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of herself whilst aping the actions of movie stars , ranging from Sridevi 's Naagin dance , Mithun Chakravarthy 's Disco Dancer moves , to Big B 's violent headshake in Hum . Her Tara could be a keeper if only Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai wasn 't so intent on turning her into a love @-@ struck Barbie . " Critic Anupama Chopra also criticized Fernandez , calling her " a pin @-@ prick on a balloon " . Later that year , she made a cameo appearance in Sajid Khan 's Housefull in the song " Dhanno " .
Mahesh Bhatt 's thriller Murder 2 was Fernandez 's first commercial success and marker a turning point in her career . She took on the role of Priya , a lonely model who is in a confused relationship with Arjun Bhagwat ( played by Emraan Hashmi ) . Fernandez was praised for the her performance , and for the boldness and sex appeal she displayed in the film . Gaurav Malini of The Times of India stated that she was " tastefully tempting " but noted that her romance with Hashmi was " literally half @-@ baked " . The following year , Fernandez appeared in the ensemble comedy Housefull 2 alongside Akshay Kumar , John Abraham , and Asin . It became one of the top grossing productions of India that year and earned ₹ 1 @.@ 86 billion ( US $ 28 million ) worldwide . Fernandez received mostly negative reviews for her performance . While Gaurav Malini praised her for her looks , NDTV called her a " blathering bimbo " who " find [ s ] no pleasure in [ her role ] " . Despite the negative reviews , Fernandez received a Best Supporting Actress nomination at the 14th IIFA Awards for her performance .
Fernandez 's first release of 2013 was Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller ( alongside Saif Ali Khan , John Abraham , Deepika Padukone , Ameesha Patel , and Anil Kapoor ) ) , described as the " cinematic equivalent of a trashy novel " by critic Rajeev Masand . She played Omisha , a femme fatale , a role which required her learn fencing and some acrobatics . The film emerged as a commercial success , with the domestic gross of more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . In a particularly scathing review
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A controlled airspace extends to ground level . The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of Class A controlled airspace there , which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high @-@ collision @-@ risk hot spots .
= = = Aerodrome access = = =
Regional airports , such as Edinburgh Airport , have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years . These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA , and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination , the effect has been to discourage or exclude it . GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges , including the imposition of handling fees in some cases . Some airports restrict or deny GA parking , and others limit or refuse certain GA activity . As a result , light GA aircraft are now rarely or never seen at large , busy international airports such as Heathrow , Stansted , Gatwick and Manchester .
In addition to this de facto loss of facilities , the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years , as a result of increasing urbanisation and the closure of airfields built during WWII . Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure , for example North Weald , or actually being closed , as happened to Ipswich Airport. and Bristol Filton Airport . Referring to the importance of a " functioning national network of GA airfields " , especially where GA performs an air transport role , the CAA states that " there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue , especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost . "
= = = Planning system = = =
The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes . With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them , and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive , a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue . However , there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes , and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact . Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation , the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process , and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made . GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning Authorities , and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission , or grant it with restrictive conditions . Little Gransden is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted , thereby inhibiting further development . Such restrictions , if poorly conceived , can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe .
= = Criticism = =
Public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening , based on increasing environmental concerns relating to emissions and noise , and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity . In terms of environmental complaints and enquiries made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA , noise is " by far " the most common subject . Half of the 2 @,@ 000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations , most of which relate to aerobatics , helicopters using private sites , air balloon incidents , parachute dropping , and alleged low flying .
Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that " in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports . " This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in , including : repetitive circuit flying at low @-@ altitude near an aerodrome , during which aircraft are audible for long periods ; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone or aerodrome , also audible for long periods ; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics ; and piston @-@ engines on full power in areas of low background noise , leading to the perception that such noise is more intrusive . In an attempt to alleviate these problems , the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas , and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators .
= SMS Zrínyi =
SMS Zrínyi ( " His Majesty 's ship Zrínyi " ) was a Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ( Schlachtschiff ) of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) , named for the Zrinski , a noble Croatian family . Zrínyi and her sisters , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and Radetzky , were the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy .
During World War I , Zrínyi saw action in the Adriatic Sea . She served with the Second Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's battleships and shelled Senigallia as part of the bombardment of the key seaport of Ancona , Italy , during May 1915 . However , Allied control of the Strait of Otranto meant that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was , for all intents and purposes , effectively bottled up in the Adriatic . Nonetheless , the presence of the Zrínyi and other battleships tied down a substantial force of Allied ships .
With the war going against the Austrians by the end of 1918 , Zrínyi was prepared to be transferred to the new State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . On 10 November 1918 — just one day before the end of the war , navy officers sailed the battleship out of Pola ( Pula ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of American submarine chasers . Following the handover to the United States Navy , she was briefly designated USS Zrínyi . In the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , the transfer was not recognized ; instead , Zrínyi was given to Italy and broken up for scrap .
= = Design and construction = =
Zrínyi was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino dockyard in Trieste , the same place where her sister ships were built earlier . She was laid down on 15 November 1908 and launched from the slipway on 12 April 1910 . The teak used on Zrínyi 's deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary had to purchase abroad to build the ship . The ship was completed by 15 July 1911 , and on 22 November 1911 she was commissioned into the fleet . She was the last ship of the class to be completed and had a crew of 880 to 890 officers and men .
Zrínyi was 138 @.@ 8 m ( 455 ft 4 in ) long , and had a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ 741 t ) normally , and up to 15 @,@ 845 long tons ( 16 @,@ 099 t ) with a full combat load . She was powered by two @-@ shaft four @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower . The ship had a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Zrínyi was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use fuel oil to supplement her 12 Yarrow @-@ type coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) L / 44 and one 47 mm L / 33
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exemplified by those of Zapata , which were erupting throughout Mexico . Limantour , who broadly agreed with Estañol , had the support of the Mexican financiers , who feared the downgrading of Mexican international credit and a general economic crisis as a result of ongoing social unrest , as well as that of the large landowners who were willing to come to terms with Madero if it would put an end to the agrarian uprisings .
These social group were in turn opposed by the more reactionary elements within Díaz 's government , mostly concentrated in the federal army , who though that the rebels should be dealt with through brute force . This faction was represented by General Victoriano Huerta , who would later carry out an attempted coup d 'état against Madero . Likewise , the general , and potential successor to Díaz , Bernardo Reyes stated in a letter to Limantour that " the repression ( against the insurrectionists ) should be carried out with the greates energy , punishing without any pity anyone participating in the armed struggle " . In the end however , Díaz dismissed the advice from his generals as " Custer @-@ like bluster " and chose to seek peace with the moderate wing of the revolution . Limantour had finally managed to persuade him to resign .
At the same time there was also disagreement among the rebels . The " left wing " of the revolutionary movement , represented by Zapata and Orozco ( Villa for the time being tended to support Madero ) , warned against any possible compromises with Díaz . In the end their suspicions proved correct as the treaty that was eventually signed neglected issues of social and agrarian land reform that were central to their struggle .
= = The treaty 's terms = =
The most significant point of the treaty was that Porfirio Díaz , and his vice president , Ramón Corral , resign and that de la Barra , acting as interim president organize free elections as soon as possible .
Additionally , the treaty stipulated that :
An amnesty for all revolutionaries be declared , with the option for some of them to apply for membership in the rurales .
The revolutionary forces were to be demobilized as soon as possible and the federal forces were to be the only army in Mexico . This was in order to appease the army , which had opposed a compromise with Madero .
Madero and his supporters had the right to name fourteen provisional state governors , and to approve la Barra 's cabinet .
Pensions were to be established for relatives of the soldiers who had died fighting the rebels .
Policemen and judges , as well as state legislators , that had been appointed or " elected " under Díaz were to retain their offices .
= = Implementation and results = =
The treaty was signed on May 21 . Díaz resigned accordingly on May 25 . Francisco de la Barra became the interim president . Madero entered Mexico City on June 7 .
Zapata however refused to recognize the interim government of de la Barra , and for the time being the fighting in Morelos continued . Madero met with Zapata on several occasions during June . While initially Zapata trusted Madero , with time he became increasingly concerned that the goals of " his revolution " were not being fulfilled . He was particularly angry that Madero did
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of any fundamental right , and therefore that the strict scrutiny process did not need to be applied . In the absence of this process , they held that the Seventeenth Amendment did not require primary elections to fill vacancies , and more broadly gave state legislatures wide discretion as to how to hold elections ; as such , the statute did not violate the constitution . In December 1991 the Supreme Court denied a writ of certiorari , presumably because the special election had already taken place in November and the issue was thus moot .
= = Significance = =
Laura E. Little , writing in the Temple Law Review , notes the dearth of guidance for either the District Court or Court of Appeals in Trinsey , with no " explicit direction and no direct precedent " from either the constitutional provisions or prior case law to rely on . In the absence of guidance , the Court of Appeals took a narrow view of the issues , something she criticises . Under Pennsylvanian law , primaries are mandatory in all other elections , and in her opinion the lack of a primary in this case should have been judged to be a violation of Trinsey 's fundamental rights . Combined with the purpose of the Seventeenth Amendment - to ensure direct election - this should have led to the application of the strict scrutiny test , and the decision that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . Kevin M. Gold instead suggests that the test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller , an analogous decision over the validity of New York state electoral law . In Valenti , the judiciary applied the " substantial state interests " test , which involves simply looking at whether the statute in question furthers the interests of the states , who under the Seventeenth Amendment are given some discretion as to the electoral process they use .
= Michael Jordan =
Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player . He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets . Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards . His biography on the NBA website states : " By acclamation , Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . " Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s .
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina . He was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982 . Jordan joined the NBA 's Chicago Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick . He quickly emerged as a league star , entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring . His leaping ability , demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests , earned him the nicknames " Air Jordan " and " His Airness " . He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball . In 1991 , he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls , and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993 , securing a " three @-@ peat " . Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 – 94 NBA season to pursue a career in baseball , he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996 , 1997 , and 1998 , as well as a then @-@ record 72 regular @-@ season wins in the 1995 – 96 NBA season . Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999 , but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards .
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Awards , ten All @-@ NBA First Team designations , nine All @-@ Defensive First Team honors , fourteen NBA All @-@ Star Game appearances , three All @-@ Star Game MVP Awards , ten scoring titles , three steals titles , six NBA Finals MVP Awards , and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award . Among his numerous accomplishments , Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average ( 30 @.@ 12 points per game ) and highest career playoff scoring average ( 33 @.@ 45 points per game ) . In 1999 , he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN , and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century . Jordan is a two @-@ time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame , having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career , and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ( " The Dream Team " ) . He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015 .
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements . He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers , which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today . Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself . In 2006 , he became part @-@ owner and head of basketball operations for the then @-@ Charlotte Bobcats , buying a controlling interest in 2010 . In 2015 , as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises , Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history and the world 's second @-@ richest African @-@ American .
= = Early years = =
Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , the son of Deloris ( née Peoples ) , who worked in banking , and James R. Jordan , Sr. , an equipment supervisor . His family moved to Wilmington , North Carolina , when he was a toddler .
Jordan is the fourth of five children . He has two older brothers , Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan , Jr . , one older sister , Deloris , and a younger sister , Roslyn . Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army .
= = High school career = =
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington , where he anchored his athletic career by playing baseball , football , and basketball . He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year , but at 5 ' 11 " ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) , he was deemed too short to play at that level . His taller friend , Harvest Leroy Smith , was the only sophomore to make the team .
Motivated to prove his worth , Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad , and tallied several 40 @-@ point games . The following summer , he grew four inches ( 10 cm ) and trained rigorously . Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster , Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play . As a senior , he was selected to the McDonald 's All @-@ American Team after averaging a triple @-@ double : 29 @.@ 2 points , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 10 @.@ 1 assists .
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs , including Duke , North Carolina , South Carolina , Syracuse , and Virginia . In 1981 , Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina , where he majored in cultural geography .
= = College career = =
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team @-@ oriented system , he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13 @.@ 4 points per game ( ppg ) on 53 @.@ 4 % shooting ( field goal percentage ) . He made the game @-@ winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown , which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing . Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career . During his three seasons at North Carolina , he averaged 17 @.@ 7 ppg on 54 @.@ 0 % shooting , and added 5 @.@ 0 rebounds
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with an authenticity that might have otherwise been missing had she recorded these songs just a few years earlier . "
NPR 's Ken Tucker described the album as a " glossy but heartfelt work " and approvingly compared its contrasting philosophy to Nick Lowe 's Quality Street : A Seasonal Selection for All the Family , both of which he described as " will put you in a holiday mood " . Matt Casarino of PopMatters gave the album a generally favorable review , claiming that " Clarkson plays it safe and spends too much time showing off her upper register , but Wrapped in Red is a warm and romantic addition to the Christmas pop Zeitgeist , " adding " Wrapped in Red doesn ’ t need edge ; it ’ s just dynamic and varied enough to be satisfying , and it ’ s light @-@ years better than any of the whitewashed Christmas crap Simon Cowell has inflicted on the world " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe gave a favorable review , particularly lauding " Underneath the Tree " , and described Clarkson 's rendering the Christmas standards as " fairly straight " . She added , " She starts gently on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " before belting out the money notes . She ambles assuredly through the soulful favorite " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " and hangs by the piano for a torchy “ White Christmas . " Newsday 's music columnist Glenn Gamboa wrote that " Clarkson handles it all expertly — hitting remarkably high notes on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and swinging jazzily on " Baby It 's Cold Outside " with Dunn . The new songs make Wrapped in Red a real gift , as the title track and " Underneath the Tree " channel the Phil Spector Christmas albums ; and " 4 Carats " somehow blends " Stronger " and " Santa Baby " . Reviewing for HitFix , Melinda Newman gave the album an " A " rating , praising Clarkson 's vocal performances and noting that she and Kurstin " have clearly studied legendary Christmas albums of yore — most notably Spector 's A Christmas Gift For You and Andy Williams ' Merry Christmas — to lovingly recreate Christmas standards , as well as craft new ones in the image of those sets . " Chris Klimek of Slate declared Wrapped in Red as the best of 2013 's new Christmas records , noting for its vintage sound . He also observed that its five original tracks , most notably " Wrapped in Red " and " Underneath the Tree " , have reasonable odds of remaining in the yuletide rotation five years from now . In his review for The New York Times , Jon Caramanica wrote that Clarkson is very likely the only singer working in pop with a real possibility of creating a modern holiday classic along the lines of Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You . " and remarked that her takes on familiar songs , however accomplished , are " also faithful in the way that someone mindful of pop history would be . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Wrapped in Red became a commercial success in the United States . Prior it its release , music commercial analysts predicted that the album would likely sell at least 60 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the region , and foresaw it to be the front @-@ runner as the bestselling holiday release of the season . On the week ending November 16 , 2013 , it debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in all retailers , a 93 @,@ 000 decrease from Stronger 's first week sales of 163 @,@ 000 copies in 2011 . Nielsen Music analyst Dave Bakula attributed its low performance to the falling market share of the holiday music in general , which saw 3 @.@ 8 percent decrease in 2012 . The album 's chart debut on the Billboard 200 earned Clarkson her sixth consecutive top three studio album as well as the highest debut for a Christmas record by a female artist since Susan Boyle 's first Christmas album The Gift debuted at the top of the chart in 2010 . Wrapped in Red also debuted three other different charts , most notably at the top of the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart . On the week ending November 30 , 2013 , by charting at number six on the Billboard 200 , the album became the lone Sony release inside the chart 's top ten , with the others being Universal Music Group releases .
Despite its modest debut week , Wrapped in Red began to gain traction at the beginning of the holiday season , selling up to 131 @,@ 000 copies during the Thanksgiving week . It experienced its best sales week after benefiting from NBC 's premiere broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , selling up to 136 @,@ 000 copies on its seventh week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , it stayed in the top ten of the Billboard 200 , the most by any studio album by Clarkson . On December 5 , 2013 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , making it her fifth platinum studio album . Wrapped in Red subsequently became the bestselling Christmas release of 2013 by selling over 763 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making her the first American female artist to have the number @-@ one Christmas album of the Soundscan era . Twelve of the album cuts from Wrapped in Red have also entered the Billboard Holiday Digital Songs chart during its first week of release — led by " Silent Night " , " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , and " Underneath the Tree " at numbers one , two , and four , respectively . Other songs have also appeared in various Billboard charts throughout the holiday season : songs such as " Blue Christmas " and " Please Come Home for Christmas " charted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at numbers 5 and 6 , respectively ; whereas " My Favorite Things " , " Run Run Rudolph " , " Please Come Home for Christmas " , " Silent Night " and " Wrapped in Red " peaked on the Billboard Canada AC chart at numbers eight , seven , 14 , 22 , and 49 , respectively . Tracks
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such as " My Favorite Things " have charted on the Billboard Mexico Inglés Airplay chart at number 49 ; while " Silent Night " attained a position in both the Billboard Holiday 100 and the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , peaking at numbers 86 and 51 , respectively . Amazon.com listed Wrapped in Red as their second bestselling album during the holiday season , and listed it as their sixth bestselling title of 2013 . The album has sold 785 @,@ 300 copies in the US as of November 2014 . And in 2014 peaked at 7 on the holiday chart .
Internationally , Wrapped in Red had a relatively limited commercial performance . In Canada , the album debuted on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart at number 6 on the week ending November 16 , 2013 , making it her fifth top ten debut on the Nielsen @-@ tracked chart . It peaked on the chart at number 5 on the week ending December 28 , 2013 . Wrapped in Red became the second bestselling Christmas album of 2013 in Canada with 67 @,@ 000 copies sold in the region , behind A Christmas Gift to You by Johnny Reid . In Australia , the album debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number 82 on the week ending November 4 , 2013 , and peaked at number 29 on the week ending December 30 , 2013 . In Switzerland , it debuted on the Schweizer Hitparade at number 97 on the week ending November 10 , 2013 . In the United Kingdom , Wrapped in Red charted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number 65 on the week ending December 14 , 2013 . Despite its limited performance , Sony Corporation listed the album as their fifth bestselling release worldwide during the holiday season , which included albums , album cut tracks , and singles sales .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks were produced by Greg Kurstin , with vocal production on " Every Christmas " made by Jason Halbert .
Note
" Just for Now " contains a portion of the composition " Carol of the Bells " , written by Peter J. Wilhousky .
Tracks from the concert DVD were filmed from the television special Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes .
Instruments
Production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Christmas 1994 nor 'easter =
The Christmas 1994 nor 'easter was an intense cyclone along the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada . It developed from an area of low pressure in the southeast Gulf of Mexico near the Florida Keys , and moved across the state of Florida . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting traits of a tropical system , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . Because of the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone .
Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina . Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds , coastal
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Libya during World War II .
= Species of Allosaurus =
There have been a number of potential species assigned to the carnosaurian dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur .
The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania .
= = Query about type specimen = =
The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review .
= = Potentially valid species = =
It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax .
A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level .
A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis .
Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL / AND.001 , a partial skeleton including a quadrate , vertebrae , ribs , gastralia , chevrons , part of the hips , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near Lourinhã , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described .
Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as Saurophagus , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans .
= = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = =
The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature .
David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff ( Wyoming ) or Brigham Young University 's Dry Mesa Quarry ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple
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789 and 806 , including the defeat of Pomoy in 789 , and the capture of the ruler Ucha 'an Aj Chih , who appears to have been the vassal of B 'olon K 'awiil of Calakmul . In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b 'olon b 'aak , " He of Many Captives " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the Lacandon region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná .
By the time of Ruler 8 's successor , Uh Chapat , Toniná was clearly in decline . Only a single event , in 837 , can be dated to his reign , although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule .
The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived . Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more .
= = = Modern history = = =
The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century . A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century , the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808 . John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840 , and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site . Eduard Seler and Caecilie Seler @-@ Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná , publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century . Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896 . Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University , publishing their reports in 1926 — 1927 .
The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975 , then resumed in 1979 to 1980 , under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez . The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico ( INAH , the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia ) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year .
The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 .
= = Site description = =
The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the acropolis , which occupies seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures .
Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work .
After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces .
= = = Structures = = =
Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque . Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of Annay Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán .
Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza , at the foot of the Acropolis .
The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step @-@ vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis .
The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones .
= = = Monuments and sculptures = = =
The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those
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at other Maya sites , with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues , often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine . On the fifth terrace , in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of Toniná 's rulers dominated two @-@ dimensional representations of defeated enemies .
The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909 , covering most of the Classic Period .
Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch 'aaj Naah .
Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná . It is a badly eroded life @-@ size human statue with the head missing .
Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 728 . It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez .
Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation of three war captives .
Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It dates to AD 672 .
Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K 'awiil Mo ' , a lord from Palenque , as an elderly prisoner , bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be trodden on time and again .
Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive , which is rare in Maya art .
Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it marks the K 'atun ending of AD 909 .
Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depicts Ruler 1 .
Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual .
Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorates the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor Tuun Chapat .
Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II , who is depicted as a bound captive .
Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak .
Monument 154 dates to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in 633 .
Monument 158 has a very late date , in AD 904 , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 .
The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing turtleshells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico .
= = = The site museum = = =
The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explains the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relates to Maya mythology , while the main room contains sculptures of the city 's rulers .
Artefacts in the collection include stone sculptures , ceramics and artefacts sculpted from bone , shell , obsidian and flint . The pieces in the museum graphically depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná , on the one hand with sculptures of the city 's rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war .
= Central Area Command ( RAAF ) =
Central Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and covered the central portion of New South Wales . Headquartered at Sydney , Central Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . It was disbanded in August 1941 and control of its units taken over by other RAAF formations . Proposals in 1943 – 44 to raise a new Central Area Command did not come to fruition .
= = History = =
Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and
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units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .
No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern Riverina and the north of the state . Units in Queensland were also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan Charlesworth .
In May 1940 it was reported that the area 's headquarters building would change from " Mont Loana " in Point Piper to the mansion " Kilmory " nearby . Cole handed over command of Central Area to Air Commodore Bill Anderson in December 1940 . By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney , taking responsibility for the training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded . Control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Northern and Southern Area Commands .
= = Aftermath = =
The RAAF 's area command structure was revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War : Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command covering New South Wales and southern Queensland , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . In October 1943 , the Air Board proposed carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for subdivision . This Central Area Command would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland . The War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time the new Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland . Once again , nothing came of the proposal .
= Corn crake =
The corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and migrates to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with buff- or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and downy chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which shares its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ plumaged , and has a plainer face .
The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly hayfields , and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases .
Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia , which has sometimes been given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . Porzana crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( Porzana albicollis ) are near relatives of the Crex genus .
Corn crakes were first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Rallus crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 , and named Crex pratensis . The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein 's specific name pratensis , and leads to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " κρεξ " , is onomatopoeic , referring to the crake
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Chomsky played an important role in tailoring the passion bequeathed to him by his mother to the necessity of maintaining intellectual rigor .
Finkelstein completed his undergraduate studies at Binghamton University in New York in 1974 , after which he studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris . A deep admirer of Paul Sweezy , he was an ardent Maoist and was devastated by the news of the trial of the Gang of Four , an event which " totally devastated " him , and led him to abandon Marxism – Leninism .
Finkelstein received his Master 's degree in political science in 1980 , and later his PhD in political studies , from Princeton . His doctoral thesis was on Zionism . Before gaining academic employment , Finkelstein was a part @-@ time social worker with teenage dropouts in New York . He then taught successively at Rutgers University , New York University , Brooklyn College , and Hunter College and at DePaul University in Chicago . During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit Sahour .
According to The New York Times , Finkelstein left Hunter College in 2001 , " after his teaching load and salary were reduced " by the college administration . In his own recollection , he enjoyed teaching at Hunter ( 1992 – 2000 ) and was ' unceremoniously kicked out of ' the school after begging them to keep him on with just two courses a semester ( $ 12 @,@ 000 a year ) . Hunter set conditions that would have required him to spend four days a week , which he thought unacceptable .
Beginning with his doctoral thesis at Princeton , Finkelstein 's career has been marked by controversy . A self @-@ described " forensic scholar " , he has written sharply critical academic reviews of several prominent writers and scholars whom he accuses of misrepresenting the documentary record in order to defend Israel 's policies and practices . His writings have dealt with politically charged topics such as Zionism , the demographic history of Palestine and his allegations of the existence of a " Holocaust Industry " that exploits the memory of the Holocaust to further Israeli and financial interests .
Citing linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky as an example , Finkelstein notes that it is " possible to unite exacting scholarly rigor with scathing moral outrage , " and supporters and detractors alike have remarked on the polemical style of Finkelstein 's work . Its content has been praised by eminent historians such as Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim , as well as Chomsky .
Finkelstein has described himself as " an old @-@ fashioned communist , " in the sense that he " see [ s ] no value whatsoever in states . "
= = Academic career = =
= = = On From Time Immemorial = = =
In Finkelstein 's doctoral thesis , he examined the claims made in Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial , a best @-@ selling book at the time . Peters 's " history and defense " of Israel deals with the demographic history of Palestine . Demographic studies had tended to assert that the Arab population of Ottoman @-@ controlled Palestine , a 94 % majority at the turn of the century , had dwindled towards parity due to massive Zionist immigration . Peters radically challenged this picture by arguing that a substantial part of the Palestinian people were descended from immigrants from other Arab countries from the early 19th century onwards . It followed , for Peters and many of her readers , that the picture of a native Palestinian population overwhelmed by Jewish immigration was little more than propaganda , and that in actuality two almost simultaneous waves of immigration met in what had been a relatively unpopulated land .
From Time Immemorial had been praised by figures as varied as Barbara Tuchman , Theodore H. White , Elie Wiesel , and Lucy Dawidowicz . Saul Bellow , for one , wrote in a jacket endorsement that :
" Millions of people the world over , smothered by false history and propaganda , will be grateful for this clear account of the origins of the Palestinians . "
Finkelstein asserted that the book was a " monumental hoax " . He later opined that , while Peters 's book received widespread interest and approval in the United States , a scholarly demonstration of its fraudulence and unreliability aroused little attention :
" By the end of 1984 , From Time Immemorial had ... received some two hundred [ favorable ] notices ... in the United States . The only ' false ' notes in this crescendoing chorus of praise were the Journal of Palestine Studies , which ran a highly critical review by Bill Farrell ; the small Chicago @-@ based newsweekly In These Times , which published a condensed version of this writer 's findings ; and Alexander Cockburn , who devoted a series of columns in The Nation exposing the hoax . ... The periodicals in which From Time Immemorial had already been favorably
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091 @-@ 887 @-@ 4 . Chapter Two , Part One :
" Peace process or peace panic ? - The scourge of Palestinian moderation " , Middle East Report , 19 ( 1989 ) 3 / 158 , pp. 25 – 26 @,@ 28 @-@ 30 @,@ 42
" Zionist orientations " , Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives 9 ( March 1990 ) 1 @.@ p . 41 @-@ 69
" Bayt Sahur in year II of the intifada . - A personal account " , Journal of Palestine Studies 19 ( Winter 1990 ) 2 / 74 , pp. 62 – 74
" Israel and Iraq . - A double standard " , Journal of Palestine Studies 20 ( 1991 ) 2 / 78 @.@ pp. 43 – 56
" Reflections on Palestinian attitudes during the Gulf war " , Journal of Palestine Studies , 21 ( 1992 ) 3 / 83 , pp. 54 – 70
" Réflexions sur la responsabilité de l ´ État et du citoyen dans le conflit arabo @-@ israélien " ( Reflections on the responsibility of state and citizen in the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict ) , in L ' homme et la société , L 'Harmattan 1994 , 114 , S. 37 @-@ 50
" Whither the `peace process ' ? " , New Left Review , ( 1996 ) 218 , p . 138
" Securing occupation : The real meaning of the Wye River Memorandum " , New Left Review , ( 1998 ) 232 , pp. 128 – 39
Contributor to The Politics of Anti @-@ Semitism . Ed . Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair . AK Press , 2001 ; ISBN 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 77 @-@ 4 .
" Lessons of Holocaust compensation " , in Palestinian Refugees : The Right of Return . Ed . Naseer Aruri . Pluto Press , 2001 , S. 272 @-@ 275 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 7453 @-@ 1776 @-@ 6 .
" Abba Eban with Footnotes " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol 32 . ( 2003 ) , pp. 74 – 89
" Prospects for Ending the Occupation " , Antipode , 35 ( 2003 ) 5 , pp. 839 – 45
Contributor to Radicals , Rabbis and Peacemakers : Conversations with Jewish Critics of Israel , by Seth Farber . Common Courage Press , 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 326 @-@ 3 .
" The Camp David II negotiations . - how Dennis Ross proved the Palestinians aborted the peace process " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol . 36 ( 2007 ) , pp. 39 – 53
" Dennis Ross and the peace process : subordinating Palestinian rights to Israeli ' needs ' " , Institute for Palestine Studies , 2007 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88728 @-@ 308 @-@ X
= = Others on Finkelstein and his works = =
= = = Academic reviews of books by Finkelstein = = =
Massad , Joseph . " Deconstructing Holocaust Consciousness " , Review Essay , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 32 , No. 1 . ( Autumn , 2002 ) , pp. 78 – 89 .
Cole , Tim . " Representing the Holocaust in America : Mixed Motives or Abuse ? " , The Public Historian , Vol . 24 , No. 4 . ( Fall , 2002 ) , pp. 127 – 31
Hooglund , Eric . Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 33 , No. 3 , Special Issue in Honor of Edward W. Said . ( Spring , 2004 ) , pp. 123 – 124 .
Pelham , Nicolas . Reviewed Work : Image and Reality in the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , International Affairs , Vol . 72 , No. 3 , Ethnicity and International Relations . ( July 1996 ) , pp. 627 – 28 .
Pappe , Ilan . " Valuable New Perspectives , " Reviewed Work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 26 , No. 4 . ( Summer , 1997 ) , pp. 113 – 15 .
Beinin , Joel . " The Palestinian @-@ Israeli Conflict after Oslo " , Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman G. Finkelstein . Middle East Report , No. 201 , Israel and Palestine : Two States , Bantustans or Binationalism ? . ( Oct @-@ Dec 1996 ) , pp. 45 – 47 .
= = = Reviews of books by Finkelstein = = =
Blokker , Bas ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , NRC Handelsblad , February 24 , 2006 .
Pappe , Ilan ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , BOOKFORUM ( February / March 2006 )
De Zayas , Alfred . Review of Beyond Chutzpah in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung ( February 3 , 2006 )
Merkley , Paul Charles . These Pigs on the Face of the Earth : Israel 's most relentless critic ( review of Beyond Chutzpah , in Christianity Today ( January / February 2006 )
Marqusee , Mike . " Israel , fraud and chutzpah " ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ; January 2006 )
Prashad , Vijay . Z magazine reviews Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah . Z Magazine November 2005 Volume 18 , Number 11
Gordon , Neve . Neve Gordon : Review of Norman Finkelstein 's , Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History , by Norman G. Finkelstein . History News Network , October 12 , 2005
Bogdanor , Paul . The Finkelstein Phenomenon ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , Judaism ( Fall 2002 )
Abse , Tobias . Finkelstein 's Follies : The Dangers of Vulgar Anti @-@ Zionism ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , whatnextjournal.co.uk ; accessed November 1 , 2015
Bartov , Omer . " A Tale of Two Holocausts " ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , New York Times Book Review , August 6 , 2000
= = = Profiles of Finkelstein = = =
Garner , Mandy . " The Good Jewish Boys Go into Battle . " Times Higher Education Supplement 16 December 2005 .
Naparstek , Ben . " His Own Worst Enemy . " The Jerusalem Post 12 December 2005 .
Rayner , Jay . " Finkelstein 's List . " The Observer 16 July 2000 .
Sheleg , Yair . " The Finkelstein Polemic . " Ha 'aretz 30 March 2001 .
= = = Critics of Finkelstein and replies = = =
Daniel Goldhagen , The New Discourse of Avoidance at the Wayback Machine ( archived December 4 , 2002 )
Norman Finkelstein , Response to Goldhagen
William Rubinstein et al . , Uses of Holocaust , letters to the London Review of Books
David Friedman , Anti @-@ Defamation League letter at the Wayback Machine , calling Finkelstein a " Holocaust denier "
The Washington Post Publishes a Retraction : Marc Fisher , a Washington Post columnist , publishes a retraction of his charge of " Holocaust revisionism " , archive.org ; accessed November 1 , 2015 .
= = = Video = = =
Norman Finkelstein at the Internet Movie Database
Eight Interviews with Finkelstein ( two sets of four ) , December 2014 and January 2015 , and Three More Interviews with Finkelstein , May 2015 , The Real News
American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein - broadcast of the documentary in two parts
Resolving the Israel @-
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@ Palestine Conflict : University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Jan 21 , 2009 .
Interview broadcast on Lebanese TV January 20 , 2008
VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - Israel and Palestine : Roots of Conflict , Prospects for Peace , presentation in Seattle , Washington , May 8 , 2008 .
VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - The Coming Breakup of American Zionism , presentation in Olympia , Washington , May 8 , 2008 .
VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein at Brown University on YouTube , April 15 , 2008
Doha Debate at the Oxford Union Video of debate on whether the " pro @-@ Israeli lobby has successfully stifled Western debate about Israel 's actions " with Andrew Cockburn , Martin Indyk , and David Aaronovitch , May 1 , 2007
Debate with Shlomo Ben @-@ Ami on Democracy Now ! , February 14 , 2006
Finkelstein Responds to Clinton , Netanyahu AIPAC Comments March 23 , 2010
Israel vs Palestine - featuring Norman Finkelstein ( April 2014 ) , Juice Rap News
= Mutinus elegans =
Mutinus elegans , commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn , the dog stinkhorn , the headless stinkhorn , or the devil 's dipstick , is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae family . A saprobic species , it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter , during summer and autumn in Japan , Europe , and eastern North America . The fruit body begins its development in an " egg " form , resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground . As the fungus matures , a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip . The stalk is covered with a foul @-@ smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length . Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores , assisting in their dispersal . Due to their repellent odor , mature specimens are not generally considered edible , although there are reports of the immature " eggs " being consumed . In the laboratory , Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
Mutinus elegans was first described by British missionary John Banister in 1679 who chronicled the natural history of Virginia ; this early report is thought to be the first account of a fungus in North America . It was first characterized scientifically by French scientist Jean Pierre François Camille Montagne in 1856 , who called it Corynites elegans . The genus name Mutinus refers to a phallic deity , Mutinus Mutunus , one of the Roman di indigetes placated by Roman brides . The species is commonly known variously as the " elegant stinkhorn " , the " headless stinkhorn " , the " dog stinkhorn " , or the " devil 's dipstick " . The specific epithet elegans is derived from the Latin word meaning " graceful " or " elegant " .
= = Description = =
The young fruiting bodies are initially white and spherical or egg @-@ shaped , partially submerged in the ground , with dimensions of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) . As the fruit body matures , the egg ruptures and the spongy spore @-@ bearing stalk emerges ; fully grown , it may be from 1 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The stalk is hollow and strongly wrinkled overall ; its shape is cylindrical below , but it gradually t
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the show 's early success to the character . However , some of her storylines have been criticized , specifically her romantic relationship with her friend Joey during season ten . Rachel 's popularity established her as the show 's breakout character , who has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all @-@ time , while the character 's second season haircut spawned an international phenomenon of its own . Named the " Rachel " after her , the character 's shag continues to be imitated by millions of women around the world and remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , in spite of Aniston 's own resentment towards it . Rachel is also regarded as a style icon due to her influence on womenswear during the 1990s . Meanwhile , the character 's relationship with Ross is often cited among television 's most beloved .
Rachel is considered to be Aniston 's breakout role , credited with making her the show 's most famous cast member and for spawning her successful film career . Praised for her performance as Rachel , Aniston won both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical .
= = Role = =
Rachel debuts in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber ( Mitchell Whitfield ) at the altar . She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller ( Courteney Cox ) , the only person she knows in New York City , who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life . Rachel meets and befriends Monica ’ s friends Phoebe Buffay ( Lisa Kudrow ) , Joey Tribbiani ( Matt LeBlanc ) , and Chandler Bing ( Matthew Perry ) , while reuniting with Monica 's older brother Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) , who has harbored unrequited romantic feelings for her since high school . Having previously relied on her parents ' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy , Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by waitressing at Central Perk , a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly socialize .
As season one concludes , Rachel finally confesses her love for Ross , having learned of his feelings for her from Chandler , only to find that he has already begun dating another woman , whom she resents . However , Ross eventually chooses Rachel over his girlfriend Julie ( Lauren Tom ) , and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season . However , their relationship rapidly begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season after Rachel quits her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion . While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job , Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her coworker Mark ( Steven Eckholdt ) , ultimately culminating in their break up on their one @-@ year anniversary following a series of heated arguments and disagreements .
In the episodes following the break up , Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other . The exes continue to harbor feelings for each other . During a beach house vacation with their friends , Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie ( Christine Taylor ) , only to break up once again due to a disagreement . During season four , Rachel dates her customer Joshua ( Tate Donovan ) , while Ross dates her boss ' niece Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) , to whom he eventually gets engaged . Competitively , Rachel proposes to recent divorcee Joshua , frightening him off . Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily 's relationship when he accidentally utters Rachel 's name while exchanging their wedding vows . Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily , choosing his friendship with Rachel instead .
At the end of season five , Ross and Rachel drunkenly get married while vacationing with their friends in Las Vegas . In season six , their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross , forcing the two to file for a divorce instead . In season seven , Ross and Rachel unwittingly conceive a child when their birth control fails . Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight , naming the baby Emma Geller @-@ Green ; the name Emma is a gift from Monica , who had previously been reserving the name for her own child . Rachel and Ross live together as non @-@ romantic roommates during the first half of season nine .
Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France , but has second thoughts when Ross eventually forfeits stubbornness and says " I love you " . Rachel ultimately decides to stay and reignite her relationship with Ross , getting off the plane at the last minute .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
After their short @-@ lived television series Family Album was canceled , television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then @-@ NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about " that special time in your life when your friends are your family , " basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York ; the main characters themselves were inspired by their
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a difference . "
= = = Characterisation = = =
Though Wilde deployed characters that were by now familiar — the dandy lord , the overbearing matriarch , the woman with a past , the puritan young lady — his treatment is subtler than in his earlier comedies . Lady Bracknell , for instance , embodies respectable , upper @-@ class society , but Eltis notes how her development " from the familiar overbearing duchess into a quirkier and more disturbing character " can be traced through Wilde 's revisions of the play . For the two young men , Wilde presents not stereotypical stage " dudes " but intelligent beings who , as Jackson puts it , " speak like their creator in well @-@ formed complete sentences and rarely use slang or vogue @-@ words " . Dr Chasuble and Miss Prism are characterised by a few light touches of detail , their old @-@ fashioned enthusiasms , and the Canon 's fastidious pedantry , pared down by Wilde during his many redrafts of the text .
= = = Structure and genre = = =
Ransome argues that Wilde freed himself by abandoning the melodrama , the basic structure which underlies his earlier social comedies , and basing the story entirely on the Earnest / Ernest verbal conceit . Now freed from " living up to any drama more serious than conversation " Wilde could now amuse himself to a fuller extent with quips , bons @-@ mots , epigrams and repartee that really had little to do with the business at hand .
The genre of the Importance of Being Earnest has been deeply debated by scholars and critics alike who have placed the play within a wide variety of genres ranging from parody to satire . In his critique of Wilde , Foster argues that the play creates a world where “ real values are inverted [ and ] , reason and unreason are interchanged " . Similarly , Wilde 's use of dialogue mocks the upper classes of Victorian England lending the play a satirical tone . Reinhart further stipulates that the use of farcical humour to mock the upper classes " merits the play both as satire and as drama " .
= = Publication = =
= = = First edition = = =
Wilde 's two final comedies , An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest , were still on stage in London at the time of his prosecution , and they were soon closed as the details of his case became public . After two years in prison with hard labour , Wilde went into exile in Paris , sick and depressed , his reputation destroyed in England . In 1898 , when no @-@ one else would , Leonard Smithers agreed with Wilde to publish the two final plays . Wilde proved to be a diligent reviser , sending detailed instructions on stage directions , character listings and the presentation of the book , and insisting that a playbill from the first performance be reproduced inside . Ellmann argues that the proofs show a man " very much in command of himself and of the play " . Wilde 's name did not appear on the cover , it was " By the Author of Lady Windermere 's Fan " . His return to work was brief though , as he refused to write anything else , " I can write , but have lost the joy of writing " .
On 19 October 2007 , a first edition ( number 349 of 1 @,@ 000 ) was discovered inside a handbag in an Oxfam shop in Nantwich , Cheshire . Staff were unable to trace the donor . It was sold for £ 650 .
= = = In translation = = =
The Importance of Being Earnest 's popularity has meant it has been translated into many languages , though the homophonous pun in the title ( " Ernest " , a masculine proper name , and " earnest " , the virtue of steadfastness and seriousness ) poses a special problem for translators . The easiest case of a suitable translation of the pun , perpetuating its sense and meaning , may have been its translation into German . Since English and German are closely related languages , German provides an equivalent adjective ( " ernst " ) and also a matching masculine proper name ( " Ernst " ) . The meaning and tenor of the wordplay are exactly the same . Yet there are many different possible titles in German , mostly concerning sentence structure . The two most common ones are " Bunbury oder ernst / Ernst sein ist alles " and " Bunbury oder wie wichtig es ist , ernst / Ernst zu sein " . In a study of Italian translations , Adrian Pablé found thirteen different versions using eight titles . Since wordplay is often unique to the language in question , translators are faced with a choice of either staying faithful to the original — in this case the English adjective and virtue earnest — or creating a similar pun in their own language .
Four main strategies have been used by translators . The first leaves all characters ' names unchanged and in their original spelling : thus the name is respected and readers reminded of the original cultural setting , but the liveliness of the pun is lost . Eva Malagoli varied this source @-@ oriented approach by using both the English Christian names and the adjective earnest , thus preserving the pun and the English character of the play , but possibly straining an Italian reader . A third group of translators replaced Ernest with a name that also represents a virtue in the target language , favouring transparency for readers in translation over fidelity to the original . For instance , in Italian , these versions variously call the play L 'importanza di essere Franco / Severo / Fedele , the given names being respectively the values of honesty , propriety , and loyalty . French offers a closer pun : " Constant " is both a first name and the quality of steadfastness , so the play is commonly known as De l 'importance d 'être Constant , though Jean Anouilh translated the play under the title : Il est important d 'être Aimé ( " Aimé " is a name which also means " beloved " ) . These translators differ in their attitude to the original English honorific titles , some change them all , or none , but most leave a mix partially as a compensation for the added loss of Englishness . Lastly , one translation gave the name an Italianate touch by rendering it as Ernesto ; this work liberally mixed proper nouns from both languages .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
Apart from multiple " made @-@ for @-@ television " versions , The Importance of Being Earnest has been adapted for the English @-@ language cinema at least three times , first in 1952 by Anthony Asquith who adapted the screenplay and directed it . Michael Denison ( Algernon ) , Michael Redgrave ( Jack ) , Edith Evans ( Lady Bracknell ) , Dorothy Tutin ( Cecily ) , Joan Greenwood ( Gwendolen ) , and Margaret Rutherford ( Miss Prism ) and Miles Malleson ( Canon Chasuble ) were among the cast . In 1992 Kurt Baker directed a version using an all @-@ black cast with Daryl Keith Roach as Jack , Wren T. Brown as Algernon , Ann Weldon as Lady Bracknell , Lanei Chapman as Cecily , Chris Calloway as Gwendolen , CCH Pounder as Miss Prism , and Brock Peters as Doctor Chasuble , set in the United States . Oliver Parker , an English director who had previously adapted An Ideal Husband by Wilde , made the 2002 film ; it stars Colin Firth ( Jack ) , Rupert Everett ( Algy ) , Judi Dench ( Lady Bracknell ) , Reese Witherspoon ( Cecily ) , Frances O 'Connor ( Gwendolen ) , Anna Massey ( Miss Prism ) , and Tom Wilkinson ( Canon Chasuble ) . Parker 's adaptation includes the dunning solicitor Mr. Gribsby who pursues Jack to Hertfordshire ( present in Wilde 's original draft , but cut at the behest of the play 's first producer ) . Algernon too is pursued by a group of creditors in the opening scene .
= = = Operas and musicals = = =
In 1960 , Ernest in Love was staged Off @-@ Broadway . The Japanese all @-@ female musical theatre troupe Takarazuka Revue staged this musical in 2005 in two productions , one by Moon Troupe and the other one by Flower Troupe .
In 1963 , Erik Chisholm composed an opera from the play , using Wilde 's text as the libretto .
In 1964 , Gerd Natschinski composed the musical Mein Freund Bunbury based on the play , 1964 premiered at Metropol Theater Berlin .
According to a study by Robert Tanitch , by 2002 there had been least eight adaptations of the play as a musical , though
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was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567 @-@ 8 with the title Jack and Jill and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare : in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which contains the line : " Jack shall have Jill ; Nought shall go ill " ( III : ii : 460 @-@ 2 ) and in Love 's Labour 's Lost , which has the lines : " Our wooing doth not end like an old play ; Jack hath not Jill " ( V : ii : 874 – 5 ) , suggesting that it was a phrase that indicated a romantically attached couple , as in the proverb " A good Jack makes a good Jill " .
Jack is the most common name used in English language nursery rhymes and by the 18th century represented an archetypal Everyman hero , while by the end of the Middle Ages Jill or Gill had come to mean a young girl or a sweetheart . However , the woodcut that accompanied the first recorded version of the rhyme showed two boys ( not a boy and a girl ) , and used the spelling Gill not Jill . This earliest printed version comes from a reprint of John Newbery 's Mother Goose 's Melody , thought to have been first published in London around 1765 . The rhyming of " water " with " after " , was taken by Iona and Peter Opie to suggest that the first verse may date from the first half of the 17th century .
= = Interpretation = =
While the true origins of the rhyme are unknown there are several theories . As is common with nursery rhyme exegesis , complicated metaphors are often said to exist within the lyrics of Jack and Jill . Most explanations post @-@ date the first publication of the rhyme and have no corroborating evidence . These include the suggestion by S. Baring @-@ Gould in the 19th century that the events were a version of the story told in the 13th @-@ century Prose Edda Gylfaginning written by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson , who stated that in Norse mythology , Hjúki and Bil , brother and sister ( respectively ) , were taken up from the earth by the moon ( personified as the god Máni ) as they were fetching water from the well called Byrgir , bearing on their shoulders the cask called Saegr and the pole called Simul . Around 1835 John Bellenden Ker suggested that Jack and Jill were two priests , and this was enlarged by Katherine Elwes in 1930 to indicate that Jack represented Cardinal Wolsey ( c.1471 – 1530 ) ; and Jill was Bishop Tarbes , who negotiated the marriage of Mary Tudor to the French king in 1514 .
It has also been suggested that the rhyme records the attempt by King Charles I to reform the taxes on liquid measures . He was blocked by Parliament , so subsequently ordered that the volume of a Jack ( 1 / 2 pint ) be reduced , but the tax remained the same . This meant that he still received more tax , despite Parliament 's veto . Hence " Jack fell down and broke his crown " ( many pint glasses in the UK still have a line marking the 1 / 2 pint level with a crown above it ) " and Jill came tumbling after " .
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The reference to " Jill " ( actually a " gill " , or 1 / 4 pint ) is said to reflect that the gill dropped in volume as a consequence .
The suggestion has also been made that Jack and Jill represent Louis XVI of France , who was deposed and beheaded in 1793 ( lost his crown ) , and his Queen , Marie Antoinette ( who came tumbling after ) , a theory made difficult by the fact that the earliest printing of the rhyme pre @-@ dates those events . There is also a local belief that the rhyme records events in the village of Kilmersdon in Somerset in 1697 . When a local spinster became pregnant , the putative father is said to have died from a rock fall and the woman died in childbirth soon after .
= Florida State Road 878 =
State Road 878 ( SR 878 ) , named the Snapper Creek Expressway or the Snapper Creek Tollway for its entire length , is a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) east – west electronic toll road south of Miami , Florida . The expressway is named for the nearby Snapper Creek which runs parallel to SR 878 . It acts as a spur route of the Don Shula Expressway ( SR 874 ) , providing access to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) near South Miami and local access to the eastern Kendall area while bypassing the Dadeland district . The road is maintained and tolled by the Miami @-@ Dade Expressway Authority ( MDX ) .
