle royale game) called Bullet of Bullets.
On June 12, 2015, the now-inactive [Ministry of Culture](Chinese)(Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China) listed *Sword Art Online II* among 38 anime and manga titles banned in [China](China). In July 2020, *Sword Art Online* became one of seven manga titles to be removed from [Kinokuniya](Books)(Books Kinokuniya) in Australia for claims of promoting child pornography.
In the 2020 edition of *[Light Novel ga Sugoi!](Kono)(Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!)*, *Sword Art Online* was voted by the public in an online poll and by a jury (critics, influencers, and other people related to the light novel industry) as the best light novel series of the 2010s, being the first in the ranking with 1,728.95 points.
## Notes
## References
## External links
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Republics of the Soviet Union
|
republics_of_the_soviet_union
|
# Republics of the Soviet Union
*Revision ID: 1160121662 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T14:53:23Z*
---
Soviet Republic}}
| start_date = 30 December 1922
| legislation_begin = [on the Creation of the USSR](Treaty)(Treaty on the Creation of the USSR)
| legislation_end = [Council](State)(State Council of the Soviet Union) recognition of the [states' independence](Baltic)(State continuity of the Baltic states)
| legislation_end1 = [no. 142-Н](Declaration)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union)
| end_date = 26 December 1991
| current_number = 21
| number_date = 1933
| population_range = Smallest: 1,565,662 ([SSR](Estonian)(Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic))Largest: 147,386,000 ([SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic))
| area_range = Smallest: ([SSR](Armenian)(Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic))Largest: ([SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic))
| government = [One-party](one-party state) [socialist](socialist state) [republic](republic)s
| subdivision = [SSRs](Autonomous)(Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union), [oblasts](Oblasts of the Soviet Union), [oblasts](Autonomous)(Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union)
}}
The **Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics** or the **Union Republics** () were [national-based](National delimitation in the Soviet Union) administrative units of the [of Soviet Socialist Republics](Union)(Soviet Union) (USSR). The Soviet Union was formed in 1922 by a [treaty](Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) between the Soviet republics of [Byelorussia](Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Federation](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), [Federation](Transcaucasian)(Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic), and [Ukraine](Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic), by which they became its constituent republics of the [of Soviet Socialist Republics](Union)(Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) (Soviet Union).
For most of its history, the USSR was a highly [state](centralized)(Centralisation) led by its [Party](Communist)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union) despite its nominal structure as a [federation](federation) of republics; the light [decentralization](decentralization) reforms during the era of *[perestroika](perestroika)* (reconstruction) and *[glasnost](glasnost)* (voice-ness, as freedom of speech) conducted by [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) as part of the [Accords](Helsinki)(Helsinki Accords) are cited as one of the factors which led to the [of the USSR](dissolution)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union) in 1991 as result of the so called "[War](Cold)(Cold War)" and the creation of the [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States).
There were two very distinct types of republics in the Soviet Union: the larger union republics, representing the main ethnic groups of the Union and with the constitutional right to secede from it, and the smaller autonomous republics, located within some of the union republics and representing ethnic minorities. Typically, in regard to governance, autonomous republics were subordinated to union republics they were geographically located except for few instances such as the Republic of Nakhichevan.
The [Soviet Socialist Republic](Karelo-Finnish)(Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic), a relic of the [War](Soviet-Finnish)(Winter War), became the only union republic to be deprived of its status in 1956. The decision to downgrade Karelia to an autonomous republic within the [RSFSR](Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) was made unilaterally by the central government without consulting its population.
## Overview
Chapter 8 of the [Soviet Constitution](1977)(1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union) is titled as the "Soviet Union is a union state". Article 70 stated that the union was founded on principles "socialist federalism" as a result of free self-determination of nation and volunteer association of equal in rights soviet socialist republics. Article 71 listed all of 15 union republics that united into the Soviet Union.
According to Article 76 of the [Soviet Constitution](1977)(1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union), a Union Republic was a sovereign Soviet socialist state that had united with other Soviet Republics in the USSR. Article 78 of the Constitution stated that the territory of the union republic cannot be changed without its agreement. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that "the sovereign rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR".
In the final decades of its existence, the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs). All of them, with the exception of the [Federation](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) (until [1990](Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic)), had their own local [chapters](party)(Communist party) of the [Communist Party](All-Union)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union).
Outside the territory of the [Federation](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), the republics were constituted mostly in lands that had formerly belonged to the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) and had been acquired by it between the 1700 [Northern War](Great)(Great Northern War) and the [Convention of 1907](Anglo-Russian)(Anglo-Russian Convention).
In 1944, amendments to the [Constitution](All-Union)(1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union) allowed for separate branches of the [Army](Red)(Red Army) for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense, allowing them to be recognized as *[jure](de)(de jure)* independent states in international law. This allowed for two Soviet Republics, [Ukraine](Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic) and [Byelorussia](Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic), (as well as the USSR as a whole) to join the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) as founding members in 1945.
All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, with ten of them (all except the [states](Baltic)(Baltic states), [Georgia](Georgia (country)) and [Ukraine](Ukraine)) being very loosely organized under the heading of the [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States). The [states](Baltic)(Baltic states) assert that their incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 (as the [Lithuanian](Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Latvian](Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic), and [SSRs](Estonian)(Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic)) under the provisions of the 1939 [Pact](Molotov–Ribbentrop)(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) was illegal, and that they therefore remained independent countries under Soviet occupation. Their position is supported by the [Union](European)(European Union),[Motion for a resolution on the Situation in Estonia](http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+MOTION+B6-2007-0215+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN) by the [EU](European Union) the [Court of Human Rights](European)(European Court of Human Rights),[Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States](European)(European Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States) the [Nations](United)(United Nations) [Rights Council](Human)(United Nations Human Rights Council) and the [States](United)(United States). In contrast, the [government](Russian)(Government of Russia) and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the [states](Baltic)(Baltic states) was legitimate.[Russia denies Baltic 'occupation'](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4517683.stm) by [News](BBC)(BBC News)
Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a [federation](federation). In accordance with provisions present in [Constitution](its)(Constitution of the Soviet Union) (versions adopted in 1924, 1936 and 1977), each republic retained the right to [secede](secession) from the USSR. Throughout the [War](Cold)(Cold War), this right was widely considered to be meaningless; however, the corresponding Article 72 of the 1977 Constitution was used in December 1991 to effectively dissolve the Soviet Union, when [Russia](Russia), [Ukraine](Ukraine), and [Belarus](Belarus) seceded from the Union. Although the Union was [created](History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)#Creation of the USSR) under an initial [ideological](ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) appearance of forming a [union](supranational)(supranational union), it never [facto](de)(de facto) functioned as one; an example of the ambiguity is that the [Soviet Socialist Republic](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic) in the 1930s officially had its own [minister](foreign)(foreign minister), but that office did not exercise any true [sovereignty](sovereignty) apart from that of the union. The [of the Soviet Union](Constitution)(Constitution of the Soviet Union) in its various iterations defined the union as a [federation](federation) with the right of the republics to [secede](secession). This constitutional status led to the possibility of the [of sovereignties](parade)(parade of sovereignties) once the republic with de facto (albeit not de jure) dominance over the other republics, [Russian one](the)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), developed a prevailing political notion asserting that it would be better off if it seceded. The de facto dominance of the Russian republic is the reason that various historians (for example, [Volkogonov](Dmitri)(Dmitri Volkogonov) and others) have asserted that the union was a [state](unitary)(unitary state) in fact albeit it not in law.
In practice, the USSR was a highly centralised entity from its creation in 1922 until the mid-1980s when political forces unleashed by reforms undertaken by [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) resulted in the loosening of central control and [ultimate dissolution](its)(dissolution of the Soviet Union). Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the [Soviet of the USSR](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union), located in [Moscow](Moscow) within the [SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic).
Along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the [Politburo](Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee) to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the parallel party organs, and appointments of all party and state officials required approval of the central organs of the party.
Each republic had its own unique set of state symbols: a [flag](Flags of the Soviet Republics), a [of arms](coat)(Emblems of the Soviet Republics), and, with the exception of [Russia](Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) until 1990, an [anthem](Regional anthems of the Soviet Union). Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the [of Lenin](Order)(Order of Lenin).
File:E7901-Bishkek-museum-Lenin-carpet.jpg|A hall in [Bishkek](Bishkek)'s Soviet-era Lenin Museum decorated with the flags of [Republics](Soviet)(Soviet republic (system of government))
File:USSRRepublicsPoster.jpg|Poster of the unity of the Soviet republics in the late 1930s. All republics, except Russia, are shown with their respective traditional clothes.
File:Ltsr plakatas 1946 tsrs.jpg|Poster of the unity of the Soviet republics in the late 1940s. Note that the map also points out the [SSR](Karelo-Finnish)(Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic) capital, [Petrozavodsk](Petrozavodsk).
## Union Republics of the Soviet Union
[[File:USSR Republics numbered by Constitution.svg|400px|thumb|right|Map of the Union Republics from 1956 to 1991, as numbered by the Soviet Constitution: 1. [Russia](Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), 2. [Ukraine](Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic), 3. [Belarus](Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic), 4. [Uzbekistan](Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic), 5. [Kazakhstan](Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic), 6. [Georgia](Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic), 7. [Azerbaijan](Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic), 8. [Lithuania](Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic), 9. [Moldavia](Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic), 10. [Latvia](Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic), 11. [Kyrgyzstan](Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic), 12. [Tajikistan](Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic), 13. [Armenia](Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic), 14. [Turkmenistan](Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic), 15. [Estonia](Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic)]]
The number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. From 1956 until its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. (In 1956, the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, created in 1940, was absorbed into the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic.) Rather than listing the republics in alphabetical order, the republics were listed in constitutional order, which, particularly by the last decades of the Soviet Union, did not correspond to order either by population or economic power.
### Temporary Union Republics of the Soviet Union
### Republics not recognized by the Soviet Union
### Other non-union Soviet republics
The Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived [Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Turkestan)(Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) of the RSFSR. The [Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida)](Crimean)(Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic) was also proclaimed in 1918, but did not become a union republic and was made into an autonomous republic of the RSFSR, although the [Tatars](Crimean)(Crimean Tatars) had a relative majority until the 1930s or 1940s according to censuses. When the [People's Republic](Tuvan)(Tuvan People's Republic) joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, and was instead established as an autonomous republic of the RSFSR.
The leader of the [Republic of Bulgaria](People's)(People's Republic of Bulgaria), [Zhivkov](Todor)(Todor Zhivkov), suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected. During the [War](Soviet–Afghan)(Soviet–Afghan War), the Soviet Union proposed to annex [Afghanistan](Northern)(Geography of Afghanistan) as its 16th union republic in what was to become the [Soviet Socialist Republic](Afghan)(Democratic Republic of Afghanistan).[Soviets may be poised to annex the Afghan North](http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1984/08/19/page/8/) - *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*. 19 August 1984. Retrieved on 10 December 2016. "Miraki said then-Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev urged Afghan President Babrak Karmal to win Afghan Communist Party approval for Moscow's annexation of eight northern provinces and their formation into the 16th Soviet republic, the Socialist Republic of Afghanistan. The defector said Brezhnev envisioned the southern half of the country as a powerless, Pa-than-speaking buffer with U.S.-backed Pakistan."
### Unrealized Soviet states
* [Soviet Socialist Republic](Bessarabian)(Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic) (1919)
* [Soviet Socialist Republic](Polish)(Polish Soviet Socialist Republic) (1920)
* [Polish Soviet Socialist Republic](East)(East Polish Soviet Socialist Republic) (1990)
## Autonomous Republics of the Soviet Union
Several of the Union Republics themselves, most notably Russia, were further subdivided into [Soviet Socialist Republics](Autonomous)(Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union) (ASSRs). Though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines.
According to the [of the USSR](constitution)(constitution of the USSR), [republics](autonomous)(Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union), autonomous oblasts and [okrugs](autonomous)(Autonomous okrugs of the Soviet Union) had the right, by means of a [referendum](referendum), to independently resolve the issue of staying in the USSR or in the seceding union republic, as well as to raise the issue of their state-legal status.
}
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of Kalmyk ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Kalmyk)(Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Kalmyk ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1935–19431958–1991
|[Elista](Elista)
|[Oirat](Kalmyk)(Kalmyk Oirat), Russian
|76,100
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:QoraqalpogistonASSRgerbi.png)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Karakalpak)(Karakalpak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Karakalpak ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1932–1991
|[Nukus](Nukus)
|[Karakalpak](Karakalpak language) (1956-1980s), Russian
|165,000
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of Karelian ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Karelian)(Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Karelian ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1923–19401956–1991
|[Petrozavodsk](Petrozavodsk)
|[Finnish](Finnish language) (1956-1980s), Russian
|147,000
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of Komi ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Komi)(Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of the Komi ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1936–1990
|[Syktyvkar](Syktyvkar)
|[Komi](Komi language), Russian
|415,900
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of Mari ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Mari)(Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Mari ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1936–1990
|[Yoshkar-Ola](Yoshkar-Ola)
|[Mari](Mari language) ([Meadow](Meadow Mari language) and [Hill](Hill Mari language) variants), Russian
|23,200
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Mordovian ASSR.png)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Mordovian)(Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[100px](File:Flag of Mordovian ASSR.svg)
|1934–1990
|[Saransk](Saransk)
|[Erzya](Erzya language), [Moksha](Moksha language), Russian
|26,200
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Nakhichevan ASSR.png)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Nakhichevan)(Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Nakhichevan ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1921–1990
|[Nakhichevan](Nakhchivan (city))
|Azerbaijani, Russian
|5,500
|}}
|}}
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of North Ossetian ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](North)(North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of the North Ossetian ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1936–1993
|[Ordzhonikidze](Vladikavkaz)
|[Ossetian](Ossetian language), Russian
|8,000
|
|}}
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Tatarstan ASSR.png)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Tatar)(Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Tatar ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1920–1990
|[Kazan](Kazan)
|[Tatar](Tatar language), Russian
|68,000
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of the Tuvan ASSR (1978-1992).svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Tuvan)(Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Tuvan ASSR (1978-1992).svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1961–1992
|[Kyzyl](Kyzyl)
|[Tuvan](Tuvan language), Russian
|170,500
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Udmurt ASSR.png)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Udmurt)(Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of Udmurt ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1934–1990
|[Izhevsk](Izhevsk)
|[Udmurt](Udmurt language), Russian
|42,100
|
|
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Emblem of the Yakut ASSR.svg)
| align=center |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Yakut)(Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
|[[of the Yakut ASSR.svg|border|100px](File:Flag)]
|1922–1991
|[Yakutsk](Yakutsk)
|[Yakut](Yakut language), Russian
|3,083,523
|
|
|}
### Former Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union
}}}
| align="left" |**
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Kabardino-Balkar ASSR.png)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Kabardin)(Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center"|[100px](File:Flag of the Kabardin ASSR (1954-1957).svg)
| align="left" |[Nalchik](Nalchik)
| align="left" |[Kabardians](Kabardians)
| align="left" |1944–1957
| align="left" |420,115(1959)
| align="left" |12,470
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of the Kirghiz ASSR (1921-1925).gif)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](Kirghiz)(Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1925))
| rowspan=2 align="center" |[100px](File:Flag of The Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920-36).svg)
| rowspan=2 align="left" |[Alma-Ata](Almaty)
| rowspan=2 align="left" |[Kazakhs](Kazakhs)
| align="left" |1920–1925
| rowspan=2 align="left" |6,503,000(1926)
| rowspan=2 align="left" |2,960,000
| rowspan=2 align="left" |
| rowspan=2 align="left" |
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of the Kazakh ASSR (1927-1937).gif)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](Kazakh)(Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic)
| align="left" |1925–1936
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" |[Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic](Kirghiz)(Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936))
| align="center" |[100px](File:Flag of the Kirghiz ASSR (1929-1937).svg)
| align="left" |[Frunze](Bishkek)
| align="left" |[Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people)
| align="left" |1926–1936
| align="left" |993,000(1926)
| align="left" |196,129
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Moldavian_ASSR_(1927-1938).png)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Moldavian)(Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center" |[100px](File:Flag_of_the_Moldavian_ASSR_(1925-1932).svg)
| align="left" |[Tiraspol](Tiraspol)
| align="left" |[Moldovans](Moldovans)
| align="left" |1924–1940
| align="left" |599,150(1939)
| align="left" |8,288
| align="left" |
| align="left" |**
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Mountain)(Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center" | [[of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1918–1925).svg|center|frameless|114x114px](File:Flag)]
| align="left" |[Vladikavkaz](Vladikavkaz)
| align="left" |[Balkars](Balkars), [Chechens](Chechens), [Ingush](Ingush people), [Kabardians](Kabardians), [Karachays](Karachays), [Ossetians](Ossetians), [Cossacks](Terek)(Terek Cossacks)
| align="left" |1921–1924
| align="left" |1,286,000(1921)
| align="left" |74,000
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of Arms of Tajik ASSR.png)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Tajik)(Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center" |[100px](File:Flag of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1924-1929).svg)
| align="left" |[Dushanbe](Dushanbe)
| align="left" |[Tajiks](Tajiks)
| align="left" |1924–1929
| align="left" |740,000(1924)
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Emblem of the Turkestan ASSR.svg)
| align="center" |[Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Turkestan)(Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center" |[100px](File:Turkestan Autonomous SSR Flag.svg)
| align="left" |[Tashkent](Tashkent)
| align="left" |[Uzbeks](Uzbeks), [Kazakhs](Kazakhs), [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people), [Tajiks](Tajiks), [Turkmens](Turkmens)
| align="left" |1918–1924
| align="left" |5,221,963(1920)
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
| align="left" |}}
|-
| align="center" |[50px](File:Coat of arms of Volga German ASSR.svg)
| align="center" |[German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic](Volga)(Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
| align="center" |[100px](File:Flag of Volga German ASSR.svg)
| align="left" |[Engels](Engels, Saratov Oblast)
| align="left" |[Germans](Soviet)(Soviet Germans)
| align="left" |1923–1941
| align="left" | 606,532(1939)
| align="left" |27,400
| align="left" |
| align="left" |
|}
## Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Starting in the late 1980s, under the rule of [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev), the Soviet government undertook a program of political reforms (*[glasnost](glasnost)* and *[perestroika](perestroika)*) intended to liberalise and revitalise the Union. These measures, however, had a number of unintended political and social effects. Political liberalisation allowed the governments of the union republics to openly invoke the principles of democracy and nationalism to gain legitimacy. In addition, the loosening of political restrictions led to fractures within the Communist Party which resulted in a reduced ability to govern the Union effectively. The rise of nationalist and right-wing movements, notably led by [Yeltsin](Boris)(Boris Yeltsin) in Russia, in the previously homogeneous political system undermined the Union's foundations. With the central role of the Communist Party removed from the constitution, the Party lost its control over the State machinery and was banned from operating after [attempted coup d'état](an)(1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt).
Throughout this period of turmoil, the Soviet government attempted to find a new structure that would reflect the increased authority of the republics. Some autonomous republics, like [Tatarstan](Tatarstan), [Checheno-Ingushetia](Checheno-Ingushetia), [Abkhazia](Abkhazia), [Ossetia](South)(South Ossetia), [Crimea](Crimea), [Transnistria](Transnistria), [Gagauzia](Gagauzia) sought the union statute in the New Union Treaty. Efforts to found a [of Sovereign States](Union)(Union of Sovereign States), however, proved unsuccessful and the republics began to secede from the Union. By 6 September 1991, the Soviet Union's [Council](State)(State Council of the Soviet Union) recognized the independence of [Estonia](Estonia), [Latvia](Latvia) and [Lithuania](Lithuania) bringing the number of union republics down to 12. On 8 December 1991, the remaining leaders of the republics signed the [Accords](Belavezha)(Belavezha Accords) which agreed that the USSR would be dissolved and replaced with a [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States). On 25 December, President Gorbachev announced his resignation and turned all executive powers over to Yeltsin. The next day the [of Republics](Council)(Soviet of Nationalities) voted to [the Union](dissolve)(dissolution of the Soviet Union). Since then, the republics have been governed independently with some reconstituting themselves as liberal parliamentary republics and others, particularly in [Asia](Central)(Central Asia), devolving into highly autocratic states under the leadership of the old Party elite.
## See also
* [of the Soviet Republics](Flags)(Flags of the Soviet Republics)
* [of the Soviet Republics](Emblems)(Emblems of the Soviet Republics)
* [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States)
* [Economic Union](Eurasian)(Eurasian Economic Union)
* [delimitation in the Soviet Union](National)(National delimitation in the Soviet Union)
* [Soviet Republic](Bavarian)(Bavarian Soviet Republic)
* [Soviet Republic](Hungarian)(Hungarian Soviet Republic)
* [Soviet Republic](Slovak)(Slovak Soviet Republic)
* [Soviet](Limerick)(Limerick Soviet)
* [Commune](Paris)(Paris Commune)
* [Polish Revolutionary Committee](Provisional)(Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee) (Polish SSR)
* [of Russia](Republics)(Republics of Russia)
* [subjects of Russia](Federal)(Federal subjects of Russia)
* [states](Post-Soviet)(Post-Soviet states) (former Soviet Republics)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* [of the Russian Revolution and Civil War](Bibliography)(Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War)
* [of Stalinism and the Soviet Union](Bibliography)(Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union)
* [of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union](Bibliography)(Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union)
[ ](Category:Republics of the Soviet Union)
[.](Category:Subdivisions of the Soviet Union)
[R](Category:Former socialist republics)
[.](Category:Soviet republics)
[Republics](Category:Soviet Union-related lists)
[Category:Decentralization](Category:Decentralization)
[*](Category:Post-Soviet states)
[countries and territories](Category:Russian-speaking)(Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories)
|
Iberian Peninsula
|
iberian_peninsula
|
# Iberian Peninsula
*Revision ID: 1160318321 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:32:29Z*
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|image_name = España y Portugal.jpg
|image_caption = Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula
|image_size = 255px
|image_alt =
|map_image= Iberia (orthographic projection).svg
|location = [Europe](Europe)
|coordinates =
|area_km2 = 583,254
|highest_mount = [Mulhacén](Mulhacén)
|elevation_m = 3478
|country = [below](See)(Iberian Peninsula#Major modern countries)
|demonym = Iberian
|population = ca. 53 million
|ethnic_groups =
}}
The **Iberian Peninsula** (), (the same in Asturian and Extremaduran)
**
**
*
**
* [Aragonese](Aragonese language) and [Occitan](Occitan language): *Peninsula Iberica*
**
**
*
*
* }} also known as **Iberia**, (the same in Aragonese, Asturian and Extremaduran)
**
* Portuguese and Mirandese: *Ibéria*
**
**
* Catalan and Occitan: *Ibèria*
**
**
* French: *Ibérie*
* Basque: *Iberia* }} is a [peninsula](peninsula) in southwestern [Europe](Europe), defining the westernmost edge of [Eurasia](Eurasia). It is divided between [Spain](Peninsular)(Peninsular Spain) and [Portugal](Continental)(Continental Portugal), comprising most of the region, as well as a small part of [France](Southern)(Southern France), [Andorra](Andorra), and [Gibraltar](Gibraltar). With an area of approximately , and a population of roughly 53 million, it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the [Peninsula](Scandinavian)(Scandinavian Peninsula).
