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# Peter O'Toole
*Revision ID: 1157438614 | Timestamp: 2023-05-28T16:22:23Z*
---
| birth_name = Peter Seamus O'Toole
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Leeds](Leeds),}} West Riding of Yorkshire, England
| death_date =
| death_place = [John's Wood](St)(St John's Wood), London, England
| occupation =
| years_active = 1954–2012
| alma_mater = [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art)
| notable_works = [list](Full)(Peter O'Toole on screen and stage)
| spouse =
| partner = Karen Brown (1982–1988)
| children = 3, including [Kate](Kate O'Toole (actress))
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Peter O'Toole)
}}
'''Peter Seamus O'Toole'* (; 2 August 1932 – 14 December 2013) was a British stage and film actor. He attended the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) and began working in the theatre, gaining recognition as a [Shakespearean](William Shakespeare) actor at the [Old Vic](Bristol)(Bristol Old Vic) and with the [Stage Company](English)(English Stage Company). In 1959 he made his [End](West)(West End theatre) debut in *[Long and the Short and the Tall](The)(The Long and the Short and the Tall (play))*, and played the [role](title)(Prince Hamlet) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)'' in the [Theatre](National)(Royal National Theatre)'s first production in 1963. Excelling on the London stage, O'Toole was known for his "hellraiser" lifestyle off it.
Making his film debut in 1959, O'Toole achieved international recognition playing [E. Lawrence](T.)(T. E. Lawrence) in *[of Arabia](Lawrence)(Lawrence of Arabia (film))* (1962) for which he received his first nomination for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). He was nominated for this award another seven times – for playing [Henry II](King)(Henry II of England) in both *[Becket](Becket (1964 film))* (1964) and *[Lion in Winter](The)(The Lion in Winter (1968 film))* (1968), *[Mr. Chips](Goodbye,)(Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1969 film))* (1969), *[Ruling Class](The)(The Ruling Class (film))* (1972), *[Stunt Man](The)(The Stunt Man)* (1980), *[Favorite Year](My)(My Favorite Year)* (1982), and *[Venus](Venus (2006 film))* (2006) – and holds the record for the most Oscar nominations for acting without a win (tied with [Close](Glenn)(Glenn Close)). In 2002, he was awarded the [Honorary Award](Academy)(Academy Honorary Award) for his career achievements.
O'Toole was the recipient of four [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), one [Award for Best British Actor](BAFTA)(British Academy Film Awards) and one [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award). Other performances include ''[New Pussycat?](What's)(What's New Pussycat?)* (1965), *[to Steal a Million](How)(How to Steal a Million)* (1966), *[Supergirl](Supergirl (1984 film))* (1984), and minor roles in *[Last Emperor](The)(The Last Emperor)* (1987) and *[Troy](Troy (film))'' (2004). He also voiced Anton Ego, the restaurant critic in [Pixar](Pixar)'s *[Ratatouille](Ratatouille (film))* (2007).
## Early life and education
Peter Seamus O'Toole was born on 2 August 1932, the son of Constance Jane Eliot (née Ferguson), a Scottish nurse,O'Toole, Peter. *Loitering with Intent: Child* (Large print edition), Macmillan London Ltd., London, 1992. ; pg. 10, "My mother, Constance Jane, had led a troubled and a harsh life. Orphaned early, she had been reared in Scotland and shunted between relatives;..." and Patrick Joseph "Spats" O'Toole, an Irish metal plater, football player, and [bookmaker](bookmaker). O'Toole claimed he was not certain of his birthplace or date, stating in his autobiography that he accepted 2 August as his birth date but had birth certificates from England and Ireland. Records from the Leeds General Registry Office confirm he was born at [James's University Hospital](St)(St James's University Hospital) in [Leeds](Leeds), Yorkshire, England on 2 August 1932.
O'Toole had an elder sister named Patricia and grew up in the south Leeds suburb of [Hunslet](Hunslet). When he was one year old, his family began a five-year tour of major racecourse towns in Northern England. He and his sister were brought up in their father's Catholic faith. O'Toole was [evacuated](Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II) from Leeds early in the Second World War, and went to a Catholic school for seven or eight years: St Joseph's Secondary School in Hunslet, Leeds. He later said, "I used to be scared stiff of the nuns: their whole denial of womanhood—the black dresses and the shaving of the hair—was so horrible, so terrifying. [...] Of course, that's all been stopped. They're sipping gin and tonic in the [Dublin](Dublin) pubs now, and a couple of them flashed their pretty ankles at me just the other day."
Upon leaving school, O'Toole obtained employment as a trainee journalist and photographer on the *[Evening Post](Yorkshire)(Yorkshire Evening Post)*, until he was called up for [service](national)(national service) as a [signaller](signaller) in the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy). As reported in a radio interview in 2006 on [NPR](NPR), he was asked by an officer whether he had something he had always wanted to do. His reply was that he had always wanted to try being either a poet or an actor. He attended the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) (RADA) from 1952 to 1954 on a scholarship. This came after being rejected by the [Theatre](Abbey)(Abbey Theatre)'s drama school in Dublin by the director [Blythe](Ernest)(Ernest Blythe), because he could not speak the [language](Irish)(Irish language). At RADA, he was in the same class as [Finney](Albert)(Albert Finney), [Bates](Alan)(Alan Bates) and [Bedford](Brian)(Brian Bedford). O'Toole described this as "the most remarkable class the academy ever had, though we weren't reckoned for much at the time. We were all considered dotty."
## Acting career
### 1950s
O'Toole began working in the theatre, gaining recognition as a [Shakespearean](William Shakespeare) actor at the [Old Vic](Bristol)(Bristol Old Vic) and with the [Stage Company](English)(English Stage Company), before making his television debut in 1954. He played a soldier in an episode of *[Scarlet Pimpernel](The)(The Adventures of the Scarlet Pimpernel)* in 1954. He was based at the Bristol Old Vic from 1956 to 1958, appearing in productions of *[Lear](King)(King Lear)* (1956), *[Recruiting Officer](The)(The Recruiting Officer)* (1956), *[Barbara](Major)(Major Barbara)* (1956), *[Othello](Othello)* (1956), and *The Slave of Truth* (1956). He was Henry Higgins in *[Pygmalion](Pygmalion (play))* (1957), Lysander in ''[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream)* (1957), Uncle Gustve in *Oh! My Papa!* (1957), and Jimmy Porter in *[Back in Anger](Look)(Look Back in Anger)'' (1957). O'Toole was Tanner in Shaw's *[and Superman](Man)(Man and Superman)* (1958), a performance he reprised often during his career. He was also in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)* (1958), *The Holiday* (1958), ''Amphitryon '38* (1958), and *[for Godot](Waiting)(Waiting for Godot)* (1958) (as Vladimir). He hoped *The Holiday'' would take him to the West End but it ultimately folded in the provinces; during that show he met [Phillips](Sian)(Sian Phillips) who became his first wife.
O'Toole continued to appear on television, being in episodes of *[Theatre](Armchair)(Armchair Theatre)* ("The Pier", 1957), and *[Sunday-Night Theatre](BBC)(BBC Sunday-Night Theatre)* ("The Laughing Woman", 1958) and was in the TV adaptation of *[Castiglioni Brothers](The)(The Castiglioni Brothers)* (1958). He made his London debut in a musical *Oh, My Papa*. O'Toole gained fame on the [End](West)(West End theatre) in the play *[Long and the Short and the Tall](The)(The Long and the Short and the Tall (play))*, performed at the Royal Court starting January 1959. His co-stars included Robert Shaw and Edward Judd and it was directed by [Anderson](Lindsay)(Lindsay Anderson). He reprised his performance for television on *Theatre Night* in 1959 (although he did not appear in the [film version](1961)(The Long and the Short and the Tall (film))). The show transferred to the West End in April and won O'Toole Best Actor of the Year in 1959.
### 1960s
O'Toole was in much demand. He reportedly received five offers of long-term contracts but turned them down. His first role was a small role in Disney's version of *[Kidnapped](Kidnapped (1960 film))* (1960), playing the bagpipes opposite [Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch).}} His second feature was *[Savage Innocents](The)(The Savage Innocents)* (1960) with [Quinn](Anthony)(Anthony Quinn) for director [Ray](Nicholas)(Nicholas Ray). With his then-wife [Phillips](Sian)(Sian Phillips) he did ''Siwan: The King's Daughter* (1960) for TV. In 1960 he had a nine-month season at the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company) in Stratford, appearing in *[Taming of the Shrew](The)(The Taming of the Shrew)* (as Petruchio), *[Merchant of Venice](The)(The Merchant of Venice)* (as Shylock) and *[and Cressida](Troilus)(Troilus and Cressida)'' (as Thersites). He could have made more money in films but said "You've got to go to Stratford when you've got the chance."
O'Toole had been seen in *The Long and the Short and the Tall* by [Buck](Jules)(Jules Buck) who later established a company with the actor. Buck cast O'Toole in *[Day They Robbed the Bank of England](The)(The Day They Robbed the Bank of England)* (1961), a heist thriller from director [Guillermin](John)(John Guillermin). O'Toole was billed third, beneath [Ray](Aldo)(Aldo Ray) and [Sellars](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Sellars). The same year he appeared in several episodes of the TV series *[Rendezvous](Rendezvous (TV series))* ("End of a Good Man", "Once a Horseplayer", "London-New York"). He lost the role in the film adaptation of *Long and the Short and the Tall* to [Harvey](Laurence)(Laurence Harvey). "It broke my heart", he said later.
'''*Lawrence of Arabia* (1962)'''
O'Toole's major break came in November 1960 when he was chosen to play the eponymous hero [E. Lawrence](T.)(T. E. Lawrence) in Sir [Lean](David)(David Lean)'s epic *[of Arabia](Lawrence)(Lawrence of Arabia (film))* (1962), after [Finney](Albert)(Albert Finney) reportedly turned down the role. The role introduced him to a global audience and earned him the first of his eight nominations for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). He received the [Award for Best British Actor](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role). His performance was ranked number one in *[Premiere](Premiere (magazine))* magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Performances of All Time. In 2003, Lawrence as portrayed by O'Toole was selected as the [hero in cinema history](tenth-greatest)(AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains) by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute).
O'Toole played [Hamlet](Hamlet) under [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier)'s direction in the premiere production of the [National Theatre](Royal)(Royal National Theatre) in 1963. He performed in *[Baal](Baal (play))* (1963) at the Phoenix Theatre.
**Partnership with Jules Buck**
[[File:Peter O'Toole - 1968.jpg|thumb|upright|O'Toole in the TV film *[Laughter](Present)(Present Laughter)* (1968)]]
Even prior to the making of *Lawrence of Arabia*, O'Toole announced he wanted to form a production company with Jules Buck. In November 1961 they said their company, known as Keep Films (also known as Tricolor Productions) would make a film starring Terry-Thomas, *[Snatch](Operation)(Operation Snatch)*. In 1962 O'Toole and Buck announced they wanted to make a version of *Waiting for Godot* for £80,000. The film was never made. Instead their first production was *[Becket](Becket (1964 film))* (1964), where O'Toole played [Henry II](King)(Henry II of England) opposite Richard Burton. The film, done in association with [Wallis](Hal)(Hal Wallis), was a financial success. O'Toole turned down the lead role in *[Cardinal](The)(The Cardinal (film))* (1963). Instead he and Buck made another epic, *[Jim](Lord)(Lord Jim (1965 film))* (1965), based on the novel by [Conrad](Joseph)(Joseph Conrad) directed by Richard Brooks. He and Buck intended to follow this with a biopic of [Adams](Will)(William Adams (sailor, born 1564)) and a film about [Charge of the Light Brigade](the)(the Charge of the Light Brigade), but neither project happened. Instead O'Toole went into ''[New Pussycat?](What's)(What's New Pussycat?)'' (1965), a comedy based on a script by [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen), taking over a role originally meant for [Beatty](Warren)(Warren Beatty) and starring alongside [Sellers](Peter)(Peter Sellers). It was a huge success.
He and Buck helped produce ''[Party's Over](The)(The Party's Over (1965 film))'' (1965). O'Toole returned to the stage with *Ride a Cock Horse* at the Piccadilly Theatre in 1965, which was harshly reviewed. He made a heist film with [Hepburn](Audrey)(Audrey Hepburn), *[to Steal a Million](How)(How to Steal a Million)* (1966), directed by [Wyler](William)(William Wyler). He played the Three Angels in the all-star *[Bible: In the Beginning...](The)(The Bible: In the Beginning...)* (1966), directed by [Huston](John)(John Huston). In 1966 at the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin he appeared in productions of *[and the Paycock](Juno)(Juno and the Paycock)* and *[and Superman](Man)(Man and Superman)*. [Spiegel](Sam)(Sam Spiegel), producer of *Lawrence of Arabia*, reunited O'Toole with Omar Sharif in *[Night of the Generals](The)(The Night of the Generals)* (1967), which was a box office disappointment. O'Toole played in an adaptation of [Coward](Noël)(Noël Coward)'s *[Laughter](Present)(Present Laughter)* for TV in 1968, and had a cameo in *[Royale](Casino)(Casino Royale (1967 film))* (1967).
'''*The Lion in Winter* (1968)'''
[[File:Peter O'Toole - Lion.jpg|thumb|upright|As King Henry II in *[Lion in Winter](The)(The Lion in Winter (1968 film))* (1968)]]
He played Henry II again in *[Lion in Winter](The)(The Lion in Winter (1968 film))* (1968) alongside [Hepburn](Katharine)(Katharine Hepburn), and was nominated for an Oscar again – one of the few times an actor had been nominated playing the same character in different films. The film was also successful at the box office."The World's Top Twenty Films", *Sunday Times*, [England](London,), 27 September 1970: 27. The Sunday Times Digital Archive. accessed 5 April 2014
Less popular was *[Catherine](Great)(Great Catherine (film))* (1968) with [Moreau](Jeanne)(Jeanne Moreau), an adaptation of the play by [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw) which Buck and O'Toole co-produced.
'''*Goodbye, Mr. Chips* (1969)'*
In 1969, he played the title role in the film *[Mr. Chips](Goodbye,)(Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1969 film))'', a musical adaptation of [Hilton's novella](James)(Goodbye, Mr. Chips), starring opposite [Clark](Petula)(Petula Clark). He was nominated for an [Award as Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor) and won a [Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy). O'Toole fulfilled a lifetime ambition in 1970 when he performed on stage in [Beckett](Samuel)(Samuel Beckett)'s *[for Godot](Waiting)(Waiting for Godot)*, alongside [McCann](Donal)(Donal McCann), at Dublin's [Theatre](Abbey)(Abbey Theatre).
In other films, he played a man in love with his sister (played by [York](Susannah)(Susannah York)) in *[Dance](Country)(Country Dance (film))* (1970). O'Toole starred in a war film for director [Yates](Peter)(Peter Yates), ''[War](Murphy's)(Murphy's War (film))* (1971), appearing alongside Sian Phillips. He was reunited with Richard Burton in a film version of *[Milk Wood](Under)(Under Milk Wood (1971 film))* (1972) by [Thomas](Dylan)(Dylan Thomas), produced by himself and Buck; [Taylor](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Taylor) co-starred. The film was not a popular success.
### 1970s
*'*The Ruling Class* (1972)'''
O'Toole received another Oscar nomination for his performance in *[Ruling Class](The)(The Ruling Class (film))* (1972), done for his own company. In 1972, he played both [de Cervantes](Miguel)(Miguel de Cervantes) and his fictional creation [Quixote](Don)(Don Quixote) in *[of La Mancha](Man)(Man of La Mancha (film))*, the motion picture adaptation of the [hit Broadway musical](1965)(Man of La Mancha), opposite [Loren](Sophia)(Sophia Loren). The film was a critical and commercial failure, criticised for using mostly non-singing actors. His singing was dubbed by [tenor](tenor) [Gilbert](Simon)(Simon Gilbert (tenor)), but the other actors did their own singing. O'Toole and co-star [Coco](James)(James Coco), who played both Cervantes's manservant and [Panza](Sancho)(Sancho Panza), both received [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nominations for their performances.
O'Toole did not make a film for several years. He performed at the Bristol Old Vic from 1973 to 1974 in *[Vanya](Uncle)(Uncle Vanya)*, [*Plunder*](Plunder (play)), *[Apple Cart](The)(The Apple Cart)* and *Judgement*. He returned to films with *[Rosebud](Rosebud (1975 film))* (1975), a flop thriller for [Preminger](Otto)(Otto Preminger), where O'Toole replaced [Mitchum](Robert)(Robert Mitchum) at the last minute. He followed it with *[Friday](Man)(Man Friday (film))* (1975), an adaptation of the [Crusoe](Robinson)(Robinson Crusoe) story, which was the last work from Keep Films. O'Toole made *[Foxtrot](Foxtrot (1976 film))* (1976), directed by [Ripstein](Arturo)(Arturo Ripstein). He was critically acclaimed for his performance in *[Male](Rogue)(Rogue Male (1976 film))* (1976) for British television. He did *Dead Eyed Dicks* on stage in Sydney in 1976. Less well received was *[Play](Power)(Power Play (1978 film))* (1978), made in Canada, and *[Dawn](Zulu)(Zulu Dawn)* (1979), shot in South Africa. He toured *[Vanya](Uncle)(Uncle Vanya)* and *[Laughter](Present)(Present Laughter)* on stage. In 1979, O'Toole starred as [Tiberius](Tiberius) in the *[Penthouse](Penthouse (magazine))*-funded biopic, *[Caligula](Caligula (film))*.
### 1980s
'''*The Stunt Man* (1980)'*
In 1980, he received critical acclaim for playing the director in the behind-the-scenes film *[Stunt Man](The)(The Stunt Man)''. His performance earned him an Oscar nomination. He appeared in a mini series for Irish TV *[City](Strumpet)(Strumpet City (miniseries))*, where he played [Larkin](James)(James Larkin). He followed this with another mini series *[Masada](Masada (miniseries))* (1981), playing [Flavius Silva](Lucius)(Lucius Flavius Silva). In 1980, he performed in *[MacBeth](MacBeth)* at the Old Vic for $500 a week (), a performance that famously earned O'Toole some of the worst reviews of his career.
'''*My Favorite Year* (1982)'''
O'Toole was nominated for another Oscar for *[Favorite Year](My)(My Favorite Year)* (1982), a light romantic comedy about the behind-the-scenes at a 1950s TV variety-comedy show, in which O'Toole plays an ageing [swashbuckling](swashbuckler) film star reminiscent of [Flynn](Errol)(Errol Flynn). He returned to the stage in London with a performance in *Man and Superman* (1982) that was better received than his *MacBeth*. He focused on television, doing an adaptation of *[and Superman](Man)(Man and Superman)* (1983), *[Svengali](Svengali (1983 film))* (1983), *Pygmalion* (1984), and *[Kim](Kim (1984 film))* (1984), and providing the voice of [Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes) for a series of animated TV movies. He did *Pygmalion* on stage in 1984 at the West End's [Theatre](Shaftesbury)(Shaftesbury Theatre).
O'Toole returned to feature films in *[Supergirl](Supergirl (1984 film))* (1984), *[Creator](Creator (1985 film))* (1985), *[Paradise](Club)(Club Paradise)* (1986), *[Last Emperor](The)(The Last Emperor)* (1987) as [Reginald Johnston](Sir)(Reginald Johnston), and *[Spirits](High)(High Spirits (film))* (1988). He appeared on Broadway in an adaptation of *[Pygmalion](Pygmalion (play))* (1987), opposite [Plummer](Amanda)(Amanda Plummer). It ran for 113 performances.
'''*Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell* (1989)'*
He won a [Olivier Award](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Award) for his performance in *[Bernard Is Unwell](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell)* (1989). His other appearances that decade include *[Silas](Uncle)(Uncle Silas)'' (1989) for television.
### 1990s
O'Toole's performances in the 1990s include *[of Fame](Wings)(Wings of Fame)* (1990); *[Rainbow Thief](The)(The Rainbow Thief)* (1990), with Sharif; *[Ralph](King)(King Ralph)* (1991) with [Goodman](John)(John Goodman); *[Eberhardt](Isabelle)(Isabelle Eberhardt (film))* (1992); ''[Daughters](Rebecca's)(Rebecca's Daughters)* (1992), in Wales; *[Civvies](Civvies (TV series))* (1992), a British TV series; *[Seventh Coin](The)(The Seventh Coin)* (1993); *[& Hell: North & South, Book III](Heaven)(Heaven & Hell: North & South, Book III)* (1994), for American TV; and *[Weather](Heavy)(Heavy Weather (film))* (1995), for British TV. He was in an adaptation of *[Travels](Gulliver's)(Gulliver's Travels (miniseries))* (1996), playing the Emperor of Lilliput; *[A True Story](FairyTale:)(FairyTale: A True Story)* (1997), playing [Arthur Conan Doyle](Sir)(Sir Arthur Conan Doyle); *[Phantoms](Phantoms (1998 film))* (1998), from a novel by [Koontz](Dean)(Dean Koontz); and *[The Story of Father Damien](Molokai:)(Molokai: The Story of Father Damien)* (1999). He won a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) for his role as Bishop Pierre Cauchon in the 1999 mini-series *[of Arc](Joan)(Joan of Arc (miniseries))*. He also produced and starred in a TV adaptation of *[Bernard Is Unwell](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell)'' (1999).
### 2000s
O'Toole's work in the next decade included *[Heresy](Global)(Global Heresy)* (2002); *[Final Curtain](The)(The Final Curtain (film))* (2003); *[Young Things](Bright)(Bright Young Things (film))* (2003); *[The Rise of Evil](Hitler:)(Hitler: The Rise of Evil)* (2003) for TV, as [von Hindenburg](Paul)(Paul von Hindenburg); and *[Augustus](Imperium:)(Imperium: Augustus)* (2004) as [Caesar](Augustus)(Augustus Caesar). In 2004, he played [Priam](King)(Priam) in *[Troy](Troy (film))*. In 2005, he appeared on television as the older version of legendary 18th century Italian adventurer [Casanova](Giacomo)(Giacomo Casanova) in the [BBC](BBC) drama serial *[Casanova](Casanova (2005 TV serial))*. The younger Casanova, seen for most of the action, was played by [Tennant](David)(David Tennant), who had to wear contact lenses to match his brown eyes to O'Toole's blue. He followed it with a role in *[Lassie](Lassie (2005 film))* (2005).
'''*Venus* (2006)'''
O'Toole was once again nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award for his portrayal of Maurice in the 2006 film *[Venus](Venus (2006 film))*, directed by [Michell](Roger)(Roger Michell), his eighth such nomination. He was in *[Night with the King](One)(One Night with the King)* (2007) and co-starred in the [Pixar](Pixar) animated film *[Ratatouille](Ratatouille (film))* (2007), an animated film about a rat with dreams of becoming the greatest chef in Paris, as Anton Ego, a food critic. He had a small role in *[Stardust](Stardust (2007 film))* (2007). He also appeared in the second season of [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))'s drama series *[Tudors](The)(The Tudors)* (2008), portraying [Paul III](Pope)(Pope Paul III), who [excommunicate](excommunicate)s [Henry VIII](King)(Henry VIII of England) from the church; an act which leads to a showdown between the two men in seven of the ten episodes. Also in 2008, he starred alongside [Northam](Jeremy)(Jeremy Northam) and [Neill](Sam)(Sam Neill) in the New Zealand/British film *[Spanley](Dean)(Dean Spanley)*, based on an Alan Sharp adaptation of Irish author Lord Dunsany's short novel, *My Talks with Dean Spanley*.
He was in ''[Kinkade's Christmas Cottage](Thomas)(Thomas Kinkade's Christmas Cottage)* (2008); and *[Road](Iron)(Iron Road (film))'' (2009), a Canadian-Chinese miniseries. O'Toole's final performances came in *[to Hell](Highway)(Highway to Hell (film))* (2012) and *[Greater Glory](For)(For Greater Glory): The True Story of Cristiada* (2012). On 10 July 2012, O'Toole released a statement announcing his retirement from acting. A number of films were released after his retirement and death: *[of an Empire](Decline)(Decline of an Empire)* (2013), as [Gallus](Cornelius Gallus); and *[Cartel](Diamond)(Diamond Cartel)* (2017).
## Personal life
[[File:Becket 1964 still 2.jpg|thumb|right|O'Toole (left) with [Burton](Richard)(Richard Burton) in *Becket* (1964). The two actors along with [Harris](Richard)(Richard Harris) and [Reed](Oliver)(Oliver Reed) were among a close group of friends who excelled on both stage and screen, and were known as "hellraisers" in their personal lives. ]]
### Personal views
While studying at RADA in the early 1950s, O'Toole was active in protesting against British involvement in the [War](Korean)(Korean War). Later, in the 1960s, he was an active opponent of the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War). He played a role in the creation of the current form of the well-known folk song "[Carrickfergus](Carrickfergus (song))" which he related to [Behan](Dominic)(Dominic Behan), who put it in print and made a recording in the mid-1960s.
Although he lost faith in [religion](organised)(organised religion) as a teenager, O'Toole expressed positive sentiments regarding the life of Jesus Christ. In an interview for *The New York Times*, he said "No one can take Jesus away from me... there's no doubt there was a historical figure of tremendous importance, with enormous notions. Such as peace." He called himself "a retired Christian" who prefers "an education and reading and facts" to faith.
### Relationships
In 1959, he married Welsh actress [Phillips](Siân)(Siân Phillips), with whom he had two daughters: actress [Kate](Kate O'Toole (actress)) and Patricia. They were divorced in 1979. Phillips later said in two autobiographies that O'Toole had subjected her to mental cruelty, largely fuelled by drinking, and was subject to bouts of extreme jealousy when she finally left him for a younger lover.
O'Toole and his girlfriend, model Karen Brown, had a son, Lorcan O'Toole (born 17 March 1983), when O'Toole was fifty years old. Lorcan, now an actor, was a pupil at [School](Harrow)(Harrow School), boarding at West Acre from 1996.