= = Route description = =
SR 878 's western terminus is integrated into the Don Shula Expressway 's interchange with Kendall Drive ( SR 94 ) across the boundary of the Kendall and Sunset districts . Motorists entering the Don Shula Expressway northbound from Kendall Drive are given the option of continuing onto SR 874 via a flyover , or else merging into the traffic leaving SR 874 for the Snapper Creek Expressway , which then heads under the Kendall Drive – Don Shula Expressway flyover . The westbound lanes of SR 878 , however , pass over SR 874 's mainline , and are then given an exclusive carriageway beside the southbound lanes for 0 @.@ 46 miles ( 0 @.@ 74 km ) , before merging into SR 874 just north of the
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Kendall Drive overpass . Southbound motorists from the Don Shula Expressway wishing to exit to Kendall Drive merge into this carriageway before leaving for SR 94 with those vehicles originating from the Snapper Creek Expressway . There is no direct connection for southbound motorists on SR 874 to head east on SR 878 ; likewise , westbound motorists on SR 878 cannot head north along SR 874 directly .
From here , SR 878 heads predominantly eastwards as a four @-@ lane @-@ wide expressway through residential neighborhoods for the remainder of its length , generally lying 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) north of Kendall Drive . After approximately 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) , the Snapper Creek Expressway passes through the 87th Avenue toll gantry . It then meets Galloway Road ( SR 973 ) shortly afterwards with a diamond interchange . The expressway then enters Glenvar Heights once it crosses SR 973 and remains in that district for the rest of its duration . Just before passing over the Palmetto Expressway ( SR 826 ) without an interchange ( approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Galloway Road ) , SR 878 meets its second and final toll gantry .
About 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) east of the Palmetto Expressway , SR 878 has a partial diamond interchange with Southwest 72nd Avenue , which only allows westbound entry to and eastbound exit from the Snapper Creek Expressway . Immediately afterwards , SR 878 turns to the southeast and prepares to meet its eastern terminus at the South Dixie Highway ( US 1 ) at a surface intersection 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) later , passing under the Metrorail line and associated MetroPath just before doing so . Traffic heading south along US 1 from eastbound SR 878 moves into a slip lane , while that wishing to head north along US 1 enters it at an oblique angle , aided by traffic signals . The only access onto SR 878 westbound from US 1 is for southbound traffic ; motorists heading north along US 1 are guided to SR 878 by signage along Southwest 67th Avenue and Southwest 80th Street .
= = Tolls = =
SR 878 's tolls are entirely electronic : cash cannot be accepted along its length . Payment is done either via SunPass transponders or via toll @-@ by @-@ plate billing , the latter of which attracts a higher cost . Two toll gantries are located along the Snapper Creek Expressway , the first between the Don Shula Expressway and Galloway Road , and the second between Galloway Road and Southwest 72nd Avenue . The relationship between the tolling points and interchanges along SR 878 and SR 874 is that all motorists are charged at least one toll for using the road ; there are no " free sections " . As of July 1 , 2013 , the cost for a two @-@ axle vehicle to travel the entire length of the Snapper Creek Expressway is $ 0 @.@ 50 with a SunPass transponder , or $ 1 @.@ 00 via the toll @-@ by @-@ plate program . Each additional axle on a vehicle attracts an extra $ 0 @.@ 25 via SunPass or $ 0 @.@ 50 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate for each toll gantry passed .
= = History = =
Planning by Dade County for a road named the " Snapper Creek Expressway " was underway as early as 1958 , with a final completion date set as late as 1975 . Funding for SR 878 's construction was made available in 1971 by the Florida Department of
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sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December without event . Marlborough and the rest of the fleet conducted gunnery drills during 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet but the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day .
On 7 – 10 March 1915 , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it undertook training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place during 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place during 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April . The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea during 17 – 19 May without encountering German vessels . Another patrol followed during 29 – 31 May ; it too was uneventful . The fleet conducted gunnery training in mid @-@ June . During 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises .
On 13 October , the majority of the fleet conducted a sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on 15 October . During 2 – 5 November , Marlborough participated in a fleet training operation west of the Orkneys . Another such cruise took place during 1 – 4 December . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January 1916 . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow , to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern .
On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans , while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled , before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the Germans had withdrawn . During 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet with 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers and 31 torpedo boats commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet of 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . On the day of the battle , Marlborough was stationed toward the rear of the British line in the 6th Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .
The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . Fifteen minutes later , Jellicoe gave the order to turn and deploy the fleet for action . The transition from their cruising formation caused congestion with the rear divisions , forcing Marlborough and many of the other ships to reduce speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) to avoid colliding with each other . The British ships initially had poor visibility and Marlborough could only faintly make out a group of German Kaiser @-@ class battleships at 18 : 17 . In the span of four minutes , she fired seven salvos , first at 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and then at 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Marlborough 's gunners claimed to have made hits with the 5th and 7th salvos but these claims are unlikely . Her guns were then masked by a burning cruiser , probably the armoured cruiser HMS Warrior .
Marlborough joined the group of battleships battering the German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden at 18 : 25 . She fired five salvos , before a premature detonation in the right barrel of " A " turret disabled the gun . She also engaged the ship with her secondary battery . At 18 : 39 , Marlborough again engaged what appeared to be a Kaiser @-@ class ship , firing a salvo before the German vessel disappeared into the haze . During the engagement with Wiesbaden , the German cruiser launched one or two torpedoes at around 18 : 45 , one of which struck Marlborough around the starboard diesel generator room . The detonation tore a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) hole in the hull and causing significant flooding , that forced the forward boilers on that side of the ship to be extinguished and reduced the ship 's speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Burney initially reported to Jellicoe that his ship had struck a mine or had been hit by a torpedo at 18 : 57 . Several more torpedoes , this time from the torpedo boat SMS V48 , forced Marlborough and the rest of the ships in her division to take evasive action .
At 19 : 03 , Marlborough engaged Wiesbaden again , firing four salvos at ranges of 9 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 700 to 9 @,@ 000 m ) . She hit the German cruiser with probably three shells from the last two salvos and these finally neutralised the ship , although it took several more hours before Wiesbaden sank . Marlborough then shifted fire to the König @-@ class battleships leading the German line at 19 : 12 . She fired thirteen salvos in the span of six minutes at SMS Grosser Kurfürst at ranges of 10 @,@ 200 to 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 330 to 9 @,@ 830 m ) , scoring three hits , though she incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . During this phase of the battle , Marlborough fired two torpedoes , both of which missed their targets : the first at Wiesbaden at 19 : 10 and the second at SMS Kaiser at 19 : 25 .
By about 19 : 30 , Marlborough 's pumps had contained the flooding in the boiler rooms but she took on a list of around 7 – 8 degrees . Instead of using counter @-@ flooding to minimise the list , her crew attempted to correct the list by using coal and oil from the starboard bunkers first . The list caused the generators supplying power to the main battery turrets to flood , hampering the gun crews , particularly as shells were transferred from the magazines to the turrets . The blast from the torpedo was so powerful that forty watertight compartments were damaged , though the torpedo bulkhead localised most of the damage and the more badly damaged compartments were sufficiently shored up . Three more torpedoes approached Marlborough at 19 : 33 . She evaded the first two and the third harmlessly passed under the ship .
After the opposing fleets disengaged late in the day , the Grand Fleet steamed south in an attempt to cut off the retreating Germans and destroy them the following morning . The 6th Division was slowed down by Marlborough , which could make no more than 15 @.@ 75 kn ( 29 @.@ 17 km / h ; 18 @.@ 12 mph ) by this point . By around 02 : 00 on 1 June , the 6th Division was about 12 nmi (
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qualification . Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 but lost 1 – 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium . Again Villa 's league position continued to fluctuate under several different managers and things came to a head in the summer of 2006 when David O 'Leary left in acrimony . After 23 years as chairman and single biggest shareholder ( approximately 38 % ) , Doug Ellis finally decided to sell his stake in Aston Villa due to ill @-@ health . After much speculation it was announced the club was to be bought by American businessman Randy Lerner , owner of NFL franchise the Cleveland Browns .
The arrival of a new owner in Lerner and of manager Martin O 'Neill marked the start of a new period of optimism at Villa Park and sweeping changes occurred throughout the club including a new badge , a new kit sponsor and team changes in the summer of 2007 . The first Cup final of the Lerner era came in 2010 when Villa were beaten 2 – 1 in the League Cup Final . Villa made a second trip to Wembley in that season losing 3 – 0 to Chelsea in the FA Cup semifinal . Just five days before the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season , O 'Neill resigned as manager with immediate effect . The club appointed Gérard Houllier as a replacement in September 2010 , but he stepped down on 1 June 2011 due to ill @-@ health . Houllier was replaced by Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish , despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment ; this was the first time that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham to Villa . McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 – 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place , only just above the relegation zone . On 2 July 2012 , Aston Villa confirmed the appointment of former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert as the replacement for McLeish . On 28 February 2012 , the club announced a financial loss of £ 53 @.@ 9 million . Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014 , with an estimated value of £ 200 million . With Lerner still on board , in the 2014 – 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games , the lowest in Premier League history , and Lambert was sacked on 11 February 2015 . Tim Sherwood succeeded him , and saved Aston Villa from relegation while also leading them to the 2015 FA Cup Final , but he was sacked in the 2015 – 16 season , as was his successor Rémi Garde . Eric Black took temporary charge of the team , but was not able to prevent Villa from being relegated for the first time since 1987 . On 2 June 2016 , Roberto Di Matteo was announced as the club 's new manager .
= = Colours and badge = =
The club colours are a claret shirt with sky blue sleeves , white shorts with claret and blue trim , and sky blue socks with claret and white trim . They were the original wearers of the claret and blue . Villa 's colours at the outset generally comprised plain shirts ( white , grey or a shade of blue ) , with either white or black shorts . For a few years after that ( 1877 – 79 ) the team wore several different kits from all white , blue and black , red and blue to plain green . By 1880 , black jerseys with a red lion embroidered on the chest were introduced by William McGregor . This remained the first choice strip for six years . On Monday , 8 November 1886 , an entry in the club 's official minute book states :
( i ) Proposed and seconded that the colours be chocolate and sky blue shirts and that we order two dozen .
( ii ) Proposed and seconded that Mr McGregor be requested to supply them at the lowest quotation .
The chocolate colour later became claret . Nobody is quite sure why claret and blue became the club 's adopted colours . Several other English football teams adopted their colours ; clubs that wear claret and blue include West Ham United and Burnley .
A new badge was revealed in May 2007 , for the 2007 – 08 season and beyond . The new badge includes a star to represent the European Cup win in 1982 , and has a light blue background behind Villa 's ' lion rampant ' . The traditional motto
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" Prepared " remains in the badge , and the name Aston Villa has been shortened to AVFC , FC having been omitted from the previous badge . The lion is now unified as opposed to fragmented lions of the past . Randy Lerner petitioned fans to help with the design of the new badge .
On 6 April 2016 , the club confirmed that it will be using a new badge from the 2016 – 17 season after consulting fan groups for suggestions . The lion in the new badge will have claws added to it and the word " Prepared " will be removed to increase the size of the lion and club initials in the badge .
= = = Kit sponsorship = = =
Aston Villa forwent commercial kit sponsorship for the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons ; instead advertising the charity Acorns Children 's Hospice , the first deal of its kind in Premier league history . The partnership continued until 2010 when a commercial sponsor replaced Acorns , with the hospice becoming the club 's Official Charity Partner . In 2014 – 15 , the Acorns name returned to Aston Villa 's home and away shirts , but only for children 's shirts re @-@ affirming the club 's support for the children 's charity .
Since 2015 Villa 's shirt sponsors have been Quickbooks . Previous commercial sponsors have been Davenports ( 1982 – 83 ) , Mita ( 1983 – 93 ) , Müller ( 1993 – 95 ) , AST Computer ( 1995 – 98 ) , LDV ( 1998 – 2000 ) , NTL ( 2000 – 02 ) , Rover ( 2002 – 04 ) , DWS Investments ( 2004 – 06 ) , 32Red.com ( 2006 – 08 ) , FxPro ( 2010 – 11 ) , Genting Casinos ( 2011 – 13 ) , Dafabet ( 2013 – 2015 ) , and Intuit QuickBooks ( 2015 – ) . Since 2016 , kit has been manufactured by Under Armour . Previous manufacturers have been Umbro ( 1972 – 81 , 1990 – 93 ) , le Coq Sportif ( 1981 – 83 ) , Henson ( 1983 – 87 ) , Hummel ( 1987 – 90 , 2004 – 07 ) , Asics ( 1993 – 95 ) , Reebok ( 1995 – 2000 ) , Diadora ( 2000 – 04 ) , Nike ( 2007 – 12 ) and Macron ( 2012 @-@ 16 ) .
= = Stadium = =
Aston Villa 's current home venue is Villa Park , which is a UEFA 5 @-@ star rated stadium , having previously played at Aston Park ( 1874 – 1876 ) and Wellington Road ( 1876 – 1897 ) . Villa Park is the largest football stadium in the English Midlands , and the eighth largest stadium in England . It has hosted 16 England internationals at senior level , the first in 1899 , and the most recent in 2005 . Thus , it was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries . Villa Park is the most used stadium in FA Cup semi @-@ final history , having hosted 55 semi @-@ finals . The club have planning permission to extend the North Stand ; this will involve the ' filling in ' of the corners to either side of the North Stand . If completed , the capacity of Villa Park will be increased to approximately 51 @,@ 000 .
The current training ground is located at Bodymoor Heath near Kingsbury in north Warwickshire , the site for which was purchased by former chairman Doug Ellis in the early 1970s from a local farmer . Although Bodymoor Heath was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art in the 1970s , by the late 1990s the facilities had started to look dated . In November 2005 , Ellis and Aston Villa plc announced a state of the art GB £ 13 million redevelopment of Bodymoor in two phases . However , work on Bodymoor was suspended by Ellis due to financial problems , and was left in an unfinished state until new owner Randy Lerner made it one of his priorities to make the site one of the best in world football . The new training ground was officially unveiled on 6 May 2007 , by then manager Martin O 'Neill , then team captain Gareth Barry and 1982 European Cup winning team captain Dennis Mortimer , with the Aston Villa squad moving in for the 2007 – 08 season .
It was announced on 6 August 2014 , that Villa Park would appear in the FIFA video game from FIFA 15 onwards , with all other Premier League stadiums also fully licensed from this game onwards .
= = Ownership
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= =
The first shares in the club were issued towards the end of the 19th century as a result of legislation that was intended to codify the growing numbers of professional teams and players in the Association Football leagues . FA teams were required to distribute shares to investors as a way of facilitating trading among the teams without implicating the FA itself . This trading continued for much of the 20th century until Ellis started buying up many of the shares in the 1960s . He was chairman and substantial shareholder of " Aston Villa F.C. " from 1968 to 1975 and the majority shareholder from 1982 to 2006 . The club were floated on the London Stock Exchange ( LSE ) in 1996 , and the share price fluctuated in the ten years after the flotation . In 2006 it was announced that several consortia and individuals were considering bids for Aston Villa .
On 14 August 2006 , it was confirmed that Randy Lerner , then owner of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns , had reached an agreement of £ 62 @.@ 6 million with Aston Villa for a takeover of the club . A statement released on 25 August to the LSE announced that Lerner had secured 59 @.@ 69 % of Villa shares , making him the majority shareholder . He also appointed himself Chairman of the club . In Ellis 's last year in charge Villa lost £ 8.2m before tax , compared with a £ 3m profit the previous year , and income had fallen from £ 51.6m to £ 49m . Lerner took full control on 18 September , as he had 89 @.@ 69 % of the shares . On 19 September 2006 , Ellis and his board resigned to be replaced with a new board headed by Lerner . Lerner installed Charles Krulak as a non @-@ executive director and Ellis was awarded the honorary position of Chairman Emeritus .
Lerner put the club up for sale in May 2014 , valuing it at an estimated £ 200 million .
On 18 May 2016 , Randy Lerner agreed the sale of Aston Villa to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Xia Jiantong . The sale was completed on 14 June 2016 for a reported £ 76 million after being approved by the Football League , with the club becoming part of Recon Group 's Sport , Leisure and Tourism division . Recon Group were selected to take over Aston Villa following a selection process by the club .
= = Social responsibility = =
Aston Villa have a unique relationship with the Acorns Children 's Hospice charity that is groundbreaking in English football . In a first for the Premier League , Aston Villa donated the front of the shirt on their kit , usually reserved for high @-@ paying sponsorships , to Acorns Hospice so that the charity would gain significant additional visibility and greater fund raising capabilities . Outside of the shirt sponsorship the club have paid for hospice care for the charity as well as regularly providing player visits to hospice locations .
In September 2010 , Aston Villa launched an initiative at Villa Park called Villa Midlands Food ( VMF ) where the club will spend two years training students with Aston Villa Hospitality and Events in association with Birmingham City Council . The club will open a restaurant in the Trinity Road Stand staffed with 12 students recruited from within a ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius of Villa Park with the majority of the food served in the restaurant sourced locally .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Aston Villa have a large fanbase and draw support from all over the Midlands and beyond , with supporters ' clubs all across the world . Former Villa chief executive Richard Fitzgerald has stated that the ethnicity of the supporters is currently 98 % white . When Randy Lerner 's regime took over at Villa Park , they aimed to improve their support from ethnic minorities . A number of organisations have been set up to support the local community including Aston Pride . A Villa in the Community programme has also been set up to encourage support among young people in the region . The new owners have also initiated several surveys aimed at gaining the opinions of Villa fans and to involve them in the decision making process . Meetings also occur every three months where supporters are invited by ballot and are invited to ask questions to the Board . In 2011 , the club supported a supporter @-@ based initiative for an official anthem to boost the atmosphere at Villa Park . The song "
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Day , " a duet with Boyz II Men , Carey appeals to both audiences equally because of the sheer amount of craft and hard work she puts into her albums . Daydream is her best record to date , featuring a consistently strong selection of songs and a remarkably impassioned performance by Carey . Daydream demonstrates that Carey continues to perfect her craft , and that she has earned her status as an R & B / pop diva . " In his review for the album , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called Daydream " her best record since her 1990 debut " , writing , " in fact , it 's easily the best collection Carey has put out since her self @-@ titled 1990 debut , the album Daydream most resembles in its emphasis on R & B grooves . " Tucker specifically complimented " One Sweet Day " , " Always Be My Baby " , " Forever " , and " Daydream Interlude " ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) , writing " One Sweet Day , her collaboration with Boyz II Men , radiates a breezy sexiness that Carey , for all the brazen hussiness of her public persona , rarely permits herself to reveal in song . I like the relaxed swing of " Always Be My Baby " , and the brisk waltz tempo of Forever . However , it 's on what many Carey fans will probably find the most throwaway cut , " Daydream Interlude ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) " , that the singer really defines herself . At her best , as she is on this clipped , spunky track , Carey is a disco diva for the ' 90s , a worthy successor to trailblazing women like Donna Summer and Vicki Sue Robinson , R & B singers with an affinity for the endless groove . "
Stephen Holden , editor of The New York Times , gave the album a positive review . Holden wrote the following regarding Daydream " Ms. Carey 's songwriting has taken a leap forward , becoming more relaxed , sexier , and less reliant on thudding cliches . " Holden praised " Fantasy " , which he wrote " with ' Fantasy , ' Ms. Carey glides confidently into the territory where gospel @-@ flavored pop @-@ soul meets light hip @-@ hop and recorded some of the most gorgeously spun choral music to be found on a contemporary album . " Additionally , he complimented " One Sweet Day , " " Melt Away , " " Always Be My Baby " , and " Underneath the Stars " , calling them " the best on the album " . People gave the album a positive review , calling it " her fourth and best album . " Additionally , People praised the album and its songs , writing " Daydream vaults over its pop predecessors because the material is both funkier and mellower . Carey also has better control of her instrument — her voice evincing greater muscularity and agility . She still pours it on a little thick at times when it comes to fervor , as on the midtempo ' Melt Away , ' which Carey co @-@ wrote with Babyface . For the most part she buzzes from strength to strength , from the bravura belting on ' One Sweet Day , ' a duet with Boyz II Men , to the rich gospel feel of ' I Am Free , ' which has a mood so churchy you can almost hear the ladies ' handheld fans snapping . " While the album was positively reviewed by critics , Carey 's cover of Journey 's 1982 song " Open Arms " was universally panned . Stephen Thomas Erlewine criticized the song , calling it " second rate " . " Open Arms " received a negative review from Stephen Holden as well , who called it a " sobbing remake " .
= = Chart performance = =
Daydream entered the Billboard 200 at number one , with 224 @,@ 000 copies sold , staying at the top spot the following week with 216 @,@ 000 copies sold , for a third consecutive week , it topped the charts with 170 @,@ 000 copies sold . It gained power again in the upcoming weeks of holiday sales where it peaked in the year 's last weeks with 486 @,@ 000 and 760 @,@ 000 units sold at the pinnacle . The album moved 760 @,@ 000 copies during the Christmas week of 1995 , the album 's highest sales week . It also reached number one on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Daydream was the second best @-@ selling album of 1996 , and the eighteenth best @-@ selling album on the 1990s decade in the US . In the United States , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ selling album , being certified diamond by the RIAA ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies .
In Canada , Daydream peaked at number two on the charts , and was certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . The album experienced success in Europe , where it reached number one in Germany , The Netherlands , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In France , Daydream peaked at number two and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . Sales in France are estimated at 800 @,@ 000 copies . Daydream was certified triple @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of three million copies throughout Europe in 1996 .
In Australia , Daydream was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 350 @,@ 000 copies . The album finished ninth on the ARIA End of Year Charts in both 1995 and 1996 . In Japan , the album debuted at number one on the Oricon charts . According to the Oricon , Daydream made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 5 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with sales of 25 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
Six singles were released from Daydream . " Fantasy " was released as the album 's lead single on September 12 , 1995 . The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Carey the first female artist , and the second performer ever to accomplish the feat . The song spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart , as well as topping the charts in Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In Europe , " Fantasy " performed well , peaking within the top five in Belgium , Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . " Fantasy " was the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the US , with sales of 1 @.@ 5 million in 95 ' alone . " One Sweet Day " was chosen as the follow @-@ up single , achieving similar success . The song once again debuted at the top of the US charts , and became the longest running number one single in US history , spending sixteen consecutive weeks atop the Billboard charts . The song became a success in other regions around the world as well , topping the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland , and The Netherlands . Serving as the album 's third single in select European countries , " Open Arms " was released on December 5 , 1995 . The song achieved success in the UK , Ireland and New Zealand , where it peaked at number four , seven and eight . However , " Open Arms " charted weakly in other European countries , such as Belgium , France , and Germany , where it charted outside the top @-@ thirty .
" Always Be My Baby " was released as the fourth single . The song debuted at number two on the Hot 100 , failing to become Carey 's third number one debut ( a feat she would accomplish with " Honey " in 1997 ) . The song eventually reached and stayed atop the charts for two weeks , and then kept steady at number two for nine weeks . " Always Be My Baby " performed moderately in other major markets . The song peaked within the top five in Canada , New Zealand and the UK , but charted outside the top @-@ ten elsewhere . " Forever " was chosen as the fifth single from Daydream . The song was ineligible to chart in the Hot 100 , but managed to crack the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 airplay chart . " Forever " charted well in Canada , where it peaked at number thirteen
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is a 9 / 10 rating , stating " Next time she plays Manchester , it will be to a sold out Academy 2 audience , with a top @-@ selling album gracing the merchandising stand . Marina won 't be playing to a few hundred people above a trendy bar in the foreseeable future " .
= = Critical reception = =
The Family Jewels received mostly positive reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 21 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Hugh Montgomery of Q magazine noted that the singer 's " imaginative reach " was " complemented by a winning pop savviness " , while Luke O 'Neil from The Phoenix stated that " [ t ] he likes of Kate Nash and company have flitted through this piano siren / exuberant dance @-@ diva territory , but never mind , because this gorgeous genre starts now . " Leonie Cooper from NME rated the album nine out of ten stars , finding flaw only in the titles of " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " .
More mixed reviews were critical of Diamandis ' vocal delivery . Lou Thomas from BBC Music commented that " [ t ] he consistently diverting changes in style across the album are fine — the wonky 80s shoulder @-@ pad pop of ' The Outsider ' is nothing like anything else here , for example . But over 13 songs of Sparks @-@ voice and many similar staccato piano riffs listeners may feel bludgeoned by Marina and her slightly overbearing presence " , concluding that her eccentric vocals would polarise opinions . Sean O 'Neal wrote on The AV Club that after " dozens of squeaky Regina Spektor @-@ ish enunciations " and " Kate Bush trills " , the " overbearing need to prove herself just ends up being exhausting " . Joe Rivers of No Ripcord praised " Are You Satisfied ? " , " Hollywood " and " Oh No ! " but was put off by sudden " howling " in " Hermit the Frog " and a " throaty growl " in " The Outsider " .
A negative review came from The Independent 's Andy Gill who considered " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " as " every bit as annoying as their punning titles , with queasy , prancing piano and synth figures " . He found certain vocal techniques in " Mowgli 's Road " and " I Am Not a Robot " to be " infantile " , and evaluated the lyrics of " Girls " and " Hollywood " as shallow . Gill added that the content of " Rootless " , " Obsessions " and " The Outsider " did not match with what would be expected from the titles .
The NME placed the album at number 33 on its list of the Top 75 Albums of 2010 .
= = Commercial performance = =
The Family Jewels debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . It remains Diamandis ' best @-@ selling debut week , after her second studio album Electra Heart entered the chart at number one with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 units . The Family Jewels was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , and had sold 195 @,@ 358 copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2015 . The record debuted at number seven in Greece and number nine in Ireland ; it was eventually certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association .
The Family Jewels performed moderately on several international record charts . The record reached number 12 on the German Media Control Charts , and entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number 18 . It peaked at number 88
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on the Dutch MegaCharts , number 100 on the Swiss Hitparade , and number 132 in France . In Oceania , the album reached number 79 on the Australian ARIA Charts . With first @-@ week sales of 4 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , The Family Jewels entered the Billboard 200 at number 138 ; furthermore , it respectively charted at numbers 2 and 49 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers and Top Rock Albums charts .
In an interview for Australian radio in January 2011 , Diamandis said that her career that far had been " more like a failure than a success " , particularly in the American market . She attributed this to the inaction of Chop Shop Records , her label in the United States , as well as a move in musical tastes to " pumping beats " by artists like Lady Gaga . She cancelled performances in the United States in order to begin work on a new album .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels .
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies an original producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= 1981 Peach Bowl ( January ) =
The 1981 Peach Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Hurricanes from the University of Miami at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia on January 2 , 1981 . The game was the final contest of the 1980 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 20 @-@ 10 victory for Miami . Another game by the same name followed the 1981 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season and was played in December , 1981 .
Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Peach Bowl as a reward for finishing 8 – 3 during the regular season , a record that included wins over nationally ranked teams such as the Clemson Tigers and the Virginia Cavaliers . Facing Virginia Tech was a familiar post @-@ season opponent — Miami — whom the Hokies had played in the 1966 Liberty Bowl , Tech 's last bowl appearance prior to the Peach Bowl . Miami finished the regular season with an 8 – 3 record , including wins over Florida State and Florida .
The game kicked off at 3 : 00 p.m. EST under sunny skies and in temperatures of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) . Unlike the 1966 Liberty Bowl , in which Virginia Tech scored first , it was Miami who dominated the game 's early going . The Hurricanes scored a touchdown on the first drive of the game and tacked on another touchdown early in the second quarter . Tech was held scoreless in the early going , thanks to two Miami interceptions at the goal line as Virginia Tech was threatening to score . Late in the second quarter , Tech was finally able to get on the scoreboard with a field goal , but at halftime , the Miami Hurricanes led 14 – 3 . After halftime , the Hokies threatened Miami for the first time all game . Virginia Tech mounted an 80 @-@ yard drive that resulted in a touchdown , cutting Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 . But the Hurricanes ' defense clamped down on any further offensive attempts by Virginia Tech and denied the Hokies more points . Miami added two field goals : one in the third quarter and one in the fourth quarter that finally put the game out of reach for Virginia Tech . Miami 's win was its first bowl victory since the 1966 Liberty Bowl , which also featured a Hurricane victory over Virginia Tech .
= = Team Selection = =
= = = Miami = = =
The Miami Hurricanes came into the 1980 college football season after an 5 – 6 season in 1979 under head coach Howard Schnellenberger . During that season , the team was nicknamed the " Jet Lag Kids " after they traveled an NCAA @-@ record 28 @,@ 000 miles ( 45 @,@ 000 km ) , including a trip to the Mirage Bowl in Tokyo , Japan . While impressive , the season wasn 't as successful as hoped , and Schnellenberger began his second season as coach hoping to improve upon the 5 – 6 effort despite what was the toughest schedule — in terms of opponents ' winning percentage — in the country .
Miami got off to a good start doing just that as it raced out to four consecutive wins to begin the season , including a victory over nationally ranked rival No. 9 Florida State . On October 11 , however , Miami traveled to South Bend , Indiana , to face the Notre Dame Fighting Irish and suffered its first loss of the season to the undefeated Irish , who would go on to be ranked No. 1 in the country . This defeat was followed in succession by two others , but the Hurricanes were able to stop the slide on November 8 with a homecoming win over East Carolina . Miami added two more wins before the end of the season , and brought the regular season to a close with an overall record of 8 – 3 .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies , like Miami , entered the 1980 season after accumulating a 5 – 6 record in 1979 . Though the Hokies traveled far less than Miami , they also hoped to improve upon their losing record . Tech was coached by Bill Dooley , who was entering his third season as head coach .
Like Schnellenberger , he got his team off to a fast start . In the season opener , Tech traveled to North Carolina to face the Wake Forest Demon Deacons . Wake Forest had attended the Tangerine Bowl the previous year and was favored in the game against Tech . Despite those facts , the Hokies won , 16 – 7 . Virginia Tech won its first four games of the regular season before falling to the nationally ranked Clemson Tigers on October 4 . Tech recovered from the loss , defeating Rhode Island , then Virginia before a then @-@ state record crowd of 52 @,@ 000 people , but lost a second game , to Richmond on October 25 . The Hokies split their final three games of the regular season , winning two and losing one , and finished with a regular season record of 8 – 3 . Tech 's 6 – 0 record at Lane Stadium — its home stadium — was the best in school history . Tech 's selection by the Peach Bowl was announced in the locker room following the team 's final regular season game . The Peach Bowl representative present was mobbed by celebrating players chanting " Peach Bowl ! Peach Bowl ! " The representative later said , " I 've never seen a wilder celebration . "
= = Pregame buildup = =
= = = Miami offense = = =
The Miami Hurricanes entered the Peach Bowl with a record @-@ breaking offense that set the school mark for the most accumulated yards in school history with a total offensive mark of 3 @,@ 756 yards . Leading the aerial portion of the Miami offense was sophomore quarterback Jim Kelly , who completed 109 of 206 passes for 1 @,@ 519 yards , 11 touchdowns , and seven interceptions . Kelly 's 11 touchdowns tied the Miami record for most touchdowns in a season at that time . Kelly 's favorite receiver was wide receiver Larry Brodsky , who caught 33 passes for 570 yards and three touchdowns during the regular season . One of Brodsky 's touchdowns came on an 81 @-@ yard reception that tied the longest pass reception in the history of Miami football to that point .
The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by running back Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 152 times for 669 yards and five touchdowns . Roan was assisted by an able offensive line . Miami offensive tackle John Canei was named as an honorable mention to the Associated Press All @-@ America team , which recognizes the best college football players in the country .
= = = Miami defense = = =
Miami 's defense shut out one opponent , and held six other opponents to single touchdowns or field goals . Middle guard Jim Burt was one of the Hurricanes ' defensive leaders , recovering four fumbles in a single game during the regular season . In recognition of this and other performances , Burt was named to the Associated Press All @-@ America list . Also recognized was defensive back Fred Marion , who was named an honorable mention to the All @-@ America list . Marion intercepted seven passes during the regular season , tying him for second in Miami history for the most interceptions in a season .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Throughout the regular season , Virginia Tech 's offense was led by running back Cyrus Lawrence , who accumulated what was then a school record of
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1 @,@ 221 yards during the regular season . He also set a record for most carries by a Tech player in a season with 271 . Tech quarterback Steve Casey was called the " key man in the Tech offense . " Casey was Tech 's starting quarterback and completed 97 of 176 passes during the regular season for 1 @,@ 119 yards and 13 touchdowns . At the time , he ranked second among Tech 's career passing leaders , and was considered to be an offensive threat .
Casey 's favorite target was wide receiver Sidney Snell , who caught a Tech @-@ record eight touchdown receptions during the regular season . Snell accounted for 568 yards on 43 receptions of all types . Tight end Rob Purdham only caught seven passes during the regular season , but four of the catches were for touchdowns .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
The Tech defense was ranked among the top five in the country during the regular season , and set a school record for fewest points allowed during an 11 @-@ game regular season . Tech permitted just 109 points during the season , and allowed only 11 touchdowns in 11 games .
The leading tackler on the Tech defense was freshman linebacker Ashley Lee , who accumulated 95 tackles during the regular season . Lee was one of two freshman linebackers for the Hokies during their record @-@ breaking defensive season .
Virginia Tech 's defense also featured Robert Brown , who accumulated 10 tackles , including two quarterback sacks , in the Hokies ' regular @-@ season finale against the Virginia Military Institute . Tech head coach Bill Dooley lobbied in vain for Brown 's inclusion in the annual All @-@ America list recording the best college football players in the country , saying , " Robert Brown is an All @-@ American football player ... but because he was a transfer student , he received no preseason buildup . ... I guarantee the people who have seen him know he 's an All @-@ American . " Brown finished the regular season with 61 tackles , broke up four passes , and recovered three fumbles .
= = Game summary = =
The 1981 Peach Bowl kicked off at 3 p.m. EST on January 2 , 1981 , at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia in front of a crowd estimated at 45 @,@ 384 people . More than 14 @,@ 000 of those present were estimated to be fans of Virginia Tech . Weather at kickoff was sunny , with a temperature of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) and a north @-@ northwest wind estimated at 14 miles per hour ( 23 km / h ) . The game was televised nationally on CBS , with Curt Gowdy , Hank Stram , and Frank Gleiber serving as the announcers for the television broadcast . William Parkinson was the referee , Robert Aebersold was the umpire , and the linesman was Richard Farina . Miami won the traditional pregame coin toss used to decide first possession and elected to receive the ball to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
After the Virginia Tech kickoff and a short return , Miami began the first drive of the game at its 32 @-@ yard line . The game 's first play was an incomplete pass from Miami quarterback Jim Kelly . After a one @-@ yard rush , Kelly completed his first pass of the game , an 18 @-@ yard toss that drove Miami to the Tech 49 @-@ yard line and gave the Hurricanes a first down . Miami then committed a 15 @-@ yard penalty , pushing the Hurricanes back into their side of the field . On the second play after the penalty , Kelly completed a 29 @-@ yard pass that gave Miami a first down . The Hurricanes were further aided by a 15 @-@ yard roughing the passer penalty against Virginia Tech , giving Miami a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just three plays to score a touchdown , the final play being a 15 @-@ yard pass from Kelly to Larry Brodsky . With 12 : 37 remaining in the quarter , Miami took a 7 – 0 lead .
Following Miami 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Virginia Tech began its first offensive possession of the game at its 24 @-@ yard line . A three @-@ yard rush from fullback Scott Dovel was followed by two rushes from Tech 's Cyrus Lawrence : one for eight yards and a second for 17 more . These drove Tech into Miami territory and gave the Hokies a first down . Once there , however , Miami 's defense stiffened and Tech was forced to punt . Miami recovered the ball at its 12 @-@ yard line , and the Hurricanes began their second possession of the game . Fullback Chris Hobbs and running back Smokey Roan alternated carries , picking up yardage and first downs before entering Virginia Tech territory . On the Hurricanes ' first play on Tech 's side of the field , however , Miami committed two penalties , pushing the Hurricanes back 20 yards . Following the penalties , Miami was unable to pick up a
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first down and punted back to the Hokies .
Tech recovered the punt at its 30 @-@ yard line and began its second possession . Lawrence rushed for five yards , and Miami committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , giving Tech a first down by penalty . Dovel and Lawrence then combined for another first down after two plays . Tech was unable to gain another first down and punted the ball away . Attempting to field the ball , Miami 's Fred Marion fumbled the ball , which was recovered by a Tech defender at the Miami 25 @-@ yard line . Despite beginning with excellent field position , Tech was unable to score . On the first play after the fumble recovery , Tech attempted to run a trick play involving a pass by Lawrence . The pass was intercepted by a Miami defender at the Hurricanes ' one @-@ yard line , and Miami 's offense returned to the field .
From their one @-@ yard line , the Hurricanes ran a short rush up the middle , then Kelly connected on a 28 @-@ yard pass to tight end Mark Cooper for a first down . Three short rushes by fullback Speedy Neal resulted in 12 yards and a first down . With time running out in the quarter , Kelly attempted and completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Rocky Belk , driving the Hurricanes to the Tech 30 @-@ yard line and bringing the quarter to an end . Miami led , 7 – 0 at the end of the first quarter .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Miami began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a first down at the Virginia Tech 30 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just four plays to score . Roan ran for seven yards , Kelly completed an 11 @-@ yard pass , threw an incomplete pass , then Hobbs ran 12 yards for the touchdown . The score and following extra point gave Miami a 14 – 0 lead with 13 : 47 remaining before halftime .
Virginia Tech received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and was promptly penalized 10 yards for an illegal block during the kickoff . Despite the initial setback , Tech made good the penalty with two passes from quarterback Steve Casey . After gaining one first down , the Hokies gained several more with a combination of passes from Casey and rushes from Lawrence . Tech drove into Miami territory and penetrated the Hurricanes ' red zone , in the process gaining a first down after facing a fourth down near midfield . Attempting to pass for a touchdown , however , Casey threw an interception at the goal line to a Miami defender . The Hurricanes thus again denied Tech a scoring opportunity and the Miami offense began anew .
The Hurricanes picked up a first down on one rush each from Hobbs and Roan , but were unable to gain another . After a Miami punt , Tech returned to offense from its 46 @-@ yard line . Casey picked up a first down on a pass , then gained another after a seven @-@ yard scramble that followed a three @-@ yard rush by Lawrence . Lawrence then gained a first down on his own after rushing for nine yards and five yards , driving the Hokies to the Miami 15 @-@ yard line in the process . After entering the Miami red zone , however , Tech was unable to gain a first down and Casey was sacked for a loss of 13 yards . Facing a fourth down and needing 20 yards for a first down , Tech coach Bill Dooley sent in kicker Dennis Laury to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 29 seconds left in the first half , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 3 .
Miami was penalized 15 yards for roughing the kicker during the field goal attempt , allowing Tech to kick off from the Miami 45 @-@ yard line following the score . Instead of kicking off to Miami , Tech attempted an onside kick , which would allow Tech to retain possession if the ball was recovered by the kicking team after traveling 10 yards from the point at which it was kicked . The ball did not travel the needed 10 yards , however , and Miami began offense at its 37 @-@ yard line , where the ball rolled out of bounds . On Miami 's first play after the kick , Kelly attempted a long pass into Tech territory , but the ball was intercepted by Tech 's Mike Schamus at the Hokies ' 12 @-@ yard line . With just 21 seconds remaining in the first half , Tech attempted to gain quick yardage in an effort to close within field goal distance . Though Lawrence picked up 15 yards and a first with a rush , the Hokies were unable to enter the Miami side of the field before time expired . At the end of the first half , Miami still held a 14 – 3 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Miami received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . After Miami 's kickoff and a touchback , Tech began the first possession of the second half at its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a quick first down off a rush each by Lawrence , Dovel , and Casey . Lawrence picked up another with two rushes that resulted in 13 yards and drove the Hokies to their 44 @-@ yard line . There , Casey completed his longest pass of the game — a 42 @-@ yard throw to tight end Rob Purdham — that gave Tech a first down at the Miami 14 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to drive , picking up short yardage with multiple rushes . The Hokies suffered a near @-@ disaster when Lawrence fumbled the ball , but Tech retained possession when the ball rolled out of bounds at the one @-@ yard line . Two plays after the fumble , Lawrence vaulted over the goal line for Tech 's first and only touchdown of the game . Following the extra point , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 with 8 : 52 remaining in the quarter .
Following the Tech kickoff , Miami began a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line and went three and out . Following the Hurricanes ' punt , Tech 's offense began work at its 22 @-@ yard line . Despite having a chance to take the lead with a successful drive , the Hokies also went three and out , punting back to Miami and allowing the Hurricanes to begin a possession at their 33 @-@ yard line . This possession was more successful than Miami 's first of the second half . Kelly ran for four yards , then completed a six @-@ yard pass for a first down . Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard grabbing @-@ the @-@ facemask penalty , and Kelly completed a 15 @-@ yard pass that
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continued working as a stenographer . When her father died toward the end of World War I , Bennett assumed care for her invalid mother .
During this time period Bennett began to write a number of short stories and novels , only stopping when her mother died in 1920 . In the mid @-@ 1920s , she moved to California . Because Bennett was estranged from her daughter , for a number of years researchers believed Bennett died in 1939 ( the date of her final letter to her daughter ) . However , new research , including her death certificate , shows that she died in 1948 .
= = Writing career = =
Bennett wrote her first short story at age 17 , a science fiction story titled " The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " . She mailed the story to Argosy , then one of the top pulp magazines . The story was accepted and published in the March 1904 issue .
Once Bennett began to take care of her mother , she decided to return to fiction writing as a means of supporting her family . The first story she completed after her return to writing was the novella " The Nightmare , " which appeared in All @-@ Story Weekly in 1917 . The story is set on an island separated from the rest of the world , on which evolution has taken a different course . " The Nightmare " resembles Edgar Rice Burroughs ' The Land That Time Forgot , itself published a year later . While Bennett had submitted " The Nightmare " under her own name , she had asked to use a pseudonym if it was published . The magazine 's editor chose not to use the pseudonym Bennett suggested ( Jean Vail ) and instead credited the story to Francis Stevens . When readers responded positively to the story , Bennett chose to continue writing under the name .
Over the next few years , Bennett wrote a number of short stories and novellas . Her short story " Friend Island " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , 1918 ) , for example , is set in a 22nd @-@ century ruled by women . Another story is the novella " Serapion " ( Argosy , 1920 ) , about a man possessed by a supernatural creature . This story has been released in an electronic book entitled Possessed : A Tale of the Demon Serapion , with three other stories by her . Many of her short stories have been collected in The Nightmare and Other Tales of Dark Fantasy ( University of Nebraska Press ,
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elected as a Conservative MP in 1900 . A Blue Plaque on the exterior of the building commemorates the event . Long existing as the political centre of the town , complete with courtrooms , the structure has stood empty since the mid @-@ 1980s and has regularly been earmarked for redevelopment as part of regeneration project proposals , but none have been actioned .
In September 2008 , it was reported that " Oldham Town Hall is only months away from a major roof collapse " . A tour taken by local councillors and media concluded with an account that " chunks of masonry are falling from the ceilings on a daily basis ... the floors are littered with dead pigeons and ... revealed that the building is literally rotting away " . In October 2009 the Victorian Society , a charity responsible for the study and protection of Britain 's Victorian and Edwardian architecture , declared Oldham Town Hall as the most endangered Victorian structure in England and Wales . Plans to convert the hall into a leisure complex , incorporating a cinema and restaurants , were revealed in May 2012 with the hall itself being used for public consultation . This £ 36 @.@ 72 million project is expected to be completed by early in 2016 .
In the heart of Oldham ’ s retail district , the Old Town Hall is being developed into a modern multiplex ODEON cinema .
= = = War memorial = = =
Erected as a permanent memorial to the men of Oldham who were killed in the First World War , Oldham 's war memorial consists of a granite base surmounted by a bronze sculpture depicting five soldiers making their way along the trenches in order to go into battle . The main standing figure , having climbed out of the trenches , is shown calling on his comrades to advance , and is the same figure used at the Royal Fusiliers War Memorial in London and the 41st Division memorial at Flers in France . The base serves to house books containing the roll of honour of the 1st , 10th and 24th Battalions , Manchester Regiment . The pedestal has two bronze doors at either side .
Commissioned in 1919 by the Oldham War Memorial Committee , the memorial was designed and built by Albert Toft . It was unveiled by General Sir Ian Hamilton on 28 April 1923 , before a crowd estimated at over 10 @,@ 000 . The monument was intended to symbolise the spirit of 1914 – 1918 .
The inscriptions on the memorial read :
Over doors to the north : " DEATH IS THE GATE OF LIFE / 1914 – 1918 "
Over window to the south : " TO GOD BE THE PRAISE "
= = = Civic Centre = = =
The Civic Centre tower is the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham 's centre of local governance . The 15 @-@ storey white @-@ brick building has housed the vast majority of the local government 's offices since its completion in 1977 . Standing at the summit of the town , the tower stands over 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . It was designed by Cecil Howitt & Partners , and the topping out ceremony was held on 18 June 1976 . The Civic Centre can be seen as far away as Salford , Trafford , Wythenshawe and Winter Hill in Lancashire , and offers panoramic views across the city of Manchester and the Cheshire Plain .
= = = Parish Church = = =
The Oldham Parish Church of St. Mary with St. Peter , in its present form , dates from 1830 and was designed in the Gothic Revival Style by Richard Lane , a Manchester @-@ based architect . It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed
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building . It was linked with the church of St Mary the Virgin , Prestwich and together the sites were principal churches of the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham .
A church building had existed on the site since 1280 . During this time , a small chapel stood on the site to serve the local townships of Oldham , Chadderton , Royton and Crompton . This was later replaced by an Early English Gothic church in the 15th century . With the coming of the Industrial Revolution , the population of Oldham increased at a rapid rate ( from under 2 @,@ 000 in 1714 , to over 32 @,@ 000 by 1831 ) . The rapid growth of the local population warranted that the building be rebuilt into the current structure . Though the budget was originally agreed at £ 5 @,@ 000 , the final cost of building was £ 30 @,@ 000 , one third of which was spent on the crypt structure . Alternative designs by Sir Charles Barry , the designer of the Palace of Westminster , although now regarded by some as superior , were rejected . The Church , of the Anglican denomination , is in active use for worship , and forms part of the Diocese of Manchester . There are Roman Catholic churches in Oldham . These include Our Lady of Mount Carmel and St Patrick Church . It was built in 1870 , was founded by priests from St Mary 's Church in Oldham , and is a Grade II listed building .
= = Transport = =
The geography of Oldham constrained the development of major transport infrastructure , with the former County Borough Council suggesting that " if it had not grown substantially before the railway age it would surely have been overlooked " . Oldham has never been on a main @-@ line railway route , and canals too have only been able to serve it from a distance , meaning that " Oldham has never had a train service worthy of a town of its size " .
A principal destination along the former Oldham Loop Line , Oldham once had six railway stations but this was reduced to three once Clegg Street , Oldham Central and Glodwick Road closed in the mid @-@ 20th century . Oldham Werneth , Oldham Mumps and Derker closed on 3 October 2009 . Trains from Manchester Victoria station to Oldham had to climb steeply through much of its 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) route , from around 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) at Manchester city centre to around 600 feet ( 182 @.@ 9 m ) at Oldham Mumps . The Werneth Incline , with its gradient of 1 in 27 , made the Middleton Junction to Oldham Werneth route the steepest regular passenger line in the country . The Werneth Incline route closed in 1963 . It had been replaced as the main route to Manchester by the section of line built between Oldham Werneth Station and Thorpes Bridge Junction , at Newton Heath in May 1880 . Oldham Mumps , the second oldest station on the line after Werneth , took its name from its location in the Mumps area of Oldham , which itself probably derived from the archaic word " mumper " which was slang for a beggar . The former Oldham Loop Line was converted for use with an expanded Metrolink light rail network , and renamed as the Oldham and Rochdale Line . The line between Victoria and a temporary Oldham Mumps tram stop opened on 13 June 2012 , and more central stops opened on 27 January 2014 .
Oldham had electric tramways to Manchester in the early 20th century ; the first tram was driven from Manchester into Oldham in 1900 by the Lord Mayor of Manchester . The system came to
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an end on 3 August 1946 , however . There was also a short @-@ lived Oldham trolleybus system , in 1925 – 26 . The £ 3 @.@ 3 million Oldham Bus Station has frequent bus services to Manchester , Rochdale , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Middleton with other services to the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , Tameside , and across the Pennines to Huddersfield in West Yorkshire . The roof canopy is supported internally on two rows of steel trees . The extensive use of glass and stainless steel maximises visibility , and there is a carefully co @-@ ordinated family of information fittings , posters and seating , using robust natural materials for floors and plinths . The bus station is used by National Express coaches . First Greater Manchester has its headquarters in Oldham .