## Name
[[Europe satfoto 2014067.jpg|thumb|The Iberian Peninsula and Southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014](File:Iberia)]
### Greek name
The word *Iberia* is a noun adapted from the [Latin](Latin) word "Hiberia" originating in the [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) word Ἰβηρία (**), used by Greek geographers under the rule of the [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire) to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time, the name did not describe a single geographical entity or a distinct population; the same name was used for the [of Iberia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Iberia), natively known as [Kartli](Kartli) in the [Caucasus](Caucasus), the core region of what would later become the [of Georgia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Georgia). It was [Strabo](Strabo) who first reported the delineation of "Iberia" from [Gaul](Gaul) (*Keltikē*) by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") from there. With the fall of the [Roman Empire](Western)(Western Roman Empire) and the consolidation of [languages](romanic)(romanic languages), the word "Iberia" continued the Roman word "Hiberia" and the Greek word "Ἰβηρία".
The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the [Phoenicians](Phoenicians), by voyaging westward on the [Mediterranean](Mediterranean). [of Miletus](Hecataeus)(Hecataeus of Miletus) was the first known to use the term *Iberia*, which he wrote about circa 500 BCE. [Herodotus](Herodotus) of Halicarnassus says of the [Phocaea](Phocaea)ns that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with […] Iberia." According to [Strabo](Strabo),Geography III.4.19. prior historians used *Iberia* to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος" (**, the [Ebro](Ebro)) as far north as the [Rhône](Rhône), but in his day they set the [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) as the limit. [Polybius](Polybius) respects that limit,III.37. but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as [Gibraltar](Gibraltar), with the Atlantic side having no name. ElsewhereIII.17. he says that [Saguntum](Sagunto) is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia."
### Roman names
According to [Ebel](Charles)(Charles Ebel), the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use *Hispania* and *Hiberia* (Greek: *Iberia*) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word *Hiberia*, similar to the Greek *Iberia*, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river *Hiberus* (now called [Ebro](Ebro) or Ebre). *Hiber* (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet [Ennius](Ennius) in 200 BCE. [Virgil](Virgil) wrote *impacatos (H)iberos* ("restless Iberi") in his [Georgics](Georgics). The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late [Republic](Roman)(Roman Republic) called the entire peninsula *[Hispania](Hispania)*.
In Greek and Roman antiquity, the name *Hesperia* was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula; in the latter case *Hesperia Ultima* (referring to its position in the far west) appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers.
Also since Roman antiquity, Jews gave the name *[Sepharad](Sepharad)* to the peninsula.
As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names *Hispania Citerior* and *Hispania Ulterior* for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three [province](Roman)(Roman province)s: [Baetica](Hispania)(Hispania Baetica), [Tarraconensis](Hispania)(Hispania Tarraconensis), and [Lusitania](Hispania)(Hispania Lusitania). Strabo says that the Romans use *Hispania* and *Iberia* synonymously, distinguishing between the *near* northern and the *far* southern provinces. (The name *Iberia* was ambiguous, being also the name of the [of Iberia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)) in the Caucasus.)
Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the [Vascones](Vascones), which was preserved as a [isolate](language)(language isolate) by the barrier of the Pyrenees.
### Modern name
The modern phrase "Iberian Peninsula" was coined by the French geographer [Bory de Saint-Vincent](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent) on his 1823 work *"Guide du Voyageur en Espagne"*. Prior to that date, geographers had used the terms 'Spanish Peninsula' or 'Pyrenaean Peninsula'.
## Etymology
[[File:Sesars.svg|thumb|Northeast Iberian script from [Huesca](Huesca (province))]]
The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River [Ebro](Ebro) (Ibēros in [Greek](ancient)(ancient Greek) and Ibērus or Hibērus in [Latin](Latin)). The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. [Pliny](Pliny the Elder) goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.III.3.21. The river appears in the [Treaty](Ebro)(Ebro Treaty) of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in [Appian](Appian), uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, [Polybius](Polybius) states that the "native name" is *Ibēr*, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin *-os* or *-us* termination.
The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "[Iberian](Iberian language)". Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern [Basque](basque language), the word *ibar*[Morris Student Plus](http://www1.euskadi.net/morris/dictionary.htm), Basque-English dictionary means "valley" or "watered meadow", while *ibai* means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names.
## Prehistory
### Palaeolithic
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the *[Homo](Homo)* genus for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the [Mountains](Atapuerca)(Atapuerca Mountains) demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of [Dolina](Gran)(Gran Dolina), where six [hominin](hominini) skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species *[erectus](Homo)(Homo erectus)*, *[heidelbergensis](Homo)(Homo heidelbergensis)*, or a new species called *[antecessor](Homo)(Homo antecessor)*.
Around 200,000 [BP](Before Present), during the [Paleolithic](Lower)(Lower Paleolithic) period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the [Paleolithic](Middle)(Middle Paleolithic) period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal [Mousterian](Mousterian) culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the [Paleolithic](Upper)(Upper Paleolithic), the Neanderthal [Châtelperronian](Châtelperronian) cultural period began. Emanating from [France](Southern)(Southern France), this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.
About 40,000 years ago, [modern humans](anatomically)(anatomically modern humans) entered the Iberian Peninsula from across the Pyrenees. [R1b](Haplogroup)(Haplogroup R1b) is common in modern [Portuguese](Portuguese people) and [Spanish](Spanish people) males. On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the [Aurignacian](Aurignacian), [Gravettian](Gravettian), [Solutrean](Solutrean) and [Magdalenian](Magdalenian) cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the [of the Upper Paleolithic](art)(art of the Upper Paleolithic).
### Neolithic
During the [expansion](Neolithic)(Neolithic Europe), various [megalithic](megalithic) cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula. An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the [culture](Cardium)(Cardium pottery), also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE. These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the [civilization](Iberian)(Iberians).
As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe, the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are [European Farmers](Early)(Early European Farmers) who arrived during the Neolithic. The large predominance of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b, common throughout [Europe](Western)(Western Europe), is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of (predominantly male) [Steppe Herders](Western)(Western Steppe Herders) from the [steppe](Pontic–Caspian)(Pontic–Caspian steppe) during the Bronze Age. Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe-related ancestry.}}
### Chalcolithic
[[Millares recreacion cuadro.jpg|thumb|A model recreating the Chalcolithic settlement of Los Millares](File:Los)]
In the [Chalcolithic](Chalcolithic) ( 3000 BCE), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula's [civilization](first)(first civilization)s and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the [Baltic](Baltic Sea), [East](Middle)(Middle East) and [Africa](North)(North Africa). Around 2800 – 2700 BCE, the [culture](Beaker)(Beaker culture), which produced the *Maritime Bell Beaker*, probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the [Tagus](Tagus) estuary and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.
### Bronze Age
[Age](Bronze)(Bronze Age) cultures developed beginning 1800 BCE, when the culture of [Millares](Los)(Los Millares) was followed by that of [Argar](El)(El Argar). During the Early Bronze Age, southeastern Iberia saw the emergence of important settlements, a development that has compelled some archeologists to propose that these settlements indicate the advent of state-level social structures. From this centre, bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like the [of Levante](Bronze)(Bronze of Levante), [Iberian Bronze](South-Western)(South-Western Iberian Bronze) and [Cogotas](Las)(Las Cogotas).
Preceded by the Chalcolithic sites of Los Millares, the [culture](Argaric)(Argaric culture) flourished in southeastern Iberia in from 2200 BC to 1550 BC, when depopulation of the area ensued along with disappearing of copper–bronze–arsenic metallurgy. The most accepted model for El Argar has been that of an early state society, most particularly in terms of class division, exploitation, and coercion, with agricultural production, maybe also human labour, controlled by the larger hilltop settlements, and the elite using violence in practical and ideological terms to clamp down on the population. Ecological degradation, landscape opening, fires, pastoralism, and maybe tree cutting for mining have been suggested as reasons for the collapse.
The culture of the *[motillas](motillas)*, developed an early system of groundwater supply plants (the so-called *motillas*) in the upper [Guadiana](Guadiana) basin (in the southern *meseta*) in a context of extreme aridification in the area in the wake of the [climatic event](4.2-kiloyear)(4.2-kiloyear event), which roughly coincided with the transition from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age. Increased precipitation and recovery of the water table from about 1800 BC onward should have led to the forsaking of the *motillas* (which may have flooded) and the redefinition of the relation of the inhabitants of the territory with the environment.
In the Late Bronze Age, the archaeological culture of [Tartessos](Tartessos) developed in the southwest of the Peninsula, characterized by [Phoenicia](Phoenicia)n influence and using the [Paleohispanic script](Southwest)(Southwest Paleohispanic script) for its [language](Tartessian)(Tartessian language).
## Proto-history
[[300BC-en.svg|thumb|Iberia before the Carthaginian conquests circa 300 BCE.](File:Iberia)]
[[File:Escrita sudoeste by Henrique Matos 002A.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|An instance of the [Paleohispanic script](Southwest)(Southwest Paleohispanic script) inscribed in the Abóbada I stele.]]
By the [Age](Iron)(Iron Age), starting in the 7th century BCE, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either [Pre-Celtic](Pre-Celtic) or Celtic (such as the [Celtiberians](Celtiberians), [Gallaeci](Gallaeci), [Astures](Astures), [Celtici](Celtici), [Lusitanians](Lusitanians) and others), the cultures of the [Iberians](Iberians) in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the [Aquitanian](Aquitanian language) in the western portion of the Pyrenees.
As early as the 12th century BCE, the [Phoenicians](Phoenician civilization), a thalassocratic civilization originally from the Eastern Mediterranean, began to explore the coastline of the peninsula, interacting with the metal-rich communities in the southwest of the peninsula (contemporarily known as the semi-mythical [Tartessos](Tartessos)). Around 1100 BCE, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day [Cádiz](Cádiz)). Phoenicians established a permanent trading port in the Gadir colony circa 800 BCE in response to the increasing demand of silver from the [Empire](Assyrian)(Assyrian Empire).
The seafaring Phoenicians, [Greeks](ancient Greece) and [Carthaginians](ancient Carthage) successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. In the 8th century BCE, the first [colonies](Greek)(Colonies in antiquity#Greek colonies), such as Emporion (modern [Empúries](Empúries)), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians.
Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy, a number of [scripts](paleohispanic)(paleohispanic scripts) developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE. The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts (originally supposed to be a non-redundant [semi-syllabary](semi-syllabary)) derived from the [alphabet](Phoenician)(Phoenician alphabet) and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed.
In the sixth century BCE, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day [Spain](Cartagena,)(Cartagena, Spain)).
## History
### Roman rule
[[File:Conquista Hispania.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[conquest](Roman)(Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula): 220 BCE – 19 BCE]]
In 218 BCE, during the [Punic War](Second)(Second Punic War) against the Carthaginians, the first [Roman](Ancient Rome) troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as [Hispania](Hispania). After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into [Ulterior](Hispania)(Hispania Ulterior) and [Citerior](Hispania)(Hispania Citerior). Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hospots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond. The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in. Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the [Wars](Celtiberian)(Celtiberian Wars) and the [War](Lusitanian)(Lusitanian War), were fought in the 2nd century. Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from [hillfort](hillfort)s to the plains.
An example of the interaction of [slaving](slaving) and [ecocide](ecocide), the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula (which required a massive number of forced laborers, initially from Hispania and latter also from the [borderlands](Gallic)(Gaul) and other locations of the Mediterranean), bringing in a far-reaching environmental outcome vis-à-vis long-term global pollution records, with levels of [pollution](atmospheric)(atmospheric pollution) from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the Industrial Revolution.
In addition to mineral extraction (of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and [cinnabar](cinnabar)), Hispania also produced manufactured goods ([sigillata](Terra sigillata) pottery, [glass](colourless)(glass), [linen](linen) garments) fish and fish sauce ([garum](garum)), dry crops (such as [wheat](wheat) and, more importantly, [esparto](esparto)), [oil](olive)(olive oil), and [wine](wine).
The process of [Romanization](Romanization (cultural)) spurred on throughout the first century BC. The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic, such as the [War](Sertorian)(Sertorian War) or the [between Caesar and Pompey](conflict)(Caesar's civil war) later in the century.
During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula.
### Pre-modern Iberia
[[560.svg|thumb|right|upright|Germanic and Byzantine rule 560](File:Iberia)]
In the early fifth century, [peoples](Germanic)(Germanic peoples) occupied the peninsula, namely the [Suebi](Suebi), the [Vandals](Vandals) ([Silingi](Silingi) and [Hasdingi](Hasdingi)) and their allies, the [Alans](Alans). Only the kingdom of the Suebi ([Quadi](Quadi) and [Marcomanni](Marcomanni)) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the [Visigoths](Visigoths), who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day [Braga](Braga)), in 584–585. They would also occupy the [province](Roman province) of the [Empire](Byzantine)(Byzantine Empire) (552–624) of [Spania](Spania) in the south of the peninsula. However, [Islands](Balearic)(Balearic Islands) remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest in 707.
In 711, a [army](Muslim)(Umayyad conquest of Hispania) conquered the [Kingdom in Hispania](Visigothic)(Visigoths). Under [ibn Ziyad](Tariq)(Tariq ibn Ziyad), the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the [conquest of Hispania](Umayyad)(Umayyad conquest of Hispania). [Al-Andalus](Al-Andalus) (, tr. *al-ʾAndalūs*, possibly "Land of the Vandals"), is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia. The Muslim conquerors were [Arabs](Arabs) and [Berbers](Berbers); following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place, (*muwalladum* or *[Muladí](Muladí)*). After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam. The Muslims were referred to by the generic name *[Moors](Moors)*. The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladí), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers. Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave). Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the [system](*dhimmah*)(Dhimmi), although Jews became very important in certain fields. Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as ''musta'arab* ([mozarab](mozarab)s). The slave population comprised the *[Ṣaqāliba](Saqaliba)* (literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as [Sudanese](Sudan (region)) slaves.
The Umayyad rulers faced a major [Revolt](Berber)(Berber Revolt) in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula. Following the [Abbasid](Abbasid) takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals, [al-Rahman I](Abd)(Abd al-Rahman I).
[[File:Al Andalus & Christian Kingdoms.png|thumb|upright|Islamic rule: [al-Andalus](al-Andalus) 1000]]
Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the [of Córdoba](Caliphate)(Caliphate of Córdoba). The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of [III](Abd-ar-Rahman)(Abd-ar-Rahman III) and his successor [II](al-Hakam)(al-Hakam II), becoming then, in the view of [Vicens Vives](Jaime)(Jaime Vicens Vives), "the most powerful state in Europe". Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar, waging war, as well as his successor, against the [Empire](Fatimid)(Fatimid Empire).
Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones: [Córdoba](Córdoba (Spain)) reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century, [Toledo](Toledo, Spain) 30,000 by the 11th century and [Seville](Seville) 80,000 by the 12th century.
During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the [of Castile](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Castile), the [of Aragon](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Aragon), the [of Navarre](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Navarre), the [of León](Kingdom)(Kingdom of León) or the [of Portugal](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Portugal), as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian [Hispanica](Marca)(Marca Hispanica). Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances.}} The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "[Reconquista](Reconquista)" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492").
[[File:Warriors embrace CSM 185 panel 2.jpg|thumb|right|Two warriors embrace before the siege of Chincoya Castle (*[de Santa Maria](Cantigas)(Cantigas de Santa Maria)*).]]
The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the [of al-Andalus](Fitna)(Fitna of al-Andalus)) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the *[taifa](taifa)s''. Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/León was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities, [I of León](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand I of León) seized Lamego and Viseu (1057–1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the [of Badajoz](Taifa)(Taifa of Badajoz) (at times at war with the [of Seville](Taifa)(Taifa of Seville)); Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon [Barbastro](took)(Crusade of Barbastro) from the Hudid [of Lérida](Taifa)(Taifa of Lérida) as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II. Most critically, [VI of León-Castile](Alfonso)(Alfonso VI of Castile) conquered Toledo and its [taifa](wider)(Taifa of Toledo) in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the [Central](Sistema)(Sistema Central) to [Mancha](La)(La Mancha). In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of León-Castile, the [Almoravid](Almoravid)s, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the [of Zalaca](battle)(battle of Zalaca), began to seize control of the remaining taifas.
The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part. The [Almohad](Almohad)s, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar, first entered the peninsula in 1146.
Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms. The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp: *frontera*), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.
By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.
During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from [V](Alfonso)(Alfonso V of León) and [VI](Alfonso)(Alfonso VI of León and Castile) (crowned *Hispaniae Imperator*) to [X](Alfonso)(Alfonso X of Castile) and [XI](Alfonso)(Alfonso XI of Castile) tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.
Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal. Since the 13th century, the [of Aragon](Crown)(Crown of Aragon) expanded overseas; led by [Catalans](Catalans), it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the [Balearics](Balearics), [Sicily](Sicily) and [Sardinia](Sardinia), and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century. Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to [Rau](Virgínia)(Virgínia Rau), the "great centre of Genoese trade" in the early 14th century. The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from [Genoese](Republic of Genoa) influence. The [Kingdom of Granada](Nasrid)(Nasrid Kingdom of Granada), neighbouring the [of Gibraltar](Strait)(Strait of Gibraltar) and founded upon a [vassalage](Vassal state) relationship with the Crown of Castile, also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese.
Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the [Sultanate](Marinid)(Marinid Sultanate).; The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 [of Río Salado](Battle)(Battle of Río Salado), when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender) [al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman](Abu)(Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman) made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.
[[File:FraMauroMapSpainPortugalNorthenAfrica.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Map of the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa (inverted) by [Mauro](Fra)(Fra Mauro) (ca. 1450)]]
The [bubonic plague](1348–1350)(Black Death) devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation. Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken. The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.
The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of [the Cruel of Castile](Peter)(Peter of Castile) (reigned 1350–69), the [of Trastámara](House)(House of Trastámara) succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother, [II](Henry)(Henry II of Castile) (reigned 1369–79). In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of [I](John)(John I of Aragon) (reigned 1387–96) and [I](Martin)(Martin of Aragon) (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara, [I](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand I of Aragon) (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne. The [Years' War](Hundred)(Hundred Years' War) also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory. After the accession of [III](Henry)(Henry III of Castile) to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews,; or even as many as 100,000, according to [Gerber](Jane)(Jane Gerber). Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to [Crescas](Hasdai)(Hasdai Crescas), about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.
During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the [of Aviz](House)(House of Aviz), [Ceuta](conquering)(Conquest of Ceuta) (1415) arriving at [Santo](Porto)(Porto Santo Island) (1418), [Madeira](Madeira Island) and the [Azores](Azores), as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast. In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb.
During the Late Middle Ages, the [Jews](History of the Jews in Spain) acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon.
Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with [Barcelona](Barcelona) (already in the 14th century), [Valencia](Valencia) (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent, [de Mallorca](Palma)(Palma de Mallorca) (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples. Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade. Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of [Málaga](Málaga) entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.
By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million).
For three decades in the 15th century, the *Hermandad de las Marismas*, the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the [League](Hanseatic)(Hanseatic League), fought against the latter, an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms. Castile sought to claim the [of Biscay](Gulf)(Gulf of Biscay) as its own. In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy [defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle](thoroughly)(Battle of La Rochelle (1419)).
In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the [Monarchs](Catholic)(Catholic Monarchs) in Castile and Aragon, and by [I](Manuel)(Manuel I of Portugal) in Portugal.
[[Antiguo Régimen.svg|thumb|Iberian Kingdoms in 1400](File:Reinos)]
The last Muslim stronghold, [Granada](Emirate of Granada), was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa. Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the [of Granada](fall)(Granada War#Last stand at Granada), all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were [from Spain](expelled)(Expulsion of Jews from Spain). Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain. The Jews were also [from Sicily](expelled)(Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily) and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.
In 1497, King [I of Portugal](Manuel)(Manuel I of Portugal) forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave. That same year he [expelled](Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal) all Muslims that were not slaves, and in 1502 the [Monarchs](Catholic)(Catholic Monarchs) followed suit, imposing the choice of [to Christianity](conversion)(Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain) or exile and loss of property. Many Jews and Muslims fled to [Africa](North)(North Africa) and the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as [Marrano](Marrano)s and [Morisco](Morisco)s (after the old term *Moors*). However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately [expelled](forcibly)(expulsion of the Moriscos) from Spain in the early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.
The change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century has been described as one of the few cases of avoidance of the [Trap](Thucydides)(Thucydides Trap).
### Modern Iberia
[[Expulsión en el Puerto de Denia. Vicente Mostre.jpg|thumb|right|Expelling of the moriscos in the Port of Denia](File:La)]
Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity, [Wallerstein](Immanuel)(Immanuel Wallerstein) pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century. During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas, with a state monopoly in [Seville](Seville) becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade, based on [bullion](bullion). Iberian imperialism, starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese (along Dutch, English and French), precipitated the economic decline of the [Peninsula](Italian)(Italian Peninsula). The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources; in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished, relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin. Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the [revolt](Morisco)(Morisco revolt) in Las Alpujarras during the mid-16th century, but roughly 300,000 of them [expelled from the country](were)(Expulsion of the Moriscos) in 1609–1614, and emigrated *en masse* to North Africa.
In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King [Sebastian](Sebastian of Portugal), Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy; thus, the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the [Union](Iberian)(Iberian Union) (1580–1640). During the reign of [II of Spain](Philip)(Philip II of Spain) (I of Portugal), the Councils of Portugal, Italy, Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the [Monarchy](Hispanic)(Spanish Empire), to which the Councils of Castile, Aragon, Indies, Chamber of Castile, Inquisition, Orders, and Crusade already belonged, defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the through which the empire operated. During the Iberian union, the "first great wave" of the [slave trade](transatlantic)(Atlantic slave trade) happened, according to [Vila Villar](Enriqueta)(Enriqueta Vila Villar), as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade.
By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula). Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms. Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities. Meanwhile, the urban population in the [of Aragon](Crown)(Crown of Aragon) was highly concentrated in a handful of cities: [Zaragoza](Zaragoza) ([of Aragon](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Aragon)), [Barcelona](Barcelona) ([of Catalonia](Principality)(Principality of Catalonia)), and, to a lesser extent in the [of Valencia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Valencia), in [Valencia](Valencia), [Alicante](Alicante) and [Orihuela](Orihuela). The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital, [Lisbon](Lisbon) (which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade, followed at great distance by [Porto](Porto) and [Évora](Évora) (both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants). Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and [Seville](Seville) were among the Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities.
