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BIOLOGY REVISION AND EXAMINATION TIPS Main reasons why Students Perform Poorly in the Biology Subject Confusion of biology concepts and terminologies. Inability to recall ideas about the subject content (subject matter). This could be attributed to lack of interest and concentration in class and poor study habits h... | {
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Large chunks of information can be summarized through use of pseudo codes, mnemonics or use of concept maps (schematic mapping). Arrive in class and examination room in time. This will enable you gather all the verbal and written concepts taught and boost confidence and reduce pre-exam stress respectively. This can a... | {
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Remember to write exhaustive answers as half answers and ‘hanging’ statements are never awarded in any Biology examination e.g. for each structure or process, mention the function or reasons respectively depending on how the question is framed. Concentrate on the unique or distinguishing features or characteristics... | {
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This will not be awarded as it shows confusion of concepts which is penalized. All diagrams drawn should be clear, neat and proportional sketches (not artistic impressions) and must be true representations of the object/specimen. Follow the simple rules: Labeling lines should not cross each other; the labeling line s... | {
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Remember also that to know a little and present it well is superior to knowing much and presenting it poorly. Allow yourself time to review your work. Review allows you to ensure that you have answered all the required questions, not skipped any relevant question, not made some simple mistakes and also gives you time... | {
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Illustrate-Use a figure, diagram or any non-text form as an example to explain or make something.
Name/Give/Mention-Give points only, no explanations Why-Give clear reasons supported by an argument.
Outline-Give the main features in a sequential manner.
Distinguish between-Define the terms to clearly bring... | {
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FORM ONE BIOLOGY
By the end of form one work, the learner should be able to:
Define Biology
List the branches of Biology
Explain the importance of Biology
State and explain some of the characteristics of organisms
State and explain some of the general characteristics of organisms
Explain the external features of plants... | {
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FORM ONE BIOLOGY
By the end of form one work, the learner should be able to:
Define Biology
List the branches of Biology
Explain the importance of Biology
State and explain some of the characteristics of organisms
State and explain some of the general characteristics of organisms
Explain the external features of plants... | {
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FORM ONE BIOLOGY
By the end of form one work, the learner should be able to:
Define Biology
List the branches of Biology
Explain the importance of Biology
State and explain some of the characteristics of organisms
State and explain some of the general characteristics of organisms
Explain the external features of plants... | {
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FORM ONE BIOLOGY
By the end of form one work, the learner should be able to:
Define Biology
List the branches of Biology
Explain the importance of Biology
State and explain some of the characteristics of organisms
State and explain some of the general characteristics of organisms
Explain the external features of plants... | {
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Biology means "life knowledge". It is the study of living things/organisms. Branches of Biology
Botany - study of plants. Zoology - study of animals. Microbiology - study' of microscopic organisms. Morphology - study of external structure of organisms. Anatomy - study of internal structure of organisms. Physiology - st... | {
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Reproduction-Reproduction is the formation of new individuals of a species to ensure continued existence of a species and growth of its population. Irritability –
The ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in the environment. This is of great survival value to the organism. Movement –
Is the progressive ... | {
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Lateral (side) view shows all the legs. Collection, Observation and Recording of Organisms
Collection
Plants and animals collected from the environment, near school or within school compound using nets, bottles and gloves. Animals collected include:-arthropods, earthworms and small vertebrates like lizards/chameleons/ ... | {
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Genus (plural genera): A genus is made up of a number of species that share several characteristics. Members of a genus cannot interbreed and if they do, the offspring are infertile. Family: A family is made up of a number of genera that share several characteristics. Order: A number of families with common characteris... | {
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External Features of Organisms
In plants we should look for:-
Spore capsule and rhizoids in moss plants. Sori and fronds in ferns. Stem, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds in plants. In animals, some important features to look for are:
Segmentation, presence of limbs and, number of body parts, presence and number... | {