Despite the Turnpike Act 1734 , Oldham had no turnpike road to Manchester for another 56 years and Church Lane , Oldham remained part of the main street through the town . But following a further Act of Parliament a turnpike was constructed . The first regular coach service to Manchester came into operation in October 1790 , with a journey time of over 2 hours and a fare 2s.8d ( about 13p ) , with half fare for travellers on top of the coach .
Oldham is about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the major M62 motorway , but is linked to it by the M60 at Hollinwood , and A627 ( M ) via Chadderton . There are major A roads to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Huddersfield , Manchester , and Rochdale .
The Hollinwood Branch of the Ashton Canal was a canal that ran from Fairfield in Droylsden , through Littlemoss and Daisy Nook Country Park to the Hollinwood area of Oldham , with a branch from Daisy Nook to the Fairbottom Branch Canal . The canal was mainly used for the haulage of coal until it fell into disuse for commercial traffic in the 1930s . It included four aqueducts and a two @-@ rise lock staircase .
= = Sports = =
Oldham Roughyeds Rugby League Club was established in 1876 as Oldham Football Club , and Oldham Athletic Football Club in 1895 as Pine Villa Football Club . Oldham Athletic have achieved both league and cup successes , particularly under Joe Royle in the 1990s . They were Football League runners @-@ up in the last season before the outbreak of the First World War , but were relegated from the Football League First Division in 1923 . They reached the Football League Cup final in 1990 and won the Football League Second Division title in 199
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heavy bombardment from an offshore squadron of monitors and destroyers as well as artillery support from Royal Marine artillery near Ypres in Allied @-@ held Flanders . Closer support would be offered by several flotillas of motor launches , small torpedo boats and Coastal Motor Boats which would lay smoke screens to obscure the advancing blockships as well as evacuate the crews of the cruisers after they had blocked the channel .
= = = British order of battle = = =
= = = = Offshore Squadron = = = =
Lord Clive @-@ class monitors with 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns :
HMS Marshal Soult , Lord Clive , Prince Eugene and General Crauford
M15 class monitors with 7 @.@ 5 in ( 190 mm ) guns :
HMS M24 , M26 , M21
Destroyers :
HMS Mentor , Lightfoot and Zubian
French Navy Lestin , Roux and Bouclier
Light craft :
4 torpedo boats , 4 French motor launches
= = = = Inshore Squadron = = = =
Blockships :
HMS Sirius , Brilliant
Destroyers :
HMS Swift , Faulknor ( destroyer leader ) , Matchless , Mastiff , Afridi , Tempest , Tetrarch
Light craft :
18 Motor Launches , 8 Coastal Motor Boats
Artillery support was also provided by Royal Marine heavy artillery in Allied @-@ held Flanders . The force was covered in the English Channel by seven light cruisers and 16 destroyers , none of which saw action .
= = Attack on Ostend = =
The assaults on Zeebrugge and Ostend were eventually launched on 23 April , after twice being delayed by poor weather . The Ostend force arrived off the port shortly before midnight and made final preparations ; the monitors took up position offshore and the small craft moved forward to begin laying smoke . Covering the approach , the monitors opened fire on German shore defences , including the powerful " Tirpitz " battery , which carried 11 in ( 280 mm ) guns . As a long range artillery duel developed , the cruisers began their advance towards the harbour mouth , searching for the marker buoys which indicated the correct passage through the diverse sandbanks which made navigation difficult along the Belgian coast .
It was at this stage that the attack began to go seriously wrong . Strong winds blowing off the land swept the smoke screen into the face of the advancing cruisers , blinding their commanders who attempted to navigate by dead reckoning . The same wind disclosed the Inshore Squadron to the German defenders who immediately opened up a withering fire on the blockships . With their volunteer crews suffering heavy casualties , the commanders increased speed despite the poor visibility and continued groping through the narrow channels inshore , searching for the Stroom Bank buoy which directed shipping into the canal .
Commander Alfred Godsal led the assault in HMS Brilliant and it was he who stumbled into the most effective German counter @-@ measure first . As Brilliant staggered through the murk , the lookout spotted the buoy ahead and Godsal headed directly for it , coming under even heavier fire as he did so . Passing the navigation marker at speed , the cruiser was suddenly brought to a halt with a juddering lurch , throwing men to the decks and sticking fast in deep mud well outside the harbour mouth . Before warnings could be relayed to the Sirius following up close behind , she too passed the buoy and her captain Lieutenant @-@ Commander Henry Hardy was shocked to see Brilliant dead ahead . With no time to maneuvere , Sirius ploughed into the port quarter of Brilliant , the blockships settling into the mud in a tangle of wreckage .
Artillery and long @-@ range machine gun fire continued to riddle the wrecks and the combined crews were ordered to evacuate as the officers set the scuttling charges which would sink the blockships in their current , useless locations . As men scrambled down the side of the cruisers into Coastal Motor Boats which would relay them to the Offshore Squadron , destroyers moved closer to Ostend to cover the retreat and the monitors continued their heavy fire . Godsal was the last to leave , picked up by launch ML276 commanded by Lieutenant Rowley Bourke . With the main assault a complete failure , the blockading forces returned to Dover and Dunkirk to assess the disaster .
When the forces had reassembled and the commanders conferred , the full facts of the failed operation were revealed . The German commander of Ostend had been better prepared than his counterpart at Zeebrugge and had recognised that without the navigation buoy no night attack on Ostend could be successful without a strong familiarity with the port , which none of the British navigators possessed . However , rather than simply remove the buoy , the German commander had ordered it moved 2 @,@ 400 yd ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) east of the canal mouth into the centre of a wide expanse of sandbanks , acting as a fatal decoy for any assault force .
= = Aftermath = =
The assault at Zeebrugge a few miles away from Ostend was more successful and the blocking of the major channel did cause some consternation amongst the German forces in Bruges . The larger raiders could no longer leave the port , but smaller ships , including most submarines , were still able to traverse via Ostend . In addition , within hours a narrow channel had also been carved through Zeebrugge too , although British intelligence did not realise this for several weeks . The defeat at Ostend did not entirely dampen the exuberant British media and public reaction to Zeebrugge , but in the Admiralty and particularly in the Allied Naval and Marine Forces the failure to completely neutralise Bruges rankled .
A second operation was planned for 10 May using the cruiser HMS Vindictive and proved more successful , but ultimately it also failed to completely close off Bruges . A third planned operation was never conducted as it rapidly became clear that the new channel carved at Zeebrugge was enough to allow access for U @-@ boats , thus calling for an even larger double assault , which would stretch the resources of the " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " too far . British losses in the three futile attempts to close Bruges cost over 600 casualties and the loss of several ships but Bruges would remain an active raiding base for the German Navy until October 1918 .
= Joyful , Joyful =
" Joyful , Joyful " is a song by contemporary Christian music band Casting Crowns from their fourth studio album Until the Whole World Hears ( 2009 ) . Written by Mark Hall and Bernie Herms and produced by Mark A. Miller , the song is a re @-@ interpretation of the hymn " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " and Ludwig van Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 . " Joyful , Joyful " , a CCM and alternative CCM song , is driven by a string section that has been
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was descended from minor Irish nobility . With his father a vocal Nonconformist , the young Simon acquired his Puritan religious views early in life . At the age of 16 , Bradstreet entered Emmanuel College , Cambridge . He studied there for two years , before entering the service of the Earl of Lincoln as an assistant to Thomas Dudley in 1622 . There is some uncertainty about whether Bradstreet returned to Emmanuel College in 1623 – 1624 . According to Venn , a Simon Bradstreet attended Emmanuel during this time , receiving an M.A. degree , but genealogist Robert Anderson is of the opinion that this was not the same individual . During one of Bradstreet 's stints at Emmanuel he was recommended by John Preston as a tutor or governor to Lord Rich , son of the Earl of Warwick . Rich would have been 12 in 1623 , and Preston was named Emmanuel 's master in 1622 .
Bradstreet took over Dudley 's position when the latter moved temporarily to Boston in 1624 . On Dudley 's return several years later , Bradstreet then briefly served as a steward to the Dowager Countess of Warwick . In 1628 he married Dudley 's daughter Anne , when she was 16 .
In 1628 , Dudley and others from the Earl of Lincoln 's circle formed the Massachusetts Bay Company , with a view toward establishing a Puritan colony in North America . Bradstreet became involved with the company in 1629 , and in April 1630 , the Bradstreets joined the Dudleys and colonial Governor John Winthrop on the fleet of ships that carried them to Massachusetts Bay . There they founded Boston , the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony .
= = Massachusetts Bay Colony = =
After a brief stay in Boston , Bradstreet made his first residence in Newtowne ( later renamed Cambridge ) , near the Dudleys in what is now Harvard Square . In 1637 , during the Antinomian Controversy , he was one of the magistrates that sat at the trial of Anne Hutchinson , and voted for her banishment from the colony . In 1639 he was granted land in Salem , near that of John Endecott . He lived there for a time , moving in 1634 to Ipswich before becoming one of the founding settlers of Andover in 1648 . In 1666 his Andover home was destroyed by fire , supposedly because of " the carelessness of the maid " . He had varied business interests , speculating in land , and investing with other colonists in a ship involved in the coasting trade . In 1660 he purchased shares in the Atherton Company , a land development company with interests in the " Narragansett Country " ( present @-@ day southern Rhode Island ) . He became one of its leading figures , serving on the management committee , and publishing handbills advertising its lands . When he died he owned more than 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) of land in five communities spread across the colony . He was known to own two slaves , a woman named Hannah and her daughter Billah .
Bradstreet was heavily involved in colonial politics . When the council met for the first time in Boston , Bradstreet was selected to serve as colonial secretary , a post he would hold until 1644 . He was politically moderate , arguing against legislation and judicial decisions punishing people for speaking out against the governing magistrates . Bradstreet was also outspoken in opposition to the witch hysteria that infested his home town of Salem , culminating in numerous trials in 1692 .
He served for many years as a commissioner representing Massachusetts to the New England Confederation , an organization that coordinated matters of common interest ( principally defense ) among most of the New England colonies . He was regularly chosen as an assistant , serving on the council that dominated the public affairs of the colony , but did not reach higher office until 1678 , when he was first elected deputy governor under John Leverett . He was against military actions against some of the colony 's foreign neighbors , opposing official intervention in a French Acadian dispute in the 1640s , and also spoke against attacking the New Netherland during the First Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1652 – 1654 ) .
Bradstreet was sent on a number of diplomatic missions , dealing with settlers , other English colonies , and the Dutch in New Amsterdam . In 1650 he was sent to Hartford , Connecticut , where the Treaty of Hartford was negotiated to determine the boundary between the English colonies and New Amsterdam . In the following years he negotiated an agreement with settlers in York and Kittery to bring them under Massachusetts jurisdiction .
Following the 1660 restoration of Charles II to the throne of England , colonial authorities again became concerned about preserving their charter rights . Bradstreet in 1661 headed a legislative committee to " consider and debate such matters touching their patent rights , and privileges , and duty to his Majesty , as should to them seem proper . " The letter the committee drafted reiterated the colony 's charter rights , and also included declarations of allegiance and loyalty to the crown . Bradstreet and John Norton were chosen as agents to deliver the letter to London . Charles renewed the charter , but sent the agents back to Massachusetts with a letter attaching conditions to his assent . The colony was expected , among other things , to expand religious tolerance to include the Church of England and religious minorities like the Quakers . The agents were harshly criticized by hardline factions of the legislature , but Bradstreet defended the need to accommodate the king 's wishes as the safest course to take . How to respond to the king 's demands divided the colony ; Bradstreet was part of the moderate " accommodationist " faction arguing that the colony should obey the king 's wishes . This faction lost the debate to the hardline " commonwealth " faction , who were in favor of aggressively maintaining the colony 's charter rights , led through the 1660s by governors John Endecott and Richard Bellingham . With Charles distracted by war with the Dutch and domestic politics in the late 1660s , the issue lay dormant until the mid @-@ 1670s . Relations between colony and crown deteriorated when the king then renewed demands for legislative and religious reforms , which hardline magistrates again resisted .
= = Governor = =
In early 1679 Governor John Leverett died , and Bradstreet as deputy succeeded him . Leverett had opposed accommodation of the king 's demands , and the change to an accommodationist leadership was too late . Bradstreet would turn out to be the last governor under its original charter . His deputy , Thomas Danforth was from the commonwealth faction . During his tenure , crown agent Edward Randolph was in the colony , attempting to enforce the Navigation Acts , under which certain types of trade involving the colony were illegal . Randolph 's enforcement attempts were vigorously resisted by both the merchant classes and sympathetic magistrates despite Bradstreet 's attempts to accommodate Randolph . Juries frequently refused to condemn ships accused of violating the acts ; in one instance Bradstreet tried three times to get a jury to change its verdict . Randolph 's attempts to enforce the navigation laws eventually convinced the colony 's general court that it needed to create its own mechanisms for their enforcement . A bill to establish a naval office was vigorously debated in 1681 , with the house of deputies , dominated by the commonwealth party , opposing the idea , and the moderate magistrates supporting it . The bill that finally passed was a victory for the commonwealth party , making enforcement difficult and subject to reprisal lawsuits . Bradstreet refused to actually implement the law , and Randolph published open challenges to it . Bradstreet was in some degree vindicated when he won re @-@ election in 1682 , and he then used his judicial authority to further undermine the law 's effects .
Randolph 's threats to report the colonial legislature 's intransigence prompted it to dispatch agents to England to argue the colony 's case ; however , their powers were limited . Shortly after their arrival in late 1682 , the Lords of Trade issued an ultimatum to the colony : either grant its agents wider powers , including the ability to negotiate modifications to the charter , or risk having the charter voided . The general court responded by issuing the agents instructions to take a hard line . Following legal processes begun in 1683 , the charter was formally annulled on October 23 , 1684 .
= = Dominion , and temporary return as governor = =
King Charles II in 1684 established the Dominion of New England . Bradstreet 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Joseph Dudley , who had served as one of the colonial agents , was commissioned by James as President of the Council for New England in 1685 by King James II , and took control of the colony in May 1686 . Bradstreet was offered a position on Dudley 's council , but refused . Dudley was replaced in December 1686 by Sir Edmund Andros , who came to be greatly detested in Massachusetts for vacating existing land titles , and seizing Congregational church properties for Church of England
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that were , according to art historian Andrew Carrington Shelton , either " bitingly sarcastic [ or ] fawningly reverential " . There were many satirical reproductions and pointed editorials in the following years . Aware of Bertin 's support of the July Monarchy , writers at the La Gazette de France viewed the portrait as the epitome of the " opportunism and cynicism " of the new regime . Their anonymous critic excitedly wondered " what bitter irony it expresses , what hardened skepticism , sarcasm and ... pronounced cynicism " .
Several critics mentioned Bertin 's hands . Twentieth @-@ century art historian Albert Boime described them as " powerful , vulturine ... grasping his thighs in a gesture ... projecting ... enormous strength controlled " . Some contemporary critics were not so kind . The photographer and critic Félix Tournachon was harshly critical , and disparaged what he saw as a " fantastical bundle of flesh ... under which , instead of bones and muscles , there can only be intestines – this flatulent hand , the rumbling of which I can hear ! " Bertin 's hands made a different impression on the critic F. de Lagenevais , who remarked : " A mediocre artist would have modified them , he would have replaced those swollen joints with the cylindrical fingers of the first handy model ; but by this single alteration he would have changed the expression of the whole personality ... the energetic and mighty nature " .
The work 's realism attracted a large amount of commentary when it was first exhibited . Some saw it as an affront to Romanticism , others said that its small details not only showed an acute likeness , but built a psychological profile of the sitter . Art historian Geraldine Pelles sees Bertin as " at once intense , suspicious , and aggressive " . She notes that there is a certain amount of projection of the artist 's personality and recalls Théophile Silvestre 's description of Ingres ; " There he was squarely seated in an armchair , motionless as an Egyptian god carved of granite , his hands stretched wide over parallel knees , his torso stiff , his head haughty " . Some compared it to Balthasar Denner , a German realist painter influenced by Jan van Eyck . Denner , in the words of Ingres scholar Robert Rosenblum , " specialised in recording every last line on the faces of aged men and women , and even reflections of windows in their eyes . " The comparison was made by Ingres ' admirers and detractors alike . In 1833 , Louis de Maynard of the Collège @-@ lycée Ampère , writing in the influential L 'Europe littéraire , dismissed Denner as a weak painter concerned with hyperrealistic " curiosities " , and said that both he and Ingres fell short of the " sublime productions of Ingres ' self @-@ proclaimed hero , Raphael . "
The following year Ingres sought to capitalise on the success of his Bertin portrait . He showed his ambitious history painting The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorian at the 1834 Salon , but it was harshly criticised ; even Ingres ' admirers offered only faint praise . Offended and frustrated , Ingres declared he would disown the Salon , abandon his residence in Paris for Rome , and relinquish all current positions , ending his role in public life . This petulance was not to last .
Bertin bequeathed the portrait to his daughter Louise ( 1805 – 77 ) on his death . She passed it to her niece Marie @-@ Louise @-@ Sophie Bertin ( 1836 – 93 ) wife of Jules Bapst , a later director of the Journal des débats . They bequeathed it to their niece Cécile Bapst , its last private owner . In 1897 Cécile sold it to the Musée du Louvre for 80 @,@ 000 francs .
= = Legacy = =
The Bertin portrait has been hugely influential . At first it served as a model for depictions of energetic and intellectual 19th @-@ century men , and later as a more universal type . Several 1890s works closely echo its form and motifs . Jean @-@ Joseph Benjamin @-@ Constant 's monochrome and severe 1896 Portrait of Alfred Chauchard is heavily indebted , while Léon Bonnat 's stern 1892 portrait of the aging Ernest Renan has been described as a " direct citation " of Ingres ' portrait .
Its influence can be seen in the dismissive stare and overwhelming physical presence of the sitter in Pablo Picasso 's 1906 Portrait of Gertrude Stein . Picasso admired Ingres and referred to him throughout his career . His invoking of Bertin can be read as a humorous reference to , according to Robert Rosenblum , " Stein 's ponderous bulk and sexual preference " . Stein does not possess Bertin 's ironic stare , but is similarly dressed in black , and leans forward in an imposing manner , the painting emphasising her " massive , monumental presence " . In 1907 the Swiss artist Félix Vallotton depicted Stein , in response to Picasso , making an even more direct reference to Ingres ' portrait , prompting Édouard Vuillard to exclaim , " That 's Madame Bertin ! "
The influence continued through the 20th century . Gerald Kelly recalled Bertin when painting his restless and confined series of portraits of Ralph Vaughan Williams in 1952 – 61 . In 1975 Marcel Broodthaers produced a series of nine black and white photographs on board based on Ingres ' portraits of Bertin and Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière .
= Harajuku Lovers Tour =
The Harajuku Lovers Tour was the first solo concert tour of American recording artist Gwen Stefani . The tour began through October to November 2005 , to support of her debut studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Although Stefani embarked on multiple tours with her band No Doubt , she initially opted not to participate in a tour to promote her album , an attitude that the singer eventually abandoned due to the commercial success of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
The Harajuku Lovers Tour consisted of only one leg , which encompassed a three @-@ month @-@ long series of performances that visited cities throughout the United States and Canada . Stefani recruited hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , rapper M.I.A. , and singer Ciara to accompany her as opening acts for her endeavors . The tour produced varying responses from contemporary critics , who despite praising Stefani 's vocals , were critical of other aspects of the show such as its musical material . According to Billboard , the tour grossed $ 22 million from 37 concerts , from which 20 sold @-@ out . A video album , titled Harajuku Lovers Live , was released in DVD format in conjunction with her 2006 album The Sweet Escape and features the singer performing at the Honda Center in Anaheim , California , Stefani 's birthplace .
= = Background = =
Stefani announced a tour to support her first solo studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) on June 27 , 2005 , giving details of sixteen dates from October 16 to November 10 . The announcement on June 27 also included the fact that hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , who are also signed to Interscope Records , would be the opening act for all the announced dates except November 3 . The group , who were backing their album Monkey Business , ended up touring with Stefani until November 14 . On August 8 , it was announced that singer @-@ songwriter and rapper M.I.A. would take over as the opening act from November 16 to November 25 , although it wasn 't until August 17 that the extra dates from November 11 to November 25 were officially added to the tour . M.I.A. toured with Stefani , backing her album Arular , until December 1 . On September 29 , the final set of dates , November 26 to December 21 , were added to the tour and it was announced that the third and final opening act for Stefani 's tour would be singer Ciara , backing her album Goodies , from December 3 to December 21 .
Stefani initially did not intend to tour to support the album , responding " What tour ? " to a question from MTV News in December 2004 regarding a possible tour . She later mentioned several times that she had not originally intended to
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tour in support of the album , referring to her " illegal tour " and apologizing for her breaking her promise not to tour on stage at the Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul , Minnesota on November 14 and admitting " I just wanted to make a record . I didn 't want to tour , I was too tired , then you guys kept buying the record , and I had to come out and see you guys " on stage at Winnipeg on November 16 . In a September interview with MTV News , Stefani said of the tour : " I 'm looking forward to it , it 's going to be unbelievable . [ ... ] I would love to try to roll a little bit of ' Orange County Girl ' in there . We 'll see . Anything can happen in rehearsals . I don 't even know how long the show can be right now . "
= = Concert synopsis = =
Stefani opened the show with the song " Harajuku Girls " , an ode to Harajuku , the fashion district of Tokyo , Japan . She appeared on stage wearing a tiara and baby doll outfit , sitting in the red velvet and gold throne from the cover of Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and surrounded by her backing dancers , also called the Harajuku Girls , while video images of Harajuku itself played on screens behind her . Her second song was the first single from the album , " What You Waiting For ? " , which she began as a ballad before bringing it up to its usual pace . Stefani and the Harajuku Girls then left the stage to change into one @-@ piece bathing suits while her band continued to play , before returning to perform " The Real Thing " . A group of four breakdancers came on stage to perform while Stefani left the stage again to change into a black @-@ and @-@ white leather tracksuit . For the next song , the album 's sixth single " Crash " , the audience were then divided into male and female halves and , as images of a car hood bouncing to the beat were broadcast , each half took turns to sing the lyric " back it up , back it up " . Stefani then performed the fourth single from the album , " Luxurious " .
Stefani changed outfits again into a pair of black hot pants to perform " Rich Girl " , the album 's second single , while walking along a catwalk into the crowd and giving fans high @-@ fives . She then sang " Danger Zone " and " Long Way to Go " , both intimate songs , before performing two new songs back @-@ to @-@ back : " Wind It Up " , which would become the first single from her second album The Sweet Escape , and " Orange County Girl " . " Wind It Up " was performed with a carnival vibe and " Orange County Girl " was accompanied by a video montage of childhood photos of Stefani and images of items mentioned in the song . She changed into a silver sequinned cocktail dress for the fourth single from her first album , " Cool " .
In early performances of the show , Stefani 's next song was " Hollaback Girl " , the album 's third and best @-@ selling single , performed in a drumming costume and singing with the audience . This was followed by an encore of " Serious " and " Bubble Pop Electric " , for which Stefani was brought out in a stretcher by the Harajuku Girls . However , in later performances , " Hollaback Girl " was saved for the encore and preceded by the two other songs .
= = Critical response = =
Critics were divided with the Harajuku Lovers Tour . Patrick MacDonald of the Seattle Times , while applauding Stefani 's song @-@ writing efforts and the show 's " frothy fun " antics , reprimanded the singer 's dancing and limited material , given that she performed only twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two from The Sweet Escape but none from previous work with her band No Doubt . In regards to the musical selection , MacDonald concluded that half the songs are " eminently forgettable " , a view echoed by Winnipeg Sun columnist Rob Williams , who described some of the album tracks as " filler " . Despite these objections , Williams issued her MTS Center performance a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . " But sometimes the music didn 't matter when there was as much eye candy as Stefani provided " , opined the Winnipeg Sun writer . " She is an extremely striking figure and the choreography , light show , backup dancers and frequent costume changes all added to the spectacle , which ended up being more style than substance . "
Mike Ross of the Edmonton Sun was impressed with Stefani 's ability to engage the audience , a quality that earned her the description of the " effervescent hostess " from the journalist . In his four star review for the concert , he commended the " swell " music and " amazing " choreography ; " It also had merit as a choreographic tour @-@ de @-@ force — thanks in large part to a quartet each of talented dancing geisha girls and B @-@ boys " , remarked Ross . Stefani 's different outfits and set pieces also won praise . " So you could have enjoyed last night 's concert as a fashion show . Or a music video , sure " , Ross concluded . Although she called Stefani the " new princess of pop " and praised the singer 's charismatic presence during the show , Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun felt that the concert was " definitely of the lightweight variety in the music department " and noted that , although Stefani models herself after Madonna , she is " no real threat " . She gave the concert three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five .
MTV 's Corey Moss compared Stefani 's performance to Madonna with regard to
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ulsions , Picard discovers his wife is Jenice , Picard 's former love from before he decided to join Starfleet . Jenice warns that her husband was working privately in his laboratory , but that she didn 't know what he was working on . She also alerts the crew to numerous security protocols that he has installed at the facilities . As the crew prepares to send an away @-@ team to investigate the laboratory , they experience more time distortions , described by Data ( Brent Spiner ) as " Manheim effects " . In one instance Picard , Riker and Data enter a turbolift only to see their past selves conversing outside of the lift . The crew find that they cannot complete a transporter beam to the facility due to the instabilities .
Dr. Manheim recovers long enough to explain that he was doing experiments involving time , gravity , and funnels to other universes , and suspects his last experiment is running out @-@ of @-@ hand . Manheim explains that he is trapped between two dimensions and Data determines that the experiment must be shut down during a time fluctuation or else it will simply grow larger . Manheim provides the crew with the correct coordinates to beam down to avoid the security fields . Picard admits to Jenice that he worried about losing her again after he left her in Paris , and vows to correct Dr. Manheim 's experiment .
As he is affected less by the distortions , Data is sent down alone and disables the remaining security measures before entering Manheim 's laboratory . He finds a column of energy emanating from a dimensional matrix , the source of the time distortions . Data , though briefly affected by the time distortions , is able to add anti @-@ matter to the matrix , causing the matrix to stabilize and halt the time distortions . Dr. Manheim fully recovers , and he and Jenice thank Picard and the crew for their help . Picard and Jenice use the holodeck to recreate one more encounter at a Paris café , before she returns with her husband to the planet .
= = Production = =
" We 'll Always Have Paris " is named in reference to the Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman film Casablanca . As well as the title of the episode and the love triangle in the story , the Blue Parrot Café from the film is directly mentioned by Captain Picard . Casablanca was also the basis for the earlier Star Trek : The Original Series novel The Entropy Effect , and would be so again in the Deep Space Nine episode " Profit and Loss " .
The story was originally pitched by Hannah Louise Shearer and Deborah Dean Davis , who were also given the job of developing the script . The writing of the episode suffered from the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike , with Shearer and Dean Davis completing the script in five days . The premise of the story was a combination of their idea of a story " about a professor whose work wasn 't appreciated and had to go off on his own " and that of Maurice Hurley who wanted a story with a time anomaly . The final draft was dated 22 February and featured numerous differences from the filmed version , including Jenice being called Laura , a number of different interactions for the crew , and Riker , Worf and Data all being involved in shutting down Manheim 's equipment . The script was finalised a week before the episode was filmed , but the writers strike caused further issues when it was discovered during filming that the scene where Data was to fix the time distortions hadn 't been completed .
Robert Legato and Rick Berman spent forty minutes on the telephone with Shearer during the strike . While she refused to write the lines during the strike , Berman suggested dialogue and Shearer would give opinions with Legato taking down handwritten notes . Legato decided on the directing notes himself , and used a whip pan shot instead of an effects shot to film the three Datas as director Robert Becker had never used effects shots previously . Shearer wasn 't happy with the final result , saying " we were writing the most romantic episode in the world " but that " it was toned down 75 % " .
Shearer later complained of a lack of chemistry between Michelle Phillips and Patrick Stewart , which Phillips blamed on the conflicted nature of the character in that she was committed to her husband but also wanted to see Picard once more . Phillips , a Star Trek fan , is better known for being a member of the 1960s group The Mamas & the Papas . Rod Loomis ' previous science fiction outing was in Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure as Sigmund Freud , and Lance Spellerberg would later return in " The Icarus Factor " where his transporter chief gained the name Ensign Herbert . The image of 24th century Paris was a matte painting which was re @-@ used in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country where it was hung outside the office of the Federation president .
= = Reception = =
" We 'll Always Have Paris " aired in broadcast
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Boise State 38 – 24 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
BSU started the fourth quarter by throwing two incomplete passes . Tharp then completed two passes for a combined 39 yards before Pirates ' defender J.J. Milbrook intercepted Tharp 's fifth pass of the quarter . Milbrook returned the interception 27 yards . The Pirates completed one first down but failed to convert the interception into points . Kicker Matt Dodge came into the game , ostensibly to punt the ball away . In a trick play , he rushed the ball instead , picking up the first down . Despite the trick play 's success , the Pirates were not able to gain another first down . On fourth down , Dodge came out again , and this time punted the ball 47 yards for a touchback . The Broncos began the second drive of the fourth quarter by going 80 yards in nine plays for a touchdown . It took just three minutes and 59 seconds and BSU only three first downs . Boise had now cut the Pirates ' lead to 38 – 31 .
On the next drive , ECU brought in a new quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass was initially successful , and gained a few first downs . The Boise State defense stiffened , however , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began on its 20 – yard line . Running back Jeremy Avery rushed for four yards on the first play . On the third play , Tharp completed a pass for nine yards for a first down . Tharp then passed three straight times for 32 yards and two first downs . On subsequent plays , Tharp rushed for six yards and passed for another six to convert BSU 's third first down of the drive . Three plays later , however , the Broncos ' Titus Young fumbled the ball for the second time in the game , and as before , ECU recovered , seemingly sealing the victory .
After a Boise State unsportsmanlike conduct penalty , ECU began its their 39 – yard line , needing only to rush the ball to keep the clock moving in order to secure the win . On the second rush by Chris Johnson , however , he fumbled the ball . The fumble was recovered by Broncos ' defender Marty Tadman at the ECU 47 – yard line and returned all the way for a touchdown . After the PAT , Boise State tied East Carolina 38 – 38 . The fumble and touchdown turned what had been an inevitable ECU victory into a tie game .
Boise kicked the ball deep , hoping to stop the Pirates ' offense and force overtime . Following the kick , ECU began at its own nine – yard line . The Pirates began the drive with one minute and 16 seconds left in the game . Dominique Lindsay rushed for two yards before Rob Kass completed a pass to Jamar Bryant for 39 yards , enough for a first down near midfield . The Pirates ' continued to move forward , passing for short yardage and rushing for short gains that kept the clock moving , but advanced the ball closer to field goal range . On the third to the last play , Kass rushed for seven yards , and ECU took a timeout with 15 seconds left . Rob Kass lost one yard while moving the ball towards the center of the field in order to set up a game @-@ ending kick . ECU took its last timeout , again stopping the clock . With four seconds remaining on the clock , ECU kicker Ben Hartman converted a 34 – yard field goal to take the lead and the win , 41 – 38 , as time ran out .
= = Final statistics = =
East Carolina running back Chris Johnson finished the game with 223 rushing yards , 32 receiving yards , and 153 return yards for a total of 408 all @-@ purpose yards . That mark broke the NCAA bowl record for all @-@ purpose yards previously set by Alabama 's Sherman Williams against Ohio State in the 1995 Citrus Bowl . On the basis of his record @-@ setting performance , Johnson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . On the opposite side of the ball , Boise State tailback Jeremy Avery had a solid , if unspectacular , outing . He produced 69 rushing yards , 43 receiving yards , 41 kick – return yards , and caught a 25 – yard touchdown pass . Both Johnson and Avery received the Most Valuable Player award for their respective teams .
Boise State committed four turnovers , compared with East Carolina 's one . The Broncos fumbled the ball away twice and threw two interceptions . Despite the disparity in turnover margin , the teams were strikingly similar in several statistical categories , indicating the closeness of the game : Each team earned seven points off the turnovers . Both teams committed 50 yards in penalties ; the Pirates had seven penalties to the Broncos ' four . In addition , both teams earned 22 first downs .
= = = Boise State statistical recap = = =
Boise State University had 368 total offensive yards during the game . About 73 % of BSU 's total offense came through the air , as quarterback Taylor Tharp passed for 270 yards . The remaining 98 yards came on the ground from five different rushers . Running back Jeremy Avery ran for a team @-@ high 69 yards on 10 carries , while running back D.J. Harper had the only Boise State rushing touchdown of the game .
Tharp 's 30 completions were caught by eight different receivers . Austin Pettis led the team with nine catches for 89 yards , and his total accounted for one – third of the team 's receiving yards . Two receivers , Jeremy Avery and Ryan Putnam , accounted for all of the team 's receiving touchdowns . Avery had four catches for 43 yards , while Putnam had one catch for three yards .
Taylor Tharp 's two interceptions were the second @-@ most he had thrown in a game during 2007 , and brought his season interception total to 11 . He completed 30 of 44 pass attempts , a completion percentage of 68 @.@ 2 % . His 270 yards were 13 yards more than his season average of 257 yards . With only two passing touchdowns , Tharp tied for his third @-@ worst passing game in 2007 , faring worse only in the win against Weber State , loss to Washington , win against Fresno State , and loss to Hawaiʻi . Tharp was sacked once by Pirates ' defensive lineman C.J. Wilson for a seven yard loss .
Boise State 's defense had a hard time stopping the East Carolina offense , especially in the first half . The Pirates ' 31 points were the most scored all year by East Carolina in the first half . Leading the Broncos ' defense was safety Marty Tadman . Tadman had seven solo tackles , three assisted tackles , and recorded a defensive touchdown after recovering Chris Johnson 's fumble late in the fourth quarter . Linebacker Kyle Gingg also starred on defense , recording seven solo tackles , one assisted tackle , and one tackle for a one @-@ yard loss . A total of 23 players recorded at least one tackle .
Kyle B
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rotzman handled all the kicking duties for Boise State , punting the ball four times for 169 yards . His longest punt was 52 yards , and one kick was downed inside the Pirates ' 20 yard line . His only field goal was a 31 – yard kick that came with three minutes and 11 seconds left in the third quarter . Brotzman kicked off seven times for 384 yards , averaging 54 @.@ 9 yards per kick with no touchbacks . Marty Tadman had BSU 's only punt return for -1 yard . The Broncos ' special teams had more luck on kickoff returns . Three players had kickoff returns . Austin Smith returned four kickoffs for 173 yards . His 89 – yard return for a touchdown in the first quarter was the team 's longest of the game and gave Boise State its only lead of the game . Jeremy Avery returned two kicks for 41 yards , and Titus Young returned one kick for 52 yards .
Boise State controlled the time of possession only during the fourth quarter , when the Broncos scored 14 points to tie the game . Overall , however , Boise State only controlled the ball for 26 minutes and 16 seconds , in comparison to East Carolina 's 33 minutes and 44 seconds .
= = = East Carolina statistical recap = = =
Almost 70 % of the Pirates ' rushing offense came from running back Chris Johnson , and the rushing offense itself consisted of two – thirds of East Carolina 's total offensive effort . Six additional rushers contributed 99 yards on the ground . The longest rush of the game – 68 yards – came from Johnson . Quarterback Patrick Pinkney played much of the game , completing 12 passes in 19 attempts . Pinkney threw for 118 yards and one touchdown , but the longest pass came from the Pirates ' second quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass threw a 36 – yard pass in the fourth quarter to keep the Pirates ' game @-@ winning drive alive . The pass was Kass 's only completion out of three attempts . Almost one – third of East Carolina 's total offense came from the air .
Ben Hartman and Matt Dodge both contributed to East Carolina 's kicking game . Dodge punted the ball seven times for 302 yards . His longest was a 61 – yard kick , and he had four touchbacks . Hartman and Dodge shared kickoff duty . Dodge had four kickoffs , compared with Hartman 's three . Dodge averaged 60 @.@ 5 yards per kick , while Hartman averaged 57 yards . In addition , Hartman added six points to the scoreboard from field goal attempts . He was two for two , with the second field goal attempt being the game @-@ winner in the fourth quarter . Dwayne Harris handled all punt returns . He fielded two punts , returning them for a total of five yards . Kickoff @-@ return duty was handled by Chris Johnson . He returned six kickoffs for 153 yards , with his longest return consisting of 39 yards .
East Carolina 's defense managed a strong performance statistically and in real terms . The most obvious examples of this were the two interceptions and two forced fumbles . On the first play of the second drive of the second quarter , Boise State quarterback Taylor Tharp threw an interception to defensive back Travis Williams . Williams also recorded eight solo tackles — the second @-@ highest total for the Pirates – and a forced fumble . The other interception came from defensive back J.J. Milbrook , who also boasted three solo tackles , tying him for fifth – best on the team . Linebacker Jeremy forced the final Broncos turnover , gaining the ball and four yards on the play . In addition to his forced fumble , Chambliss recorded four solo tackles . The Pirates ' defense as a whole only gave up three yards in the first quarter and did not allow a first down until halfway through the second quarter .
That strong defensive effort limited the Broncos ' third – down conversion rate to 50 % . Until the fourth quarter , BSU was just two for seven on third – down attempts . On offense , the Pirates fared slightly better , going six for fifteen on third downs .
= = After @-@ effects = =
The win by East Carolina knocked # 24 Boise State out of the final AP Poll of the year . This was the first time BSU was not ranked in the AP Poll top 25 since October 28 , 2007 . Because of his impressive performance , Chris Johnson was invited to the
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6 San Francisco 's LGBT Film Festival , as some thought Baker was actually advocating Nazism . It is also credited with having caused Michael Medved to abandon his dream of film making and instead become a film critic .
= = Writer = =
Baker 's lifelong ambition was to write . Upon graduating from UCLA , he spent approximately five years writing Hollywood screenplays in the early 1980s , a process he hated . While financially successful , he was frustrated that his work was not being produced . " I felt like a door @-@ to @-@ door salesman going to all these [ story ] pitch meetings ... [ filled with ] rabid , hideous morons " . He became discouraged and disillusioned , and turned his attention to novels .
His first book , Adrenaline , was published under the pseudonym James Dillinger . A story of two gay fugitive lovers on the run , it presaged the satire and drug fueled violence so prominent in his later books . Here Baker began developing the themes that dominated his following works : anarchy ; angry and somewhat paranoid gay men ; the dark underside of Los Angeles , juxtaposed with its sunny outward image ; the hypocrisy of organized religion ; anonymous sex and its implications in the age of AIDS ; and homophobia and the oppression of gays in a Republican dominated America . Its plot device of underdog characters forced into flight due to circumstances beyond their control was one Baker explored in all of his subsequent work . The modest success of this novel encouraged him to devote himself to what have become his best known works , Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams ( a novel revolving around a character loosely based on record producer Phil Spector ) and the 1986 release Boy Wonder . After the novel was published , he stopped screenwriting in order to solely concentrate on books . He spent the bulk of each day writing and researching , and acted out characters and scenes of his novels on videotape to perfect the dialogue .
His primary focus was gay @-@ themed writing , though he also wrote about the entertainment industry . Mostly satirical , his writing was filled with increasingly clear anger and disdain for the Republican neo @-@ con agenda , especially after the AIDS pandemic began to take a large toll on the gay community . A very strong voice in gay literature , Baker had admirers and detractors for his gay radical stance , both in the mainstream literary community as well as the gay community itself .
A self @-@ described anarchist , Baker has been categorized as a writer of transgressional fiction , in that his novels are frequently populated by sociopathic , nihilistic characters who engage in taboo behaviors such as heavy drug use , incest , necrophilia and other practices ; and often commit acts of extreme , surrealistic violence . A man of eclectic tastes , Baker cited as literary influences writers and film directors ranging from Proust to Jim Thompson and Sam Peckinpah . He also admired the punk writer Dennis Cooper .
His work is filled with pop cultural references to both film and music , as well as politics . Orson Welles ' Touch of Evil and John Ford 's The Searchers are mentioned prominently in more than one of his books , and Roxy Music is referenced in virtually every novel he wrote . The imagery in his novels is largely cinematic , with expressions such as " fade in / fade out " , " quick cut " and " VistaVision " ; and sentences such as " a montage traces the next fifteen years " and " If the last reel of Cheryl 's life had been a CinemaScope Technicolor movie ... " . With driven narratives , his books have the feel of a movie set down on paper .
= = Critical reception = =
Baker 's work received mixed reviews . His only two books not specifically gay themed ( though containing gay characters and a somewhat gay sensibility ) , Boy Wonder and Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams , were better received by critics , and more popular with readers , though he was never a bestselling novelist . Baker himself estimated that his books sold approximately 25 @,@ 000 copies each . His following book , however , Tim and Pete , met with hostile reviews , primarily for its advocacy of political assassination and terror tactics in combating AIDS discrimination . Baker himself was ambivalent on the subject . " I think assassination does change things ... But I 'm not really calling for violence , " he said . " It 's a novel , not a position paper . "
In a 1993 interview , however , Baker stated :
I think a strong case can be made that political assassination actually does change things . If you look at the assassinations in this country in the 1960s you can certainly see how it affected history in a very profound way . So if you killed right wing figures , you 'd also be altering the course of history , and eliminating people who might very well be president in 1996 and those who are making bashing gays their number one issue right now . On the one hand , I 'm not advocating PWA 's turn themselves into human bombs , but on the other hand I have to admit that if I clicked on CNN and heard somebody had blown Patrick Buchanan 's head clean off , I 'd be elated , and to say otherwise would be a lie .
There were also charges of racism , due to his portrayals of blacks and Hispanics . Baker denied those charges , and pointed out that the protagonist later realized that the blacks were also gay and the Latina " was just a sweet old woman putting up with a lot of ( stuff ) that I couldn 't even imagine . " He went on to say , " I just wanted to explore the conflicts between gays and Latinos and gays and blacks ... the real feelings [ and the ] misapprehensions of each other . I realized it wouldn 't all be nice and politically correct . If blacks ( and Latinos ) want my respect , they have to deal with their own homophobia . I 'm not playing guilty liberal anymore " .
The book caused a great deal of controversy among critics , with some calling it " irresponsible " , and saying it was " determined to give offense " and " appears to endorse violence " . One critic of the book wrote , " The work rapidly becomes an apology for political terrorism and effectively advocates the assassination of the entire American New Right . While the reasons for such a vengeance motif are perhaps evident , can it really be countenanced ? Are we still justified in referring to this as art ? And even if we are , is there a point at which such invective ( and such suggestions ) become simply counterproductive ? " Another critic , however , called it " a masterful creation " and wrote : " In coming years Baker will be seen as having understood the implications of this period in our history while the rest of us were simply living it " . It polarized the reading public as well , with letters to the editor of major newspapers both supporting and opposing Baker 's ideology . Baker himself was aware that the book would be controversial , and deliberately provoked much of the reaction he received . He said : " Tim and Pete tries to convey in print what people really think rather than what they should think or what 's P.C. My fantasy was to leave readers so infuriated they 'd throw down the book and march right out to a gun store because they wanted to see the finale so bad they realize the only way it 'd happen is if they make it happen in real life ! "
= = Death = =
After the reception of Tim and Pete , with several critics calling him " The Last Angry Gay Man " , Baker faced increasing difficulty finding a publisher for his work and his financial position became precarious . He was only able to publish one novella , Right Wing , and that was self @-@ published on the Internet .
Baker 's life partner , Ron Robertson , believes that this difficulty led Baker on a quick , downwards emotional spiral . Baker killed himself at his home on November 5 , 1997 , by asphyxiation in his garage . His death was noted in literary circles and mainstream press ; the Gay Times in the United Kingdom wrote , " Baker 's suicide is particularly tragic because it robs American gay writing of a refreshingly distinctive voice quite unlike the po @-@ faced prose of so many of his contemporaries . "
= = Legacy = =
Since his death , Baker 's reputation has steadily increased among critics and the reading public ; and his works now have cult status in the literary community . By 2006 , first editions of Adrenaline , Boy Wonder , Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams and Tim and Pete had become collector 's items and commanded high prices at rare book stores .
Robertson , now Baker 's literary executor , was successful in having two additional novels published after Baker 's death . One of those , Testosterone , was filmed in 2003 . Directed by David Moreton and starring Antonio Sabato Jr . , the plot was significantly altered and the film was a critical and financial failure . Both Boy Wonder and Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams have been optioned for the movies several times , most recently in 2004 , though they were never produced . Baker 's work has also been published in Germany , Sweden , Italy , Great Britain , Australia , Japan and Russia .
Though Tim and Pete was his most controversial work , Boy Wonder is generally considered his magnum opus , and remains his most popular book .
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With regard to computer vision , Moravec estimated that simply matching the edge and motion detection capabilities of human retina in real time would require a general @-@ purpose computer capable of 109 operations / second ( 1000 MIPS ) . As of 2011 , practical computer vision applications require 10 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 MIPS . By comparison , the fastest supercomputer in 1976 , Cray @-@ 1 ( retailing at $ 5 million to $ 8 million ) , was only capable of around 80 to 130 MIPS , and a typical desktop computer at the time achieved less than 1 MIPS .
Intractability and the combinatorial explosion . In 1972 Richard Karp ( building on Stephen Cook 's 1971 theorem ) showed there are many problems that can probably only be solved in exponential time ( in the size of the inputs ) . Finding optimal solutions to these problems requires unimaginable amounts of computer time except when the problems are trivial . This almost certainly meant that many of the " toy " solutions used by AI would probably never scale up into useful systems .
Commonsense knowledge and reasoning . Many important artificial intelligence applications like vision or natural language require simply enormous amounts of information about the world : the program needs to have some idea of what it might be looking at or what it is talking about . This requires that the program know most of the same things about the world that a child does . Researchers soon discovered that this was a truly vast amount of information . No one in 1970 could build a database so large and no one knew how a program might learn so much information .
Moravec 's paradox : Proving theorems and solving geometry problems is comparatively easy for computers , but a supposedly simple task like recognizing a face or crossing a room without bumping into anything is extremely difficult . This helps explain why research into vision and robotics had made so little progress by the middle 1970s .
The frame and qualification problems . AI researchers ( like John McCarthy ) who used logic discovered that they could not represent ordinary deductions that involved planning or default reasoning without making changes to the structure of logic itself . They developed new logics ( like non @-@ monotonic logics and modal logics ) to try to solve the problems .
= = = The end of funding = = =
The agencies which funded AI research ( such as the British government , DARPA and NRC ) became frustrated with the lack of progress and eventually cut off almost all funding for undirected research into AI . The pattern began as early as 1966 when the ALPAC report appeared criticizing machine translation efforts . After spending 20 million dollars , the NRC ended all support . In 1973 , the Lighthill report on the state of AI research in England criticized the utter failure of AI to achieve its " grandiose objectives " and led to the dismantling of AI research in that country . ( The report specifically mentioned the combinatorial explosion problem as a reason for AI 's failings . ) DARPA was deeply disappointed with researchers working on the Speech Understanding Research program at CMU and canceled an annual grant of three million dollars . By 1974 , funding for AI projects was hard to find .
Hans Moravec blamed the
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crisis on the unrealistic predictions of his colleagues . " Many researchers were caught up in a web of increasing exaggeration . " However , there was another issue : since the passage of the Mansfield Amendment in 1969 , DARPA had been under increasing pressure to fund " mission @-@ oriented direct research , rather than basic undirected research " . Funding for the creative , freewheeling exploration that had gone on in the 60s would not come from DARPA . Instead , the money was directed at specific projects with clear objectives , such as autonomous tanks and battle management systems .
= = = Critiques from across campus = = =
Several philosophers had strong objections to the claims being made by AI researchers . One of the earliest was John Lucas , who argued that Gödel 's incompleteness theorem showed that a formal system ( such as a computer program ) could never see the truth of certain statements , while a human being could . Hubert Dreyfus ridiculed the broken promises of the 60s and critiqued the assumptions of AI , arguing that human reasoning actually involved very little " symbol processing " and a great deal of embodied , instinctive , unconscious " know how " . John Searle 's Chinese Room argument , presented in 1980 , attempted to show that a program could not be said to " understand " the symbols that it uses ( a quality called " intentionality " ) . If the symbols have no meaning for the machine , Searle argued , then the machine can not be described as " thinking " .