The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline, the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe. A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital, [Madrid](Madrid)), with only [Castile](New)(New Castile (Spain)) resisting recession in the interior. Regarding the Atlantic façade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent. In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession. Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported. However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth.
The aftermath of the intermittent [Portuguese Restoration War](1640–1668)(Portuguese Restoration War) brought the [of Braganza](House)(House of Braganza) as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar [Ceuta](Ceuta)), putting an end to the Iberian Union.
Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial [flight](rural)(rural flight) patterns.
## Geography and geology
[[map of the Iberian Peninsula](File:MapaTopográficoPenínsulaIbérica.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Physical)]
The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, [Italian](Italian Peninsula), and [Balkan](Balkans). It is bordered on the southeast and east by the [Sea](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea), and on the north, west, and southwest by the [Ocean](Atlantic)(Atlantic Ocean). The [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip, located in [Tarifa](Tarifa) is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the [of Gibraltar](Strait)(Strait of Gibraltar) and the [Sea](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea).
The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km2 and has very contrasting and uneven relief. The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east, and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000 [mamsl](Height above sea level), resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude (637 mamsl) in [Europe](Western)(Western Europe).
The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at [de Tarifa](Punta)(Punta de Tarifa) to the northernmost extremity at [de Estaca de Bares](Punta)(Punta de Estaca de Bares) over a distance between lines of latitude of about based on a [length](degree)(Latitude#Degree length) of per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at [da Roca](Cabo)(Cabo da Roca) to the easternmost extremity at [de Creus](Cap)(Cap de Creus) over a distance between lines of longitude at [N latitude](40°)(40th parallel north) of about based on an estimated degree length of about for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical [quadrangle](Quadrangle (geography)) was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer [Strabo](Strabo).III.1.3.
About three quarters of that rough octagon is the [Central](Meseta)(Meseta Central), a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude. It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered [Getafe](Getafe) just south of [Madrid](Madrid)). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.
### Coastline
The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is , on the Mediterranean side and on the Atlantic side.These figures sum the figures given in the Wikipedia articles on the geography of Spain and Portugal. Most figures from Internet sources on Spain and Portugal include the coastlines of the islands owned by each country and thus are not a reliable guide to the coastline of the peninsula. Moreover, the length of a coastline may vary significantly depending on where and how it is measured. The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of lower than today at the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum) (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years [BP](Before Present). The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated length of Atlantic shelf is only wide. At the [isobath](isobath), on the edge, the shelf drops off to .
The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the [of Biscay](Bay)(Bay of Biscay) on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama [seamount](seamount)s, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by [Canyon](Nazaré)(Nazaré Canyon), which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.
### Rivers
[[File:Douro estuary.jpg|thumb|upright|Discharge of the [Douro](Douro) into the Atlantic Ocean near Porto]]
The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the [Ebro](Ebro), [Douro](Douro), [Tagus](Tagus), [Guadiana](Guadiana) and [Guadalquivir](Guadalquivir). All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.
The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.
### Mountains
The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely [mountainous](mountainous). The major mountain systems are:
* The [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) and their foothills, the [Pre-Pyrenees](Pre-Pyrenees), crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. [Aneto](Aneto) in the [Maladeta](Maladeta) massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
[[File:Mulhacen north face.JPG|thumb|right|The [Mulhacén](Mulhacén), the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula]]
* The [Mountains](Cantabrian)(Cantabrian Mountains) along the northern coast with the massive [de Europa](Picos)(Picos de Europa). [de Cerredo](Torre)(Torre de Cerredo), at 2,648 m, is the highest point
* The [Massif](Galicia/Trás-os-Montes)(Galician Massif) in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks. [Trevinca](Pena)(Pena Trevinca), at 2,127 m, is the highest point
* The [Ibérico](Sistema)(Sistema Ibérico), a complex system at the heart of the peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers. [Moncayo](Moncayo), at 2,313 m, is the highest point
* The [Central](Sistema)(Sistema Central), dividing the [Plateau](Iberian)(Iberian Plateau) into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of [Portugal](Continental)(Continental Portugal) (1,993 m) is located in the [da Estrela](Serra)(Serra da Estrela)). [Almanzor](Pico)(Pico Almanzor) in the [de Gredos](Sierra)(Sierra de Gredos) is the highest point, at 2,592 m
* The [de Toledo](Montes)(Montes de Toledo), which also stretches into Portugal from the [Mancha](La)(La Mancha) natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is [Villuerca](La)(La Villuerca) in the [de Villuercas](Sierra)(Sierra de Villuercas), [Extremadura](Extremadura)
* The [Morena](Sierra)(Sierra Morena), which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, [Bañuela](Bañuela) is the highest point
* The [System](Baetic)(Baetic System), which stretches between [Cádiz](Cádiz) and Gibraltar and northeast towards [Province](Alicante)(Alicante Province). It is divided into three subsystems:
** [System](Prebaetic)(Prebaetic System), which begins west of the [Sur de Jaén](Sierra)(Sierra Sur de Jaén), reaching the [Sea](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea) shores in [Province](Alicante)(Alicante Province). [Sagra](La)(La Sagra (peak)) is the highest point at 2,382 m.
** [System](Subbaetic)(Subbaetic System), which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from [Trafalgar](Cape)(Cape Trafalgar) in [Province](Cádiz)(Cádiz Province) across Andalusia to the [of Murcia](Region)(Region of Murcia).Edited by W Gibbons & T Moreno, *Geology of Spain*, 2002, The highest point, at , is Peña de la Cruz in [Arana](Sierra)(Sierra Arana).
** [System](Penibaetic)(Penibaetic System), located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high [Mulhacén](Mulhacén) in the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada (Spain)).
### Geology
[[units of the Iberian Peninsula EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Major Geologic Units of the Iberian Peninsula](File:Geological)]
The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the [Ediacaran](Ediacaran) to the [Recent](Holocene), and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class [deposit](mineral)(mineral deposit)s can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a [Hercynian](Variscan orogeny) [craton](craton)ic block known as the [Massif](Iberian)(Hesperian Massif). On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the [System](Baetic)(Baetic System). These twofold chains are part of the [belt](Alpine)(Geology of the Alps). To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the [magma](magma)-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the [Ibérico](Sistema)(Sistema Ibérico) and the [Mediterranean System](Catalan)(Catalan Mediterranean System).
The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest [Lithium](Lithium) deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's and . Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some [uranium](uranium) deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.
The [Pyrite Belt](Iberian)(Iberian Pyrite Belt), located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important [volcanogenic](Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit) massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.
### Climate
[[climate types of Iberia.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Köppen climate types of Iberia](File:Köppen)]
The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large [circulation](atmospheric)(atmospheric circulation) patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000 mm to 300 mm).
The Iberian peninsula has three dominant climate types. One of these is the [climate](oceanic)(oceanic climate) seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a [climate](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean climate); the [Mediterranean climate](Warm-summer)(Warm-summer Mediterranean climate) and the [Mediterranean climate](Hot-summer)(Hot-summer Mediterranean climate), with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea, this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where, due to [upwelling](upwelling)/[downwelling](downwelling) phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as in only a few kilometers (e.g. [Peniche](Peniche, Portugal) vs [Santarém](Santarém, Portugal)) There are also more localized [climate](semi-arid)(semi-arid climate)s in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada (Spain)) and areas with extremely low precipitation and [climate](desert)(desert climate)s or [climate](semi-arid)(semi-arid climate)s such as the [Almería](Almería) area, [Murcia](Murcia) area and southern [Alicante](Alicante) area. In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with [Córdoba](Córdoba, Andalusia) averaging around in July. The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around in summer. In sharp contrast [Coruña](A)(A Coruña) at the northern tip of [Galicia](Galicia (Spain)) has a summer daytime high average at just below . This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part, mild, although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain. The warmest winter nights are usually found in [downwelling](downwelling) favourable areas of the west coast, such as on capes. Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula, in December for example the northern west coast averages above whereas the southeast can average below . [Insolation](Insolation) can vary from just 1,600 hours in the [Bilbao](Bilbao) area, to above 3,000 hours in the [Algarve](Algarve) and [of Cádiz](Gulf)(Gulf of Cádiz).
## Major modern countries
[[Peninsula at Night - NASA Earth Observatory.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Iberia at night](File:Iberian)]
The current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of [Portugal](Portugal) and [Spain](Spain), the whole microstate of [Andorra](Andorra), a small part of the [department](French)(departments of France) of [Pyrénées-Orientales](Pyrénées-Orientales) ([Cerdagne](French)(French Cerdagne)), and the [Overseas Territory](British)(British Overseas Territories) of [Gibraltar](Gibraltar).
French Cerdagne is on the south side of the [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) mountain range, which runs along the border between Spain and France. For example, the [Segre](Segre (river)) river, which runs west and then south to meet the [Ebro](Ebro), has its source on the [French](France) side. The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range, which is the reason why [Perpignan](Perpignan), which is also known as the capital of [Catalonia](Northern)(Northern Catalonia), is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula.
Regarding Portugal and Spain, this chiefly excludes the [Macaronesia](Macaronesia)n archipelagos (the [Azores](Azores) and [Madeira](Madeira) of Portugal, and the [Islands](Canary)(Canary Islands) of Spain), the [Islands](Balearic)(Balearic Islands) (Spain), and the [overseas territories](Spanish)(plazas de soberanía) in [Africa](North)(North Africa) (most conspicuously the cities of [Ceuta](Ceuta) and [Melilla](Melilla), as well as unpopulated islets and rocks).
Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula:
## Cities
The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises ([Barcelona](Barcelona), [Lisbon](Lisbon), and [Madrid](Madrid)) and four regional metropolises ([Bilbao](Bilbao), [Porto](Porto), [Seville](Seville), and [Valencia](Valencia)). The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis-à-vis the inter-relation between the different centres. Among these metropolises, Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity.
### Major metropolitan regions
According to [Eurostat](Eurostat) (2019), the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows:
## Ecology
### Forests
[[Ibérico Doñana.jpg|thumb|right|An Iberian lynx](File:Lince)]
The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct [ecosystem](ecosystem)s. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.
While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.
The endangered [lynx](Iberian)(Iberian lynx) (*Lynx pardinus*) is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether.
A new *[Podarcis](Podarcis)* lizard species, *[virescens](Podarcis)(Podarcis virescens)*, was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the *Societas Europaea Herpetologica* in 2020. This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region.
### East Atlantic flyway
The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic [flyway](flyway) for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, [sandpiper](curlew)(curlew sandpiper)s rest in the region of the [of Cádiz](Bay)(Bay of Cádiz).
In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In [Galicia](Galicia (Spain)) are [de Arousa](Ría)(Ría de Arousa) (a home of [plover](grey)(grey plover)), Ria de [Ortigueira](Ortigueira), Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal, the [Lagoon](Aveiro)(Aveiro Lagoon) hosts [avosetta*](*Recurvirostra)(Avocet), the [ringed plover](common)(common ringed plover), [plover](grey)(grey plover) and [stint](little)(little stint). [Province](Ribatejo)(Ribatejo Province) on the [Tagus](Tagus) supports [arosetta*](''Recurvirostra)(Avocet), grey plover, [dunlin](dunlin), [godwit](bar-tailed)(bar-tailed godwit) and [redshank](common)(common redshank). In the [Estuary](Sado)(Sado River) are [dunlin](dunlin), [curlew](Eurasian)(Eurasian curlew), grey plover and [redshank](common)(common redshank). The [Algarve](Algarve) hosts [knot](red)(red knot), [greenshank](common)(common greenshank) and [turnstone](turnstone). The [Marshes](Guadalquivir)(Guadalquivir Marshes) region of [Andalusia](Andalusia) and the Salinas de [Cádiz](Cádiz) are especially rich in wintering wading birds: [plover](Kentish)(Kentish plover), common ringed plover, [sanderling](sanderling), and [godwit](black-tailed)(black-tailed godwit) in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above.
## Languages
With the sole exception of [Basque](Basque language), which is of [origin](unknown)(Language isolate), all modern Iberian languages descend from [Latin](Vulgar)(Vulgar Latin) and belong to the [Romance languages](Western)(Western Romance languages). Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only [surviving language](non-Indo-European)(Pre-Indo-European languages) in Iberia and Western Europe.
In modern times, [Spanish](Spanish language) (the official language of Spain, spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country, the native language of about 36 million in Europe), [Portuguese](Portuguese language) (the official language of Portugal, with a population over 10 million), [Catalan](Catalan language) (over 7 million speakers in Europe, 3.4 million with Catalan as first language), [Galician](Galician language) (understood by the 93% of the 2.8 million Galician population) and [Basque](Basque language) (cf. around 1 million speakers) are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming [languages](global)(world language).
Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of [Astur-leonese](Astur-leonese), collectively amounting to about 0.6 million speakers, and the [Aragonese](Aragonese language) (barely spoken by the 8% of the 130,000 people inhabiting the [Aragón](Alto)(High Aragon)).
[English](English language) is the official language of Gibraltar. [Llanito](Llanito) is a unique language in the territory, an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish. In Spain, only 54.3% could speak a foreign language, below that of the EU-28 average. Portugal meanwhile achieved 69%, above the EU average, but still below the EU median. Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index.
## Transportation
Both Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non-standard rail gauge (the 1,668 mm [gauge](Iberian)(Iberian gauge)) since the construction of the first railroads in the 19th century. Spain has progressively introduced the 1,435 mm [gauge](standard)(Standard-gauge railway) in its new high-speed rail network (one of the most extensive in the world), inaugurated in 1992 with the [line](Madrid–Seville)(Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line), followed to name a few by the [Madrid–Barcelona](Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line) (2008), [Madrid–Valencia](Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network) (2010), an Alicante branch of the latter (2013) and the connection to France of the Barcelona line. Portugal however suspended all the high-speed rail projects in the wake of the [financial crisis](2008)(Financial crisis of 2007–08), putting an end for the time being to the possibility of a high-speed rail connection between Lisbon, Porto and Madrid.
Handicapped by a mountainous range (the [Pyrenees](Pyrenees)) hindering the connection to the rest of Europe, Spain (and subsidiarily Portugal) only has two meaningful rail connections to France able for freight transport, located at both ends of the mountain range. An international rail line across the Central Pyrenees linking [Zaragoza](Zaragoza) and the French city of [Pau](Pau (France)) through a tunnel existed in the past; however, an accident in the French part destroyed a stretch of the railroad in 1970 and the [Station](Canfranc)(Canfranc International railway station) has been a [cul-de-sac](Dead end (street)) since then.
There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks: [do Minho](Valença)(Valença railway station)–[Tui](Tuy railway station), [Formoso](Vilar)(Vilar Formoso railway station)–[de Oñoro](Fuentes)(Fuentes de Oñoro railway station), [Marvão-Beirã](Marvão-Beirã railway station)–[de Alcántara](Valencia)(Valencia de Alcántara railway station) and [Elvas](Elvas railway station)–[Badajoz](Badajoz railway station).
The prospect of the development (as part of a European-wide effort) of the Central, Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of [Tarragona](Port of Tarragona), [Valencia](Port of Valencia), [Sagunto](Port of Sagunto), [Bilbao](port of Bilbao), [Santander](Port of Santander), [Sines](Port of Sines) and [Algeciras](Port of Algeciras) vis-à-vis the rest of Europe and the World.
In 1980, Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link (tunnel or bridge) across the [of Gibraltar](Strait)(Strait of Gibraltar), possibly through a connection of with [Malabata](Cape)(Cape Malabata). Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far..
A transit point for many submarine cables, the [Link Around the Globe](Fibre-optic)(Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe), [India Gateway](Europe)(Europe India Gateway), and the [3](SEA-ME-WE)(SEA-ME-WE 3) feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula. The [Africa Cable System](West)(West Africa Cable System), [One](Main)(Main One), [SAT-3/WASC](SAT-3/WASC), [Coast to Europe](Africa)(Africa Coast to Europe (cable system)) also land in Portugal. [MAREA](MAREA), a high capacity communication transatlantic cable, connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to North America (Virginia), whereas [Hopper](Grace)(Grace Hopper (submarine communications cable)) is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022 and [EllaLink](EllaLink) is an upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula (Sines) to South America and the mammoth [project](2Africa)(2Africa) intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom, Europe and Africa (via Portugal and Barcelona) by 2023–24.
Two gas pipelines: the [Duran Farell pipeline](Pedro)(Maghreb–Europe Gas Pipeline) and (more recently) the [Medgaz](Medgaz) (from, respectively, Morocco and Algeria) link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula, providing Spain with Algerian natural gas. However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and—amidst a tense climate of [relations](Algerian–Moroccan)(Algeria–Morocco relations)—there are no plans to renew it.
## Economy
The official currency across Iberia is the [Euro](Euro), with the exception of Gibraltar, which uses the [Pound](Gibraltar)(Gibraltar pound) (at parity with [Sterling](Pound sterling)).
Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies. Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains. Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.
Regarding their role in the global economy, both the microstate of [Andorra](Andorra) and the British Overseas Territory of [Gibraltar](Gibraltar) have been described as [haven](tax)(tax haven)s.
The Galician region of Spain, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, became one of the biggest entry points of [cocaine](cocaine) in Europe, on a par with the Dutch ports. [Hashish](Hashish) is smuggled from [Morocco](Morocco) via the [of Gibraltar](Strait)(Strait of Gibraltar).
## See also
* [Federalism](Iberian)(Iberian Federalism)
* [Macaronesia](Macaronesia)
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Bibliography
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## External links
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[ ](Category:Iberian Peninsula)
[of Europe](Category:Peninsulas)(Category:Peninsulas of Europe)
[of Southwestern Europe](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Southwestern Europe)
[of Europe](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Europe)
[of Eurasia](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Eurasia)
[of Portugal](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Portugal)
[of Spain](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Spain)
[of France](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of France)
[of Andorra](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Andorra)
[of Gibraltar](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Gibraltar)
[Jewish communities](Category:Historic)(Category:Historic Jewish communities)
[of Portugal](Category:Peninsulas)(Category:Peninsulas of Portugal)
[of Spain](Category:Peninsulas)(Category:Peninsulas of Spain)
[of France](Category:Peninsulas)(Category:Peninsulas of France)
[Europe](Category:Southwestern)(Category:Southwestern Europe)
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Call of Duty_ Modern Warfare 2
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call_of_duty__modern_warfare_2
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# Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2
*Revision ID: 1159407213 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T04:02:49Z*
---
|Steve Fukuda|Mackey McCandlish|Zied Rieke|}}
| producer = [Rubin](Mark)(Mark Rubin)
| director = [West](Jason)(Jason West (game designer))
| writer = Jesse Stern
| composer = [Balfe](Lorne)(Lorne Balfe)
| series = *[of Duty](Call)(Call of Duty)*
| engine = [4.0](IW)(IW 4.0)
| platforms = |[One](Xbox)(Xbox One)}}
| released = **Windows**, **PlayStation 3**, **Xbox 360**November 10, 2009**OS X**May 20, 2014***Campaign Remastered*** **PlayStation 4**March 30, 2020**Windows**, **Xbox One**April 30, 2020
| genre = [shooter](First-person)(First-person shooter)
| modes = [Single-player](Single-player video game), [multiplayer](Multiplayer video game)
| artist = Richard Kriegler
}}
***Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2*** is a 2009 [shooter game](first-person)(First-person shooter) developed by [Ward](Infinity)(Infinity Ward) and published by [Activision](Activision). It is the sixth installment in the [of Duty* series](*Call)(Call of Duty) and the direct sequel to *[of Duty 4: Modern Warfare](Call)(Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare)*. It was released worldwide on November 10, 2009, for [Windows](Microsoft Windows), [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3), and [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360). A separate version for the [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS), titled *[Warfare: Mobilized](Modern)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized)*, was also released on the same day. A version for [X](OS)(OS X) was developed by [Aspyr](Aspyr) and released in May 2014, and the Xbox 360 version was made [compatible](backward)(List of backward-compatible games for Xbox One) for the [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) in 2018.
The game's campaign follows Task Force 141, a multi-national [forces](special)(special forces) unit commanded by Captain Soap MacTavish as they hunt Vladimir Makarov, leader of the Russian Ultranationalist party, and [Army Rangers](U.S.)(United States Army Rangers) from 1st Battalion/[Ranger Regiment](75th)(75th Ranger Regiment) who are defending the [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) area from a Russian invasion. The game's main playable characters are Sergeant Gary "Roach" Sanderson, of the 141, and Private James Ramirez, of the Army Rangers, with Captain MacTavish becoming playable later in the campaign. An expansive multiplayer mode is featured in the game, with several new features and modes that were not seen in its predecessor.
Development for the game began in 2008, when it was still known as *Call of Duty 6*. It uses the [4.0](IW)(IW 4.0) engine, an improved version of *Call of Duty 4*s [3.0](IW)(IW 3.0). Infinity Ward was inspired by real-life conflicts when developing the campaign mode. They initially tested the multiplayer mode by playing an in-house beta version of the game. *Modern Warfare 2* was officially announced in February 2009. Teasing of the game began in March, with short trailers being released for the game and, eventually, a full reveal trailer. The multiplayer mode was revealed shortly after. Two [content](downloadable)(downloadable content) packs were released for it post-release, each containing five new multiplayer maps, with some being remastered maps from *Call of Duty 4*.
*Modern Warfare 2* received universal acclaim, with praise for its campaign, multiplayer, and amount of content, although it received some criticism for its short length and a lack of innovation. Within 24 hours of release, the game sold approximately 4.7 million copies in North America and the United Kingdom. As of 2013, the game had sold 22.7 million copies. In addition to its release, a [book](comic)(comic book) series based on character ["Ghost" Riley](Simon)(Simon "Ghost" Riley) was also produced, titled *[Warfare 2: Ghost](Modern)(Modern Warfare 2: Ghost)*. Despite the game's success, it was subject to [controversies](some)(Controversies surrounding Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2), with one surrounding [playable level](a)(No Russian) that had the player carry out a terror attack on an airport. A sequel, *[of Duty: Modern Warfare 3](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3)*, was released in 2011 and finishes the original *Modern Warfare* storyline. A remaster of the game's campaign, *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 Campaign Remastered*, was released in March 2020 on the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and on [Windows](Microsoft Windows) and [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) in April 2020.