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Root system - fibrous, adventitious and tap root. Stem - position and length of interrnodes. Type of leaves - simple or compound; arranged as alternate, opposite or whorled. Flower - colour, number of parts, size and relative position of each:
Fruits - freshy or dry; edible or not edible. Seeds - monocotyledonous or di... | {
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Keep it away from the edge of the bench when using it. Always hold it with both hands when moving it in the laboratory. Clean the lenses with special lens cleaning paper. Make sure that the low power objective clicks in position in line with eye piece lens before and after use. Store the microscope in a dust-proof plac... | {
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
This is a network of tubular structures extending throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. It serves as a network of pathways through which materials are transported from one part of the cell to the other. An ER encrusted with ribosomes it is referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum. An ER... | {
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At various points along their length the lamellae form stacks of disc like structures called grana. The lamellae are embedded in a granular material called the stroma. The chloroplasts are sites of photosynthesis. The light reaction takes place in the lamellae while the dark reactions take place in the stroma. Comparis... | {
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The following are noted: Nucleus, cell wall, cytoplasm and cell membrane. Observation of permanent slides of animal cells
Permanent slides of animal cells are obtained e.g, of cheek cells, nerve cells and muscle cells. The slide is mounted on the microscope and observations made under low power and medium power objecti... | {
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Properties of cell membrane
Permeability
The cell membrane is semi-permeable. it allows small molecules that are soluble in lipid to pass through with more ease than water soluble molecules. this is due to the presence of the phospholipids double layer. Polarlity
The cell membrane has electrical charges across its surf... | {
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Rate of diffusion is faster when the distance is small i.e., thin surface. Surface Area to Volume Ratio
The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion. For example, in small organisms such as Amoeba the surface area to volume ratio, is greater hence faster diffusion than in larger organis... | {
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Support in plants especially herbaceous ones, is provided by turgor pressure, which results from intake of water by osmosis. Absorption of water from the alimentary canal in mammals. Re-absorption of water in the kidney tubules. Opening and closing stomata. Water Relations in Plant and Animal Cells
The medium (solution... | {
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The vacuole decreases in size and the cytoplasm shrinks as a result of which the cell membrane loses contact with the cell wall. The cell becomes flaccid. The whole process is described as plasmolysis. Incipient plasmolysis is when a cell membrane just begins to lose contact with the cell wall. Plasmolysis can be rever... | {
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The energy needed comes from respiration. Certain proteins in the cell surface membrane responsible for this movement are referred to as carrier proteins or channel proteins. The shape of each type of carrier protein is specific to the type of substances conveyed through it. It has been shown that the substance fits in... | {
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2.Experiment to Demonstrate Osmosis Using a Visking Thbing
A strip of visking tubing 8-10 cm is cut and tied at one end using strong thread. About 2 ml of 25% sucrose solution is put inside and the other end tied with thread. The tubing is washed under running water and then blotted to dry. It is immersed in a beaker c... | {
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The cells are arranged end to end. The epidermis offers protection and maintains the shape of the leaf. It is covered by a layer of cuticle which reduces evaporation. Leaf Mesophyll
Consists of the palisade layer, next to upper epidermis, and the spongy layer next to the lower epidermis. Palisade Mesophyll Layer
The ce... | {
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Spongy mesophyll layer has large intercellular air spaces allowing for gaseous exchange. Presence of stomata for efficient gaseous exchange (entry of carbon (IV) oxide into leaf and exit of oxygen). Mosaic arrangement of leaves to ensure no overlapping of leaves hence every leaf is exposed to light. Structure and Funct... | {
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It takes place on the lamellae surfaces. Its products are used in the dark stage. The dark stage does not require light although it occurs in the light and is called light independent stage. Light-Stage
Two reactions take place that produce raw materials for the dark stage:
Light energy splits the water molecules into ... | {
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This involves incorporation of other elements e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Factors Influencing Photosynthesis
Certain factors must be provided for before photosynthesis can take place. The rate or amount of photosynthesis is also influenced by the quantity or quality of these same factors. Carbon(IV) Oxide Co... | {