These critiques were not taken seriously by AI researchers , often because they seemed so far off the point . Problems like intractability and commonsense knowledge seemed much more immediate and serious . It was unclear what difference " know how " or " intentionality " made to an actual computer program . Minsky said of Dreyfus and Searle " they misunderstand , and should be ignored . " Dreyfus , who taught at MIT , was given a cold shoulder : he later said that AI researchers " dared not be seen having lunch with me . " Joseph Weizenbaum , the author of ELIZA , felt his colleagues ' treatment of Dreyfus was unprofessional and childish . Although he was an outspoken critic of Dreyfus ' positions , he " deliberately made it plain that theirs was not the way to treat a human being . "
Weizenbaum began to have serious ethical doubts about AI when Kenneth Colby wrote DOCTOR , a chatterbot therapist . Weizenbaum was disturbed that Colby saw his mindless program as a serious therapeutic tool . A feud began , and the situation was not helped when Colby did not credit Weizenbaum for his contribution to the program . In 1976 , Weizenbaum published Computer Power and Human Reason which argued that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life .
= = = Perceptrons and the dark age of connectionism = = =
A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced in 1958 by Frank Rosenblatt , who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx High School of Science . Like most AI researchers , he was optimistic about their power , predicting that " perceptron may eventually be able to learn , make decisions , and translate languages . " An active research program into the paradigm was carried out throughout the 60s but came to a sudden halt with the publication of Minsky and Papert 's 1969 book Perceptrons . It suggested that there were severe limitations to what perceptrons could do and that Frank Rosenblatt 's predictions had been grossly exaggerated . The effect of the book was devastating : virtually no research at all was done in connectionism for 10 years . Eventually , a new generation of researchers would revive the field and thereafter it would become a vital and useful part of artificial intelligence . Rosenblatt would not live to see this , as he died in a boating accident shortly after the book was published .
= = = The neats : logic and symbolic reasoning = = =
Logic was introduced into AI research as early as 1958 , by John McCarthy in his Advice Taker proposal . In 1963 , J. Alan Robinson had discovered a simple method to implement deduction on computers , the resolution and unification algorithm . However , straightforward implementations , like those attempted by McCarthy and his students in the late 60s , were especially intractable : the programs required astronomical numbers of steps to prove simple theorems . A more fruitful approach to logic was developed in the 1970s by Robert Kowalski at the University of Edinburgh , and soon this led to the collaboration with French researchers Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel who created the successful logic programming language Prolog . Prolog uses a subset of logic ( Horn clauses , closely related to " rules " and " production rules " ) that permit tractable computation . Rules would continue to be influential , providing a foundation for Edward Feigenbaum 's expert systems and the continuing work by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon that would lead to Soar and their unified theories of cognition .
Critics of the logical approach noted , as Dreyfus had , that human beings rarely used logic when they solved problems . Experiments by psychologists like Peter Wason , Eleanor Rosch , Amos Tversky , Daniel Kahneman and others provided proof . McCarthy responded that what people do is irrelevant . He argued that what is really needed are machines that can solve problems — not
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machines that think as people do .
= = = The scruffies : frames and scripts = = =
Among the critics of McCarthy 's approach were his colleagues across the country at MIT . Marvin Minsky , Seymour Papert and Roger Schank were trying to solve problems like " story understanding " and " object recognition " that required a machine to think like a person . In order to use ordinary concepts like " chair " or " restaurant " they had to make all the same illogical assumptions that people normally made . Unfortunately , imprecise concepts like these are hard to represent in logic . Gerald Sussman observed that " using precise language to describe essentially imprecise concepts doesn 't make them any more precise . " Schank described their " anti @-@ logic " approaches as " scruffy " , as opposed to the " neat " paradigms used by McCarthy , Kowalski , Feigenbaum , Newell and Simon .
In 1975 , in a seminal paper , Minsky noted that many of his fellow " scruffy " researchers were using the same kind of tool : a framework that captures all our common sense assumptions about something . For example , if we use the concept of a bird , there is a constellation of facts that immediately come to mind : we might assume that it flies , eats worms and so on . We know these facts are not always true and that deductions using these facts will not be " logical " , but these structured sets of assumptions are part of the context of everything we say and think . He called these structures " frames " . Schank used a version of frames he called " scripts " to successfully answer questions about short stories in English . Many years later object @-@ oriented programming would adopt the essential idea of " inheritance " from AI research on frames .
= = Boom 1980 – 1987 = =
In the 1980s a form of AI program called " expert systems " was adopted by corporations around the world and knowledge became the focus of mainstream AI research . In those same years , the Japanese government aggressively funded AI with its fifth generation computer project . Another encouraging event in the early 1980s was the revival of connectionism in the work of John Hopfield and David Rumelhart . Once again , AI had achieved success .
= = = The rise of expert systems = = =
An expert system is a program that answers questions or solves problems about a specific domain of knowledge , using logical rules that are derived from the knowledge of experts . The earliest examples were developed by Edward Feigenbaum and his students . Dendral , begun in 1965 , identified compounds from spectrometer readings . MYCIN , developed in 1972 , diagnosed infectious blood diseases . They demonstrated the feasibility of the approach .
Expert systems restricted themselves to a small domain of specific knowledge ( thus avoiding the commonsense knowledge problem ) and their simple design made it relatively easy for programs to be built and then modified once they were in place . All in all , the programs proved to be useful : something that AI had not been able to achieve up to this point .
In 1980 , an expert system called XCON was completed at CMU for the Digital Equipment Corporation . It was an enormous success : it was saving the company 40 million dollars annually by 1986 . Corporations around the world began to develop and deploy expert systems and by 1985 they were spending over a billion dollars on AI , most of it to in @-@ house AI departments . An industry grew up to support them , including hardware companies like Symbolics and Lisp Machines and software companies such as IntelliCorp and Aion .
= = = The knowledge revolution = = =
The power of expert systems came from the expert knowledge they contained . They were part of a new direction in AI research that had been gaining ground throughout the 70s . " AI researchers were beginning to suspect — reluctantly , for it violated the scientific canon of parsimony — that intelligence might very well be based on the ability to use large amounts of diverse knowledge in different ways , " writes Pamela McCorduck . " [ T ] he great lesson from the 1970s was that intelligent behavior depended very much on dealing with knowledge , sometimes quite detailed knowledge , of a domain where a given task lay " . Knowledge based systems and knowledge engineering became a major focus of AI research in the 1980s .
The 1980s also saw the birth of Cyc , the first attempt to attack the commonsense knowledge problem directly , by creating a massive database that would contain all the mundane facts that the average person knows . Douglas Lenat , who started and led the project , argued that there is no shortcut ― the only way for machines to know the meaning of human concepts is to teach them , one concept at a time , by hand . The project was not expected to be completed for many decades .
Chess playing programs HiTech and Deep Thought defeated chess masters in 1989 . Both were developed by Carnegie Mellon University ; Deep Thought development paved the way for the Deep Blue .
= = = The money returns : the fifth generation project = = =
In 1981 , the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry set aside $ 850 million for the Fifth generation computer project . Their objectives were to write programs and build machines that could carry on conversations , translate languages , interpret pictures , and reason like human beings . Much to the chagrin of scruffies , they chose Prolog as the primary computer language for the project .
Other countries responded with new programs of their own . The UK began the ₤ 350 million Alvey project . A consortium of American companies formed the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation ( or " MCC " ) to fund large scale projects in AI and information technology . DARPA responded as well , founding the Strategic Computing Initiative and tripling its investment in AI between 1984 and 1988 .
= = = The revival of connectionism = = =
In 1982 , physicist John Hopfield was able to prove that a form of neural network ( now called a " Hopfield net " ) could learn and process information in a completely new way . Around the same time , David Rumelhart popularized a new method for training neural networks called " backpropagation " ( discovered years earlier by Paul Werbos ) . These two discoveries revived the field of connectionism which had been largely abandoned since 1970 .
The new field was unified and inspired by the appearance of Parallel Distributed Processing in 1986 — a two volume collection of papers edited by Rumelhart and psychologist James McClelland . Neural networks would become commercially successful in the 1990s , when they began to be used as the engines driving programs like optical character recognition and speech recognition .
= = Bust : the second AI winter 1987 – 1993 = =
The business community 's fascination with AI rose and fell in the 80s in the classic pattern of an economic bubble . The collapse was in the perception of AI by government agencies and investors – the field continued to make advances despite the criticism . Rodney Brooks and Hans Moravec , researchers from the related field of robotics , argued for an entirely new approach to artificial intelligence .
= = = AI winter = = =
The term " AI winter " was coined by researchers who had survived the funding cuts of 1974 when they became concerned that enthusiasm for expert systems had spiraled out of control and that disappointment would certainly follow . Their fears were well founded : in the late 80s and early 90s , AI suffered a series of financial setbacks .
The first indication of a change in weather was the sudden collapse of the market for specialized AI hardware in 1987 . Desktop computers from Apple and IBM had been steadily gaining speed and power and in 1987 they became more powerful than the more expensive Lisp machines made by Symbolics and others . There was no longer a good reason to buy them . An entire industry worth half a billion dollars was demolished overnight .
Eventually
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( 1777 – 1887 ) suggests that ki means " yellow " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to neko , the word for cat .
Ōtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai ( 1932 – 1935 ) proposes that the word comes from kitsu , which is onomatopoeia for the bark of a fox , and ne , which may be an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine .
Nozaki also suggests that the word kitsune was originally onomatopoetic . Kitsu represented a fox 's yelp and came to be the general word for fox . -Ne signifies an affectionate mood .
Kitsu is now archaic ; in modern Japanese , a fox 's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon .
One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune . Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males , this one does not end tragically :
Ono , an inhabitant of Mino ( says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545 ) , spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty . He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her . Simultaneously with the birth of their son , Ono 's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors . She begged her husband to kill it , but he refused . At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage , resumed vulpine shape , leaped over a fence and fled .
" You may be a fox , " Ono called after her , " but you are the mother of my son and I love you . Come back when you please ; you will always be welcome . "
So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms .
Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox , she is called Kitsune . In classical Japanese , kitsu @-@ ne means come and sleep , and ki @-@ tsune means always comes .
= = Characteristics = =
Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence , long life , and magical powers . They are a type of yōkai , or spiritual entity , and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit . However , this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts , nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes . Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment , all long @-@ lived foxes gain supernatural abilities .
There are two common classifications of kitsune . The zenko ( 善狐 , literally good foxes ) are benevolent , celestial foxes associated with Inari ; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes . On the other hand , the yako ( 野狐 , literally field foxes , also called nogitsune ) tend to be mischievous or even malicious . Local traditions add further types . For example , a ninko is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them .
Physically , kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails . Generally , a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox ; in fact , some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years . One , five , seven , and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories . When a kitsune gains its ninth tail , its fur becomes white or gold . These kyūbi no kitsune ( 九尾の狐 , nine @-@ tailed foxes ) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world . Other tales credit them with infinite wisdom ( omniscience ) .
= = = Shapeshifting = = =
A kitsune may take on human form , an ability learned when it reaches a certain age — usually 100 years , although some tales say 50 . As a common prerequisite for the transformation , the fox must place reeds , a broad leaf , or a skull over its head . Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women , young girls , or elderly men . These shapes are not limited by the fox 's age or gender , and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person . Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women . Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone , especially at dusk or night , could be a fox . Kitsune @-@ gao or fox @-@ faced refers to human females who have a narrow face with close @-@ set eyes , thin eyebrows , and high cheekbones . Traditionally , this facial structure is considered attractive , and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form . Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits , such as a coating of fine hair , a fox @-@ shaped shadow , or a reflection that shows its true form .
In some stories , kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form ; looking for the tail , perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless , is a common method of discerning the creature 's true nature . A particularly devout individual may in some cases even be able to see through a fox 's disguise merely by perceiving them . Kitsune may also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs , and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee .
One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune 's human shape concerns Koan , a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination . According to the story , he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot . Then , " in his pain , he ran out of the bathroom naked . When the people of the household saw him , they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body , along with a fox 's tail . Then Koan transformed in front of them , becoming an elderly fox and running away . "
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Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession , mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning ( known as kitsunebi ) , willful manifestation in the dreams of others , flight , invisibility , and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality . Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers , able to bend time and space , drive people mad , or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky . Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings , generally through sexual contact .
= = = Kitsunetsuki = = =
Kitsunetsuki ( Japanese : 狐憑き , 狐付き ) , also written kitsune @-@ tsuki , literally means " the state of being possessed by a fox " . The victim is usually a young woman , whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts . In some cases , the victims ' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox . Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read . Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will , kitsunetsuki is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers , or tsukimono @-@ suji .
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition :
Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter . Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets . Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth , and yelp as a fox yelps . And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin , which seems to have a life of its own . Prick it with a needle , and it glides instantly to another place . By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers . Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession . They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu , aburagé , azukimeshi , etc . — and they eat a great deal , alleging that not they , but the possessing foxes , are hungry .
He goes on to note that , once freed from the possession , the victim will never again be able to eat tofu , azukimeshi , or other foods favored by foxes :
Exorcism , often performed at an Inari shrine , may induce a fox to leave its host . In the past , when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available , victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave . Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed .
In Japan , kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century . Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals . In the late 19th century , Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki . The belief has lost favor , but stories of fox possession still occur , such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed .
In medicine , kitsunetsuki is a culture @-@ bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture . Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox . Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet adzuki beans , listlessness , restlessness , and aversion to eye contact . Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy .
= = = Hoshi no tama = = =
Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion @-@ shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama ( ほしのたま , star balls ) . Tales describe these as glowing
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disbanded .
= = = Post World War II = = =
In November 1948 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was again reestablished . The final stages of fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists , in the Chinese Civil War ( also known as the War of Liberation ) , occurred between 1945 and 1950 . When the fighting escalated , the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were ordered to Northern China to evacuate all Americans . This mission was accomplished by March 1949 and after which the battalion was sent to Camp Lejeune , North Carolina and was renamed as the 3rd Battalion , 6th Marine .
On June 25 , 1950 , war broke out between the provisional governments of North and South Korea as they competed for control over the Korean peninsula . North Korea was supported by the People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) of the People 's Republic of China and South Korea by the allies under the aegis of the United Nations which included the United States . The conflict is known as the Korean War . The 1st Marine Division was sent in and saw action in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir . In 1952 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was reactivated and underwent training in Japan with the intention of participating in the conflict as part of the 3rd Marine Division . However an armistice was signed on July 27 , 1953 , and the unit did not deploy to Korea . Even though 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines did not actively participate in the conflict , the unit was awarded the Korean Service Streamer and National Defense Service Medal Streamer . The 3rd Marine Divisions headquarters was moved to Okinawa in 1955 and in 1959 the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines returned to the 1st Marine Division . In 1960 , the battalion returned to the 3rd Marine Division in Okinawa .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The Vietnam War , was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRVN , DRV or North Vietnam ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN or South Vietnam ) , which eventually involved their respective allies . In 1959 , the United States sent military advisors to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . By 1965 , there were 25 @,@ 000 military advisors in South Vietnam and on March 8 , 1965 , the United States Marines became the first US combat troops to land in South Vietnam , with a force of 3 @,@ 500 .
The 3d Marine Division began operating in Vietnam when on March 6 , 1965 , they opened a Marine Compound at the Da Nang Air Base . On July 4 , 1965 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were ordered to Vietnam from Okinawa . 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines fought battles in or around Danang , Hue , Phu Bai , Đông Hà , Camp Carroll , Cam Lộ , Con Thien , Than Cam Son , Quảng Trị , Cửa Việt , Vandegrift Combat Base and what is considered by many as their most vicious engagement , the Battle of Khe Sanh .
In September 1962 , U.S. military forces constructed an airstrip outside the town of Khe Sanh which became known as the Khe Sanh Combat Base . In 1965 the U.S. Special Forces constructed a base next to it . The base 's defense was codenamed Operation Scotland and manned by the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines from 1967 . It was used as a staging ground for a number of attacks on North Vietnamese ( NVA ) troop movements down the Ho Chi Minh Trail .
From April to June 1966 , the 2 / 9 Marines were caught in crossfire of the Buddhist Uprising , when much of the forces of I Corps rebelled against Prime Minister and Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky , the head of the ruling junta , who had dismissed their commander , General Nguyen Chanh Thi .
In April and May 1967 various " Hill Fights " on Hills 861 , 881 North and 881 South between the 2 / 9 Marines and NVA occurred . In January 1968 , Khe Sanh Combat Base came under heavy attack in what is known as the Battle of Khe Sanh . The main objective of the Communists was to draw off American troops into the countryside in preparation for the Tet Offensive . Despite being outnumbered , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines held their ground and the North Vietnamese were driven off of the area around after experiencing heavy casualties by heavy aerial bombardments by B @-@ 52s .
From January 22 to March 18 , 1969 , 2 / 9 participated in Operation Dewey Canyon which was a sweep of the A Shau Valley and the last major offensive by the Marine Corps in Vietnam .
In August 1969 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was ordered to return to Camp Schwab , Okinawa . During this period the unit was assigned to sea duty in and around the waters of Vietnam and continued to receive combat training at Camp Fuji , Japan and Subic Bay in the Philippines .
= = = = Mayaguez Incident = = = =
On May 12 , 1975 , barely two weeks after the fall of Saigon , Khmer Rouge forces seized a U.S. flagged merchant ship , the SS Mayaguez in recognized international sea lanes claimed as territorial waters by Cambodia and removed its crew for questioning . The Khmer Rouge naval forces used abandoned US Navy " Swift Boats " in the seizure of the U.S. container ship .
Calling the seizure " piracy " , President Ford ordered a military response to retake the ship and its 39 @-@ man crew , mistakenly thought to be on Koh Tang Island . On May 13 , two A @-@ 7D
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Corsairs saw the 39 man crew board a fishing boat and saw people disembarking fishing boats at Koh Tang Island . They assumed that the Mayaguez crew was on the island . Elements of the 1st Battalion , 4th Marines , the 2nd Battalion , 4th Marines , and the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines , were flown to an advanced staging of a joint US Task Force . On May 14 , the Marines from Company D , 1st Battalion , 4th Marines boarded the Mayaguez only to find it deserted and raised the American flag . A Thai fishing boat with a Thai crew and the 39 crew members of the SS Mayaguez which had been set free , approached the USS Wilson .
= = = = Battle of Koh Tang Island = = = =
2nd Battalion , 9th Marines landed on Koh Tang Island where the crew of the SS Mayaguez was believed to be held , they were unaware that the crew was already in American hands . The Marines and the CH @-@ 53 helicopters which transported them , were attacked by the Khmer Rouge with machine guns , mortars , and rocket propelled grenade launchers in what became known as the Battle of Koh Tang Island . When the battalion received word of the safe arrival of the Mayaguez crew on the USS Wilson the Marines planned their withdrawal once they received orders from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff to that effect . After the last helicopter left , a head count showed that 3 Marines were left behind on the island . They were : PFC Gary Hall , LCpl . Joseph Hargrove , and Pvt Danny Marshall from E CO , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines . The three Marines were captured by the Khmer Rouge within a few days , tortured , executed , and buried in a common , unmarked grave on Koh Tang Island .
The Mayagüez incident with the Khmer Rouge , which ended on May 15 , 1975 , marked the last official battle of the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines in the Vietnam War . The unit deployment program was put into practice in February 1979 , and 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines became the first battalion to rotate to the United States . A total of 18 Marines were killed on the last day of the SS Mayaguez rescue operation . They are the last Marines listed on the timeline of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial located in Washington , D.C.
= = = Post Vietnam era = = =
= = = = Operations Desert Shield & Desert Storm = = = =
Before the August 2 , 1990 , invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein 's Iraqi forces , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was deployed to Okinawa , Japan as part of the Unit Deployment Program . In October 1990 the unit deployed to the Republic of the Philippines where it became the Ground Combat Element of Marine Air @-@ Ground Task Force ( MAGTF ) 4 @-@ 90 . On November 1990 , the island of Cebu , a Philippine providence , was devastated by a typhoon . Members of the battalion provided assistance during the disaster relief efforts . The Battalion remained in the Philippines until April 1991 when it returned to Okinawa , Japan . Subsequently the Battalion returned to Camp Pendleton in August 1991 .
= = = = Operation " Restore Hope " = = = =
The 5th Marine Regiment designated 2 / 9 to participate in the Marine Expeditionary Unit deployment cycle during November 1991 . With the successful culmination of the Special Operations Capable Exercise ( SOCEX ) , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines became the designated Battalion Landing Team ( BLT ) for the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit ( 15th MEU ) .
During this period , there were two main factions in the Republic of Somalia who provoked an all out war which became known as the Somalian Civil War . One of the factions was led by Ali Mahdi Mohamed , who became president ; and the other , by the warlord Mohammed Farah Aidid .
In 1991 , the United States initiated Operation Provide Relief ( UNOSOM I ) which was part of a United Nations ( UN ) endorsed effort called The Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) , to provide humanitarian relief . In August 1992 , President George H. Bush sent , 25 @,@ 000 US troops ( mostly US Marines from I MEF ) to the Republic of Somalia and the mission was renamed Operation Restore Hope , also known as UNOSOM II . Its main objectives were to provide humanitarian relief , initiate ' nation building ' , disarm the various factions , restore law and order , help the people set up a representative government , and restore the infrastructure .
That same month , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was deployed to Somalia . BLT 2 / 9 's mission as the lead unit , was to secure the port and airfield in Mogadishu which allowed the rapid build @-@ up of forces in @-@ country . The mission was accomplished between December 9 , 1992 and February 1993 . The Somalis referred to Marines of 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines as The Black Boots . On January 30 , 1993 , a Marine patrol was ambushed in Mogadishu by gunmen faithful to warlord Mohammed Farah Aidid bringing about casualties . 2 / 9 remained in Somalia until April 1993 when they returned to Camp Pendleton . The battalions next two deployments were to Fort Sherman , Panama during one of which they participated in the Javelin anti @-@ tank missile evaluation program . On September 2 , 1994 , 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was deactivated and redesignated 2nd Battalion 4th Marines .
= = = 2000 @-@ present = = =
On December 7 , 2006 , Headquarters Marine Corps released a message stating that 2nd Battalion 9th Marines would be reactivated during 2007 as part of the continuing Global War on Terror . 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was re @-@ activated on July 13 , 2007 and replaced the Anti @-@ Terrorism Battalion ( ATBn ) . In September 2008 , Marines and Sailors from 2 / 9 deployed to Al Anbar Province in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . They were based in the city of Ramadi and returned in April 2009 without any Marines or Sailors killed in action . July 2010 Marines and Sailors from 2 / 9 deployed to Marjah , Helmand Province , Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . In December 2010 Echo Company from 2 / 9 were attached to 3 / 5 in Sangin , Afghanistan where they earned the notorious nickname of " Green Hats . " They returned February 2011 . They redeployed back to Marjah December 2011 and returned July 2012 . Echo and Weapons companies deployed once more to Afghanistan from January through April 2013 , participating in combat operations out of Camp Leatherneck . On April 1 , 2015 the battalion was deactivated in a ceremony at Camp Lejeune .
= = Medal of Honor recipients = =
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States . It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself " ... conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ... " . The following table contains the names of the men who were recipients of the Medal of Honor while serving in 2 / 9 . They are listed in accordance to the " Date of Action " in which the MoH citation was made . † indicates that the Medal of Honor was awarded posthumously
= = Commandants of the Marine Corps = =
The Commandant of the United States Marine Corps is the highest @-@ ranking officer of the United States Marine Corps and a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , reporting to the Secretary of the Navy but not to the Chief of Naval Operations . Three Marines who served in 2nd Battalion 9th Marines became Commandant of the Marine Corps . They are listed in the table in accordance to the years in which they served as Commandants and their ranks are those which they held while serving in 2 / 9 , they were :
= = Distinguished Marines = =
Other Marines who served in the 2nd Battalion 9th Marines during their careers , who subsequently distinguished themselves by either becoming a general officer ( O @-@ 7 and above ) or recipients of the Medal of Honor while assigned to a different unit were :
= = Other notable former members = =
Bing West , served in the mortar platoon during the Vietnam War in 1965 .
= = Unit awards = =
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited . Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation . 2 / 9 has been presented with the following awards :
= Directed acyclic graph =
In mathematics and computer science , a directed acyclic graph ( DAG / ˈ
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9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
231st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier A.G.B. Stanier
1st Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment
1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment
2nd Battalion , Devonshire Regiment
Divisional troops
61st Reconnaissance Regiment , Royal Armoured Corps ( RAC ) ( 2 Squadrons )
2nd Battalion , Cheshire Regiment ( machine guns and heavy mortars )
357th , 358th & 465th Batteries , 90th Field Regiment , Royal Artillery ( RA ) ( Self @-@ propelled )
99th & 288th Batteries , 102nd ( Northumberland Hussars ) Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA
82nd Battery , 25th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
233rd ( Northumbrian ) Field Company , Royal Engineers ( RE )
295th Field Company , RE
505th Field Company , RE
235th ( Northumbrian ) Field Park Company , RE ( bulldozers )
50th Divisional Signals , Royal Corps of Signals
149th , 186th & 200th Field Ambulances , Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC )
22nd Field Hygiene Section , RAMC
50th Divisional Provost Company , Royal Military Police ( RMP )
Formations attached for assault phase
Elements of 79th Armoured Division
Westminster Dragoons ( Flail tanks )
141st Royal Tank Regiment ( The Buffs ) ( Churchill Crocodiles ) ( 2 Troops )
81st & 82nd Assault Squadrons , 6th Assault Regiment , RE ( AVREs )
56th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.C. Pepper
2nd Battalion , Essex Regiment
2nd Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment
2nd Battalion , South Wales Borderers
8th Armoured Brigade , commanded by Brigadier H.J.B. Carcroft
4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards ( DD Tanks )
Nottinghamshire Yeomanry ( DD Tanks )
76th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.R. Benson
113th Heavy Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA ( HQ only )
320th Battery , 93rd Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
394th & 395th Batteries , 120th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
152nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Operations Room , RA
A Troop , 356th ( Independent ) Searchlight Battery , RA
Additional units attached for assault phase
GHQ Liaison Regiment , RAC ( ' Phantom ' )
341st , 342nd , & 462nd Batteries , 86th ( East Anglian ) ( Hertfordshire Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )
413th , 431st & 511th Batteries , 147th ( Essex Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )
198th & 234th Batteries , 73rd Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA
662nd Air Observation Post Squadron , RA ( Ground crew of one flight only )
73rd Field Company , RE
280th Field Company , RE
203rd Field Ambulance , RAMC
168th Light Field Ambulance , RAMC
1st Royal Marine Armoured Support Regiment
No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando
104 Beach Sub @-@ Area HQ
9 & 10 Beach Groups and Signal Section
69th , 89th , 90th & 183rd Field Companies , RE
21st & 23rd Stores Sections , RE
51st & 74th Mechanical Equipment Sections , RE
1043rd Port Operating Company , RE
953rd & 961st Inland Water Transport Companies , RE
2nd Battalion , Hertfordshire Regiment
6th Battalion , Border Regiment
305th , 536th & 705th General Transport Companies , Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC )
2nd & 5th Detail Issue Depots , RASC
244th Petrol Dept , RASC
3rd & 10th Casualty Clearing Stations , RAMC
3rd , 25th , 31st , 32nd & 35th Field Dressing Stations , RAMC
Nos 41 , 42 , 47 & 48 Field Surgical Units , RAMC
Nos 24 & 30 Field Transfusion Unit , RAMC
22nd & 23rd Port Details , RAMC
7th , 10th & 36th Ordnance Beach Detachments , Royal Army Ordnance Corps
24th & 25th Beach Recovery Sections , Royal Electrical & Mechanical Engineers ( REME )
XXX Corps Workshop , REME ( 2 Composite Workshops & 1 Light Recovery Section )
240th & 243rd Provost Companies , RMP
75th , 173rd , 209th & 280th ( Pioneer ) Companies , Pioneer Corps
= = = German forces = = =
From June 1942 , 716th Infantry Division covered the Grandcamps Sector , which stretched from the base of the Cotentin Peninsula to the Orne River near Caen , a distance of 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) . When 352nd Infantry Division arrived on 15 March , the Grandcamps Sector was split into the Bayeux Sector ( from Carentan to Asnelles ) and the Caen Sector ( from Asnelles to the Orne ) . Most of the 716th Infantry Division remained where they were , and thus the defenses in Caen Sector ( site of the Gold landings ) were not substantially strengthened .
352nd Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Dietrich Kraiss915th Grenadier Regiment : south @-@ east of Bayeux , as reserves
916th Grenadier Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold
352nd Artillery Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold
716th Static Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter726th Infantry Regiment : two battalions in and around Le Hamel . Members of the 441st Ost Battalion garrisoned the coastal defenses . One battalion was stationed near Crépon as reserves .
736th Infantry Regiment : covered Juno , Sword , and the easternmost part of Gold
1716th Artillery Regiment : mobile and casemated batteries east and west of Crépon
= = Landings = =
Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with over 2 @,@ 200 British and American bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland . At Gold , naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K got underway at 05 : 30 , at which time the first waves of infantry were loading into their Landing Craft Assault ( LCAs ) for the run in to the beach . German defensive positions were attacked by medium and heavy bombers and by self @-@ propelled guns on board the landing craft . Results were good at Mont Fleury Battery and at Long
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entertaining and gave it a score of three out of four .
The first home media release of " The Forge " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Mole cricket =
Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae , in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Mole crickets are cylindrical @-@ bodied insects about 3 – 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with small eyes and shovel @-@ like forelimbs highly developed for burrowing . They are present in many parts of the world and where they have been introduced into new regions , may become agricultural pests .
Mole crickets have three life stages , eggs , nymphs and adults . Most of their life in these stages is spent underground but adults have wings and disperse in the breeding season . They vary in their diet ; some species are vegetarian , mainly feeding on roots , others are omnivores , including worms and grubs in their diet , while a few are largely predacious . Male mole crickets have an exceptionally loud song ; they sing from a sub @-@ surface burrow that opens out into the air in the shape of an exponential horn . The song is an almost pure tone , modulated into chirps . It is used to attract females , either for mating , or for indicating favourable habitats for them to lay their eggs .
In Zambia , mole crickets are thought to bring good fortune , while in Latin America they are said to predict rain . In Florida , where Scapteriscus mole crickets are non @-@ native , they are considered pests , and various biological controls have been used . Gryllotalpa species have been used as food in West Java , Vietnam , and the Philippines .
= = Description = =
Mole crickets vary in size and appearance , but most of them are of moderate size for an insect , typically between 3 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 4 in ) long as adults . They are adapted for underground life and are cylindrical in shape and covered with fine , dense hairs . The head , forelimbs , and prothorax are heavily sclerotinised but the abdomen is rather soft . The head bears two threadlike antennae and a pair of beady eyes . The two pairs of wings are folded flat over the abdomen ; in most species , the fore wings are short and rounded and the hind wings are membranous and reach or exceed the tip of the abdomen ; however , in some species the hind wings are reduced in size and the insect is unable to fly . The fore legs are flattened for digging but the hind legs are shaped somewhat like the legs of a true cricket ; however , these limbs are more adapted for pushing soil , rather than leaping , which they do rarely and poorly . The nymphs resemble the adults apart from the absence of wings and genitalia ; the wingpads become larger after each successive moult .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Gryllotalpidae are a monophyletic group in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Cladistic analysis of mole cricket morphology in 2015 identifies six tribes , of which four were then new : Indioscaptorini ( Scapteriscinae ) , Triamescaptorini , Gryllotalpellini and Neocurtillini ( Gryllotalpinae ) , and two existing tribes , Scapteriscini and Gryllotalpini , are revised . The group name is derived straightforwardly from Latin ' gryllus ' , cricket , and ' talpa ' , mole .
Within these subfamilies , genera include :
Gryllotalpa
Gryllotalpella
Leptocurtilla
Neocurtilla
† Pterotriamescaptor
Indioscaptor
Scapteriscus
Neoscapteriscus
Triamescaptor
† Archaeogryllotalpoides
† Cratotetraspinus
† Marchandia
† Palaeoscapteriscops
Mole cricket fossils are rare . A stem group fossil , Cratotetraspinus , is known from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil . Two specimens of Marchandia magnifica in amber have been found in the Lower Cretaceous of Charente @-@ Maritime in France . They are somewhat more abundant in the Tertiary amber of the Baltic and Dominican regions ; impressions are found in Europe and the American Green River Formation .
Mole crickets are not closely related to the " pygmy mole crickets " , the Tridactyloidea , which are in the grasshopper suborder Caelifera rather than the cricket suborder Ensifera . The two groups , and indeed their resemblance in form to the mammalian mole family Talpidae with their powerful front limbs , form an example of convergent evolution , both developing adaptations for burrowing .
= = Behavior = =
Adults of most species of mole cricket can fly powerfully , if not with agility , but males do so infrequently . The females typically take wing soon after sunset , and are attracted to areas where males are calling , which they do for about an hour after sunset . This may be in order to mate , or they may be influenced by the suitability of the habitat for egg @-@ laying , as demonstrated by the number of males present and calling in the vicinity .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Mole crickets are hemimetabolous meaning they undergo incomplete metamorphosis ; when nymphs hatch from eggs , the nymphs increasingly resemble the adult form as they grow and pass through a series of up to ten moults . After mating , there may be a period of one or two weeks before the female starts laying eggs . She burrows into the soil to a depth of 30 cm ( 12 in ) , ( 72 cm ( 28 in ) has been seen in the laboratory ) , and lays a clutch of 25 to 60 eggs . Neoscapteriscus females then retire , sealing the entrance passage , but in Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla species , the female has been observed to remain in an adjoining chamber to tend the clutch . Further clutches may follow over several months , according to species . Eggs need to be laid in moist ground and many nymphs die because of insufficient moisture in the soil . The eggs hatch in a few weeks , and as they grow , the nymphs consume a great deal of plant material either underground or on the surface . The adults of
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know [ Gary would ] have liked it . And he 'd have been pleased because his other books ( The Roots of Heaven , etc ) had not done well as films . "
= Condom =
A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS . It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner . Condoms are also used during fellatio and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment . In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine . A female condom is also available , often made of nitrile rubber .
As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections . With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate . With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year . Condoms have been used for at least 400 years . Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world . While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .
= = Medical uses = =
= = = Birth control = = =
The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways . Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently . Actual use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse . Rates are generally presented for the first year of use . Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use decrement tables .
The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year . The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year . Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .
= = = Sexually transmitted infections = = =
Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) . They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it . While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , chlamydia , gonorrhea , and other diseases . Condoms are often recommended as an adjunct to more effective birth control methods ( such as IUD ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .
According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the seroconversion rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years . Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .
The 2000 NIH review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men . A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human papillomavirus ( HPV ) to women by approximately 70 % . Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes simplex virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .
Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom . Infectious areas of the genitals , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like HPV and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact . The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .
Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially precancerous cervical changes . Exposure to human papillomavirus , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of precancerous changes . The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes . In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can aggravate existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .
= = = Causes of failure = = =
Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) . The rate of breakage is between 0 @.@ 4 % and 2 @.@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.@ 6 % and 1 @.@ 3 % . Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom .
" Double bagging " , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber . This claim is not supported by research . The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double bagging is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .
Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure . If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user . One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .
Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage . Many condom manufacturers offer " snug " or " magnum " sizes . Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort . Some studies have associated larger penises
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promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission . This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .
The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion . The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .
In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission . He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection . He gave as an example male prostitutes . There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all . However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and transsexual prostitutes , whether male or female , as well . He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .
= = = Scientific and environmental = = =
More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably talc and nitrosamines . Dry dusting powders are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up . Previously , talc was used by most manufacturers , but cornstarch is currently the most popular dusting powder . Talc is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e. , via the vagina ) . Cornstarch is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .
Nitrosamines , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms . A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low . However , a 2004 study in Germany detected nitrosamines in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by 1.5- to 3 @-@ fold .
In addition , the large @-@ scale use of disposable condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via littering and in landfills , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not incinerated or otherwise permanently disposed of first . Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down . Experts , such as AVERT , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as flushing them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause plumbing blockages and other problems . Furthermore , the plastic and foil wrappers condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable . However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass . Frequent condom or wrapper disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .
While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly . According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and smother sea grass and other bottom dwellers . The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .
= = = Cultural barriers to use = = =
In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use . In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other industrialized nations . Perhaps because of this restricted access to hormonal contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .
Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal . But in places where condoms are misunderstood , mischaracterised , demonised , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected . In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , misperceptions about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .
As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use . A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners . Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms . A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .
A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use . As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector . Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .
In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics . Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to " wasting " sperm , which is given sociocultural importance beyond reproduction . Sperm is believed to be an " elixir " to women and to have beneficial health effects . Maasai women believe that , after conceiving a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development . Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence . Some women in Africa believe that condoms are " for prostitutes " and that respectable women should not use them . A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV . In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution . The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .
In March 2013 , technology mogul Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that " significantly preserves or enhances pleasure " to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex . The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse . Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ? ” The project has been named the " Next Generation Condom " and anyone who can provide a " testable hypothesis " is eligible to apply .
Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .
= = = Major manufacturers = = =
One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that " boggles the mind " . Numerous small manufacturers , nonprofit groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world . Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations . Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .
= = Research = =
A spray @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases . As of 2009 , the spray @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .
The Invisible Condom , developed at Université Laval in Québec , Canada , is a gel that hardens upon increased temperature after insertion into the vagina or rectum . In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes simplex virus . The barrier breaks down and liquefies after several hours . As of
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conservation from 2003 until May 2007 , when the shellac , hide glue and gelatine were removed and impregnated with polyvinyl acetate and cyanoacrylate and epoxy glues . Modern treatments of this problem typically involve either monitoring the humidity of fossil storage , or , for fresh specimens , preparing a special coating of polyethylene glycol that is then heated in a vacuum pump , so that moisture is immediately removed and pore spaces are infiltrated with polyethelene glycol to seal and strengthen the fossil .
Dollo 's specimens allowed him to show that Owen 's prehistoric pachyderms were not correct for Iguanodon . He instead modelled the skeletal mounts after the cassowary and wallaby , and put the spike that had been on the nose firmly on the thumb . He was not completely correct , but he also had the disadvantage of being faced with some of the first complete dinosaur remains . A problem that was later recognised was the bend he introduced into the tail . This organ was more or less straight , as shown by the skeletons he was excavating , and the presence of ossified tendons . In fact , to get the bend in the tail for a more wallaby or kangaroo @-@ like posture , the tail would have had to be broken . With its correct , straight tail and back , the animal would have walked with its body held horizontal to the ground , arms in place to support the body if needed .
Excavations at the quarry were stopped in 1881 , although it was not exhausted of fossils , as recent drilling operations have shown . During World War I , when the town was occupied by German forces , preparations were made to reopen the mine for palaeontology , and Otto Jaekel was sent from Berlin to supervise . The Allies recaptured Bernissart just as the first fossiliferous layer was about to be uncovered . Further attempts to reopen the mine were hindered by financial problems and were stopped altogether in 1921 when the mine flooded .
= = = Current research = = =
Research on Iguanodon decreased during the early part of the 20th century as World Wars and the Great Depression enveloped Europe . A new species that would become the subject of much study and taxonomic controversy , I. atherfieldensis , was named in 1925 by R. W. Hooley , for a specimen collected at Atherfield Point on the Isle of Wight .
Iguanodon was recorded from Africa based on teeth from Tunisia and elsewhere in the Sahara , but the description of Lurdusaurus and Ouranosaurus cast doubt on African records of Iguanodon . The genus was also recorded from Mongolia based on the description of I. orientalis , and in North America based on I. ottingeri from Utah . Another North American species , from South Dakota , once assigned to Iguanodon as I. lakotaensis , has since been reclassified as the genus Dakotadon .
Iguanodon was not part of the initial work of the dinosaur renaissance that began with the description of Deinonychus in 1969 , but it was not neglected for long . David B. Weishampel 's work on ornithopod feeding mechanisms provided a better understanding of how it fed , and David B. Norman 's work on numerous aspects of the genus has made it one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs . In addition , a further find of numerous Iguanodon skeletons , in Nehden , Nordrhein @-@ Westphalen , Germany , has provided evidence for gregariousness in this genus , as the animals in this areally restricted find appear to have been killed by flash floods . At least 15 individuals , from 2 to 8 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 26 @.@ 2 ft ) long , have been found here , although at least some of them are gracile iguanodontians and
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the Lansing area . Further changes into the 1970s shortened M @-@ 47 more , producing the routing in use today .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 47 starts at M @-@ 46 ( Gratiot Road ) east of Shields next to the Oakwood Cemetery . M @-@ 47 is known as Midland Road as it runs slightly northwest to intersect with M @-@ 58 ( State Road ) in Saginaw Charter Township running parallel to the Tittabawassee River . This area is the western edge of Saginaw 's suburbs . Along the road towards Freeland , there are periodic small farms in between small residential subdivisions . In the community of Freeland , M @-@ 47 runs near the MBS International Airport off Freeland Road . North of town , M @-@ 47 leaves Midland Road and becomes a freeway near Tittabawassee Park . The freeway section of M @-@ 47 runs through rural farm land . There is a diamond interchange with Salzburg Road before the terminal interchange at US 10 .
As part of its maintenance duties , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the volume of traffic on the highways it maintains . This number is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the average traffic for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department measured a peak of 19 @,@ 719 vehicles daily on the stretch north of Tittabawasee Road . The section south of the US 10 interchange had the lowest traffic level at 9 @,@ 315 vehicles AADT . Additionally , entire route of M @-@ 47 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The original designation of M @-@ 47 was routed from the Shiawassee – Ingham county line north to St. Charles and then east along M @-@ 46 into Saginaw . A southern extension into Ingham County to end at M @-@ 16 in Williamston was transferred and completed in 1924 . A northern extension to Bay City replaced a section of M @-@ 111 in 1929 , and extended farther to Bay City State Park in 1933 . M @-@ 47 replaced the remainder of M @-@ 111 and extended southward from the park to Bay City in 1938 , creating a " U @-@ turn " in the routing . The southern terminus was moved again in late 1951 or early 1952 to Webberville , although still ending on US 16 .
At its greatest extent in the 1950s , the highway extended north from Webberville through Owosso and St. Charles to a junction with M @-@ 46 between Hemlock and Shields . M @-@ 47 turned east along M @-@ 46 , running concurrently with that highway to Saginaw Township . There M @-@ 47 turned north independently to a junction with US 10 , and then ran concurrently with US 10 into Saginaw . Once in the city , M @-@ 47 turned north along Bay Street out of town toward Bay City . M @-@ 47 joined US 23 and followed it north of town . M @-@ 47 then ran separately to the state park before turning south and back into downtown Bay City , ending at the US 23 business loop .
Major changes to the routing of M @-@ 47 started in December 1960 when the I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway opened between Saginaw and Bay City . US 10 was rerouted east of Midland to Bay City along the M @-@ 20 freeway . M @-@ 47 was rerouted along the former US 10 from Saginaw to east of Midland using a connector expressway from Freeland north to the US 10 freeway . M @-@ 81 was extended over State Street in Saginaw , and the former routing of M @-@ 47 between Saginaw and Bay City was redesignated as M @-@ 84 . M @-@ 13 also replaced the former US 23 / M @-@ 47 when US 23 was moved to freeways as well . The southern end of M @-@ 47 was changed in 1962 with the completion of I @-@ 96 in the Lansing area . US 16 was replaced by M @-@ 43 , and the southern terminus of M @-@ 47 was moved to exit 122 along I @-@ 96 . This segment of M @-@ 47 south of M @-@ 46 became an extension of M @-@ 52 in 1969 , truncating M @-@ 47 to Hemlock . The interchange at Salzburg Road north of Freeland opened in 1970 , and the expressway segment was upgraded to a full freeway . At the same time , M @-@ 47 was truncated to its current routing , resulting in the elimination of the M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 47 concurrency near Shields . In the end , only about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of roadway still bears the M @-@ 47 from before the changes made starting in 1960 , along a section of road that was not originally part of the highway in 1919 .
In June 2014 , a construction project began on the interchange with US 10 at the route 's northern terminus . This construction consisted of bridge replacement over US 10 , as well as a new ramp connecting northbound M @-@ 47 to westbound US 10 that , unlike the old ramp , does not conflict with westbound traffic exiting onto southbound M @-@ 47 .
= = = M @-@ 111 = = =
In 1928 , M @-@ 111 was assigned to a route connecting M @-@ 13 ( later signed as US 23 for a time ) north of Bay City to Bay City State Park on Saginaw Bay . The original route consisted of what is today Euclid Avenue . In the early 1930s , a return leg towards Bay City was added to the east of the original route along what is now State Park Road , giving the route an upside @-@ down @-@ U shape.In 1933 , the western leg along Euclid Avenue from Midland Road to Beaver Road was designated as M @-@ 47 . In 1938 , all of M @-@ 111 was re @-@ designated as M @-@ 47 — thus making M @-@ 47 double back to Bay City .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= The Convict ( 1910 film ) =
The Convict is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film begins with a convict walking down the road , he is spotted and it begins a wild chase with more people becoming involved in the pursuit as it continues . The convict gets in a carriage and leaps away , successfully eluding all the pursuers except for a little girl . The convict then runs to the water and takes a boat from another accomplice and the chase continues in water and on land . The convict gets ashore and escapes , taking a car
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approved rule changes that included the changes in the shape of the key ; the key is now rectangular and has virtually the same dimensions as the key used in the NBA . In addition , the no @-@ charge semicircles formally called the restricted area arc was also created .
= = Rules = =
= = = Three @-@ second violation = = =
The lane is a restricted area in which players can stay for only a limited amount of time . On all levels , a team on the offensive ( in possession of the ball ) is prohibited to stay inside the lane for more than three seconds ; after three seconds the player will be called with a three @-@ second violation which will result in a turnover .
In American professional basketball , the defending team is also prohibited from staying in the key for more than three seconds , unless a player is directly guarding an offensive player . If a player surpasses that time , his / her team will be charged with a defensive three @-@ second violation , which will result in a technical foul where the team with the ball shoots one free throw plus ball possession and a reset of the shot clock . In FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments , on the other hand , the defending team is allowed to stay on the key for an unlimited amount of time . In all cases , the count resets if the shot hits the rim or if the player steps out of the lane .
= = = Lane violation = = =
When a player is shooting free throws , there are a certain number of players at the boundaries of the key , each occupying a slot traced at the boundaries of the key . In most cases , the free throw shooter is behind the free throw line , while three of his opponents are along the sides of the key , one side with two players , the other with one . Two of his opponents are situated nearest to the basket on both sides , while his two teammates are beside the two opponents closest to the basket , with the other player from the opposing team situated farthest from the basket . In the U.S. NCAA , there are as many as six players along the key , with the opposing team allowed to have as many as four players , with the same arrangement as in the NBA and FIBA but with another player facing his teammate farthest to the basket . ( See photographs to the right . )
No player along the lane may enter the key until the shot is released ; the player shooting the free throw , and anyone on top of the key , should not pass the free throw line until the ball hits the rim . If any of the offensive players violate the rule , no points are awarded for the shot and , if there are no more shots remaining , the ball is given to the defending team . If a defending player is in the lane too soon , an extra shot will be awarded regardless of whether the shot was made or missed .
Note that in FIBA play , if the shooter commits the violation , it is an automatic turnover . If the shot is successful and the shooter does not commit a violation , but other players do commit a violation , all violations are discarded . If players from the opposing teams enter the key prior to the release of the ball , a jump ball would be done to determine who gets the possession of the ball ( NBA ) or the possession arrow rule ( for all other levels ) ; in FIBA play , that only applies if the shooter misses , since a successful attempt negates all other penalties . In all situations , lane violation penalties cannot occur if there are further free throws to be awarded .
= = = Restricted area arc = = =
In the NBA , Euroleague , and starting in 2010 , in FIBA and NCAA play , the key has an additional area , measured as an arc three feet from the basket ( collegiate ) , four feet from the basket ( NBA ) , or 1 @.@ 25 meters ( approximately 4 @.@ 1 feet ) ( FIBA ) . The area is officially known as the " restricted area " ( RA ) in the NBA , the " restricted area arc " in the NCAA and the " no @-@ charge semicircles " in FIBA .
Its purpose is to stop secondary defenders from taking a position under the basket in an attempt to draw the offensive foul when a player is driving to the basket . If an offensive player drives past his primary defender on the way to the basket and a secondary defender comes over , he must establish a legal position outside the RA to draw an offensive foul . If the drive starts inside the Lower Defensive Box ( LDB – this is the area from the bottom tip of the free throw circle to the end line between the two 3 ’ posted @-@ up marks ) , the secondary defender is legally allowed to be positioned inside the RA . The restricted area also does not apply if the secondary defender jumps in attempting to block the shot , the offensive player leads with his leg or knee in an unnatural motion or uses his off arm to prevent the defender from blocking his shot . The RA does not extend from below the backboard to the baseline . Therefore , if a player drives the baseline and is not attempting to go directly to the rim , the RA does not apply .