## Gameplay
*Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* is a first person shooter, and its [gameplay](gameplay) revolves around fast-paced gunfights against enemy combatants. The player controls a soldier who can perform several actions, including jump, sprint, crouch, lay [prone](Prone position), and aim down their gun's [sights](iron)(iron sights). When the player is shot by an enemy, blood will splatter their [display](heads-up)(HUD (video gaming)) (HUD), denoting that they have taken damage; if the player avoids gunfire by taking cover, their [health](Health (gaming)) will recover. The HUD also displays other information, such as a compass, a [mini-map](mini-map), and the player's current ammunition count. The game features traditional guns, including [rifle](assault)(assault rifle)s, [shotgun](shotgun)s, [handgun](handgun)s, and [rifle](sniper)(sniper rifle)s. The player will be given specific guns at the beginning of each [level](level (video gaming)), but may switch them out with another gun they find. Some guns have attachments, such as [suppressor](suppressor)s, and heartbeat sensors. The player can use grenades and [flashbangs](Stun grenade) when faced with a large group of enemies, as well as a knife for [quarters combat](close)(close quarters combat). In some levels, the player will be given special equipment, such as [vision goggles](night)(Night vision device), or a [designator](laser)(laser designator).
[[Multiplayer.png|right|thumb|Players can compete against each other in multiplayer.](File:MW2)]
*Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* has three different game modes: Campaign, Spec Ops, and Multiplayer. Campaign is a [single-player](single-player) mode where the player completes eighteen levels connected by an overarching plot. Each level features a series of objectives to fulfill, and the player will often switch characters between levels. If the player dies during a level, they will [respawn](Spawning (video gaming)) at the most recent [checkpoint](checkpoint (video gaming)). Levels can be played on one of four [difficulties](difficulty level), and each level can be replayed after it has been completed. Spec Ops mode features twenty-three additional levels that can be played individually or [cooperatively](Cooperative video game) with a partner. These levels provide specific challenges, such as defusing three bombs within a short period of time. If one player is shot down while playing cooperatively, they will begin crawling, and can shoot enemies with a handgun. If they are not revived by the other player, then they will die and fail the level. There are five tiers of Spec Ops levels, with each tier harder than the previous. Only the first tier is available from the beginning, as later tiers can be unlocked with enough stars. The player earns stars by completing the levels on one of three difficulties, with the number of stars earned corresponding to the difficulty chosen.
Multiplayer mode allows players to compete against each other in team-based and [deathmatch](deathmatch (video games))-based game types on various maps. Each game type has an objective that requires unique strategies to complete. If the player kills three or more players in a row without dying, they achieve a "killstreak", which gives the player a tactical advantage during a match. These include a [Predator](MQ-1 Predator) missile, a [gun](sentry)(sentry gun), and a "[nuke](tactical)(Tactical nuclear weapon)". Alternatively, if the player dies several times without a kill, they will be rewarded with a "deathstreak" bonus, which evens the match for the player. A match ends when either a team or player has reached a predefined number of points, or the allotted time expires in which case the team or player with the most points wins. The player's performance in multiplayer is tracked with [point](experience)(experience point)s, which can be earned by killing opposing players, completing objectives, or by completing a match. As the player gains experience, they advance in level, unlocking new weapons. The player will also unlock perks, which modify gameplay elements such as unlimited sprint and increased bullet damage.
## Plot
### Characters and setting
During the single-player campaign, the player controls five different characters from a [perspective](first-person)(First-person (video games)). The player primarily controls Sergeant Gary "Roach" Sanderson, a British member of an international [forces](special)(special forces) unit named Task Force 141. In addition to Roach, the player will also assume control of [First Class](Private)(Private First Class#United States) Joseph Allen ([Baker](Troy)(Troy Baker)) and [Private](Private (rank)#United States) James Ramirez of the U.S. Army's [Ranger Battalion](1st)(1st Ranger Battalion). The now Captain John "Soap" MacTavish ([McKidd](Kevin)(Kevin McKidd)) serves as a senior member of Task Force 141, acting as Roach's superior officer and becomes the playable character in the final three missions of the game. Lastly, the player briefly assumes the role of an astronaut stationed on the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station) during the height of the war between the United States and Russia.
The game's [characters](non-playable)(Non-player character) (NPCs) feature prominently in the story: For Task Force 141, Lieutenant ["Ghost" Riley](Simon)(Simon "Ghost" Riley) ([Fairbrass](Craig)(Craig Fairbrass)), who conceals his face with a skull print [balaclava](balaclava (clothing)) serves as Soap's second in command. For the United States Army Rangers, Sergeant Foley ([David](Keith)(Keith David)), along with his subordinate, Corporal Dunn ([Pepper](Barry)(Barry Pepper)), is initially Joseph Allen's squad leader, and becomes James Ramirez's squad leader later in the story. [General](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant General) Shepherd ([Henriksen](Lance)(Lance Henriksen)) is the commander of the United States Army Rangers and Task Force 141. Other supporting characters returning from *Call of Duty 4* include Captain [Price](John)(Captain Price) ([Murray](Billy)(Billy Murray (actor))), MacTavish's former commanding officer in the British [Air Service](Special)(Special Air Service) who was imprisoned in Russia, and Russian informant turned mercenary pilot "Nikolai" (Sven Holmberg).
### Story
Despite the events [the previous game](of)(Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare) preventing a nuclear war, the Ultranationalists ultimately seize control of Russia and Imran Zakhaev becomes a [martyr](martyr). Diplomatic relations with the United States plummet as a result, while Vladimir Makarov, an Ultranationalist extremist and Zakhaev's protege, commits to a five-year campaign of vengeance against the West with acts of [terrorism](terrorism). In 2016, Private First Class Joseph Allen, whose actions in [Afghanistan](Afghanistan) impress U.S. Army General Shepherd, is embedded into Makarov's team, who commit a [shooting](mass)(mass shooting) at an airport in [Moscow](Moscow), [multiple Russian civilians](killing)(No Russian). Makarov, aware of Allen's true identity, kills the American, leaving his body at the airport to implicate the United States in a [flag](false)(false flag) operation.
Meanwhile, Sergeant Gary "Roach" Sanderson is sent with Captain John "Soap" MacTavish to secure an Attack Characterization System (ACS) module from a downed American satellite that has been retrieved by Russian forces and kept in a hangar at an airbase in the [Shan range](Tian)(Tian Shan range) of [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan). After learning of the airport massacre, Soap, Roach, and several other members of the multinational special forces outfit "Task Force 141" are sent to [de Janeiro](Rio)(Rio de Janeiro) and succeed in capturing Alejandro Rojas, Makarov's arms dealer. In retaliation for the airport massacre, Russia launches a surprise invasion of the United States's Eastern Coast, achieved by their earlier capture of the ACS module and disabling American satellites over North America, leaving [NORAD](North American Aerospace Defense Command) blind to their attack.
Learning that Makarov's nemesis is imprisoned in the Russian Far East, Task Force 141 partakes in a counterattack there and rescues the prisoner: Captain John Price. Price rejoins Task Force 141, and in an effort to give the U.S. forces a much-needed advantage, boards a Russian [submarine](nuclear)(nuclear submarine) on their next mission and launches a [missile](ballistic)(ballistic missile) which detonates above [Washington](Washington, D.C.) in the [atmosphere](upper)(near space). During the counter-attack, the Americans save the [House](White)(White House) from a [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) bomb run to [the city](deny)(scorched earth) to the Russians, retaining control.
Task Force 141 are sent to two separate locations in search of Makarov; Roach is sent with Simon "Ghost" Riley and other members to a safehouse on the [Georgian](Georgia (country)) border, but are betrayed and killed by General Shepherd to tie up loose ends for his involvement in prolonging the Russian-American war. Meanwhile, Price and Soap are ambushed by Shepherd's own private forces battling Makarov's at an [boneyard](aircraft)(aircraft boneyard) in Afghanistan but manage to escape. Makarov reveals Shepherd's location to the 141 over radio communications; Price and Soap launch a [mission](suicide)(suicide mission) to take revenge on Shepherd. After a lengthy pursuit, Soap attempts to kill Shepherd but is stabbed in the chest. Before Shepherd can execute Soap, Price intervenes and engages in a fistfight with Shepherd, giving Soap enough time to pull the knife from his chest and throw it at Shepherd, killing him. Nikolai arrives by helicopter and evacuates Price and Soap, leading them to a safe place, where the events of [of Duty: Modern Warfare 3](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3) begin.
## Development
*Modern Warfare 2* was originally announced as *Call of Duty 6*. The game was first announced under the title *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* by Activision on December 3, 2008. Activision subsequently retracted its announcement, stating that any information about an upcoming *Call of Duty* game was "speculative." Infinity Ward then asserted that it had not officially confirmed its latest project at that time. On February 11, 2009, Activision officially announced *Modern Warfare 2* and set a tentative release date for "[Holiday](Christmas and holiday season) 2009." The game was tested in an internal [beta](Betaware) by the development team. While both *Call of Duty 4* and *[of Duty: World at War](Call)(Call of Duty: World at War)* had been preceded by public multiplayer betas, no such beta was released for *Modern Warfare 2* because it was determined that, according to Community Manager Robert Bowling, no public beta was needed unless the internal beta did not provide adequate feedback. While [Treyarch](Treyarch) was able to port *Modern Warfare* to the [Wii](Wii) and release it on the same day *Modern Warfare 2* was released, Infinity Ward declined to make a Wii version of the sequel. According to Bowling, Infinity Ward determined that the Wii's technical limitations made it impossible to deliver the same cinematic experience that the sequel aspired to present.
Infinity Ward announced in October 2009 that the PC version of *Modern Warfare 2* would not support the use of user-run dedicated servers or in-game console commands. This announcement was received poorly by some members of the PC community, eventually instigating a response from Infinity Ward in an attempt to put the community at ease. During brainstorming sessions, an idea came forth on what if the ending of *Modern Warfare* was a loss, leading to the sequel. In an interview with Jesse Stern, he talked to producers of Infinity Ward with ideas such as "outbreaks, viruses, chemical warfare, and even outlandish things such as aliens and the living dead." Stern mentioned having the game based on real-life conflicts before they halted further planning at first due to events in the [South Ossetia war](2008)(2008 South Ossetia war) and in the [terrorist attacks](Mumbai)(2008 Mumbai attacks).
### Game engine
The game utilizes the in-house [4.0 game engine](IW)(IW engine), which is claimed to be a generation beyond the capabilities of the engine used in *Call of Duty 4*. Although proprietary, the game is based on an unspecified [Tech](id)(id Tech) engine, and can accommodate larger worlds, enhanced graphic detail, and more efficient rendering. [Ward](Infinity)(Infinity Ward) has addressed the issue of enemies that continually respawn at different points of a level. The developer demonstrated that the game engine uses a "dynamic [AI](AI)", which has replaced the infinite respawn system and allows enemies to act more independently. These "smarter" enemies are designed to actively seek out and drive the player forward through a level, and can break away from set behaviors such as following a designated route in order to attack. The player cannot depend on enemies to be found in the same locations as a previous play-through because enemies will behave differently each time a level is played.
### Audio
On August 20, 2009, Robert Bowling revealed through Twitter that [McKidd](Kevin)(Kevin McKidd), [Fairbrass](Craig)(Craig Fairbrass), [Pepper](Barry)(Barry Pepper), [David](Keith)(Keith David), and [Morshower](Glenn)(Glenn Morshower) were confirmed voice actors for the game. It was later confirmed that McKidd would voice the protagonist, "Soap" MacTavish. Fairbrass, who voiced Gaz in *Call of Duty 4*, provided voice work for "Ghost". [Murray](Billy)(Billy Murray (actor)) reprised his role as Captain Price from *Call of Duty 4*. Rapper [Cent](50)(50 Cent) provided voice work for the Special Ops and multiplayer modes, portraying "one of the squad [member] voices." The main theme of *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* was provided by Hollywood composer [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer), while the rest of the score was composed by [Balfe](Lorne)(Lorne Balfe). The soundtrack was released on June 1, 2010. The [iTunes](iTunes) page for the soundtrack incorrectly lists Zimmer as the soundtrack's only composer.
| recorded = 2008–09
| venue =
| studio =
| genre =
| length = 52:51
| label = [Activision](Activision)
| producer = Lorne Balfe
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
## Marketing and release
On March 25, 2009, a teaser trailer for the game was revealed at the Game Developer Choice Awards ceremony in San Francisco. The teaser was posted on [Ward](Infinity)(Infinity Ward)'s website, and released on the [Live Marketplace](Xbox)(Xbox Live Marketplace) and the [Network](PlayStation)(PlayStation Network) a short time later. A second teaser was released on May 10, 2009, and showed gameplay features such as snowmobile driving and underwater actions. The teaser announced that the game would be "revealed" on [TNT](TNT (U.S. TV network)) during the [NBA](National Basketball Association) [Conference Finals](Eastern)(2009 NBA Playoffs) on May 24, 2009. The "reveal" was the first full-length trailer, which debuted extended sequences of actual in-game scenes and combat; the trailer was subsequently made available on the *Modern Warfare 2* official website, which was kept updated for the occasion. A fourth trailer was released on July 27, 2009, and showed the first footage of the game's multiplayer mode. On October 4, 2009, a second full-length cinematic trailer was released and revealed that part of the game would take place in a war-torn Washington, D.C.
On July 21, 2009, Infinity Ward's Robert Bowling revealed through Twitter that a *Modern Warfare 2* [controller](Gamepad) was in the works. Peripherals manufacturer [Catz](Mad)(Mad Catz) was contracted by Activision to create a line of *Modern Warfare 2* controllers and accessories for all platforms that the game would be available on. Activision stated, in its quarterly earnings report, that pre-orders for the game had broken a company record; more copies of *Modern Warfare 2* had been pre-ordered than any other game that the company had published before. In September 2009, [Energy](Monster)(Monster Energy) teamed up with [Activision](Activision) to bring special redeemable codes on the Monster Energy website, where people may submit codes included in Monster Energy packs to redeem items such as [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) Premium Themes and a *Modern Warfare 2* Map Pack code.
In October 2009, Infinity Ward posted a video titled "Fight Against Grenade Spam" on [YouTube](YouTube). In the video, professional baseball player [Hamels](Cole)(Cole Hamels) delivers a [service announcement](public)(public service announcement) that advocates against the use of grenade [spam](Spam (gaming)). Hamels uses [profanity](profanity) in the video, calling grenade spam "for [pussies](Pussy#weakness)", and says "what the fuck" when he is blown up with grenades. Multiple game journalists, including Phillip Kollar of *[Informer](Game)(Game Informer)*, criticized the title's [acronym](acronym), [F.A.G.S.](Faggot (slang)) (a pejorative term for [gay](gay) people) as condoning the use of homophobic slurs. Infinity Ward community manager Robert Bowling claimed the video was intended as a [commentary](social)(social commentary) joke about the "gamer" stereotype, but ultimately decided to remove the video from YouTube after being convinced the joke went too far.
### Title
The original teaser trailer confirmed that the game's title of *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* was officially shortened to just *Modern Warfare 2*. After photographs of the official retail boxes were posted by Robert Bowling, Activision confirmed that the standard-edition *Modern Warfare 2* packaging would feature the *Call of Duty* brand logo in order to reflect the game's association with the *Call of Duty* franchise. It is speculated that the decision was influenced by findings that [awareness](brand)(brand awareness) for the game was significantly lower without the *Call of Duty* logo. However, the developers still prefer to simply call the game *Modern Warfare 2* as they consider it a new [IP](Intellectual property). The menus in the game also refer to the title as simply *Modern Warfare 2*.
### Retail versions
*Modern Warfare 2* was released in four different retail versions across the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) and [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) platforms: Standard, Hardened, Veteran, and Prestige. The standard version consists of the game and an instructional manual, and is the only version available for the Windows platform. The Hardened Edition consists of the game and manual (which are packaged in a steel book case), an art book, and a token that allows one to download *[of Duty Classic](Call)(Call of Duty (video game))*, a hi-definition version of the original *Call of Duty* game, from [Live Arcade](Xbox)(Xbox Live Arcade) or the [Store](PlayStation)(PlayStation Store) (*Classic* was released individually on December 2, 2009). The Prestige Edition contains all of the elements of the Hardened Edition, but also includes a set of fully functioning [vision goggles](night)(night vision goggles), imprinted with the *Modern Warfare 2* logo, and a stand modeled after the head of the character "Soap" MacTavish. The goggles are powered by five [batteries](AA)(battery size) and can see up to 50 feet in absolute darkness.
On September 15, 2009, Activision and Microsoft jointly announced a special, limited *Modern Warfare 2* version of the Xbox 360 with a 250 GB hard disk. The unit is highlighted by special game product branding and includes two black wireless controllers, a black wired headset, an [ethernet](ethernet) cable, a standard definition [A/V cable](composite)(RCA connector), and the standard edition version of the game. This is the first Xbox 360 to come with a 250 GB hard drive. On September 18, UK and rep of Ireland retailer [GAME](Game (retailer)) announced a Veteran Edition of *Modern Warfare 2* would be exclusive to rep of Ireland and UK. It will come with a 12" (30.5 cm) tall statue of "Soap" MacTavish with interchangeable arms and weapons; has the same contents as the Hardened Edition. In September 2009, a Veteran Statue Bundle of *Modern Warfare 2* was posted on the [Games](EB)(EB Games) website and is available for all platforms.
*Modern Warfare 2* was ported to the [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS) with the title *[of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized)* and a different storyline, released on November 10, 2009. It was also ported to [X](OS)(OS X) by [Aspyr](Aspyr) years after the game's original release. This version was released on May 20, 2014, alongside the OS X port for *[of Duty: Modern Warfare 3](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3)*. The Xbox 360 version of *Modern Warfare 2* was made [compatible](backward)(List of backward-compatible games for Xbox One) with the [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) on August 28, 2018.
### Downloadable content
Activision announced that two [downloadable](downloadable content) map packs would be released for *Modern Warfare 2*. At [2009](E3)(E3 2009), [Microsoft](Microsoft) stated that these map packs would first be made available for the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live before they would be released for other platforms. Robert Bowling stated that the community response to the game and the first ten downloadable map packs would be used in designing other potential map packs.
The first map pack, titled the "Stimulus Package" was released first for [Live](Xbox)(Xbox Live) on March 30, 2010 and for [Network](PlayStation)(PlayStation Network) and PC on May 4, 2010, in North America. The pack contains five maps: reincarnations of the *Crash* and *Overgrown* maps from *Call of Duty 4*, and three new maps: *Bailout*, a multi-level apartment complex; *Storm*, an industrial park littered with heavy machinery; and *Salvage*, an abandoned car junkyard in the middle of the snow. Within 24 hours of its release, it was downloaded over one million times. Within the first week it had been downloaded 2.5 million times, breaking Xbox Live DLC records. In addition to integrating the maps into all existing game types, the Stimulus Package adds two new game modes, randomizing the built-in game types in either normal or hardcore mode.
Activision released the second downloadable map pack, titled the "Resurgence Package", exclusively for Xbox Live on June 3, 2010, in North America. This release was followed by the PlayStation Network and PC versions on July 6 in North America and on July 7 worldwide. The package includes five new multiplayer maps: reincarnations of the *Strike* and *Vacant* maps from *Call of Duty 4*, and three new maps: *Carnival*, a desolated amusement park; *Trailer Park*, a mobile home park; and *Fuel*, an oil refinery. Both of the map packs were made available for purchase on OS X on May 20, 2014, when the OS X port of the game was released.
### Comic
A six-part [book](comic)(comic book) mini-series related to the game has also been produced. Announced by Robert Bowling on August 17, 2009, *[Warfare 2: Ghost](Modern)(Modern Warfare 2: Ghost)* is focused on the backstory of the character Ghost, who appears in the video game as a member of Task Force 141. The series is published by [WildStorm](WildStorm Productions). The first issue of the series debuted on November 11, 2009.
### Short film
A [fan-made](fan-made) prequel to *Modern Warfare 2*, entitled *[Makarov: Operation Kingfish](Find)(Find Makarov: Operation Kingfish)*, premiered at [of Duty: XP 2011](Call)(Call of Duty: Experience 2011). The video was produced by We Can Pretend, visual effects by The Junction, and was endorsed by [Activision](Activision). The first film, Find Makarov, was a non-canon fan made film. Activision contacted We Can Pretend about the video and helped produce a second canon short film, Find Makarov: Operation Kingfish. The prequel tells the story of how Task Force 141 first tried to capture Vladimir Makarov, who was known then as Kingfish. It also tells how Soap got his facial scars, and how [Price](Captain Price) was captured and incarcerated in a gulag.
## Reception
(PS3) 94/100(X360) 94/100
| 1UP = A
| CVG = 9.4/10
| Destruct = 9.5/10
| Fam = 39/40
| G4 =
| GI = 9.75/10
| GamePro =
| GSpot = 9.0/10
| GSpy =
| GRadar = 10/10
| GT = 9.5/10
| IGN = 9.5/10
| Joystiq =
| OXM = 9.5/10
| OXMUK = 10/10
| PCGUK = 80%
| PCGUS = 80%
| TX = 9.7/10
| XPlay =
| rev1 = *[Escapist](The)(The Escapist (magazine))*
| rev1Score =
| rev2 = *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)*
| rev2Score = 10/10
| rev3 = *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*
| rev3Score =
| award1Pub = [IGN](IGN)
| award1 = Editor's Choice
| award2Pub = [GamePro](GamePro)
| award2 = Editor's Choice
| award3Pub = [BAFTA](British Academy Games Awards)
| award3 = [GAME](Game (retailer)) Award [(2009)](6th British Academy Games Awards)
| award4Pub = [GameTrailers](GameTrailers)
| award4 = Game of the Year 2009
| award5Pub = PakGamers
| award5 = Best Xbox 360 Game of 2009
| award6Pub = [GameSpot](GameSpot)
| award6 = Best Shooter/Readers Choice
| award7Pub = [GameTrailers](GameTrailers)
| award7 = Best First-Person Shooter
| award8Pub = [Destructoid](Destructoid)
| award8 = Editor's Choice
| award9Pub = *[of Interactive Arts & Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences)*
| award9 =
| award10Pub = [Joystick Awards](Golden)(Golden Joystick Awards)
| award10 = Shooter of the Year, in association with [ITN](ITN) Game On
}}
*Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* received "universal acclaim" for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, and "generally positive" reviews for the PC version, according to [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Metacritic](Metacritic). Reviewers praised the in-depth story mode, mini missions, and multiplayer.
[1UP.com](1UP.com) stated "Mixing real-world locations with bombastic set-pieces *MW2* continues the guided, thrill-ride experiences of its predecessor, and adds even more depth to its multiplayer offerings. It might not have fixed all the problems from the first game, but there's just so much quality content packed into this game that it will almost certainly be one of the most-played games in your library for a long time to come". *[Informer](Game)(Game Informer)* noted praised the game for its polish and iteration on the series, as well as its strong presentation and wealth of playable content. *[IGN](IGN)* called it a "no-brainer purchase", thanks to its online multiplayer, its co-op mode, and its campaign. *[GameTrailers](GameTrailers)* stated "The air of unpredictability and the care that was paid to each separate element puts it in lofty company. The multiplayer hasn't received an overhaul, but considering most shooters are still playing catch-up with Call of Duty 4, the tweaks and twists make it the best multiplayer shooting experience in the industry. Few games manage to meet such high expectations". *[and Video Games](Computer)(Computer and Video Games)* called the game "Loud, epic and incredibly polished, [and] this year's biggest must-have shooter".