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In most plants, photosynthesis stops when temperatures approach O°C although some arctic plant species can photosynthesise at -2°C or even -3°C. Likewise, increase in temperature above the optimum decreases the rate and finally the reactions stop at temperatures above 40°c due to enzyme denaturation. However, certain a... | {
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They are crystallisable. They are sweet. The are all reducing sugars. This is because they reduce blue copper (II) sulphate solution when heated to copper oxide which is red in colour and insoluble. Functions of Monosaccharides
They are oxidised in the cells to produce energy during respiration. Formation of important ... | {
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Dahlia. Cellulose - structural carbohydrate in plants. Chitin - forms exoskeleton in arthropods. Importance and Functions of Polysaccharides
They are storage carbohydrates - starch in plants glycogen in animals. They are hydrolysed to their contituent monosaccharide units and used for respiration. . They form structura... | {
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A lot of fat is stored under the skin e.g. blubber in seals. Protection - Complex lipids e.g. wax on leaf surfaces protects the plant against water-loss and overheating. Fats stored around some internal organs acts as shock absorbers, thus protecting the organs. Source of Metabolic Water -:-lipids when oxidised produce... | {
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The nature of a particular protein depends on the types, number and sequence of amino acids from which it is made. Functions of Proteins
As structural materials proteins-
Are the basic building structures of protoplasms. Proteins in conjunction with lipid form the cell membrane. Examples of structural proteins include:... | {
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Naming of enzymes
Enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to:
Name of substrate that they work on e.g. carbohydrates - carbohydrases e.g.sucrase. Starch (amylose) - amylase
Protein - proteinase (protease)
Lipids -lipases
Type of chemical reaction catalised e.g. Oxidation - oxidase
Reduction - reductase
Hydrolysis -... | {
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All co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. Nutrition in Animals=Heterotrophism
Meaning and Types of Heterotrophism
This is a mode of nutrition whereby organisms feed on complex organic matter from other plants or animals. All animals are heterotrophs. Their mode of feeding is also said to be holozoic to distinguish it f... | {
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Teeth are replaced only once in a lifetime. The first set is the milk or deciduous teeth. These are replaced by the second set or the permanent teeth. Dentition refers to the type of teeth, the number and their arrangement in the jaw. A dental formula shows the type and number of teeth in each half of the jaw. The numb... | {
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They are enlarged for cutting flesh. They act as a pair of shears. They also crush bones. The teeth of carnivores have closed roots i.e., only a very small opening of the pulp cavity to allow food and oxygen to keep teeth alive. Once broken, no re-growth can take place. Teeth of Omnivores
Incisors have a wide surface f... | {
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It saves severely damaged teeth. The nerves in the root canal are surgically severed. The tooth is cleaned and filled up with amalgam. Periodontal Diseases
These are diseases of the gum. The gum becomes inflamed, and starts bleeding. Progression of the disease leads to infection of the fibres in the periodontal membran... | {
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The liver and pancreas are organs that are closely associated with the alimentary canal. Their secretions get into the lumen and assist in digestions. Digestive system consists of:
Mouth. Oesophagus. Stomach. Small intestines - consist of duodenum, the first part next to the stomach, ileum - the last part that ends up ... | {
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The stomach wall has strong circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction mixes the food with digestive juices in the stomach. Digestion in the Duodenum
In the duodenum the food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice. Bile contains bile salts and bile pigments. The salts emulsify fats, thus providing a large sur... | {
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Absorption of Glucose and Amino Acids
Glucose and other monosaccharides as well as amino acids are absorbed through the villi epithelium and directly into the blood capillaries. First they are carried to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, then taken to all organs via circulatory system. Absorption of Fatty Acid... | {
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Lipids
Fats are primarily stored in the fat storage tissues. When carbohydrates intake is low in the body, fats are oxidised to provide energy. They are also used as structural materials e.g. phospholipids in cell membrane. They act as cushion, protecting delicate organs like the heart. Stored fats under the skin act a... | {
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Factors Determining Energy Requirements in Humans
Age: Infants, for instance, need a greater proportion of protein than adults.
Sex: males generally require more carbohydrates than females.
The requirements of specific nutrients for females depends on the stage of development in the life cycle.