The restricted area arc rule was implemented in NCAA men 's basketball for the 2010 – 2011 season . The NCAA approved adding a visible restricted @-@ area arc three feet from the center of the basket in Division I men ’ s and women ’ s games for 2011 – 2012 season . The panel delayed implementation of the arc until the 2012 @-@ 13 season for Divisions II and III to allow those schools time to plan and place the restricted @-@ area arc in their home arenas . Starting with the 2015 @-@ 2016 season , the NCAA raised the RA arc to four feet from the center of the basket .
= = Terms = =
Points made on the key are termed as points in the paint or inside points . Historically , the area of the key where offensive players are prohibited from remaining longer than three seconds has been painted to distinguish the area from the rest of the court ; hence the phrase " points in the paint . " The area around the free throw circle 's farthest point from the basket is called the " top of the key " , and several plays revolve around this area , such as screens and pick and rolls . In American women 's collegiate basketball ( and for men until 2008 ) , the three @-@ point arc intersects at the top of the key , which could translate plays conducted in this area into three @-@ point field goal conversions .
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cent of the people on each train were chosen as forced labourers ; the rest were killed within hours of arrival . Under international pressure , the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944 , by which time over 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had died . In spite of the orders to stop , Eichmann personally made arrangements for additional trains of victims to be sent to Auschwitz on 17 and 19 July .
In a series of meetings beginning on 25 April , Eichmann met with Joel Brand , a Hungarian Jew and member of the Relief and Rescue Committee ( RRC ) . Eichmann later testified that Berlin had authorised him to allow emigration of a million Jews in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 trucks equipped to handle the wintry conditions on the Eastern Front . Nothing came of the proposal , as the Western Allies refused to consider the offer . In June 1944 Eichmann was involved in negotiations with Rudolf Kasztner that resulted in the rescue of 1 @,@ 684 people , who were sent by train to safety in Switzerland in exchange for three suitcases full of diamonds , gold , cash , and securities .
Eichmann , resentful that Kurt Becher and others were becoming involved in Jewish emigration matters , and angered by Himmler 's suspension of deportations to the death camps , requested reassignment in July . At the end of August he was assigned to head a commando squad to assist in the evacuation of 10 @,@ 000 ethnic Germans trapped on the Hungarian border with Romania in the path of the advancing Red Army . The people they were sent to rescue refused to leave , so instead the soldiers helped evacuate members of a German field hospital trapped close to the front . For this Eichmann was awarded the Iron Cross , Second Class . Throughout October and November , Eichmann arranged for tens of thousands of Jewish victims to travel by forced marches in appalling conditions from Budapest to Vienna , a distance of 210 kilometres ( 130 mi ) .
On 24 December 1944 , Eichmann fled Budapest just before the Soviets completed their encirclement of the capital . He returned to Berlin , where he arranged for the incriminating records of Department IV @-@ B4 to be burned . Along with many other SS officers who fled in the closing months of the war , Eichmann and his family were living in relative safety in Austria when the war in Europe ended on 8 May 1945 . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews , representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe , were exterminated by the Nazi regime .
= = After the Second World War = =
At the end of the Second World War , Eichmann was captured by the Americans and spent time in several camps for SS officers using forged papers that identified him as " Otto Eckmann " . He escaped from a work detail at Cham when he realised that his actual identity had been discovered . He obtained new identity papers with the name of " Otto Heninger " and relocated frequently over the next several months . Moving to the Lüneburg Heath , he initially got work in the forestry industry and later leased a small plot of land in Altensalzkoth , where he lived until 1950 . Meanwhile , at the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals starting in 1946 , damning evidence about Eichmann 's activities was given by former commandant of Auschwitz Rudolf Höss and others .
In 1948 Eichmann obtained a landing permit for Argentina and false identification under the name of " Ricardo Klement " through an organisation directed by Bishop Alois Hudal , an Austrian cleric then residing in Italy with known Nazi sympathies . These documents enabled him in 1950 to obtain an International Committee of the Red Cross humanitarian passport and the remaining entry permits that would allow emigration to Argentina . He travelled across Europe , staying in a series of monasteries that had been set up as safe houses . Departing via ship from Genoa on 17 June 1950 , he arrived in Buenos Aires on 14 July .
Eichmann initially lived in Tucumán Province , where he worked for a government contractor . He sent for his family in 1952 , and they moved to Buenos Aires . Eichmann held a series of low @-@ paying jobs until finding employment at Mercedes @-@ Benz , where he rose to department head . The family built a house at 14 Garibaldi Street ( now 6061 Garibaldi Street ) and moved in during 1960 .
For four months beginning in late 1956 , Eichmann was extensively interviewed by Nazi expatriate journalist Willem Sassen with the intention of producing a biography . Tapes , transcripts , and handwritten notes by Eichmann were produced . The memoirs were later used as the basis for a series of articles that appeared in Life and Der Stern magazines in late 1960 .
= = Capture in Argentina = =
Several Jews and other survivors of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazis . Among them was the Jewish Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal . Wiesenthal learned from a letter shown to him in 1953 that Eichmann had been seen in Buenos Aires , and he passed along that information to the Israeli consulate in Vienna in 1954 . When Eichmann 's father died in 1960 , Wiesenthal made arrangements for private detectives to surreptitiously photograph members of the family , as Eichmann 's brother Otto was said to bear a strong family resemblance and there were no current photos of the fugitive . He provided these photographs to Mossad agents on 18 February .
Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann 's identity was Lothar Hermann , a German half @-@ Jew who had emigrated to Argentina in 1938 . When in 1956 Hermann 's daughter Sylvia began dating a man named Klaus Eichmann who boasted about his father 's Nazi exploits , Hermann alerted Fritz Bauer , prosecutor @-@ general of the state of Hesse in West Germany . Sylvia , sent on a fact @-@ finding mission , was met at the door by Eichmann himself , who said he was Klaus 's uncle . Informed that Klaus was not home , she sat down to wait . When Klaus returned , he addressed Eichmann as ' Father ' . In 1957 Bauer passed along the information in person to Mossad director Isser Harel , who assigned operatives to undertake surveillance , but no concrete evidence was initially found . On 1 March 1960 Harel dispatched to Buenos Aires the Shin Bet chief interrogator Zvi Aharoni , who over the course of weeks of investigation was able to confirm the identity
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of the fugitive . As Argentina had a history of turning down extradition requests for Nazi criminals , Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion made the decision that Eichmann should be captured rather than extradited , and brought to Israel for trial . Harel himself arrived in person in May 1960 to oversee the capture . Mossad operative Rafi Eitan was named leader of the eight @-@ man team , most of whom were Shin Bet agents .
The team captured Eichmann near his home on Garibaldi Street in San Fernando , Buenos Aires , an industrial community 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of the centre of Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 . The agents had arrived in Buenos Aires in April 1960 after Eichmann 's identity was confirmed . After observing the suspect 's routine for many days , they determined that he arrived home by bus from work at around the same time every evening . They planned to seize him when he was walking beside an open field from the bus stop to his house . The plan was almost abandoned on the designated day when Eichmann was not present on the bus he usually took home . Finally , almost half an hour late , Eichmann got off a bus . Mossad agent Peter Malkin engaged him , asking him in Spanish if he had a moment . Frightened , Eichmann attempted to leave , but two more Mossad men came to Malkin 's aid ; the three wrestled Eichmann to the ground and , after a struggle , conducted him to a car where they hid him on the floor under a blanket .
Eichmann was taken to one of several Mossad safe houses that had been set up by the team . He was held there for nine days , during which time his identity was double @-@ checked and confirmed . During these days , Harel tried to locate Josef Mengele , the notorious Nazi doctor from Auschwitz concentration camp , as the Mossad had information that he was also living in Buenos Aires . He was hoping to bring Mengele back to Israel on the same flight . Mengele had already left his last known residence in the city , and Harel was unable to get any leads on where he had gone , so the plans for his capture had to be abandoned .
Near midnight on 20 May , Eichmann was sedated by an Israeli doctor on the Mossad team and dressed as a flight attendant . He was smuggled out of Argentina aboard the same El Al Bristol Britannia aircraft that had a few days earlier carried Israel 's delegation to the official 150th anniversary celebration of Argentina 's independence from Spain . After a tense delay at the airport getting the flight plan approved , the plane took off for Israel , stopping over in Dakar , Senegal , to refuel . They arrived in Israel on 22 May , and Ben @-@ Gurion announced Eichmann 's capture to the Knesset — Israel 's parliament — the following afternoon . In Argentina , the abduction was met with a violent wave of antisemitism carried out by far @-@ right sectors , including the Tacuara Nationalist Movement .
In June 1960 , after unsuccessful negotiations with Israel , Argentina requested an urgent meeting of the United Nations Security Council to protest , as they regarded the capture as a violation of their sovereign rights . In the ensuing debate , the Israeli representative Golda Meir claimed that the abductors were not Israeli agents but private individuals and so the incident was only an " isolated violation of Argentine law " . On 23 June the Council passed Resolution 138 , which agreed that Argentine sovereignty had been violated and requested that Israel should make reparations . After further negotiations , on 3 August , Israel and Argentina issued a joint statement admitting the violation of Argentinian sovereignty but agreeing to end the dispute . In Eichmann 's trial and subsequent appeal , the Israeli court determined that the circumstances of his capture had no bearing on the legality of his trial .
Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) documents declassified in 2006 show that the capture of Eichmann caused alarm at the CIA and West German Bundesnachrichtendienst ( BND ) . Both organizations had known for at least two years where Eichmann was hiding , but did not act , because it did not serve their interests in the Cold War to do so . Both were concerned about what Eichmann might say in his testimony about West German national security advisor Hans Globke , who had coauthored several antisemitic Nazi laws ( including the Nuremberg Laws ) . The documents also revealed that both agencies had used some of Eichmann 's former Nazi colleagues to spy on European communist countries .
= = Trial = =
Eichmann was taken to a
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25 @,@ 000 to $ 25 @,@ 000 , $ 50 @,@ 000 , and $ 100 @,@ 000 respectively . The 2004 payout structure endured until the eighth syndicated season , when after the ninth contestant from the 2009 primetime revival played , a new payout structure was implemented in which the dollar values first went from $ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 000 with the dollar value of each new question being double that of the previous one , then to $ 3 @,@ 000 , then from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 15 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 2 @,@ 500 ; the dollar values of questions ten through fifteen remained unchanged . In the shuffle format era , the ten questions in round one had random values which included $ 100 , $ 500 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , $ 2 @,@ 000 , $ 3 @,@ 000 , $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 15 @,@ 000 , and $ 25 @,@ 000 ; the final four questions , in round two , retained their 2004 values . For the 2015 – 16 season , the first five questions follow the payout structure used from 2009 to 2010 , while the dollar value of each new question for the next five questions is $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 20 @,@ 000 , $ 30 @,@ 000 and $ 50 @,@ 000 ; the money values for the last four questions remain unchanged . The second safe haven is $ 50 @,@ 000 at question 10 , with the first one still $ 5 @,@ 000 .
The $ 500 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prizes were initially lump @-@ sum payments , but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication . Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $ 250 @,@ 000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments . The $ 500 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year for 10 years , while the $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 37 @,@ 500 per year for 20 years .
= = = Lifelines = = =
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions . They can use as many lifelines as desired per question , but each lifeline can only be used once per game . Three lifelines are available from the start of the game . Depending on the format of the show , additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question . In the clock format , usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played .
The show 's original three lifelines were " 50 : 50 " , in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers ; " Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend " , which allowed the contestant to make a 30 @-@ second call to one of a number of friends ( who provided their phone numbers in advance ) and read them the question and answer choices , after which the friend provided input ; and " Ask the Audience " , in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be , after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant . 50 : 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season , only to be restored in season fourteen . Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11 , 2010 , after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources , unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not , and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew . From 2004 to 2008 , there was a fourth lifeline called " Switch the Question " , earned upon answering question ten , in which the computer replaced , at the contestant 's request , one question with another of the same monetary value ; however , any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question . Switch the Question returned as " Cut the Question " on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014 .
During the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , two new lifelines were introduced : " Double Dip " , which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question , but required them to play out the question , forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines ; and " Three Wise Men " , in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers , appearing via face @-@ to @-@ face audio and video feeds , which answer they believed was correct , within a time limit of 30 seconds . When the clock format was implemented , Double Dip replaced 50 : 50 , and the show introduced a new lifeline called " Ask the Expert " , which was like Three Wise Men but had one person ( usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant ) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people , lacked the time limit of its predecessor , and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question . Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question , but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed .
The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship . The Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT & T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version , then by the current AT & T for the 2009 primetime episodes . From 2004 to 2006 , Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL , which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers , to which the users replied with their choices . In addition , the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds .
During the shuffle format era , the show introduced a new lifeline , " Jump the Question " , which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve . At any point prior to selecting a final answer , a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one , thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer . However , if the contestant used Jump the Question , they did not gain any money from the question they chose to skip ( for example , a contestant would not gain the typical $ 100 @,@ 000 if they jumped to the $ 250 @,@ 000 question ) . This lifeline could not be used on the $ 1 million question , since it is the final question in the game
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first issue , Moore said he realized , " I only had enough plot for six issues . We were contracted for 12 ! " His solution was to alternate issues that dealt with the overall plot of the series with origin issues for the characters . Moore wrote very detailed scripts for Gibbons to work from . Gibbons recalled that " [ t ] he script for the first issue of Watchmen was , I think , 101 pages of typescript — single @-@ spaced — with no gaps between the individual panel descriptions or , indeed , even between the pages . " Upon receiving the scripts , the artist had to number each page " in case I drop them on the floor , because it would take me two days to put them back in the right order " , and used a highlighter pen to single out lettering and shot descriptions ; he remarked , " It takes quite a bit of organizing before you can actually put pen to paper . " Despite Moore 's detailed scripts , his panel descriptions would often end with the note " If that doesn 't work for you , do what works best " ; Gibbons nevertheless worked to Moore 's instructions . In fact , Gibbons only suggested a single change to the script : a compression of Ozymandias ' narration while he was preventing a sneak attack by Rorschach , as he felt that the dialog was too long to fit with the amount of action expressed ; Moore agreed and re @-@ wrote the scene . Gibbons had a great deal of autonomy in developing the visual look of Watchmen , and frequently inserted background details that Moore admitted he did not notice until later . Moore occasionally contacted fellow comics writer Neil Gaiman for answers to research questions and for quotes to include in issues .
Despite his intentions , Moore admitted in November 1986 that there were likely to be delays , stating that he was , with issue five on the stands , still writing issue nine . Gibbons mentioned that a major factor in the delays was the " piecemeal way " in which he received Moore 's scripts . Gibbons said the team 's pace slowed around the fourth issue ; from that point onward the two undertook their work " just several pages at a time . I 'll get three pages of script from Alan and draw it and then toward the end , call him up and say , ' Feed me ! ' And he 'll send another two or three pages or maybe one page or sometimes six pages . " As the creators began to hit deadlines , Moore would hire a taxi driver to drive 50 miles and deliver scripts to Gibbons . On later issues the artist even had his wife and son draw panel grids on pages to help save time .
Near the end of the project , Moore realized that the story bore some similarity to " The Architects of Fear " , an episode of The Outer Limits television series . The writer and Wein argued over changing the ending , and when Moore refused to give in , Wein quit the book . Wein explained , " I kept telling him , ' Be more original , Alan , you 've got the capability , do something different , not something that 's already been done ! ' And he didn 't seem to care enough to do that . " Moore acknowledged the Outer Limits episode by referencing it in the series ' last issue .
= = Story = =
Watchmen is set in an alternate reality that closely mirrors the contemporary world of the 1980s . The primary difference is the presence of superheroes . The point of divergence occurs in the year 1938 . Their existence in this version of America is shown to have dramatically affected and altered the outcomes of real @-@ world events such as the Vietnam War and the presidency of Richard Nixon . In keeping with the realism of the series , although the costumed crimefighters of Watchmen are commonly called " superheroes " , only one ( Doctor Manhattan ) possesses any superhuman powers . The war in Vietnam ends with a U.S. victory in 1971 and Nixon is still president as of October 1985 . The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan occurs approximately six years later than in real life . When
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the story begins , the existence of Doctor Manhattan has given the U.S. a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union , which has increased tensions between the two nations . Eventually , superheroes grow unpopular among the police and the public , leading to the passage of legislation ( the Keene Act ) in 1977 to outlaw them . While many of the heroes retired , Doctor Manhattan and a veteran superhero known as The Comedian operate as government @-@ sanctioned agents . Another , Rorschach , continues to operate outside the law .
= = = Plot = = =
In October 1985 , New York City police are investigating the murder of Edward Blake . With the police having no leads , costumed vigilante Rorschach decides to probe further . Discovering Blake to be the face behind The Comedian , a costumed hero employed by the United States government , Rorschach believes he has discovered a plot to terminate costumed adventurers and sets about warning four of his retired comrades : Dan Dreiberg ( formerly the second Nite Owl ) , the superpowered and emotionally detached Doctor Manhattan and his lover Laurie Juspeczyk ( the second Silk Spectre ) , and Adrian Veidt ( once the hero Ozymandias , and now a successful businessman ) .
After Blake 's funeral , Manhattan is accused on national television of being the cause of cancer in friends and former colleagues . When the U.S. government takes the accusations seriously , Manhattan exiles himself to Mars . As Manhattan is one of the United States ' greatest military powers , his departure throws humanity into political turmoil , with the Soviet Union invading Afghanistan to capitalize on the perceived American weakness . Rorschach 's concerns appear vindicated when Adrian Veidt narrowly survives an assassination attempt , and Rorschach himself is framed for murdering Moloch , a former supervillain .
Neglected in her relationship with the once @-@ human Manhattan , whose now @-@ godlike powers and transformation have removed him completely from the everyday concerns of living beings and no longer kept on retainer by the government , Juspeczyk stays with Dreiberg ; they begin a romance , don their costumes , and resume vigilante work as they grow closer together . With Dreiberg starting to believe some aspects of Rorschach 's conspiracy theory , the pair take it upon themselves to break him out of prison . Manhattan , after looking back on his own personal history , places the fate of his involvement with human affairs in Juspeczyk 's hands . He teleports her to Mars to make the case for emotional investment . During the course of the argument , Juspeczyk is forced to come to terms with the fact that Blake , who once attempted to rape her mother , was in fact her biological father following a second , consensual relationship . This discovery , reflecting the complexity of human emotions and relationships , re @-@ sparks Manhattan 's interest in humanity .
On Earth , Nite Owl and Rorschach continue to uncover the conspiracy surrounding the death of The Comedian and the accusations that drove Manhattan into exile . They discover evidence that Veidt may be behind the plan . Rorschach writes his suspicions about Veidt in his journal , in which he has been recording his entire investigation , and mails it to New Frontiersman , a local right @-@ wing newspaper . The pair then leave New York and confront Veidt at his Antarctic retreat . Veidt explains his underlying plan is to save humanity from impending nuclear war between the United States and Soviet Union by faking an alien invasion in New York City , which will annihilate half the city 's population . He hopes this will unite the nations against a perceived common enemy . He also reveals that he had murdered The Comedian , arranged for Dr. Manhattan 's past associates to contract cancer , staged the attempt on his own life in order to place himself above suspicion , and killed Moloch in order to frame Rorschach . This was all done in an attempt to prevent his plan from being exposed . Nite Owl and Rorschach find Veidt 's logic callous and abhorrent , but Veidt has already enacted his plan .
When Manhattan and Juspeczyk arrive back on Earth , they are confronted by mass destruction and wide scale death in New York City , with a gigantic Cthulhu @-@ like creature , created by Veidt 's laboratories , dead in the middle of the city . Manhattan notices his abilities are limited by tachyons emanating from the Antarctic , and the pair teleport there . They discover Veidt 's involvement and confront him . Veidt shows everyone news broadcasts confirming the cessation of global hostilities and cooperation against a new threat ; this leads almost all present to agree that concealing Veidt 's truth from the public is in the best interests of the world to keep it united . Rorschach refuses to compromise and leaves , intent on revealing the truth . As he is making his way back , he is confronted by Manhattan . Rorschach tells Manhattan that he will have to kill him to stop him from exposing Veidt and his actions , and Manhattan responds by vaporizing him . Manhattan then wanders through the base and finds Veidt , who asks him if he did the right thing in the end . In response , Manhattan states that " Nothing ever ends " before leaving the Earth to create life elsewhere . Dreiberg and Juspeczyk go into hiding under new identities and continue their romance . Back in New York , the editor at New Frontiersman complains about having to pull a two @-@ page column about Russia due to the new political climate . He asks his assistant to find some filler material from the " crank file " , a collection of rejected submissions to the paper , many of which have not been reviewed yet . The series ends with the young man reaching toward the pile of discarded submissions , near the top of which is Rorschach 's journal .
= = Characters = =
With Watchmen , Alan Moore 's intention was to create four or five " radically opposing ways " to perceive the world and to give readers of the story the privilege of determining which one was most morally comprehensible . Moore did not believe in the notion of " [ cramming ] regurgitated morals " down the readers ' throats and instead sought to show heroes in an ambivalent light . Moore said , " What we wanted to do was show all of these people , warts and all . Show that even the worst of them had something going for them , and even the best of them had their flaws . "
Walter Joseph Kovacs / Rorschach
A vigilante who wears a white mask that contains a symmetrical but constantly shifting ink blot pattern , he continues to fight crime in spite of his outlaw status . Moore said
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he was trying to " come up with this quintessential Steve Ditko character — someone who 's got a funny name , whose surname begins with a ' K , ' who 's got an oddly designed mask " . Moore based Rorschach on Ditko 's creation Mr. A ; Ditko 's Charlton character The Question also served as a template for creating Rorschach . Comics historian Bradford W. Wright described the character 's world view " a set of black @-@ and @-@ white values that take many shapes but never mix into shades of gray , similar to the ink blot tests of his namesake " . Rorschach sees existence as random and , according to Wright , this viewpoint leaves the character " free to ' scrawl [ his ] own design ' on a ' morally blank world ' " . Moore said he did not foresee the death of Rorschach until the fourth issue when he realized that his refusal to compromise would result in him not surviving the story .
Edward Blake / The Comedian
One of two government @-@ sanctioned heroes ( along with Doctor Manhattan ) who remain active after the Keene Act is passed in 1977 to ban superheroes . His murder , which occurs shortly before the first chapter begins , sets the plot of Watchmen in motion . The character appears throughout the story in flashbacks and aspects of his personality are revealed by other characters . The Comedian was based on the Charlton Comics character Peacemaker , with elements of the Marvel Comics spy character Nick Fury added . Moore and Gibbons saw The Comedian as " a kind of Gordon Liddy character , only a much bigger , tougher guy " . Richard Reynolds described The Comedian as " ruthless , cynical , and nihilistic , and yet capable of deeper insights than the others into the role of the costumed hero . " He attempts to rape the first Silk Spectre in the 1940s . Issue nine reveals that years later he fathered her daughter Laurie as part of a consensual sexual relationship .
Dr. Jon Osterman / Doctor Manhattan
A superpowered being who is contracted by the United States government . Scientist Jon Osterman gained power over matter when he was caught in an " Intrinsic Field Subtractor " in 1959 . Doctor Manhattan was based upon Charlton 's Captain Atom , who in Moore 's original proposal was surrounded by the shadow of nuclear threat . However , the writer found he could do more with Manhattan as a " kind of a quantum super @-@ hero " than he could have with Captain Atom . In contrast to other superheroes who lacked scientific exploration of their origins , Moore sought to delve into nuclear physics and quantum physics in constructing the character of Dr. Manhattan . The writer believed that a character living in a quantum universe would not perceive time with a linear perspective , which would influence the character 's perception of human affairs . Moore also wanted to avoid creating an emotionless character like Spock from Star Trek , so he sought for Dr. Manhattan to retain " human habits " and to grow away from them and humanity in general . Gibbons had created the blue character Rogue Trooper , and explained he reused the blue skin motif for Doctor Manhattan as it resembles white skin tonally , but has a different hue . Moore incorporated the color into the story , and Gibbons noted the rest of the comic 's color scheme made Manhattan unique . Moore recalled that he was unsure if DC would allow the creators to depict the character as fully nude , which partially influenced how they portrayed the character . Gibbons wanted to be tasteful in depicting Manhattan 's nudity , selecting carefully when full frontal shots would occur and giving him " understated " genitals — like a classical sculpture — so the reader would not initially notice it .
Daniel Dreiberg / Nite Owl
A retired superhero who utilizes owl @-@ themed gadgets . Nite Owl was based on the Ted Kord version of the Blue Beetle . Paralleling the way Ted Kord had a predecessor , Moore also incorporated an earlier adventurer who used the name " Nite Owl " , the retired crime fighter Hollis Mason , into Watchmen . While Moore devised character notes for Gibbons to work from , the artist provided a name and a costume design for Hollis Mason he had created when he was twelve . Richard Reynolds noted in Super Heroes : A Modern Mythology that despite the character 's Charlton roots , Nite Owl 's modus operandi has more in common with the DC Comics character Batman . According to Klock , his civilian form " visually suggests an impotent , middle @-@ aged Clark Kent . "
Adrian Veidt / Ozymandias
Drawing inspiration from Alexander the Great , Veidt was once the superhero Ozymandias , but has since retired to devote his attention to the running of his own enterprises . Veidt is believed to be
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the smartest man on the planet . Ozymandias was based on Peter Cannon , Thunderbolt ; Moore liked the idea of a character who " us [ ed ] the full 100 % of his brain " and " [ had ] complete physical and mental control " . Richard Reynolds noted that by taking initiative to " help the world " , Veidt displays a trait normally attributed to villains in superhero stories , and in a sense he is the " villain " of the series . Gibbons noted , " One of the worst of his sins [ is ] kind of looking down on the rest of humanity , scorning the rest of humanity . "
Laurie Juspeczyk / Silk Spectre
The daughter of Sally Jupiter ( the first Silk Spectre , with whom she has a strained relationship ) and The Comedian . Of Polish heritage , she had been the lover of Doctor Manhattan for years . While Silk Spectre was based partially on the Charlton character Nightshade , Moore was not impressed by the character and drew more from heroines such as Black Canary and Phantom Lady .
= = Art and composition = =
Moore and Gibbons designed Watchmen to showcase the unique qualities of the comics medium and to highlight its particular strengths . In a 1986 interview , Moore said , " What I 'd like to explore is the areas that comics succeed in where no other media is capable of operating " , and emphasized this by stressing the differences between comics and film . Moore said that Watchmen was designed to be read " four or five times " , with some links and allusions only becoming apparent to the reader after several readings . Dave Gibbons notes that , " [ a ] s it progressed , Watchmen became much more about the telling than the tale itself . The main thrust of the story essentially hinges on what is called a macguffin , a gimmick ... So really the plot itself is of no great consequence ... it just really isn 't the most interesting thing about Watchmen . As we actually came to tell the tale , that 's where the real creativity came in . "
Gibbons said he deliberately constructed the visual look of Watchmen so that each page would be identifiable as part of that particular series and " not some other comic book " . He made a concerted effort to draw the characters in a manner different than that commonly seen in comics . The artist tried to draw the series with " a particular weight of line , using a hard , stiff pen that didn 't have much modulation in terms of thick and thin " which he hoped " would differentiate it from the usual lush , fluid kind of comic book line " . In a 2009 interview , Moore recalled that he took advantage of Gibbons ' training as a former surveyor for " including incredible amounts of detail in every tiny panel , so we could choreograph every little thing " . Gibbons described the series as " a comic about comics " . Gibbons felt that " Alan is more concerned with the social implications of [ the presence of super @-@ heroes ] and I 've gotten involved in the technical implications . " The story 's alternate world setting allowed Gibbons to change details of the American landscape , such as adding electric cars , slightly different buildings , and spark hydrants instead of fire hydrants , which Moore said , " perhaps gives the American readership a chance in some ways to see their own culture as an outsider would " . Gibbons noted that the setting was liberating for him because he did not have to rely primarily on reference books .
Colorist John Higgins used a template that was " moodier " and favored secondary colors . Moore stated that he had also " always loved John 's coloring , but always associated him with being an airbrush colorist " , which Moore was not fond of ; Higgins subsequently decided to color Watchmen in European @-@ style flat color . Moore noted that the artist paid particular attention to lighting and subtle color changes ; in issue six , Higgins began with " warm and cheerful " colors and throughout the issue gradually made it darker to give the story a dark and bleak feeling .
= = = Structure = = =
Structurally , certain aspects of Watchmen deviated from the norm in comic books at the time , particularly the panel layout and the coloring . Instead of panels of various sizes , the creators divided each page into a nine @-@ panel grid . Gibbons favored the nine @-@ panel grid system due to its " authority " . Moore accepted the use of the nine @-@ panel grid format , which " gave him a level of control over the storytelling he hadn 't had previously " , according to Gibbons . " There was this element of the pacing and visual impact that he could now predict and use to dramatic effect . " Bhob Stewart of The Comics Journal mentioned to Gibbons in 1987 , that the page layouts recalled those of EC Comics , in addition to the art itself , which Stewart felt particularly echoed that of John Severin . Gibbons agreed that the echoing of the EC @-@ style layouts " was a very deliberate thing " , although his inspiration was rather Harvey Kurtzman , but it was altered enough to give the series a unique look . The artist also cited Steve Ditko 's work on early issues of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man as an influence , as well as Doctor Strange , where " even at his most psychedelic [ he ] would still keep a pretty straight page layout " .
The cover of each issue serves as the first panel to the story . Gibbons said , " The cover of the Watchmen is in the real world and looks quite real , but it 's starting to turn into a comic book , a portal to another dimension . " The covers were designed as close @-@ ups that focused on a single detail with no human elements present . The creators on occasion experimented with the layout of the issue contents . Gibbons drew issue five , titled " Fearful Symmetry " , so the first page mirrors the last ( in terms of frame disposition ) , with the following pages mirroring each other before the center @-@ spread is ( broadly ) symmetrical in layout .
The end of each issue , with the exception of issue twelve , contains supplemental prose pieces written by Moore . Among the contents are fictional book chapters , letters , reports , and articles written by various Watchmen characters . DC had trouble selling ad space in issues of Watchmen , which left an extra eight to nine pages per issue . DC planned to insert house ads and a longer letters column to fill the space , but editor Len Wein felt this would be unfair to anyone who wrote in during the last four issues of the series . He decided to use the extra pages to fill out the series ' backstory . Moore said , " By the time we got around to issue # 3 , # 4 , and so on , we thought that the book looked nice without a letters page . It looks less like a comic book , so we stuck with it . "
= = = Tales of the Black Freighter = = =
Watchmen features a story within a story in the form of Tales of the Black Freighter , a fictional comic book from which scenes appear in issues three , five , eight , ten , and eleven . The fictional comic 's story , " Marooned " , is read by a youth in New York City . Moore and Gibbons conceived a pirate comic because they reasoned that since the characters of Watchmen experience superheroes in real life , " they probably wouldn 't be at all interested in superhero comics . " Gibbons suggested a pirate theme , and Moore agreed in part because he is " a big Bertolt Brecht fan " : the Black Freighter alludes to the song " Seeräuberjenny " ( " Pirate Jenny " ) from Brecht 's Threepenny Opera . Moore theorized that since superheroes existed , and existed as " objects of fear , loathing , and scorn , the main superheroes quickly fell out of popularity in comic books , as we suggest . Mainly , genres like horror , science fiction , and piracy , particularly piracy , became prominent — with EC riding the crest of the wave . " Moore felt " the imagery of the whole pirate genre is so rich and dark that it provided a perfect counterpoint to the contemporary world of Watchmen " . The writer expanded upon the premise so that its presentation in the story would add subtext and allegory . The supplemental article detailing the fictional history of Tales of the Black Freighter at the end of issue five credits real @-@ life artist Joe Orlando as a major contributor to the series . Moore chose Orlando because he felt that if pirate stories were popular in the Watchmen universe that DC editor Julius Schwartz might have tried to lure the artist over to the company to draw a pirate comic book . Orlando contributed a drawing designed as if
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49 inches ( 419 mm ) at Scholes International Airport at Galveston , 14 @.@ 94 inches ( 379 mm ) in Downtown Galveston , 13 @.@ 05 inches ( 331 mm ) in Wharton , 12 @.@ 55 inches ( 319 mm ) in Liberty , 12 @.@ 47 inches ( 317 mm ) in Dickinson , 11 @.@ 81 inches ( 300 mm ) in Flantonia , 10 @.@ 59 inches ( 269 mm ) in Columbus , 8 @.@ 75 inches ( 222 mm ) in Halletsville , and 8 @.@ 9 inches ( 230 mm ) in Smithville .
The most significant damage to property occurred between Port Arthur and Corpus Christi . Port O 'Connor , lying nearest to the location of Carla 's landfall , was virtually destroyed . In Victoria , the highest sustained wind speed was 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , while gusts reached 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . About 4 @,@ 260 homes were damaged , with around 500 severely damaged or destroyed . 43 businesses and 26 public buildings were also significantly impacted . Damage in the city of Victoria reached $ 10 million . Of the 26 tornadoes spawned by Carla , eight of them in Texas caused significant impact . A tornado near Bay City destroyed two radio towers and damaged several buildings . Near Jacksonville , a tornado injured three people , caused the destruction of one house and impacted 3 others , resulting in $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage . Twenty @-@ two people were injured , 18 homes and 6 commercial buildings were destroyed , and 40 additional homes were damaged in a tornado in Channelview , located near Houston ; losses reached $ 200 @,@ 000 . In the early morning hours of September 13 , an F4 tornado moved across Galveston Island along a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 @-@ kilometer ) long , 230 @-@ yard @-@ wide path ( it crossed into Galveston Bay as well ) , severely damaging 200 buildings , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and causing eight deaths and 55 injuries . A few hours later , another twister in the area resulted in the destruction of six houses and extensive lesser damage . In Hardin , a tornado damaged six homes . Several structures sustained impact during a tornado in Fulbright . The final twister occurred during the late afternoon hours in Latex . It caused two injuries , and resulted in $ 5 @,@ 000 in losses , after damaging two houses and three garages .
Then little @-@ known newsman Dan Rather reported live from the Galveston Seawall during the storm , an act that would be imitated by later reporters . This marked the first live television broadcast of a hurricane . Rather also alerted the public of the size of Carla in a way that " literally changed the way the world sees hurricanes " , according to a fellow reporter . Broadcasting live at the Weather Bureau Office in Galveston , Rather asked a meteorologist to draw an outline of the Gulf of Mexico on a transparent sheet of plastic . He then held the map over the black and white radar screen , which put the size of Carla into perspective . CBS was so impressed with Rather 's work that he was offered the position of correspondent . Throughout Texas , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 460 injuries according to the American Red Cross , though the Monthly Weather Review listed a slightly higher number , 465 . The storm caused 34 fatalities in Texas . Causes of death include 20 people drowning , eight from tornadoes , four electrocutions , and one heart attack . Overall , damage in the state was " conservatively " estimated at $ 300 million . A breakdown of damage indicates $ 200 million incurred to property and $ 100 million to crops , mostly from unharvested rice and lesser impact to cotton and citrus .
= = = = Louisiana = = = =
In southeastern Louisiana , abnormally high tides lashed the coast , though no beach erosion was reported . Rainfall was heavy , peaking at 13 @.@ 9 inches ( 350 mm ) in Many . Other observed precipitation totals include 5 @.@ 6 inches ( 140 mm ) in Baton Rouge , 5 @.@ 57 inches ( 141 mm ) in Morgan City , 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) in Shreveport , 3 @.@ 16 inches ( 80 mm ) in New Orleans , 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) in Lafayette , 2 @.@ 19 inches ( 56 mm ) in Alexandria , 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 53 mm ) in Jonesville and West Monroe , and 1 @.@ 37 inches ( 35 mm ) in Lake Charles . In the western portions of Louisiana , sustained winds peaked at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) and gusts reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . Only minor damage occurred , limited to roofs , glass , and downed tree limbs . Winds caused a local river to reach 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) above flood stage . The 11 tornadoes spawned by Carla in Louisiana destroyed 140 homes and 11 farm and other buildings , while causing major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Additionally , 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings suffered minor to moderate damage . Six fatalities and 199 injuries occurred , mostly related to the tornadoes . Damage in Louisiana totaled to about $ 25 million . A breakdown of losses include $ 6 million to agriculture , $ 5 million to buildings , $ 4 million to boats and beach property , $ 3 million to roads and bridges , $ 5 million to oil platforms just offshore , and $ 2 million in miscellaneous damage .
= = = = Oklahoma = = = =
Carla and its remnants brought heavy rainfall and strong winds to portions of Oklahoma . About 2 – 8 inches ( 51 – 203 mm ) of rain fell in Grant , Tillman , Washita Counties . Heavier amounts of at least 5 inches ( 130 mm ) fell in Atoka and Pushmataha County . Precipitation in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 68 inches ( 195 mm ) in Kingfisher . More than 140 city blocks were flooded with up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in residential areas of Kingfisher and up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in business areas . 225 homes and buildings in the city suffered water damaged . Throughout the state , damage in other areas included 90 homes and buildings in Tulsa , 50 homes each in El Reno and Oklahoma City , and 10 homes in Pawnee . Additionally , water inundation washed out several bridges and highways in northeastern parts of the state , leaving roads impassable . Sustained winds between 30 and 55 mph ( 48 and 89 km / h ) and gusts up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) were recorded in Oklahoma . Winds injured two people due to airborne debris . Winds and rain combined severely disrupted electrical and telephone services and caused $ 670 @,@ 000 in damage , with $ 600 @,@ 000 to property and $ 70 @,@ 000 to crops .
= = = = Illinois = = = =
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the locals did , however , supply axes to the Texian militia . The Texians divided themselves into four groups , each assigned a different approach to the presidio . In the pre @-@ dawn hours of October 10 , the Texians attacked . The lone sentinel managed to give the alarm but was immediately shot dead . The Texians quickly hacked through a door on the north wall of the fortress and ran to the interior courtyard . Hearing the commotion , the Mexican soldiers had lined the walls to defend the fort .
The Mexican soldiers opened fire , hitting Samuel McCulloch , a former slave whom George Collinsworth had freed , in the shoulder . Texians returned fire for approximately 30 minutes . During a pause in the fighting , a Texian spokesman yelled out that they would " massacre everyone of you , unless you come out immediately and surrender " . The Mexican garrison immediately surrendered .
= = Aftermath = =
McCulloch was the only Texian soldier to be wounded , and he later claimed to be the " first whose blood was shed in the Texas War for Independence " . This distinction earned him a permanent home ; a later law prohibited any freed slave from residing in the Republic of Texas , but in 1840 the Texas legislature specifically excluded McCulloch , his family , and his descendants from its enforcement . The exclusion was reward for McCulloch 's service and his injury .
Estimates of Mexican casualties range from one to three soldiers killed and from three to seven wounded . Approximately 20 soldiers escaped . They warned the garrisons at Copano and Refugio of the advancing Texians ; those garrisons abandoned their posts and joined the soldiers at Fort Lipantitlán . Milam escorted the remaining Mexican soldiers to Gonzales , where the newly formed Texian Army was located . The Texian Army commander , Stephen F. Austin , later released all of the men , on the condition that they leave Texas and vow to stop fighting Texas residents . One wounded Mexican soldier was allowed to remain in Goliad , as was Captain Manuel Sabriego , who was married to a local woman . In secret , Sabriego began organizing a group of settlers in the Goliad area who sympathized with Mexico .
Texian troops confiscated the provisions they found at the fort . Although they found 300 muskets , most of them were broken and unable to be repaired . Dimmitt hired two gunsmiths who were able to bring the remaining weapons into service . The food , clothing , blankets , and other provisions were valued at US $ 10 @,@ 000 . The new quartermaster at the fort , John J. Linn , reported that 175 barrels of flour were confiscated , along with a large supply of sugar , coffee , whiskey , and rum . For the next three months , the provisions were parceled out among companies in the Texian Army . The Texians also gained control of several cannons .
Over the next several days , more Texian settlers joined the group at La Bahía . Many of them were from Refugio , a sprawling settlement that was furthest from Matagorda . Historian Hobart Huson speculates that these men were the last to receive word of the planned attack . Austin ordered that 100 men remain at Goliad , under the command of Dimmitt , while the rest should join the Texian Army in marching on Cos 's troops in Béxar . Collinsworth returned to Matagorda to recruit additional soldiers , but on October 14 the remaining Texians at Goliad began the march towards Béxar .
The loss of Goliad meant that Cos lost his means of communicating with Copano Bay , the closest port to Béxar . The Mexican troops garrisoned at Béxar would now need to get supplies and reinforcements overland .
= Noise in music =
In music , noise is variously described as unpitched , indeterminate , uncontrolled , loud , unmusical , or unwanted sound . Noise is an important component of the sound of the human voice and all musical instruments , particularly in unpitched percussion instruments and electric guitars ( using distortion ) . Electronic instruments create various colours of noise . Traditional uses of noise are unrestricted , using all the frequencies associated with pitch and timbre , such as the white noise component of a drum roll on a snare drum , or the transients present in the prefix of the sounds of some organ pipes .
The influence of modernism in the early 20th century lead composers such as Edgar Varese to explore the use of noise @-@ based sonorities in an orchestral setting . In the same period the Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo created a " noise orchestra " using instruments he called intonarumori . Later in the 20th century the term noise music came to refer to works consisting primarily of noise @-@ based sound .
In more general usage , noise is any unwanted sound or signal . In this sense , even sounds that would be perceived as musically ordinary in another context become noise if they interfere with the reception of a message desired by the receiver . Prevention and reduction of unwanted sound , from tape his
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the Arts . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 2621 @-@ 1243 @-@ 7 .
Moravcsik , Michael J. 2001 . Musical Sound : An Introduction to the Physics of Music . New York : Springer Science + Business Media . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 3064 @-@ 6710 @-@ 3 .
Priest , Gail . 2009 . Experimental Music : Audio Explorations in Australia . Kensington , New South Wales : University of New South Wales Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 9214 @-@ 1007 @-@ 9 .
Rodgers , Tara , editor . 2010 . Pink Noises : Women on Electronic Music and Sound . Durham , North Carolina : Duke University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8223 @-@ 9415 @-@ 0 .
Voegelin , Salome . 2010 . Listening to Noise and Silence : Towards a Philosophy of Sound Art . London : Bloomsbury Publishing . 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4411 @-@ 6207 @-@ 6 .
Waksman , Steve . 1999 . Instruments of Desire : The Electric Guitar and the Shaping of Musical Experience . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 6740 @-@ 0547 @-@ 1 .
Washburne , Christopher , Maiken Derno . 2004 . Bad Music : The Music We Love to Hate . New York : Routledge . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 4159 @-@ 4365 @-@ 9 .
= = = Noise reduction = = =
Collins , Mike . 2004 . Pro Tools for Music Production : Recording , Editing and Mixing . Waltham , Massachusetts : Focal Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 2405 @-@ 1943 @-@ 2 .
Hurtig , Brent . 1988 . Multi @-@ Track Recording for Musicians . Van Nuys : Alfred Music . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4574 @-@ 2484 @-@ 7 .
Ingard , Uno . 2010 . Noise Reduction Analysis . Burlington , Massachusetts : Jones & Bartlett Learning . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 9340 @-@ 1531 @-@ 5 .
Snoman , Rick . 2012 . The Dance Music Manual : Tools , Toys and Techniques . Waltham , Massachusetts : Focal Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 1361 @-@ 1557 @-@ 8 .
Vaseghi , Saeed . 2008 . Advanced Digital Signal Processing and Noise Reduction . Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 4707 @-@ 4016 @-@ 3 .
= 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =
The 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . For the 46th consecutive year , the Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan , at the Crisler Center . This season marked the team 's 96th consecutive year as a member
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wounded in and got killed . I believe his death was instantaneous , but I am not sure , as I was wounded myself , and had to be taken back . His body was recovered and was buried by our Padre , and I will give you exact location of cemetery afterwards . Everyone knew Deane as one of the bravest of the brave , and it was only the other day that he got one of the best deserved and gallantly won honours , when he was awarded the Military Cross .
Following this action , he was mentioned in despatches .
Captain Ernest Deane was one of 17 RCSI doctors killed in action during the war . He is buried at the Rue @-@ du @-@ Bacquerot No 1 Military Cemetery ( Grave II.D.14 ) , Laventie , France .
= Kechewaishke =
Chief Buffalo ( Ojibwe : Ke @-@ che @-@ waish @-@ ke / Gichi @-@ weshkiinh – " Great @-@ renewer " or Peezhickee / Bizhiki – " Buffalo " ; also French , Le Boeuf ) ( 1759 ? – September 7 , 1855 ) was a major Ojibwa leader born at La Pointe in the Apostle Islands group of Lake Superior , in what is now northern Wisconsin , USA .
Recognized as the principal chief of the Lake Superior Chippewa ( Ojibwa ) for nearly a half @-@ century until his death in 1855 , he led his nation into a treaty relationship with the United States Government . He signed treaties in 1825 , 1826 , 1837 , 1842 , 1847 , and 1854 . He was instrumental in resisting the efforts of the United States to remove the Chippewa to western areas and secured permanent Indian reservations for his people near Lake Superior .
= = Background = =
= = = Political structure of the Lake Superior Ojibwa = = =
Kechewaishke was born around the year 1759 at La Pointe on Madeline Island ( Mooningwanekaaning ) in the Shagawamikong region . Now part of Wisconsin , La Pointe was a key Ojibwa village and trading center for the empire of New France , which was engaged in the Seven Years ' War with Great Britain at the time of Kechewaishke 's birth . Throughout the 18th century , the Ojibwa spread out from La Pointe into lands conquered from the Dakota people , and settled several village sites . These bands in the western Lake Superior and Mississippi River regions regarded La Pointe as their " ancient capital " and center for spirituality . It had also become a center of trade .
Traditional Ojibwa government and society centers around kinship clans , each of which was symbolized by animal doodem . Each doodem had a traditional responsibility within the tribe . Kechewaishke , or Buffalo as he was known to Europeans , belonged to the Loon clan .
The Loon Clan were said to have been rising in prominence in the middle of the 18th @-@ century due to the efforts of his grandfather Andaigweos ( Ojibwe : Aandegwiiyaas , " Crow 's Meat " ) . Andaigweos was born in the Shagawamikong region , son to a man described as " a Canadian Indian " ( i.e. a Saulteaux from Sault Ste . Marie , a key Ojibwa village at the eastern end of Lake Superior ) . At the time of first French contact in the mid @-@ 17th century , men of the Crane doodem held the positions of hereditary peace chiefs of Chippewa communities at both Sault Ste . Marie and La Pointe . Andaigweos was a skilled orator and favorite of the French officials and voyageurs . In that period , leaders of the Cranes were concerned more with internal matters . By the 19th century , it was Buffalo 's clan the Loons , rather than the Cranes , who were recognized as principal chiefs at La Pointe .
Although the Loons were afforded respect as principal peace chiefs , this status was not permanent . The Cranes , led in Buffalo 's time by his sub @-@ chief Tagwagane , maintained that they were the hereditary chiefs . They said the Loons ' status as spokesmen hinged upon recognition by the Cranes . A chief 's power in Ojibwa society was based on persuasion and consensus ; it was contingent , holding only as long as the community of elders , including the women , chose to respect and follow the chief 's lead .
= = = Personal life = = =
Sources conflict as to the identity of Buffalo 's father , who may also have been named Andaigweos . He appears to have been a descendant or relative of the famous war chief Waubojeeg . When he was about 10 , Buffalo and his parents moved from La Pointe to the vicinity of what now is Buffalo , New York , and lived there until about he was about 12 . The family then relocated to the Mackinac Island area for a while before returning to La Pointe . In his youth , he was admired as a skilled hunter and athlete .
Like many Anishinaabe people , Buffalo was known by more than one Ojibwe name : Peshickee ( Bizhiki : " the Buffalo " ) , and Kechewaishke ( Gichi @-@ weshkiinh : " the Great @-@ renewer " ) . This has caused confusion in records of his life not only because he carried two names , but also because both names were very similar to those of other prominent contemporaries . Bizhiki was the name of a chief from the St. Croix Band , and also of a warrior of the Pillager Chippewa Band ( see Beshekee ) . Additionally , a leading individual of the Caribou doodem , and a son of Waubojeeg , in the Sault Ste . Marie area was known by the name of Waishikey ( Weshki ) . Scholars have mistakenly attributed aspects of the lives of all three of these individuals to Buffalo of La Pointe .