Criticism of the game focused on the short length of the single player campaign. IGN's Mark Bozon remarks that the single-player of "*Modern Warfare 2* is surprisingly short, and doesn't live up to the standard set by previous *Call of Duty* games." In addition, many reviewers have complained about the lack of innovation to the formula of the series.
The game's Windows version was also criticized for lacking dedicated servers and being powered by IWNet. Infinity Ward went on to state that it would lack [commands](console)(Command (computing)), not support larger than 18 player [multiplayer](multiplayer) matches, or allow players to ban [cheaters](Cheating in online games). Ben Kuchera of *[Technica](Ars)(Ars Technica)* commented that, "at launch, this will be one of the most locked-down, inflexible, and gamer-unfriendly games ever created", and an [petition](online)(online petition) for dedicated servers surpassed 150,000 signatures in ten days. Nevertheless, in response, Mike Griffiths, [CEO](CEO) of Activision, claimed that the omission of dedicated servers would offer an "easier multiplayer experience". While only 3% of the game's sales came from the Windows version in the UK, it still outsold the Windows version of *Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare* in its first week.
Some game journalists accused the developers of [insensitivity](cultural)(Cultural sensitivity), citing the use of [Arabic](Arabic) rather than [Urdu](Urdu) on signs and banners in the *Karachi* multiplayer map, based on the real-life city of [Karachi](Karachi) in Pakistan. An [egg](Easter)(Easter egg (media)) in the game's [tutorial](tutorial) level in which one soldier asks another soldier about his sexuality, and then remarks "[ask, don't tell](don't)(don't ask, don't tell)", led to further criticism, though some journalists considered the reaction to the line overblown.
*Famitsu* named *Modern Warfare 2* as the number one game on the top 10 video games sold in 2009, beating games such as *[Gear Solid 4](Metal)(Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots)*, *[2: Among Thieves](Uncharted)(Uncharted 2: Among Thieves)*, *[3](Halo)(Halo 3)* and *[Theft Auto IV](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto IV)*. It also gave the game a score of 39/40, being one of the few Western games released in Japan to have the same score as *Grand Theft Auto IV*. In 2011, readers of ''[World Records Gamer's Edition](Guinness)(Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition)* voted Simon "Ghost" Riley as the 40th-top video game character of all time.
### Sales and revenue
According to preliminary sales figures from Activision, *Modern Warfare 2* sold approximately 4.7 million units in the United States and the UK combined in the first 24 hours of its release. The total revenue from first day sales in the U.S. and the UK was $310 million, making *Modern Warfare 2* the biggest entertainment launch in history at the time, surpassing in revenue its previous record holder, *[Theft Auto IV](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto IV)*, as well as items from other media types. After five days of sales, the game had earned revenue figures of $550 million worldwide. , it has taken over $1 billion in sales. Activision also claims that *Modern Warfare 2'' had 8 million players online within the first five days, constituting the largest 'army' of players in the world. On March 8, 2010, [Bowling](Robert)(Robert Bowling) announced that the game had amassed 25 million unique players. In June 2010, Activision's CFO Thomas Tippl revealed that the game had sold 20 million copies. In August 2011, Activision Publishing CEO Eric Hirshberg revealed that the game had sold 22 million copies. A month later in September 2011, *Modern Warfare 3* producer Mark Rubin, said that the game's number (not confirmed as players or sales) was between 28 and 29 million. In November 2013, [IGN](IGN) put the game's sales at 22.7 million.
According to the [Group](NPD)(NPD Group), *Modern Warfare 2* sold approximately 4.2 million units for the Xbox 360 and 1.87 million units for the PlayStation 3 in the U.S. during the month of November 2009. In Japan, *Modern Warfare 2* sold 64,000 copies for the PlayStation 3 and 42,000 copies for the Xbox 360 in its first week of sales. The game later sold 117,000 copies on the PlayStation 3 and 61,000 on the Xbox 360. Anita Frazier of the NPD Group reported in March 2010 that the game had sold slightly under 10 million copies in the U.S. alone. The game had also become the second best-selling game of all time in both the UK and the U.S.
After it became backward compatible with the Xbox One, the NPD Group reported that *Modern Warfare 2* was the eighth-best selling video game in the United States during August 2018. It had sold more copies in that month than the then-most recent entry in the series, *[of Duty: WWII](Call)(Call of Duty: WWII)*, which came out in November 2017. During the previous month, before becoming backward compatible, *Modern Warfare 2* was at only number 321 on the best sellers list.
### Awards
*Modern Warfare 2* received awards from various gaming sites and publications, it gained high praise from some video game magazines. At the [Spike Video Game Awards](2009)(Spike Video Game Awards), *Modern Warfare 2* received the Best Shooter and Best Multiplayer awards. Both [GameSpy](GameSpy) and [GameTrailers](GameTrailers) gave the game the *Best Overall Game of 2009* award and received from *[GameTrailers](GameTrailers)* six awards overall. [GameSpot](GameSpot) and [Metacritic](Metacritic), both gave it the *Best Xbox 360 Game* award, and from [GameTrailers](GameTrailers) received the game the *Best Multiplayer* award including the *Best First-Person Shooter* award. At the [British Academy Games Awards](6th)(6th British Academy Games Awards), it won the [GAME](Game (retailer)) Award which was selected via a public vote.
### Technical problems
After the [hack](successful)(PlayStation Network outage) on the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) in January 2011, some *Modern Warfare 2* players on the PlayStation 3 have had their stats hacked or completely deleted. [Ward](Infinity)(Infinity Ward) replied that their advice was to play in private games, waiting for [Sony](Sony Computer Entertainment) to fix the problems on the platform side, saying that they could not patch the security problem themselves.
### "No Russian" controversy
[[screenshot of "No Russian", depicting the player character aiming at a crowd of civilians.](File:NoRussian.jpg|thumb|Gameplay)]
In the campaign's "No Russian" level, the player controls an [undercover](Undercover operation) [CIA](CIA) agent who participates in a [shooting](mass)(mass shooting) at a [Moscow](Moscow) airport to gain the trust of a Russian [terrorist](terrorist) group. It begins with the player walking out of an elevator with four other gunmen, who proceed to open fire on a large group of civilians at a [checkpoint](security)(Airport security). The player then accompanies the gunmen as they walk through the airport, killing any remaining civilians. The only [targets](legitimate)(Legitimate military target) are a group of security personnel encountered in waves throughout the airport interior, and a more heavily armed gang of [squad](riot)(Riot control) and [FSB](Federal Security Service) members deployed on the tarmac. The level is very graphic, as screams can be heard throughout, and the injured crawl away leaving blood trails or perch themselves on tables and stands as they bleed out. However, the player is never forced to partake in the massacre, and may instead let their comrades kill the civilians. If the player does not feel comfortable during the level, they are allowed to skip to the next level with no penalties whatsoever.
Prior to the game's release, footage taken from "No Russian" was leaked on the Internet. Some journalists decided to wait until they could actually play the level to judge its merits. After the game's release, the level was largely criticized for allowing players to partake in a terrorist attack. Vince Horiuchi of *[Salt Lake Tribune](The)(The Salt Lake Tribune)* felt that the level was in poor taste following the [Fort Hood shooting](2009)(2009 Fort Hood shooting), and questioned why its content couldn't have been shown in a non-interactive [cutscene](cutscene). Marc Cieslak of [News*](*BBC)(BBC News) was saddened by "No Russian", as he felt it disproved his theory that the [game industry](video)(video game industry) had "grown up". Several prominent British religious leaders condemned the level: [Goldberg](Alexander)(Alexander Goldberg) of the [Jewish Forum](London)(London Jewish Forum) was worried that children would play it; Fazan Mohammed of the [Muslim Forum](British)(British Muslim Forum) described it as an intimate experience of enacting terrorism; and [Lowe](Stephen)(Stephen Lowe (bishop of Hulme)), the retired [of Hulme](Bishop)(Bishop of Hulme), felt that it was "sickening". Due to the level's graphic content, the game was censored in international versions, and the level was removed entirely from the Russian version.
## Remastered version
*Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 Campaign Remastered*, a visually-updated version of the original, was released for [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) on March 31, 2020, and for [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) and [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) on April 30, 2020. It only includes the campaign mode with no multiplayer and Spec Ops components; when purchased players unlock various cosmetic items in 2019's *[of Duty: Modern Warfare](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (2019 video game))* and 2020's *[of Duty: Warzone](Call)(Call of Duty: Warzone)*.
On Metacritic, the PlayStation 4 version of the remaster holds a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
## Notes and references
;Notes
;References
### Bibliography
*
*
## External links
*
*
[Warfare 2](Modern)(Category:Call of Duty)
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[history video games](Category:Alternate)(Category:Alternate history video games)
[Award winners](Category:D.I.C.E.)(Category:D.I.C.E. Award winners)
[Award for Action Game of the Year winners](Category:D.I.C.E.)(Category:D.I.C.E. Award for Action Game of the Year winners)
[Award for Online Game of the Year winners](Category:D.I.C.E.)(Category:D.I.C.E. Award for Online Game of the Year winners)
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DMX
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dmx
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# DMX
*Revision ID: 1160173697 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T21:00:10Z*
---
| birth_place = [Vernon, New York](Mount)(Mount Vernon, New York), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Plains](White)(White Plains, New York), New York, U.S.
| burial_place = [Cemetery](Oakland)(Oakland Cemetery (Yonkers, New York)), [New York](Yonkers,)(Yonkers, New York), U.S.
| other_names = Dark Man X
| occupation =
| years_active = 1985–2021
| spouse = }}
| partner = Desiree Lindstrom (2016–2021)
| children = 17
| awards =
| module =
| label =
| past_member_of =
| website =
}}
| signature = DMX Signature.png
}}
**Earl Simmons** (December 18, 1970 – April 9, 2021), known professionally as **DMX**, was an American rapper and actor. He began rapping in the early 1990s and released his debut album ''[Dark and Hell Is Hot](It's)(It's Dark and Hell Is Hot)'' in 1998, to both critical acclaim and commercial success, selling 251,000 copies within its first week of release. DMX released his best-selling album, *[And Then There Was X](...)(... And Then There Was X)*, in 1999, which included the hit single "[Up (Up in Here)](Party)(Party Up (Up in Here))". His 2003 singles "[the Hood At?](Where)(Where the Hood At?)" and "[Gon' Give It to Ya](X)(X Gon' Give It to Ya)" were also commercially successful. He was the first artist to debut an album at No.1 five times in a row on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) charts. DMX sold over 74 million records worldwide.
DMX was featured in films such as *[Belly](Belly (film))*, *[Must Die](Romeo)(Romeo Must Die)*, *[Wounds](Exit)(Exit Wounds)*, *[2 the Grave](Cradle)(Cradle 2 the Grave)*, and *[Hour](Last)(Last Hour)*. In 2006, he starred in the reality television series *[Soul of a Man](DMX:)(DMX: Soul of a Man)*, which was primarily aired on the [BET](Black Entertainment Television) [television](cable)(cable television) network. In 2003, he published a book of his memoirs entitled *E.A.R.L.: The Autobiography of DMX*.
## Early life
Earl Simmons was born on December 18, 1970, with various accounts giving his birthplace as either Baltimore, Maryland or Mount Vernon, New York. He was the son of 19-year-old Arnett Simmons and 18-year-old Joe Barker. Earl was Simmons' second child; she had given birth to a daughter, Bonita, two years prior, and later gave birth to one daughter, Shayla, and two stillborn sons. His father, Barker, was an artist who painted [painting](watercolor)(watercolor painting)s of street scenes to sell at local fairs. Barker moved to Philadelphia and was largely absent from his life.
As a child, Simmons suffered greatly from bronchial asthma, being taken to the emergency room almost nightly due to him waking up unable to breathe. He was raised as a [Witness](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witness) but became disillusioned with the faith after an incident where he was hit by a drunk driver while crossing the street. A month later, an insurance representative went to his house to try and reach an agreement to prevent his family from suing. Simmons claims he was told that his family could have been awarded a settlement of $10,000 and possibly even more for the injuries he sustained. However, his mother rejected the settlement as she claimed that Jehovah's Witnesses are taught to be self-sufficient, although the group's official doctrine at the time did not prohibit suing or receiving settlements.
Simmons went through a disjointed childhood that included being beaten by his mother and her various boyfriends so badly that he lost teeth and sustained numerous bruises and cuts on his face. Due to poverty, he slept on the floor with roaches and mice crawling over him in the night. When Simmons was five years old, his family settled into the School Street Projects in
Yonkers, New York. When he was six years old, his mother knocked out two of his teeth with a broom after he erased something in her notebook. At school, he threw chairs at teachers and stabbed another child in the face with a pencil. When he was seven, an aunt got him drunk on vodka. The same year, he was jailed for stealing cakes from a market. One summer, his mother locked him in his bedroom, allowing him to only exit for trips to the bathroom. At the end of the fifth grade, at age 10, Simmons was expelled from school and sent to the Julia Dyckman Andrus Children's Home for 18 months. In what he described as a defining moment of betrayal, his mother tricked him by telling him they were just visiting the home, then she enrolled him there. A few months later, he was arrested for arson in an attempt to burn the school down. He nearly killed his co-conspirator.
When he was 14, Simmons began living on the streets of Yonkers to escape his mother's abuse, sleeping in [Army](Salvation)(Salvation Army) clothing bins and befriending stray dogs.
Shortly after he began doing this, his mother once again sent him to a [home](group)(group home). During his stay, Simmons bonded with other students from New York over their shared love of [hop music](hip)(hip hop music). After performing for his friends, they encouraged Simmons to continue writing music at the behest of his teacher. When he returned home, Simmons met Ready Ron, a local rapper, who was impressed with Simmons' beatboxing skills and asked him to become his partner. Simmons chose the name "DMX", which came from an instrument he had used at the boys' home, the [DMX](Oberheim)(Oberheim DMX) [machine](drum)(drum machine). It later was also interpreted as "Dark Man X".
As a freshman at [Middle High School](Yonkers)(Yonkers Middle High School), DMX was the second-fastest on the track-and-field varsity team. However, he had bad grades and a sparse attendance record. He turned to robbery as a way to get out of poverty: his first was a purse [theft](snatch)(snatch theft) in Yonkers that netted him $1,000 (), which he used to buy a leather dog collar and dog harness for his dog, and a pair of [Timberland](The Timberland Company) boots for himself. By the end of the year, he attended school just to rob people and was robbing three people per day. He then turned to [carjacking](carjacking).
## Musical career
### 1985–1996: Career beginnings
DMX got his start in the music industry at age 14, in 1985, when he beatboxed for Ready Ron. After serving time in prison for stealing a dog, he began writing his own lyrics and performing at the local recreation center for younger children. In 1988, while in prison for carjacking, he began dedicating almost all of his free time to writing lyrics and also meeting and rapping with [K-Solo](K-Solo). When he was released that summer, he began producing and selling his own mixtapes where he rapped over instrumentals from other songs and sold them on street corners, which helped him build a local fan base all over New York. DMX made an appearance on *[Stretch Armstrong and Bobbito Show](The)(The Stretch Armstrong and Bobbito Show)* in 1991 with Percee P, where they both freestyled. DMX would later that year release a demo tape that featured "Spellbound" along with "Critical Condition", "Three Little Pigs", "The Original Author of Spellbound" and "Unstoppable Force". It featured a style similar to Big Daddy Kane and Rakim, unlike his later material. In 1991, *[Source](The)(The Source (magazine))* magazine praised DMX in its *Unsigned Hype* column that highlighted unsigned hip-hop artists. The same year, [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) signed DMX to its subsidiary label [Records](Ruffhouse)(Ruffhouse Records), which released his debut single "Born Loser". He released his second single, "Make a Move" in 1994. He made a guest appearance alongside [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), [Rule](Ja)(Ja Rule), and [Geronimo](Mic)(Mic Geronimo) on the classic underground track "Time to Build" on Mic Geronimo's debut album in 1995.
### 1996–2000: Signing with Def Jam and commercial success
DMX recorded tracks from September 1996 to January 1998 for his debut album. During this time, his guest appearances on [Mase](Mase)'s singles "[Hrs. to Live](24)(24 Hrs. to Live)" and "Take What's Yours", [LOX](The)(D-Block (hip hop))'s single "[Power & Respect](Money,)(Money, Power & Respect (song))", and [Cool J](LL)(LL Cool J)'s single "[3, 2, 1](4,)(4, 3, 2, 1 (LL Cool J song))" created a strong buzz for the then-unsigned rapper.|publisher=[AllMusic](AllMusic) |date=June 12, 2007}} In February 1998, he released his debut major-label single "[at Me Dog](Get)(Get at Me Dog)" on [Jam Recordings](Def)(Def Jam Recordings). The single received an [certification](RIAA)(RIAA certification) of gold. His first major-label album ''[Dark and Hell Is Hot](It's)(It's Dark and Hell Is Hot)'', which included the single "[Ryders' Anthem](Ruff)(Ruff Ryders' Anthem)", was then released in May 1998. The album debuted at number one on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart in the U.S. and sold over five million copies. In December 1998, he released his album *[of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood](Flesh)(Flesh of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood)*. It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and went multi-platinum. He released his third and best-selling album *[And Then There Was X](...)(... And Then There Was X)*, on December 21, 1999. It was his third album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200. Its most popular single, "[Up (Up in Here)](Party)(Party Up (Up in Here))", became his first [Ten](Top)(Record chart) hit on the [R&B](R&B) charts, and was nominated for a [Award for Best Rap Solo Performance](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance) at the [Grammy Awards](2001)(2001 Grammy Awards). The album was certified six-times Platinum, and was nominated for [Rap Album](Best)(Best Rap Album) at the [Grammy Awards](2001)(2001 Grammy Awards). In 2000, DMX also made a cameo appearance in the [41](Sum)(Sum 41) music video for "[No Difference](Makes)(Makes No Difference)".
### 2001–2004: Return to music
After improving his legal situation, DMX returned to the studio to complete his fourth album, *[Great Depression](The)(The Great Depression (DMX album))*. Within its release on October 23, 2001, it was his fourth album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200, featuring the singles "Who We Be", "We Right Here", and "Shorty Was The Bomb". Despite the album's triple Platinum certification, its commercial and critical success was lower than his previous album. His fifth album, *[Champ](Grand)(Grand Champ)*, released in September 2003, once again debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and included the singles "Where the Hood At?" and "Get It on the Floor". After its release, he informed the public that he planned to retire and that *Grand Champ* was his final album.
### 2005–2011: *Year of the Dog...Again* and *The Definition of X*
[[Awards afterparty CUN DMX.jpg|thumbnail|upright|DMX in 2007](File:Academy)]
DMX signed to [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) in January 2006. He recorded his next album, *[of the Dog... Again](Year)(Year of the Dog... Again)*, while switching record labels, which caused numerous delays. It was released on August 1, 2006, and missed the number one Billboard spot by only a few hundred copies. He released two more singles, "[Give Me a Sign](Lord)(Lord Give Me a Sign)" and "[in Here](We)(We in Here)". On June 12, 2008, [Jam Recordings](Def)(Def Jam Recordings) released a compilation of his greatest hits *[Definition of X: The Pick of the Litter](The)(The Definition of X: The Pick of the Litter)*. In 2011, Def Jam released another compilation album, *The Best of DMX*, which features hit singles including "[the Hood At?](Where)(Where the Hood At?)" and "[Gon' Give It to Ya](X)(X Gon' Give It to Ya)". In 2009, DMX claimed he would pursue preaching in Jersey City, New Jersey as well as continue to produce music. He completed a [music](Gospel)(Gospel music) album prior to his incarceration. According to MTV, he had semi-retired to study the Bible in an effort to give messages behind the pulpit.
### 2011–2013: *Undisputed*
On October 11, 2011, DMX performed at the 2011 [Hip Hop Awards](BET)(BET Hip Hop Awards). He stated that he has been working "nonstop, every day" on his seventh album, which was titled *[Undisputed](Undisputed (DMX album))*. A video for a new track entitled "Last Hope" was released via the Internet on September 24, 2011, and was later included on *[Weigh In](The)(The Weigh In)* EP released digitally on May 5, 2012. In late February 2012, [Arts Pictures](Seven)(Seven Arts Pictures) acquired the catalog of DMX's music and signed DMX to a two-album deal. During a performance at New York's [Party House](Santos)(Santos Party House) on December 25, 2011, DMX stated that the new album would be titled *Undisputed* and would be released on March 26, 2012. After numerous delays, the album was eventually released on September 11, 2012, and featured production from [Beatz](Swizz)(Swizz Beatz) and [Rotem](J.R.)(J.R. Rotem) with a guest appearance by [MGK](Machine Gun Kelly (musician)).
### 2013–2021: Def Jam reunion and *Exodus*
In 2013, DMX announced he had begun working on his eighth studio album. He collaborated with producers Swizz Beatz and [Grease](Dame)(Dame Grease). In December, after regaining his passport, he embarked on a world tour with performances in Bulgaria and Kosovo. On January 7, 2015, Seven Arts Music announced that DMX would be releasing *[of the Beast](Redemption)(Redemption of the Beast)* the following week; however, close personal friend and recurring collaborator producer/rapper/entrepreneur Swizz Beatz and DMX's management confirmed that this was false. On January 13, 2015, Seven Arts Music released *Redemption of the Beast*, without acquiring a legal artist contract. On January 15, 2015, it was announced by DMX's brother/manager Montana that DMX was no longer signed to Seven Arts Music and that they would be taking legal action against Seven Arts Music for the unauthorized release of *Redemption of the Beast*.
Long-time collaborator Swizz Beatz stated that two of the collaborators on the album would be [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) and [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre). His 2003 song "X Gon' Give It to Ya" was featured in the 2016 film *[Deadpool](Deadpool (film))* and in its trailers. On June 28, 2016, DMX released a new song titled "Blood Red" and produced by Divine Bars. On January 11, 2017, DMX released a new song produced by Swizz Beats titled "Bain Iz Back". On September 20, 2019, DMX signed a new record deal with [Jam Recordings](Def)(Def Jam Recordings), reuniting with the label for the first time since his 2003 album *[Champ](Grand)(Grand Champ)*.
DMX's eighth and first posthumous studio album *[Exodus](Exodus (DMX album))* was released through Def Jam on May 28, 2021.
## Personal life
### Religion
DMX was a born-again Christian, and stated that he read the Bible every day. While in jail, DMX stated that he had a purpose for being there: DMX was a [deacon](transitional)(transitional deacon) and aspired to become ordained as a pastor, stating that he received this [call](Religious calling) in 2009. In 2016, he gave a sermon at a church in Phoenix, Arizona.