### Sports
O'Toole played [league](rugby)(rugby league) as a child in Leeds and was also a [union](rugby)(rugby union) fan, attending [Nations](Five)(Six Nations Championship) matches with friends and fellow rugby fans [Harris](Richard)(Richard Harris), [Griffith](Kenneth)(Kenneth Griffith), [Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch) and [Burton](Richard)(Richard Burton). He was also a lifelong player, coach and enthusiast of cricket and a fan of [A.F.C.](Sunderland)(Sunderland A.F.C.) His support of Sunderland was passed on to him through his father, who was a labourer in [Sunderland](Sunderland) for many years. He was named their most famous fan. The actor in a later interview expressed that he no longer considered himself as much of a fan following the demolition of [Park](Roker)(Roker Park) and the subsequent move to the [of Light](Stadium)(Stadium of Light). He described Roker Park as his last connection to the club and that everything "they meant to him was when they were at Roker Park".
O'Toole was interviewed at least three times by [Rose](Charlie)(Charlie Rose) on his eponymous [show](talk)(Charlie Rose (TV series)). In a 17 January 2007 interview, O'Toole stated that British actor [Porter](Eric)(Eric Porter) had most influenced him, adding that the difference between actors of yesterday and today is that actors of his generation were trained for "theatre, theatre, theatre". He also believes that the challenge for the actor is "to use his imagination to link to his emotion" and that "good parts make good actors". However, in other venues (including the DVD commentary for *[Becket](Becket)*), O'Toole credited [Wolfit](Donald)(Donald Wolfit) as being his most important mentor.
### Health
Severe illness almost ended O'Toole's life in the late 1970s. His stomach cancer was misdiagnosed as resulting from his alcoholic excess. O'Toole underwent surgery in 1976 to have his [pancreas](pancreas) and a large portion of his stomach removed, which resulted in [insulin](insulin)-dependent [diabetes](diabetes). In 1978, he nearly died from a [disorder](blood)(blood disorder). He eventually recovered and returned to work. He resided on the Sky Road, just outside [Clifden](Clifden), [Connemara](Connemara), County Galway from 1963, and at the height of his career maintained homes in Dublin, London and Paris (at the [Ritz](Hôtel Ritz Paris), which was where his character supposedly lived in the film *[to Steal a Million](How)(How to Steal a Million)*).
In an interview with [Public Radio](National)(National Public Radio) in December 2006, O'Toole revealed that he knew all 154 of [Shakespeare](William Shakespeare)'s [sonnet](sonnet)s. A self-described romantic, O'Toole said of the sonnets that nothing in the English language compares with them, and read them daily. In *[Venus](Venus (2006 film))*, he recites [18](Sonnet)(Sonnet 18) ("Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"). O'Toole wrote two memoirs. *Loitering With Intent: The Child* chronicles his childhood in the years leading up to World War II and was a *[York Times](New)(New York Times)* Notable Book of the Year in 1992. His second, *Loitering With Intent: The Apprentice*, is about his years spent training with a cadre of friends at the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art).
### Death
[[File:Peter O'Toole Memorial Plaque London.jpg|thumb|right|O'Toole's memorial plaque in [Paul's Church](St)(St Paul's, Covent Garden) in [Garden](Covent)(Covent Garden), London]]
O'Toole retired from acting in July 2012 owing to a recurrence of stomach cancer. He died on 14 December 2013 at [Hospital](Wellington)(Wellington Hospital, London) in [John's Wood](St)(St John's Wood), London, at the age of 81. His funeral was held at [Green Crematorium](Golders)(Golders Green Crematorium) in London on 21 December 2013, where his body was cremated in a wicker coffin. His family stated their intention to fulfil his wishes and take his ashes to the west of Ireland.
### Legacy
On 18 May 2014, a new prize was launched in memory of Peter O'Toole at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School; this includes an annual award given to two young actors from the School, including a professional contract at Bristol Old Vic Theatre. He has a memorial plaque in [Paul's](St)(St Paul's, Covent Garden), the Actors' Church in [Garden](Covent)(Covent Garden), London.
On 21 April 2017, the [Ransom Center](Harry)(Harry Ransom Center) at the [of Texas at Austin](University)(University of Texas at Austin) announced that [O'Toole](Kate)(Kate O'Toole (actress)) had placed her father's archive at the humanities research centre. The collection includes O'Toole's scripts, extensive published and unpublished writings, props, photographs, letters, medical records, and more. It joins the archives of several of O'Toole's collaborators and friends including [Wolfit](Donald)(Donald Wolfit), [Wallach](Eli)(Eli Wallach), [Glenville](Peter)(Peter Glenville), Sir [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard), and Dame [Evans](Edith)(Edith Evans).
## Acting credits
## Awards and honours
O'Toole was the recipient of numerous nominations and awards. He was offered a [knighthood](knighthood) but rejected it in objection to Prime Minister [Thatcher](Margaret)(Margaret Thatcher)'s policies. He received four [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award)s, one [Award for Best British Actor](BAFTA)(British Academy Film Awards) (for *Lawrence of Arabia*) and one [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award).
**Academy Award nominations**
O'Toole was nominated eight times for the Academy Award for [Actor in a Leading Role](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actor), but was never able to win a competitive Oscar. In 2002, the Academy honoured him with an [Honorary Award](Academy)(Academy Honorary Award) for his entire body of work and his lifelong contribution to film. O'Toole initially balked about accepting, and wrote the Academy a letter saying that he was "still in the game" and would like more time to "win the lovely bugger outright". The Academy informed him that they would bestow the award whether he wanted it or not. He told *[Rose](Charlie)(Charlie Rose (TV series))* in January 2007 that his children admonished him, saying that it was the highest honour one could receive in the filmmaking industry. O'Toole agreed to appear at the ceremony and receive his Honorary Oscar. It was presented to him by [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep), who has the [Oscar nominations](most)(List of awards and nominations received by Meryl Streep) of any actor or actress (19). He joked with [Osborne](Robert)(Robert Osborne), during an interview at [Classic Movies](Turner)(Turner Classic Movies)' film festival that he's the "Biggest Loser of All Time", due to his lack of an Academy Award, after many nominations.
## Bibliography
* *Loitering with Intent: The Child* (1992)
* *Loitering with Intent: The Apprentice* (1997)
## See also
*[of British Academy Award nominees and winners](List)(List of British Academy Award nominees and winners)
*[of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
*[of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories](List)(List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* ["Peter O'Toole as Casanova"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/casanova/index.html)
* [University of Bristol Theatre Collection](http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/), [of Bristol](University)(University of Bristol)
* [The Making of *Lawrence of Arabia*](https://web.archive.org/web/20110525124738/http://www.bafta.org/archive/david-lean/lawrence-of-arabia-journal,8,BAA.html), Digitised [BAFTA](BAFTA) Journal, Winter 1962–63 (with additional notes by Bryan Hewitt)
* [Peter O'Toole Interview at 2002 Telluride Film Festival](https://www.rogerebert.com/interviews/video-of-rogers-interview-of-peter-otoole-in-2002-at-telluride), conducted by [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert)
* [Peter O'Toole](https://web.archive.org/web/20180417105232/http://www.aveleyman.com/ActorCredit.aspx?ActorID=13129) (Aveleyman)
}}
[births](Category:1932)(Category:1932 births)
[deaths](Category:2013)(Category:2013 deaths)
[English male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century English male actors)
[English male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English male actors)
[Honorary Award recipients](Category:Academy)(Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients)
[of RADA](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of RADA)
[British Actor BAFTA Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best British Actor BAFTA Award winners)
[Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners)
[Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners)
[di Donatello winners](Category:David)(Category:David di Donatello winners)
[people of Irish descent](Category:British)(Category:British people of Irish descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:British)(Category:British people of Scottish descent)
[male film actors](Category:British)(Category:British male film actors)
[male Shakespearean actors](Category:British)(Category:British male Shakespearean actors)
[male stage actors](Category:British)(Category:British male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:British)(Category:British male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:British)(Category:British male voice actors)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish people of Scottish descent)
[male film actors](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish male film actors)
[male stage actors](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish male voice actors)
[Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners](Category:New)(Category:New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners)
[Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners)
[with type 1 diabetes](Category:People)(Category:People with type 1 diabetes)
[Navy sailors](Category:Royal)(Category:Royal Navy sailors)
[Shakespeare Company members](Category:Royal)(Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members)
[from Hunslet](Category:People)(Category:People from Hunslet)
|
Zoë Kravitz
|
zoë_kravitz
|
# Zoë Kravitz
*Revision ID: 1159857365 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T00:01:27Z*
---
| birth_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| occupation =
| spouse(s) =
| parents =
| relatives =
| years_active = 2007–present
| education = [College](Purchase)(State University of New York at Purchase)
}}
**Zoë Isabella Kravitz** (born December 1, 1988) is an American actress, singer, and model. She made her acting debut in the romantic comedy film *[Reservations](No)(No Reservations (film))* (2007). Her breakthrough came with portraying [Salvadore](Angel)(Angel Salvadore) in the superhero film *[First Class](X-Men:)(X-Men: First Class)* (2011), which earned her nominations for a [Choice Award](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards) and a [Award](Scream)(Scream Awards). She rose to prominence playing [Christina](List of Divergent characters#Christina) in *[Divergent Series](The)(The Divergent Series)* (2014–2016) and Leta Lestrange in the [Beasts* film series](*Fantastic)(Fantastic Beasts) (2016–2018).
Kravitz earned praise for her lead roles in the [HBO](HBO) drama series *[Little Lies](Big)(Big Little Lies (TV series))* (2017–2019), which earned her a [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards) nomination, and the [Hulu](Hulu) romantic comedy series *[Fidelity](High)(High Fidelity (TV series))* (2020). She appeared as Toast the Knowing in [Miller](George)(George Miller (director))'s *[Max: Fury Road](Mad)(Mad Max: Fury Road)* (2015), and has starred in numerous [film](independent)(independent film)s including *[Dope](Dope (2015 film))* (2015), *[Gemini](Gemini (2017 film))* (2017), and *[Kimi](Kimi (film))* (2022). She voiced [Jane Parker](Mary)(Mary Jane Parker) in *[Into the Spider-Verse](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse)* (2018), and played [Catwoman](Catwoman) in the animated *[Lego Batman Movie](The)(The Lego Batman Movie)* (2017) and the live-action [DC](DC Elseworlds) film *[Batman](The)(The Batman (film))* (2022), the latter earning her nominations for a [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) among other accolades. She is set to make her directorial debut with *[Island](Pussy)(Pussy Island)*, which she also co-wrote and co-produced.
*[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine named Kravitz one of the [Most Influential People](100)(100 Most Influential People) in 2022. She works as a fashion model and musician, and has starred in campaigns for [& Co.](Tiffany)(Tiffany & Co.), [Wang](Vera)(Vera Wang), [Balenciaga](Balenciaga), [Wang](Alexander)(Alexander Wang (designer)), [New York](Coach)(Coach New York), [Tumi](Tumi Inc.), and [Klein](Calvin)(Calvin Klein (company)). As of 2017, Kravitz is the face of [Beauté](YSL)(Yves Saint Laurent (brand)). She also fronts the band [Lolawolf](Lolawolf) and released the albums *Calm Down* in 2014 and *Tenderness* in 2020.
## Early life
[[File:Zoe Kravitz and Lenny Kravitz at the 25th Spirit Awards (cropped).jpg|thumb|Kravitz with her father [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz) in March 2010|left]]
Kravitz was born in [Los Angeles](Venice,)(Venice, Los Angeles) at the home of her parents, actress [Bonet](Lisa)(Lisa Bonet) and musician [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz). Both her parents are of half African-American and half-Jewish descent. Her paternal grandmother, actress [Roker](Roxie)(Roxie Roker) (a first cousin once removed of television weather forecaster [Roker](Al)(Al Roker)), and her maternal grandfather, Allen Bonet, were African American, with some of her grandmother's family being from [Bahamas](The)(Bahamian American). Her paternal grandfather, [NBC](NBC) television news producer Sy Kravitz, and maternal grandmother, Arlene Litman, were both [Jews](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jews). Kravitz's paternal grandfather's family emigrated from Ukraine. Kravitz identifies as a [Jew](secular)(Jewish secularism). The song "Flowers for Zoë", included on her father's second album *[Said](Mama)(Mama Said (album))*, was written as a tribute to the two-year-old Zoë.
Kravitz's parents married in 1987 and divorced six years later, in 1993, when Zoë was five years old. She lived with her mother in [Canyon](Topanga)(Topanga, California) and then moved to [Miami](Miami) at age 11 to live with her father, spending summers with her mother. Kravitz has two half-siblings from her mother's second marriage to actor [Momoa](Jason)(Jason Momoa). Her godfather is movie producer [Cohen](Bruce)(Bruce Cohen), and her godmothers are actresses [Tomei](Marisa)(Marisa Tomei) and [Summer](Cree)(Cree Summer).
Kravitz attended [Country Day School](Miami)(Miami Country Day School) and Rudolf Steiner School in [Manhattan](Manhattan, New York) graduating in 2007. Kravitz began studying that year at the acting conservatory under Scott McCrea at the [University of New York at Purchase](State)(State University of New York at Purchase) where her peers included [Stock](Micah)(Micah Stock) and [Ralph](Jason)(Jason Ralph). She left college after a year and moved to [New York](Brooklyn,)(Brooklyn, New York) to work in films. She struggled with [anorexia](Anorexia nervosa) and [bulimia](Bulimia nervosa) throughout high school, until around age 24.
## Career
### Early work and breakthrough (2008–2012)
[[File:Zoe Kravitz by Shankbone.jpg|thumb|Kravitz at the [Film Festival](Tribeca)(Tribeca Film Festival) in 2010]]
Kravitz landed her first film role while in high school, playing a babysitter hired by [Zeta-Jones](Catherine)(Catherine Zeta-Jones)'s character in the 2007 romantic comedy *[Reservations](No)(No Reservations (film))*. In the same year she also appeared in the action thriller *[Brave One](The)(The Brave One (2007 film))*. In 2008, Kravitz appeared in the music video for [Z](Jay)(Jay Z)'s "[Know](I)(I Know (Jay-Z song))" and was featured singing in [will.i.am](will.i.am)'s music video for "We Are the Ones", in support of US presidential candidate [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama). That same year she also appeared in the family drama *[of America](Birds)(Birds of America (film))* and neo noir comedy *[of a High School President](Assassination)(Assassination of a High School President)*. She began making music at the age of 16. She [fronted](Lead vocalist) the New York/Philadelphia-based band Elevator Fight, which she formed in 2009. The band performed at the [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest) music festival and on the main stage of the Roots Picnic in Philadelphia in June 2009, along with [Roots](The)(The Roots), [On The Radio](TV)(TV On The Radio), and [Black Keys](The)(The Black Keys). Kravitz stated in 2011 that her music is a hobby. She also performed with the cabaret troupe [Citizens Band](The)(The Citizens Band).
In 2009, Kravitz co-starred in the independent ensemble drama *[Greatest](The)(The Greatest (2009 film))*, in which her character is addicted to grief counseling groups. Also in 2009, she was named the face of [Wang](Vera)(Vera Wang)'s *Princess* fragrance in 2009, appearing on the website and in advertisements for the brand. In 2010, she appeared in ''[Kind of a Funny Story](It's)(It's Kind of a Funny Story (film))''. Also that year, Kravitz appeared in *[Twelve](Twelve (2010 film))*. Kravitz next starred in the romantic comedy *[the Gonzo](Beware)(Beware the Gonzo)* as the female lead and love interest of [Miller](Ezra)(Ezra Miller)'s eponymous Gonzo. Kravitz was featured in a campaign for fashion designer [Wang](Alexander)(Alexander Wang (designer)) in 2010.
In 2011, Kravitz appeared in the [coming-of-age](coming-of-age) film *[to the Sky](Yelling)(Yelling to the Sky)*. She also appeared in eight episodes of the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) television series *[Californication](Californication (TV series))*, in which she portrayed Pearl, the vocalist of the [band](all-female)(all-female band) Queens of Dogtown. That same year she portrayed the comic book character [Salvadore](Angel)(Angel Salvadore) in *[First Class](X-Men:)(X-Men: First Class)*. . . Kravitz filmed her scenes in London and performed [work](wire)(Wire fu) for her role, to simulate her character's ability to fly. In late 2011, Kravitz completed work on a film with the working title *[Water](Treading)(Treading Water (2013 film))*, which was eventually released in 2013, renamed *The Boy Who Smells Like Fish*. In the same year, she represented [Wang](Vera)(Vera Wang)'s new *Preppy Princess* fragrance.
### Rise to prominence and expansion (2013–present)
In 2013, she co-starred in *[Earth](After)(After Earth)*. In 2013, Kravitz released a jewelry line in collaboration with the [Swarovski](Swarovski) crystal company. She used ethnic and [jewelry](vintage)(vintage jewelry), and her birthstone, [Turquoise](Turquoise), as inspiration for her designs. In 2014, she portrayed the character [Christina](List of Divergent characters#Christina) in *[Divergent](Divergent (film))*. Kravitz reprised her role in the sequels *[Insurgent](The Divergent Series: Insurgent)* and *[Allegiant](The Divergent Series: Allegiant)*. Also in 2014, she starred in the independent drama *[Road Within](The)(The Road Within)* and the romantic comedy ''Pretend We're Kissing''. Kravitz started the band [Lolawolf](Lolawolf) while in Los Angeles filming *The Road Within*. Made up of members from the band Reputante, Lolawolf released an eponymous EP and debuted at the [Lounge](Mercury)(Mercury Lounge) in November 2013. The band was named after Kravitz's younger siblings, Lola and Nakoa-Wolf. They released their debut album, *Calm Down*, on October 21, 2014, and supported [Allen](Lily)(Lily Allen), [Cyrus](Miley)(Miley Cyrus), and [Warpaint](Warpaint (band)) on tour in 2014. The band released the five-track EP, *Every Fuckin Day*, on June 23, 2015.
[[Kravitz March 18, 2014 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Kravitz at the premiere of *Divergent* March 2014](File:Zoe)]
Kravitz appeared in 2014's *[Kill](Good)(Good Kill)*. In 2015, she appeared in the comedy-drama *[Dope](Dope (2015 film))* and in *[Max: Fury Road](Mad)(Mad Max: Fury Road)*. In 2016, she co-starred in the action thriller *[N Roxxy](Vincent)(Vincent N Roxxy)* and appeared in the independent film ''[Green's Aladdin](Adam)(Adam Green's Aladdin)''. Kravitz also had a role in the *[Potter](Harry)(Harry Potter (film series))* spin-off *[Beasts and Where to Find Them](Fantastic)(Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (film))* as Leta Lestrange. In 2017, Kravitz starred in the mystery thriller *[Gemini](Gemini (2017 film))*. In the same year, she appeared in the comedy film *[Night](Rough)(Rough Night)* and the animated superhero film *[Lego Batman Movie](The)(The Lego Batman Movie)*, in which she voiced the comic book character [Kyle / Catwoman](Selina)(Catwoman). She also became the face of Brooklyn-based designer [Bittar](Alexis)(Alexis Bittar)'s jewelry line in 2015.
From 2017 to 2019, Kravitz starred in the [HBO](HBO) drama series *[Little Lies](Big)(Big Little Lies (TV series))*, in which she portrays Bonnie Carlson; for her performance, she earned two [Reel Award](Black)(Black Reel Awards) nominations as well as a nomination for the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Drama Series](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series). Kravitz appeared in the 2018 science fiction action film *[Kin](Kin (film))* and reprised her role as Leta Lestrange in *[Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald](Fantastic)(Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald)*, in a larger capacity. Also in 2018, she appeared on BBC [in Need](Children)(Children in Need) with [Redmayne](Eddie)(Eddie Redmayne), setting up [Jones](Alex)(Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)) from *[One Show](The)(The One Show),* with the help of children who fed them the answers to the interview questions. Kravitz was ranked one of the best dressed women in 2018 by fashion website Net-a-Porter. In the same year, Kravitz was featured on the song "Screwed" on [Monáe](Janelle)(Janelle Monáe)'s album *[Computer](Dirty)(Dirty Computer)*. She was also featured on "Anti-Social Smokers Club" on [Sremmurd](Rae)(Rae Sremmurd)'s third album *[SR3MM](SR3MM)*.
In 2019, Kravitz was cast as the lead in the [Hulu](Hulu) [comedy](romantic)(romantic comedy) television series *[Fidelity](High)(High Fidelity (TV series))*, based on the 2000 film [the same name](of)(High Fidelity (film)) in which her mother stars. The series premiered on [Day](Valentine's)(Valentine's Day), 2020 to critical acclaim with Kravitz's performance as Rob Gorgan receiving praise. Margaret Lyons of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* described her performance as "mesmerizing", adding "She's so good, in fact, that it's almost impossible to believe she can't find someone to love her exactly as-is." Alison Herman of [Ringer*](*The)(The Ringer (website)) called Kravitz a "bona-fide leading lady". Despite the critical success, *High Fidelity* was cancelled after one season. For her role in the series, Kravitz won a [Reel Award](Black)(Black Reel Awards) and was nominated for a [Award](Satellite)(Satellite Awards). Also in 2020, she starred as one of the leads in *[and the Fantomes](Viena)(Viena and the Fantomes)*.
Kravitz portrayed Selina Kyle / Catwoman, now in live action, in director [Reeves](Matt)(Matt Reeves)' *[Batman](The)(The Batman (film))*, which was released on March 4, 2022, to critical and commercial success, grossing over $700 million internationally. Kravitz's performance received positive reviews. *[Independent](The)(The Independent)* wrote that "Kravitz's Catwoman brings an almost-extinct sensuality to the role", and in [Lemire](Christy)(Christy Lemire)'s review of the film—written for *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)*—she stated that "This is no flirty, purring Catwoman: She's a fighter and a survivor with a loyal heart and a strong sense of what's right. ... Kravitz continues to reveal a fierce charisma and quiet strength." She earned several award nominations for her performance, including the [Award for Best Actress](Saturn)(Saturn Award for Best Actress). Kravitz starred in filmmaker [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)'s thriller *[Kimi](Kimi (film))*, which was released to generally positive reviews with her performance receiving praise.
In June 2021, Kravitz announced plans to make her directorial debut in *[Island](Pussy)(Pussy Island)*, a film she also co-wrote. In August 2021, it was announced that Kravitz will star and serve as an executive producer on [coming-of-age](coming-of-age) [series](animated)(animated series) *Phatty Patty*, bankrolled by [Smith](Will)(Will Smith) and [Pinkett Smith](Jada)(Jada Pinkett Smith)'s Westbrook Studios. In June 2022, it was announced that Kravitz will star in and produce the [heist](Heist film) [thriller](Thriller film) *The Sundance Kid Might Have Some Regrets* for [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)
## Personal life
Kravitz lives in [Brooklyn](Williamsburg,)(Williamsburg, Brooklyn).
She briefly dated [Miller](Ezra)(Ezra Miller) during filming on *[the Gonzo](Beware)(Beware the Gonzo)* and was in a relationship with actor [Badgley](Penn)(Penn Badgley) from 2011 to 2013.
In 2016, Kravitz began a relationship with actor [Glusman](Karl)(Karl Glusman). They became engaged in February 2018, and were married at Kravitz's father's home in [Paris](Paris) on June 29, 2019. In December 2020, Kravitz filed for divorce, which was finalized in August 2021.
She was reported to be in a relationship with actor [Tatum](Channing)(Channing Tatum) in November 2022.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Music videos
## Discography
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
[births](Category:1988)(Category:1988 births)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[from Los Angeles](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Los Angeles)
[actresses](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American actresses)
[female models](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American female models)
[Jews](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Jews)
[models](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American models)
[female models](Category:American)(Category:American female models)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[people of Bahamian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Bahamian descent)
[people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[voice actresses](Category:American)(Category:American voice actresses)
[women in electronic music](Category:American)(Category:American women in electronic music)
[American actresses](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American actresses)
[American musicians](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American musicians)
[female models](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish female models)
[Kravitz](Category:Lenny)(Category:Lenny Kravitz)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Williamsburg, Brooklyn](Category:People)(Category:People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn)
[Jews](Category:Secular)(Category:Secular Jews)
[University of New York at Purchase alumni](Category:State)(Category:State University of New York at Purchase alumni)
[Country Day School alumni](Category:Miami)(Category:Miami Country Day School alumni)
[women musicians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American women musicians)
|
Vera Farmiga
|
vera_farmiga
|
# Vera Farmiga
*Revision ID: 1159566875 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T04:48:41Z*
---
| birth_place = [New Jersey](Clifton,)(Clifton, New Jersey), U.S.
| alma_mater = [University](Syracuse)(Syracuse University) ([BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts))
| occupation =
| years_active = 1996present
| spouse =
*
}}
| children = 2
| relatives =
| works = [list](Full)(Vera Farmiga on screen and stage)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Vera Farmiga)
}}
**Vera Ann Farmiga** ( ; born August 6, 1973) is an American actress.
Farmiga began her professional acting career on stage in the original [Broadway](Broadway theatre) production of *[Sides](Taking)(Taking Sides (play))* (1996). She made her television debut in the [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) fantasy adventure series *[Roar](Roar (1997 TV series))* (1997), and her feature film debut in the drama-thriller *[to Paradise](Return)(Return to Paradise (1998 film))* (1998). Farmiga's breakthrough came in 2004 with her starring role as a drug addict in the drama *[to the Bone](Down)(Down to the Bone (film))*. She received further praise for the drama film *[But the Truth](Nothing)(Nothing but the Truth (2008 American film))* (2008), and won critical acclaim for starring in the 2009 comedy-drama *[in the Air](Up)(Up in the Air (2009 film))*, for which she was nominated for the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress).