In his long life , Buffalo had five wives and numerous children , many of whom became prominent Ojibwa leaders in the reservation era . He practiced the Midewiwin religion . He converted to Roman Catholicism on his death bed .
= = = Views on international relations = = =
Details on Buffalo 's early life are sparse . Although he appears to have been favored by British traders and decorated by British authorities , few Ojibwa from Lake Superior fought in either the American Revolution or the War of 1812 . There is no record of Buffalo participating .
When Tecumseh 's War broke out , Buffalo and a number of other young warriors from the La Pointe area abandoned the Midewiwin for a time to follow the teachings of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa . While en route to Prophetstown to join the attack on the Americans , they were stopped by Michel Cadotte , the respected Métis fur trader from La Pointe . Cadotte convinced Buffalo and the others that it would be fruitless to fight the Americans .
After that incident , Buffalo is recorded as using only peaceful tactics in his relations with the United States , though he often opposed US Indian policy . He also drew a contrast between himself and his contemporaries Aysh @-@ ke @-@ bah @-@ ke @-@ ko @-@ zhay and Hole in the Day , two Ojibwa chiefs from present @-@ day Minnesota , who carried out a long war against the Dakota Sioux people . Although Armstrong records Buffalo winning a large victory over the Dakota in the 1842 Battle of the Brule , 20th @-@ century historians have cast doubt on his account . That year Buffalo was recorded as saying he " never took a scalp in his life , though he had taken prisoners whom he fed and well @-@ treated . " Overall , he seems to have supported efforts at peace between the Ojibwa and Dakota .
Buffalo inherited not only the status afforded his family , but also had skills praised in his grandfather Andaigweos . Noted for his abilities in hunting and battle ,
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of the new genus and species was published in The Entomologist . The specific epithet " rostratus " is a reference to the beak @-@ like outline of the mandibles seen in the type specimen .
Cockerell placed the genus into the subfamily Ponerinae . He noted similarities between Archimyrmex and Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex , suggesting Archimyrmex to be an intermediate between the two other genera . The genus was re @-@ described in 1928 by palaeoentomologist William Wheeler who moved the genus from Ponerinae to Myrmicinae . This placement was not challenged until a 2003 paper by Russian palaeoentomologists G.M. Dlussky and K.S. Perfilieva , who moved the genus again , this time to the primitive Subfamily Myrmeciinae based on the close similarity between Archimyrmex and Prionomyrmex . In 1957 , an additional species of fossil ant was described from the Middle Eocene Ventana Formation in the Rio Pichileufu region of Argentina by M.J. Viana and J.A. Haedo Rossi . They placed the species into a new genus , Ameghinoia as Ameghinoia " piatnitzkyi . As with Archimyrmex , the genus was first placed in Ponerinae . It was subsequently moved to Myrmeciinae by R.R. Snelling in 1981 . A second Ventana Formation ant species was described in 1981 by E. Rossi de Garcia and placed into another new genus Polanskiella as P. smekali . Recovered from an outcrop of the Ventana Formation in the Rio Limay area , Rossi de Garcia distinguished the new species from " A. " piatnitzkyi based on characteristics of the wing venation and because of the difference in size of the two type specimens . A series of fossils from the three genera were examined by Dlussky and Perfilieva and based on the very notable similarities between the three species , they synonymized the three genera under Archimyrmex , treating both Ameghinoia and " Polanskiella " as junior synonyms . A fourth species , A. wedmannae was described by Dlussky in 2012 based on fossils found in the Middle Eocene Messel Pit site of Germany . The specific epithet was chosen by Dlussky to honour paleoentomologist Sonja Wedmann .
Before Archimyrmex was placed into the subfamily Myrmeciinae , Wheeler classified the genus as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmicinae , as it could not be confidently placed into any ant tribe . Even after its placement within Myrmeciinae it was still classified as incertae sedis . However , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland classified the genus as incertae sedis within the family Formicidae . Baroni Urbani justifies his decision by stating the characters of the ant are similar to those of Cariridris , an insect from the Lower Cretaceous that was once placed in Myrmeciinae , but is now incertae sedis within the subclade Aculeata . Archimyrmex also shares a similar structure to other ants and insects within the order Hymenoptera . The key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) of Myrmeciinae ants cannot be observed although the described species have elongated scapes ( the first segment of the antenna ) , a key diagnostic trait for Formicidae . A 2012 report describing new myrmecine fossils accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues while disregarding Baroni Urbani 's comments .
The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues show the possible phylogenetic position of Archimyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; it is possible that Archimyrmex may be the ancestor of Myrmecia .
= = Description = =
In general Archimyrmex individuals have a head capsule that bears a set of enlarged | mandibles with either a rectangular or triangular outline . The mandibles have a mixed arrangement
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were released after a year to make room for new admittances .
= = Asylum = =
During the 1740s , Smart published many poems while a student at Pembroke College , Cambridge . He eventually left the university in 1749 to devote his time to poetry . In 1750 , Smart started to familiarise himself with Grub Street , London 's writing district , and met John Newbery , a publisher . Soon after , Newbery began publishing Smart 's works in various magazines and in collections , including Poems on Several Occasions ( 1752 ) . Of these works , Smart was known for his Seatonian Prize @-@ winning poems , his pastoral poem The Hop @-@ Garden , and his mock epic The Hilliad . In 1752 , Smart married Newbery 's daughter , Anna Maria Carnan , and had two daughters with her by 1754 . Although many of Smart 's works were published between 1753 and 1755 , he had little money to provide for his family . At the end of 1755 , he finished a translation of the works of Horace , but even that provided little income . Having no other choices , Smart signed a 99 @-@ year @-@ long contract in November 1755 to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visiter or Monthly Memorialist , and the strain of writing caused Smart 's health to deteriorate .
On 5 June 1756 , Smart 's father @-@ in @-@ law Newbery published , without permission , Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , a poem which thanked God for recovery from an illness of some kind , possibly a " disturbed mental state " . During the illness , Smart was possibly confined to Newbery 's home and unable to write or be socially active . Out of sympathy for Smart , many of his friends , including writer and critic Samuel Johnson , began to write in the Universal Visiter to fulfill Smart 's contractual obligation to produce content for the magazine . The publication of Hymn to the Supreme Being marked the beginning of Smart 's obsession with religion and eventual confinement for madness because he began praying " without ceasing " .
Smart 's behaviour was probably influenced by St Paul 's command in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians to " Pray without ceasing " and William Law 's The Spirit of Prayer , which argues that a constant state of prayer will establish a connection with God . Smart began by praying at regular intervals but this slowly deteriorated into irregular praying in which he would interrupt his friends ' activities and call them into the street to pray with him . These calls for public prayer continued until an incident that Smart later described in Jubilate Agno : " For I blessed God in St James 's Park till I routed all the company ... For the officers of the peace are at variance with me , and the watchman smites me with his staff " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) .
Christopher Hunter , Smart 's biographer and nephew , described the situation :
Though the fortune as well as the constitution of Mr. Smart required the utmost care , he was equally negligent in the management of both , and his various and repeated embarrassments acting upon an imagination uncommonly fervid , produced temporary alienations of mind ; which at last were attended with paroxysms so violent and continued as to render confinement necessary .
Hunter reports that Samuel Johnson visited Smart during the latter 's confinement , and it was Johnson that , " on the first approaches of Mr Smart 's malady , wrote several papers for a periodical publication in which that gentleman was concerned . " However , at no time did Smart ever believe himself to be insane ; these meetings began before Smart was ever put into asylum because he still contributed , although not as significantly , to the Universal Visiter . In joking about writing for the Universal Visiter , Johnson claimed : " for poor Smart , while he was mad , not then knowing the terms on which he was engaged to write ... I hoped his wits would return to him . Mine returned to me , and I wrote in ' the Universal Visitor ' no longer . "
There are other possibilities beyond madness or religious fervor that may have led to Smart 's confinement : Newbery may have used the imprisonment of his son @-@ in @-@ law as leverage to control the publication of Smart 's work and as a warning to others who worked for him not to cross him . Another theory suggests Smart 's actions were a result of alcohol , and had nothing to do with a mental imbalance . However , Smart may have been imprisoned for embarrassing his father @-@ in @-@ law in some way , which could have resulted from an incident in which Smart drank . Hester Thrale reinforced this latter possibility when she claimed that Smart 's " religious fervor " tended to coincide with times that Smart was intoxicated . Smart 's own testimony that he " blessed God in St. James 's Park till I routed all the company " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) as representing his religious madness is equally dismissed as resulting from drinking , as he was known for pulling pranks and the Board of Green Cloth , the government body that controlled St James 's Park , would treat most disturbances in the park as resulting from madness . If Smart was placed into the asylum as a result of actions at St James 's , he would not have been the only one , since records show that the Board of Green Cloth was responsible for admitting sixteen people to Bethlem Hospital for " frenzy " at St James 's Park during the century prior to Smart being placed in St Luke 's .
The specific events of Smart 's confinement are unknown . He may have been in a private madhouse before St Luke 's and later moved from St Luke 's to Mr Potter 's asylum until his release . At St Luke 's , he transitioned from being " curable " to " incurable " , and was moved to Mr Potter 's asylum for monetary reasons . During Smart 's confinement time , his wife Anna left and took the children with her to Ireland . There is no record that
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he ever saw her again . His isolation led him into writing religious poetry , and he abandoned the traditional genres of the 18th century that marked his earlier poetry when he wrote Jubilate Agno .
During his time in asylum , Smart busied himself with a daily ritual of writing poetry ; these lyric fragments eventually formed his Jubilate Agno and A Song to David . Smart might have turned to writing poetry as a way to focus the mind or as self @-@ therapy . Although 20th @-@ century critics debate whether his new poetic self @-@ examination represents an expression of evangelical Christianity , his poetry during his isolation does show a desire for " unmediated revelation " from God . There is an " inner light " that serves as a focal point for Smart and his poems written during his confinement , and that inner light connects him to the Christian God .
= = = St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics = = =
Few details are known about Smart 's time at St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics . He was admitted to St Luke 's on 6 May 1757 as a " Curable Patient " . It is possible that Smart was confined at Newbery 's behest over old debts and a poor relationship that existed between the two ; Newbery had previously mocked Smart 's immorality in A Collection of Pretty Poems for the Amusement of Children six Foot High . Regardless of Newbery 's exact reasons , there is evidence suggesting that Newbery 's admittance of Smart into the mental asylum was not based on madness . To have Smart admitted , Newbery probably provided a small bribe , although bribes were against St Luke 's policy .
There is little information about Smart 's condition during his stay at St Luke 's , possibly because Battie 's denied his patients from being visited , including by their own family members . One of the few records that survive of Smart 's time at St Luke 's was an entry in St Luke 's Minute Book , which read :
12 May 1758
Dr. Battie having acquainted this Committee that Christopher Smart ( who was admitted on the 6th day of May 1757 ) continues disordered in his Senses notwithstanding he has been admitted into this Hospital above 12 Calendar Months and from the present Circumstances of his Case there is not Suffit. reason to expect his speedy Recovery And he being brought up and examined . Ordered . That he be discharged and that Notice be sent to his Securities to take him away .
During Smart 's confinement at St Luke 's , not even other doctors were allowed to see Smart unless they had received personal permission from Battie . It was improbable that Smart could have left the asylum without being released by Battie . Even if Smart would have attempted to obtain release via legal means , the rules for subpoenaing release would have been almost impossible to follow based on the system that Battie had in place , which isolated the individual from all contact . Eventually , Smart was deemed " incurable " and would not have been released by the hospital but for its lack of funds .
= = = Mr Potter 's madhouse = = =
After being released from St Luke 's , Smart was taken to a private madhouse . Elizabeth LeNoir , Smart 's daughter , was brought to see her father and stated that he was " committed by Mr Newbery to the care of a Mr Potter who kept a private house at Bethnal Green " . She described her experience as being held in a " small neat parlour " . However , Mr Potter 's private madhouse was not " homely " , and Smart 's treatments were far worse , as he describes : " For they work on me with their harping @-@ irons , which is a barbarous instrument , because I am more unguarded than others " ( Jubilate Agno B 129 ) . Smart was left alone for four years , except for his cat Jeoffry and the occasional gawker who would come to see those deemed mad . Piozzi described Smart 's general situation : " He was both a wit and a scholar , and visited as such while under confinement for MADNESS . " It is very possible that he felt " homeless " during his confinement and surely felt that he was in a " limbo ... between public and private space " from being watched by outsiders .
In London , only a few of his works were still being published , but the proceeds were taken by Newbery . However , Smart did get to see published a collection of his work under the pseudonym " Mrs Midnight " titled Mrs. Midnight 's Orations ; and other Select Pieces : as they were spoken at the Oratory in the Hay @-@ Market , London . Smart did not profit from the work , but he was able to see at least some of his previous work being printed again . Smart , according to his 20th @-@ century biographer Arthur Sherbo , had only " his God and his poetry " . A few of his loyal friends eventually grew tired of the treatment Smart received and freed him from Mr Potter 's .
= = = Release = = =
There is little information about how and why Smart was released from asylum , but his daughter claimed : " He grew better , and some misjudging friends who misconstrued Mr Newbery 's great kindness in placing him under necessary & salutary restriction which might possibly have eventually wrought a cure , invited him to dinner and he returned to his confinement no more . " What is known about the actual events is that John Sherratt , Christopher Smart 's friend , believed that Smart 's confinement was unfair and wanted to negotiate Smart 's release . In January 1763 , he met with a parliamentary committee to discuss the issue of individuals falsely imprisoned and abuses that they would receive in asylums . In particular , Sherratt argued that many were admitted for habitual intoxication , which undermined Battie 's and other asylum keeper 's reputations . A finding by the parliamentary committee released 27 January 1763 bolstered Sherratt 's chances to release Smart . To those around him , Smart appeared perfectly sane , and he was most likely released because of legislation concurrently being passed in parliament advocating for a reform to patient care . Smart left the asylum on 30 January 1763 with Sherratt .
Upon leaving asylum , Smart took the manuscripts of A Song to David , many translations of Psalms , and Jubilate Agno . A Song to David was published on 6 April 1763 . Harsh reviews followed which mocked Smart 's time in the asylum instead of dealing with the poems . Jubilate Agno stayed in manuscript form and passed into the hands of the friends of William Cowper , a poet also placed into asylum and Smart 's contemporary , when they investigated the concept of " madness " . The work stayed in private holdings until it was rediscovered in the 20th century by William Stead . It was not published until 1939 when it was printed with the title Rejoice in the Lamb : A Song from Bedlam .
= = Analysis = =
Samuel Johnson 's biographer James Boswell described a moment when Charles Burney inquired of his friend Johnson of Smart 's state . Johnson used the term " madness " to comment on the state of society before explaining to Burney that Smart 's actions that were deemed symptoms of madness were actually reasonable :
Madness frequently discovers itself merely by unnecessary deviation from the usual mode of the world . My poor friend Smart shewed the disturbance of his mind , by falling upon his knees , and saying his prayers in the street , or in any other unusual place . Now although , rationally speaking , it is greater madness not to pray at all , than to pray as Smart did , I am afraid there are so many who do not pray , that their understanding is not called in question .
Concerning this unfortunate poet , Christopher Smart , who was confined in a mad @-@ house , he had , at another time , the following conversation with Dr [ Charles ] Burney : – Burney . ' How does poor Smart do , Sir ; is he likely to recover ? ' Johnson . ' It seems as if his mind had ceased to struggle with the disease ; for he grows fat upon it . ' Burney . ' Perhaps , Sir , that may be from want of exercise . ' Johnson . ' No , Sir ; he has partly as much exercise as he used to have , for he digs in the garden . Indeed , before his confinement , he used for exercise to walk to the ale @-@ house ; but he was carried back again . I did not think he ought to be shut up . His infirmities are not noxious to society . He insisted on people praying with him ; and I 'd as lief pray with Kit [ = Christopher ] Smart as any one else . Another charge was that he did not love clean linen ; and
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£ 427 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . However , plans were shelved due to lengthy negotiations and increasing land prices . In January 1864 the scheme resumed with a new budget of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 690 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
The wood and surrounding area were cleared , but it is unknown what became of the dispossessed ; there was no legal requirement for the authorities to rehouse the former inhabitants . A design competition to find a " neat and elegant building " was held by the Rochdale Corporation , who offered the winning architect a prize of £ 100 ( £ 8 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) , and a Maltese cross souvenir . From the 27 entries received , William Henry Crossland 's was chosen . The Rochdale @-@ born Radical and Liberal statesman John Bright laid the foundation stone on 31 March 1866 . Construction was complete by 1871 although the cost had , by then , increased beyond expectations from the projected £ 40 @,@ 000 to £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
The Town Hall was one of several built in the textile towns of North West England following the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , but is one of only two in Greater Manchester built in the Gothic style . Between the setting of the foundation stone and the building 's completion , revisions and additions were made to the original design . Money was " lavished " upon the decor and inventory , and the extra expenditure did not escape the ire of its critics . The cost of the building increased year @-@ on @-@ year through a combination of mismanagement , overspending and " unauthorised work " . Public criticism of the high cost was aimed at Crossland and the Mayor of Rochdale , George Leach Ashworth , who oversaw the work . Nevertheless , Rochdale Town Hall was ultimately celebrated as " a source of pride " , and its completion prompted celebration and rejoicing ; it transformed a " derelict and marshy riverbank in to a huge romantic Gothic plaza " . The opening ceremony on 27 September 1871 was performed by Mayor Ashworth , who had been instrumental in the changes made to the building 's design .
In 1882 or 1883 dry rot was found in the 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) high spire . On the recommendation of Rochdale 's Borough Surveyor , contractors were engaged to rebuild it . The spire was to be demolished to clear the way for a replacement . It was rumoured that the workmen who were dismantling the top section of the wooden spire may have tried to speed up the dismantling process with matches and , at 9 : 20 am on 10 April 1883 , a blaze was discovered . Despite the efforts of volunteers and the local fire brigade , 100 minutes after the discovery of the fire the entire spire , including a statue of Saint George and the Dragon , had been destroyed . The cause of the fire was never established , but Rochdale 's fire service was criticised for taking longer to respond to the blaze than Oldham 's , ( based 5 miles ( 8 km ) south ) , despite the Rochdale Fire Brigade being based in the Town Hall . Alfred Waterhouse was given the task of designing a 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone replacement . His work on the clock tower , which was built between 1885 and 1887 about 15 yards ( 14 m ) further to the east than the original , shows many similarities to Manchester Town Hall , which he also designed . The tower was opened in 1888 ; an inscribed plaque commemorates the fire of 1883 .
On 15 January 1931 , at the height of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom , the Territorial Army was called to guard the Town Hall during a protest against unemployment and hunger .
In May 1938 , Rochdale @-@ born actress , singer and comedian Gracie Fields was granted Honorary Freedom of the Borough for her contribution to entertainment . " When the ceremony was over , Gracie went onto the town hall balcony to receive the cheers and good wishes of the thousands of people who were packing the streets below . "
Although it is not fully understood how it came to his attention , Rochdale Town Hall was admired by Adolf Hitler . It has been suggested a visit by Hitler in 1912 – 13 while staying with his half @-@ brother Alois Hitler , Jr. in
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mounts where the forward 4 @-@ inch guns on the flying @-@ off deck had been removed earlier .
The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch and 4 @-@ inch guns were replaced during her refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin dual @-@ purpose Mark XIX mounts . One mount each was on the former flying @-@ off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side . Two more Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island superstructure at the same time . While later refitting in the United States , the ship was fitted with a maximum of 22 manually operated automatic 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon light anti @-@ aircraft guns , which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mount .
A single High Angle Control System director was fitted on the island and another on an elevated mount on the former flying @-@ off deck . Two pom @-@ pom directors were also mounted on the island for the weapons mounted fore and aft of the island .
= = Inter @-@ war service = =
Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925 although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) inventory . These included landing and flying @-@ off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes , with and without wheels , to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats . The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty . A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily . The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards . Deck @-@ edge palisades were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather . The first carrier night @-@ landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious . In the 1920s , the ship commonly carried one flight of fighters ( Fairey Flycatcher ) , two of spotters ( Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison ) , one spotter reconnaissance ( Fairey IIID ) and two flights of torpedo bombers ( Blackburn Dart ) , each usually of six aircraft .
Furious was reduced to reserve on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport . It lasted from September 1930 to February 1932 and was focused on refitting her machinery and re @-@ tubing her boilers . In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck , the AA armament was revised and spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars . Upon completion , she ran a full @-@ power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28 @.@ 8 knots ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) from a total of 89 @,@ 745 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 923 kW ) .
Furious recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November . Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934 . Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI . She became a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1937 , although she was refitted in Devonport between December 1937 and May 1938 where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward . During the Munich Crisis in September 1938 , the ship embarked 801 , 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow , before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair . She was struck a glancing blow by the destroyer Encounter during this time , but suffered only minor damage .
From 1933 to the end of 1938 Furious carried 801 Squadron which initially flew a mixture of six Hawker Nimrod and three Flycatcher fighters . Hawker Osprey fighters replaced the Flycatchers in early 1934 and the Nimrods were withdrawn in October 1936 . 811 and 822 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ shipping missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as the Fairey IIIF , the Fairey Seal and the Blackburn Shark reconnaissance aircraft .
The ship was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and palisades , mounted anti @-@ aircraft guns on her lower flying @-@ off deck , plated in the doors
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( e.g. cerebral palsy ) .
Ataxia - Ataxia is an impairment that consists of a lack of coordination of muscle movements ( e.g. cerebral palsy , Friedreich ’ s ataxia ) .
Athetosis - Athetosis is generally characterized by unbalanced , involuntary movements and a difficulty maintaining a symmetrical posture ( e.g. cerebral palsy , choreoathetosis ) .
Visual Impairment - Athletes with visual impairment ranging from partial vision , sufficient to be judged legally blind , to total blindness . This includes impairment of one or more component of the visual system ( eye structure , receptors , optic nerve pathway , and visual cortex ) . The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team . Beginning in 2012 , these guides ( along with sighted goalkeepers in 5 @-@ a @-@ side football became eligible to receive medals of their own .
Intellectual Disability - Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behaviour . The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities , but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games . This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities diagnosed before the age of 18 . However , the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games are open to all people with intellectual disabilities .
= = = Classification system = = =
Within the disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to level of impairment . The classification systems differ from sport to sport and are intended to open up sports to as many athletes as possible who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability . The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities . Consequently , there is a range of impairment within most classifications .
= = = = Medical classification ( until 1980s ) = = = =
From its inception until the 1980s , the Paralympic system for classifying athletes consisted of a medical evaluation and diagnosis of impairment . An athlete 's medical condition was the only factor used to determine what class they competed in . For example , an athlete who had a spinal cord injury that resulted in lower limb paresis , would not compete in the same wheelchair race as an athlete with a double above @-@ knee amputation . The fact that their disability caused the same impairment did not factor into classification determination , the only consideration was their medical diagnosis . It was not until views on disabled athletics shifted from just a form of rehabilitation to an end in itself , that the classification system changed from medical diagnosis to a focus on the functional abilities of the athlete .
= = = = Functional classification ( since 1980s ) = = = =
While there is no clear date when the shift occurred , a functional classification system became the norm for disabled athletic classification in the 1980s . In a functional system the focus is on what effect the athlete 's impairment has on his or her athletic performance . Under this system , athletes with total loss of function in their legs will compete together in most sports , because their functional loss is the same and the reason for the loss is immaterial . The only exception to the functional system is the classification format used by International Blind Sport Federation ( IBSF0 ) , which still uses a medically based system .
Some sports are only held for certain disability types . For example , goalball is only for visually impaired athletes . The Paralympics recognizes three different grades of visual impairment , consequently all competitors in goalball must wear a visor or " black out mask " so that athletes with less visual impairment will not have an advantage . Other sports , like athletics , are open to athletes with a wide variety of impairments . In athletics participants are broken down into a range of classes based on the disability they have and then they are placed in a classification within that range based on their level of impairment . For example : classes 11 – 13 are for visually impaired athletes , which class they are in depends on their level of visual impairment . There are also team competitions such as wheelchair rugby . Members of the team are each given a point value based on their activity limitation . A lower score indicates a more severe activity limitation than a higher score . A team cannot have more than a certain maximum total of points on the field of play at the same time to ensure equal competition . For example , in wheelchair rugby the five players ' combined disability number must total no more than eight points .
= = Sports = =
There are twenty @-@ two sports on the Summer Paralympic program and five sports on the Winter Paralympics program . Within some of the sports are several events . For example , alpine skiing has downhill , super combined , super @-@ G , slalom , giant slalom . The IPC has governance over several of the sports but not all of them . Other international organizations , known as International Sports Federations ( IF ) , notably the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) , and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) , govern some sports that are specific to certain disability groups . There are national chapters for these International Sport Federations including National Paralympic Committees , which are responsible for recruitment of athletes and governance of sports at the national level .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Cheating = = =
After the 2000 Sydney Games , a Spanish basketball player alleged that
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several members of the gold @-@ medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled ( ID ) team were not disabled . He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve @-@ member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete . A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation . The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flouted the ID rules . In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition , Fernando Martin Vicente admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligibility rules . The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own . The results of the IPC 's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete 's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes . As a result , all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely . The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities . Four sports , swimming , athletics , table tennis and rowing , were anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes at the 2012 Summer Paralympics .
The Paralympics have also been tainted by steroid use . At the 2008 Games in Beijing , three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for banned substances . This was a decrease in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games . German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids . He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics , but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test . At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Swedish curler Glenn Ikonen tested positive for a banned substance and was suspended for six months by the IPC . He was removed from the rest of the curling competition but his team was allowed to continue . The 54 @-@ year @-@ old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list .
Another concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of " boosting " . Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure , often by self @-@ harming , which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15 % . This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross @-@ country skiing . To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury . This trauma can include breaking bones , strapping extremities in too tightly , and using high @-@ pressured compression stockings . The injury is painless but it does affect the athlete 's blood pressure .
Another potential concern is the use of gene therapy among Paralympic athletes . All Paralympic athletes are banned from enhancing their abilities through gene doping , but it is extremely difficult to differentiate these concepts . The World Anti @-@ Doping Agency is currently researching both gene doping and gene therapy , in part to discern the boundary between the two closely related concepts .
The IPC have been working with the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency since 2003 , to ensure compliance with WADA 's anti @-@ doping code among its Paralympic athletes . The IPC has also promised to continue increasing the number of athletes tested at each of its Games , in order to further minimize the possible effect of doping in Paralympic sports . Mandatory in- and out @-@ of competition testing has also been implemented by the IPC to further ensure all of its athletes are performing in compliance with WADA regulations .
= = Notable champions and achievements = =
Trischa Zorn of the United States is the most decorated Paralympian in history . She competed in the blind swimming events and won a total of 55 medals , 41 of which are gold . Her Paralympic career spanned 24 years from 1980 to 2004 . She was also an alternate on the 1980 American
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memorial service and wreath laying in honor of Kennedy was held at the state line , with Governor Carvel in attendance .
The remainder of I @-@ 95 between the Christina River interchange and the Pennsylvania border would be built as a non @-@ tolled freeway . In April 1964 , construction contracts were awarded for bridges at the Christina River interchange that would carry I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 traffic over I @-@ 295 . In late spring of 1964 , construction on the South Wilmington Viaduct began . In June of that year , the substructure of the I @-@ 95 bridge over the Brandywine Creek was completed . In August 1964 , construction began on the I @-@ 95 interchange with Naamans Road and the northern terminus of I @-@ 495 in Claymont . In 1965 , construction was underway to build the below @-@ surface alignment of I @-@ 95 between Fourth Street and the Brandywine Creek in Wilmington . The construction of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington led to demolition of 360 to 370 homes in the West Side neighborhood between Adams and Jackson streets . The construction of the highway led to the decline of the residential and commercial base in Wilmington . Work was also underway on the portion of I @-@ 95 northeast of Wilmington , which would parallel the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . In 1966 , I @-@ 95 was completed and opened to traffic between the Christina River interchange with I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 and downtown Wilmington , where ramps connected the highway to Maryland Avenue and Lancaster Avenue . The completion of this section of I @-@ 95 provided an uninterrupted freeway connection between Wilmington and Baltimore . The ramps to downtown Wilmington were added as a compromise of building the freeway through the city and would bring economic development to the Wilmington Riverfront . In August 1968 , I @-@ 95 between the South Wilmington Viaduct and US 202 was completed and opened to traffic . On November 1 , 1968 , the freeway was opened between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . With this , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware was constructed , making Delaware the third state to complete its section of I @-@ 95 .
= = = Improvements = = =
In November 1968 , work began to widen the Delaware Turnpike from four to six lanes to handle increasing traffic volumes . The widening project was completed in December 1969 , one year ahead of schedule . In 1969 , a plan was made to widen the turnpike between DE 896 and DE 273 to ten lanes and between DE 273 and DE 141 to 12 lanes in a 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 local @-@ express lane configuration . This was later scaled down to a proposal to widen the road to eight lanes total . The widening of the Delaware Turnpike to eight lanes occurred in the 1980s . From 1971 to 1978 , a north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike running south to Dover was studied . This extension of the turnpike evolved into a " Relief Route " for US 13 and was built as DE 1 between 1987 and 2003 .
On June 28 , 1978 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved rerouting I @-@ 95 along the I @-@ 495 alignment . However , AASHTO disapproved renumbering the alignment of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington as I @-@ 595 . On October 27 of that year , AASHTO gave conditional approval for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington to be designated as I @-@ 195 from I @-@ 95 near Newport north to US 202 while the route from US 202 to I @-@ 95 in Claymont would become I @-@ 395 . I @-@ 895 was designated along the conditionally approved route of I @-@ 195 and I @-@ 395 on June 25 , 1979 . In 1980 , the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed . On November 14
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21 . The episode subsequently debuted in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on May 12 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Imagine a man who can squeeze into a shoebox ... a suitcase ... or a victim . "
Critical reception to the episode was mostly negative . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " C " and criticized the episode 's plot holes , such as how the beggar escaped back to India after being shot by Scully . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two noted that the episode was " best " when " it 's at its most tasteless " , citing the beggar " crawling up the bottom of an obese man " as " pretty tasteless " . Shearman and Pearson , however , noted that it suffered from the fact that " it doesn 't have the courage of its convictions " .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " , calling it " a messy episode " . He argued that it is an example of " magnificently bad television " . This in turn , makes it somewhat entertaining ; VanDerWerff argued that he would " rather watch this episode several times than I would some of those season seven outings where everybody seemed like they would rather be just about anywhere else . " However , he did compliment the episode 's gross @-@ out scares , noting that the beginning was " a pretty great cold open " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , was extremely critical of the episode . Referring to it as the series ' " nadir " , he ridiculed the plot and sarcastically labeled the main villain " Butt Munch " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . Vitaris , sardonically referring to the episode as " The X ( enophobic ) -Files " , noted that while " the butt @-@ crawler is new , the plot is pure " X @-@ Files generic Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week . " Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles noted in their book The Complete X @-@ Files that the episode soon became known as the " ' Butt Genie ' episode " among fans .
Despite the negativity , several reviews wrote positively of the episode 's antagonistic beggar . Both TV Guide and UGO Networks listed him amongst the greatest monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week
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the accusative marker את , distinguishing between simple and waw @-@ consecutive verb forms , and in using particles like אשר and כי rather than asyndeton .
Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as ' Late Biblical Hebrew ' . Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology , morphology , and lexicon , and this trend is also evident in the later @-@ developed Tiberian vocalization system .
Qumran Hebrew , attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls from ca . 200 BCE to 70 CE , is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew . Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew , though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features .
= = Dialects = =
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well @-@ known shibboleth incident of Judges 12 : 6 , where Jephthah 's forces from Gilead caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת ( ' ear of corn ' ) The Ephraimites ' identity was given away by their pronunciation : סִבֹּ ֤ לֶת . The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had / s / for standard / ʃ / . As an alternative explanation , it has been suggested that the proto @-@ Semitic phoneme * / θ / , which shifted to / ʃ / in most dialects of Hebrew , may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans @-@ Jordan . However , there is evidence that the word שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת had initial consonant * / ʃ / in proto @-@ Semitic , contradicting this theory .
Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel , known also as Israelian Hebrew , shows phonological , lexical , and grammatical differences from southern dialects . The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of / aj / into / eː / as attested by the Samaria ostraca ( 8th century BCE ) , e.g. ין (
= / jeːn / < * / jajn / ' wine ' ) , while the Southern ( Judean ) dialect instead adds in an epenthetic vowel / i / , added halfway through the first millennium BCE ( יין =
/ ˈjajin / ) . The word play in Amos 8 : 1 – 2 כְּלוּב קַ ֫ יִץ ... בָּא הַקֵּץ may reflect this : given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom , the vocalization * קֵיץ would be more forceful . Other possible Northern features include use of שֶ- ' who , that ' , forms like דֵעָה ' to know ' rather than דַעַת and infinitives of certain verbs of the form עֲשוֹ ' to do ' rather than עֲשוֹת . The Samaria ostraca also show שת for standard שנה ' year ' , as in Aramaic .
The guttural phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / merged over time in some dialects . This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew , but Jerome attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals . Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes , though / ʕ ħ / are occasionally preserved as [ ʕ ] .
= = Orthography = =
The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered , found at Khirbet Qeiyafa , dates to the 10th century BCE . The 15 cm x 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in x 6 @.@ 5 in ) trapezoid pottery sherd ( ostracon ) has five lines of text written in ink written in the Proto @-@ Canaanite alphabet ( the old form of the Phoenician alphabet ) . The tablet is written from left to right , indicating that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage .
The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel adopted the Phoenician script around the 12th
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exists beyond Neptune . Sedna 's orbit is so eccentric that it spends only a small fraction of its orbital period near the Sun , where it can be easily observed . This means that unless its discovery was a freak accident , there is probably a substantial population of objects roughly Sedna 's diameter yet to be observed in its orbital region . Mike Brown noted that " Sedna is about three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto . If there are sixty objects three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto [ out there ] then there are probably forty objects the size of Pluto ... If there are forty objects the size of Pluto , then there are probably ten that are twice the size of Pluto . There are probably three or four that are three times the size of Pluto , and the biggest of these objects ... is probably the size of Mars or the size of the Earth . " However , he notes that , should such an object be found , even though it might approach Earth in size , it would still be a dwarf planet by the current definition , because it would not have cleared its neighbourhood sufficiently .
= = = Kuiper cliff = = =
Additionally , speculation of a possible trans @-@ Neptunian planet has revolved around the so @-@ called " Kuiper cliff " . The Kuiper belt terminates suddenly at a distance of 48 AU from the Sun . Brunini and Melita have speculated that this sudden drop @-@ off may be attributed to the presence of an object with a mass between that of Mars and Earth located beyond 48 AU . The presence of an object with a mass similar to that of Mars in a circular orbit at 60 AU leads to a trans @-@ Neptunian object population incompatible with observations . For instance , it would severely deplete the plutino population . Astronomers have not excluded the possibility of an object with a mass similar to that of Earth located further than 100 AU with an eccentric and inclined orbit . Computer simulations by Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University have suggested that an object with a mass between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 7 Earth masses , ejected outward by Neptune early in the Solar System 's formation and currently in an elongated orbit between 101 and 200 AU from the Sun , could explain the Kuiper cliff and the peculiar detached objects such as Sedna and 2012 VP113 . Although some astronomers , such as Renu Malhotra and David Jewitt , have cautiously supported these claims , others , such as Alessandro Morbidelli , have dismissed them as " contrived " .
= = = Other proposed planets = = =
Tyche was a proposed gas giant to be located in the Solar System 's Oort cloud . It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese , Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette . They argued that evidence of Tyche 's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long @-@ period comets . In 2013 , Matese and Whitmire re @-@ evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche , if it existed , would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA 's Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) telescope . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche 's characteristics , indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese , Whitman , and Whitmire does not exist .
The oligarch theory of planet formation states that there were hundreds of planet @-@ sized objects , known as oligarchs , in the early stages of the Solar System 's evolution . In 2005 , astronomer Eugene Chiang speculated that although some of these oligarchs became the planets we know today , most would have been flung outward by gravitational interactions . Some may have escaped the Solar System altogether to become free @-@ floating planets , whereas others would be orbiting in a halo around the Solar System , with orbital periods of millions of years . This halo would lie at between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun , or between a third and a thirtieth the distance to the Oort cloud .
In December 2015 , astronomers at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array ( ALMA ) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources , or a single , fast moving source . Deciding that the latter was the most likely , they calculated based on its speed that , were it bound to the Sun , the object , which they named " Gna " after a fast @-@ moving messenger goddess in Norse mythology , would be about 12 – 25 AU distant and have a dwarf planet @-@ sized diameter of 220 to 880 km . However , if it were a rogue planet not gravitationally bound to the Sun , and as far away as 4000 AU , it could be much larger . The paper was never formally accepted , and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed . Scientists ' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical ; Mike Brown commented that , " If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer solar system object in its tiny , tiny , tiny , field of view , that would suggest that there are something like 200 @,@ 000 Earth @-@ sized planets in the outer solar system . Which , um , no ... Even better , I just realized that this many Earth @-@ sized planets existing would destabilize the entire solar system and we would all die . "
= = Constraints on additional planets = =
As of 2016 the following observations severely constrain the mass and distance of any possible additional Solar System planet :
An analysis of mid @-@ infrared observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth masses ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .
Using modern data on the anomalous precession of the perihelia of Saturn , Earth , and Mars , Lorenzo Iorio concluded that any unknown planet with a mass of 0 @.@ 7 times that of Earth must be further than 350
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the nth roots of unity . For example , the fourth roots of 16 are 2 , − 2 , 2i , and − 2i , because the principal value of the fourth root of 16 is 2 and the fourth roots of unity are 1 , − 1 , i , and − i .
= = = Computing complex powers = = =
It is often easier to compute complex powers by writing the number to be exponentiated in polar form . Every complex number z can be written in the polar form
<formula>
where r is a nonnegative real number and θ is the ( real ) argument of z . The polar form has a simple geometric interpretation : if a complex number u + iv is thought of as representing a point ( u , v ) in the complex plane using Cartesian coordinates , then ( r , θ ) is the same point in polar coordinates . That is , r is the " radius " r2
= u2 + v2 and θ is the " angle " θ =
atan2 ( v , u ) . The polar angle θ is ambiguous since any integer multiple of 2π could be added to θ without changing the location of the point . Each choice of θ gives in general a different possible value of the power . A branch cut can be used to choose a specific value . The principal value ( the most common branch cut ) , corresponds to θ chosen in the interval ( − π , π ] . For complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part using the principal value gives the same result as using the corresponding real number .
In order to compute the complex power wz , write w in polar form :
<formula>
Then
<formula>
and thus
<formula>
If z is decomposed as c + di , then the formula for wz can be written more explicitly as
<formula>
This final formula allows complex powers to be computed easily from decompositions of the base into polar form and the exponent into Cartesian form . It is shown here both in polar form and in Cartesian form ( via Euler 's identity ) .
The following examples use the principal value , the branch cut which causes θ to be in the interval ( − π , π ] . To compute ii , write i in polar and Cartesian forms :
<formula>
Then the formula above , with r
= 1 , θ =
π / 2 , c
= 0 , and d =
1 , yields :
<formula>
Similarly , to find ( − 2 ) 3 + 4i , compute the polar form of − 2 @,@
<formula>
and use the formula above to compute
<formula>
The value of a complex power depends on the branch used . For example , if the polar form i = 1e5πi / 2 is used to compute ii , the power is found to be e − 5π / 2 ; the principal value of ii , computed above , is e − π / 2 . The set of all possible values for ii is given by :
<
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began on 6 January 1940 when she left Wilhelmshaven for the North Sea , eventually circumnavigating the British Isles , travelling as far south as the Bay of Biscay and Portugal . It was in these two locations that U @-@ 44 sank her first ( and last ) merchant ships . Following these victories , she headed north again , travelling just north of the coast of Scotland and back into the North Sea . She then returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving there on 9 February 1940 . Over a period of thirty @-@ five days , U @-@ 44 sank eight merchant ships , for a total loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT .
= = = Second patrol = = =
Unlike her first outing , U @-@ 44 's second patrol was a disaster , not even lasting through the first day . After spending more than a month in Wilhelmshaven , she began her second patrol on 13 March 1940 . A few hours after leaving port , U @-@ 44 entered minefield Number 7 , just off of the northern coast of the Netherlands . This particular minefield was laid by the British destroyers HMS Esk , Express , Icarus , Faulknor and Impulsive . Upon entering the minefield , U @-@ 44 struck one of the devices and sank at 54 ° 14 ′ N 5 ° 07 ′ E. All forty @-@ seven of her crew were lost .
= = Previously recorded fate = =
Sunk by HMS Fortune on 20 March 1940 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service , U @-@ 44 sank eight commercial ships for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . All of these ships were sunk during her first patrol .
= Group 3 element =
Group 3 is a group of elements in the periodic table . This group , like other d @-@ block groups , should contain four elements , but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group . Scandium ( Sc ) and yttrium ( Y ) are always included , but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum ( La ) and actinium ( Ac ) , or by lutetium ( Lu ) and lawrencium ( Lr ) ; less frequently , it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements ( with all the lanthanides and actinides included ) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium . The group itself has not acquired a trivial name ; however , scandium , yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals .
Three group 3 elements occur naturally , scandium , yttrium , and either lanthanum or lutetium . Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior , while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium . This is in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their upper periodic table neighbors . This trend is seen from hafnium , which is almost identical chemically to zirconium , to mercury , which is quite distant chemically from cadmium , but still shares with it almost equal atomic size and other similar properties . They all are silvery @-@ white metals under standard conditions . The fourth element , either actinium or lawrencium , has only radioactive isotopes . Actinium , which occurs only in trace amounts , continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with a noble gas configuration ; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium . So far , no experiments have been conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element . Unbiunium ( Ubu ) , which could be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium , might be synthesized in the near future , it being only three spaces away from the current heaviest element known , ununoctium .
= = History = =
In 1787 , Swedish part @-@ time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby , Sweden ( part of the Stockholm Archipelago ) . Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten , he named it ytterbite . Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or " earth " in Arrhenius ' sample in 1789 , and published his completed analysis in 1794 ; in 1797 , the new oxide was named yttria . In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements , it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements , meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within , which in this case would have been yttrium . Until the early 1920s , the chemical symbol " Yt " was used for the element , after which " Y " came into common use . Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium ( III ) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride .
In 1869 , Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table , which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium . Mendeleev made several predictions on the upper neighbor of yttrium , which he called eka @-@ boron . Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team discovered the missing element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium ( III ) oxide of high purity . He named it scandium , from the Latin Scandia meaning " Scandinavia " . Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev 's suggestions were correct ; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law . Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev 's prediction , but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev . Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture , at 700 – 800 ° C , of potassium , lithium , and scandium chlorides .
Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was thought by most chemists to consist entirely of ytterbium . Welsbach proposed the names cassiopeium for element 71 ( after the constellation Cassiopeia ) and aldebaranium ( after the star Aldebaran ) for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals were rejected , although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71 cassiopeium . Urbain chose the names neoytterbium ( Latin for " new ytterbium " ) for ytterbium and lutecium ( from Latin Lutetia , for Paris ) for the new element . The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other . The Commission on Atomic Mass , which was responsible for the attribution of the names for the new elements , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones . An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain was one of the four members of the commission . The separation of
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platforms . The station is located 23 @.@ 16 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 39 mi ) from Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) at 104 @.@ 6 metres ( 343 ft ) elevation .
= = = Asker – Sandvika = = =
Construction of the section between Asker and Sandvika started in 2001 , and was completed in 2005 . It was officially opened by Torild Skogsholm , Minister of Transport from the Liberal Party , on 27 August . This section is dominated by the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 23 mi ) Tanum Tunnel and the 3 @,@ 790 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 35 mi ) Skaugum Tunnel , and cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion . For the last 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of track west of Sandvika , the Asker and Drammen Line have been built along the same , new , right @-@ of @-@ way . The Drammen Line , leaves Slependen Station , and joins the Asker Line just after the latter leaves the Tanum Tunnel .
= = = Sandvika Station = = =
Sandvika Station is 14 @.@ 14 km ( 8 @.@ 79 mi ) from Oslo S , at 12 @.@ 0 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) elevation . The track layout has been criticised by among others Norsk Bane , for not permitting high through speeds . A sharp curve before the station will not permit trains to travel at more than 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , even if they are not scheduled to stop at the station . This will increase travel time , and hinder the efficiency of the line should it be used later for high @-@ speed lines to Vestfold or Western Norway . The proposed Ringerike Line would demerge just west of Sandvika Station .
= = = Sandvika – Lysaker = = =
Construction of the second section started in 2007 and was completed in 2011 . The section between Sandvika and Lysaker is 6 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) , most of which runs through the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) Bærum Tunnel . There was local debate whether the tunnel should be built using a tunnel boring machine or by drilling and blasting . The latter was preferred by the Rail Administration , since it allowed a shorter construction time , and a NOK 700 million saving . Total budget is NOK 2 @,@ 787 million .
= = = Lysaker Station = = =
Lysaker Station serves as the main public transport hub for Eastern Bærum , parts of Western Oslo and Fornebu . Within 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , there are 20 @,@ 000 jobs , with an additional 10 – 15 @,@ 000 in development . Located 7 @.@ 00 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 35 mi ) west of Oslo S , it is receiving a major overhaul between 2006 and 2009 , including 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) of new track . The current station will be entirely replaced , and the number of platforms increased from two to four . More than one thousand buses depart from Lysaker Station each day , and it has been proposed as the terminus of the Fornebu Line — a tramway originally proposed as a people mover .
The NOK 1 billion renovation has become a scandal , due to the station being built in a curve , and thus does not have straight platforms . This will become a security problem ; in addition it will create a gap up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) between the train and the platform , hindering accessibility to the trains for disabled people . Norges Statsbaner claims they will have to buy new trains due to this station alone , costing the state @-@ owned company NOK 1 @.@ 5 billion . Minister of Transport , Liv Signe Navarsete from the Centre Party , has said that resolving the problems by building a straight station is not an alternative , since it would cost an additional hundred @-@ millions of NOK , and delay the new station several years .
= = = Lysaker – Skøyen = = =
The last section is a proposed 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) section from Lysaker to Skøyen ; the latter not being modified as part of the extension , since it was upgraded in 1999 . The government has not set a date to start construction , but it will not be until at least 2020 , since other projects will be prioritised over this section . No specific route has been finalised , and the project has been proposed to either run parallel to the current Drammen Line , or by placing all four tracks through a new tunnel . The former has been preferred by the Rail Administration , while the latter — which would cost NOK 1 billion more — has been preferred by the municipality . There are no intermediate commuter stations between Sk
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Conception and writing = = =
Sometime during the sixth season of The X @-@ Files , Anderson approached series creator Chris Carter and asked to write an episode . Anderson 's own beliefs in the power of spiritual healing and Buddhism provided inspiration ; she wanted to write a script in which Scully pursued a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one in which [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . She wrote the basic outline of what became " all things " in one sitting , and pitched the script to Carter the next day ; he later approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story .
The first draft of the script was 72 pages — 15 pages too long — and did not feature a fourth act . Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz worked closely with Anderson to finish the episode , although Carter and Spotnitz later acknowledged that the majority of the script " was all Gillian " . Despite her satisfaction with the final version , Anderson regrets a handful of the " necessary " script changes , most notably , the addition that Scully and Waterston 's affair was intimate . In the original script , the two came close to having an affair , but Scully ended the relationship when she discovered that Waterston was married .
In the commentary for the episode , Anderson elaborated on Scully and Waterston 's original backstory : after Scully and Waterston came close to having an affair , Scully left to study at Quantico to become an FBI agent . After she left , Waterston become depressed , and his family began to suspect the affair . The emotional turmoil was too much for Waterston 's wife , who killed herself , which made Waterston 's daughter , Maggie , resent Scully , as shown in the finished episode . Anderson felt that the removal of this backstory made it hard for the audience to understand why Maggie was so angry at Scully .
When Anderson first wrote the episode , she did not hint that Scully and Mulder had had sex . Spotnitz and the production crew , however , felt it was natural to suggest that Scully and Mulder 's relationship may have evolved into a romantic one . The idea of heart chakra crop circles was included because Anderson wanted " whatever Mulder was involved in that took him away from me , away from Washington , to somehow tie into what it was that I was going through — the journey that I was going through " . As such , Anderson dedicated much of her time researching both crop circles and heart chakras , but she later gave additional credit to Spotnitz , who she noted was also heavily involved during the researching process .