### Relationships and children
DMX was the father of 17 children from 11 different women. He married his childhood friend Tashera Simmons in 1999 and they were married for 11 years. They had four children together: Xavier (born 1992), Tacoma (born 1999), Sean (born 2002), and Praise Mary Ella (born 2005). In July 2010, after his first of three incarcerations that year, Tashera announced their separation. They remained friends, although in 2016, Tashera accused DMX of missing his $10,000/month [support](child)(child support) payment.
DMX had a daughter, Sasha (born 2002), with Patricia Trejo. In 2012, Trejo sued DMX for $1 million in unpaid child support. The case was settled in 2013. DMX and Monique Wayne, a Maryland resident, fought over her claim that he was the father of her son born in 2004. She sued him for defamation and for child support. After genetic testing proved that DMX was the father, in January 2008, DMX was ordered to pay Wayne $1.5 million, but a judge vacated the judgment in May 2008. DMX also fathered a child in 2008 and fathered two daughters with Yadira Borrego. His fifteenth child was born to his fiancée Desiree Lindstrom on August 16, 2016. On December 5, 2019, DMX's sixteenth and seventeenth children, twin boys, were born to Pebbles Junell.
DMX did not have a will.[Georgia Woman Claims To Be 15th Child Of DMX In Estate Battle](https://hiphopwired.com/1047933/georgia-woman-claims-to-be-15th-child-of-dmx-in-estate-battle/) As a result, legal battles ensued in probate courts following his death.
### Finances and bankruptcies
DMX filed for bankruptcy three times. His first filing was on July 30, 2013, citing his child support obligations as his priority claim. The filing was challenged by the [States Trustee Program](United)(United States Trustee Program) and was dismissed by the U.S. Bankruptcy Court in Manhattan on November 11, 2013.
### Feud with Ja Rule
During the 1990s, DMX formed a close bond with fellow up-and-coming rappers [Jay-Z](Jay-Z) and [Rule](Ja)(Ja Rule). The three collaborated many times and formed a group known as [Inc.](Murder)(Murder Inc. (rap group)) The group was short-lived due to internal issues between DMX and Jay-Z. After the breakup of Murder Inc., DMX disparaged Ja Rule in interviews, accusing him of being a copycat, drawing comparisons between himself and what he saw as Ja stealing his signature "gruff" style of delivery.
DMX released the [track](diss)(diss track) "They Want War" on a 2002 [Kay Slay](DJ)(DJ Kay Slay) mixtape; Ja Rule never directly responded. [DMX](DMX (rapper)) also released the single "Go to Sleep" with [Eminem](Eminem) and [Trice](Obie)(Obie Trice) as part of the *[2 the Grave](Cradle)(Cradle 2 the Grave)* soundtrack with numerous lines directed to [Rule](Ja)(Ja Rule). However, as time passed and the feud faded into obscurity, DMX said that he wanted to officially bring it to an end when he was released from prison in 2005: "[Gotti](Irv Gotti) came to me in jail and said I want to make peace with you and him. I was like, 'Alright Gotti, let's do it." Despite this, DMX and Ja Rule did not officially end their feud until 2009, at VH1's [Hop Honors](Hip)(Hip Hop Honors).
### Feud with Jay-Z
When DMX partnered with [Jay-Z](Jay-Z) and [Rule](Ja)(Ja Rule) in Murder Inc., there was a feud between the two, which also contributed to the failure of the group and working together. According to reports, the feud started in the early 1990s after a rap battle between the two, which led to DMX's disdain for Jay-Z. Prior to DMX's death, the feud, although it fizzled out over the years, continued on when DMX said in an Instagram video that he wanted to rap battle Jay-Z on [Verzuz](Verzuz).
## Legal issues
[[mug shot.jpg|thumb|DMX's June 2008 mugshot](File:DMX)]
DMX was in jail 30 times for various offenses, including robbery, assault, carjacking, animal cruelty, reckless driving, driving under the influence, unlicensed driving, drug possession, probation violation, failure to pay child support, pretending to be a federal agent, and tax evasion.
### 1986–1988
DMX was first sent to prison in 1986 after stealing a dog from a junkyard. He was sentenced to two years in the juvenile unit of Woodfield Prison in Valhalla, New York. However, just weeks after starting his sentence, he and his cellmate successfully escaped the prison and DMX returned home until his mother forced him to turn himself in and finish his sentence, which he did at the McCormick Juvenile Detention Centre in Brooktondale, New York. Simmons was sent to prison again in 1988 for [carjacking](carjacking), and was later moved to a higher security prison after attempting to extort a fellow inmate for drugs. He was released in the summer of 1988.
### 1998–1999
* When officers of the Fort Lee Police Department executed a search of his home in 1999, DMX promptly surrendered himself on weapons possession charges.
* DMX faced a 1999 animal cruelty charge in Teaneck, New Jersey after a dozen pit bulls were found at his home there; the charge was dismissed after the performer agreed to accept responsibility and record public service announcements for an animal rights group.
### 2000–2005 Metro NY
* In 2000, DMX served a 15-day jail sentence for possession of marijuana.
* DMX served another jail sentence in 2001 for driving without a license and possession of marijuana. His appeal to reduce the sentence was denied; rather, he was charged with assault for throwing objects at prison guards.
* In January 2002, DMX pleaded guilty in New Jersey to 13 counts of animal cruelty, two counts of maintaining a nuisance, and one count each of disorderly conduct and possession of drug paraphernalia. He eventually plea-bargained down to fines, probation, and community service and starred in public service announcements against the dangers of guns and animal abuse.
* In June 2004, DMX was arrested at the [F. Kennedy International Airport](John)(John F. Kennedy International Airport), on charges of cocaine possession, criminal impersonation, criminal possession of a weapon, criminal mischief, menacing, and driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, while claiming to be a federal agent and attempting to [carjack](carjack) a vehicle. He was given a conditional discharge on December 8, 2004, but pleaded guilty on October 25, 2005, to violating [parole](parole).
* On November 18, 2005, DMX was sentenced to 70 days in jail at [Island](Riker's)(Riker's Island) for violating parole; the lateness charge added a 10-day extension to the original 60-day sentence. DMX was released early (for "[behavior](good)(Good conduct time)") on December 30, 2005.
### 2007
* In 2007, DMX's home was raided on reports of animal cruelty.
### 2008–2011 Arizona and California
* On May 9, 2008, DMX was arrested on drug and animal cruelty charges after attempting to barricade himself inside his home in Cave Creek, Arizona.
* DMX pleaded guilty to charges of drug possession, theft, and animal cruelty stemming from an August 2007 drug raid as well as the May 2008 arrest, at a hearing on December 30, 2008; he was sentenced to 90 days in jail on January 31, 2009.
* On May 22, 2009, DMX entered a plea agreement/change of plea and pleaded guilty to attempted aggravated assault in jail.
* After serving four out of six months for violating drug probation, DMX was released from jail on July 6, 2010. That day, a television pilot was filmed to portray his road to recovery; however, DMX was arrested three weeks later and the pilot did not evolve into a series.
* On July 27, 2010, DMX turned himself in to Los Angeles Metropolitan Court for a reckless driving charge he received in 2002. He was sentenced to serve ninety days in jail.
* On November 19, 2010, DMX was arrested in Maricopa County, Arizona on charges of violating probation for a February 24, 2009 aggravated assault on an officer while he was incarcerated. On December 20, 2010, DMX was moved to the Mental Health Unit of the Arizona Alhambra State Prison, and released on July 18, 2011.
* On August 24, 2011, DMX was arrested for the tenth time in Maricopa County, this time for speeding, recorded at in a zone, reckless driving, and driving with a suspended license. While DMX admitted to speeding, he claimed he was driving .
### 2013 South Carolina
* On February 13, 2013, DMX was arrested in Spartanburg, South Carolina for driving without a driver's license.
* On July 26, 2013, DMX was arrested again in Greenville County, South Carolina and charged with driving under the influence of alcohol as well as driving without a license.
* On August 20, 2013, DMX was arrested again in Greer, South Carolina during a traffic stop after a car he was a passenger in made an improper u-turn. He was arrested due to an outstanding warrant for driving under suspension. Four packages of marijuana were also found in the vehicle, and he along with the driver were cited for them.
* On November 4, 2013, DMX was again arrested by the Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport police near Greer, South Carolina after police, who were familiar with his prior arrests, noticed DMX behind the wheel of a vehicle at the terminal. DMX was booked on charges of driving with a suspended license, having an uninsured vehicle, and driving an unlicensed vehicle. He was subsequently released after spending three hours in jail.
### 2015 New York
* On April 5, 2015, a man accused DMX of robbing him.
* On June 26, 2015, DMX was arrested in New York, charged with robbery in Newark, New Jersey and failure to pay child support.
* On July 14, 2015, DMX was sentenced to six months in jail for failure to pay $400,000 in child support.
* On December 14, 2015, an arrest warrant was issued for DMX after he missed a court hearing to address child support issues with his ex-wife Tashera Simmons and their four children.
### 2017–2019: Tax fraud conviction
In July 2017, DMX was charged with 14 federal counts of tax fraud. Federal prosecutors charged him with failing to file [tax returns](income)(income tax returns) from 2010 to 2015 (a period when he earned at least $2.3 million). DMX pleaded guilty to a single count of tax fraud in November 2017. DMX was originally free pending sentencing but was remanded to jail in January 2018 after leaving a drug treatment program ordered by the court and relapsing with cocaine and oxycodone. In March 2018, Judge [S. Rakoff](Jed)(Jed S. Rakoff) sentenced DMX to one year in prison followed by three years of supervised release. The court also ordered DMX to pay $2.29 million in restitution to the government. He was released from prison on January 25, 2019.
## Health problems and death
Simmons said he became addicted to crack cocaine when he was 14 years old, after Ready Ron tricked him into smoking a marijuana cigarette laced with the drug.
Simmons entered [rehabilitation](drug)(drug rehabilitation) several times including in 2002, 2017, and 2019, when he cancelled concerts.
On February 10, 2016, Simmons was found unresponsive in a parking lot at a Ramada Inn in Yonkers, New York. He was resuscitated by first responders and intravenously given [Narcan](Naloxone), an opioid-reversal drug; he responded quickly to Narcan and became semi-conscious. Simmons was subsequently rushed to the hospital. A witness said he ingested some type of substance before collapsing, but police found no illegal substances on the property. Simmons stated that it was from an asthma attack.
[[Shrine in White Plains, New York.jpg|thumb|DMX shrine outside White Plains Hospital, where he died](File:DMX)]
On April 2, 2021, at approximately 11:00 pm, Simmons was rushed to White Plains Hospital, where he was reported to be in critical condition following a heart attack at his home possibly resulting from a drug overdose. The next day, his attorney Murray Richman confirmed Simmons was on life support. That same night, Simmons suffered cerebral hypoxia (oxygen deprivation to his brain) as paramedics attempted to resuscitate him for 30 minutes. Simmons' former manager, Nakia Walker, said he was in a "vegetative state" with "lung and brain failure and no current brain activity". His manager, [Rifkind](Steve)(Steve Rifkind), stated Simmons was [coma](coma)tose and that he was set to undergo tests to determine his brain's functionality and his family will "determine what's best from there".
On the morning of April 9, 2021, Simmons lost functionality in multiple essential organs, reportedly his liver, kidneys, and lungs, and was pronounced dead shortly after at age 50. It was revealed on July 8 by the Westchester County Medical Examiner's Office that Simmons' official cause of death was a cocaine-induced heart attack.
## Legacy
|source = — [Ringer](The)(The Ringer (website)) wrote upon DMX's death }}
Various celebrities paid tribute through outlets like social media including former NFL player [Smith](Torrey)(Torrey Smith), [James](LeBron)(LeBron James), [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal), [Eminem](Eminem), [Union](Gabrielle)(Gabrielle Union) (who co-starred with DMX in the 2003 film *[2 the Grave](Cradle)(Cradle 2 the Grave)*, along with [Li](Jet)(Jet Li) (who also paid tribute), Backstreet Boys member AJ McLean, Wyclef Jean, [Beatz](Swizz)(Swizz Beatz) (who DMX collaborated with including on the hit single, "[Ryders' Anthem](Ruff)(Ruff Ryders' Anthem)"), [Eve](Eve (rapper)) and [Elliott](Missy)(Missy Elliott).
A "Celebration of Life" took place on April 24, 2021, led by [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s [Service Choir](Sunday)(Sunday Service Choir). They performed several songs in honor of DMX. The memorial took place at [Center](Barclays)(Barclays Center) in Brooklyn with a limited capacity of 1,900. It was livestreamed on DMX's YouTube and Instagram accounts. On the way to Barclays, DMX's casket was carried by a black monster truck with "Long live DMX" painted on the side. A procession of hundreds of motorcyclists, in homage to the hip-hop collective Ruff Ryders, rode from DMX's birthplace of Yonkers, New York to Barclays Center. In between performances, people gave speeches including Eve, [Nas](Nas), Swizz Beatz and [Ryders](Ruff)(Ruff Ryders Entertainment) founders Joaquin "Waah" Dean & Darin "Dee" Dean. Kanye West was also confirmed to be in attendance of the celebration, according to *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*.
DMX's funeral ("DMX's Homegoing Celebration") took place in Brooklyn at the [Cultural Center](Christian)(Christian Cultural Center) on April 25, 2021. It was livestreamed on the [Network](BET)(BET Network) and its YouTube channel. It lasted around five hours to a limited capacity of 2,000 people. DMX's casket was in the color red and featured the word "FAITH" in large printing. It was featured in the front of the room. People who were in attendance included Nas, [Kim](Lil)(Lil' Kim), [Keys](Alicia)(Alicia Keys) and Swizz Beatz as well as the pastor of the church, Reverend A.R. Bernard. [Farrakhan](Louis)(Louis Farrakhan), a leader of the [of Islam](Nation)(Nation of Islam), joined the service via Zoom. With the exception of Alicia Keys, Nas and Lil Kim, they all gave speeches. DMX's former wife, Tashera Simmons and Ruff Ryders founders Waah & Dee also gave a speech. There was some controversial testimonies like former [Jam](Def)(Def Jam Recordings) chief [Cohen](Lyor)(Lyor Cohen), when his video featured an overhead view of a beach and explained how Earl Simmons was a wonderful man while DMX was a gremlin. Additionally, Def Jam cofounder [Simmons](Russell)(Russell Simmons) compared his own issues with drug abuse to DMX via video. The homegoing ended with DMX's obituary read on stage and a virtual performance from [Evans](Faith)(Faith Evans).
At the funeral, New York City community leader and peacemaker Erica Ford presented DMX's family several citations and proclamations from the New York governor's and Senate's office, including a proclamation from the New York state Senate declaring December 18—DMX's birthday—"Earl 'DMX' Simmons Day." Additional citations came from Gov. [Cuomo](Andrew)(Andrew Cuomo) and Mayor [Spano](Mike)(Mike Spano) of Yonkers (the hometown of DMX). Cuomo had the flag flying over the state [capitol](New York State Capitol) on the day of DMX's death presented to his family.
### Impact
DMX had a significant impact on hip hop music and is considered a legend in the genre. He "defined 2000s rap" and was "among the most prolific rappers of his era". He broke and set numerous records. His early work was vastly different from most mainstream hip hop music at the time; while [Daddy](Puff)(Puff Daddy) and other artists of the [Boy Records](Bad)(Bad Boy Records) label were at the height of popularity, characterized by their "big-budget videos, lavish party-throwing, and dancefloor-ready music", DMX achieved success with a more dark, aggressive, "rugged", less "marketable" style.
According to an Apple Music radio host: "It was a complete 180...Puff was controlling the clubs; you were watching Bad Boy Records pop bottles, wear [Rolexes](Rolex), [pieces](Jesus)(Jesus piece (jewelry)), [sweaters](Coogi)(Coogi). Then here comes this crazy energetic figure from Yonkers with the [Timbs](Timbs) and the bandanas, running around with pitbulls, giving a perspective on the streets that a lot of people weren't familiar with and taking command of what hip-hop didn't look like." DMX's commercially successful violent lyricism helped popularize the [horrorcore](horrorcore) genre.
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* ''[Dark and Hell Is Hot](It's)(It's Dark and Hell Is Hot)* (1998)
* *[of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood](Flesh)(Flesh of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood)* (1998)
* *[And Then There Was X](...)(... And Then There Was X)* (1999)
* *[Great Depression](The)(The Great Depression (DMX album))* (2001)
* *[Champ](Grand)(Grand Champ)* (2003)
* *[of the Dog... Again](Year)(Year of the Dog... Again)* (2006)
* *[Undisputed](Undisputed (DMX album))* (2012)
**[Exodus](Exodus (DMX album))* (2021)
## Awards and nominations
**[Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)**
**[Music Award](American)(American Music Award)**
**[Video Music Award](MTV)(MTV Video Music Award)**
**[Music Award](Billboard)(Billboard Music Award)**
## Filmography
**Films**
**Video games**
**Television**
## See also
* [Ryders](Ruff)(Ruff Ryders Entertainment#Ruff Ryders)
* [Inc.](Murder)(Murder Inc. (rap group))
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:DMX (rapper))
[births](Category:1970)(Category:1970 births)
[deaths](Category:2021)(Category:2021 deaths)
[American rappers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American rappers)
[American rappers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American rappers)
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[with bipolar disorder](Category:People)(Category:People with bipolar disorder)
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[and detainees of California](Category:Prisoners)(Category:Prisoners and detainees of California)
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[and detainees of South Carolina](Category:Prisoners)(Category:Prisoners and detainees of South Carolina)
[and detainees of the United States federal government](Category:Prisoners)(Category:Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government)
[from New York (state)](Category:Rappers)(Category:Rappers from New York (state))
[Ryders artists](Category:Ruff)(Category:Ruff Ryders artists)
[African-American musicians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American musicians)
[Inc. (rap group) members](Category:Murder)(Category:Murder Inc. (rap group) members)
|
Kevin Hart
|
kevin_hart
|
# Kevin Hart
*Revision ID: 1159500642 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T18:37:14Z*
---
|birth_place = [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), U.S.
|education = [College of Philadelphia](Community)(Community College of Philadelphia)
|active = 2001–present
|spouse =
|children = 4
|medium =
|genre =
|subject =
|website =
}}
**Kevin Darnell Hart** (born July 6, 1979) is an American comedian and actor. Originally known as a [comedian](stand-up)(Stand-up comedy), he has since starred in Hollywood films and on TV. He has also released several well-received comedy albums.
After winning several stand-up comedy competitions, Hart had his first breakthrough when [Apatow](Judd)(Judd Apatow) cast him in a recurring role on the TV series *[Undeclared](Undeclared)* (2001). He has since had roles in films such as *[Soldiers](Paper)(Paper Soldiers)* (2002), *[Movie 3](Scary)(Scary Movie 3)* (2003), *[Plane](Soul)(Soul Plane)* (2004), *[the Mix](In)(In the Mix (film))* (2005), *[Fockers](Little)(Little Fockers)* (2010), *[Like a Man](Think)(Think Like a Man)* (2012), *[Match](Grudge)(Grudge Match)* (2013), *[Along](Ride)(Ride Along (film))* (2014) *[Last Night](About)(About Last Night (2014 film))* (2014), *[Hard](Get)(Get Hard)* (2015), *[Intelligence](Central)(Central Intelligence)* (2016), [Secret Life of Pets* film franchise](*The)(The Secret Life of Pets (franchise)) (2016–2019), *[Along 2](Ride)(Ride Along 2)* (2016), *[Underpants: The First Epic Movie](Captain)(Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie)* (2017), the [film franchise](*Jumanji*)(Jumanji (franchise)) (2017–present), and *[School](Night)(Night School (2018 film))* (2018). He also created and starred as a fictionalized version of himself in *[Husbands of Hollywood](Real)(Real Husbands of Hollywood)* (2013–2016).
Hart's comedic reputation continued to grow with the release of his first stand-up album ''[a Grown Little Man](I'm)(Kevin Hart: I'm a Grown Little Man)* (2009). He has since released four more comedy albums: *Seriously Funny* (2010), *[at My Pain](Laugh)(Kevin Hart: Laugh at My Pain)* (2011), *[Me Explain](Let)(Kevin Hart: Let Me Explain)* (2013), and *[Now?](What)(Kevin Hart: What Now?)* (2016). In 2015, *[Time](Time (magazine))'' magazine named him on its annual list of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100). In 2017, he launched the [Out Loud Network](Laugh)(Laugh Out Loud Network), a subscription video streaming service in partnership with [Lionsgate](Lionsgate).
## Early life
Kevin Darnell Hart was born in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) on July 6, 1979, the son of Nancy (died 2007) and Henry Hart. He has an older brother named Robert. He was raised in a [household](single-parent)(single-parent household) by his mother, who worked as a systems analyst for the Office of Student Registration and Financial Services at the [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania). His father was a [cocaine](cocaine) addict who was in and out of jail throughout most of Hart's childhood, prompting Hart to use humor as a way to cope with his troubled family life. His relationship with his father improved after his father recovered from his addiction. He would also later talk about his mother in his stand-up routine, portraying her as a loving yet intimidating woman. After graduating from [Washington High School](George)(George Washington High School (Philadelphia)), Hart briefly attended the [College of Philadelphia](Community)(Community College of Philadelphia) before dropping out and moving to [York City](New)(New York City). He then moved to [Massachusetts](Brockton,)(Brockton, Massachusetts), and found work as a shoe salesman.
## Career
### Stand-up
Hart's first stand-up performance took place at The Laff House in his native Philadelphia under the name of Lil Kev, which did not go well. His career suffered a slow start and he was booed offstage several times, once even having a piece of chicken thrown at him. After those initial unsuccessful shows, he began entering comedy competitions throughout [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), with audience receptions eventually improving. It took time for Hart to develop a unique comedic style. After an early period of attempting to imitate comedians like [Tucker](Chris)(Chris Tucker), he found his own rhythm by delving into his insecurities and life experiences. He said, "Because of what I do, it has to be an open book. But right now this is a book that is being written."
Hart's comedy tours began in 2009 with his act titled ''[a Grown Little Man](I'm)(Kevin Hart: I'm a Grown Little Man)*, followed by *Seriously Funny* in 2010, *[at My Pain](Laugh)(Laugh at My Pain)* in 2011, and *[Me Explain](Let)(Kevin Hart: Let Me Explain)'' in 2013, the last two of which were also released as features in movie theaters. Hart grossed over $15 million from "Laugh at My Pain", making it one of the year's top-selling comedy tours. Hart also has a game available through [iTunes](iTunes) called "Little Jumpman". His [Facebook](Facebook) page, [Twitter](Twitter) account, and [YouTube](YouTube) channel are all connected to and accessible through this app. Most overseas fans of Hart discovered him on YouTube, as well.