Farmiga made her directorial debut in 2011 with the acclaimed drama film *[Ground](Higher)(Higher Ground (film))*, in which she also had a leading role. She also had starring roles in the political thriller *[Manchurian Candidate](The)(The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film))* (2004), the crime drama *[Departed](The)(The Departed)* (2006), the historical drama *[Boy in the Striped Pyjamas](The)(The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film))* (2008), the science fiction thriller *[Code](Source)(Source Code)* (2011), the action thriller *[House](Safe)(Safe House (2012 film))* (2012), the legal drama *[Judge](The)(The Judge (2014 film))* (2014), the biographical drama *[Front Runner](The)(The Front Runner (film))* (2018), the monster film *[King of the Monsters](Godzilla:)(Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019 film))* (2019), and the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) series *[Hawkeye](Hawkeye (2021 TV series))* (2021).
Farmiga portrayed paranormal investigator [Warren](Lorraine)(Ed and Lorraine Warren) in [Conjuring Universe](the)(the Conjuring Universe) films *[Conjuring](The)(The Conjuring)* (2013), *[Conjuring 2](The)(The Conjuring 2)* (2016), *[Comes Home](Annabelle)(Annabelle Comes Home)* (2019) and *[Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It](The)(The Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It)* (2021). From 2013 to 2017, Farmiga starred as [Louise Bates](Norma)(Norma Bates (Psycho)) in the [A&E](A&E (TV channel)) drama series *[Motel](Bates)(Bates Motel (TV series))*, which earned her a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series) nomination. In 2019, she starred in the drama miniseries *[They See Us](When)(When They See Us)* as Elizabeth Lederer, for which she was nominated for a second Primetime Emmy Award.
## Early life
Farmiga was born on August 6, 1973, in [New Jersey](Clifton,)(Clifton, New Jersey). Her parents are [Ukrainians](Ukrainians): Michael Farmiga, a [analyst](systems)(systems analyst)-turned-landscaper, and his wife Lubomyra "Luba" (née Spas), a schoolteacher. She has an older brother, Victor, and five younger siblings: Stephan, Nadia, Alexander, Laryssa (who was born with [bifida](spina)(spina bifida)),|website=[York Post](New)(New York Post)|publisher=[Corp](News)(News Corp (2013–present))|first=Reed|last=Tucker|date=March 7, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011041027/http://nypost.com/2010/03/07/ascent-of-a-women/|archive-date=October 11, 2014}} and [Taissa](Taissa Farmiga). Her maternal grandparents, Nadia (née Pletenciw; 19252014) and Theodor Spas (19211990), met at a displaced persons camp in [Karlsfeld](Karlsfeld) during [War II](World)(World War II). As a child, Farmiga converted with her family from the [Greek Catholic Church](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church) to [Pentecostalism](Pentecostalism).
Farmiga considers herself to be "100% [American](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Americans)". She was raised in an insular Ukrainian American community in [New Jersey](Irvington,)(Irvington, New Jersey), with [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language) as her native language. She did not learn English until she started kindergarten at age six. When she was 12, the family moved from Irvington to [Station, New Jersey](Whitehouse)(Whitehouse Station, New Jersey). She attended St. John the Baptist Ukrainian Catholic School in [New Jersey](Newark,)(Newark, New Jersey), and toured with a [folk-dancing ensemble](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian dance), Syzokryli, during her teen years. In addition to being a semi-professional folk dancer, she is also a classically trained pianist. Farmiga was a member of [Plast](Plast).
In 1991, she graduated from [Central Regional High School](Hunterdon)(Hunterdon Central Regional High School). During her [year](junior)(eleventh grade) there, she found acting after being benched during a varsity soccer game; her friend convinced her to audition for the school production of *[Vampire](The)(The Vampire (play))*, and she won the lead role of Lady Margaret. Farmiga went on to study [Theatre](Theatre) at [University](Syracuse)(Syracuse University), and graduated with a [of Fine Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Fine Arts) in 1995. In her final year at Syracuse, she portrayed Nina Zarechnaya in *[Seagull](The)(The Seagull)* at the [Center American College Theater Festival](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center American College Theater Festival), and the production won the top prize. Her drama professor, Gerardine Clark, stated: "We'd never have won had she not nailed the fourth act. A number of the judges told me that."
## Career
### Early roles
In February 1996, Farmiga starred as [Miranda](Miranda (The Tempest)) in the [Conservatory Theater](American)(American Conservatory Theater)'s production of *[Tempest](The)(The Tempest)*. That same year, she portrayed Anne Hartman in a production of *[Good](Good (play))* at [Barrow Group](The)(The Barrow Group). Farmiga made her [Broadway](Broadway theatre) debut alongside [Harris](Ed)(Ed Harris) and [Massey](Daniel)(Daniel Massey (actor)) in October 1996, [understudy](understudy)ing the role of Emmi Straube in [Harwood](Ronald)(Ronald Harwood)'s play *[Sides](Taking)(Taking Sides (play))*.}} Following these stage roles, she co-starred in the [Hall of Fame](Hallmark)(Hallmark Hall of Fame) [western](Western (genre)) television film *[Hill](Rose)(Rose Hill (film))* in April 1997, portraying Emily Elliot.
Farmiga had a main role in [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)'s short-lived fantasy adventure series *[Roar](Roar (1997 TV series))* (1997), alongside [Ledger](Heath)(Heath Ledger) and [Roché](Sebastian)(Sebastian Roché). The following year, she guest-starred in an episode of [NBC](NBC)'s procedural drama series *[& Order](Law)(Law & Order)*, portraying Lindsay Carson, the daughter of a convicted murderer who goes on her own killing spree. She next played a supporting role alongside [Vaughn](Vince)(Vince Vaughn) and [Phoenix](Joaquin)(Joaquin Phoenix) in the drama-thriller *[to Paradise](Return)(Return to Paradise (1998 film))* (1998). She then had a guest appearance on the NBC drama *[Trinity](Trinity (American TV series))*, portraying Allison. Two years later, Farmiga had a supporting role as Lisa Tyler in the romantic drama *[in New York](Autumn)(Autumn in New York (film))* (2000).
### 2000s
Her next film was the crime drama *[Opportunists](The)(The Opportunists)* (2000), in which she co-starred as Miriam Kelly, the daughter of [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken)'s character. The following year, Farmiga had a supporting role as Daphne Handlova in the action thriller *[Minutes](15)(15 Minutes)* alongside [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro), and co-starred in the drama film *[Dust](Dust (2001 film))*, which premiered at the [Venice Film Festival](2001)(58th Venice International Film Festival). Farmiga subsequently joined the main cast of NBC's short-lived procedural drama series *[Undercover](UC:)(UC: Undercover)* as Alex Cross. The series premiered in September 2001, and was cancelled after one season. She then appeared in the Hallmark fantasy television film *[White: The Fairest of Them All](Snow)(Snow White: The Fairest of Them All)*.
Farmiga had her first starring role in the romantic drama *[in the Time of Money](Love)(Love in the Time of Money)*, which premiered at the 2002 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival). In June 2002, she starred in [Eldridge](David)(David Eldridge (dramatist))'s *[the Blue Sky](Under)(Under the Blue Sky)* at the [Theatre Festival](Williamstown)(Williamstown Theatre Festival). Farmiga next appeared as Lorena Fanchetti in the comedy-drama *[Dummy](Dummy (2002 film))* (2003), alongside [Brody](Adrien)(Adrien Brody).
[[File:Vera Farmiga by Bridget Laudien.jpg|thumb|170px|Farmiga at a screening of *[Boy in the Striped Pyjamas](The)(The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film))* in November 2008|alt=Farmiga at a Q&A for her film *The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas*]]
The following year, Farmiga had her breakthrough role as a drug-addicted mother, Irene Morrison, in the [independent](independent film) drama film *[to the Bone](Down)(Down to the Bone (film))*, which premiered at Sundance in January 2004. Praising her performance, [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* wrote: "If there were an ounce of taste left in Hollywood, the magnificent Vera Farmiga would be a front-runner for the Best Actress Oscar". She won the [Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress](Los)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress), and earned a nomination for the [Spirit Award for Best Female Lead](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead).
Farmiga next appeared alongside [Swank](Hilary)(Hilary Swank) and [Huston](Anjelica)(Anjelica Huston) in the [HBO](HBO) drama film *[Jawed Angels](Iron)(Iron Jawed Angels)* (2004), as the Polish-American [suffragette](suffragette) [Wenclawska](Ruza)(Ruza Wenclawska). Soon after, she had a supporting role in the 2004 film *[The Gap](Mind)(Mind the Gap (2004 film))*, in which she portrayed a woman who left her fiancé at the altar. She then starred as Detective Susan Branca in the short-lived [Network](USA)(USA Network) adaptation of the British crime drama series *[Evil](Touching)(Touching Evil (U.S. TV series))*.
Also in 2004, she had a supporting role as Jocelyne Jordan in the political thriller *[Manchurian Candidate](The)(The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film))*, which also starred [Washington](Denzel)(Denzel Washington) and [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep). The following year, she co-starred in the fantasy drama *[Neverwas](Neverwas)* with [Eckhart](Aaron)(Aaron Eckhart) and [McKellen](Ian)(Ian McKellen), which premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2005)(2005 Toronto International Film Festival). Farmiga then appeared alongside [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) and [Damon](Matt)(Matt Damon) as police psychiatrist Dr. Madolyn Madden in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s crime drama *[Departed](The)(The Departed)* (2006). For her performance as Madolyn, Farmiga was nominated for the [Award for Best Newcomer](Empire)(Empire Award for Best Newcomer), and shared with her co-stars the nomination for the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture). Soon after, she portrayed Dr. Charlie Brooks in the 2006 indie thriller, *[Hard Easy](The)(The Hard Easy (film))*.
She next starred as Teresa Gazelle in [Kramer](Wayne)(Wayne Kramer (filmmaker))'s crime thriller *[Scared](Running)(Running Scared (2006 film))*, and as the Romanian prostitute Oana in [Minghella](Anthony)(Anthony Minghella)'s romantic crime drama *[and Entering](Breaking)(Breaking and Entering (film))* (both in 2006). Farmiga subsequently landed the lead role of Sophie Lee in [Kim](Gina)(Gina Kim (filmmaker))'s romantic drama *[Forever](Never)(Never Forever)*, which premiered at the [Sundance](2007)(2007 Sundance Film Festival). G. Allen Johnson of the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* praised her as "the best American actress you've never heard of". She next starred as Abby Cairn in the [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) film *[Joshua](Joshua (2007 film))* (2007), with [Rockwell](Sam)(Sam Rockwell), and portrayed Fiona Ankany in the drama film *[Pro Quo](Quid)(Quid Pro Quo (film))*, which premiered at the [Sundance](2008)(2008 Sundance Film Festival). David Edelstein of *[York](New)(New York (magazine))* magazine stated that Farmiga's performance on the latter film was "scarily good", and added: "She's always visibly calculating, thinking better of something reckless she's about to dothen doing it anyway".
In September 2008, the historical drama *[Boy in the Striped Pyjamas](The)(The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film))*, in which she portrayed Elsa Hoess, was released worldwide. Farmiga won the [Independent Film Award for Best Actress](British)(British Independent Film Awards 2008) for her performance. That same year, she starred in the war drama film *[Transit](In)(In Transit (2008 film))* alongside [Malkovich](John)(John Malkovich), and portrayed [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) operative Erica Van Doren in the political thriller *[But the Truth](Nothing)(Nothing but the Truth (2008 American film))*. The latter role earned Farmiga a nomination for the [Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress).
In 2009, Farmiga portrayed the lead role of Kate Coleman in [Collet-Serra](Jaume)(Jaume Collet-Serra)'s psychological thriller *[Orphan](Orphan (2009 film))*. The film was co-produced by [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio), who had starred with Farmiga in *The Departed.* Her performance was praised, with [Young](Toby)(Toby Young) of *[Times](The)(The Times)* writing that she "becomes more convincing as the story unfolds. By the end, she has you in the palm of her hand". She then appeared as Aurora de Valday in [Caro](Niki)(Niki Caro)'s romantic drama ''[Vintner's Luck](The)(The Vintner's Luck (film))'', which premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2009)(2009 Toronto International Film Festival).
Also in 2009, she co-starred as frequent flyer Alex Goran, opposite [Clooney](George)(George Clooney), in [Reitman](Jason)(Jason Reitman)'s comedy-drama *[in the Air](Up)(Up in the Air (2009 film))*. [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* praised Farmiga's performance, stating that she "is one of the warmest and most attractive women in the movies, or at least she plays one". She received nominations for the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role), [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role), [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture), and her second nomination for the [Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress). On June 25, 2010, she was inducted into the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences).
### 2010s
[[File:Vera Farmiga @ 2010 Academy Awards crop.jpg|thumb|170px|Farmiga at the [Awards](Academy)(82nd Academy Awards) in March 2010|alt=Farmiga on the red carpet at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony]]Farmiga then starred in the [surrealist](surrealist cinema) romantic comedy ''[Crime](Henry's)(Henry's Crime)'' as stage actress Julie Ivanova, which premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2010)(2010 Toronto International Film Festival). She next played Capt. Colleen Goodwin in [Jones](Duncan)(Duncan Jones)' science fiction thriller film *[Code](Source)(Source Code)*, which premiered at the 2011 [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest). In 2010, Farmiga was offered a lead role in [Forster](Marc)(Marc Forster)'s action biopic *[Gun Preacher](Machine)(Machine Gun Preacher)*, but declined because she was pregnant.
During her second pregnancy, Farmiga made her [debut](directorial)(directorial debut) with the micro-budget, Christian-themed drama *[Ground](Higher)(Higher Ground (film))*, in which she starred as the protagonist, Corinne Walker. The film received "generally favorable reviews" on [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) site [Metacritic](Metacritic) and premiered at the [Sundance](2011)(2011 Sundance Film Festival). Many of her family members were involved in the production: Farmiga's sister [Taissa](Taissa Farmiga) portrayed Corinne as a teenager, her husband [Hawkey](Renn)(Renn Hawkey) served as a producer and musical director, and her cousin [Farmiga](Adriana)(Adriana Farmiga) served as an art curator. She received nominations in both acting and directing for the film, including the [Independent Film Award for Breakthrough Director](Gotham)(Gotham Independent Film Award for Breakthrough Director), and the [Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture](Satellite)(Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture). In his film review, critic Kirk Honeycutt of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* noted: "Directing debuts by actors don't come any better than this". Of her performance, [Maltin](Leonard)(Leonard Maltin) of [IndieWire](IndieWire) remarked that Farmiga "gives an honest, empathetic performance should come as no surprise; she is one of the most gifted and daring actresses of our time".
Her next role was the flaky New Age mother Wendy Whitman in the independent comedy-drama *[Goats](Goats (film))*, which opened at the [Sundance](2012)(2012 Sundance Film Festival). That same year, she portrayed CIA operative Catherine Linklater in [Espinosa](Daniel)(Daniel Espinosa)'s action thriller *[House](Safe)(Safe House (2012 film))* (2012). Farmiga starred opposite [Reynolds](Ryan)(Ryan Reynolds) and, for the second time, Denzel Washington.
Farmiga's return to television came in 2013, when she began portraying [Louise Bates](Norma)(Norma Bates (Psycho)), the mother of [Bates](Norman)(Norman Bates), in A&E's drama-thriller series *[Motel](Bates)(Bates Motel (TV series))*. The series is a contemporary reboot of [Hitchcock](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock)'s classic horror film *[Psycho](Psycho (1960 film))* (1960). For her performance, she won the 2013 [Award for Best Actress on Television](Saturn)(Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television), and the 2016 [Choice Award for Favorite Cable TV Actress](People's)(People's Choice Awards). She also received three nominations for the [Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series) (20132015), as well as nominations for the 2013 [Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama](Satellite)(Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama), the 2013 [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series), and the 2013 [Award for Individual Achievement in Drama](TCA)(TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama). Tim Goodman of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* called Farmiga's performance "superb" and [McNamara](Mary)(Mary McNamara) of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* identified her as "the main reason [series](the) is surprisingly good". In addition to starring, she served as a producer and later executive producer from the second season to its fifth and final season, which aired in 2017.
[[File:Vera Farmiga @ Paley Center for Media 2013.jpg|thumb|170px|Farmiga at the [Center for Media](Paley)(Paley Center for Media) for *[Motel](Bates)(Bates Motel (TV series))* in May 2013|alt=Farmiga at the PaleyFest event celebrating *Bates Motel*]]
She next appeared in [Wan](James)(James Wan)'s horror film *[Conjuring](The)(The Conjuring)* (2013), which was met with critical and commercial success. The film became the second highest-grossing horror film of all time up to that date. Farmiga portrayed paranormal investigator and self-professed clairvoyant [Warren](Lorraine)(Ed and Lorraine Warren), alongside [Wilson](Patrick)(Patrick Wilson), for which she was nominated for the [Movie Award for Best Scared-As-Shit Performance](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Best Scared-As-Shit Performance). Sheri Linden of *The Hollywood Reporter* wrote that "Farmiga resonates an extraordinary sensitivity" in the role, while [Chang](Justin)(Justin Chang) of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* called her performance "moving" and highlighted her chemistry with Wilson as a "rock-solid rapport".
She reprised her role in the sequel, *[Conjuring 2](The)(The Conjuring 2)* (2016), which was also directed by Wan. The film was the second released in the main series, but the third released within [Conjuring Universe](The)(The Conjuring (film series)). Like its predecessor, *The Conjuring 2* was met with a positive critical reception and commercial success, surpassing *The Conjuring* as the second highest-grossing horror film of all time.
Farmiga appeared as Edith Martin in the romantic comedy *[Middleton](At)(At Middleton)*, with [García](Andy)(Andy García) and her sister Taissa. The film premiered at the [International Film Festival](Seattle)(Seattle International Film Festival) in May 2013. Also in 2013, she starred as Alice Bercovich in [Caranfil](Nae)(Nae Caranfil)'s Romanian-American comedy-drama *[to the Moon](Closer)(Closer to the Moon)*, based on the events of the [Gang](Ioanid)(Ioanid Gang). Farmiga next co-starred in [Dobkin](David)(David Dobkin (director))'s drama film *[Judge](The)(The Judge (2014 film))* (2014) as Samantha Powell, the love interest and high school girlfriend of [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.)'s character.
She then starred as Eleanor Finch in [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais)' comedy *[Correspondents](Special)(Special Correspondents)*, which premiered at the 2016 [Film Festival](Tribeca)(Tribeca Film Festival). She next appeared as Alise Firth in [Roberts](Jordan)(Jordan Roberts (writer))' adventure comedy-drama *[Your Maps](Burn)(Burn Your Maps)*, which premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2016)(2016 Toronto International Film Festival). Farmiga co-starred as Dr. Nora Phillips in [Blomkamp](Neill)(Neill Blomkamp)'s [BMW](BMW) short film *[Escape](The)(The Escape (2016 film))* (2016), alongside [Fanning](Dakota)(Dakota Fanning) and [Owen](Clive)(Clive Owen). The following year, she executive produced the documentary film *Unspoken*, which premiered at the [Valley Film Festival](Mill)(Mill Valley Film Festival) in October 2017.
Farmiga co-starred with [Neeson](Liam)(Liam Neeson) in Jaume Collet-Serra's action thriller *[Commuter](The)(The Commuter (film))*, which was released in January 2018. Also in January 2018, she appeared as a politician in [Amazon](Amazon Video)'s sci-fi anthology series ''[K. Dick's Electric Dreams](Philip)(Electric Dreams (2017 TV series))'', in an episode directed by [Rees](Dee)(Dee Rees). Farmiga then portrayed Laura Jaconi in [Feste](Shana)(Shana Feste)'s comedy-drama film *[Boundaries](Boundaries (2018 film))*, which premiered in March 2018 at [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest).
Next in 2018, Farmiga starred as neo-Nazi group leader Shareen Krager in Guy Nattiv's racial drama *[Skin](Skin (2018 film))*, which premiered at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(2018 Toronto International Film Festival) in September, and portrayed Oletha "Lee" Hart in Jason Reitman's [Hart](Gary)(Gary Hart) biopic *[Front Runner](The)(The Front Runner (film))*, opposite [Jackman](Hugh)(Hugh Jackman), which was released in November 2018.
In March 2019, she starred as Jane Doe alongside [Goodman](John)(John Goodman) in [Wyatt](Rupert)(Rupert Wyatt)'s science fiction thriller *[State](Captive)(Captive State)*. In May 2019, she portrayed Dr. Emma Russell in the third installment of the [MonsterVerse](MonsterVerse) film franchise, *[King of the Monsters](Godzilla:)(Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019 film))*, directed by [Dougherty](Michael)(Michael Dougherty). Also in May 2019, Farmiga portrayed prosecutor Elizabeth Lederer in [DuVernay](Ava)(Ava DuVernay)'s [Netflix](Netflix) crime drama miniseries *[They See Us](When)(When They See Us)*, based on the [Park jogger case](Central)(Central Park jogger case). For her performance, she was nominated for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie). In June 2019, she reprised her role as Lorraine Warren in the horror sequel film *[Comes Home](Annabelle)(Annabelle Comes Home)*.
### 2020s
In May 2021, Farmiga made a special guest appearance in [Netflix](Netflix)'s drama limited series *[Halston](Halston (miniseries))*, based on the life of the [designer of the same name](fashion)(Halston), opposite [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) in the title role. She then reprised her role as Lorraine Warren in *[Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It](The)(The Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It)*, released in June 2021. In September 2021, Farmiga appeared as [Soprano](Livia)(Livia Soprano) in the film prequel to *[Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos)*, titled *[Many Saints of Newark](The)(The Many Saints of Newark)*, directed by [Taylor](Alan)(Alan Taylor (director)). Following this, she starred as Eleanor Bishop, the mother of [Steinfeld](Hailee)(Hailee Steinfeld)'s character, in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) superhero miniseries *[Hawkeye](Hawkeye (2021 TV series))*, which premiered on [Disney+](Disney+) in November 2021.
In August 2022, Farmiga starred in the lead role of Dr. Anna Pou in the critically acclaimed [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+) limited series *[Days at Memorial](Five)(Five Days at Memorial (miniseries))*, an adaptation of the [of the same name](book)(Five Days at Memorial) by [Fink](Sheri)(Sheri Fink). Among Farmiga's upcoming projects are [DuVernay](Ava)(Ava DuVernay)'s drama film *[Caste](Caste (upcoming film))*, an adaptation of the [of the same name](book)(Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents) by [Wilkerson](Isabel)(Isabel Wilkerson); the comedy-drama *[Behavior](Inappropriate)(Inappropriate Behavior)*, directed by [Goldwyn](Tony)(Tony Goldwyn); and the [Gate Cult](Heaven's)(Heaven's Gate (religious group)) biopic *The Leader*, in which she is set to portray group founder [Nettles](Bonnie)(Bonnie Nettles). She will voice a character in the upcoming animated series *[Gossamer](Gossamer (novel))*, based on the novel of the same name by [Lowry](Lois)(Lois Lowry).
## Personal life
[[Farmiga pregnant Met Opera 2010 Shankbone.jpg|165px|thumb|Farmiga in 2010, when she was pregnant](File:Vera)]
Farmiga met actor [Roché](Sebastian)(Sebastian Roché) while starring together in the fantasy adventure television series *[Roar](Roar (1997 TV series))*; they [elope](elope)d to [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas) after it ended in 1997, and were divorced in 2004. She began dating [Deadsy](Deadsy) musician [Hawkey](Renn)(Renn Hawkey), after being introduced by mutual friend [Hughes](Allen)(Hughes brothers) on the set of *Touching Evil*. They married on September 13, 2008, when Farmiga was five months pregnant with their first child. She gave birth to a son, Fynn, in January 2009 in [New York](Rhinebeck,)(Rhinebeck (town), New York) and a daughter, Gytta, in November 2010. The family owns homes in [Valley](Hudson)(Hudson Valley), [York](New)(New York (state)) and [Vancouver](Vancouver), [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), Canada.
Farmiga's sister-in-law is actress and photographer [Hawkey](Molly)(Molly Hawkey). She is close friends with her *Bates Motel* co-star [Highmore](Freddie)(Freddie Highmore), who is [godfather](godparent) to her son, and with her *Conjuring* co-star [Wilson](Patrick)(Patrick Wilson).
Farmiga is a [Christian](nondenominational)(nondenominational Christian); in a 2011 interview with *[Today](Christianity)(Christianity Today)*, Farmiga said: }}
## Filmography and awards
According to the review-aggregate site [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) and the box office site [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo), Farmiga's highest-grossing and most critically acclaimed films include *[to the Bone](Down)(Down to the Bone (film))* (2004), *[Manchurian Candidate](The)(The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film))* (2004), *[Departed](The)(The Departed)* (2006), *[Boy in the Striped Pyjamas](The)(The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film))* (2008), *[Orphan](Orphan (2009 film))* (2009), *[in the Air](Up)(Up in the Air (2009 film))* (2009), *[Code](Source)(Source Code)* (2011), *[House](Safe)(Safe House (2012 film))* (2012), *[Conjuring](The)(The Conjuring)* (2013), *[Conjuring 2](The)(The Conjuring 2)* (2016), *[Commuter](The)(The Commuter (film))* (2018), *[King of the Monsters](Godzilla:)(Godzilla: King of the Monsters (2019 film))* (2019), *[Comes Home](Annabelle)(Annabelle Comes Home)* (2019), and *[Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It](The)(The Conjuring: The Devil Made Me Do It)* (2021).
Farmiga won a [Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress](Los)(Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress) and was nominated for an [Spirit Award for Best Female Lead](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead) for her role in *[to the Bone](Down)(Down to the Bone (film))* (2004). She won a [Independent Film Award for Best Actress](British)(British Independent Film Awards 2008) for *[Boy in the Striped Pyjamas](The)(The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film))* (2008).