= = = Directing and music = = =
Around the same time that she approached Carter about writing an episode , Anderson was also receiving offers from several television networks to direct shows . She , however , had never directed before , and decided that she would first attempt to helm an episode of The X @-@ Files before branching out into other series . Anderson thus expressed her wish to direct the episode when she pitched the original idea for " all things " . Carter accepted her story , but did not appoint her as director until all the revisions and rewrites had been completed
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for his wide circle . Dyer 's erratic behaviour inevitably wore thin — with his cronies , with Bacon , and with Bacon 's friends . Most of Bacon 's art world associates regarded Dyer as a nuisance — an intrusion into the world of high culture to which their Bacon belonged . Dyer reacted by becoming increasingly needy and dependent . By 1971 , he was drinking alone and was only in occasional contact with his former lover .
In October 1971 , Dyer accompanied Bacon to Paris for the opening of the artist 's retrospective at the Grand Palais . The show was the high point of Bacon 's career to date , and he was now being described as Britain 's " greatest living painter " . Dyer was now a desperate man , and although he was " allowed " to attend , he was well aware that he was " slipping " , in every sense , out of the picture . To draw Bacon 's attention he earlier planted cannabis in Bacon 's flat , then phoned the police , and he had attempted suicide on a number of occasions . On the eve of the Paris exhibition , Bacon and Dyer shared a hotel room , and Bacon spent the next day surrounded by people eager to meet him . In mid @-@ evening he was informed that Dyer had taken an overdose of barbiturates and was dead . Though devastated , Bacon continued with the retrospective and displayed powers of self @-@ control " to which few of us could aspire " , according to Russell . Bacon was deeply affected by the loss of Dyer , and he had recently lost four other friends and his nanny . From this point on , death haunted his life and work . Though he gave a stoic appearance at the time , he was inwardly broken . He did not express his feelings to critics , but later admitted to friends that " daemons , disaster and loss " now stalked him as if his own version of the Eumenides . Bacon spent the remainder of his stay in Paris attending to promotional activities and funeral arrangements . He returned to London later that week to comfort Dyer 's family . The funeral proved to be an emotional affair for all , and many of Dyer 's friends , including hardened East @-@ End criminals , broke down in tears . As the coffin was lowered into the grave one attendant screamed " you bloody fool ! " . Although Bacon remained stoic throughout , in the following months Dyer preoccupied his imagination as never before . To confront his loss , he painted a number of tributes on small canvasses and his three " Black Triptych " masterpieces .
= = Description = =
In each panel , Dyer is framed by a doorway , and set against a flat , anonymous foreground coloured with black and brown hues . In the left frame , he is seated on a toilet with his head crouched between his knees as if in pain . Although his arched back , thighs and legs are according to the Irish critic Colm Tóibín , " lovingly painted " , Dyer is by now clearly a broken man . This central panel shows Dyer sitting on the toilet bowl in a more contemplative pose , his head and upper body writhing beneath a hanging lightbulb which throws a large bat @-@ like shadow formed in the shape of a demon or Eumenide . The art critic Sally Yard has noted that in the portrayal of Dyer 's flesh , " life seems to visibly drain ... into the substantial character of the shadow beneath him " . Dyer 's posture suggests he is seated on a lavatory bowl , though the object is not described . Schmied has proposed that in this frame the blackness of the background has enveloped the subject ,
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10 U.S. hit , " I Don 't Wanna Fight . " Other than helping Bassett with her wardrobe and teaching her dance steps as well as providing songs for the soundtrack , and appearing as herself at the end of the film , she refused to be involved fully in the film , telling an interviewer , " Why would I want to see Ike Turner beat me up again ? I haven 't dwelled on it ; it 's all in the past where it belongs . " Following the film 's and soundtrack 's release , Turner embarked on her first US tour in seven years . Following the tour 's end , Turner moved to Switzerland and took a year off from the road at the end of the tour .
Turner returned in 1995 with the U2 composition , " GoldenEye " for the James Bond film of the same name . Its huge success in Europe and modest success in her native United States led Turner to record a new album , releasing the Wildest Dreams album in 1996 . Though the album itself was not as hugely successful in the United States , thanks to a world tour and a much played Hanes hosiery commercial , the album went gold in the United States . The album reached platinum success in Europe where Turner had hits with " Whatever You Want " , " Missing You " , which briefly charted in the U.S. , " Something Beautiful Remains " , and the sensual Barry White duet " In Your Wildest Dreams . " Following the tour 's end in 1997 , Turner took another break before re @-@ emerging again in 1999 appearing on the VH @-@ 1 special Divas Live ' 99 .
In 1998 the duet with Italian musician Eros Ramazzotti in " Cose della vita " became a European hit . Before celebrating her 60th birthday , Turner released the dance @-@ infused song , " When the Heartache Is Over " and its parent album , Twenty Four Seven the following month in Europe , releasing both the song and the album in North America in early 2000 . The success of " When the Heartache Is Over " and Turner 's tour supporting the album once again helped in the album going gold in the U.S. The Twenty Four Seven Tour became her most successful concert tour to date and became the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2000 according to Pollstar grossing over $ 100 million . Later , Guinness World Records announced that Turner had sold more concert tickets than any other solo concert performer in music history . Afterwards Turner announced a semi @-@ retirement .
= = Recent years = =
In 2002 , Tennessee State Route 19 between Brownsville and Nutbush was named " Tina Turner Highway . " The following year , she recorded the duet " Great Spirits " with Phil Collins for the Disney film , Brother Bear . In 2004 , Tina made her first professional appearances following her semi @-@ retirement , releasing the compilation album , All the Best , which produced the single " Open Arms " , and sold more than a million copies in the US .
In December of the following year , Turner was recognized by the Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington , D.C. and was elected to join an elite group of entertainers . President George W. Bush commented on Turner 's " natural skill , the energy and sensuality " , and referred to her legs as " the most famous in show business . " Several artists paid tribute to her that night including Oprah Winfrey , Melissa Etheridge ( performing " River Deep - Mountain High " ) , Queen Latifah ( performing " What 's Love Got to Do with It " ) , Beyoncé ( performing " Proud Mary " ) , and Al Green ( performing
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grown with Marchantiophyta , especially of the genera Nowellia or Cephalozia . B. minutissima has been found growing on the liverwort Lepidozia reptans , although Nowellia curvifolia is the main indicator for the slime mould . In addition to liverworts , Barbeyella is found socialised with monocellular algae . It is assumed that the protoplasmodium phagocytises either the algae or the bacteria on their surface . Other Myxogastria species are often found together with Barbeyella , especially Lepidoderma tigrinum , Lamproderma columbinum and Colloderma oculatum . Aphanocladium album is a myxomyceticolous fungus ( i.e. , living on or within the fruit bodies of myxomycetes ) that has been reported growing on specimens of B. minutissima collected from North Carolina .
= Hollywood A.D. =
" Hollywood A.D. " is the nineteenth episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Hollywood A.D. " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 7 , being watched by 12 @.@ 88 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode was met with largely positive reviews , with many critics approving of the episode 's humorous nature .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Wayne Federman , an entrepreneurial Hollywood producer and college friend of Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) picks up the idea for a film based on the X @-@ Files , however Mulder and Scully find that the level of realism in their fictional portrayal is somewhat questionable . Meanwhile , during the filming of the movie , Mulder and Scully research the mysterious " Lazarus Bowl " , an artifact that supposedly has the words Jesus Christ spoke when he raised Lazarus from the dead .
" Hollywood A.D. " was written and directed by series star David Duchovny , his second writing and directing credit after the sixth season episode " The Unnatural . " The episode — written with a " self @-@ referential " tone — features a myriad of guest stars , including , most notably , Garry Shandling and Téa Leoni , who portray Mulder and Scully , respectively , in the episode 's fictional movie . The episode itself contains several in @-@ jokes and references deliberately placed by Duchovny .
= = Plot = =
Walter Skinner 's old college friend , Hollywood producer Wayne Federman , is involved in a film project about the FBI . During Federman 's research phase , Skinner gives him access to Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , who are investigating the attempted murder of Cardinal O 'Fallon . Federman tags along and constantly interrupts the agents . While searching the catacombs of O 'Fallon 's church , Mulder finds the remains of Micah Hoffman , a missing 1960s counter @-@ culturalist . Searching Hoffman 's apartment , they find bombs and counterfeiting tools , as well as forged gospel of Mary Magdalene . Mulder and Federman return to the church and search the catacombs , finding several skeletons and pieces of the forged gospel . Federman wanders off and stumbles upon animated bones , who attempt to assemble a shattered piece of pottery . He panics and leaves the scene .
Mulder and Scully examine the pottery . Scully tells Mulder the story of " The Lazarus Bowl " , in which the aunt of Lazarus had been making a clay bowl when Jesus Christ resurrected him . The words of Christ were then recorded in the grooves of the bowl , much like a phonograph record . Mulder brings the relic to Chuck Burks , who , after performing a sonic analysis , discovers voices in Aramaic ; in one portion part of the audio , one man commands another to rise from the dead . The other contains lyrics from " I am the Walrus " by The Beatles .
Mulder visits O 'Fallon , who admits he bought the forged gospel from Hoffman , but believed it was real . Meanwhile , during Hoffman 's autopsy , Scully experiences a vision wherein he comes back to life on the operating table and begins talking . Later , at the church , Scully sees a vision of Hoffman in Jesus ' place on a large crucifix . Mulder arrests O 'Fallon for Hoffman 's murder , but Micah Hoffman walks in , unscathed . He tells the agent that while he initially created the forgeries to make money , he came to believe he was the reincarnation of Jesus Christ , and bombed the church to get rid of the " blasphemous " forgeries . Skinner suspends Scully and Mulder for four weeks because of the mix @-@ up . Sixteen months later , O 'Fallon kills Micah Hoffman in a murder @-@ suicide . As such , the X @-@ File is never truly solved .
During their suspension , Mulder and Scully venture to Hollywood to view the production of Federman 's film . It is revealed that Federman 's movie will be called The Lazarus Bowl , and Garry Shandling will play Mulder and Téa Leoni will play Scully . After filming is done , Mulder and Scully attend a screening of the film with Skinner , but are thoroughly disgusted at how their case , and they , are portrayed on the big screen . Mulder and Scully leave the set holding hands , presumably on their way to dinner with the FBI credit card Skinner gave them after watching the movie , hinting at the continued romantic relationship between Mulder and Scully that has been suggested in the last few episodes . As the agents leave , the dead who were resting underneath the film set are revived and begin to dance passionately , reinforcing a theory Mulder made earlier in the episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Hollywood A.D. " was written and directed by series star David Duchovny . The episode was written after Duchovny received positive feedback on his last creation , season six 's " The Unnatural " . Duchovny originally approached executive producer Frank Spotnitz about the possibility of writing another episode . Spotnitz gave him the go @-@ ahead and was soon given a rough copy of the script . Series creator Chris Carter was very happy with the story , calling it " a smart , [ ... ] , quirky , and intelligent idea " and he later described it as " outside the norm , even for The X @-@ Files . " Once the script was approved , Duchovny took on an active role in preparing for the episode .
There was a considerable amount of stunt work and choreographing done for " Hollywood A.D. " Two stunt doubles were hired for the scene where Shandling tackles Leoni and they tumble down a hill into an open casket . Some of the stunt men were even cast in non @-@ stunt related jobs . Several were " transformed " into zombies , a process which took five hours . The zombie dance sequence at the end of the episode took two days to film . The first day was shot during active production and the second was scheduled for the blue screen work that was required .
= = = Casting = = =
Duchovny cast several of The X @-@ Files ' technical crew members in the episode . Tina M. Amedrui , the show 's actual craft services woman , portrayed Tina , the craft service woman for Wayne Federman
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' own actions to do likewise . The Zebra Room and the bartender profession are other items shared by their grandfathers ; Eugenides said the inclusion of the bar was a deliberate " secret code of paying homage to my grandparents and my parents " . Several aspects of Chapter Eleven were based on Eugenides ' elder brother , who withdrew from society during a " hippie phase " in his life . While revising and editing the book , the author removed information that could be offensive to his relatives . Not all such material was excised , Eugenides said , " There may still be things in there that will sting . "
= = Style = =
Several reviewers considered Middlesex to be overly verbose . The Economist described the novel as " ponderous " and said that the main story ( that of Cal ) does not " get off the ground until halfway through " the book . Time 's Richard Lacayo concurred ; he considered the hundreds of pages about Cal 's grandparents and several historical events to be trite , making Middlesex 's focus " footloose " in some spots . Several passages in the novel exhibit Eugenides ' obsession with " verbose voluptuousness " . An example noted by Thea Hillman in her review is an incident in which Cal says , " I sat in my seat , in a state of voluptuous agitation , of agitated voluptuousness , until my stop . Then I staggered out . " A contrary opinion is given by Daniel Soar in his article for London Review of Books . According to Soar , Eugenides did " both background and foreground in all the necessary detail " , seamlessly shifting from past to present . Despite the implausible tone of the novel 's events , the author successfully makes them " elaborately justified and motivated " . The quality of Middlesex 's writing was uneven in the opinions of Hillman and another reviewer , Sebastian Smee . The latter pointed out that Eugenides occasionally moves from the heartfelt ( " I remember the first time we took off our clothes in front of each other . It was like unwinding bandages " ) to the " trashily journalistic " ( " You 've heard of installation artists ? Well , the Object [ a heavy smoker ] was an exhalation artist " ) on several occasions .
Humor and irony are frequently used in the book . Mark Lawson of The Guardian considered the narrator 's tone to be " sardonic [ ally ] empath [ etic ] " , and other critics have characterized the beginning of the novel as comical . When Cal is baptized as an infant by Father Mike , a Greek Orthodox clergyman , the priest receives a surprise : " From between my cherubic legs a stream of crystalline liquid shot into the air ... Propelled by a full bladder , it cleared the lip of the font ... [ and ] struck Father Mike right in the middle of the face . " Derek Weiler of the Toronto Star noted that Eugenides has witty commentary about German compound words and the " horrific qualities of public men 's rooms " . The author employed another writing device — abrupt incongruity — in describing Desdemona 's physical appearances to suggest that her incestuous acts should be taken lightly when judging her . In describing her hair , he wrote that her " braids were not delicate like a little girl 's but heavy and womanly , possessing a natural power , like a beaver 's tail " . According to Penelope Music of Book Magazine , the mismatch in tone of the final two words compared with the rest of the sentence was such that the reading experience was changed from " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill magical realism to true , subversive comedy " . An instance of irony is illustrated by Cal 's grandparents and parents : His grandparents assimilate into American culture through hard work and struggles while retaining certain old customs . His parents , however , abandon their roots for a more comfortable lifestyle . In another incident , the diner owned by the Stephanides is engulfed in flames during the 1967 Detroit riot . Cal notes that " [ s ] hameful as it is to say , the riots were the best thing that ever happened to us . " The diner was insured and the Stephanides gain a windfall payout .
= = = Narrative modes = = =
Middlesex is written in the form of a memoir , and switches between the first and the third person in several spots . Used as a comedic device , the third person narratives illustrate Cal 's estrangement from Calliope : When he refers to her in the third person , he is identifying her as someone other than him . Patricia Chu , a scholar of English literature , noted the effectiveness of this style in the chapter in which the adolescent Callie searches for information on hermaphroditism . As the teenager reads Webster 's Dictionary , following the trail of definitions related to her condition , she reaches the entry for hermaphrodite . The narration switches from personal to external , lending poignancy to the character 's final discovery as she confronts the word " monster " .
Although the protagonist switches gender throughout the book , Cal 's manners of speech and thought are identical to Callie 's . Believing that males and females have no inherent disparities in their writing styles , Eugenides treated Cal and Callie as the same person , in terms of narrative voice . He also fixed the narrative voice in terms of age by setting up Cal to relate the entire story at one time . Eugenides gave his protagonist a mostly male outlook , justifying his treatment with the reasoning that Cal or Callie was a man in terms of appearance , sexual desires , and the brain . He asked his wife and other women to review his approaches on Cal 's feminine views . The " emotional stuff " was accurate but Eugenides had to refine certain details , such as those about toenail polish .
At the beginning of the book when Cal discusses his family 's history and actions prior to his birth , he speaks in an androgynous voice , with limited omniscience ; he acknowledges that he is fabricating some of the details . John Mullan , University College London 's professor of English and a contributor to The Guardian , wrote that by permitting Cal to be unrealistically aware of fellow characters ' thoughts , Eugenides intentionally contravenes an elementary standard in storytelling fiction . In the novel 's closing pages , Cal provides minute details about his father 's dying moments and thoughts in a nonsensical car accident even though he is several thousand miles from the scene and only learns of the tragedy from his brother . Cal has the ability to dwell in the minds of others because as a female who has become a male , his identity is not confined by his own body . According to Mullan , this " mobility of identification becomes a narrative principle " and is thoroughly exploited in Middlesex . The novel follows the principle that people are molded by events prior to their birth , and Eugenides explores a character 's prenatal life in terms of his or her genes ; the narrator is , however , subject to the principle that whatever he does not know is of his imagination . As such , contradictory statements highlight the unreliable nature of Cal 's narration . While narrating the story that pre @-@ dates his birth , he remarks , " Of course , a narrator in my position ( prefetal at the time ) can 't be entirely sure about any of this . " However , he later says , " I alone , from the private box of my primordial egg , saw what was going on . " Cal 's dubious omniscience , doubtful narration , and parodies combine to show that his unreliability is an act of mischief .
Mullan remarked that Eugenides ' narrator has a proclivity to reveal events that will happen in the future . Cal is a narrator who is absorbed in how his fate has been shaped . Cal eschews a chronological telling of the story , where he shares the characters ' nescience . He chooses instead to relate the story beginning with his future knowledge . Cal 's genes reflect an anticipation of
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the future : the disclosure of his actual sex identity . Cal mimics this " genetic inevitability " by enjoining the readers to know the future prior to its occurring . Mullan observed that " [ f ] or the reader , apprehension predominates over surprise " as a result of this narrative style .
= = = Genres = = =
The Kirkus Reviews described Middlesex as a " virtuosic combination of elegy , sociohistorical study , and picaresque adventure " , and Adam Begley in The New York Observer called it " a hybrid form , epic crossed with history , romance , comedy , tragedy . " Other reviews also categorized the book under various genres . Covering the lives of three generations of the Stephanides family , Middlesex is considered a family saga by novelist Geraldine Bedell . The book is more than a mere family saga , according to Samuel Cohen in his paper for Twentieth Century Literature ; it depicts the Stephanides ' trials and tribulations through historical events . Cohen is not convinced by Eugenides ' declaration that Middlesex was not conceived as a historical novel ; he said the novel satisfied much of the criterion for the genre . Cal , narrating his story in 2002 , describes events from the early 1920s to the mid @-@ 1970s . According to Cohen , the difference in timeframes , at least 25 years apart , " establishes that the novel is set safely in the past " .
According to Stewart O 'Nan of The Atlantic , Cal 's narration evokes the style of the picaresque novel , retelling events that have already occurred and foreshadowing the future through " portentous glimpses " . Francisco Collado @-@ Rodríguez , a professor of American Literature , classified the beginning of Middlesex as a historiographical and metafictional chronicle for its discussion of events such as the Greco @-@ Turkish war and the Great Fire of Smyrna . He also considered the first section of the novel as a tragicomedy about the Stephanides ' migration from Greece and assimilation into America . Soar posited Desdemona and Lefty 's passage as a romantic comedy : the lovers , brother and sister , pretend to be strangers who meet for the first time , attempting " to unknow themselves , to remythologise themselves by developing a past they could live with , unfamiliar and therefore permissible " . As the story progresses , Middlesex becomes a social novel about Detroit , discussing the seclusion of living in a 1970s suburb . At the end of the novel , the story adopts the tone of the detective genre .
The novel is characterized as a " dramatic " Bildungsroman with a " big twist " because the coming @-@ of @-@ age story is revealed to be the incorrect one : after being nurtured as a woman , Cal must instead learn to become a man . The book has " two distinct and occasionally warring halves " . Whereas the first part is about hermaphrodites , the second is about Greeks . The latter half , " full of incest , violence , and terrible family secrets " , was considered by Daniel Mendelsohn , an author and critic , to be more effective because Middlesex is largely about how Callie inherited the momentous gene that " ends up defining her indefinable life " .
Writing for The New Republic , James Wood classified Middlesex as a story written in the vein of hysterical realism . He said the novel is influenced by its own recounting of " excitements , patternings , and implausibilities that lie on the soft side of magical realism " . Such moments in the book include how two cousins conceive " on the same night and at the same moment " and how years later , those children marry each other . Woods also pointed out the seeming coincidences that involved locales . Smyrna is the burning city from which she flees to start a new life ; New Smyrna Beach is where she spends her retirement . Effectively serving as a double entendre , the title of the book refers to the name of the street where Cal stays at and describes his situation : a hermaphrodite brought
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site of Woburn Place , and were completed in 1934 . Alderman Hugh Milner Black , a Corporation member who campaigned for housing improvements in Brighton , was commemorated in the naming . Kingswood Flats , on the site of Nelson Place and a Primitive Methodist chapel , were built in 1938 . The name refers to Minister for Health Kingsley Wood . Some displaced residents were moved out of the area : the new council estates of Whitehawk and Moulsecoomb , built in the 1920s and early 1930s on the fringe of Brighton , accommodated many former Carlton Hill residents . An earlier low @-@ rise development took place in 1931 , when the small Tarnerland council estate was built on empty land near Tilbury Place .
The Corporation also provided non @-@ residential buildings on the cleared land . The Circus Street Municipal Market , on a wide street built behind Scutt 's Royal Circus riding school , opened in January 1937 and became one of Brighton 's main markets . A former chapel and many terraced houses had stood on the site , whose redevelopment cost £ 75 @,@ 000 ( £ 4 @,@ 364 @,@ 500 in 2016 ) . A fish market , moved from a site near the beach , was added in 1960 . The building closed in 2005 and has been empty since then , apart from its use as a temporary exhibition centre during the 2009 Brighton Festival — when sculptor Anish Kapoor showed a new work there . Two clinics , specialising in chest complaints and child welfare , opened on the north side of Sussex Street , opposite the market , in 1936 and 1938 respectively . The chest clinic closed in 1989 . The lower part of Sussex Street was renamed Morley Street at this time . Brighton Corporation compulsorily purchased Carlton Place in about 1955 and demolished the houses and former riding school in favour of new housing . John Street became the site of two important civic buildings in the mid @-@ 1960s : Brighton 's central police station was opened in 1965 , followed by the new county court building two years later .
Clearances around Albion Hill began in the 1950s . From 1959 , the narrow , densely populated terraces between Albion Hill and Morley Street were cleared and replaced with landscaped open space and seven tower blocks — Brighton 's first such buildings . The first , Highleigh , opened on 11 May 1961 . Like its later neighbours , it has 11 storeys . The steep Richmond Street was severed as part of this redevelopment ; its lower section was replaced by a zig @-@ zag path down the hillside and a short road called Richmond Parade , and new roads ( Grove Hill and Ashton Rise ) were built between the tower blocks and across the slope of the hill . Similarly , the lowest section of Carlton Hill was renamed Kingswood Street when it was redeveloped in the 1960s : Brighton Art College ( now part of the University of Brighton ) was extended in 1967 by Brighton borough architect Percy Billington , taking up a large corner plot .
In the mid @-@ 1970s , American Express sought land in Brighton to build a new European headquarters . The company had a long association with Sussex , and opened a mechanical accounting centre in a building on Edward Street in 1968 . Most of Mighell Street and all of its buildings — except the old farmhouse — and some neighbouring streets were demolished and replaced by the 300 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) Amex House , a nine @-@ storey office building designed by American architecture firm Gollins , Melvin , Ward and Partners . A legislative order was raised by the Secretary of State for the Environment in mid @-@ 1973 to allow Mighell Street to be severed . In September 2008 , American Express announced plans to demolish and replace the building . The new office will be set slightly further back , closer to Carlton Hill ( the road ) , and better road access will be provided by means of a new entrance from John Street . The city council granted planning permission in November 2009 , and preliminary building work started in early 2010 .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Churches = = =
Early in its development , Carlton Hill was provided with an Anglican church . St John the Evangelist 's Church , opposite the junction of Carlton Hill and White Street , was designed by George Cheesman junior in a " strangely bleak " Greek Revival / Neo @-@ Georgian style in 1838 , with Doric columns and a stuccoed and pedimented façade . Never successful in attracting large congregations , it was declared redundant by the Diocese of Chichester in 1980 . Proposals for its conversion into a drug detoxification centre were opposed , and in March 1986 the Greek Orthodox community , which had been worshipping elsewhere in Brighton , bought the church and rededicated it as the Church of the Holy Trinity . The building was severely damaged by fire in July 2010 .
The Ebenezer Reformed Baptist Church has occupied three buildings on two different sites in Carlton Hill . It was founded in 1825 , and the first service was held on 13 April of that year in a stuccoed Renaissance @-@ style building on the north side of Richmond Street . The chapel , with ebenezer chapel erected a.d. 1825 prominently displayed on its entablature , was locally nicknamed " The Lemon Squeezer " . It was demolished in 1966 during the redevelopment of the Richmond Street area . Architect C.J. Wood built a new church in the Vernacular style on the opposite side of Richmond Parade , backing on to Ivory Place , in the same year . It was in turn demolished in 2007 , and a six @-@ storey block of flats with a new church on the ground floor was built in its place . This opened in August 2010 .
Five other chapels were demolished during the area 's 20th @-@ century redevelopment . The Sussex Street Strict Baptist Chapel stood on the section of that road which is now named Morley Street . It had lancet windows and a stuccoed exterior , and opened in 1867 . The congregation moved out in 1895 , and St Margaret 's Church in Cannon Place established a mission hall in the building . The Circus Street market was built on the site after its demolition in 1937 . Also on Sussex Street , a Primitive Methodist chapel was founded in 1836 . The Kingswood Flats now occupy the site of the building , which closed in about 1950 . Mighell Street Hall , demolished in 1965 , stood on land now covered by Amex House . It was used by Baptists from 1878 , then as the church hall of St John the Evangelist 's , and finally ( from January 1949 ) by Spiritualists . When the new Brighton National Spiritualist Church , a figure @-@ of @-@ eight concrete building , opened on Edward Street in 1965 , the hall closed for good . The Carlton Hill Apostolic Church stood for 99 years until 1964 , although its Catholic Apostolic congregation moved out in 1954 . Latterly it was used as student housing for the adjacent Brighton Art College , which extended its premises onto the site when the building was demolished . The Salvation Army had a citadel at the junction of Edward Street and the now vanished Riding School Lane ( near Mighell Street ) from 1884 until 1965 , when it was demolished for road widening . The denomination registered another building for worship and marriages in 1971 : it stood at the junction of Carlton Hill and Mighell Street , and was deregistered in 1985 .
= = = Schools = = =
Carlton Hill Primary School was built by the Local education authority in 1963 . It is on the boundary of the conservation area , between Sussex Street and Carlton Hill ( the road ) on the west side of Tilbury Place , and is well screened by trees . It has a tall wooden fence that , according to the council 's Conservation Area Character Statement , " visually intrudes on the approach to the conservation area and harms its setting " . It recommends replacing the fence with a flint wall . The school adjoins the site that is being redeveloped for the new American Express headquarters : the company paid the school £ 300 @,@ 000 ( a condition of the council 's approval of the planning application ) to compensate for the effect on its playground , which will be overlooked by the building , and the building contractor Sir Robert McAlpine has paid for a school crossing patrol officer to help children cross Carlton Hill safely during the construction period .
Several schools
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well as militia that remained in the trees . The 78th took the highest number of casualties of all British units in the battle .
An eyewitness with the 78th Highlanders ( Dr. Robert Macpherson ) wrote three days after the battle :
The Highlanders pursued them to the very Sally Port of the town . The Highlanders returned towards the main body . When the highlanders were gathered together , they lay 'd on a separate attack against a large body of Canadians on our flank that were posted in a small village and a Bush of woods . Here , after a wonderful escape all day , we suffered great loss both in Officers and men but at last drove them under the cover of their cannon which likeways did us considerable loss . "
Townshend took charge of the British forces and realised that Bougainville 's column was approaching from the British rear , having taken some time to arrive from Cap Rouge . He quickly formed up two battalions from the confused troops on the field and turned them to meet the oncoming French , a day @-@ saving manoeuvre ; instead of attacking with a well rested and ready force , Bougainville retreated while the rest of Montcalm 's army slipped back across the St. Charles .
During the retreat , Montcalm , still mounted , was struck by either canister shot from the British artillery or repeated musket fire , suffering injuries to the lower abdomen and thigh . He was able to make it back into the city , but his wounds were mortal and he died early the next morning . He was buried in a shell crater left in the floor of the Ursuline chapel by a British shell . The battle resulted in similar numbers of casualties on both sides of the field ; the French had 644 men killed or injured , while the British were left with 658 killed or wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
In the wake of the battle , a state of confusion spread through the French troops . Governor de Vaudreuil , who later wrote to his government and put the full blame for the French rout on the deceased Montcalm , decided to abandon Quebec and the Beauport shore , ordering all of his forces to march west and eventually join up with Bougainville , leaving the garrison in Quebec under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay .
Meanwhile , the British , first under the command of Townshend and later with Murray in charge , settled in to besiege the city in conjunction with Saunders ' fleet . Within days , on 18 September , de Ramezay , Townshend and Saunders signed the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec and the city was turned over to British control . The remaining French forces positioned themselves on the Jacques @-@ Cartier River west of the city .
The British Navy was forced to leave the St. Lawrence shortly after the capture of Quebec due to pack ice closing the mouth of the river . Before the ice left the rivers in April , the Chevalier de Lévis , Montcalm 's successor as French commander , marched his 7 @,@ 000 troops to Quebec . James Murray , the British commander , had experienced a terrible winter , in which scurvy had reduced his garrison to only 4 @,@ 000 . On 28 April 1760 , Lévis ' forces met and defeated the British at the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy , immediately west of the city ( near the site of Université Laval today ) . This battle proved bloodier than that of the Plains of Abraham , with about 850 casualties on the French side and 1 @,@ 100 on the British side . The British were defeated in the battle , but were able to withdraw within the walls of Quebec , which was now under siege . A lack of artillery and ammunition , combined with British improvements to the fortifications , meant that the French were unable to take the city before the arrival of the British fleet in mid @-@ May which defeated Levis ' support ships . A naval battle fought at Quiberon Bay , just off the coast of France , proved the decisive battle for this part of New France . The Royal Navy destroyed the French fleet , meaning France could not send a reserve force to save New France . The success of the French army 's offensive against Quebec in the spring of 1760 had depended on the dispatch of a French armada , with fresh troops and supplies .
At Montréal that September , Lévis and 2 @,@ 000 troops were confronted with 17 @,@ 000 British and American troops . The French capitulated on 8 September 1760 , and the British took possession of Montreal . The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763 to end the war and gave possession of parts of New France to Great Britain , including Canada and the eastern half of French Louisiana — lying between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains .
= = Legacy of the Plains = =
Today , while much of the foreshore along the base of the cliffs that were scaled by William Howe 's men the morning of the battle has been taken over by industry , the Plains of Abraham themselves are preserved within one of Canada 's National Urban Parks . There is a monument on the site of the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy .
In 2009 , a number of activities were proposed to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . A plan to hold a reenactment of the battle itself ( as well as a reenactment of the subsequent French victory of 1760 at the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy ) was cancelled due to threats of public disorder . Leaders of separatist parties described the event as a slap in the face for Quebecers of French ancestry and as an insult for the francophone majority . Some sovereigntist groups threatened or made indirect threats by stating that if the event took place , there could be violence . The movement against re @-@ enactment and these threats of violence led the National Battlefields Commission to cancel the event .
Another commemorative event was proposed for the anniversary , the Moulin à paroles . Thousands gathered on the Plains of Abraham to listen to recitations of 140 significant texts from Quebec history , including the 1970 FLQ Manifesto . The inclusion of that document in the event led to condemnations and a boycott from federalist politicians and the withdrawal of some government funding for the event . The Moulin à paroles took place without incident .
= The Blessing Way ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Blessing Way " is the first episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on September 22 , 1995 . It was directed by R.W.
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rafted below the walls on the northeastern corner of the city .
The northern walls of Mdina still retain their medieval form with a few Hospitaller modifications , and they contain the only surviving tower in the city walls . St. Mary 's Bastion or Ta ' Bachar Bastion , which was built in the 16th century , is grafted on the northwest corner of the city . This is linked to St. Peter Bastion by the Magazine Curtain , a long casemated curtain wall built in the 1720s in the western part of the city . The Għarreqin Gate , built by the British in the 19th century , is located within this curtain wall .
= Werner Mölders =
Werner Mölders ( 18 March 1913 – 22 November 1941 ) was a World War II German Luftwaffe pilot and the leading German fighter ace in the Spanish Civil War . Mölders became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 100 aerial victories — that is , 100 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft , and was highly decorated for his achievements . He was instrumental in the development of new fighter tactics that led to the finger @-@ four formation . He died in an air crash in which he was a passenger .
Mölders joined the Luftwaffe in 1934 at the age of 21 . In 1938 , he volunteered for service in the Condor Legion , which supported General Francisco Franco 's Nationalist side in the Spanish Civil War , and shot down 15 aircraft . In World War II , he lost two wingmen in the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain , but shot down 53 enemy aircraft . With his tally standing at 68 victories , Mölders and his unit , the Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 ) , were transferred to the Eastern Front in June 1941 for the opening of Operation Barbarossa . By the end of 22 June 1941 , the first day of Barbarossa , he had added another four victories to his tally and a week later , Mölders surpassed Manfred von Richthofen 's 1918 record of 80 victories . By mid @-@ July , he had 100 World War II victories .
Prevented from flying further combat missions for propaganda reasons , at the age of 28 Mölders was promoted to Oberst , and appointed Inspector General of Fighters . He was inspecting the Luftwaffe units in the Crimea when he was ordered to Berlin to attend the state funeral of Ernst Udet , the World War I flying ace . On the flight to Berlin , the Heinkel He 111 in which he was traveling as a passenger encountered a heavy thunderstorm during which one of the aircraft 's engines failed . While attempting to land , the Heinkel crashed at Breslau , killing Mölders and two others .
The German Wehrmacht of the Third Reich and the Bundeswehr of the Federal Republic of Germany both honoured him by naming two fighter wings , a destroyer and barracks after him . However , in 1998 , the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion such as Mölders , should " no longer be honoured " . Therefore , in 2005 , the German Ministry of Defence decided to remove the name " Mölders " from the fighter wing still bearing his name .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Mölders was born on 18 March 1913 in Gelsenkirchen , the son of teacher Viktor Mölders and his wife Annemarie , née Riedel . He was the third of four children , with an older sister , Annemarie , an older brother , Hans , and a younger brother , Victor . After his father , a Reserve Leutnant in the King 's 145th Infantry Regiment , was killed in action on 2 March 1915 in the Argonne Forest in France , his mother moved the family into her parents ' house in Brandenburg an der Havel .
In Brandenburg , Mölders found a father figure in Chaplain Erich Klawitter , who instilled firm religious beliefs in him . From 1919 to 1931 , Mölders attended , first , the elementary school and then the Saldria @-@ Gymnasium , or secondary school . At school he discovered his love for water sports , especially rowing . He joined two rowing clubs , first the Saldria @-@ Brandenburg and later the Brandenburger Ruderclub , and enjoyed success at rowing @-@ regattas . He was also a member of the Bund Neudeutschland in der katholischen Jugendbewegung , a Catholic youth organisation . Mölders graduated from school in early 1931 with the Abitur ( diploma ) and expressed a desire to become an officer in the armed forces .
Mölders joined the II . / 2 infantry regiment of the Reichswehr in Allenstein , East Prussia on 1 April 1931 , serving as an officer cadet in the infantry . He attained the rank of Fahnenjunker @-@ Gefreiter on 1 October 1931 , rising to Fahnenjunker @-@ Unteroffizier on 1 April 1932 . After completing his basic military training in October 1932 , he transferred to the Military School Dresden . On 1 June 1933 , he successfully completed his training in Dresden and was promoted to ensign . He again was transferred , this time to the 1st Prussian Pioneer Battalion ( Infantry Regiment 2 ) at the Pioneer School in Munich . During his training years , Mölders made his first attempt to fulfil his dream of flying and volunteered for pilot training , but was declared unfit for flying . He tried again and was given conditional permission ( bedingt tauglich — with constraints ) to begin flight training .
After his promotion to Oberfähnrich on 1 February 1934 , Mölders began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( German transport flying school ) in Cottbus , lasting from 6 February 1934 to 31
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December 1934 . On 1 March 1934 , he was promoted to Leutnant and assigned to the recently established Luftwaffe . In the early stages of his pilot training , he suffered continually from nausea and vomiting , but he eventually overcame these problems and finished the course at the top of his class . The next phase of his military pilot 's training was from 1 January 1935 to 30 June 1935 at the combat flying school in Tutow and the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) at Schleißheim near Munich . He received the newly created Pilot 's Badge of the Luftwaffe on 21 May 1935 .
On 1 July 1935 , Leutnant Mölders was posted to Fliegergruppe Schwerin ( I. / JG 162 " Immelmann " ) . On 7 March 1936 , during the remilitarisation of the Rhineland , Mölders and his squadron ( Staffel ) flew from Lippstadt across the Ruhr region ; his unit was the first to arrive in Düsseldorf . During this period , Mölders met Luise Baldauf , whom he was to marry a few years later , shortly before his death . On 20 April 1936 , Adolf Hitler 's birthday , numerous promotions were handed out , and Mölders advanced to Oberleutnant , effective as of 1 April 1936 . At the same time , he became leader of the fighter training squadron of the 2nd Group of Jagdgeschwader 134 " Horst Wessel " . This group was under the command of Major Theo Osterkamp , who became another of Mölders ' early mentors . Mölders was appointed squadron leader ( Staffelkapitän ) of the 1st squadron of Jagdgeschwader 334 on 15 March 1937 and served as an instructor in Wiesbaden .
= = Condor Legion = =
In 1936 , the Germans sent a Luftwaffe force , the Condor Legion , to assist the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War . Mölders volunteered for service , and arrived by sea in Cadiz on 14 April 1938 . He was assigned to the 3rd squadron of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J 88 ) commanded by Oberleutnant Adolf Galland . The unit , stationed at the Valencia – Ebro front , was equipped with the Heinkel He 51 , but later switched to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 B @-@ 2 . Mölders assumed command of the squadron on 24 May 1938 , when Galland returned to Germany . He claimed his first aerial victory , shooting down a Polikarpov I @-@ 15 " Chato " ( " Curtiss " to the Germans ) near Algar , on 15 July 1938 . Over the remaining months of the year , Mölders became the leading ace of the Condor Legion , shooting down 15 aircraft in Spain : two I @-@ 15 " Curtiss " , 12 I @-@ 16 " Rata " and one Tupolev SB ( one " Rata " claimed on 23 September 1938 was not confirmed ) .
In recognition of his exceptional performance as a commander and fighter pilot , Mölders was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 18 October 1938 , effective as of 1 October 1938 . He claimed his 14th and final confirmed aerial victory of the conflict by downing a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 " Rata " near Mola on 3 November 1938 and returned to Germany on 5 December 1938 . From 6 December 1938 until March 1939 , Mölders was a member of the 1st group of Jagdgeschwader 133 ( JG 133 ) and held a staff position with the Inspector of Fighters at the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( Imperial Air Ministry ) in Berlin . His task was to devise new fighter pilot tactics . In March 1939 he was given command as Staffelkapitän of 1 . / JG 133 , taking over command from Oberleutnant Hubertus von Bonin . JG 133 was later renamed Jagdgeschwader 53 Pik As ( Ace of Spades ) .
For his achievements in Spain , Mölders was honoured with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar on 4 May 1939 and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939 . The Condor Legion officially returned to Germany on 6 June 1939 and troops marched through Berlin to the Lustgarten , where the fallen were honoured . A formal state banquet for the most highly decorated soldiers was held in the marble gallery of the Reich Chancellery . Mölders was seated at table 1 , with General der Flieger Hugo Sperrle , General Don Antonio Aranda , General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano , Oberst Walter Warlimont , Oberstleutnant von Donat , Leutnant Reinhard Seiler and Oberfeldwebel Ignatz Prestele .
= = = Tactical innovations = = =
With other airmen in Spain , Mölders developed the formation known as the " finger @-@ four " . This improved the all @-@ round field of vision and combat flexibility of a flight ( Schwarm ) , enhanced mutual protection , and encouraged pilot initiative . In the " finger @-@ four " , the aircraft assumed positions corresponding to the fingertips of an outstretched hand . The fighters flew in two elements ( Rotten ) of two aircraft each ; two Rotten ( four aircraft ) made up a Schwarm ( swarm ) .
Mölders is often credited with inventing the cross @-@ over turn . An early version of the manoeuvre , as used by a " Vic " of five aircraft ( a tight formation forming the letter " V " ) , appeared in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Training Manual of 1922 , and the manoeuvre may even date back to 1918 . However , it had fallen into disuse due to the difficulty of performing it in a multi @-@ aircraft formation with the contemporary spacing of less than 100 feet ( 30 m ) between aircraft . The wide lateral separation of 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) introduced by J 88 both necessitated such a turning manoeuvre , to enable a Schwarm to turn as a unit , and minimised the risk of midair collisions previously associated with it .
= = World War II = =
= = = Phoney War and the Battle of France = = =
At the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 , Mölders ' Staffel was stationed in the west protecting Germany 's border in the Mosel – Saar – Pfalz region . On 8 September 1939 , Mölders ' fighter suffered an engine failure ; he crash @-@ landed , flipping the aircraft over and injuring his back . The injury kept him out of combat for several days . He returned to flying on 19 September . The following day , between
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invited other pharmacists to join them to compete against the growing market power of major retailers . The business grew from 12 members in 1937 to over 100 by 1946 . Today Amcal is the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Simpson joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 15 October 1939 with the rank of lieutenant colonel . He was allocated the AIF service number VX79 , and assumed command of the Australian Corps Signals . When the I Corps was formed in April 1940 , Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey was appointed its commander , and Simpson its Chief Signals Officer , with a promotion to the rank of colonel .
Simpson embarked on the transport Nieuw Holland on 15 September 1940 , arriving in Kantara , Egypt , on 12 October . He met with his British counterparts , and discussed arrangements for the creation of an AIF Signals School in the Middle East . Some negotiation was required before this proposal was finally accepted . He was disappointed at the standard of training that had been achieved by the I Corps and 6th Division signals units in the Middle East , and just as disappointed with the reinforcements arriving from Australia . Both the standard of training of the units and the establishment of the schools intended to remedy the situation were hampered by a serious shortage of equipment . The 6th Division 's list of critical shortfalls — by no means restricted to signals equipment — included 120 telephones and 120 miles ( 190 km ) of electrical cable . Not until January 1941 — after the 6th Division had been committed to battle in Libya — did the cable become available in Australia . Some units equipped themselves with captured enemy materiel .
Simpson arrived in Greece on 7 March 1941 as part of the I Corps advance party . The Battle of Greece presented a major challenge for Simpson 's signals units , as rugged terrain , enemy action and frequent troop movements conspired to frustrate their efforts to maintain reliable communications . The news that Yugoslavia had offered to surrender reached Blamey from a BBC broadcast on 15 April picked up on a receiver built into a kerosene case that Simpson had insisted that he take . Much signals equipment was lost during the fighting , and some had to be destroyed following the order to evacuate Greece . Simpson embarked for Crete on HMS Phoebe on 25 April . From there he took a flying boat to Alexandria . His first priority on arrival was arranging for the lost equipment to be replaced .
The shortage of signals equipment was an important factor in the delay in committing the I Corps to the Syria – Lebanon campaign until it became clear that General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson could not adequately control operations from his headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem . Once again , the signallers had to battle with inhospitable terrain . The hills and atmospheric conditions made reception difficult for the radio operations , and those same hills , along with shortages of cable , made the linesmen 's task no less difficult . He was mentioned in dispatches , and made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for " maintenance of communications under difficult conditions in the Grecian campaign " .
Simpson was promoted to the rank of brigadier on 11 September 1941 , becoming the first officer of the Australian Corps of Signals to reach that rank . He was involved in a serious motor vehicle accident on 13 September 1941 and suffered severe lacerations , a concussion , and a broken collarbone , rib and finger . He was taken to the 2 / 1st General Hospital , and was evacuated to Australia on the hospital ship MS Wanganella . He returned to the Middle East by air , arriving back on 20 January 1942 .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Within days , Simpson was heading east again , taking a flying boat to Batavia , where he joined the advance party of the I Corps , which was being sent from the Middle East to the Dutch East Indies to counter the Japanese threat . He met there with the local authorities regarding signals arrangements for the defence of Java . These were soon well in hand , but the tactical situation rapidly deteriorated to the extent that the I Corps was ordered to leave Java on 21 February 1942 . Simpson departed on the troop ship Orcades , which arrived in Adelaide on 14 March .
Blamey was appointed Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces on 27 March . He instituted a sweeping reorganisation of the Army , replacing officers with men who had experience in the Middle East . Simpson became the Signal Officer in Chief on 6 April , with the rank of major general , the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach that rank .
One of Simpson 's first tasks was to confer with the Chief Signals Officer at General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) South West Pacific Area , Brigadier General Spencer B. Akin . The two established mechanisms to divide responsibility for the theatre 's communications between the two armies , which often worked together on the same projects . An important outcome of their first meeting was the creation of the Central Bureau as a combined signals intelligence organisation . Simpson had been thinking about such an organisation while on the Orcades . Blamey had an appreciation of signals intelligence from his time as Deputy Commander in Chief in the Middle East , and readily gave his support . After a slow start , signals intelligence became an important element of the war in the South West Pacific .
Perhaps Simpson 's most ambitious project was the laying of a submarine cable between Cape York and New Guinea . A cable laying ship , the SS Mernoo , was chartered , and two old cables that ran across the Bass Strait were lifted and re @-@ laid across the Torres Strait in October 1943 . When the land connections were completed in December 1943 , it became possible to send a message all the way from Melbourne to Port Moresby . Simpson , who was on an inspection tour of New Guinea , was on hand for the receipt of the first message . In November 1944 , he visited the front in the Netherlands , Belgium and France , returning to Australia via the United States and Canada .
To man his signals units , Simpson sought to obtain some 4 @,@ 000 Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) personnel . Two special signal training battalions were activated to cater for them , and Simpson inspected the 2nd Signal Training Battalion ( AWAS ) at Ivanhoe Grammar School with Lieutenant Colonel Sybil Irving on 6 July 1942 . By 1945 , the Australian Corps of Signals numbered some 25 @,@ 000 men and women . The large numbers of women serving in Signals units caused friction between Irving and Simpson over what degree of control he exercised over them .
Aware that signals is usually forgotten when the signallers are doing their best work , Simpson attempted to obtain various accolades for his corps . He held ceremonial parades through Melbourne to celebrate VE Day on 10 May 1945 , and VP Day on 20 August 1945 . He attempted to get the title " Royal " granted in recognition of its wartime service . This occurred on 10 November 1948 .
= = Later life = =
Simpson handed over the position of Signal Officer in Chief to Brigadier A. D. Malloy on 23 May 1946 . He was placed on the retired list with the honorary rank of major general on 19 December 1946 . He served as Colonel Commandant for the Australian Corps of Signals in Southern Command from June 1958 to June 1963 , and was Colonel Commandant of the corps from September 1959 to December 1960 . In 1946 he was appointed director of the Columbia Graphophone Company ( Australia ) .
Simpson was a keen supporter of the Essendon Football Club , serving as its
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in western New York in the United States . It extends for 17 @.@ 79 miles ( 28 @.@ 63 km ) from NY 383 in Scottsville , Monroe County , to NY 96 in the town of Victor , Ontario County . NY 251 connects to Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) in Rush and serves the village of Honeoye Falls ( via NY 65 ) and the hamlet of Mendon within the town of the same name . The route , a two @-@ lane , rural highway for much of its length , also intersects NY 15 and NY 64 , two north – south highways leading to the Southern Tier and the Finger Lakes , respectively . Two sections of the route — from south of Scottsville to Rush and from Mendon to western Victor — follow linear east – west alignments . All but 3 miles ( 5 km ) of the route are located in Monroe County .