On April 9, 2015, Hart embarked on a comedy world tour titled the [Now? Tour](What)(What Now? Tour) at the [Center](AT&T)(AT&T Center) in [Antonio](San)(San Antonio), which concluded on August 7, 2016, at the [Civic Center](Columbus)(Columbus Civic Center) in Columbus, Georgia. On July 16, 2015, [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) announced that *[Hart: What Now?](Kevin)(Kevin Hart: What Now?)*, a stand-up comedy film featuring a performance of Hart's [Now? Tour](What)(What Now? Tour), would be theatrically released in the United States on October 14, 2016. The show was filmed live on August 30, 2015, in front of 53,000 people, at [Philadelphia](Philadelphia)'s [Financial Field](Lincoln)(Lincoln Financial Field).
### Film and television roles
[[File:Charles M Robinson Director with Kevin Hart.jpg|thumb|Hart and [M. Robinson](Charles)(Charles M. Robinson (video director)) in October 2009]]
Hart came to prominence from his guest appearance in *[Undeclared](Undeclared)*. He made his film debut in the film *[Soldiers](Paper)(Paper Soldiers)*. Hart then gained further recognition from his other films such as the *[Movie](Scary)(Scary Movie (film series))* franchise, *[Plane](Soul)(Soul Plane)*, *[40-Year-Old Virgin](The)(The 40-Year-Old Virgin)*, *[at a Funeral](Death)(Death at a Funeral (2010 film))* and *[Fockers](Little)(Little Fockers)*. He turned down a role in the 2008 film *[Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder)* because the character is gay, citing his own "insecurities".
He played Doug in the film *[Five-Year Engagement](The)(The Five-Year Engagement)* (2012) and appeared in *[Like a Man](Think)(Think Like a Man)* which was a box office success. He also appeared in the [sequel](Think Like a Man Too). He had a cameo as himself in *[Is the End](This)(This Is the End)*. In 2013, Hart played a boxing promoter in *[Match](Grudge)(Grudge Match)* and appeared in *[Strategy](Exit)(Exit Strategy (film))* as Mannequin Head Man. He also appeared in *[and Ticking](35)(35 and Ticking)*.
In 2014, Hart starred as Ben in *[Along](Ride)(Ride Along (film))*, opposite [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube). The film received generally negative reviews from critics, but was a major box office success. Hart returned in the sequel, *[Along 2](Ride)(Ride Along 2)*, which was released on January 15, 2016.
In 2013, Hart co-created *[Husbands of Hollywood](Real)(Real Husbands of Hollywood)* with [Spencer](Chris)(Chris Spencer (actor)). The show follows Hart along with other married celebrities (each playing a comical fictionalized version of themselves) within the series including: [Kodjoe](Boris)(Boris Kodjoe), [Nelly](Nelly), [Martin](Duane)(Duane Martin), [Smoove](J.B.)(J.B. Smoove), [Cannon](Nick)(Nick Cannon) and [Thicke](Robin)(Robin Thicke). Thicke did not return for the second season due to his music career, though Hart has stated that the door is open for Thicke to return. (Archive link requires scrolldown.) The series is intentionally filmed in a style similar to [Bravo](Bravo (U.S. TV channel))'s *[Real Housewives](The)(The Real Housewives)*. Episodes often hinge on the "real" Hart's desperately unsuccessful attempts to climb Hollywood's celebrity social ladder (which always backfire in humiliating ways), and the character's barely-hidden jealousy of his more successful celebrity friends. A sneak peek was shown as a segment during the [BET Awards](2012)(2012 BET Awards) and the official promo was released in October 2012.
In 2015, Hart starred in the films *[Hard](Get)(Get Hard)* with [Ferrell](Will)(Will Ferrell) and *[Wedding Ringer](The)(The Wedding Ringer)*. In 2016, he starred in the movies *[Intelligence](Central)(Central Intelligence)*, with [Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson) and the animated *[Secret Life of Pets](The)(The Secret Life of Pets)*. In 2017, he starred in the movies *[Underpants: The First Epic Movie](Captain)(Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie)*, in a voice role, and *[Welcome to the Jungle](Jumanji:)(Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle)* with [Black](Jack)(Jack Black), [Gillan](Karen)(Karen Gillan), and reteaming again with Johnson. He earned an estimated $32.5 million in 2017.
In 2018, he produced his first film under his production company HartBeat Productions, *[School](Night)(Night School (2018 film))*. In October 2018, it was announced that through his production company, he has signed a first-look deal with [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon). Under the deal, Hart and his HartBeat Productions banner will develop and produce live-action, scripted kids content for the network. Hart also has a first-look film deal with [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios).
In 2019, Hart's film *[Upside](The)(The Upside)*, his first headlining role in a drama, was theatrically released. It also starred [Cranston](Bryan)(Bryan Cranston) and [Kidman](Nicole)(Nicole Kidman). Hart also reprised his role of Snowball in the sequel *[Secret Life of Pets 2](The)(The Secret Life of Pets 2)*.
In 2021, Hart starred in *[Fatherhood](Fatherhood (film))*, a [drama](Drama (modern genre)) about a man whose wife dies shortly after childbirth, leaving him to raise their daughter on his own. It premiered on Netflix on June 18, 2021.
In 2020, his series *[Hart](Die)(Die Hart)* premiered on [Quibi](Quibi) on July 20 and had a strong first weekend, with numerous households reportedly streaming the series. On June 9, [ROKU](Roku) and Hart's multi-platform comedy brand [Out Loud](Laugh)(Laugh Out Loud Productions) debuted the series' second season on [Roku Channel](The)(The Roku Channel). In addition to returning to his starring role, Hart executive produced the second season; Laugh Out Loud CEO and Hart's longtime business partner, Jeff Clanagan, serve as a producer on the project.
Hart later played Arnold Drummond in the ''[Strokes](Diff'rent)(Diff'rent Strokes)* portion of the third edition of *[in Front of a Studio Audience](Live)(Live in Front of a Studio Audience)''.
In 2022, Hart starred alongside [Wahlberg](Mark)(Mark Wahlberg) in the comedy film, *[Time](Me)(Me Time (film))*. The movie shows how Sonny (Hart) experiences a wild journey with his friend after finding a much-longed free weekend.
#### Upcoming projects
As of October 2016, Hart was set to portray [Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus) in *Dashing Through the Snow*, a planned 2017 [Disney](Walt Disney Pictures) Christmas-themed film. In October 2018, it was reported that [Rock](Chris)(Chris Rock) will direct Hart in a movie based on an original idea by the both of them. The film will be written by *[Black-ish](Black-ish)* writer Yamara Taylor and the film will revolve around a stay at home dad who raises the kids while his star CEO wife serves as the breadwinner. The man finds himself in emotional and public turmoil when his wife kicks him to the curb, and they engage in a bitter divorce and custody battle. In 2019, Hart signed on to star in and produce *Monopoly*, *Black Friday*, an untitled international romantic comedy, *Extreme Job*, and *Scrooged.* He signed a first look deal with Netflix in January 2021. Hart stars as a master thief in the Netflix [comedy](comedy film) [film](heist)(heist film) *[Lift](Lift (2024 film))* directed by [Gary Gray](F.)(F. Gary Gray) alongside [Corberó](Úrsula)(Úrsula Corberó) from *[Heist](Money)(Money Heist)* and [D'Onofrio](Vincent)(Vincent D'Onofrio). The film is scheduled to premiere in January 2024.
### Laugh Out Loud Productions
In 2017, Hart founded [Out Loud](Laugh)(Laugh Out Loud Productions), a global media and production company to provide opportunities for top comedic talent of all ethnicities worldwide. Originally partnered with [Lionsgate](Lionsgate), Hart became majority owner in 2019 after buying out most of Lionsgate's stake. LOL spans the full range of media channels, including digital, audio, linear and experiential, with four divisions: LOL Network, LOL Studios, LOL Audio and LOL X!
Hart has aggressively expanded LOL's reach since its founding, securing partnership deals with [PlutoTV](Pluto TV), [Roku](Roku), [Snap](Snapchat), [Facebook](Facebook), [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)), and [YouTube](YouTube). In 2020, he extended his company's agreement with [XM](Sirius)(Sirius XM). The network has launched successful programming, including *Cold As Balls* which has amassed over one billion YouTube views, *Kevin Hart: Lyft Legend*, *What the Fit*, and *Straight From The Hart*. LOL has won numerous accolades, including nominations and awards from the [Guild of America](Producers)(Producers Guild of America), [Choice Movie Awards](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Awards), Realscreen, [Streamy](Streamy Awards), and [Webby](Webby Award).
Known for content such as *Cold As Balls*, *What the Fit*, *Die Hart*, and more, the company has amassed more than 1 billion video views across its digital platforms and has worked with brand partners such as [AT&T](AT&T), [Headspace](Headspace (company)), [Lyft](Lyft), [Spice](Old)(Old Spice), [P&G](P&G), and [Viacom](Paramount Global).
### Hosting
[[File:Albert mit the Rock and Kevin Hart.jpg|thumb|Hart with [Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson) and Albert Trovato in June 2016]]
In addition to acting, Hart has also hosted various ceremonies. Hart first hosted the *[BET Awards](2011)(BET Awards 2011)*. Hart then hosted the [MTV Video Music Awards](2012)(2012 MTV Video Music Awards). His longtime friend [Apatow](Judd)(Judd Apatow), the director who gave him his first big on-screen break in the TV series *Undeclared*, was the one who recommended him for the gig. Hart hoped that this would project him further into a side career as an emcee, stating, "Hopefully after MTV, of course we're talking [Emmy](Emmy)s, [Oscars](Academy Awards), whatever." He has hosted three episodes of *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*. In 2015, Hart hosted the *[Central Roast of Justin Bieber](Comedy)(Comedy Central Roast)*. In 2016, Hart co-hosted the [MTV Movie Awards](2016)(2016 MTV Movie Awards) with [Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson).Evry, Max (February 19, 2016), ["Dwayne Johnson and Kevin Hart to Host the 2016 MTV Movie Awards"](https://comingsoon.net/movies/news/658771-dwayne-johnson-and-kevin-hart-to-host-the-2016-mtv-movie-awards#/slide/1) Comingsoon.net Retrieved February 23, 2016.
Hart has also hosted on [Trivia](HQ)(HQ Trivia) and gave away $100,000 to one person with [Rogowsky](Scott)(Scott Rogowsky) on September 26, 2018, which had 699K players.
On December 4, 2018, Hart was announced as the host of the [Academy Awards](2019)(91st Academy Awards). Two days later, however, he withdrew from hosting duties in the wake of backlash against him over several [homophobic](Homophobia) tweets he had posted between 2010 and 2011. He characterized the protest as unconstructive and argued, "If you don't believe people change, grow as they get older, I don't know what to tell you". On December 7, he tweeted an apology to the [community](LGBTQ)(LGBTQ community) following criticism for not issuing one the previous day. On January 3, 2019, Hart stated that he was going to reconsider stepping down as host, after openly lesbian comedian [DeGeneres](Ellen)(Ellen DeGeneres), who has hosted the Academy Awards multiple times, expressed support for him to do so and said she had contacted the Academy to ask if Hart would be able to reverse his decision if he wished and, according to DeGeneres, they said he would be able to do so. On January 8, following backlash for what was perceived as an insincere apology by critics, Hart confirmed that he would not be hosting the Academy Awards. That year's ceremony was ultimately held without a host.
On September 9, 2020, executives from the [Dystrophy Association](Muscular)(Muscular Dystrophy Association) announced plans to relaunch their [MDA telethon](annual)(The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon), move it to October 2020, and make Hart its new host, taking over duties that had been previously held from 1966 to 2010 by comedian and former National MDA Chairman, [Lewis](Jerry)(Jerry Lewis). Entitled *The MDA Kevin Hart Kids Telethon*, the new two-hour telethon will be seen exclusively through participating [media](social)(social media) platforms; the event was held on October 24, 2020, at 8 p.m. EDT.
### Music
As Chocolate Droppa, his alias, he signed to [Records](Motown)(Motown Records) and released *[Hart: What Now? (The Mixtape Presents Chocolate Droppa)](Kevin)(Kevin Hart: What Now? (The Mixtape Presents Chocolate Droppa))*, the soundtrack to his stand-up [of the same name](film)(Kevin Hart: What Now?). He released the singles "Push It On Me" featuring [Songz](Trey)(Trey Songz) and "Baller Alert" with [Migos](Migos) & [T.I](T.I).
### Modeling
In 2017, Hart and [John](Tommy)(Tom Patterson (entrepreneur)) appeared in an [underwear](underwear) commercial for [Macy's](Macy's).
### Hart House
In August 2022, Hart debuted a [vegetarian](Vegetarianism) restaurant, Hart House, intended to be the start of a [chain](restaurant)(restaurant chain) able to compete with [fast-food](fast-food) chains by "offering flavorful plant-based alternatives". The restaurant opened in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), about a mile from [Angeles International Airport](Los)(Los Angeles International Airport) (LAX), with a simple menu of [burger](veggie)(veggie burger)s and [Chick'n](Chick'n) products. The restaurant's offerings are claimed to be "entirely free of cholesterol, antibiotics, hormones, artificial colors, preservatives, [corn syrup](high-fructose)(high-fructose corn syrup), or trans fats", and inspired by Hart's own "health nut" lifestyle.
## Influences
Hart has cited [Carlin](George)(George Carlin), [Chappelle](Dave)(Dave Chappelle), [Cosby](Bill)(Bill Cosby), [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy), [O'Neal](Patrice)(Patrice O'Neal), [Pryor](Richard)(Richard Pryor), [Robinson](Keith)(Keith Robinson (comedian)), [Rock](Chris)(Chris Rock), and [Seinfeld](Jerry)(Jerry Seinfeld) as his influences.
## Legal issues
On April 14, 2013, Hart was charged on suspicion of [driving](drunk)(Drunk drivers) after his black [Mercedes](Mercedes-Benz) nearly collided with a tanker truck on a [California](Southern)(Southern California) freeway. He failed a field sobriety test and was booked for misdemeanor [DUI](Driving under the influence). On August 5, he was sentenced to three years of [probation](probation) after pleading [contest](no)(Nolo contendere) to one count of driving under the influence of alcohol.
## Personal life
Hart married Torrei in 2003, and they filed for divorce in 2010 after citing irreconcilable differences. Hart requested joint custody of their two children, daughter Heaven Leigh (born March 22, 2005) and son Hendrix (born October 8, 2007). The divorce was finalized in November 2011.
On August 18, 2014, Hart became engaged to Eniko Parrish. They were married near [Barbara, California](Santa)(Santa Barbara, California), on August 13, 2016. Their first child Kenzo Kash was born on November 21, 2017. A month later, he publicly admitted to having cheated on her while she was pregnant with their son. They reconciled and had a second child together, a daughter Kaori Mai, born on September 29, 2020.
An avid poker player since around 2010, Hart has entered major tournaments such as the [WSOP](World Series of Poker), cashing in one event for $4,783 in 2014. He also plays cash games, like the ones organized by [PokerStars](PokerStars), and actually became their Brand Ambassador in 2017. As such, he was featured in PokerStars ad campaigns and promotional content, alongside [Bolt](Usain)(Usain Bolt). As of September 2020, he has earned $47,828 in live tournament cashes.
On September 1, 2019, Hart was a passenger in a [Plymouth Barracuda](1970)(Plymouth Barracuda#1970–1971) that went off [Highway](Mulholland)(Mulholland Highway) and rolled down an embankment near [California](Calabasas,)(Calabasas, California). He and the driver reportedly suffered "major back injuries" and were taken to separate hospitals. Hart was released from the hospital ten days later, and continued recovery at a rehabilitation facility.
Hart is a practicing Christian and has talked openly about his faith.
## Work
### Comedy
**Specials**
* ''[a Grown Little Man](I'm)(Kevin Hart: I'm a Grown Little Man)* (2009)
* *Seriously Funny* (2010)
* *Laugh at My Pain* (2011)
* *[Me Explain](Let)(Kevin Hart: Let Me Explain)* (2013)
* *[Now?](What)(Kevin Hart: What Now?)* (2016)
* *Irresponsible* (2019)
* *[F**ks Given](Zero)(Kevin Hart: Zero F**ks Given)* (2020)
### Television series
* *[Husbands of Hollywood](Real)(Real Husbands of Hollywood)* (2013-2016, 2022) (with [Spencer](Chris)(Chris Spencer (actor)))
### Discography
* *[Hart: What Now? (The Mixtape Presents Chocolate Droppa)](Kevin)(Kevin Hart: What Now? (The Mixtape Presents Chocolate Droppa))* (2016)
### Bibliography
* *I Can't Make This Up: Life Lessons'' (2017)
* ''The Decision: Overcoming Today's BS for Tomorrow's Success* (2020)
* *Marcus Makes a Movie* (2021)
* *Marcus Makes It Big* (2022)
* *Monsters and How to Tame Them: Taking Charge of the Voices in Your Head* (2022)
## Performances
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
### Music videos
## Tours
* [Now? Tour](What)(What Now? Tour) (2015–2016)
* [Tour](Irresponsible)(Irresponsible Tour) (2017–2018)
* Reality Check Tour (2022–2023)
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1979)(Category:1979 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[American male writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male writers)
[American screenwriters](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American screenwriters)
[film producers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American film producers)
[male actors](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male actors)
[male comedians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male comedians)
[male writers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male writers)
[screenwriters](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American screenwriters)
[stand-up comedians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American stand-up comedians)
[television producers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American television producers)
[film producers](Category:American)(Category:American film producers)
[male comedians](Category:American)(Category:American male comedians)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male screenwriters](Category:American)(Category:American male screenwriters)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male television writers](Category:American)(Category:American male television writers)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[philanthropists](Category:American)(Category:American philanthropists)
[stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians)
[television writers](Category:American)(Category:American television writers)
[from Pennsylvania](Category:Comedians)(Category:Comedians from Pennsylvania)
[College of Philadelphia alumni](Category:Community)(Category:Community College of Philadelphia alumni)
[producers from Pennsylvania](Category:Film)(Category:Film producers from Pennsylvania)
[actors from Philadelphia](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Philadelphia)
[from Pennsylvania](Category:Screenwriters)(Category:Screenwriters from Pennsylvania)
[Award winners](Category:Shorty)(Category:Shorty Award winners)
[producers from Pennsylvania](Category:Television)(Category:Television producers from Pennsylvania)
[from Philadelphia](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Philadelphia)
|
Mark Harmon
|
mark_harmon
|
# Mark Harmon
*Revision ID: 1147881997 | Timestamp: 2023-04-02T19:49:24Z*
---
Mark Harman}}
| birth_place = [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California), U.S.
| alma mater = [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| occupation =
| years_active = 1970–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| parents =
| module =
}}
**Thomas Mark Harmon** (born September 2, 1951) is an American actor. He is known for playing the lead role of [Jethro Gibbs](Leroy)(Leroy Jethro Gibbs) in *[NCIS](NCIS (TV series))*. He also appeared in a wide variety of roles since the early 1970s. After spending the majority of the 1990s as a [actor](character)(character actor), he played [Service](Secret)(United States Secret Service) special agent [Donovan](Simon)(Simon Donovan) in a four-episode story arc in *[West Wing](The)(The West Wing)* in 2002, receiving an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) nomination for the role.
Harmon's character of [NCIS](Navy Criminal Investigation Service) special agent [Jethro Gibbs](Leroy)(Leroy Jethro Gibbs) was introduced in a guest starring role in two episodes of *[JAG](JAG (TV series))*. From 2003 to 2021, Harmon starred in the spinoff *NCIS* as the same character.
## Early life
Harmon was born in [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California), the youngest of three children. His parents were [Trophy](Heisman)(Heisman Trophy)–winning football player and broadcaster [Harmon](Tom)(Tom Harmon) and actress, model, and artist [Knox](Elyse)(Elyse Knox) ([née](née) Elsie Lillian Kornbrath). Harmon had two older sisters, the late actress and painter [Nelson](Kristin)(Kristin Nelson), who was divorced from the late singer [Nelson](Rick)(Rick Nelson), and actress and model [Harmon](Kelly)(Kelly Harmon), formerly married to car magnate [DeLorean](John)(John DeLorean). His maternal grandparents were [Austrian](Austrians) immigrants.
### College football
After his high school graduation from [School](Harvard-Westlake)(Harvard-Westlake School) in 1970, Harmon completed a two-year associate degree at [College](Pierce)(Los Angeles Pierce College) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). After his second season at Pierce, 1971, Harmon received offers from major college football programs, ultimately choosing [UCLA](1971 UCLA Bruins football team) over [Oklahoma](1972 Oklahoma Sooners football team), even though in the previous season, [1971](1971 NCAA University Division football season), the [Sooners](1971 Oklahoma Sooners football team) finished second in the nation, while the [Bruins](1971 UCLA Bruins football team) had stumbled to a 2–7–1 record, placing last in the [Pac-8](Pac-12 Conference).
After transferring to the [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles), he started at [quarterback](quarterback) for the [1972](1972 UCLA Bruins football team) and [1973](1973 UCLA Bruins football team) [Bruins](UCLA Bruins football).
During his first game, his UCLA team produced a stunning upset of the two-time defending national champion [Cornhuskers](Nebraska)(1972 Nebraska Cornhuskers football team). The Bruins were an eighteen-point home underdog to the top-ranked Huskers but won 20–17 on a late field goal by [Herrera](Efren)(Efren Herrera) under the lights of [Coliseum](L.A.)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum).
In his [year](senior)(1973 NCAA Division I football season), Harmon received the [Football Foundation](National)(National Football Foundation) Award for All-Round Excellence. During his two years as quarterback in coach [Rodgers](Pepper)(Pepper Rodgers)'s [offense](wishbone)(wishbone offense), UCLA compiled a 17–5 record (). Harmon was UCLA's starting quarterback for two seasons, but he was not picked in the [NFL Draft](1974)(1974 NFL Draft).
Harmon graduated *[laude](cum)(cum laude)* from UCLA in 1974 with a [B.A.](Bachelor of Arts) in [Communications](communications studies).
He was inducted into the inaugural class of the Pierce College Athletic Hall of Fame in 2010.