Her most acclaimed role, in *Up in the Air* (2009), garnered Farmiga nominations for an [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for [Supporting Actress](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture), a [BAFTA](British Academy Film Awards) for [Actress in a Supporting Role](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role), and a [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award) for [Female Actor in a Supporting Role](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role). For her directorial debut, *[Ground](Higher)(Higher Ground (film))* (2011), she received a [Independent Film Award for Breakthrough Director](Gotham)(Gotham Independent Film Award for Breakthrough Director) nomination.
Farmiga won a [Award for Best Actress on Television](Saturn)(Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television), and received nominations for a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) for [Lead Actress in a Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series) and a [Award for Individual Achievement in Drama](TCA)(TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama) for her role in the drama series *[Motel](Bates)(Bates Motel (TV series))* (20132017). For her performance in the miniseries *[They See Us](When)(When They See Us)* (2019), Farmiga received her second Primetime Emmy Award nomination, in the category of [Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie).
## References
## External links
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*
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}}
[births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[from New Jersey](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from New Jersey)
[expatriate actresses in Canada](Category:American)(Category:American expatriate actresses in Canada)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[Pentecostals](Category:American)(Category:American Pentecostals)
[people of Ukrainian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Ukrainian descent)
[Shakespearean actresses](Category:American)(Category:American Shakespearean actresses)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[from New Jersey](Category:Christians)(Category:Christians from New Jersey)
[from Eastern Catholicism](Category:Converts)(Category:Converts from Eastern Catholicism)
[to Pentecostal denominations](Category:Converts)(Category:Converts to Pentecostal denominations)
[to evangelical Christianity from Roman Catholicism](Category:Converts)(Category:Converts to evangelical Christianity from Roman Catholicism)
[Central Regional High School alumni](Category:Hunterdon)(Category:Hunterdon Central Regional High School alumni)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Clifton, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Clifton, New Jersey)
[from Hunterdon County, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Hunterdon County, New Jersey)
[from Irvington, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Irvington, New Jersey)
[Film Festival award winners](Category:Sundance)(Category:Sundance Film Festival award winners)
[University alumni](Category:Syracuse)(Category:Syracuse University alumni)
[producers from New York (state)](Category:Television)(Category:Television producers from New York (state))
[women television producers](Category:American)(Category:American women television producers)
[producers from New Jersey](Category:Television)(Category:Television producers from New Jersey)
|
Russian language
|
russian_language
|
# Russian language
*Revision ID: 1160111036 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T13:37:21Z*
---
. On the 1830s change in the Russian name of the Russian language and its causes, see: [Kamusella](Tomasz)(Tomasz Kamusella). 2012. The Change of the Name of the Russian Language in Russian from Rossiiskii to Russkii: Did Politics Have Anything to Do with It? (pp. 73–96). *Acta Slavica Iaponica*. Vol 32, }}
| pronunciation =
| region = [world](Russian-speaking)(Geographical distribution of Russian speakers)
| speakers = million
| date = 2012
| ref = e21
| speakers2 = [speakers](L2)(Second language): million (2012)
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [Balto-Slavic](Balto-Slavic languages)
| fam3 = [Slavic](Slavic languages)
| fam4 = [Slavic](East)(East Slavic languages)
| ancestor = [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European language)
| ancestor2 = [Proto-Balto-Slavic](Proto-Balto-Slavic language)
| ancestor3 = [Proto-Slavic](Proto-Slavic language)
| ancestor4 = [East Slavic](Old)(Old East Slavic language)
| script = [Cyrillic](Cyrillic script) ([alphabet](Russian)(Russian alphabet))[Braille](Russian)(Russian Braille)
| nation = (state)
* (co-official)
* (co-official)
* (co-official)
* (as inter-ethnic language designated by the constitution)
}}
}} (as inter-ethnic language despite having no *de jure* status)
*:
** (co-official)
** [Bank of the Dniester](Left)(Administrative-Territorial Units of the Left Bank of the Dniester) (co-official)
*:
** }}
(co-official)
*(co-official)
*(co-official)
*(state)}}
:
* [IAEA](International Atomic Energy Agency)
* [ICAO](International Civil Aviation Organization)
* [UNESCO](UNESCO)
* [WHO](World Health Organization)
[CIS](Commonwealth of Independent States)
[EAEU](Eurasian Economic Union)
[CSTO](Collective Security Treaty Organization)
[SCO](Shanghai Cooperation Organisation)
[OSCE](Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)
[ATS](Antarctic Treaty Secretariat)
[ISO](International Organization for Standardization)}}
| minority =
[Article 10](http://www.rada.gov.ua/const/conengl.htm#r1) of the Constitution says: "The state language of Ukraine is the Ukrainian language. The State ensures the comprehensive development and functioning of the Ukrainian language in all spheres of social life throughout the entire territory of Ukraine. In Ukraine, the free development, use and protection of Russian, and other languages of national minorities of Ukraine, is guaranteed."
}}
| agency = [Language Institute](Russian)(Russian Language Institute) at the [Academy of Sciences](Russian)(Russian Academy of Sciences)
| iso1 = ru
| iso2 = rus
| iso3 = rus
| lingua = 53-AAA-ea (varieties: 53-AAA-eaa to 53-AAA-eat)
| image =
| map = GeographicalExtentOfRussianLanguage.png
| mapsize =
| mapcaption =
| notice = [IPA](International Phonetic Alphabet)
| glotto = russ1263
| glottorefname = Russian
| map2 =
| mapcaption2 =
| ethnicity = [Russians](Russians)
}}
**Russian** (, ) is an [Slavic language](East)(East Slavic languages) mainly spoken in [Russia](Russia). It is the [language](native)(First language) of the [Russians](Russians) and belongs to the [language family](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages). It is one of four living East Slavic languages,}} and is also a part of the larger [languages](Balto-Slavic)(Balto-Slavic languages). It was the *de facto* and *de jure*Since 1990 [language](official)(De facto#National languages) of the former [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union).[and Fundamental Law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics](Constitution)(1977 Soviet Constitution), 1977: Section II, Chapter 6, Article 36 Russian has remained an [language](official)(official language) in independent [Russia](Russia), [Belarus](Belarus), [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), and [Kyrgyzstan](Kyrgyzstan), and is still commonly used as a [franca](lingua)(lingua franca) in [Ukraine](Ukraine), the [Caucasus](Caucasus), [Asia](Central)(Central Asia), and to a lesser extent in the [states](Baltic)(Baltic states) and [Israel](Russian language in Israel).
Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide. It is the most spoken [language](Slavic)(Slavic languages), and the most spoken [language](native)(First language) in Europe, as well as the most geographically widespread language of [Eurasia](Eurasia). It is the world's [spoken language by number of native speakers](seventh-most)(List of languages by number of native speakers), and the world's [spoken language by total number of speakers](eighth-most)(List of languages by total number of speakers). Russian is one of two official languages aboard the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station), as well as one of the six [languages of the United Nations](official)(official languages of the United Nations).
Russian is written using the [alphabet](Russian)(Russian alphabet) of the [script](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic script); it distinguishes between [consonant](consonant) [phoneme](phoneme)s with [palatal](Palatalization (phonetics)) [articulation](secondary)(secondary articulation) and those without—the so-called "soft" and "hard" sounds. Almost every consonant has a hard or soft counterpart, and the distinction is a prominent feature of the language. Another important aspect is the [reduction](vowel reduction) of [unstressed](stress (linguistics)) [vowel](vowel)s. [Stress](Stress (linguistics)), which is often unpredictable, is not normally indicated [orthographically](orthographically), though an optional [accent](acute)(acute accent) may be used to mark stress – such as to distinguish between [homograph](homograph)ic words (e.g. (, 'lock') and (, 'castle')), or to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names.
## Classification
Russian is an [Slavic language](East)(East Slavic language) of the wider [family](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages). It is a descendant of [East Slavic](Old)(Old East Slavic), a language used in [Rus'](Kievan)(Kievan Rus'), which was a loose conglomerate of [Slavic](East)(East Slavs) tribes from the late 9th to the mid-13th centuries. From the point of view of [language](spoken)(spoken language), its closest relatives are [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language), [Belarusian](Belarusian language), and [Rusyn](Rusyn language), the other three languages in the East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures such as [Surzhyk](Surzhyk) in eastern Ukraine and [Trasianka](Trasianka) in Belarus. An East Slavic [Novgorod dialect](Old)(Old Novgorod dialect), although it vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also, Russian has notable lexical similarities with [Bulgarian](Bulgarian language) due to a common [Slavonic](Church)(Church Slavonic) influence on both languages, but because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian. In the 19th century (in Russia until 1917), the language was often called "[Russian](Great)(Great Russian language)" to distinguish it from [Belarusian](Belarusian language), which was then called "[Russian](White)(White Ruthenia)", and [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language), then called "[Russia](Little)(Little Russia)n" in the Russian Empire.
The [vocabulary](vocabulary) (mainly abstract and literary words), principles of [formation](word)(word formation)s, and, to some extent, inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly Russified form of the [Slavic](South)(South Slavic languages) [Church Slavonic](Old)(Old Church Slavonic) language used by the [Orthodox Church](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church). However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with many different meanings. For details, see [phonology](Russian)(Russian phonology) and [of the Russian language](History)(History of the Russian language).
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, [Latin](Latin), [Polish](Polish language), [Dutch](Dutch language), German, French, Italian, and English, and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: [Uralic](Uralic languages), [Turkic](Turkic languages), [Persian](Persian language), [Arabic](Arabic), and [Hebrew](Hebrew language).Colin Baker, Sylvia Prys Jones [*Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC&dq=russian+loanwords+in+hebrew&pg=PA219) pp 219 Multilingual Matters, 1998
According to the [Language Institute](Defense)(Defense Language Institute) in [California](Monterey,)(Monterey, California), Russian is classified as a [III language](level)(DLI levels) in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency. It is also regarded by the [States Intelligence Community](United)(United States Intelligence Community) as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in [world policy](U.S.)(American foreign policy).
## Standard Russian
Feudal divisions and conflicts between rival polities created obstacles to the exchange of goods and ideas between the [medieval](early)(early medieval) [Rus'](Rus' people) principalities before and especially during Mongol rule. This strengthened dialectal differences and for centuries prevented the establishment of any standardized "national" language. The gradual but steady emergence of the [Principality of Moscow](Grand)(Grand Principality of Moscow) (1263–1547) – later the [of Russia](Tsardom)(Tsardom of Russia) from 1547 – as the dominant and ever-expanding polity of the [Rus'](Rus' people), necessitated the earliest attempts at standardization of the [Slavic language](East)(East Slavic language) based on the Moscow dialect. Since then the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and the broader sense of expanding the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages that exist within the borders of the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire), and the later [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) and recently, Russian Federation.
The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the *modern Russian literary language* ( – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose at the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great) and developed from the Moscow ([or Central Russian](Middle)(Central Russian dialects)) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century's Russian chancery language. This occurred in spite of the fact that [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), the Western-oriented capital created by the "[Westernizing](Westernization)" Tsar [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great), was the capital of the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) for over 200 years.
[Lomonosov](Mikhail)(Mikhail Lomonosov) compiled the first book of [grammar](Russian)(Russian grammar) aimed at standardization in 1755. The [Academy](Russian)(Russian Academy)'s first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared in 1783. In the 18th and late 19th centuries, a period known as the "Golden Age" of [Literature](Russian)(Russian Literature), the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language in a standardized literary form emerged.
Prior to the [Revolution](Bolshevik)(Bolshevik Revolution), the spoken form of the Russian language was that of the nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. Russian peasants, the great majority of the population, continued to speak in their own dialects. However, the peasants' speech was never systematically studied, as it was generally regarded by philologists as simply a source of folklore and an object of curiosity.Nakhimovsky, A. D. (2019). *The Language of Russian Peasants in the Twentieth Century: A Linguistic Analysis and Oral History*. United Kingdom: Lexington Books. (Chapter 1) This was acknowledged by the noted Russian dialectologist Nikolai Karinsky (1873–1935), who toward the end of his life wrote: “Scholars of Russian dialects mostly studied phonetics and morphology. Some scholars and collectors compiled local dictionaries. We have almost no studies of lexical material or the syntax of Russian dialects.”Nakhimovsky, A. D. (2019). *The Language of Russian Peasants in the Twentieth Century: A Linguistic Analysis and Oral History*. United Kingdom: Lexington Books. (p.2)
After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930:
The language of peasants has a motley diversity inherited from feudalism. On its way to becoming proletariat peasantry brings to the factory and the industrial plant their local peasant dialects with their phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary, and the very process of recruiting workers from peasants and the mobility of the worker population generate another process: the liquidation of peasant inheritance by way of leveling the particulars of local dialects. On the ruins of peasant multilingual, in the context of developing heavy industry, a qualitatively new entity can be said to emerge—the general language of the working class... capitalism has the tendency of creating the general urban language of a given society.*Ibid.*(p.3)
By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the [government](Soviet)(Soviet government). Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features (such as fricative in [Russian dialects](Southern)(Southern Russian dialects)) are still observed in colloquial speech.
## Geographic distribution
[[ve světě.svg|thumb|Hemisphere view of countries where Russian is an official language and countries where it is spoken as a first or second language by at least 30% of the population but is not an official language](File:Ruština)]
[[ex-USSR 2004.PNG|thumb|upright=1.8|Competence of Russian in countries of the former Soviet Union (except Russia), 2004](File:Russian)]
In 2010, there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world: in Russia – 137.5 million, in the [CIS](Commonwealth of Independent States) and Baltic countries – 93.7 million, in Eastern Europe – 12.9 million, Western Europe – 7.3 million, Asia – 2.7 million, in the Middle East and North Africa – 1.3 million, Sub-Saharan Africa – 0.1 million, Latin America – 0.2 million, U.S., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand – 4.1 million speakers. Therefore, the Russian language is the [in the world by the number of speakers](seventh-largest)(Languages by number of native speakers), after English, Mandarin, Hindi-Urdu, Spanish, French, Arabic, and Portuguese.
Russian is one of the [official languages](six)(Official languages of the United Nations) of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.
### Europe
[[File:Ukraine census 2001 Russian.svg|thumb|right|Percentage of people in Ukraine with Russian as their native language (according to a 2001 census) ([region](by)(Administrative divisions of Ukraine))]]
In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the [of Belarus](Constitution)(Constitution of Belarus). 77% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.
In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook, and is officially considered a foreign language. School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics and as of 2022 the parliament has approved to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools/kindergartens will start in the school year.
In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language. 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On February 18, 2012, Latvia held a [referendum](constitutional)(2012 Latvian constitutional referendum) on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language. According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%. Starting in 2019, [in Russian](instruction)(Russian language in Latvia) will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools.
In Lithuania, Russian has no official or legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language. However, English has replaced Russian as *[franca](lingua)(lingua franca)* in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language. In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008).
In Moldova, Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era law. 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.
According to the [census in Russia](2010)(Russian Census (2010)), Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4% of the respondents), while according to the [census](2002)(Russian Census (2002)) – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents).
In Ukraine, Russian is a significant minority language. According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers. 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On September 5, 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed a [education law](new)(Ukrainization#2017 law "On Education") which requires all schools to teach at least partially in Ukrainian, with provisions while allow indigenous languages and languages of national minorities to be used alongside the national language. The law faced criticism from officials in Russia and Hungary.
In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old [Pact](Warsaw)(Warsaw Pact) and in other [countries](Communist state) that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey, fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular those where the people speak a [language](Slavic)(Slavic language) and thereby have an edge in learning Russian (namely, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria).
Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities.
### Asia
In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the [Convention for the Protection of National Minorities](Framework)(Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities). 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.
In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a *lingua franca* of the country. 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.
In China, Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the [Russian communities](small)(Russians in China) in the northeastern [Heilongjiang](Heilongjiang) and the northwestern [Uyghur Autonomous Region](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region).
In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the [Convention for the Protection of National Minorities](Framework)(Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities). Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook.[Georgia](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/). *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*. [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency). Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.
In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the [of Kazakhstan](Constitution)(Constitution of Kazakhstan) its usage enjoys equal status to that of the [language](Kazakh)(Kazakh language) in state and local administration. The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language.
In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the [of Kyrgyzstan](Constitution)(Constitution of Kyrgyzstan). The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population. Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.
In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the [of Tajikistan](Constitution)(Constitution of Tajikistan) and is permitted in official documentation. 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work. The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business.
In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official *lingua franca* in 1996. Among 12% of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent. Nevertheless, the Turkmen state press and newspaper [Turkmenistan](Neytralny)(Neytralny Turkmenistan) regularly publish material version in Russian-language, and there are schools like [Turkmen-Russian Secondary School](Joint)(Joint Turkmen-Russian Secondary School).
In Uzbekistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication. It has some official roles, being permitted in official documentation and is the *lingua franca* of the country and the language of the elite. Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook.
In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia, and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006.
Around 1.5 million Israelis spoke Russian as of 2017.[К визиту Нетаньяху: что Россия может получить от экономики Израиля](http://www.forbes.ru/finansy-i-investicii/340519-rossiysko-izrailskie-ekonomicheskie-svyazi-ne-tolko-neft-na) Алексей Голубович, Forbes Russia, March 9, 2017 The Israeli [press](Mass media) and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in the country. There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with [Plus](Israel)(Israel Plus). See also [language in Israel](Russian)(Russian language in Israel).
Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan.Awde and Sarwan, 2003
In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English.
### North America
The Russian language was first introduced in North America when [explorers](Russian)(Russian explorers) voyaged into [Alaska](Alaska) and claimed it for Russia during the 18th century. Although most Russian colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day, although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left. In [Alaska](Nikolaevsk,)(Nikolaevsk, Alaska), Russian is more spoken than English. Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large urban centers of the US and Canada, such as [York City](New)(Russian Americans in New York City), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Boston](Boston), Los Angeles, [Nashville](Nashville, Tennessee), San Francisco, [Seattle](Seattle), [Spokane](Spokane, Washington), Toronto, [Calgary](Calgary), [Baltimore](History of the Russians in Baltimore), Miami, Chicago, [Denver](Denver), and [Cleveland](Cleveland). In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in [enclave](ethnic)(ethnic enclave)s (especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s). Only about 25% of them are ethnic Russians, however. Before the [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union), the overwhelming majority of [Russophone](Russophone)s in [Beach, Brooklyn](Brighton)(Brighton Beach, Brooklyn) in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterward, the influx from the countries of the former [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians. According to the [States Census](United)(United States Census), in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States.
In the second half of the 20th century, Russian was the most popular foreign language in Cuba. Besides being taught at universities and schools, there were also educational programs on the radio and TV. An estimated 200,000 people speak the Russian language in Cuba, on the account that more than 23,000 Cubans who took higher studies in the former Soviet Union and later in Russia, and another important group of people who studied at military schools and technologists.
## As an international language
Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following:
* [Nations](United)(United Nations)
* [Atomic Energy Agency](International)(International Atomic Energy Agency)
* [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization)
* [Civil Aviation Organization](International)(International Civil Aviation Organization)
* [UNESCO](UNESCO)
* [Intellectual Property Organization](World)(World Intellectual Property Organization)
* [Telecommunication Union](International)(International Telecommunication Union)
* [Meteorological Organization](World)(World Meteorological Organization)
* [and Agriculture Organization](Food)(Food and Agriculture Organization)
* [Fund for Agricultural Development](International)(International Fund for Agricultural Development)
* [Criminal Court](International)(International Criminal Court)
* [Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee)
* [Postal Union](Universal)(Universal Postal Union)
* [Bank](World)(World Bank)
* [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States)
* [for Security and Co-operation in Europe](Organization)(Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)
* [Cooperation Organisation](Shanghai)(Shanghai Cooperation Organisation)
* [Economic Community](Eurasian)(Eurasian Economic Community)
* [Security Treaty Organization](Collective)(Collective Security Treaty Organization)
* [Treaty Secretariat](Antarctic)(Antarctic Treaty Secretariat)
* [Organization for Standardization](International)(International Organization for Standardization)
* [Mathematical Olympiad](International)(International Mathematical Olympiad)
The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station) – [NASA](NASA) astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to the [Apollo–Soyuz](Apollo–Soyuz) mission, which first flew in 1975.
In March 2013, Russian was found to be the second-most used language on websites after English. Russian was the language of 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind English (54.7%). Russian was used not only on 89.8% of [.ru](.ru) sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former Soviet Union domain [.su](.su). Websites in former Soviet Union member states also used high levels of Russian: 79.0% in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in Tajikistan. However, Russian was the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese, French, German, and Japanese.
## Dialects
Russian is a rather homogeneous language, in dialectal variation, due to the early political centralization under Moscow's rule, compulsory education, mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century, and other factors. The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country, from [Kaliningrad](Kaliningrad) and [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg) in the West to [Vladivostok](Vladivostok) and [Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky](Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky) in the East, the enormous distance between notwithstanding.
Despite [leveling](Dialect levelling) after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, [Northern](Northern Russian dialects), [Central](Central Russian dialects) (or Middle), and [Southern](Southern Russian dialects), with Moscow lying in the Central region.David Dalby. 1999–2000. ''The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities*. Linguasphere Press. Pg. 442. All dialects are also divided into two main chronological categories: the dialects of *primary formation* (the territory of the [Duchy of Moscow](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Moscow) roughly consists of the modern [Central](Central Federal District) and [Northwestern](Northwestern Federal District) Federal districts) and *secondary formation* (other territories where Russian was brought by migrants from primary formation territories or adopted by the local population). [Dialectology](Dialectology) within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants. The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language.
The [Russian dialects](Northern)(Northern Russian dialects) and those spoken along the [River](Volga)(Volga River) typically pronounce unstressed clearly, a phenomenon called [okanye](vowel reduction in Russian#Back vowels) (). Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects have [high](high vowel) or [diphthong](diphthong)al in place of and in stressed closed syllables (as in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian and . Another Northern dialectal morphological feature is a post-posed definite article *-to*, *-ta*, *-te'' similarly to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian.
In the [Russian dialects](Southern)(Southern Russian dialects), instances of unstressed and following [palatalized](Palatalization (phonetics)) consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to (as occurs in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced in such positions (e.g. is pronounced , not ) – this is called [yakanye](yakanye) (). Consonants include a [[velar fricative|fricative ](Voiced)], a [[](semivowel|semivowel)] and , whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants , , and final and , respectively. The morphology features a palatalized final in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects). Some of these features such as akanye and yakanye, a [debuccalized](debuccalized) or [lenited](lenited) , a [[](semivowel|semivowel)] and palatalized final in 3rd person forms of verbs are also present in modern [Belarusian](Belarusian language) and some dialects of [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language) (Eastern [Polesia](Polesia)n), indicating a linguistic continuum.
The city of [Novgorod](Veliky)(Old Novgorod dialect) has historically displayed a feature called [chokanye](chokanye) or [tsokanye](tsokanye) ( or ), in which and were switched or merged. So, (tsaplya, 'heron') has been recorded as (chaplya). Also, the [palatalization](second)(Slavic second palatalization) of [velars](Velar consonant) did not occur there, so the so-called **ě²** (from the [Proto-Slavic](Proto-Slavic) diphthong *ai) did not cause to shift to ; therefore, where Standard Russian has ('chain'), the form is attested in earlier texts.
Among the first to study Russian dialects was [Lomonosov](Mikhail Lomonosov) in the 18th century. In the 19th, [Dal](Vladimir)(Vladimir Dal) compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the monumental *Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language* ( – *Dialektologichesky atlas russkogo yazyka*), was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four decades of preparatory work.
## Comparison with other Slavic languages
During the [Proto-Slavic](Proto-Slavic language) (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects.Context and the Lexicon in the Development of Russian Aspect, By Neil Bermel, p 16 There is a high degree of [intelligibility](mutual)(mutual intelligibility) between Russian, [Belarusian](Belarusian language) and [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language), and a moderate degree of it in all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level.Sussex & Cubberley, p. 3.[Similar languages to Russian](https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=rus), EZ Glot
## Derived languages
* [Balachka](Balachka), a dialect spoken in Krasnodar region, Don, [Kuban](Kuban), and [Terek](Terek River), brought by relocated [Cossacks](Cossacks) in 1793 and is based on the southwest Ukrainian dialect. During the Russification of the aforementioned regions in the 1920s to 1950s, it was replaced by the Russian language.
* [Esperanto](Esperanto etymology) has some words of Russian and Slavic origin and some features of its grammar could be derived from Russian.
* [Fenya](Fenya), a criminal [argot](argot) of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary
* [Lojban](Lojban), Russian is one of its six source languages, weighed for the number of Russian speakers in 1985.
* [Aleut language](Medny)(Medny Aleut language), an extinct [language](mixed)(mixed language) that was spoken on [Island](Bering)(Bering Island) and is characterized by its [Aleut](Aleut) nouns and Russian verbs
* [jargon](Padonkaffsky)(Padonkaffsky jargon), a slang language developed by [padonki](padonki) of [Runet](Runet)
* [Quelia](Quelia), a [language](macaronic)(macaronic language) with Russian-derived basic structure and part of the [lexicon](lexicon) (mainly nouns and verbs) borrowed from German
* [Runglish](Runglish), a Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology and/or syntax.
* [Russenorsk](Russenorsk language), an extinct [pidgin](pidgin) language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly [Norwegian](Norwegian language) grammar, used for communication between [Russians](Russians) and Norwegian traders in the Pomor trade in [Finnmark](Finnmark) and the [Peninsula](Kola)(Kola Peninsula)
*[Surzhyk](Surzhyk), a range of mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands.
* [Trasianka](Trasianka), a heavily russified variety of [Belarusian](Belarusian language) used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus
* [Pidgin Russian](Taimyr)(Taimyr Pidgin Russian), spoken by the [Nganasan](Nganasan people) on the [Peninsula](Taimyr)(Taymyr Peninsula)
## Alphabet
[[File:Azbuka 1574 by Ivan Fyodorov.png|thumb|A page from Azbuka ([book](Alphabet)(Alphabet book)), the first East Slavic printed textbook. Printed by [Fyodorov](Ivan)(Ivan Fyodorov (printer)) in 1574 in Lviv. This page features the [script](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic script).]]