Adolescent girls requ... | {
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FORM FOUR BIOLOGY
Define the term genetics
Differentiate between heredity and variation
Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations
Describe continuous and discontinuous variations
Observe variations in plants and animals
Describe the structure, nature and properties of chromosomes
Describe the structur... | {
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FORM FOUR BIOLOGY
Define the term genetics
Differentiate between heredity and variation
Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations
Describe continuous and discontinuous variations
Observe variations in plants and animals
Describe the structure, nature and properties of chromosomes
Describe the structur... | {
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FORM FOUR BIOLOGY
Define the term genetics
Differentiate between heredity and variation
Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations
Describe continuous and discontinuous variations
Observe variations in plants and animals
Describe the structure, nature and properties of chromosomes
Describe the structur... | {
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FORM FOUR BIOLOGY
Define the term genetics
Differentiate between heredity and variation
Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations
Describe continuous and discontinuous variations
Observe variations in plants and animals
Describe the structure, nature and properties of chromosomes
Describe the structur... | {
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The fact that the offspring of any species resemble the parents indicates that the characters in the parents are passed on to the offspring. Factors that determine characters (genes) are passed on from parent to offspring through gametes or sex cells. In fertilisation the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucle... | {
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There are no intermediates. Albinism - one is either an albino or not. Discontinuous variations is determined by the action of a single gene present in an individual. Structure and Properties of Chromosomes
These are threadlike structures found in the nucleus. They are normally very thin and coiled and are not easily v... | {
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histones. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is present in very small amounts. Enzymes concerned with DNA and RNA replication - these are DNA and RNA polymerases and ligases. Structure of DNA
The structure of DNA was first explained in 1953 by Watson and Crick. DNA was shown to be a double helix that coils around itself. The two s... | {
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This is explained by first meiotic anaphase stage, when the homologous chromosomes are separated so that each carries one of the allelic genes. Monohybrid Inheritance
This is the study of the inheritance of one character trait that is represented by a pair of genes on homologous chromosomes. Gregor Mendel (an Austrian ... | {
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From this it is clear that one character i.e. tall is dominant over the short character. A dominant character is that which is expressed alone in the offspring even when the opposite character is represented in the genotype. The unexpressed character is said to be recessive. From these results and others obtained when ... | {
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it is stronger or healthier, or yields more than either parent. Use of Symbols
To represent genes in the chromosomes, letters are used. It is customary to use a capital letter for the dominant characteristic and small letter for the recessive one. The gametes are encircled. For example,a cross between a tall and a shor... | {
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Inheritance of ABO blood groups in humans
Blood groups in human are determined by three alleles, A, B, and O. An individual can have only two of these genes. Genes A and Bare codominant, while gene 0 is recessive to A and B. These are referred to as multiple alleles. The ABO Blood Group System
Rhesus Factor
The Rhesus ... | {
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The female acts as a carrier. In human, sex linked characters found on the X chromosome include:
Haemophilia:
This is a disease that affects the rate of clotting of blood, leading to excessive bleeding even from a minor cut. Haemophilia is more common in males than in females. A female my have the gene for haemophilia ... | {
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Changes in the diploid number of chromosomes (allopolyploidy). The diploid number changes to 3n (triploid) or 4n (tetraploid) and so on. This results from the doubling of the chromosome number in the gamete (2n). This is due to failure of the chromosome sets to separate during meiosis. The phenomenon is known as polypl... | {
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Inversion:
A portion may break from a chromosome and then rejoin to it after turning though an angle-of 1800 . Translocation:
This is when a portion is joined to a non-homologous chromosome. Duplication:
A certain section of an intact chromosome replicates such that the genes are repeated. Gene Mutations
A gene mutatio... | {
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As discussed earlier a person of blood group A can only get blood from another one of A or O. In case of emergencies and unavailability of blood, a patient may be given blood group A + when he/she is A-. First transfusion is fine since, by the time enough antibodies are produced most of the red blood cells of donor hav... | {
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This zygote was introduced into the uterus of a sheep and developed to full term. Gene therapy
Involves injecting genes into patients of certain diseases
e.g. Parkinson's diseases. The injected gene alters metabolism to bring about the cure of the disease. Practical Activities
To demonstrate Continuous variations
Heigh... | {
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Human Finger Prints
The finger prints for each student's thumb, forefinger and middle fingers of the left hand is imprinted on a white paper. A rubber stamp with ink is used to and each finger -tip phalange is rolled onto the inkpad. For best results students work in pairs. Observations are made at all forefingers, thu... | {
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