## Career
### Early career
After college, Harmon considered pursuing a career in advertising or law." Harmon started his career in business as a merchandising director, but soon decided to switch to acting. He spent much of his career portraying law enforcement and medical personnel. One of his first national TV appearances (other than as an athlete) was in a commercial for [Kellogg's](Kellogg Company) [19](Product)(Product 19) cereal with his father, [Harmon](Tom)(Tom Harmon), its longstanding TV spokesman. Thanks to his sister Kristin's in-laws, [Nelson](Ozzie)(Ozzie Nelson) and [Nelson](Harriet)(Harriet Nelson), he landed his first job as an actor in an episode of ''[Girls](Ozzie's)(Ozzie's Girls).* This was followed by guest roles in episodes of *[Adam-12](Adam-12)*, *[Woman](Police)(Police Woman (TV series))*, and *[Emergency!](Emergency!)* in mid-1975. He also performed in "905-Wild", a [pilot](backdoor)(backdoor pilot) episode for a series about two L.A. County Animal Control Officers which did not sell. Producer/creator [Webb](Jack)(Jack Webb), who was the packager of both series, later cast Harmon in *[Sam](Sam (1978 TV series))*, a short-lived 1978 series about an [LAPD](Los Angeles Police Department) officer and his [K-9](Police dog) partner. Before this, Harmon received an [nomination](Emmy)(Emmy Award) for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance as [Dunlap](Robert)(Robert Hugo Dunlap) in the TV movie *[and Franklin: The White House Years](Eleanor)(Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years)*. In 1978, he appeared in three episodes of the mini-series, *[Centennial](Centennial (miniseries))*, as Captain John MacIntosh, an honorable Union cavalry officer.
During the mid- to late-1970s, Harmon made guest appearances on TV series, including *[& Shirley](Laverne)(Laverne & Shirley)*, *[Delvecchio](Delvecchio (TV series))*, *[Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries](The)(The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries)*, and had supporting roles in the feature films *[a Horseman](Comes)(Comes a Horseman)* (1978) and *[the Poseidon Adventure](Beyond)(Beyond the Poseidon Adventure)* (1979). He then landed a co-starring role on the 1979 action series *[240-Robert](240-Robert)'' as Deputy Dwayne Thibideaux. The series centered around the missions of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department Emergency Services Detail, but was also short-lived.
In 1980, Harmon gained a regular role in the prime time soap opera *[Road](Flamingo)(Flamingo Road (TV series))*, in which he played Fielding Carlisle, the husband of [Fairchild](Morgan)(Morgan Fairchild)'s character. Despite initially good ratings, the series was canceled after two seasons. Following its cancellation, he landed the role of Dr. Robert Caldwell on the series *[Elsewhere](St.)(St. Elsewhere)* in 1983. Harmon appeared in the show for almost three seasons before leaving in early 1986 when his character contracted [HIV](HIV) through unprotected intercourse, one of the first instances where a major recurring television character contracted the virus (the character's subsequent off-screen death from [AIDS](AIDS) would be mentioned two years later). In the mid-1980s, Harmon also became the spokesperson for [Regular beer](Coors)(Coors Brewing Company), appearing in television commercials for them.
Harmon's career reached several other high points in 1986. In January, he was named *[People](People (magazine))* magazine's [Man Alive](Sexiest)(Sexiest Man Alive). Following his departure from *St. Elsewhere* in February, he played the lead in the TV movies *[of Bel Air](Prince)(Prince of Bel Air)*, co-starring with [Alley](Kirstie)(Kirstie Alley), and *[Deliberate Stranger](The)(The Deliberate Stranger)*, in which he portrayed the real-life [killer](serial)(serial killer) [Bundy](Ted)(Ted Bundy). With his career blossoming, he played a role in the 1986 theatrical film ''[Get Harry](Let's)(Let's Get Harry)* and the lead role in the 1987 comedy *[School](Summer)(Summer School (1987 film))*, again co-starring with [Alley](Kirstie)(Kirstie Alley) and alongside future *[JAG](JAG (TV series))* and *[NCIS](NCIS (TV series))* alum [Labyorteaux](Patrick)(Patrick Labyorteaux). Returning briefly to episodic television in 1987, Harmon had a limited engagement on the series *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))'', playing [Shepherd](Cybill)(Cybill Shepherd)'s love interest Sam Crawford for four episodes. He then starred in the 1987 TV movie *After the Promise*. In 1988, he co-starred with [Connery](Sean)(Sean Connery) and [Ryan](Meg)(Meg Ryan) in the 1988 feature film *[Presidio](The)(The Presidio (film))*, and also opposite [Foster](Jodie)(Jodie Foster) in the film *[Home](Stealing)(Stealing Home)*. Despite several high-profile roles, Harmon's film career never gathered momentum and, after a muted reception to his 1989 comedy *[Winning](Worth)(Worth Winning)*, he returned to television, appearing in various television movies.
Harmon's next regular television role would be as Chicago police detective Dickie Cobb for two seasons (1991–1993) on the [NBC](NBC) series *[Doubts](Reasonable)(Reasonable Doubts)*. In 1993, he appeared in one episode in the role of a [rodeo](rodeo) clown on the [CBS](CBS) comedy/western series *[of the West](Harts)(Harts of the West)* with future castmate [Murray](Sean)(Sean Murray (actor)), who plays McGee on *NCIS*.
In 1995, Harmon starred in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) series *[Grace](Charlie)(Charlie Grace (TV series))*, in which he portrayed a private investigator. The series lasted only one season, after which he returned to ensemble medical shows on the series *[Hope](Chicago)(Chicago Hope)*, in which he played Dr. Jack McNeil from 1996 to 2000. He also portrayed astronaut [Schirra](Wally)(Wally Schirra) in one episode of the 1998 mini-series *[the Earth to the Moon](From)(From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries))*.
### *NCIS*
In May 2002, Harmon portrayed [Service](Secret)(United States Secret Service) [agent](special)(special agent) Simon Donovan on *[West Wing](The)(The West Wing)* in a four-episode story arc. The role gained him his second Emmy Award nomination, exactly 25 years after his first. [P. Bellisario](Donald)(Donald P. Bellisario), the creator of *JAG* and *NCIS* saw him on *The West Wing* and had Harmon appear in a guest starring role in two episodes of *[JAG](JAG (TV series))* in April 2003, where Harmon was introduced as the character of [NCIS](Naval Criminal Investigative Service) agent [Jethro Gibbs](Leroy)(Leroy Jethro Gibbs). Starting that September, Harmon has starred as Gibbs in the CBS drama *[NCIS](NCIS (TV series))*, a role which has earned him six nominations at the [Choice Awards](People's)(People's Choice Awards) including a win for Favorite TV Crime Drama Actor in 2017. During his time on the show, he was reunited with three of his former *Chicago Hope* co-stars, [Carroll](Rocky)(Rocky Carroll), [Holly](Lauren)(Lauren Holly), and [Brook](Jayne)(Jayne Brook). Since 2008, he has also been a producer and executive producer.
In the fourth episode of the show's nineteenth season, Harmon's Gibbs exited the series as a series regular, an exit set in motion by the events of the previous season finale.
### Other activities
In 2003, Harmon had a supporting role in the remake of the comedy film *[Friday](Freaky)(Freaky Friday (2003 film))*. Harmon has also starred in several stage productions in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and [Toronto](Toronto). At the Cast Theatre in Los Angeles, he performed in *Wrestlers* and *The Wager*. In the late Eighties he was part of the cast of the [Canadian](Canadian) premiere of *Key Exchange*. Several productions of [Letters*](*Love)(Love Letters (play)) provided him the opportunity to play alongside his wife [Dawber](Pam)(Pam Dawber).
[[Harmon at a ceremony to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.](File:MarkHarmonHWOFOct2012.jpg|thumb|250px|Mark)]
Harmon received the 2,482nd star of the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) on October 1, 2012. In 2014, Harmon started a production company called Wings Productions to produce *[New Orleans](NCIS:)(NCIS: New Orleans)*.show end credits As of 2018, Harmon works as a producer for a new CBS series, based on author [Sandford](John)(John Sandford (novelist))'s best-selling *Prey* novels, which have sold more than 30 million copies worldwide. The last 10 have reached No. 1 on *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* best-seller list.
Harmon also directed two episodes of *[Hope](Chicago)(Chicago Hope)* in 1999 and 2000, and two episodes of *[Public](Boston)(Boston Public)* in 2002.
## Personal life
Harmon is the son of football player [Harmon](Tom)(Tom Harmon) and actress [Knox](Elyse)(Elyse Knox). His sisters are [Kelly](Kelly Harmon), an actress and model, and [Kristin](Kristin Nelson), an actress and painter. Kristin died of a heart attack on April 27, 2018.
Harmon has been married to actress [Dawber](Pam)(Pam Dawber) since March 21, 1987. The couple have two sons, one of whom has played a young Gibbs in several *NCIS* episodes. They maintain a low profile and rarely appear in public with their children. Harmon was the brother-in-law of [Nelson](Ricky)(Ricky Nelson) and [DeLorean](John)(John DeLorean) and is the uncle of actress [Nelson](Tracy)(Tracy Nelson (actress)) and singers [Matthew](Matthew Nelson (musician)) and [Nelson](Gunnar)(Gunnar Nelson (musician)) of the rock duo [Nelson](Nelson (band)).
In 1987, Harmon filed for custody of his nephew Sam, Kristin's son, on the grounds that she was incapable of good parenting. Sam's psychiatrist testified that the thirteen-year-old boy depicted his mother as a dragon and complained about her mood swings and how she prevented him from being with his siblings. Harmon later dropped the custody bid.
In 1988, Harmon was part owner of a [league baseball](minor)(minor league baseball) team, the [Bernardino Spirit](San)(San Bernardino Spirit), the same season [Griffey Jr.](Ken)(Ken Griffey Jr.) played for the team before his major league call-up to the [Mariners](Seattle)(Seattle Mariners) the next season. Harmon used the team and their home field, [Field](Fiscalini)(Fiscalini Field), for the opening and closing scenes of the film in which he was starring, *[Home](Stealing)(Stealing Home)*.
In 1996, Harmon saved a teenage boy involved in a car accident outside his [Brentwood](Brentwood, Los Angeles) home. The driver had been able to escape, but the passenger was trapped in the burning car. Dawber telephoned emergency services, while Harmon used a sledgehammer from his garage to break the window of the car and pulled the passenger from the vehicle. The passenger suffered severe burns but survived his injuries.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Awards and nominations
## References
## Further reading
*
## External links
*
*
*
* [Mark Harmon](http://www.tv.com/people/mark-harmon/) at TV.com
* [CBS *NCIS* profile](http://www.cbs.com/shows/ncis/cast/61391/?pg=1)
[births](Category:1951)(Category:1951 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[football quarterbacks](Category:American)(Category:American football quarterbacks)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[people of Austrian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Austrian descent)
[Angeles Pierce College people](Category:Los)(Category:Los Angeles Pierce College people)
[School alumni](Category:Harvard-Westlake)(Category:Harvard-Westlake School alumni)
[actors from Burbank, California](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Burbank, California)
[from Brentwood, Los Angeles](Category:People)(Category:People from Brentwood, Los Angeles)
[Brahmas football players](Category:Pierce)(Category:Pierce Brahmas football players)
[of American football from California](Category:Players)(Category:Players of American football from California)
[from Burbank, California](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from Burbank, California)
[Bruins football players](Category:UCLA)(Category:UCLA Bruins football players)
[of California, Los Angeles alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
|
Levenshtein distance
|
levenshtein_distance
|
# Levenshtein distance
*Revision ID: 1154303374 | Timestamp: 2023-05-11T15:34:27Z*
---
In [theory](information)(information theory), [linguistics](linguistics), and [science](computer)(computer science), the **Levenshtein distance** is a [metric](string)(string metric) for measuring the difference between two sequences. Informally, the Levenshtein distance between two words is the minimum number of single-character edits (insertions, deletions or substitutions) required to change one word into the other. It is named after the Soviet mathematician [Levenshtein](Vladimir)(Vladimir Levenshtein), who considered this distance in 1965. Appeared in English as:
Levenshtein distance may also be referred to as *edit distance*, although that term may also denote a larger family of distance metrics known collectively as [distance](edit)(edit distance). It is closely related to [string alignments](pairwise)(Sequence alignment#Pairwise alignment).
## Definition
The Levenshtein distance between two strings a, b (of length |a| and |b| respectively) is given by \operatorname{lev}(a, b) where
: \operatorname{lev}(a, b) = \begin{cases}
|a| & \text{ if } |b| = 0, \\
|b| & \text{ if } |a| = 0, \\
\operatorname{lev}\big(\operatorname{tail}(a),\operatorname{tail}(b)\big) & \text{ if } a[0] = b[0], \\
1 + \min \begin{cases}
\operatorname{lev}\big(\operatorname{tail}(a), b\big) \\
\operatorname{lev}\big(a, \operatorname{tail}(b)\big) \\
\operatorname{lev}\big(\operatorname{tail}(a), \operatorname{tail}(b)\big) \\
\end{cases} & \text{ otherwise}
\end{cases}
where the \operatorname{tail} of some string x is a string of all but the first character of x, and x[n] is the nth character of the string x, [from 0](counting)(Zero-based numbering).
Note that the first element in the minimum corresponds to deletion (from a to b), the second to insertion and the third to replacement.
This definition corresponds directly to [naive recursive implementation](the)(Levenshtein distance#Recursive).
### Example
[[distance animation.gif|thumb|right|400px| Edit distance matrix for two words using cost of substitution as 1 and cost of deletion or insertion as 0.5 ](File:Levenshtein)]
For example, the Levenshtein distance between "kitten" and "sitting" is 3, since the following 3 edits change one into the other, and there is no way to do it with fewer than 3 edits:
# **k**itten → **s**itten (substitution of "s" for "k"),
# sitt**e**n → sitt**i**n (substitution of "i" for "e"),
# sittin → sittin**g** (insertion of "g" at the end).
### Upper and lower bounds
The Levenshtein distance has several simple upper and lower bounds. These include:
* It is at least the absolute value of the difference of the sizes of the two strings.
* It is at most the length of the longer string.
* It is zero if and only if the strings are equal.
* If the strings have the same size, the [distance](Hamming)(Hamming distance) is an upper bound on the Levenshtein distance. The Hamming distance is the number of positions at which the corresponding symbols in the two strings are different.
* The Levenshtein distance between two strings is no greater than the sum of their Levenshtein distances from a third string ([inequality](triangle)(triangle inequality)).
An example where the Levenshtein distance between two strings of the same length is strictly less than the Hamming distance is given by the pair "flaw" and "lawn". Here the Levenshtein distance equals 2 (delete "f" from the front; insert "n" at the end). The [distance](Hamming)(Hamming distance) is 4.
## Applications
In [string matching](approximate)(approximate string matching), the objective is to find matches for short strings in many longer texts, in situations where a small number of differences is to be expected. The short strings could come from a dictionary, for instance. Here, one of the strings is typically short, while the other is arbitrarily long. This has a wide range of applications, for instance, [checker](spell)(spell checker)s, correction systems for [character recognition](optical)(optical character recognition), and software to assist natural-language translation based on [memory](translation)(translation memory).
The Levenshtein distance can also be computed between two longer strings, but the cost to compute it, which is roughly proportional to the product of the two string lengths, makes this impractical. Thus, when used to aid in [string searching](fuzzy)(fuzzy string searching) in applications such as [linkage](record)(record linkage), the compared strings are usually short to help improve speed of comparisons.
In linguistics, the Levenshtein distance is used as a metric to quantify the [distance](linguistic)(linguistic distance), or how different two languages are from one another.. It is related to [intelligibility](mutual)(mutual intelligibility): the higher the linguistic distance, the lower the mutual intelligibility, and the lower the linguistic distance, the higher the mutual intelligibility.
## Relationship with other edit distance metrics
There are other popular measures of [distance](edit)(edit distance), which are calculated using a different set of allowable edit operations. For instance,
* the [distance](Damerau–Levenshtein)(Damerau–Levenshtein distance) allows the [transposition](Transposition (mathematics)) of two adjacent characters alongside insertion, deletion, substitution;
* the [common subsequence](longest)(longest common subsequence problem) (LCS) distance allows only insertion and deletion, not substitution;
* the [distance](Hamming)(Hamming distance) allows only substitution, hence, it only applies to strings of the same length.
* the [distance](Jaro)(Jaro distance) allows only [transposition](Transposition (mathematics)).
[distance](Edit)(Edit distance) is usually defined as a parameterizable metric calculated with a specific set of allowed edit operations, and each operation is assigned a cost (possibly infinite). This is further generalized by DNA [alignment](sequence)(sequence alignment) algorithms such as the [algorithm](Smith–Waterman)(Smith–Waterman algorithm), which make an operation's cost depend on where it is applied.
## Computation
### Recursive
This is a straightforward, but inefficient, recursive [Haskell](Haskell (programming language)) implementation of a lDistance function that takes two strings, *s* and *t*, together with their lengths, and returns the Levenshtein distance between them:
lDistance :: Eq a => [a] -> [a] -> Int
lDistance [] t = length t -- If s is empty, the distance is the number of characters in t
lDistance s [] = length s -- If t is empty, the distance is the number of characters in s
lDistance (a : s') (b : t') =
if a == b
then lDistance s' t' -- If the first characters are the same, they can be ignored
else
1
+ minimum -- Otherwise try all three possible actions and select the best one
[ lDistance (a : s') t', -- Character is inserted (b inserted)
lDistance s' (b : t'), -- Character is deleted (a deleted)
lDistance s' t' -- Character is replaced (a replaced with b)
]
This implementation is very inefficient because it recomputes the Levenshtein distance of the same substrings many times.
A more efficient method would never repeat the same distance calculation. For example, the Levenshtein distance of all possible suffixes might be stored in an array M, where M[i][j] is the distance between the last i characters of string s and the last j characters of string t. The table is easy to construct one row at a time starting with row 0. When the entire table has been built, the desired distance is in the table in the last row and column, representing the distance between all of the characters in s and all the characters in t.
### Iterative with full matrix
(Note: This section uses 1-based strings instead of 0-based strings.)
Computing the Levenshtein distance is based on the observation that if we reserve a [matrix](Matrix (mathematics)) to hold the Levenshtein distances between all [prefixes](prefix (computer science)) of the first string and all prefixes of the second, then we can compute the values in the matrix in a [programming](dynamic)(dynamic programming) fashion, and thus find the distance between the two full strings as the last value computed.
This algorithm, an example of bottom-up [programming](dynamic)(dynamic programming), is discussed, with variants, in the 1974 article *The [correction problem](String-to-string)(String-to-string correction problem)* by Robert A. Wagner and Michael J. Fischer.
This is a straightforward [pseudocode](pseudocode) implementation for a function LevenshteinDistance that takes two strings, *s* of length *m*, and *t* of length *n*, and returns the Levenshtein distance between them:
function LevenshteinDistance(char s[1..m], char t[1..n]):
// for all i and j, d[i,j] will hold the Levenshtein distance between
// the first i characters of s and the first j characters of t
declare int d[0..n](0..m,)
set each element in d to zero
// source prefixes can be transformed into empty string by
// dropping all characters
for i from 1 to m:
d[0](i,) := i
// target prefixes can be reached from empty source prefix
// by inserting every character
for j from 1 to n:
d[j](0,) := j
for j from 1 to n:
for i from 1 to m:
if s[i] = t[j]:
substitutionCost := 0
else:
substitutionCost := 1
d[j](i,) := minimum(d[j](i-1,) + 1, // deletion
d[j-1](i,) + 1, // insertion
d[j-1](i-1,) + substitutionCost) // substitution
return d[n](m,)
Two examples of the resulting matrix (hovering over a tagged number reveals the operation performed to get that number):
:
The [invariant](invariant (mathematics)) maintained throughout the algorithm is that we can transform the initial segment into using a minimum of }} operations. At the end, the bottom-right element of the array contains the answer.
### Iterative with two matrix rows
It turns out that only two rows of the table the previous row and the current row being calculated are needed for the construction, if one does not want to reconstruct the edited input strings.
The Levenshtein distance may be calculated iteratively using the following algorithm:.
function LevenshteinDistance(char s[0..m-1], char t[0..n-1]):
// create two work vectors of integer distances
declare int v0[+ 1](n)
declare int v1[+ 1](n)
// initialize v0 (the previous row of distances)
// this row is A[0][i]: edit distance from an empty s to t;
// that distance is the number of characters to append to s to make t.
for i from 0 to n:
v0[i] = i
for i from 0 to m - 1:
// calculate v1 (current row distances) from the previous row v0
// first element of v1 is A[+ 1](i)[0]
// edit distance is delete (i + 1) chars from s to match empty t
v1[0] = i + 1
// use formula to fill in the rest of the row
for j from 0 to n - 1:
// calculating costs for A[+ 1](i)[+ 1](j)
deletionCost := v0[+ 1](j) + 1
insertionCost := v1[j] + 1
if s[i] = t[j]:
substitutionCost := v0[j]
else:
substitutionCost := v0[j] + 1
v1[+ 1](j) := minimum(deletionCost, insertionCost, substitutionCost)
// copy v1 (current row) to v0 (previous row) for next iteration
// since data in v1 is always invalidated, a swap without copy could be more efficient
swap v0 with v1
// after the last swap, the results of v1 are now in v0
return v0[n]
[algorithm](Hirschberg's)(Hirschberg's algorithm) combines this method with [and conquer](divide)(Divide and conquer algorithms). It can compute the optimal edit sequence, and not just the edit distance, in the same asymptotic time and space bounds.
### Automata
[automata](Levenshtein)(Levenshtein automaton) efficiently determine whether a string has an edit distance lower than a given constant from a given string.
### Approximation
The Levenshtein distance between two strings of length can be [approximated](Approximation algorithm) to within a factor
: (\log n)^{O(1/\varepsilon)},
where is a free parameter to be tuned, in time .
### Computational complexity
It has been shown that the Levenshtein distance of two strings of length cannot be computed in time for any ε greater than zero unless the [exponential time hypothesis](strong)(strong exponential time hypothesis) is false.
## See also
*[agrep](agrep)
*[distance](Damerau–Levenshtein)(Damerau–Levenshtein distance)
*[diff](diff)
*[time warping](Dynamic)(Dynamic time warping)
*[distance](Euclidean)(Euclidean distance)
*[of sequences in genetics](Homology)(Sequence homology)
*[distance](Hamming)(Hamming distance)
*[algorithm](Hunt–Szymanski)(Hunt–Szymanski algorithm)
*[index](Jaccard)(Jaccard index)
*[hashing](Locality-sensitive)(Locality-sensitive hashing)
*[common subsequence problem](Longest)(Longest common subsequence problem)
*[Lucene](Lucene) (an open source search engine that implements edit distance)
*[distance](Manhattan)(Manhattan distance)
*[space](Metric)(Metric space)
*[MinHash](MinHash)
*[matching](Optimal)(Optimal matching) algorithm
*[taxonomy](Numerical)(Numerical taxonomy)
*[similarity index](Sørensen)(Sørensen similarity index)
## References
## External links
*
* [Rosseta Code implementations of Levenshtein distance](http://www.rosettacode.org/wiki/Levenshtein_distance)
[metrics](Category:String)(Category:String metrics)
[programming](Category:Dynamic)(Category:Dynamic programming)
[with example pseudocode](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles with example pseudocode)
[linguistics](Category:Quantitative)(Category:Quantitative linguistics)
|
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