Russian is written using a [Cyrillic](Cyrillic script) alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their forms, along with [IPA](help:IPA) values for each letter's typical sound:
Older letters of the Russian alphabet include }}, which merged to }} ( or ); }} and }}, which both merged to }} (); }}, which merged to }} (); }}, which merged to }} (); }}, which merged to }} ( or ); and }} and }}, which later were graphically reshaped into }} and merged phonetically to or . While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The [yer](yer)s }} and }} originally indicated the pronunciation of *ultra-short* or *reduced* , .
### Transliteration
Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, ('frost') is transliterated *moroz*, and ('mouse'), *mysh* or *myš*'. Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the extension of [Unicode](Unicode) [encoding](character)(character encoding), which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western 'QWERTY' keyboards.
### Computing
The Russian alphabet has many systems of [encoding](character)(character encoding). [KOI8-R](KOI8-R) was designed by the Soviet government and was intended to serve as the standard encoding. This encoding was and still is widely used in UNIX-like operating systems. Nevertheless, the spread of [MS-DOS](MS-DOS) and [OS/2](OS/2) ([IBM866](Code page 866)), traditional Macintosh ([8859-5](ISO/IEC)(ISO/IEC 8859-5)) and [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) (CP1251) meant the proliferation of many different encodings as de facto standards, with Windows-1251 becoming a [facto standard](de)(de facto standard) in Russian Internet and e-mail communication during the period of roughly 1995–2005.
All the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text-exchange data formats, having been mostly replaced with [UTF-8](UTF-8). A number of encoding conversion applications were developed. "[iconv](iconv)" is an example that is supported by most versions of [Linux](Linux), [Macintosh](Macintosh) and some other [system](operating)(operating system)s; but converters are rarely needed unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago.
In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the [Cyrillic alphabet](Early)(Early Cyrillic alphabet) (which is very similar to the [alphabet](Greek)(Greek alphabet)), and all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets.
### Orthography
The current spelling follows the [reform of 1918](major)(Reforms_of_Russian_orthography#Post-revolution_reform), and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990s has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted. The punctuation, originally based on [Greek](Byzantine)(Byzantine Greek), was in the 17th and 18th centuries reformulated on the French and German models.
According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional [accent](acute)(acute accent) () may, and sometimes should, be used to mark [stress](stress (linguistics)). For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: (*zamók* – "lock") – (*zámok* – "castle"), (*stóyashchy* – "worthwhile") – (*stoyáshchy* – "standing"), (*chudnó* – "this is odd") – (*chúdno* – "this is marvellous"), (*molodéts* – "well done!") – (*mólodets* – "fine young man"), (*uznáyu* – "I shall learn it") – (*uznayú* – "I recognize it"), (*otrezát* – "to be cutting") – (*otrézat* – "to have cut"); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like (*aféra*, "scandal, affair"), (*gúru*, "guru"), (*García*), (*Olésha*), (*Fermi*), and to show which is the stressed word in a sentence, for example (*Tý syel pechenye?* – "Was it *you* who ate the cookie?") – (*Ty syél pechenye?* – "Did you *eat* the cookie?) – (*Ty syel pechénye?* "Was it the *cookie* you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners.
## Phonology
The [phonological](phonological) system of Russian is inherited from [Slavonic](Common)(Common Slavonic); it underwent considerable modification in the early historical period before being largely settled around the year 1400.
The language possesses five vowels (or six, under the St.Petersburg Phonological School), which are written with different letters depending on whether the preceding consonant is [palatalized](Palatalization (phonetics)). The consonants typically come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called *hard* and *soft.* The hard consonants are often [velarized](velarization), especially before front vowels, as in [Irish](Irish phonology#Consonants) and [Marshallese](Marshallese language#Phonology). The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat lengthened, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to near-close vowels or an unclear [schwa](schwa). (See also: [reduction in Russian](vowel)(vowel reduction in Russian).)
The Russian [syllable](syllable) structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows:
(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
However, Russian has a constraint on syllabification such that syllables cannot span multiple [morpheme](morpheme)s.
Clusters of four consonants are not very common, especially within a morpheme. Some examples are: ( *vzglyad*, 'glance'), ( *gosudarstv*, 'of the states'), ( *stroitelstv*, 'of the constructions').
### Consonants
Russian is notable for its distinction based on [palatalization](Palatalization (phonetics)) of most of its consonants. While do have true palatalized [allophone](allophone)s , only might be considered a phoneme, though it is marginal and generally not considered distinctive. The only native [pair](minimal)(minimal pair) that argues for being a separate phoneme is }} ( *eto tkyot* – "it weaves") }} (, *etot kot* – "this cat"). The phoneme // is generally considered to be always hard; however, loan words such as [Цюрих](Zürich) and some other neologisms contain // through the word-building processes (e.g. фрицёнок, шпицята). Palatalization means that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of and , the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds; cf. Belarusian ць, дзь, or Polish ć, dź). The sounds are [dental](dental consonant), that is, pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth rather than against the [ridge](alveolar)(alveolar ridge).
### Vowels
[[vowel chart.svg|thumb|Russian vowel chart by ](File:Russian)]
Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, , and in some analyses , but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: (or ) after hard consonants and after soft ones. These vowels have several [allophones](allophones), which are displayed on the diagram to the right.
## Grammar
Russian has preserved an [Indo-European](Indo-European languages) [synthetic](Synthetic language)-[inflection](inflection)al structure, although considerable [leveling](Morphological levelling) has occurred.
Russian grammar encompasses:
* a highly [fusional](Fusional language) **morphology**
* a **syntax** that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:Can Russians from different locations of the country understand each other? https://www.rbth.com/education/328851-dialects-russian-language/amp
** a polished [vernacular](vernacular) foundation;
** a [Slavonic](Church)(Church Slavonic language) inheritance;
** a Western European style.
The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.
In terms of actual grammar, there are three [tenses](tenses) in Russian past, present, and future and each verb has two [aspects](Grammatical aspect in Slavic languages) (perfective and imperfective). Russian nouns each have a gender either feminine, masculine, or neuter, chiefly indicated by spelling at the end of the word. Words change depending on both their gender and function in the sentence. Russian has six [cases](Grammatical case): Nominative (for the grammatical subject), Accusative (for direct objects), Dative (for indirect objects), Genitive (to indicate possession or relation), Instrumental (to indicate 'with' or 'by means of'), and Prepositional (used after the locative prepositions в "in", на "on", о "about", при "in the presence of"). Verbs of motion in Russian such as 'go', 'walk', 'run', 'swim', and 'fly' use the imperfective or perfective form to indicate a single or return trip, and also use a multitude of [prefix](prefix)es to add shades of meaning to the verb. Such verbs also take on different forms to distinguish between concrete and abstract motion.
## Vocabulary
[[File:Karion Istomin's alphabet P.jpg|thumb|This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter **[П](П)**.]]
See [of the Russian language](History)(History of the Russian language) for an account of the successive foreign influences on Russian.
The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two centuries, are as follows:[*What types of dictionaries exist?*](http://www.gramota.ru/slovari/types/17_26) from www.gramota.ru {{Cite web|url=http://yarus.asu.edu.ru/?id=426|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112125045/http://www.yarus.aspu.ru/?id=426|url-status=dead|title={section.caption}|archive-date=January 12, 2012|website=yarus.asu.edu.ru|access-date=February 16, 2020}}
## History and examples
No single periodization is universally accepted, but the history of the Russian language is sometimes divided into the following periods:
* [Russian](Old)(History of the Russian language#Kievan period and feudal breakup) ([East Slavic](Old)(Old East Slavic)) (10th–14th centuries)
* [Russian](Middle)(History of the Russian language#The Moscow period (15th–17th centuries)) (14th–17th centuries)
* [Russian national language](Modern)(History of the Russian language#Empire (18th–19th centuries)) (17th century–present)
The history of the Russian language is also divided into *Old Russian* from the 11th to 17th centuries, followed by *Modern Russian*.
Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus was the Eastern branch of the [Slavs](Slavic peoples), speaking a closely related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into [Rus'](Kievan)(Kievan Rus') in about 880, from which modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus trace their origins, established [East Slavic](Old)(Old East Slavic) as a literary and commercial language. It was soon followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the introduction of the South Slavic [Church Slavonic](Old)(Old Church Slavonic) as the liturgical and official language. Borrowings and [calque](calque)s from [Greek](Byzantine)(Byzantine Greek) began to enter the Old East Slavic and spoken dialects at this time, which in their turn modified the Old Church Slavonic as well.
[[File:Ostromir Gospel 1.jpg|thumb|left|The [Gospels](Ostromir)(Ostromir Gospels) of 1056 is the second oldest [Slavic](East)(East Slavic languages) book known, one of many medieval [manuscript](illuminated)(illuminated manuscript)s preserved in the [National Library](Russian)(Russian National Library).]]
Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine emerged [Ruthenian](Ruthenian language) and in modern Russia [Russian](medieval)(History of the Russian language). They became distinct since the 13th century, i.e. following the division of the land between the [Duchy of Lithuania](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Lithuania) and the [Poland](Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)) in the west and independent [Novgorod](Novgorod Republic) and [Pskov](Pskov Republic) feudal republics plus numerous small duchies (which came to be vassals of the [Tatars](Tatars)) in the east.
The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the growing Muscovy, was [Slavonic](Church)(Church Slavonic), which evolved from Old Church Slavonic and remained [literary language](the)(Diglossia) for centuries, until the [age](Petrine)(Peter I of Russia#Reign), when its usage became limited to biblical and liturgical texts. Russian developed under a strong influence of Church Slavonic until the close of the 17th century; afterward the influence reversed, leading to corruption of liturgical texts.
The political reforms of [the Great](Peter)(Peter I of Russia) (Пётр Вели́кий, *Pyótr Velíky*) were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19th century, e.g. [Tolstoy](Leo)(Leo Tolstoy)'s (Лев Толсто́й) *[and Peace](War)(War and Peace)*, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an assumption that educated readers would not need one.
The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of [Pushkin](Alexander)(Alexander Pushkin) () in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized [literature](Russian)(Russian literature) by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary (so-called — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th century, in particular Pushkin, [Lermontov](Mikhail)(Mikhail Lermontov) (), [Gogol](Nikolai)(Nikolai Gogol) (), [Griboyedov](Aleksander)(Aleksander Griboyedov) (), became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech.
The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the [reform of 1918](spelling)(Reforms of Russian orthography). Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially [cosmonaut](cosmonaut)ics), gave Russian a worldwide prestige, especially during the mid-20th century.
During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the [language](official)(official language) only in 1990.["Закон СССР от 24 April 1990 О языках народов СССР"](http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm) (The 1990 USSR Law about the Languages of the USSR) Following the [of the USSR](break-up)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union) in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.
The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in the number of [Russians](Russians) in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an official language), however has since been reversed.
According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "[Weekly](Demoskop)(:ru:Демоскоп Weekly)" research deputy director of Research Center for Sociological Research of the [of Education and Science (Russia)](Ministry)(Ministry of Education and Science (Russia)) Arefyev A. L., the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in particular. In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of weakening of the Russian language after the Soviet Union's collapse in various regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the journal "[Weekly](Demoskop)(:ru:Демоскоп Weekly)").[Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков](http://www.civisbook.ru/files/File/russkij_yazyk.pdf) — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр. In the countries of the former [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) the Russian language was being replaced or used in conjunction with local languages. Currently, the number of speakers of Russian in the world depends on the number of [Russians](Russians) in the world and total population in Russia.
## See also
* [of English words of Russian origin](List)(List of English words of Russian origin)
* [of Russian language topics](List)(List of Russian language topics)
* [of countries and territories where Russian is an official language](List)(List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language)
* [Russification](Computer)(Computer Russification)
## Notes
## Further reading
*
## References
### Citations
### Sources
; In English
*
*
* M.A. O'Brien, New English–Russian and Russian–English Dictionary (New Orthography), New York, The Language Library 1944, Dover Publications.
*
*
*
* [Iliev, Iv. The Russian Genitive of Negation and Its Japanese Counterpart. International Journal of Russian Stidies. 1, 2018 (In Print)](https://www.academia.edu/33192973/THE_RUSSIAN_GENITIVE_OF_NEGATION_AND_ITS_JAPANESE_COUNTERPART)
*
*
*
*
*
; In Russian
* [журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 571 – 572 14 – 31 октября 2013. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сжимающееся русскоязычие. Демографические изменения - не на пользу русскому языку](http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0571/tema02.php)
* [Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков](http://www.civisbook.ru/files/File/russkij_yazyk.pdf) — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр. Аннотация книги в [РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК НА РУБЕЖЕ XX-XXI ВЕКОВ](http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0571/biblio01.php)
* [журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 329 – 330 14 – 27 апреля 2008. К. Гаврилов. Е. Козиевская. Е. Яценко. Тема номера: русский язык на постсоветских просторах. Где есть потребность в изучении русского языка](http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2008/0329/tema04.php)
* [журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 251 – 252 19 июня – 20 августа 2006. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сколько людей говорят и будут говорить по-русски? Будет ли русский в числе мировых языков в будущем?](http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2006/0251/tema05.php)
* Жуковская Л. П. (отв. ред.) Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому. — М.: «Наука», 1987.
* Иванов В. В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. — М.: «Просвещение», 1990.
* Новиков Л. А. Современный русский язык: для высшей школы. — М.: Лань, 2003.
* Филин Ф. П. [О словарном составе языка Великорусского народа.](http://www.philology.ru/linguistics2/filin-82.htm) // Вопросы языкознания. — М., 1982, No. 5. — С. 18—28
## External links
*
* Oxford Dictionaries [Russian Dictionary](https://web.archive.org/web/20150227015827/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ru)
*
* [USA Foreign Service Institute Russian basic course](https://www.livelingua.com/fsi-russian-course.php)
* [Национальный корпус русского языка](http://www.ruscorpora.ru/) National Corpus of the Russian Language
* [Russian Language Institute](http://www.ruslang.ru/) Language regulator of the Russian language
}}
[ ](Category:Russian language)
[Slavic languages](Category:East)(Category:East Slavic languages)
[culture](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet culture)
[of Russia](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages of Russia)
[francas](Category:Lingua)(Category:Lingua francas)
[languages](Category:Stress-timed)(Category:Stress-timed languages)
[languages](Category:Subject–verb–object)(Category:Subject–verb–object languages)
[written in Cyrillic script](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages written in Cyrillic script)
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Wordle
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wordle
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# Wordle
*Revision ID: 1158961196 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T09:38:02Z*
---
***Wordle*** is a [web-based](Browser game) [game](word)(word game) created and developed by [Welsh](Welsh people) [engineer](software)(software engineer) [Wardle](Josh)(Josh Wardle). It was bought by the [York Times Company](New)(The New York Times Company) in 2022, who has since maintained and published it. Players have six attempts to guess a five-letter word, with feedback given for each guess in the form of colored tiles indicating when letters match or occupy the correct position. The mechanics are nearly identical to the 1955 pen-and-paper game [Jotto](Jotto) and the television game show franchise *[Lingo](Lingo (American game show))*. *Wordle* has a single daily solution, with all players attempting to guess the same word.
Wardle created the game for himself and his partner to play, eventually making it public in October 2021. The game gained popularity in December 2021 after Wardle added the ability for players to copy their daily results as [emoji](emoji) squares, which were widely shared on [Twitter](Twitter). Many clones and variations of the game were also created, as were versions in languages besides English. The game was purchased by [New York Times Company](The)(The New York Times Company) in January 2022 for an undisclosed seven-figure sum, with plans to keep it free for all players; it was moved to the company's website in February 2022.
## Gameplay
[[196 example.svg|thumb|162x162px|Wordle game #196 solved in 4 guesses|alt=A four-row grid of white letters in colored square tiles, with 5 letters in each row, reading ARISE, ROUTE, RULES, REBUS. The A, I, O, T, and L are in gray squares; the R, S, and E of ARISE, U and E of ROUTE, and U and E of RULES are in yellow squares, and the R of ROUTE, R and S of RULES, and all letters of REBUS are in green squares.](File:Wordle)]
[[Emoji Screenshot.png|thumb|172x172px|The emoji grid copied by sharing the result from the Wordle game.|alt=Text saying "Wordle 196 4/6", followed by four lines of five emoji boxes each: white, yellow, white, yellow, yellow; green, white, yellow, white, yellow; green, yellow, white, yellow, green; green, green, green, green, green.](File:Wordle)]Every day, a five-letter word is chosen which players aim to guess within six tries. After every guess, each letter is marked as either green, yellow or gray: green indicates that letter is correct and in the correct position, yellow means it is in the answer but not in the right position, while gray indicates it is not in the answer at all. Multiple instances of the same letter in a guess, such as the "o"s in "robot", will be colored green or yellow only if the letter also appears multiple times in the answer; otherwise, excess repeating letters will be colored gray. The game has a "hard mode" option, which requires players to include letters marked as green and yellow in subsequent guesses. The daily word is the same for everyone. The game also has a [theme](dark)(light-on-dark color scheme) as well as a high-contrast theme for [colorblind](colorblind) accessibility, which changes the color scheme from green and yellow to orange and blue.
Conceptually and stylistically, the game is similar to the 1955 pen-and-paper game [Jotto](Jotto) and to the game show franchise *[Lingo](Lingo (American game show))*. The gameplay is also similar to the two-player board game *[Mastermind](Mastermind (board game))*—which had a word-guessing variant *Word Mastermind*—and the game [and Cows](Bulls)(Bulls and Cows), with the exception that *Wordle* confirms the specific letters that are correct.
Each daily game uses a word from a randomly ordered list of 2,309 words (out of the approximate 13,000 five-letter words in the English language). The smaller word list was chosen by Wardle and his partner by filtering down lists she made by categorizing all five-letter words into those she knew, those she did not know, and those she might have known. *Wordle* uses [spelling](American)(American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or), despite the developer being from [Wales](Wales) and using a UK domain name for the game; he is a long-time resident of [New York](Brooklyn,)(Brooklyn, New York). Players outside the US have complained that this spelling convention gives American players an unfair advantage, for example in the case of the solution "favor".
According to data collected by The New York Times, the most common first guesses are "adieu", "audio", "stare", "raise", and "arise". Computer algorithms can solve the puzzle with 100% accuracy within 5 of the 6 allowed guesses.
## History
### Early development
Wardle created the prototype of *Wordle* in 2013, inspired by the color-matching game *[Mastermind](Mastermind (board game))*. The prototype allowed players to play puzzles consecutively, and its wordlist was unfiltered. At first the game used all 13,000 possible five letter words in the English language, but he found that his partner Palak Shah had difficulty recognizing some of the less common words and made the guessing as haphazard as it was in *Mastermind*. He then used Shah as a simple filter to trim down the word list to around 2,000 words that were more recognizable – roughly five years of puzzles on a daily basis. After finishing the prototype around 2014, Wardle lost interest and set the prototype aside.
In the meantime, Wardle created the two online social experiments [Button](The)(The Button (Reddit)) and [Place](Place (Reddit)) while working for [Reddit](Reddit). When the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) struck, he and his partner "got really into" *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* [Bee](Spelling)(The New York Times Spelling Bee) and [crossword puzzle](daily)(The New York Times crossword puzzle). Wardle recalled his *Wordle* prototype and was inspired by two elements from Spelling Bee to flesh out the prototype further: the simple-to-use website design for the puzzle, and the limitation of one puzzle per day. By January 2021, Wardle had published *Wordle* on the web, mostly shared with himself and his partner. He had named it *Wordle* as a [pun](pun) on his surname.
### Rise in popularity
Later he shared it with his relatives, where it "rapidly became an obsession" for them. Over the next few months, he continued to share the *Wordle* website with other close friends, leading to the viral spread of attention to the puzzle by mid-October 2021. In one case, he found that it had become popular with a group of friends in New Zealand, where they had created the [emoji](emoji)-style display of the guesses which they shared with friends, which inspired Wardle to incorporate the feature into the game. After he had added this feature, the game became a [phenomenon](viral)(viral phenomenon) on [Twitter](Twitter) in late December 2021. A [Gale](Gale (publisher))-published article even claims that "Wordle is less about winning and more about the friends we make along the way" due to the new ease of sharing.
Over 300,000 people played *Wordle* on January 2, 2022, up from 90 players on November 1, 2021, a figure that rose to over 2 million a week later. Between January 1 and 13, 1.2 million *Wordle* results were shared on Twitter. Several media outlets, including *[CNET](CNET)* and *[Indian Express](The)(The Indian Express)*, attributed the game's popularity to the dailiness of the puzzles. Wardle suggested that having one puzzle per day creates a sense of scarcity, leaving players wanting more; he also noted that it encourages players to spend only three minutes on the game each day. He also noted some subtler details about the game, such as the game's keyboard changing to reflect the game state, as reasons for players' enjoyment. He had said that he has no intention to monetize the game and "It's not trying to do anything shady with your data or your eyeballs ... It's just a game that's fun." In an interview on [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4)'s *[Today](Today (BBC Radio 4))*, Wardle stated that he does not know each day's word so he can still enjoy playing the game himself.
Separately, an entirely different game called *Wordle!* by Steven Cravotta, which had been released on the App Store five years prior to Wardle's *Wordle*, saw a boost in downloads and purchases from people who thought it was Wardle's game; according to Cravotta, between January 5 and 12, 2022, his game was downloaded over 200,000 times. Cravotta was glad to see his game's resurgence, though recognized purchasers were likely buying it thinking it was Wardle's *Wordle*. In collaboration with Wardle, he donated from revenues to Boost in [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California), a charity providing tutoring to Oakland schoolchildren.
[Search](Google)(Google Search) created [Easter egg](an)(List of Google Easter eggs) when one searches for "Wordle", with the site's logo becoming an animated game of *Wordle* to find the word "Google". To prevent play from being spoiled, [Twitter](Twitter) took action to block an auto-reply bot that replied to any *Wordle* result post with the next day's word.
### Acquisition by the New York Times Company
On January 31, 2022, [New York Times Company](the)(the New York Times Company), the parent company of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, acquired *Wordle* from Wardle for an "undisclosed price in the low-seven figures." According to Wardle, the sudden attention he and his partner had gotten over the previous few months had made them uncomfortable, and also he did not feel like spending the effort to fight against clones of *Wordle* that were appearing. Wardle said that "It felt really complicated to me, really unpleasant", and that being able to sell the rights to *Wordle* made it easy "to walk away from all of that." The *Times* intended to add the game to its [app](mobile)(mobile app) alongside its crossword puzzles and Spelling Bee, seeking to bring in digital subscribers up to 10 million by 2025. The *Times* stated the game would initially remain free to new and existing users and that no changes would be made to its gameplay. Fans expressed worries that the acquisition meant the game would eventually be put behind a [paywall](paywall). As the game operates entirely using [client-side](client-side) Javascript code run in the browser, some players have downloaded the webpage for offline use due to fears that the New York Times Company would modify the game undesirably.
On February 10, the game was officially moved to *The New York Times* website, with statistics carrying over; however, some players reported that their daily [streaks](Winning streak) reset after the switch. The *Times* producers did not want to change any significant parts of *Wordle* except for two facets, moving the game to work in [React](React (JavaScript library)) so that it could be integrated with the *Times* online games app, and adding support for users to log in with their *Times* account as another way to track progress.
As part of the move, the *Times* eliminated some possible word guesses that they felt were insensitive or offensive terms such as "slave" and "lynch" as to "keep the puzzle accessible to more people", as well as eliminated some of the British spelling variants such as "fibre" in the solutions. The *Times* had also changed planned words in response to current events as to keep *Wordle* separate from the news. In May 2022, the solution word "fetus" was removed following the leaked draft decision in abortion-related [States Supreme Court](United)(United States Supreme Court) case, ''[v. Jackson Women's Health Organization](Dobbs)(Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization)'', to keep the game separate from the news. As of July 2022, a total of six words have been removed from the original 2,315 *Wordle* answers. Because of these deletions, the *Times* version of *Wordle* is now out of synchronization with cached or saved versions of *Wordle*, making it difficult for players of the two versions to compare their solution scores. By August 24, 2022, the New York Times Crossword app was updated to include Wordle, with player progression still synced between mobile and desktop versions.
On April 7, WordleBot was launched by the New York Times to give players information about how they completed their Wordle on that day, giving a luck and skill rating. Some users felt that the WordleBot responses became patronizing and insulting as the analysis of a player's completed puzzle progressed.
According to the *Times* quarterly earnings report ending on March 31, 2022, the acquisition of Wordle brought "tens of millions" of new players to the *Times* puzzle site and app, many of whom continued to play the other puzzles offered by the *Times*. In November 2022, the *Times* employed a dedicated editor, Tracy Bennett, to select the word of the day from a curated list.
Speaking in January 2023 to *[Today](Today (American TV program))* she explained that the words are initially selected by a random system but she then checks each word for suitability. She eliminates those "if there are any, like, secondary meanings that are maybe either profane or derogatory", and avoids those which are difficult to find because they have four letters in common with many other words, such as "found" where there are eight options for the first letter. "[Fetus](Fetus)" was removed, before her appointment, at a time when abortion was in the news, and she checks "to see if there’s anything that would make one of those words feel more hurtful or insensitive than normal." The words causing most complaints, apart from those with too many options such as "found", had been unfamiliar terms: "[parer](Kitchen knife#Paring)", "[Rupee](Rupee)" and the US-specific "[condo](condominium)".
*Wordle* was the top Google search term globally and by [users](American)(Americans) in 2022. Because of the popularity of Wordle, Google searches from players looking to find out the definition of Wordle answers affected top Google search trends. Seven of the top 10 searched-for word definitions in 2022 were Wordle answers including cacao, homer, canny, foray, trove, saute and tacit.