From 1911 to 1921 , the north – south section of modern NY 251 near Scottsville was part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . The first portion of what is now NY 251 to receive a posted designation was the segment east of NY 64 in Mendon , which was part of the signed NY 15 from 1924 to 1930 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 251 was assigned to an alignment extending from Gates to Victor via Scottsville , utilizing modern NY 386 north of Scottsville and its current alignment east of the village . NY 251 was truncated to begin at NY 383 in Scottsville in the late 1970s , at which time the former routing of NY 251 between Scottsville and Gates became part of an extended NY 386 .
= = Route description = =
NY 251 begins at an intersection with NY 383 in the center of the village of Scottsville , located within the town of Wheatland . It departs Scottsville to the south as River Road and crosses over Oatka Creek before meeting Quaker Road at a rural intersection just south of the village . While River Road continues southward as the unsigned NY 940H , NY 251 turns east to begin its east – west trek across the mostly undeveloped southern portion of Monroe County . After roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , it crosses over the Genesee River and into the town of Rush , becoming Rush – Scottsville Road in the process . Just inside the town line , NY 251 passes through the hamlet of Industry , a location centered around NY 251 's grade crossing with the Livonia , Avon and Lakeville Railroad and the adjacent Rochester & Genesee Valley Railroad Museum .
Midway through the town of Rush , NY 251 widens from two to four lanes and meets I @-@ 390 at exit 11 . Just east of the freeway , NY 251 intersects NY 15 , which is also served by exit 11 by way of a pair of short collector / distributor roads paralleling I @-@ 390 from NY 251 to NY 15 . Past NY 15 , the route reverts to a two @-@ lane highway and veers southeast to parallel Honeoye Creek into the hamlet of Rush . Here , the route passes through a more populated area as it intersects NY 15A in the center of the community , at which point it becomes Rush – Mendon Road . NY 251 continues to follow Honeoye Creek through progressively less developed areas and into the town of Mendon , where the creek curves southward toward Honeoye Falls at Rochester Junction . The highway , however , turns northeastward to meet NY 65 at a roundabout . The northeasterly routing of NY 251 continues to Mendon Center , a small hamlet near the southern tip of Mendon Ponds Park , where it turns eastward once more .
NY 251 continues across open fields to the densely populated hamlet of Mendon , where it has a junction with NY 64 in the center of the community . East of the junction , NY 251 becomes Victor – Mendon Road as it heads out of Mendon . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 64 , the open surroundings return as the route crosses into the Ontario County town of Victor . NY 251 continues on a virtual east – west line for its first 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in the county , heading through slightly more developed but still sparsely populated areas . At Phillips Road , the route curves southeastward for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before making one final turn to the northeast . On this last stretch , NY 251 crosses the Ontario Central Railroad at a grade crossing and ends at a junction with NY 96 northwest of the village of Victor .
= = History = =
The westernmost portion of what is now NY 251 between NY 383 in Scottsville and the junction of River and Quaker Roads south of the village was once part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . Route 15 was extended northward from its original terminus in Caledonia to Scottsville via River Road on July 24 , 1911 ; however , it was realigned on March 1 , 1921 , to enter Scottsville on modern NY 383 instead . When the first set of posted routes were assigned in New York in 1924 , this piece of modern NY 251 did not receive a designation . Another section did , however , as the portion extending from Mendon east to Victor was designated as part of NY 15 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was rerouted between Victor and Pittsford to follow current NY 96 . The former routing of NY 15 from Victor to Mendon became part of NY 251 , a new highway extending from NY 15 in Victor to NY 33 in Gates via Chili and Scottsville . West of Scottsville , NY 251 was routed on modern NY 383 and NY 386 .
From 1930 to c . 1938 , the River Road section of NY 251 overlapped with NY 35 , which initially entered Monroe County on the former routing of legislative Route 15 and continued north to Rochester on current NY 383 . The southwestern end of NY 35 was moved to Mumford c . 1938 , shifting the location of the overlap to Main Street in Scottsville . The concurrency was replaced with one with NY 383 when it supplanted most of NY 35 in the early 1940s . In the late 1970s , NY 251 was truncated to begin at the eastern end of its overlap with NY 383 in Scottsville . The former routing of NY 251 from the west end of the concurrency in Scottsville to Gates became an extension of NY 386 , which was a simple connector in northern Gates and southern Greece prior to the change .
= = Major intersections = =
= Tropical Storm Lester ( 2004 ) =
Tropical Storm Lester was a weak tropical storm that paralleled the Mexican coastline in October 2004 . The 16th tropical cyclone and 12th named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Lester originated from an area of disturbed weather that persisted southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . After organizing , the system was designated as a tropical depression on October 11 . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm the next day , and moved northwestward , just off the Mexican coastline . Due to the interaction with land among other factors , the storm degenerated on October 13 . The storm dropped locally heavy rainfall , which caused minor flooding and mudslides . No fatalities or significant damage were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
By October 10 , 2004 , an area of disturbed weather was situated well to the southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Later that day , a surface low pressure system developed , and convection began to organize into slightly curved bands . The disturbance continued to in this
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to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .
= = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .
After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .
= = The company = =
Prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated as a full @-@ service bank and a provider of wholesale financial services through its retail banking , commercial banking , investment banking , asset management and wealth management businesses . In 1997 , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated 275 branches in Switzerland and 82 branches , subsidiaries and representative offices outside Switzerland . The company had approximately 27 @,@ 611 employees , of which 19 @,@ 355 worked in Switzerland and the remaining 8 @,@ 256 employees were
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0 ) .
In addition to these bank acquisitions , UBS also acquired an 80 % stake in Argor SA , a Swiss precious metal refinery founded in 1951 , through whom they started to issue UBS branded gold bars . In 1973 , the bank increased the stake to full 100 % ownership only to withdraw by 1999 with ownership of the refinery changing to Hereaus & Management . Nevertheless , UBS continues to issue gold bars via Argor @-@ Heraeus which is famous for the unique kinebar holographic technology it uses to provide enhanced protection against bank gold bar counterfeiting .
By 1962 , UBS reached CHF6.96 billion of assets , narrowly edging ahead of Swiss Bank Corporation to become the largest bank in Switzerland temporarily . Through 1979 , SBC was consistently the largest of the three major Swiss banks by assets , except for short periods in 1962 and then again in 1968 when UBS temporarily moved ahead of SBC . After 1979 , UBS would firmly establish itself as the largest Swiss bank . UBS would retain this position for the next 15 years until Credit Suisse leapfrogged into the top spot following its 1993 acquisition of Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank ) and later Winterthur Group .
UBS continued its rapid growth in the 1960s punctuated by the acquisition of Interhandel ( Industrie- und Handelsbeteiligungen AG ) in 1967 . Interhandel , originally , was a large Swiss conglomerate that up until the 1960s had both financial as well as industrial holdings . Interhandel was the corporate successor of I.G. Chemie , which the U.S. government had claimed was a front for Germany 's I.G. Farben during World War II . During the war , the U.S. government seized General Aniline & Film ( later GAF Corporation ) , an Interhandel subsidiary , and it was not until 1963 that the long @-@ running dispute between Interhandel and the U.S. government was resolved . The shares in GAF Corporation were sold in a highly competitive auction in 1965 and the proceeds were split between Interhandel and the U.S. government . As a result of the sale of GAF , at the time of its merger with UBS , Interhandel held substantial amounts of cash . The addition of the Interhandel capital , which propelled UBS into the top spot among Swiss banks in 1968 , also made UBS one of the strongest banks in Europe and helped fuel the bank ’ s further expansion in the late 1960s and 1970s . UBS consolidated four affiliated mortgage lenders and assumed their domestic retail operations . The bank further expanded into consumer lending through the acquisition of a series of Swiss financial businesses in 1969 , including Banque Orca , Abri Bank Bern , Aufina Bank and AKO Bank .
UBS also began to intensify its overseas expansion . In 1967 , UBS opened a full branch office in London , its first such office outside Switzerland . Prior to this , UBS had operated through a series of correspondent banks and representative offices . Three years later , UBS opened a branch office in New York . The bank also established a UK subsidiary in 1975 and a U.S. subsidiary in 1979 to focus on building the bank ’ s presence in the underwriting of debt and equity securities . Nevertheless , UBS , which had traditionally concentrated its efforts on the domestic Swiss market , was the last of the three largest Swiss banks to establish a branch office in the U.S. and its securities operations were overshadowed by those of its two Swiss peers .
= = = 1980 – 1998 = = =
By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .
In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .
In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .
= = = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's
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to aid the world in the postwar reconstruction . Sometime after the ceremony , Zuko visits Ozai 's prison and demands he tell him the location of the banished Ursa , Zuko 's mother . Zuko and Mai finally reconcile . Ty Lee joins the Kyoshi warriors , having bonded with them in prison and shared some chi @-@ blocking techniques . A final scene depicts the main cast gathered in Iroh 's new tea shop , the Jasmine Dragon , and with Aang and Katara officially confirming their genuinely strong and close romantic relationship with a loving hug and passionate kiss .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ creators Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko wrote the majority of the finale ; DiMartino wrote parts one , three , and four , and Konietzko assisted with parts three and four . Aaron Ehasz , co @-@ executive producer and head writer of the show , wrote part two . Ethan Spaulding directed part one , Giancarlo Volpe directed part two , and Joaquim Dos Santos directed parts three and four . Dos Santos was nominated for an Annie Award for his directing of part three , " Into the Inferno " . Although Sozin 's Comet was originally written as a three @-@ part story , the creators noticed that the length had grown beyond what they had predicted from the initial script . To avoid pacing issues , they split the final part in two , adding several scenes to fill the remaining time .
Although Avatar is not considered anime because of its American origin , Tasha Robinson of the SciFi Channel observed that " Avatar blurs the line between anime and [ US ] domestic cartoons until it becomes irrelevant . " An IGN reviewer commented that Sozin 's Comet " had that classic anime @-@ look that I 've always loved to see when watching old anime movies . The story through the animation was perfectly done . " The special 's music was written and composed by " The Track Team " , led by Jeremy Zuckerman . However , unlike past episodes , a music track produced by a live orchestra was used , rather than one in MIDI format .
During the San Diego Comic @-@ con , it was announced that a reunion between Zuko and his mother , Ursa , had been arranged and made into a storyboard . However , it was dropped just before the finale was finished , as requested by show co @-@ creator Michael Dante DiMartino , who felt that it resolved Ursa 's disappearance in an unsatisfactory way and that wasn 't the way the story should be told .
The cast of Sozin 's Comet includes all of the key characters from season three . Protagonists Aang , Katara , Sokka , and Toph are voiced by Zach Tyler Eisen , Mae Whitman , Jack DeSena , and Jessie Flower respectively . Iroh is voiced by Greg Baldwin and Zuko is voiced by Dante Basco . Grey DeLisle and Mark Hamill voice the two antagonists , Azula and Fire Lord Ozai , respectively . The co @-@ creators also lend their voices to two minor characters in the third part , " Into the Inferno " .
Avatar : The Last Airbender borrows extensively from East Asian art to create its fictional universe . Four " bending " arts exist in the universe ; they are based on different styles and variations of Chinese martial arts : Baguazhang for Airbending , Hung Gar and Southern Praying Mantis for Earthbending , Northern Shaolin for Firebending , and T 'ai chi for Waterbending . Additionally , series borrows heavily from the Taoist concept of balance and order . The Avatar , an incarnation of a divine being , is supposed to maintain the world 's order .
Nickelodeon originally broadcast Sozin 's Comet from 8 : 00 pm to 10 : 00 pm EST on July 19 , 2008 . Just ten days later , on July 29 , the " Book 3 : Fire – Volume 4 " DVD was released , which contained the four episodes as well as episodes 56 and 57 , audio commentary from the series ' co @-@ creators , cast , and crew , and a comic book .
= = Reception = =
Sozin 's Comet received many positive critical reviews ; Ed Liu of Toon Zone stated that it made Avatar " one of the finest animated television series ever made " , and IGN stating that this " film " deserved an Academy Award . Toon Zone praised the skill of the animation directors in designing the sweeping movements of the battle scenes , as well as the slower scenes , " including one moving reconciliation and the quiet coda that ties off many of the remaining loose ends of the series " . IGN reviewer Tory Ireland Mell wrote that she would " put it in the top ten films of all time " . She also praised the artistic skill of the designers , stating that the " whole dark tone was gorgeous to look at " , especially the " art of the Lion Turtle " . She thought that Sozin 's Comet lacked plot holes , as well as unnecessary plot devices , stating that the " story moved and kept us moving right along with it from beginning to end " . She gave Sozin 's Comet a 10 out of 10 " Masterful " rating .
Sozin 's Comet has received its share of criticism as well . Reviewers commented about the difficulty in understanding the voice of a new character : the Lion Turtle . The Lion Turtle was designed by Bryan Konietzko and character designer Jae Woo Kim . Bryan Konietzko disliked how the Lion Turtle turned out ; he felt that the art was not up to standards of the original design he had received . CraveOnline felt that because " the series was for children , the writers were at a loss of ideas to work around the murder angle , " and the decision not to kill the Fire Lord introduced " so many convenient plot twists [ that ] set us up for a humongous deus ex machina that allows the Fire Lord to be thwarted without dying " .
The premiere of Sozin 's Comet averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , 195 % more viewers than Nickelodeon had received in mid @-@ July 2007 . During the week of July 14 , 2008 , it ranked as the most @-@ viewed program for the under @-@ 14 demographic . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet ' s release received a total of 19 million views , and Avatar reached Neilsen 's list of Top 20 Cable Results for the week ending June 20 , 2008 four times . It also appeared on iTunes ' top ten list of best @-@ selling television episodes during that same week . Sozin '
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streak . Upon his becoming the College World Series hero , June 26 , 2003 was declared ' Philip Humber Day ' in his hometown of Carthage , Texas in his honor . Following the season , all three pitchers competed in collegiate summer baseball in the Cape Cod Baseball League ; Humber pitched for the Yarmouth – Dennis Red Sox . Baseball America rated Humber as the seventh @-@ best prospect in the Cape Cod League .
In his junior season of 2004 , Humber compiled a 13 – 4 win – loss record and 2 @.@ 27 ERA . He struck out 154 batters and issued only 37 walks in 115 innings . He also set the Rice single @-@ game record for strikeouts when he struck out 17 Hawaii Rainbow Warriors hitters on March 20 , 2004 . Rice entered the 64 @-@ team NCAA Baseball tournament as one of the eight national seeds . In the first game of the regional round of the tournament , Rice was upset by the Texas Southern Tigers . Humber entered the next game against the Texas A & M Aggies with the bases loaded and surrendered a first @-@ pitch grand slam to Justin Ruggiano . For the season , Humber totaled 154 strikeouts in 115 innings pitched .
Humber finished his three @-@ year career with a 35 – 8 win – loss record and 2 @.@ 80 ERA , striking out 422 in 354 innings pitched . Humber 's totals rank him with the third most wins in Rice baseball history and second most strikeouts . Among his honors for the season were selection to the 2004 Louisville Slugger All @-@ America team by Collegiate Baseball and the 2004 USA TODAY / Sports Weekly All @-@ America team . During the inaugural year for the Roger Clemens Award , which designates the top college pitcher , he was one of 10 named semifinalists . He was also among the 10 finalists for the Dick Howser Trophy in 2004 , in recognition of his performance as one of college baseball 's top players .
Following the early exit in the Houston Regional due to the upset by the Aggies , Humber looked forward to the Major League Baseball Draft . Niemann , and Townsend were all selected along with Humber in the first eight picks of the 2004 MLB Draft — the first time three teammates had ever gone so early in the same draft . Only twice had three teammates been taken in the first round , most recently when Steve Hosey , Tom Goodwin and Eddie Zosky of the Fresno State Bulldogs were selected in the first round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft . Teammate David Aardsma , a relief pitcher , was also selected in the first round .
= = Professional career = =
= = = New York Mets ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
The New York Mets chose Humber out of Rice University with their first @-@ round pick in the 2004 Major League Baseball draft , the third overall selection . The Mets chose Humber over Jered Weaver and Stephen Drew , who also received consideration , as they considered Humber to be the " safe " selection . They also scouted Justin Verlander , who the Detroit Tigers had chosen with the second overall pick . It was reported that the Mets preferred Verlander , and would have chosen him if the Tigers had selected Drew .
On January 11 , 2005 , Humber and the Mets agreed to a five @-@ year contract , ending a long holdout the day before the Mets began their two @-@ day minicamp in Port St. Lucie , Florida . Humber and the Mets were motivated to complete a deal due to a change in federal tax law that made signing bonuses subject to Federal Insurance Contributions Act and Social Security taxes . There is some discrepancy about the value of the contract . According to MLB.com , Humber received a combined $ 3 @.@ 7 million signing bonus and contract from the Mets . The Houston Chronicle reported the contract to be a $ 4 @.@ 2 million deal with a $ 3 million signing bonus and that Humber would fly to minicamp . Six months later , Lee Jenkins of The New York Times also reported the signing bonus to be $ 3 million , but he claimed the contract was for $ 5 million in total . John Manuel of Baseball America reported the contract was worth a maximum of $ 5 @.@ 116 million , with $ 4 @.@ 2 million guaranteed .
Baseball America rated Humber as the 50th @-@ best prospect in baseball heading into the 2005 season . Humber entered spring training in 2005 with the Mets . There , he clashed with Mets ' pitching coach Rick Peterson , who wanted Humber to adopt a different training regimen and change the manner with which he threw the ball to the plate . The Mets front office supported Humber , telling him to pitch how he felt comfortable .
After the brief stint in spring training , the Mets assigned Humber to start his professional career with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class @-@ A Advanced Florida State League , where , in fourteen starts , he posted a 2 – 6 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 99 ERA . Humber was then promoted to the Class @-@ AA Binghamton Mets of the Eastern League . In one start , Humber gave up three earned runs in four innings . Humber left the game early due to elbow pain caused by bone spurs , which required ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction ( more commonly known as Tommy John surgery ) to repair a torn ligament in his elbow . The surgery was performed by Dr. James Andrews of the American Sports Medicine Institute . Coincidentally , his Rice pitching teammates , Townsend ( Tommy John surgery ) and Niemann ( arthroscopic shoulder surgery ) , also endured major surgeries that year . Rice coach Graham , who also coached MLB starters such as Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte in college , shied away from any blame , noting that all three missed out on fall league play by holding out . In spite of his arm surgery , Humber was named the 20th @-@ best prospect in the Florida State League by Baseball America , which ranked him as the fifth @-@ best prospect in the Mets organization following the season .
On March 8 , he was assigned to the Mets minor league camp . After rehabilitating from surgery , Humber resumed pitching with St. Lucie in 2006 , posting a 2 @.@ 37 ERA in seven starts . He compiled a 3 – 1 win – loss record . On July 31 , 2006 , a year after his surgery , Humber was once again promoted to Binghamton , where he was 2 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 88 ERA . He was an early September call @-@ up when the Major League rosters expanded on September 1 . However , Humber did not make his Major League Baseball debut until September 24 , 2006 . He made two appearances for the Mets as a relief pitcher , pitching two innings . However , Humber was unable to obtain his pre @-@ surgery velocity . That fall , he began play in the Arizona Fall League but his participation was discontinued when he endured shoulder tendinitis .
Before the 2007 season , Baseball America rated Humber as the fourth @-@ best prospect in the Mets organization . That year , the Mets had nine pitchers competing for five spots in the starting rotation in spring training camp . Óliver Pérez , Tom Glavine , Orlando Hernández , and John Maine were the favorites for the spots in the rotation . Veterans Aaron Sele , Chan Ho Park and Jorge Sosa were also invited to camp so that the team could be patient with former first round draft choices Humber and Mike Pelfrey , who were considered the most promising pitchers in camp . Rated the 73rd @-@ best prospect in baseball by Baseball America prior to the 2007 season , Humber competed for a spot on the Mets roster in spring training . However , Humber was optioned to the minor leagues during spring training in 2007 . Assigned to the New Orleans Zephyrs of the Class @-@ AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL
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) , Humber had an 11 – 9 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 27 ERA in 139 innings pitched . He allowed 129 hits and walked 44 while striking out 120 batters in 25 starts . For the season , Humber finished tied for fourth in the PCL in wins and had the tenth @-@ best ERA . He had started the season by earning the PCL Pitcher of the week for the week ending April 22 . That week he allowed 2 earned runs in 13 innings of work over two starts , earning a win on April 16 against the Nashville Sounds with six innings of work and suffering a blown save after seven innings against the Albuquerque Isotopes on April 21 . He flirted with a no @-@ hitter with the Zephyrs on August 22 when he entered the ninth inning without giving up a hit to the Iowa Cubs . In his subsequent start , he allowed only an unearned run on two hits over five innings , but he was removed from the game when a batted ball hit him in the shoulder .
Humber was promoted to the Mets , again as a September call @-@ up , on September 2 . Though the Mets considered inserting him into the starting rotation immediately , they chose to start Pelfrey . Humber made two relief appearances for the Mets , on September 5 and 11 . The Mets , having lost eight of their previous 12 games and seen their lead over the Philadelphia Phillies in the National League East division race decrease from seven games to two , removed Pelfrey from the final rotation to give an extra day of rest to pitchers Pérez , Maine , and Pedro Martínez , and gave Humber his first Major League start on September 26 , 2007 , against the Washington Nationals , choosing him over Dave Williams . Although the Mets raced out to a 6 – 2 lead , Humber allowed five runs in four @-@ plus innings , receiving a no decision in a game the Mets eventually lost , 9 – 6 . The decision to start Humber was seen as emblematic of the Mets ' desperation . As George Vecsey wrote in The New York Times , " How did it come to this ? How did the entire Mets ' season come to depend so much on a young pitcher , Philip Humber , who had never started in the major leagues until last night ? " He concluded his three Mets appearances in the 2007 season with a 7 @.@ 71 ERA .
= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =
Following the 2007 season , the Mets began to discuss trading Humber to the Minnesota Twins in a package of prospects to acquire two @-@ time Cy Young Award @-@ winning pitcher Johan Santana . Eligible to become a free agent after the 2008 season , Santana had rejected a proposed four @-@ year , $ 80 million contract extension from the Twins . Assuming that he was unlikely to resign with Minnesota , the Twins began to shop him to other MLB teams .
On February 2 , 2008 , the Mets traded Humber , along with outfielder Carlos Gómez and pitchers Kevin Mulvey and Deolis Guerra , to the Twins for Santana . At the time Baseball America ranked Guerra , Gomez , Mulvey and Humber the second , third , fourth and seventh @-@ best prospects in the Mets organization , respectively .
During spring training , the Twins assigned Humber to Santana 's former place in the Twins ' clubhouse . While trying to earn a spot in the rotation , Humber compiled 11 consecutive scoreless innings in the Grapefruit League . By late March , Humber had a spring training ERA of 1 @.@ 29 .
Humber spent most of the 2008 season assigned to the Twins ' Class @-@ AAA affiliate , the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . He started off slow with a 0 – 5 win – loss record and a 5 @.@ 83 ERA in his first nine starts . With Rochester , Humber eventually compiled a 10 – 8 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 56 ERA in 31 games . He finished with a 6 – 1 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 67 ERA in the second half . His 4 – 1 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 74 ERA in August earned him the Minor League Pitcher of the Month Award . The Twins promoted Humber in August 2008 , and he appeared in five games for the Twins , all in relief . Humber pitched 11 2 ⁄ 3 innings , and posted a 4 @.@ 63 ERA and six strikeouts for the Twins . Following the 2008 season , Humber was out of options , and could not be sent to the minor leagues without first being subjected to waivers , where other teams could claim him .
Humber made the Twins ' Opening Day roster in 2009 as a long reliever . Humber struggled at the start of the 2009 season , pitching to a 12 @.@ 46 ERA over 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings , while giving up 11 hits and walking four batters . The Twins designated Humber for assignment on April 17 , 2009 to make room on their roster for Juan Morillo , who the Twins had claimed off waivers from the Colorado Rockies . Humber cleared waivers and the Twins assigned him to Rochester . The Twins recalled Humber in August 2009 due to an injury to Francisco Liriano , but outrighted him to the minor leagues ten days later . Humber was granted free agency after the 2009 season .
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" . Madonna agreed with Sischy and responded that the song was " a funny paradox " and was one of the inspirations behind her documentary I Am Because We Are ( 2008 ) . The documentary dealt with the acute suffering and food shortage afflicting the African nation of Malawi .
= = Recording and mixing = =
The recording sessions for " 4 Minutes " took place at Sarm West Studios in West London , on a 72 @-@ channel SSL 9080 scratching tool . Paul Tingen from Sound on Sound magazine interviewed mixing and recording engineer Demacio " Demo " Castellon , who recalled that he did not attend the first recording sessions because he was working on another project . Over half of the song was already done by the time Castellon arrived , leaving him to do the programming in the intro and the end . At Sarm , Timbaland and Danja used Akai MPC3000 and Ensoniq ASR @-@ 10 sampling drum machines , Yamaha Motif workstation and synths to build the backing track for " 4 Minutes " . Castellon explained that the recording session took longer than expected . In total 46 tracks were used for drums and percussion and 16 stereo tracks for the bass . The whole session included 100 tracks , and further mixing was done on Pro Tools .
In the case of ' 4 Minutes ' , Tim had a vision from the beginning of how things should go , especially sonically ... When I opened up the session of ' 4 Minutes ' , there was so much going on that I knew right away that the hard part would be to make sure that the vocals would cut through and were right in the pocket . Beginning with working on the vocals was the only way to achieve this . After that I formed all the other parts around the vocals . The other challenge was to make sure that everything in the track sounded clear and that you could hear every instrument , every syllable , every breath . Also , I do almost always work linear in time on a track . It 's easier , because when you 're done , you 're done . So I keep working on section after section , until I get to the end of the track and then I know the whole mix is pretty close .
Castellon said that he did not want the SSL 's internal automation to interfere with his blending of the music , instead used Pro Tools , with automatic levels . According to him , he " then ran everything through the SSL , on which [ he ] did EQ , compression and panning . " The mixing of the track was made at The Hit Factory studio , in Miami on a 96 @-@ channel SSL J @-@ series desk . Considering the quantity of recorded backing tracks , Castellon 's challenge was to make sure that the music did not overpower the vocals . He accomplished this by first mixing the vocals , then adding the music and the drums , which was an unusual method for him . Minimal digital plug @-@ ins were employed for the mix as Castellon preferred the sound of outboard gear .
After the mixes were done , Castellon began working on Timbaland 's introduction , and continued with Madonna and Timberlake 's vocals . On Timbaland 's vocals , he utilized the SSL 's EQ to reduce " some bottom end " , and he set input levels to avoid clipping . For Madonna and Timberlake he used SSL 's dynamic range compression , and on Madonna 's voice he applied " an eighth @-@ note delay from a [ Lexicon ] PCM42 " , a reverb from Eventide H3500 for the verse , and [ TC Electronic ] TC3000 for the hook . " These digital signal processors were employed to give Madonna 's vocals a sense of stereophonic space . Castellon applied Waves Audio " Renaissance Compressor " plug @-@ in to control the level of kick drum . He recalled that " there was one particular kick sound there that clashed with the other tracks , so Tim replaced it with another kick that had a very different note and sound . " Using a Focusrite D2 equalizer let him " match the sound of that new kick drum to the other kick drum sounds " . Once the drums and percussion were added , the recording and mixing of " 4 Minutes " was finished .
= = Composition = =
" 4 Minutes " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , composed in an urban , hip hop style . It incorporates the effect of a marching band , a clanging beat and instrumentation from a brass that is played in a " scale @-@ like riff " , as described by Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone . Other musical instruments used are foghorns and cow bells . In " 4 Minutes " , Madonna and Timberlake sing and trade verses , the rhythm moves towards a hard clanging beat as Madonna sings the lines that the " road to hell is paved with good intentions . " Madonna and Timberlake start singing the chorus with Timberlake singing the line of " We 've only got four minutes to save the world " . The track continues in the same momentum in the second verse and second chorus whence the track ends where every beat ceases except for Timbaland 's characteristic bhangra beats , the brass riffs and Madonna singing the words " tick @-@ tock " repeatedly , after which it ends .
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is written in the key of G minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 115 beats per minute . Timbaland 's bhangra beats are featured at the start and the end of the song . Madonna and Timberlake 's vocal range spans two octaves , from F3 to Bb5 . The song has a sequence of D – G – C – F – B ♭ – D in the verses and E ♭ 5 – D5 – C5 – D5 in the chorus , as its chord progression . The lyrics of " 4 Minutes " carry a message of social awareness , inspired by Madonna 's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed . Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that " [ h ] owever , the song sounds as if four minutes is the time taken for a song to be a guaranteed pop hit or the time required for a quickie ; in reality it is the only song from Hard Candy album which contains a message of social awareness in it . " The sound of a clock ticking away emphasizes this message further . Madonna explained in New York magazine that the line " The road to hell is paved with good intentions " did not relate to her charity work . Instead it was her question to herself : " Do I understand this opinion that I 've adopted or this Zeitgeist that I 've allowed myself to be swept up in ? Because you could have the best intentions but not have enough information and make huge mistakes . " Regarding the line " Sometimes I feel what I need is a you intervention " , Madonna explained , " [ y ] eah , meaning , sometimes I think you need to save me . "
= = Critical reception = =
Caryn Ganz called it " a loud ,
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busy , energetic track " , and commented that Timberlake did " his best Michael Jackson impression " . Billboard music reviewer and editor Chuck Taylor said that with the song , Madonna " is poised to score her first top 10 hit since 2005 's ' Hung Up ' . [ ... ] There 's an awful lot going on in the busy dance track [ ... ] but the trade @-@ off chorus between Madge and Justin of ' We 've only got four minutes to save the world ' is hooky enough unto itself to sell the song . " He added that the song " qualifies as an event record between superpowers [ Madonna and Timberlake ] who not only share equal billing , but sound gangbusters together . " Mark Savage of BBC described the sound as " so futuristic it could realistically have been beamed in from the end of the world . " Andy Gill of The Independent called " 4 Minutes " one of Hard Candy 's saviors . He noted that " the Mardi Gras marching @-@ band bumping rambunctiously along " , is one of the album 's " most ambitious offerings . " Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle compared the track to the work of Nelly Furtado and felt that the composition was " a bid for radio play . "
According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the song is an " advertisement for the rest of the album . " Chris Williams of Entertainment Weekly called it a " flirty duet " . Ben Thompson of The Guardian said : " It has a hard to escape sense that all concerned are going through the motions [ of life ] – effortlessly , sometimes brilliantly . " Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe believed that the song is " chart @-@ topper for its sheer star power as well as instant musical allure , and on the eve of Madonna 's 50th birthday [ ... ] ' 4 Minutes ' feels a lot like an icon 's can 't @-@ miss gift to herself . " However , she noticed that the " shift in the power structure [ is nowhere ] more blatant than on ' 4 Minutes ' , where Madonna sounds like a featured guest trying to keep pace with Timbaland 's colossal beats and Timberlake 's nimble melody . " Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post complimented the song for being busy and brassy . She commented : " [ P ] ropelled by a detonative marching @-@ band beat [ ... ] it 's one of the most thrilling things Madonna has done in this decade . "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised the melodic and rhythmic hook , but was disappointed that Madonna 's voice is " drowned out by Timbaland 's farting four @-@ note synth – which might not have been so bad if the tracks were fresher and if the whole enterprise didn 't feel quite so joylessly mechanical . " At the 51st Grammy Awards , " 4 Minutes " garnered Madonna , Timberlake and Timbaland a nomination in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category . Dutch musician Junkie XL also earned a nomination in the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category for his remix of the song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " 4 Minutes " debuted at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated April 5 , 2008 , based solely on airplay . Within a week , the song had jumped 65 places , reaching number three on the chart . This leap was spurred by first @-@ week digital sales of 217 @,@ 000 , enabling the song to enter Billboard 's Digital chart at number two , behind Mariah Carey 's single " Touch My Body " . The song became Madonna 's first top @-@ ten single since " Hung Up " ( 2005 ) , and was her 37th Hot 100 top @-@ ten hit , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley . " 4 Minutes " was also her highest @-@ charting single on the Hot 100 since " Music " reached the top of the chart in 2000 . For Timberlake , " 4 Minutes " became his ninth top @-@ ten hit . On the Pop 100 chart , the song reached a peak of two . " 4 Minutes " was a success on Billboard 's dance charts , topping both the Hot Dance Club Play and the Hot Dance Airplay charts . Almost five months after its release , " 4 Minutes " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of two million paid digital downloads . " 4 Minutes " was the tenth most downloaded song in the United States in 2008 with sales of 2 @.@ 37 million , according to Nielsen SoundScan , and has sold over three million copies as of July 2012 .
In Canada , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems ( BDS ) confirmed that " 4 Minutes " debuted at the top of the Canadian Contemporary Hit Radio chart . This marked the first time any song entered at the top of the CHR chart in BDS history . The song debuted at number 27 on the Canadian Hot 100 on March 27 , 2008 , and topped the chart the next week . By the end of the year , " 4 Minutes " was the fifth best selling digital song in Canada with sales of 143 @,@ 000 copies , and ranked fourth on the year @-@ end tabulation of the Canadian Hot 100 .
" 4 Minutes " was also a success in Australia and New Zealand . The song debuted at number three on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , and asc
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barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of nine inches and those of the intermediate barbettes were 6 – 8 inches ( 150 – 200 mm ) thick . The sides of the superstructure between the intermediate barbettes had 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of armour .
The flat portion of the deck armour was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick amidships where it sloped down to the bottom of the armour belt . This significantly improved the ships ' protection as any shell that penetrated their vertical armour also had to penetrate the sloping deck before it could reach the machinery compartments or magazines . Outside the central armoured citadel , the sloped deck had a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) . The conning tower was protected by nine inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Whilst conducting gunnery training in Hiroshima Bay on 16 September 1907 , brown powder propellant in Kashima 's starboard rear 10 @-@ inch gun mount ignited when it came in contact with burning residue from the previous shot . The fire killed seven officers and 27 enlisted men ; wounding two officers and six enlisted men . When World War I began , Kashima was refitting while Katori was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron . The former was assigned to the 2nd Battleship Squadron when her refit was completed in 1915 and became the squadron 's flagship in 1916 . Katori began a refit in 1914 that lasted until late 1916 and was assigned to the 5th Battleship Squadron upon its completion . Kashima joined her sister in the 5th Battleship Squadron as its flagship in 1918 and both ships covered the landing of Japanese troops in Siberia in August of that year as Japan decided to intervene in the Russian Civil War .
In 1921 , Katori , escorted by Kashima , carried Crown Prince Hirohito on his tour of Europe where he met King George V. Both ships were disarmed in 1923 and later scrapped to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= Sonnet 86 =
Sonnet 86 is one of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare . It is the final poem of the Rival Poet subsection of the Fair Youth sonnets in which Shakespeare writes about an unnamed young man and a rival poet competing for the youth 's attention . While the exact date of its composition is unknown , scholars generally agree that the Rival Poet series was written between 1598 and 1600 and published along with the rest of the sonnets in the 1609 Quarto .
Within the sonnet , the speaker contemplates his inability to articulate his admiration for the Fair Youth , a fault he attributes to his jealousy of the Fair Youth 's appearance in the poems of the speaker 's Rival Poet . Sonnet 86 is notable within the Rival Poet subsection of sonnets because it allegedly provides important clues as to the historical identity of this Rival Poet . The sonnet is written in the typical Shakespearean sonnet form , containing 14 lines of iambic pentameter and ending in a rhymed couplet .
= = Paraphrase = =
The poem , in which the speaker rhetorically asks why he has lost his ability to write poetry , uses boating references while staying closely connected to the poetic structure of a sonnet .
Below is a paraphrase , written in contemporary English and in prose .
Was it his ambitious poetry , which was written to win you , that stopped my ability to think ? Did it cause all of my ideas to die as soon as they were born ? Was it his heaven given ability , writing which was blessed by the gods , that stopped me in my tracks ? Neither he nor his companions who helped him were able to stop my poetic ability . Neither he nor the Muse which aids him each night can claim to have silenced me . For I am not afraid . However , when your beauty was gifted to him then I was lost and destroyed .
= = Structure = =
Shakespeare 's sonnets follow the fourteen line rhyme scheme of the ' English ' or ' Surreyan ' sonnet form ( abab cdcd efef gg ) . A sonnet originally referred to any short lyric . In 1573 , George Gascoigne tried to define the word sonnet . This definition , stated below , delineates the structure within which Shakespeare often wrote .
I can best allowe to call those Sonnets which are of fourtene lynes , every line conteyning tenne syllables . The first twelve do ryme in staves of foure lines by crosse metre , and the last twoo ryming together do conclude the whole .
While conventional English sonnet form described by Gascoigne is seen in Sonnet 86 , the Petrarchan sonnet form , which requires a pause between the first eight lines and the last six lines is also evident . At the end of line eight Shakespeare uses a period to bring the sonnet to a stop , changing the sonnet 's direction by moving away from rhetorical questions to a more decisive tone within the sestet , which seems to answer the distress of the octave .
The Shakespearean sonnet is composed in iambic pentameter , a type of poetic metre based on five pairs of metrically weak / strong syllabic positions . The 6th line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter :
× / × / × / × / × /
Above a mortal pitch , that struck me dead ? ( 86 @.@ 6 )
/
= ictus , a metrically strong syllabic position . × =
nonictus .
Line two exhibits the first of a large number of necessary or potential initial reversals :
/ × × / × / × / × /
Bound for the prize of all @-@ too @-@ precious you , ( 86 @.@ 2 )
Initial reversals also occur in lines four and eight . Potential initial reversal occur in lines one , five , seven , nine , and twelve ; while potential mid @-@ line reversals occur in lines three , seven , and thirteen .
The meter demands that in the fifth line , the first " spirit " count as one syllable ( possibly pronounced as spear 't , sprite , sprit , or spurt ) , while the second " spirits " counts as two . Line eight 's " astonishèd " is pronounced with four syllables .
= = Context = =
Sonnet 86 is well known as the final sonnet of The Rival Poet sonnets , in Shakespeares 1609 edition of sonnets . The rival poet series , Sonnets 78 @-@ 86 , is generally thought to be written around the years of 1598 – 1600 , based on vocabulary evidence and similarities found with the plays that were also written during this time period . There is no exact answer as to who this rival poet is since nearly every well @-@ known poet contemporary with Shakespeare has , at some time , been suggested as the " rival poet " . Among the poets considered to be the rival poet , George Chapman and Christopher Marlowe , colleagues and literary competitors to Shakespeare , are generally considered to be two of the most likely contenders .
Many of these potential identifications have been made using alleged clues found in Sonnet 86 . The second and third quatrains in particular have garnered much attention in this regard . The description of a poet " by spirits taught to write " has led several critics , including Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones and William Minto , to name George Chapman as the likeliest candidate . This is due to his supposed spiritual inspiration by the ghost of Homer . Another scholar , Richard Levin , connects the line " Above a mortal pitch , that struck me dead ? " to Christopher Marlowe 's play Tamburlaine , saying that the reactions described in both are similar to each other .
In a different reading , Shakespearean scholar Eric Sams has interpreted this reference to spiritual communion as an allusion to Barnabe Barnes , a notorious English occultist and poet , while others contend that the significance of the spirit is simply an allusion to poetic genius and that it contains no reference to an actual personage .
= = Exegesis = =
= = = Overview = = =
While scholarly debate abounds as to the identities
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create a variation of ratatouille , which brings back an astonished Ego memories of his mother 's cooking . During the service , the rats are forced to tie up Skinner and a health inspector to prevent them from revealing their involvement in the cooking . When Ego requests to see the chef , Linguini and Colette make him wait until the rest of the diners have left before introducing Remy . Ego is stunned and leaves the restaurant , deep in thought . He writes a positive and thoughtful review for the newspaper the next day , stating that Gusteau 's chef ( Remy ) is " nothing less than the finest chef in France . "
Despite the positive review , Gusteau 's is shut down , since Linguini and Remy had to release Skinner and the health inspector . Ego loses credibility as a critic but funds a popular new bistro , " La Ratatouille " , created and run by Remy , Linguini , and Colette ; Ego frequents the bistro for Remy 's cooking . The rats settle in their new home in the bistro 's roof .
= = Voice cast = =
Patton Oswalt as Remy . Director Brad Bird chose Oswalt after hearing his food @-@ related comedy routine .
Lou Romano as Alfredo Linguini , the son of Auguste Gusteau and Renata Linguini .
Janeane Garofalo as Colette Tatou , Gusteau 's rôtisseur , inspired by French chef Hélène Darroze .
Ian Holm as Skinner , a diminutive chef and owner of Auguste Gusteau 's restaurant . Since Gusteau 's death , Skinner has used the Gusteau name to market a line of cheap microwaveable meals . Skinner 's behavior , diminutive size , and body language are loosely based on Louis de Funès .
Brian Dennehy as Django , Remy and Emile 's father and the leader of the rats .
Peter O 'Toole as Anton Ego , a restaurant critic . His appearance was modeled after Louis Jouvet .
Brad Garrett as Auguste Gusteau ( whose first and last names are anagrams of each other ) . Many reviewers believe that Gusteau is inspired by real @-@ life chef Bernard Loiseau , who committed suicide after media speculation that his flagship restaurant , La Côte d 'Or , was going to be downgraded from three Michelin stars to two . La Côte d 'Or was one of the restaurants visited by Brad Bird and others in France .
Peter Sohn as Emile , Remy 's older brother .
Will Arnett as Horst , Skinner 's German sous chef .
Julius Callahan as Lalo , Gusteau 's saucier and poissonnier . Callahan also voices François , Skinner 's advertising executive .
James Remar as Larousse , Gusteau 's garde manger .
John Ratzenberger as Mustafa , Gusteau 's head waiter .
Teddy Newton as Talon Labarthe , Skinner 's lawyer .
Tony Fucile as Pompidou , Gusteau 's patissier . Fucile also voices Nadar Lessard , a health inspector employed by Skinner .
Jake Steinfeld as Git , a former lab rat and member of Django 's colony .
Brad Bird as Ambrister Minion , Anton Ego 's butler .
Stéphane Roux as the narrator of the cooking channel .
Thomas Keller as a dining patron who asks " what 's new " .
= = Production = =
Jan Pinkava came up with the concept in 2000 , creating the original design , sets and characters and core storyline , but he was never formally named the director of the film . Lacking confidence in Pinkava 's story development , Pixar management replaced him with Bird in 2005 . Bird was attracted to the film because of the outlandishness of the concept and the conflict that drove it : that rats feared kitchens , yet a rat wanted to work in one . Bird was also delighted that the film could be made a highly physical comedy , with the character of Linguini providing endless fun for the animators . Bird rewrote the story , with a change in emphasis . He killed off Gusteau , gave larger roles to Skinner and Colette , and also changed the appearance of the rats to be less anthropomorphic .
Because Ratatouille is intended to be a romantic , lush vision of Paris , giving it an identity distinct from previous Pixar films , director Brad Bird , producer Brad Lewis and some of the crew spent a week in the city to properly understand its environment , taking a motorcycle tour and eating at five top restaurants . There are also many water @-@ based sequences in the film , one of which is set in the sewers and is more complex than the blue whale scene in Finding Nemo . One scene has Linguini wet after jumping into the Seine to fetch Remy . A Pixar employee ( Shade / Paint department coordinator Kesten Migdal ) jumped into Pixar 's swimming pool wearing a chef 's uniform and apron to see which parts of the suit stuck to his body and which became translucent from water absorption .
Ratatouille was originally going to be released in 2006 , however , in December 2004 , the date was changed to 2007 . The release date change was the same day Disney / Pixar changed the release date of Cars , from November 2005 to June 20
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06 , thus pushing Ratatouille to 2007 .
A challenge for the filmmakers was creating computer @-@ generated images of food that would appear delicious . Gourmet chefs in both the U.S. and France were consulted and animators attended cooking classes at San Francisco @-@ area culinary schools to understand the workings of a commercial kitchen . Sets / Layout department manager Michael Warch , a culinary @-@ academy trained professional chef before working at Pixar , helped teach and consult animators as they worked . He also prepared dishes used by the Art , Shade / Paint , Effects and Sets Modeling departments . Renowned chef Thomas Keller allowed producer Brad Lewis to intern in his French Laundry kitchen . For the film 's climax , Keller designed a fancy , layered version of the title dish for the rat characters to cook , which he called " confit byaldi " in honor of the original Turkish name . The same sub @-@ surface light scattering technique that was used on skin in The Incredibles was used on fruits and vegetables , while new programs gave an organic texture and movement to the food . Completing the illusion were music , dialogue , and abstract imagery representing the characters ' mental sensations while appreciating food . The visual flavor metaphors were created by animator Michel Gagné inspired by the work of Oscar Fischinger and Norman McLaren . To create a realistic compost pile , the Art Department photographed fifteen different kinds of produce , such as apples , berries , bananas , mushrooms , oranges , broccoli , and lettuce , in the process of rotting .
According to Pixar designer Jason Deamer , " Most of the characters were designed while Jan [ Pinkava ] was still directing ... He has a real eye for sculpture . " For example , according to Pinkava , the critic Anton Ego was designed to resemble a vulture . Rat expert Debbie Ducommun ( a.k.a. the " Rat Lady " ) was consulted on rat habits and characteristics . A vivarium containing pet rats sat in a hallway for more than a year so animators could study the movement of the animals ' fur , noses , ears , paws , and tails as they ran . The cast members strove to make their French accents authentic yet understandable . John Ratzenberger notes that he often segued into an Italian accent . To save time , human characters were designed and animated without toes .
Promotional material for Intel credits their platform for a 30 percent performance improvement in rendering software . They used Remy in some of their marketing materials .
= = Music = =
Brad Bird reteamed with Michael Giacchino on the score for Ratatouille since they got along well during the scoring of The Incredibles . Giacchino had written two themes for Remy , one about his thief self and the other about his hopes and dreams . He also wrote a buddy theme for both Remy and Linguini that plays when they 're together . In addition to the score , Giacchino wrote the main theme song , " Le Festin " , about Remy and his wishes to be a chef . Camille was hired to perform " Le Festin " after Giacchino listened to her music and realized she was perfect for the song ; as a result , the song is sung in French in all versions of the film .
The music for Ratatouille gave Giacchino his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score as well as his first Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album . Giacchino returned to Pixar to score their 2009 blockbuster Up .
= = Release = =
Ratatouille 's world premiere was on June 22 , 2007 , at Los Angeles ' Kodak Theater . The commercial release was one week later , with the short film Lifted preceding Ratatouille in theaters . Earlier in the year , it had received an Academy Award nomination . A test screening of the film was shown at the Harkins Cine Capri Theater in Scottsdale , Arizona on June 16 , 2007 , at which a Pixar representative was present to collect viewer feedback . Disney CEO Bob Iger announced an upcoming theatrical re @-@ release of the film in 3D at the Disney shareholders meeting in March 2014 .
= = = Marketing = = =
The trailer for Ratatouille debuted with the release of its immediate predecessor , Cars . It depicts an original scene where Remy is caught on the cheese trolley in the restaurant 's dining area sampling the cheese and barely escaping the establishment , intercut with separate scenes of the rat explaining directly to the audience why he is taking such risks . Similar to most of Pixar 's teaser trailers , the scene was not present in the final film release .
A second trailer was released on March 23 , 2007 . The Ratatouille Big Cheese Tour began on May 11 , 2007 , with cooking demonstrations and a film preview . Voice actor Lou Romano attended the San Francisco leg of the tour for autograph signings .
Disney and Pixar were working to bring a French @-@ produced Ratatouille @-@ branded wine to Costco stores in August 2007 , but abandoned plans because of complaints from the California Wine Institute , citing standards in labeling that restrict the use of cartoon characters to avoid attracting under @-@ age drinkers .
In the United Kingdom , in place of releasing a theatrical trailer , a theatrical commercial featuring Remy and Emile was released in cinemas before its release to discourage obtaining unlicensed copies of films . Also in the United Kingdom , the main characters were used for a theatrical commercial for the Nissan Note , with Remy and Emile watching an original commercial for it made for the " Surprisingly Spacious " ad campaign and also parodying it respectively .
Disney / Pixar were concerned that audiences , particularly children , would not be familiar with the word " ratatouille " and its pronunciation . The title was therefore also spelled phonetically within trailers and on posters . For similar reasons , in the American release of the film , on @-@ screen text in French was printed in English , such as the title of Gusteau 's cookbook and the sign telling kitchen staff to wash their hands , though in the British English release , these are rendered in French . In Canada , the film was released theatrically with text in English , but on DVD , the majority of the text ( including Gusteau 's will ) was in French .
= = = Home media = = =
Disney released Ratatouille on high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in North America on November 6 , 2007 . A new animated short film featuring Remy and Emile entitled Your Friend the Rat was included as a special feature , in which the two rats attempt to entreat the viewer , a human , to welcome
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