At the March 2023 [Developers Conference](Game)(Game Developers Conference), *New York Times* producer Zoe Bell shared data on the influence of *Wordle* to other *Times* online games. Player count for *Wordle* under the *Times* had peaked around March 2022, and while that has gone down, levels remained resilient to about half that count a year later. Importantly for the *Times*, the impact of *Wordle* has shown a growth in interest in the other games that the *Times* offers, with daily player counts continuing to grow as of March 2023.
## Adaptations and clones
Following *Wordle* sudden rise in popularity at the start of 2022, a number of [clones](Video game clone) appeared. Some of these clones revised the formula in novel methods. *Absurdle*, created by British programmer [qntm](qntm), is an adversarial version of *Wordle* where the target word changes with each guess, while still staying true to previously revealed hints. Other clones keep the mechanics of *Wordle* while changing the words the player needs to guess. These clones range from translations into other languages to guessing [words](swear)(swear words) in *Sweardle* and [NFL](NFL) players as in *Weddle*. There have also been a number of [ports](Porting) of *Wordle* to older hardware including *GameBoy Wordle* for the [Game Boy](Nintendo)(Nintendo Game Boy), *Wordle DS* for the [3DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo 3DS) and a [N-Gage](Nokia)(Nokia N-Gage) port simply titled *Wordle*.
Other games used the "-le" suffix to indicate a connection with *Wordle*, even with significant gameplay differences. These include *Semantle* where players try to find a word on the basis of semantic similarity, *Redactle* where a [Wikipedia](Wikipedia) article has most of its text hidden until the player selects words to reveal in order to identify it, and *Waffle* in which players have to organize letters into six different words in a five-by-five space. The game has also helped popularize a variety of non-word games, such as *Worldle*, in which players must identify a country or territory by its silhouette. If the player guesses wrong, instead of text-based hints they are given the direction and distance from the wrong location to the correct answer. *Heardle*, a *Wordle*-style game based on identifying songs, was acquired by [Spotify](Spotify) for an undisclosed sum in July 2022. *Quordle*, in which players tackle four word puzzles simultaneously, was purchased by [Merriam-Webster](Merriam-Webster) in January 2023 for an undisclosed sum, and relocated to be accessed from the dictionary-maker's website.
A number of ad-supported *Wordle* clones appeared on Apple's [Store](App)(App Store (iOS/iPadOS)) in early January 2022, but did little to alter the formula, even using the game's name. Users continued to seek out other *Wordle* clones on the App Store, and by the end of January 11, nearly all of the clones had been removed from the store. *The New York Times* filed an application to register a [trademark](trademark) for *Wordle* shortly after acquiring it to help protect the intellectual property.WORDLE, ser. no. [97/248,806](https://tsdr.uspto.gov/#caseNumber=97248806&caseType=SERIAL_NO&searchType=statusSearch) (filed February 1, 2022). [Patent and Trademark Office](U.S.)(U.S. Patent and Trademark Office) Trademark Status & Document Retrieval. Accessed May 4, 2022.
### Languages
Shortly after gaining viral popularity among English-speaking users in January 2022, *Wordle* was adapted into other languages. An open-source version of the basic *Wordle* game was created by Hannah Park, and modified by linguist Aiden Pine to handle a larger array of character sets, making it amenable to a larger set of languages. Pine also has a free step-by-step blog explaining how to create your own Wordle. By the start of February 2022, at least 350 different variants of *Wordle* had been documented on the website "Wordles of the World". These include at least 91 versions based on real languages, including historical and regional dialects of some languages, and indigenous languages, and including uses of the *Wordle* formula for languages without alphabetic writing systems, such as Chinese *[chengyu](chengyu)* and [sign language](American)(American sign language), and for constructed languages such as [Klingon](Klingon language).
Languages that *Wordle* has been adapted into include:
*[Arabic](Arabic language)
*[Armenian](Armenian language) and [Armenian](Western)(Western Armenian)
*[Basque](Basque language)
*[Belarusian](Belarusian language)
*[Bengali](Bengali language)
*[Bulgarian](Bulgarian language)
*[Cantonese](Cantonese)
*[Catalan](Catalan language)
*[Chinese](Chinese language)
*[Croatian](Croatian language)
*[Cypriot](Cypriot Greek)
*[Czech](Czech language)
*[Danish](Danish language)
*[Dutch](Dutch language)
* [Esperanto](Esperanto)
*[Filipino](Filipino language) Filipino Counterpart, Saltong |url=https://nylonmanila.com/saltong-filipino-version-saltong/ |website=Nylon Manila |access-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201022950/https://nylonmanila.com/saltong-filipino-version-saltong/ |url-status=live }}
*[Finnish](Finnish language)
*[French](French language)
*[Galician](Galician language)
*[German](German language)
*[Gitxsan](Gitxsan language)
*[Greek](Greek language)
*[Hawaiian](Hawaiian language)
*[Hebrew](Hebrew language)
*[Hindi](Hindi)
*[Hungarian](Hungarian language)
*[Icelandic](Icelandic language)
*[Indonesian](Indonesian language)
*[Iñupiaq](Iñupiaq language)
*[Irish](Irish language)
*[Italian](Italian language)
*[Japanese](Japanese language)
*[Kannada](Kannada language)
*[Kashmiri](Kashmiri language)
*[Malaysian](Malaysian language)
*[Māori](Māori language)
*[Marathi](Marathi language)
*[Norwegian](Norwegian language)
*[Occitan](Occitan language)
*[Norse](Old)(Old Norse language)
* [Polish](Polish language)
*[Portuguese](Portuguese language)
*[Romanian](Romanian language)
*[Russian](Russian language)
*[Saanich](Saanich dialect)
*[Scots](Scots language) ([Shetland](Shetland dialect))
*[Serbian](Serbian language)
*[Singlish](Singlish)
*[Slovenian](Slovenian language)
*[Spanish](Spanish language)
*[Swedish](Swedish language)
*[Tamil](Tamil language)
*[Turkish](Turkish language)
*[Ukrainian](Ukrainian language)
*[Urdu](Urdu)
*[Uzbek](Uzbek language)
*[Welsh](Welsh language)
*[Yiddish](Yiddish)
### Others
The New York Times and [Hasbro](Hasbro) partnered to create *Wordle: The Party Game*, a physical [game](board)(board game) variant for two to four players, where, each round, one player selects a secret word for other players to guess following *Wordle* rules. The game was released in October 2022. *[Polygon](Polygon (website))* Charlie Hall described the physical game as a "cut-and-paste job" simply replicating the online game's mechanics without enhancing it for multiple players as a party game.
## References
## External links
*
* ["Wordles of the World" – List of Wordle variants and language adaptations](https://rwmpelstilzchen.gitlab.io/wordles)
[video games](Category:2021)(Category:2021 video games)
[fads and trends](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s fads and trends)
[games](Category:Browser)(Category:Browser games)
[New York Times](Category:The)(Category:The New York Times)
[games developed in the United States](Category:Video)(Category:Video games developed in the United States)
[puzzle video games](Category:Word)(Category:Word puzzle video games)
|
Waffle House Index
|
waffle_house_index
|
# Waffle House Index
*Revision ID: 1159019457 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T18:30:31Z*
---
[[File:Waffle House Restaurant torn apart by Hurricane Katrina on the Biloxi, Mississippi coast LCCN2010630838.tif|thumb|upright|The remains of a Waffle House in [Mississippi](Biloxi,)(Biloxi, Mississippi), after [Katrina](Hurricane)(Hurricane Katrina)]]
The **Waffle House Index** is an informal [metric](Performance indicator) named after the ubiquitous Southern US restaurant chain [House](Waffle)(Waffle House) known for its 24-hour, 365-day service. Since this restaurant's [drive-through](drive-through) always remains open, it has given rise to an informal but useful metric to determine the severity of a storm and the likely scale of assistance required for disaster recovery. It was coined by former administrator [Fugate](Craig)(Craig Fugate) of the [Emergency Management Agency](Federal)(Federal Emergency Management Agency) (FEMA). The metric is unofficially used by FEMA to inform [response](disaster)(disaster response).
## Description
The index is based on Waffle House's reputation for having good disaster preparedness and staying open during [weather](extreme)(extreme weather) or reopening quickly afterwards.
| author=Craig Fugate, Former Head of the Federal Emergency Management Agency | title=| source=}}
### Levels
The index has three levels, based on the extent of operations and service at the restaurant following a storm:
* GREEN: full menu – Restaurant has power and damage is minimal or absent.
* YELLOW: limited menu – Power is either absent or delivered by a generator, or food supplies are running low.
* RED: the restaurant is closed – Indicates severe damage or severe flooding; Severe destruction to the restaurant.
### Background
The term was coined by FEMA Administrator [Fugate](Craig)(Craig Fugate) in May 2011, following the [Joplin tornado](2011)(2011 Joplin tornado), during which the two Waffle House restaurants in Joplin remained open.
The measure is based on the reputation of the restaurant chain Waffle House for staying open during extreme weather and for reopening quickly, albeit sometimes with a limited menu, after very severe weather events such as [tornado](tornado)es or [hurricane](hurricane)s. The chain's disaster preparedness measures include assembling and training "Waffle House jump teams" to facilitate fast reopening after disasters. Waffle House, along with other chains (such as [Depot](Home)(Home Depot), [Walmart](Walmart), and [Lowe's](Lowe's)) which do a significant proportion of their business in the southern US where there is a frequent risk of hurricanes, have good [management](risk)(risk management) and [preparedness](disaster)(disaster preparedness). Because of this, and the fact that a cut-down menu is prepared for times when there is no power or limited supplies, the Waffle House Index rarely reaches the red level.
The "Waffle House Index" sits alongside more formal measures of wind, rainfall, and other weather information, such as the [Hurricane Scale](Saffir–Simpson)(Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale), which are used to indicate the intensity of a storm.
Dan Stoneking, FEMA director of external affairs, wrote in a FEMA blog post:
A [request](FOIA)(Freedom of Information Act (United States)) response in 2017 included emails saying that the Waffle House Index was a personal project of Craig Fugate's, denying a connection between the Waffle House Index and FEMA's National Business Emergency Operations Center.[[File:When a Hurricane Strikes, Weather the Storm With Waffles.webm|thumb|"When a Hurricane Strikes, Weather the Storm With Waffles" video news report from [of America](Voice)(Voice of America) ]]
Worth noting, because of the severity of [Ian](Hurricane)(Hurricane Ian), 35 Waffle Houses closed in Florida in preparation for the storm, showing how severe Ian was forecasted to be that Waffle Houses closed in preparation for a storm, an extremely rare event. Hurricane Ian eventually made landfall as a [4 hurricane](Category)(Saffir–Simpson scale) with winds of , peaking out over the Atlantic Ocean as a Category 5 hurricane.
## See also
* [Mac Index](Big)(Big Mac Index)
* [intensity and damage](Tornado)(Tornado intensity and damage)
## References
## External links
* [FEMA Blog: News of the Day (July 7, 2011) – What do Waffle Houses Have to Do with Risk Management?](https://web.archive.org/web/20200728031512/http://www.fema.gov/blog/2011-07-07/news-day-what-do-waffle-houses-have-do-risk-management)
* [Always Open | Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine](http://gtalumnimag.com/2015/02/always-open/)
* Colbert Report segment on [FEMA's Waffle House Index](http://www.cc.com/video-clips/h90n13/the-colbert-report-fema-s-waffle-house-index)
* Data Crunch episode on [the Waffle House Index](http://vaultanalytics.com/podcast/the-predictive-power-of-waffles/)
[introductions](Category:2011)(Category:2011 introductions)
[Emergency Management Agency](Category:Federal)(Category:Federal Emergency Management Agency)
[scales](Category:Hazard)(Category:Hazard scales)
[House](Category:Waffle)(Category:Waffle House)
|
Hard Candy _film
|
hard_candy__film
|
# Hard Candy (film)
*Revision ID: 1159988883 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T20:15:43Z*
---
| writer = [Nelson](Brian)(Brian Nelson (screenwriter))
| starring =
* [Oh](Sandra)(Sandra Oh)
* Jennifer Holmes
}}
| music =
| cinematography = [Willems](Jo)(Jo Willems)
| editing = Art Jones
| studio =
| distributor = [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films)
| released =
| runtime = 104 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $950,000
| gross = $8.3 million
}}
***Hard Candy*** is a 2005 American [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) film focusing on a 14-year-old female [vigilante](vigilante)'s trapping and torture of a man whom she suspects of being a [predator](sexual)(sexual predator). The film was directed by [Slade](David)(David Slade), written by [Nelson](Brian)(Brian Nelson (screenwriter)), and stars [Page](Elliot)(Elliot Page) and [Wilson](Patrick)(Patrick Wilson (American actor)). It was the first feature film for Slade, who had primarily directed [video](music)(music video)s.
*Hard Candy* premiered at the 2005 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival), and was screened at the [Film Festival](Florida)(Florida Film Festival) in April 2006. It had a limited release in two theaters in the United States. The film made over $8 million at the box office, including $1 million domestically, on a budget of under $1 million.
*Hard Candy* won three awards at the 2005 [Film Festival](Sitges)(Sitges Film Festival), four awards at the [Film Festival](Málaga)(Málaga Film Festival), and was also awarded Overlooked Film of the Year at the 2006 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. Page won Best Actress at the [Austin Film Critics Association Awards](2006)(Austin Film Critics Association Awards 2006).
## Plot
14-year-old Hayley Stark and 32-year-old photographer Jeff Kohlver engage in a sexually charged, flirtatious [chat](online)(online chat). They then meet at a coffeehouse before going to Jeff's home. When they arrive, Jeff makes them drinks, but Hayley refuses by saying she was taught to never take a drink she has not mixed herself. Hayley goes to the kitchen and makes them both [screwdrivers.](Screwdriver (cocktail)) As Jeff shows her around his house, she notes the photographs hung on his walls, all of which seem to be of underage half clothed girls. Hayley asks Jeff to photograph her. He gets out his camera and Hayley begins to pose but before Jeff can take any photos, he loses consciousness.
When Jeff wakes, he is bound to a desk chair. Hayley explains she has been tracking and baiting him through online chats and drugged him because she believes he is a [predator](sexual)(sexual predator) and murderer. Jeff denies these allegations, claiming he had innocent intentions. Hayley searches Jeff's house and finds a gun and a safe. In the safe, Hayley finds pictures, including a photo of Donna Mauer, a local girl who has been kidnapped and remains missing. Jeff continues to deny the accusations and kicks Hayley to the ground, temporarily knocking her out. He rolls the chair into his bedroom and manages to retrieve his gun, which Hayley left out on his bed. He returns to the living room to see that Hayley is no longer there; she comes up from behind him and wraps his face in plastic wrap, choking him unconscious.
When Jeff wakes, he finds himself bound to a steel table with a bag of ice on his genitals, making them numb. Hayley tells him that she intends to [castrate](Castration) him. Jeff attempts to dissuade her, including by telling her he was abused as a child in a play for sympathy, but fails. Hayley consults a medical book to guide her through the procedure, describing it to Jeff as she performs the operation. Once it is finished, Hayley puts down the scalpel and walks away, saying she needs a shower.
Jeff frees himself, only to realize that the "surgery" was a trick and he is unharmed. He picks up the scalpel and storms into the bathroom, where the shower is running. He slashes at the shower curtain, but finds the shower empty. Hayley attacks him from behind, and as they struggle, Hayley incapacitates him with a stun gun.
Hayley calls Jeff's ex-girlfriend Janelle and, posing as a police officer, asks her to come immediately to Jeff's house. Jeff regains consciousness to find that Hayley has bound his wrists and hoisted him to stand on a chair in his kitchen with a noose around his neck. Hayley makes Jeff an offer: if he commits suicide, she promises to erase the evidence of his crimes, but if he refuses, she will expose his secrets. The conversation is interrupted when a neighbor knocks on the front door, selling [Scout](Girl)(Girl Scout) cookies. When Hayley returns, Jeff breaks from his bindings and pursues her to the roof of his house. Hayley has brought her rope from the kitchen and fashioned it into a noose secured to the chimney. Hayley keeps Jeff at bay with his gun.
Jeff confesses that he watched while another man raped and murdered Mauer. Jeff promises Hayley that, if she spares his life, he will tell her the other man's name so she can exact her revenge. Hayley reveals that she already knows his name, Aaron, and that Aaron said Jeff did it before he killed himself. Janelle arrives, and Hayley once again urges Jeff to hang himself, promising that she will destroy the evidence. Defeated, Jeff lets Hayley slide the noose around his neck, and steps off the roof. After he falls, Hayley says* "Or not";* – then gathers her belongings and walks away through the woods.
## Cast
* [Wilson](Patrick)(Patrick Wilson (American actor)) as Jeff Kohlver
* [Page](Elliot)(Elliot Page) as Hayley Stark
* [Oh](Sandra)(Sandra Oh) as Judy Tokuda
* Jennifer Holmes as Janelle Rogers
* Gilbert John as Nighthawks Clerk
## Production
The idea for *Hard Candy* came from a news story producer David W. Higgins saw on *[20/20](20/20 (U.S. TV series))* about young Japanese girls who would lure older businessmen to a location with the promise of meaningful conversation, only to [assault](assault) and [mug](Robbery) the men with a gang of other girls. This led him to wonder, "What if the person you expect to be the predator is not who you expect it to be? What if it's the other person?" He shared this question with writer [Nelson](Brian)(Brian Nelson (screenwriter)) who worked out a treatment and then a script on spec, and then Higgins and Nelson approached David Slade to direct. Due to the controversial nature of the work, the budget was kept under $1 million so that the production company would not ask to change anything.
Very little [dubbing](Dubbing (filmmaking)) was used in the film, with only a couple of lines modified in post-production. Only nine minutes of music are present in the film, with ambient sounds, such as heavy breathing, making up most of the [soundtrack](soundtrack). The film was shot in 18 days, largely in sequence, and mostly on a [soundstage](soundstage). Hayley wears a red hooded sweatshirt that is often seen as an [allusion](allusion) to "[Red Riding Hood](Little)(Little Red Riding Hood)". However, this was a serendipitous wardrobe choice by the creative team that was not realized until later on. International marketing for the film made use of this allusion. For example, a tagline on the Japanese site for the film reads: "Red Hood traps [Wolf](the)(Big Bad Wolf) in his own game."Original Japanese text:赤ずきんが仕掛けるオオカミへのゲーム
Jean-Clement Soret was the [colorist](digital)(Color grading) for the film, this being one of the few instances in which a colorist received a spot in the opening credits. The film contains many coloring effects and "density shifts" of lighting to reflect the moods of the characters. For example, when Hayley gets angry, the colors would be edited to be of lower frequency. One effect used which, as far as the director is aware, had not been done in cinema before, was to brighten the lighting in filming and correct everything down in post-production. This allowed for facial details to be visible even while having a darkened atmosphere. According to the DVD extras, the process required a custom-built [intermediate](digital)(digital intermediate) to be made and proved to be extremely difficult, with corrections having to be made frame-by-frame in some instances. This technique, known as [ETTR](ETTR), is a standard procedure in digital photography and cinematography to minimize the amount of noise in shadows and midtones.
Nelson's early [title](working)(working title)s of the script were *Vendetta* and *Snip Snip*. When Higgins asked for a title with a "sugar and spice combination and a mixture of harsh roughness, innocence, and vulnerability", Nelson proposed the title *Hard Candy*.
[Page](Elliot)(Elliot Page) in his memoir *[Pageboy](Pageboy (memoir))* revealed without naming a name that a man who worked on the film propositioned him, and making him freeze as the in the incident occurred right after the Hard Candy wrap up party in Los Angeles, before offering him a ride home. Naming the chapter where he goes into detail as Leeches.
## Reception
### Box office
The film premiered at the 2005 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) with a midnight screening. The [Surround](Dolby)(Dolby Surround) System failed before the screening and the audience was kept out until it was repaired. *Hard Candy* was also screened at the [Film Festival](Florida)(Florida Film Festival) on April 1, 2006.
*Hard Candy* opened in two theaters in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and [York City](New)(New York City) on April 14, 2006 in a [release](limited)(limited release). During its opening weekend, the film grossed $58,049 averaging $29,704 per theater, the highest per-screen average in the top 50. [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) reported that it ended its run with $1,024,640 at the [America](North)(North America)n box office, and a further $5,997,569 internationally for a total of $7,022,209. [Numbers](The)(The Numbers (website)) put the total gross at $8.26 million, with an international gross of $7,242,426.
### Critical response
On review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 67% of 147 critic reviews are positive, and the average rating is 6.4/10. The critics consensus reads: "Disturbing, controversial, but entirely engrossing, *Hard Candy* is well written with strong lead performances, especially that of newcomer Elliot Page. A movie that stays with the viewer long after leaving the theater." According to [Metacritic](Metacritic), which sampled 30 reviews and calculated a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, the film received "mixed or average reviews".
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) rated the film 3.5/4 stars, writing "There is undeniable fascination in the situation as it unfolds... Seen as a film, seen as acting and direction, seen as just exactly how it unfolds on the screen, *Hard Candy* is impressive and effective." Steve Persall wrote in the *[Bay Times](Tampa)(Tampa Bay Times)* that he saw the movie in a crowded bar, yet "until the shocking end, there's nothing less than rapt attention to this sordid thriller about an online predator (Wilson) and his not-so-innocent prey [Page](Elliot). On a party night in New Orleans? That's how creepy-good this movie is." Steve Schneider, writing in the *[Weekly](Orlando)(Orlando Weekly)*, praised the film's "grabber of a sicko setup... It's a memorably tense *pas de deux*, and if the movie doesn't pay off on it properly, fault a script that ventures further and further into [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) claptrap, leaving the two stars to rely on their hefty talents to keep it at all believable."
Caroline Westbrook at [magazine](*Empire*)(Empire (magazine)) called it a "cracking little thriller". David Edwards at the *[Mirror](Daily)(Daily Mirror)* praised it as a "smart, challenging and timely look at the world of internet [grooming](Child grooming)". Todd McCarthy at *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* praised the "spectacular performance" by the teenaged Page. On the other hand, [Rosenbaum](Jonathan)(Jonathan Rosenbaum) referred to it as torture and mutilation and wrote: "I'd rather have this movie obliterated from my memory." *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* film critic [Dargis](Manohla)(Manohla Dargis) recognized the film's debt to "[Dorfman](Ariel)(Ariel Dorfman) and [LaBute](Neil)(Neil LaBute), among others", but did not care for the torture theme "in the age of [Ghraib](Abu)(Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse)".
Page's performance received critical acclaim; Lynn Hirschberg of *[New York Times Magazine](The)(The New York Times Magazine)* said "a star was born, but almost no one noticed", describing *Hard Candy* as Page's initial artistic breakthrough performance, and his role in the 2007 film *[Juno](Juno (film))* as his mainstream popularity breakthrough performance. Claudia Puig from *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* praised him for "remain[ing] consistently convincing" to his role which is both "powerful and chilling ... he manages to be both cruelly callous and likable, and [his] is one of the most complex, disturbing and haunting performances of the year."
### Accolades
The film won three awards at the 2005 [Film Festival](Sitges)(Festival de Cine de Sitges) and four awards at the 2006 [Film Festival](Málaga)(Málaga Film Festival). The film also won Overlooked Film of the Year at the 2006 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards. Page won the Best Actress award from the [Film Critics Association](Austin)(Austin Film Critics Association Awards 2006). Page was nominated for the Breakthrough Performer award at the [Online Film Critics Society Awards](2006)(Online Film Critics Society Awards 2006), and Best Female Newcomer at the [Empire Awards](12th)(12th Empire Awards). The film was nominated for Best Foreign Independent film at the [British Independent Film Awards](2006)(British Independent Film Awards 2006), and the film's trailer was nominated for Best Thriller and Best Titles in a Trailer at the 7th [Trailer Awards](Golden)(Golden Trailer Awards).
## Home media
The American [DVD](DVD) was released on September 19, 2006, with two [tracks](commentary)(Audio commentary), a 52-minute making-of [featurette](featurette), six [and extended scenes](deleted)(Deleted scene), the script and director's notebook, and [trailers](Film trailer) for *Hard Candy* and other Lionsgate films. Francis Rizzo III from *[Talk](DVD)(DVD Talk)* gave a positive review, praising the DVD's quality and extras. The [Blu-ray](Blu-ray Disc) was released by [Home Entertainment](Lionsgate)(Lionsgate Home Entertainment) on October 5, 2010, and contained the same special features as the DVD. Aaron Peck from *High-Def Digest* and Jeffrey Kauffman from *Blu-ray.com* both awarded the Blu-ray four out of five stars.
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [October 19, 2003 draft script](http://www.horrorlair.com/movies/hard-candy-script.html)
[films](Category:2005)(Category:2005 films)
[independent films](Category:2005)(Category:2005 independent films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:2005)(Category:2005 psychological thriller films)
[independent films](Category:American)(Category:American independent films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American psychological thriller films)
[directorial debut films](Category:2005)(Category:2005 directorial debut films)
[English-language films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s English-language films)
[about kidnapping](Category:Films)(Category:Films about kidnapping)
[about child sexual abuse](Category:Films)(Category:Films about child sexual abuse)
[directed by David Slade](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by David Slade)
[set in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Los Angeles)
[shot in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles)
[invasions in film](Category:Home)(Category:Home invasions in film)
[films](Category:Lionsgate)(Category:Lionsgate films)
[vigilante films](Category:American)(Category:American vigilante films)
[Productions films](Category:Vulcan)(Category:Vulcan Productions films)
[vigilante films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s vigilante films)
[controversies in film](Category:Obscenity)(Category:Obscenity controversies in film)
[American films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s American films)
|
Predator 2
|
predator_2
|
# Predator 2
*Revision ID: 1159175165 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T18:48:36Z*
---
| writer =
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Silvestri](Alan)(Alan Silvestri)
| cinematography = [Levy](Peter)(Peter Levy (cinematographer))
| editing =
| distributor = 20th Century Fox
| studio =
| released =
| runtime = 108 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $20–30 million
| gross = $57.1 million
}}
***Predator 2*** is a 1990 American [fiction](science)(science fiction film) [film](action)(action film) written by brothers [Jim](Jim Thomas (screenwriter)) and [Thomas](John)(John Thomas (screenwriter)), directed by [Hopkins](Stephen)(Stephen Hopkins (director)), and starring [Glover](Danny)(Danny Glover), [Busey](Gary)(Gary Busey), [Blades](Ruben)(Ruben Blades), [Conchita Alonso](María)(María Conchita Alonso), [Paxton](Bill)(Bill Paxton), and [Peter Hall](Kevin)(Kevin Peter Hall). It is the second installment of the [franchise](*Predator*)(Predator (franchise)), and sequel to 1987's *[Predator](Predator (film))*, with Kevin Peter Hall reprising the title role of the [Predator](Predator (alien)). Set ten years after the events of the first film, in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), the film focuses on a disgruntled police officer and his allies battling a malevolent and technologically advanced extraterrestrial Predator.
At the time of release, the film received generally negative reviews and earned a moderate box office return, grossing $57 million worldwide, compared to the previous film's $98 million gross on a smaller production budget. The film has been viewed more positively over time, especially for Danny Glover's performance, the direction, and the musical score, and has gained a cult following. The next film appearance of the Predator is 2004's [crossover](Crossover (fiction)) film [vs. Predator*](*Alien)(Alien vs. Predator (film)).
## Plot
In 1997, Los Angeles is suffering from a [wave](heat)(heat wave) and a turf war between heavily armed [Colombian](Medellín Cartel) and [drug cartels](Jamaican)(Jamaican posse). A [Predator](Predator (alien)) watches a shootout between the police, Jamaicans, and Colombians, observing as Lieutenant Michael R. Harrigan charges into the firefight to rescue two wounded officers and drive the Colombians back into their hideout. The Predator assaults the Colombians, causing a disturbance that prompts Harrigan and detectives Leona Cantrell and Danny Archuleta to defy orders and enter the hideout, where they find the slaughtered Colombians. On the roof, Harrigan shoots the crazed gang leader and catches a glimpse of the camouflaged Predator, but dismisses it as a consequence of the extreme heat and his [acrophobia](acrophobia). At the station, Harrigan is reprimanded by his superiors for his disobedience and introduced to Special Agent Peter Keyes, leader of a task force investigating the cartels, and Detective Jerry Lambert, the newest member of Harrigan's team.
Later that evening, Jamaicans invade the Colombian drug lord's penthouse and murder him before they are murdered in turn by the Predator. Upon their arrival, Harrigan's team notes the similarities between the current crime scene and the earlier Colombian massacre until Keyes's team arrives and removes them. Archuleta returns to conduct a solo investigation, finding one of the Predator's spear tips before the creature kills him. As an enraged Harrigan vows to stop Archuleta's killer, forensic analysis reveals the spear tip is not composed of any known element on the [table](periodic)(periodic table). Seeking answers, Harrigan meets with Jamaican drug lord King Willie, a [voodoo](Haitian Vodou) practitioner who believes the killer is supernatural and that he should prepare himself for battle against it. Harrigan leaves before the Predator kills King Willie, taking his head as a trophy. Tracing a lead indicating Archuleta's killer had recently been in a slaughterhouse, Harrigan arranges to meet his team at the warehouse district to investigate.
Cantrell and Lambert take the subway there, but are ambushed by the Predator, who kills Lambert and numerous armed passengers but spares Cantrell after its helmet's scanners indicate that she is pregnant. Arriving in time to see it claim Lambert’s head, Harrigan chases the fleeing Predator, but is intercepted by Keyes's men. Keyes reveals that the monster is an [extraterrestrial](extraterrestrials in fiction) hunter with [infrared](infrared) vision and [camouflage](active)(active camouflage) that has been hunting humans for sport throughout several armed conflicts, most recently one decade prior in Central America. Keyes and his team have set a trap in a nearby slaughterhouse, using thermally insulated suits with mounted [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) lights and [cryogenic](cryogenics) weapons to capture it for study. Upon arrival, the suspicious Predator uses its scanners to track, outmaneuver, and slaughter Keyes's men via their lights.
Harrigan attacks and wounds the Predator, but it destroys his weapon. It nearly kills him before Keyes tries to freeze the creature, only to be bisected by the Predator's Smart Disc. The Predator chases Harrigan to the roof, where they clash until they are left hanging from a ledge. The creature activates a self-destruct device on its forearm, which Harrigan severs with the disc, disarming it. The Predator falls into an apartment, where it treats its wounds and flees. Harrigan pursues it to a spacecraft hidden underground and eventually kills the Predator with its disc. A group of Predators emerge to collect their dead comrade and give Harrigan an antique [flintlock](flintlock) pistol as a trophy. As the ship takes off, Harrigan escapes to the surface and meets with the remainder of Keyes's team. As Keyes's subordinate Garber curses their lost opportunity to capture the creature, Harrigan privately muses that the beings will return.
## Cast
* [Glover](Danny)(Danny Glover) as Lieutenant Mike Harrigan, an [LAPD](LAPD) Officer who is investigating rival Jamaican and Colombian [cartel](drug)(drug cartel)s. He is stubborn and often is criticized by the superior officers for not obeying orders.
* [Peter Hall](Kevin)(Kevin Peter Hall) as [Hunter](City)(List of Predator (franchise) characters#The "City Hunter" Predator) / [Predator](The)(Predator (fictional species)), a member of an alien warrior race that hunts aggressive members of other species for sport, uses [camouflage](active)(active camouflage) and a plasma weapon, and can see in the [infrared](infrared) spectrum. Hall also played the Elder Predator, the leader of the Predators at the end of the film.
** [Rayle](Hal)(Hal Rayle) provides the voice of the Predator, replacing [Cullen](Peter)(Peter Cullen) from the first film.
* [Busey](Gary)(Gary Busey) as Special Agent Peter Keyes, posed as a [DEA](Drug Enforcement Administration) agent leading a special task force investigating a drug conspiracy as a cover for his attempts to capture the Predator. The character is a replacement for Dutch, the protagonist of the first film, after [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger) declined to reprise the role.
* [Blades](Rubén)(Rubén Blades) as Detective Danny Archuleta, a member of Harrigan's team and a long-time friend of his.
* [Conchita Alonso](María)(María Conchita Alonso) as Detective Leona Cantrell, an LAPD cop involved in the Jamaican-Colombian gang wars
* [Paxton](Bill)(Bill Paxton) as Detective Jerry Lambert, an LAPD cop, transferred from another precinct into Metro Command. His role is often that of [relief](comic)(comic relief).
* [Chauvin](Lilyan)(Lilyan Chauvin) as Dr. Irene Edwards, the chief medical examiner and forensic pathologist of Los Angeles. She aids Harrigan, though being completely cut out of the official investigation by Keyes's team.
* [Davi](Robert)(Robert Davi) as Deputy Chief Phil Heinemann.
* [Baldwin](Adam)(Adam Baldwin) as Agent Adam Garber, a member of Keyes's task force.
* [McCord](Kent)(Kent McCord) as Captain Brent Pilgrim, an LAPD cop, and Harrigan's immediate boss.
* [Kahan](Steve)(Steve Kahan) as Sergeant Neil Reeger, an LAPD SWAT Sergeant.
* [Kingi](Henry)(Henry Kingi) as "El Scorpio", a violent member of the Colombian Scorpions. Kingi previously appeared in [first film](the)(Predator (film)) as an insurgent pursued by [Schaefer](Dutch)(Dutch Schaefer).
* [Downey Jr.](Morton)(Morton Downey Jr.) as Tony Pope, a journalist who reports the gruesome and murderous homicides left by the Predator. He is constantly criticized by the police for interfering with investigations.
* [Lockhart](Calvin)(Calvin Lockhart) as Willie "King Willie", the boss of the Jamaica Voodoo Posse. He appears to be psychic because of his voodoo beliefs.
* [Kauders](Sylvia)(Sylvia Kauders) as Ruth Albright, an elderly lady.
* Billy "Sly" Williams as Jackson, a paramedic.
* [Garcia](Jsu)(Jsu Garcia) (Credited as Nick Corri) as Dvorkin, an LAPD detective.
* [Wiseman](Michael)(Michael Wiseman) as Zinck, an LAPD officer.
* [Weigel](Teri)(Teri Weigel) as Mary, Ramon Vega's Colombian mistress.
* [Rosales Jr.](Thomas)(Thomas Rosales Jr.) as El Scorpio Gang Member
* [Papajohn](Michael)(Michael Papajohn) as Gang member in the subway.
* [Sander](Casey)(Casey Sander) as an OWLFP Member
* [Skipper](Pat)(Pat Skipper) as an OWLFP Member
* [Ishida](Jim)(Jim Ishida) as A Reporter
[Carrillo](Elpidia)(Elpidia Carrillo) reprises her role as Anna Gonsalves from the first film in a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance). She aids government agents in a videotape, showing the devastating after-effects of the first Predator's self-destruct device to the U.S. Army. Carrillo filmed an additional scene in which she talks to the camera and describes the events of the first film, but this scene was cut.
## Production
Once [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) approached *Predator* screenwriters [Jim](Jim Thomas (screenwriter)) and [Thomas](John)(John Thomas (screenwriter)) to write a sequel, they pitched six ideas, one of which was "putting the creature in an urban jungle", which the studio liked. The eventual setting was Los Angeles, blighted by gang warfare during a severe [wave](heat)(heat wave), creating the ideal "hot spot" in which the Predator hunts targets. The script was then developed in just three weeks. A goal of the sequel was to expand on the Predator's origins and motives, showing the creature has been visiting the planet for centuries, is not psychopathic, but just interested in hunting, and exploring its spacecraft's interior.
Producer [Silver](Joel)(Joel Silver) invited director [Hopkins](Stephen)(Stephen Hopkins (director)), who drew his interest while directing *[Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child](A)(A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child)*. As Hopkins joined production before the screenplay was finished, he worked closely with the Thomases in the script revisions and storyboarding the sequences they had written. For the lead role of LAPD police officer Harrigan, Hopkins had originally envisioned [Swayze](Patrick)(Patrick Swayze) playing the role, teaming up with a returning [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger), who starred as Dutch in the first film. Hopkins also met with [Seagal](Steven)(Steven Seagal) for the role; although the actor was interested in starring in the film and had his own ideas about the character, wanting to portray him as a [CIA](CIA) psychiatrist and martial arts expert, Hopkins ultimately decided against it, as he wanted the character to be an [Joe](Average)(Average Joe) type. Due to a dispute over salary, Schwarzenegger declined to return to the sequel, and Silver brought in three actors he had worked with in *[Weapon](Lethal)(Lethal Weapon)*: [Busey](Gary)(Gary Busey), [Kahan](Steve)(Steve Kahan), and [Glover](Danny)(Danny Glover), in the role of Harrigan. Production was split between location shooting, mostly at night, and soundstage filming.
The main Predator was designed to look more urban and [hip](Hip (slang)) than its predecessor. Design changes included tribal ornamentation on the forehead, which is steeper and shallower, brighter skin coloration, and a greater number of fangs. Describing the new Predator's design, [Winston](Stan)(Stan Winston) said, "Broad concept's the same. The difference is, this is a different individual. A different individual of the same species. As in a snake is a snake, but different snakes are different. Their colorings are different, different parts of their characteristics, their facial structures, subtle differences." Production designer Lawrence Paull said that with the Predator ship, he attempted "a space vehicle unlike anything that had ever been designed before", a snail-shaped vessel whose interior was "both technological and reptilian, where the creature and its ship blend and work together". Given the *[Alien](Alien (franchise))* franchise is also by Fox with effects work by Winston, the crew added a [Alien](Xenomorph (Alien)) head among the trophy skulls in the Predator ship.
*Predator 2* is set ten years after the original, which was the then-future of 1997, leading to some developments like new video technology and a nonexistent subway in Los Angeles. The [Angeles Metro Rail](Los)(Los Angeles Metro Rail) started operating the same year of the film's release. For the set design, Paul aimed for a "kind of retrograde future that's equal parts *[Brazil](Brazil (1985 film))* and *[Runner](Blade)(Blade Runner)* mixed in with modern-day technology", with "big and outrageous" structures but simpler prop design, such as boxy and colorless cars.
The MPAA initially gave *Predator 2* an NC-17 rating, so several cuts were made to bring it down to an R rating.
Toward the end of filming, a short unofficial music video was made, with Danny Glover dancing with the Predator and others.
## Music
[Silvestri](Alan)(Alan Silvestri) returned to score the sequel, conducting the Skywalker Symphony Orchestra. Whereas the first film did not have its music released until years later, a soundtrack album for the sequel was issued on December 11, 1990, from [Sarabande](Varèse)(Varèse Sarabande). On December 1, 2014, the label issued *Predator 2: The Deluxe Edition*.
## Release
### Home media
*Predator 2* was released on VHS and LaserDisc in 1991, on DVD in 2003, a two-disc special edition in January 2005, on Blu-ray on June 9, 2009, in North America, and 4K UHD Blu-Ray on August 7, 2018. High Def Digest|last=Hartman|first=Matthew|date=August 7, 2018|website=ultrahd.highdefdigest.com|access-date=March 25, 2019}}
## Reception
### Box office
Released on November 21, 1990, *Predator 2* was #4 at the US box office in its opening weekend, with a gross of over $8 million behind the films *[with Wolves](Dances)(Dances with Wolves)*, *[Men and a Little Lady](Three)(Three Men and a Little Lady)*, *[V](Rocky)(Rocky V)*, and Twentieth Century Fox's own film *[Alone](Home)(Home Alone)*. The film grossed a total of $57 million, $30 million of which was from the United States. The worldwide box office revenue totaled $57,120,318 in ticket sales. The film became the lowest-grossing film in the *Predator* franchise.
### Critical response
In 1990, the film's reviews were generally negative, though reviewers were generally impressed by the casting of Danny Glover as an action hero. On review aggregation website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film received an approval rating of 31% based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The site's consensus states: "The thrill of the hunt is gone in this hackneyed sequel." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a [average](weighted)(weighted arithmetic mean) score of 46 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
The reviewers for *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* were split: Rita Kempley enjoyed the film, saying that it had "the dismal irony of *[RoboCop](RoboCop)* and the brooding fatalism of *[Runner](Blade)(Blade Runner)*", and that Glover "brings an unusual depth to the action-adventure and proves fiercely effective as the Predator's new nemesis".Rita Kempley, ['Predator 2'](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/predator2rkempley_a0a0b6.htm), *Washington Post*, November 21, 1990, Accessed October 24, 2020. Desson Howe said the film was "blithely unoriginal" and numbingly violent, but also praised Glover's ability to bring warmth to the center of a cold film.Desson Howe, ['Predator 2'](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/predator2rhowe_a0b2be.htm), *Washington Post*, November 23, 1990, Accessed October 24, 2020.
In her review for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, [Maslin](Janet)(Janet Maslin) called the film "an unbeatable contender" for the "most mindless, mean-spirited action film of the holiday season".Janet Maslin, [Predator 2 (1990) Review/Film; The Quarry: Humans](https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9C0CE7DD143FF932A15752C1A966958260), *The New York Times*, November 21, 1990, Accessed January 6, 2011. *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert), in giving the film two out of four stars, suggested that it represents an "angry and ugly" dream. He said that the creatures' design had racist undertones where "subliminal clues [...] encourage us to subconsciously connect the menace with black males".
Several retrospective reviews have considered the film underrated, and it has gained a cult following.*Predator 2* Turns 25 Today!|url=https://bloody-disgusting.com/editorials/3370679/youre-one-ugly-mother-fcker-predator-2-turns-25-today|website=[Disgusting](Bloody)(Bloody Disgusting)!|quote=Film ’89 Verdict – 8.5/10}}}}
Later, director Stephen Hopkins said: "It's so over the top. I just sort of went for it and made the biggest, boldest, loudest movie I could make. I was only 29 years old – I was like a rampant child, running around Los Angeles, blowing the shit out of everything and making things as bloody as possible." About the modest reception at the box office and the cult status since its release, he added "It had a big initial opening weekend if I remember correctly – but I think many people were disappointed that Arnold wasn’t in it. A lot of people like the film and some prefer it to the original – just because it’s in a city and more contemporary."
Danny Glover was proud of his performance, saying:
I have two films I’ve done that I feel that I was bigger than life in, in which I felt that I could control the space. *[Silverado](Silverado (film))* for me, and *Predator 2*. In *Predator 2*, it was like 'who's the baddest cat in your space, and the baddest cat says 'I'm gonna challenge you.' Mano y mano. I was the baddest guy in his space. What happens? I kill him, and then the others come around, and I’m like 'alright... who's next?' I was about 42, 43.. in the best shape in my life, best shape I’ve been in. I was running on the beach, had my training, I was lifting weights a lot more than I am now. I was really feeling it in that movie.*The Color Purple*,' *Saw*,' and His Classic Line in *Lethal Weapon*}}
## Other media
A third main film titled *[Predators](Predators (film))* was released in 2010, and a fourth, *[Predator](The)(The Predator (film))*, in 2018. A [prequel](prequel) titled *[Prey](Prey (2022 film))*, which takes place in 1719, was released in 2022.
A [novelization](novelization) of the film written by [Hawke](Simon)(Simon Hawke) was released on December 1, 1990, by the publishing company [Jove](Jove Books). It provides a small amount of information regarding the fate of Dutch from the first film. Keyes recalls memories of speaking with the battered Major while infirmed in a hospital, suffering from radiation sickness. Dutch is said to have escaped from the hospital, never to be seen again. It tells a great deal of the story from the Predator's point of view, such as its humiliation of having its mask removed by Harrigan and its reasoning for not killing Cantrell due to its discovery of her pregnancy.
The film was adapted as two video games: [first for computer in 1990](the)(Predator 2 (computer game)) and [second for Sega Genesis in 1992](the)(Predator 2 (1992 video game)).
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
[films](Category:1990)(Category:1990 films)
[science fiction horror films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s science fiction horror films)
[sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films)
[action horror films](Category:American)(Category:American action horror films)
[science fiction action films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction action films)
[science fiction horror films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction horror films)
[English-language films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s English-language films)
[portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department)
[about Colombian drug cartels](Category:Films)(Category:Films about Colombian drug cartels)
[set in 1997](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1997)
[set in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Los Angeles)
[set in the future](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the future)
[shot in California](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in California)
[police detective films](Category:American)(Category:American police detective films)
[(franchise) films](Category:Predator)(Category:Predator (franchise) films)
[Century Fox films](Category:20th)(Category:20th Century Fox films)
[Entertainment films](Category:Davis)(Category:Davis Entertainment films)
[Pictures films](Category:Silver)(Category:Silver Pictures films)
[directed by Stephen Hopkins](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Stephen Hopkins)
[produced by Lawrence Gordon](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Lawrence Gordon)
[produced by Joel Silver](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Joel Silver)
[produced by John Davis](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by John Davis)
[scored by Alan Silvestri](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Alan Silvestri)
[about extraterrestrial life](Category:Films)(Category:Films about extraterrestrial life)
[with screenplays by Jim Thomas (screenwriter)](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Jim Thomas (screenwriter))
[with screenplays by John Thomas (screenwriter)](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by John Thomas (screenwriter))
[American films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s American films)
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Henry Blodget
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henry_blodget
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# Henry Blodget
*Revision ID: 1159445835 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T10:40:59Z*
---
**Henry McKelvey Blodget** (born 1966) is an American businessman, investor and journalist. He is notable for his former career as an [research analyst](equity)(securities analyst) who was senior Internet analyst for [Oppenheimer](CIBC)(CIBC World Markets) and the head of the global Internet research team at [Lynch](Merrill)(Merrill Lynch) during the [era](dot-com)(dot-com era). Due to his violations of securities laws and subsequent civil trial conviction, Blodget is permanently banned from involvement in the securities industry. Blodget is the CEO of *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)*.
## Early life and education
Blodget was born and raised on Manhattan's [East Side](Upper)(Upper East Side), the son of a commercial banker. He attended [Exeter Academy](Phillips)(Phillips Exeter Academy) and received a [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) degree in history from [University](Yale)(Yale University), where he was a member of [Society of Orpheus and Bacchus](The)(The Society of Orpheus and Bacchus).
After college, he taught English in [Japan](Japan), then moved to [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) to be a writer while supporting himself by giving tennis lessons. He was also a [freelance](Freelancer) [journalist](journalist) and a proofreader for ''[Magazine](Harper's)(Harper's Magazine)''.
## Investment career
In 1994, Blodget joined the corporate finance training program at [Securities](Prudential)(Prudential Securities), and, two years later, moved to [& Co.](Oppenheimer)(Oppenheimer & Co.) in equity research. In October 1998, he predicted that the common stock of [Amazon](Amazon (company)), AMZN (then trading at $240) would be priced at $400 within a year. This was thought highly unlikely at the time; however, just three weeks later Amazon's stock price passed that mark, a gain of 67%. This call received significant media attention. Two months later, Blodget accepted a position at [Lynch](Merrill)(Merrill Lynch), and frequently appeared on [CNBC](CNBC) and similar shows.
In early 2000, days before the [bubble](dot-com)(dot-com bubble) burst, Blodget personally invested $700,000 in tech stocks, only to lose most of it in the years that followed.["The Wall Street Self-Defense Manual, Part 4" by Blodget, with sidebar](https://slate.com/culture/2004/07/the-wall-street-self-defense-manual-part-4.html) He accepted a buyout offer from Merrill Lynch and left the firm in 2001.
## Fraud allegation and settlement
In 2003, Blodget was charged with civil securities fraud by the [Securities and Exchange Commission](U.S.)(U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission).[Factual allegations as submitted by SEC](https://www.sec.gov/litigation/complaints/comp18115b.htm) and settled the charges with a payment of $4 million without admitting or denying the allegations and their underlying facts and findings. He was permanently barred from the securities industry and censured by the SEC, NASD, and NYSE. The charges arose from actions Blodget took from 1999-2001 while at Merrill Lynch, which included issuing materially misleading research reports on internet companies, and making exaggerated or unwarranted claims about them to customers.
## Writing
Following his departure from the financial markets, Blodget resumed his career as a financial and economics writer. He was appointed CEO of Cherry Hill Research, a research and consulting firm, and contributed to *[Slate](Slate (magazine))*, *Newsweek International*, *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, *[Fortune](Fortune (magazine))*, Forbes Online, *[2.0](Business)(Business 2.0)*, *[Euromoney](Euromoney)*, [York* magazine](*New)(New York (magazine)), and *[Financial Times](The)(The Financial Times)*.
Blodget rose to prominence again as co-founder, CEO, and editor-in-chief of *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)* (initially known as *Silicon Alley Insider*) in 2007. He was also a frequent contributor to the [Alpha](Seeking)(Seeking Alpha) website at the same time. While CEO and owner of *Business Insider*, he offered free reproduction of all content to readers under Creative Commons licensing. In 2014, Jeffrey Bezos purchased a stake in *Business Insider*.
As of 2017, Blodget remains the CEO and editor-in-chief of *Business Insider*, now a [news website](general)(Online newspaper). He continues to contribute articles to *Slate*, *Newsweek*, and *New York* magazine. Blodget's articles focus on the return-limiting actions of individual investors, including listening to analysts and the financial media, and relying on active management such as mutual and hedge funds. His *Slate* articles about investing carry a seven-paragraph disclosure of potential conflicts of interest.
In January 2007, Blodget published ''The Wall Street Self-Defense Manual: A Consumer's Guide to Intelligent Investing'' in January 2007.
## Internet broadcaster
Blodget used to co-host the *Daily-Ticker* broadcast with [Task](Aaron)(Aaron Task) weekdays at [Finance](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! Finance).
## Bibliography
* ''The Wall Street Self-Defense Manual: A Consumer's Guide to Intelligent Investing.'' Atlas Books, 2007. .
## References
## Further reading
*
## External links
*[Silicon Alley Insider](http://www.alleyinsider.com/) Henry Blodget's multi-author technology blog
*
*[Business Insider](http://www.businessinsider.com/) Blodget is currently editor of [Insider](Business)(Business Insider)
* – Promotional site for Blodget's first book.
*
[births](Category:1966)(Category:1966 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[financial analysts](Category:American)(Category:American financial analysts)
[finance and investment writers](Category:American)(Category:American finance and investment writers)
[fraudsters](Category:American)(Category:American fraudsters)
[mass media company founders](Category:American)(Category:American mass media company founders)
[technology writers](Category:American)(Category:American technology writers)
[in information technology](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople in information technology)
[from New York City](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from New York City)
[from New York City](Category:Journalists)(Category:Journalists from New York City)
[(company) people](Category:Merrill)(Category:Merrill (company) people)
[from the Upper East Side](Category:People)(Category:People from the Upper East Side)
[Exeter Academy alumni](Category:Phillips)(Category:Phillips Exeter Academy alumni)
[(magazine) people](Category:Slate)(Category:Slate (magazine) people)
[from Manhattan](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Manhattan)
[College alumni](Category:Yale)(Category:Yale College alumni)
[chief executives](Category:American)(Category:American chief executives)
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Blumhouse Productions
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blumhouse_productions
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# Blumhouse Productions
*Revision ID: 1158855192 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T17:21:17Z*
---
| parent =
| divisions = Haunted MoviesBH Tilt (with [Neon](Neon (company)))Blumhouse InternationalBlumHansonAllen FilmsBlumhouse Television (55%) Blumhouse BooksBlumhouse Games[Blumhouse Games – Blumhouse Launches New Subsidiary to Produce Original Horror Video Games](https://bloody-disgusting.com/video-games/3752071/blumhouse-games-blumhouse-launches-new-subsidiary-to-produce-original-horror-video-games/)
| website =
| logo_caption =
| founded =
}}
**Blumhouse Productions** (; also known as **BH Productions** or simply **BH**) is an American film and television [company](production)(production company) founded in 2000 by [Blum](Jason)(Jason Blum).
Blumhouse is known mainly for producing [film](horror)(horror film)s, such as *[Activity](Paranormal)(Paranormal Activity)*, *[Insidious](Insidious (film))*, *[Purge](The)(The Purge (2013 film))*, *[Split](Split (2016 American film))*, *[Out](Get)(Get Out)*, *[Death Day](Happy)(Happy Death Day)*, *[Halloween](Halloween (2018 film))*, *[Us](Us (2019 film))*, *[Invisible Man](The)(The Invisible Man (2020 film))*, *[Freaky](Freaky (film))*, *[Black Phone](The)(The Black Phone)* and *[M3GAN](M3GAN)*. It has also produced drama films, such as *[Whiplash](Whiplash (2014 film))* and *[BlacKkKlansman](BlacKkKlansman)*, which both earned nominations for the [Award for Best Picture](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Picture). *Get Out* and *BlacKkKlansman* won Academy Awards for [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) and [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay), respectively.
It has worked with directors such as [Whannell](Leigh)(Leigh Whannell), [Peele](Jordan)(Jordan Peele), [Derrickson](Scott)(Scott Derrickson), [Landon](Christopher)(Christopher Landon (filmmaker)), [Wan](James)(James Wan), [Flanagan](Mike)(Mike Flanagan (filmmaker)), [DeMonaco](James)(James DeMonaco), [Wadlow](Jeff)(Jeff Wadlow), [Chazelle](Damien)(Damien Chazelle), and [Night Shyamalan](M.)(M. Night Shyamalan).
Most of Blumhouse's theatrically released films since 2014 are owned and distributed by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) as part of a 10-year [deal](first-look)(first-look deal).
## Overview
### Film
Blumhouse's company model is to produce films on a small budget, give directors creative freedom, and release films widely through the studio system. Blumhouse was originally known as Blum Israel Productions, with Amy Israel with a first-look deal at [Miramax](Miramax) when the company was founded. In 2002, Blum and Israel parted ways, and the company became Blumhouse Productions. In 2015, [TV](Crypt)(Crypt TV) was created by Jack Davis and [Roth](Eli)(Eli Roth) which is backed by Blum and the company.[Horror video start-up Crypt TV is building a scary universe for the smallest screens](https://www.latimes.com/business/hollywood/la-fi-ct-crypt-tv-20170818-story.html)
Blumhouse's low-budget model began in 2007 with *[Activity](Paranormal)(Paranormal Activity)*, which was made for $15,000 and grossed over $193 million worldwide. It produced *[Insidious](Insidious (film))*, which grossed over $100 million worldwide on a budget of $1.5 million; and *[Sinister](Sinister (film))*, which grossed over $87 million worldwide from a budget of $3 million.
In 2010, Haunted Movies was formed as a division for Blumhouse which released *[Insidious](Insidious (film))*, *[River](The)(The River (American TV series))*, *[Bay](The)(The Bay (film))* and *[Lords of Salem](The)(The Lords of Salem (film))*.
In 2013, it produced *[Purge](The)(The Purge (2013 film))*, *[Chapter 2](Insidious:)(Insidious: Chapter 2)*, and *[Skies](Dark)(Dark Skies (2013 film))*.
In 2014, it produced *[Activity: The Marked Ones](Paranormal)(Paranormal Activity: The Marked Ones)*, *[Purge: Anarchy](The)(The Purge: Anarchy)*, *[Jessabelle](Jessabelle)*, *[Ouija](Ouija (2014 film))* and *[Whiplash](Whiplash (2014 film))*.
In 2015, it produced *[Unfriended](Unfriended)*, *[Chapter 3](Insidious:)(Insidious: Chapter 3)*, *[Gift](The)(The Gift (2015 American film))* and *[Visit](The)(The Visit (2015 American film))*.
In 2016, it produced *[Purge: Election Year](The)(The Purge: Election Year)* and *[Origin of Evil](Ouija:)(Ouija: Origin of Evil)*.
In 2017, it produced *[Split](Split (2016 American film))*, *[Out](Get)(Get Out)* and *[Death Day](Happy)(Happy Death Day)*.
In 2018, it produced *[The Last Key](Insidious:)(Insidious: The Last Key)*, *[or Dare](Truth)(Truth or Dare (2018 film))*, *[First Purge](The)(The First Purge)*, and *[Halloween](Halloween (2018 film))*. Blumhouse announced a partnership with [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation) to co-produce *Spooky Jack* but the film was removed from DreamWorks Animation's slate in 2019.
In 2019, it produced *[Glass](Glass (2019 film))*, *[Death Day 2U](Happy)(Happy Death Day 2U)*, *[Us](Us (2019 film))*, *[Ma](Ma (2019 film))*, and *[Christmas](Black)(Black Christmas (2019 film))*.
In 2020, it produced *[Island](Fantasy)(Fantasy Island (film))*, *[Invisible Man](The)(The Invisible Man (2020 film))*, *[Hunt](The)(The Hunt (2020 film))*, *[Should Have Left](You)(You Should Have Left)*, *[Craft: Legacy](The)(The Craft: Legacy)*, *[Nocturne](Nocturne (2020 film)),* and *[Freaky](Freaky (film))*.
In 2021, it produced *[Forever Purge](The)(The Forever Purge)*, *[Kills](Halloween)(Halloween Kills)* and *[Activity: Next of Kin](Paranormal)(Paranormal Activity: Next of Kin)*.
In 2022, it produced *[Dashcam](Dashcam (horror film))*, *[Black Phone](The)(The Black Phone)*, ''[Harrigan's Phone](Mr.)(Mr. Harrigan's Phone)*, *[Ends](Halloween)(Halloween Ends)*, *[Sweetheart Run](Run)(Run Sweetheart Run)*, *[& Quiet](Soft)(Soft & Quiet)* and *[Nanny](Nanny (film))''.
On November 16, 2022, it was announced that [Wan](James)(James Wan)'s [Monster Productions](Atomic)(Atomic Monster Productions) was in talks to merge with Blumhouse, with Atomic Monster having a shared first-look deal with Universal. Both companies would continue to operate as separate labels, with each maintaining its own creative autonomy and brand identity.[Jason Blum's Blumhouse & James Wan's Atomic Monster In Advanced Talks To Merge](https://deadline.com/2022/11/jason-blums-blumhouse-james-wans-atomic-monster-in-talks-to-merge-1235174570/)[Horror Show: James Wan's Atomic Monster and Jason Blum's Blumhouse in Talks to Merge](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/james-wans-atomic-monster-blumhouse-in-talks-to-merge-1235263672/)[Jason Blum's Blumhouse and James Wan's Atomic Monster in Advanced Talks to Merge](https://www.indiewire.com/2022/11/blumhouse-atomic-monster-early-merger-talks-2022-1234783311/)
In 2023, they released *[M3GAN](M3GAN)*, and will later release *[The Red Door](Insidious:)(Insidious: The Red Door)*, *[Listen](They)(They Listen)*, *[Exorcist: Believer](The)(The Exorcist: Believer)*, and ''[Nights at Freddy's](Five)(Five Nights at Freddy's (film))''.Blum, Jason (October 5, 2022). #jimhensoncreatureshop is working on our animatronics. Emma Tammi is our director. Filming on #FNAF starts in February 2023. Boom. [Twitter](https://twitter.com/jason_blum/status/1577786970465456128)
### Television, video games, books, podcasts, and haunted houses
In 2012, Blumhouse opened the *Blumhouse of Horrors*, an interactive [house](haunted)(haunted house) experience in [Los Angeles](Downtown)(Downtown Los Angeles).
It had also collaborated with [Horror Nights](Halloween)(Halloween Horror Nights) to bring mazes, a terror tram, and scare zones from films and properties such as *[Insidious](Insidious (film series))*, *[Purge](The)(The Purge)*, *[Death Day](Happy)(Happy Death Day)*, *[Sinister](Sinister (film))*, *[or Dare](Truth)(Truth or Dare (2018 film))*, *[Unfriended](Unfriended)*, *[Us](Us (2019 film))*, *[Freaky](Freaky (film))*, *[Black Phone](The)(The Black Phone)*, *[M3GAN](M3GAN)* and [TV](Crypt)(Crypt TV).
In November 2014, it launched Blumhouse Books, to publish original horror and thriller novels.
In February 2023, it launched Blumhouse Games to produce and publish original horror-themed video games for console, PC and mobile devices as part longer-term effort to branch out into interactive media. The division would join up with independent developers and focus on games with budgets of under $10 million. It would offer financing and help with creative input. The company appointed Zach Wood as President and Don Sechler as CFO of the new venture. No specific projects were discussed at the time of the announcement.
## BH Tilt
| location_city =
| key_people =
| services =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| owner =
| parent = Blumhouse Productions (with [Neon](Neon (company)))
| divisions =
| website =
| location_country = [States](United)(United States)
}}
BH Tilt was established on September 9, 2014, to produce movies from Blumhouse and other filmmakers for multi-platform release. On September 7, 2017, Blumhouse partnered with distribution company [Neon](Neon (company)) to manage BH Tilt. BH Tilt's releases are *[Green Inferno](The)(The Green Inferno (film))*, *[Darkness](The)(The Darkness (2016 American film))*, *[Incarnate](Incarnate (film))*, *[Resurrection of Gavin Stone](The)(The Resurrection of Gavin Stone)*, *[Belko Experiment](The)(The Belko Experiment)*, *[Sleight](Sleight)*, *[Lowriders](Lowriders (film))*, *[of the Dragon](Birth)(Birth of the Dragon)*, *[Upgrade](Upgrade (film))*, *[Dark Web](Unfriended:)(Unfriended: Dark Web)* and ''[Let Go](Don't)(Don't Let Go (2019 film))''.
## See also
* [Castle Entertainment](Dark)(Dark Castle Entertainment)
* [House Pictures](Ghost)(Ghost House Pictures)
* [Circle Films](Gold)(Gold Circle Films)
* [Dunes](Platinum)(Platinum Dunes)
* [Pictures](Twisted)(Twisted Pictures)
* [Entertainment](Vertigo)(Vertigo Entertainment)
* [Monster Productions](Atomic)(Atomic Monster Productions)
* [Disgusting](Bloody)(Bloody Disgusting)
## References
## External links
*
[production companies of the United States](Category:Film)(Category:Film production companies of the United States)
[distributors of the United States](Category:Film)(Category:Film distributors of the United States)
[production companies of the United States](Category:Television)(Category:Television production companies of the United States)
[media companies established in 2000](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media companies established in 2000)
[establishments in California](Category:2000)(Category:2000 establishments in California)
[companies established in 2000](Category:American)(Category:American companies established in 2000)
[companies based in California](Category:Entertainment)(Category:Entertainment companies based in California)
[based in Los Angeles](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Los Angeles)
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Camino de Santiago
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camino_de_santiago
|
# Camino de Santiago
*Revision ID: 1158991305 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T14:46:46Z*
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| ID = 669bis
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(ii)(iv)(vi)
| ID = 868
| year = 1998
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The ***Camino de Santiago*** (, "Pilgrimage of Compostela"; ),In other languages: ; ; ; ; . known in English as the **Way of St James**, is a network of [way](pilgrims')(pilgrims' way)s or [pilgrimage](pilgrimage)s leading to the shrine of the [apostle](Twelve Apostles) [James the Great](Saint)(James, son of Zebedee) in the [of Santiago de Compostela](cathedral)(cathedral of Santiago de Compostela) in [Galicia](Galicia (Spain)) in northwestern [Spain](Spain), where tradition holds that the remains of the apostle are buried.
As [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI) said, "It is a way sown with so many demonstrations of fervour, repentance, hospitality, art and culture which speak to us eloquently of the spiritual roots of the Old Continent." BENEDICT XVI |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/messages/pont-messages/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_mes_20091219_giubileo-compostelano.html |access-date=2021-06-17 |website=www.vatican.va}} Many still follow its routes as a form of spiritual path or retreat for their spiritual growth. It is also popular with hikers, cyclers, and organized tour groups.
Created and established after the discovery of the relics of Saint James the Great at the beginning of the 9th century, the Way of St James became a major pilgrimage route of medieval [Christianity](Christianity) from the 10th century onwards. But it was only after the [of Granada in 1492](liberation)(Granada War#Last stand at Granada), under the reign of [II of Aragon](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand II of Aragon) and [I of Castile](Isabella)(Isabella I of Castile), that [Alexander VI](Pope)(Pope Alexander VI) officially declared the *Camino de Santiago* to be one of the "three great pilgrimages of Christendom", along with Jerusalem and the *[Francigena](Via)(Via Francigena)* to Rome.
In 1987, the *Camino*, which encompasses several routes in Spain, [France](France) and Portugal, was declared the first [Route of the Council of Europe](Cultural)(Cultural Route of the Council of Europe). Since 2013, the *Camino* has attracted more than 200,000 pilgrims each year, with an annual growth rate of more than 10 percent. Pilgrims come mainly on foot and often from nearby cities, requiring several days of walking to reach Santiago. The [Way](French)(French Way) gathers two-thirds of the walkers, but other minor routes are experiencing a growth in popularity. [French Way and the Northern routes in Spain](The)(Routes of Santiago de Compostela: Camino Francés and Routes of Northern Spain) were inscribed on the [UNESCO](UNESCO) [Heritage List](World)(World Heritage List), followed by the [in France](routes)(Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France) in 1998, because of their historical significance for Christianity as a major pilgrimage route and their testimony to the exchange of ideas and cultures across the routes.
## Major Christian pilgrimage route
The Way of St James was one of the most important [pilgrimage](Christian)(Christian pilgrimage)s during the later [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages), and a pilgrimage route on which a [indulgence](plenary)(plenary indulgence) could be earned; This entry on indulgences suggests that the evolution of the doctrine came to include a pilgrimage to shrines as a trend that developed from the 8th century A.D.: "Among other forms of commutation were pilgrimages to well-known shrines such as that at [Albans](St.)(St. Albans) in [England](England) or at Compostela in Spain. But the most important place of pilgrimage was Rome. According to [Bede](Bede) (674–735) the *visitatio liminum*, or visit to the tomb of the Apostles, was even then regarded as a good work of great efficacy (Hist. Eccl., IV, 23). At first the pilgrims came simply to venerate the relics of the [Apostles](Twelve Apostles) and [martyrs](Christian martyrs), but in course of time their chief purpose was to gain the indulgences granted by the pope and attached especially to the [Stations](Stations of the Cross)." other major pilgrimage routes include the [Francigena](Via)(Via Francigena) to [Rome](Rome) and the pilgrimage to [Jerusalem](Jerusalem in Christianity). Legend holds that [James](St)(James, son of Zebedee)'s remains were carried by boat from Jerusalem to northern Spain, where he was buried in what is now the city of [de Compostela](Santiago)(Santiago de Compostela). Spain |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Santiago-de-Compostela |access-date=16 February 2021 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}} (According to Spanish legends, Saint James had spent time preaching the gospel in Spain, but returned to Judaea upon seeing a vision of the Virgin Mary on the bank of the [River](Ebro)(Ebro River).)
Pilgrims on the Way can take one of dozens of pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela. Traditionally, as with most pilgrimages, the Way of Saint James begins at one's home and ends at the pilgrimage site. However, a few of the routes are considered main ones. During the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages), the route was highly travelled. However, the [Death](Black)(Black Death), the [Reformation](Protestant)(Protestant Reformation), and political unrest in 16th century Europe led to its decline. By the 1980s, only a few hundred pilgrims per year registered in the pilgrim's office in Santiago.
Whenever St James's [Day](Feast Day) (25 July) falls on a [Sunday](Sunday), the cathedral declares a Holy or [Jubilee](Jubilee (Christianity)) Year. Depending on leap years, Holy Years occur in 5-, 6-, and 11-year intervals. The most recent were 1993, 1999, 2004, 2010 and 2021. The next will be 2027, and 2032.
## History
### Pre-Christian history
[[File:Hospital de Órbigo (496110133).jpg|thumb|Roman bridge with 19 arches over the river [Órbigo](Órbigo). The bridge has been integrated into the modern Camino Frances]]
The main pilgrimage route to Santiago follows an earlier Roman trade route, which continues to the [Atlantic](Atlantic Ocean) coast of [Galicia](Galicia (Spain)), ending at [Finisterre](Cape)(Cape Finisterre). Although it is known today that Cape Finisterre, Spain's westernmost point, is not the westernmost point of Europe ([da Roca](Cabo)(Cabo da Roca) in [Portugal](Portugal) is further west), the fact that the Romans called it *Finisterrae* (literally the *end of the world* or ''Land's End* in [Latin](Latin)) indicates that they viewed it as such. At night, the [Way](Milky)(Milky Way) overhead seems to point the way, so the route acquired the nickname "Voie lactée" – the Milky Way in French."[Medieval footpath under the stars of the Milky Way](http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/telegraph/04camino/04000001.htm) ". *Telegraph Online''.
### Scallop symbol
The [scallop](scallop) shell, often found on the shores in Galicia, has long been the symbol of the Camino de Santiago. Over the centuries the scallop shell has taken on a variety of meanings, metaphorical, practical, and mythical, even if its relevance may have actually derived from the desire of pilgrims to take home a souvenir.
James "the brother of the Lord in the Flesh" was actually martyred [Jerusalem](in)(Jerusalem) in 62 AD by being stoned to death, having been sentenced by order of the Sanhedrin for blasphemy. Well regarded by the populace some of the leaders had hoped he could calm the excited crowd near Passover. Rather than that he responded to the question who was Jesus, that he was sitting at the right hand of the Great Power and will return with the angels and restore the Kingdom of God.
Nonetheless there was a common myth about the origin of the symbol concerns the death of [James](Saint)(James, son of Zebedee), After James's death, his body was transported by a ship piloted by an angel, back to the [Peninsula](Iberian)(Iberian Peninsula) to be buried in what is now Santiago. As the ship approached land, a wedding was taking place on shore. The young groom was on horseback, and, upon seeing the ship's approach, his horse got spooked, and horse and rider plunged into the sea. Through miraculous intervention, the horse and rider emerged from the water alive, covered in seashells.
From its connection to the Camino, the scallop shell came to represent pilgrimage, both to a specific shrine as well as to heaven, recalling Hebrews 11:13, identifying that Christians "are pilgrims and strangers on the earth". The scallop shell is an ubiquitous sight along the Camino, where it often serves as a guide for pilgrims. The shell is even more commonly seen on the pilgrims themselves, who are thereby identified as pilgrims. Most pilgrims receive a shell at the beginning of their journey and display it throughout their journey. During the medieval period, the shell was more a proof of completion than a symbol worn during the pilgrimage. [pilgrim's staff](The)(pilgrim's staff) is a walking stick used by pilgrims on the way to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela in Spain." Generally, the stick has a hook so that something may be hung from it; it may have a crosspiece.Pilgrim's or Palmer's Staff : this was used as a device in a coat of arms as early at least as Edward II's reign, as will be seen. The Staff and the Escallop shell were the badge of the pilgrim, and hence it is but natural it should find its way into the shields of those who had visited the Holy Land. The usual form of representation is with a hook, but in some the hook is absent. The pilgrim's staff is represented under different forms and is referred to using different names, e.g. a pilgrim's crutch, a crutch-staff. The crutch, perhaps, should be represented with the transverse piece on the top of the staff (like the letter "T") instead of across it.
### Medieval routes
[[File:Marker Camino de Santiago.jpg|thumb|Marker of the Camino near the entrance to the [Bridge](Taboada)(Taboada Bridge), a X-Century bridge still used by the pilgrims on their way to Santiago using the Silver Way (Ruta de la Plata).]]
The earliest records of visits paid to the shrine at [de Compostela](Santiago)(Santiago de Compostela) date from the 9th century, in the time of the [of Asturias](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Asturias) and [Galicia](Kingdom of Galicia). The pilgrimage to the shrine became the most renowned medieval pilgrimage, and it became customary for those who returned from Compostela to carry back with them a [Galician](Galicia (Spain)) [scallop](scallop) shell as proof of their completion of the journey. This practice gradually led to the scallop shell becoming the badge of a pilgrim.
The earliest recorded pilgrims from beyond the [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) visited the shrine in the middle of the 11th century, but it seems that it was not until a century later that large numbers of pilgrims from abroad were regularly journeying there. The earliest records of pilgrims that arrived from [England](England) belong to the period between 1092 and 1105. However, by the early 12th century the pilgrimage had become a highly organized affair.
One of the great proponents of the pilgrimage in the 12th century was [Callixtus II](Pope)(Pope Callixtus II), who started the Compostelan Holy Years.
The official guide in those times was the [Calixtinus](Codex)(Codex Calixtinus). Published around 1140, the 5th book of the Codex is still considered the definitive source for many modern guidebooks. Four pilgrimage routes listed in the Codex originate in France and converge at [la Reina](Puente)(Puente la Reina). From there, a well-defined route crosses northern Spain, linking [Burgos](Burgos), [de los Condes](Carrión)(Carrión de los Condes), [Sahagún](Sahagún), [León](León, León), [Astorga](Astorga (Spain)), and Compostela.
The daily needs of pilgrims on their way to and from Compostela were met by a series of [hospital](hospital)s. Indeed, these institutions contributed to the development of the modern concept of ‘hospital’. Some Spanish towns still bear the name, such as [de Órbigo](Hospital)(Hospital de Órbigo). The hospitals were often staffed by Catholic orders and under royal protection. Donations were encouraged but many poorer pilgrims had few clothes and poor health often barely getting to the next hospital.
[architecture](Romanesque)(Romanesque architecture), a new genre of ecclesiastical architecture, was designed with massive archways to cope with huge crowds of the devout.
There was also the sale of the now-familiar paraphernalia of [tourism](tourism), such as badges and souvenirs. Pilgrims often prayed to [Roch](Saint)(Saint Roch) whose numerous depictions with the [of St James](Cross)(Cross of Saint James) can still be seen along the Way. On the Camino, the cross is often seen with a [scallop](Pilgrim's)(Pilgrim's scallop) to mark the way of the pilgrimage.
The pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela was made possible by the protection and freedom provided by the [of France](Kingdom)(Kingdom of France), from which the majority of pilgrims originated. Enterprising French (including [Gascons](Gascony) and other peoples not under the French crown) settled in towns along the pilgrimage routes, where their names appear in the archives. The pilgrims were tended by people like [de la Calzada](Domingo)(Domingo de la Calzada), who was later recognized as a saint.
Pilgrims walked the Way of St James, often for months and occasionally years at a time, to arrive at the great church in the main square of Compostela and pay homage to St James. Many arrived with very little due to illness or robbery or both. Traditionally pilgrims lay their hands on the pillar just inside the doorway of the cathedral, and so many now have done this it has visibly worn away the stone.
The popular Spanish name for the astronomical [Way](Milky)(Milky Way) is *El Camino de Santiago*. According to a common medieval legend, the [Way](Milky)(Milky Way) was formed from the dust raised by travelling pilgrims.
Another legend states that when a hermit saw a bright star shining over a hillside near San Fiz de Solovio, he informed the bishop of Iria Flavia, who found a grave at the site with three bodies inside, one of which, he asserted, was that of St James. Subsequently, the location was called "the field of the star" (*Campus Stellae*, corrupted to "Compostela").
Another origin myth mentioned in *Book IV* of the *[of Saint James](Book)(Liber Sancti Jacobi)* relates how the saint appeared in a dream to [Charlemagne](Charlemagne), urging him to liberate his tomb from the [Moors](Moors) and showing him the direction to follow by the route of the Milky Way.
### Pilgrimage as penance
The Church employed (and employs) rituals (the sacrament of confession) that can lead to the imposition by a priest of [penance](penance), through which the sinner atones for his or her sins. Pilgrimages were deemed to be a suitable form of expiation for sin and long pilgrimages would be imposed as penance for very serious sins. As noted in the *[Encyclopedia](Catholic)(New Catholic Encyclopedia)*:
Pilgrimages could also be imposed as judicial punishment for crime, a practice that is still occasionally used today. For example, a tradition in [Flanders](Flanders) persists of pardoning and releasing one prisoner every year under the condition that, accompanied by a guard, the prisoner walks to Santiago wearing a heavy backpack.
### Enlightenment era
During the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution), [Adams](John)(John Adams) (who would become the second President of the United States) was ordered by [Congress](United States Congress) to go to [Paris](Paris) to obtain funds for the cause. His ship started leaking and he disembarked with his two sons at [Finisterre](Cape Finisterre) in 1779. From there, he proceeded to follow the Way of St James in the reverse direction of the pilgrims' route, in order to get to Paris overland. He did not stop to visit Santiago, which he later regretted. In his autobiography, Adams described the customs and lodgings afforded to St James's pilgrims in the 18th century and he recounted the legend as it was told to him:
## Modern-day pilgrimage
Although it is commonly believed that the pilgrimage to Santiago has continued without interruption since the Middle Ages, few modern pilgrimages antedate the 1957 publication of Irish [Hispanist](Hispanist) and traveler [Starkie](Walter)(Walter Starkie)'s *The Road to Santiago*. The revival of the pilgrimage was supported by the Spanish government of [Franco](Francisco)(Francisco Franco), much inclined to promote Spain's Catholic history. "It has been only recently (1990s) that the pilgrimage to Santiago regained the popularity it had in the Middle Ages."
Since then, hundreds of thousands (over 300,000 in 2017) of Christian [pilgrim](pilgrim)s and many others set out each year from their homes, or from popular starting points across Europe, to make their way to Santiago de Compostela. Most travel by foot, some by [bicycle](bicycle), and some even travel as their [medieval](medieval) counterparts did, on horseback or by [donkey](donkey). In addition to those undertaking a religious pilgrimage, many are hikers who walk the route for travel or sport. Also, many consider the experience a spiritual retreat from modern life.
### Routes
Here, only a few routes are named. For a complete list of all the routes (traditional and less so), see: [de Santiago (route descriptions)](Camino)(Camino de Santiago (route descriptions)).
The **Camino Francés**, or *[Way](French)(French Way)*, is the most popular. The [Regia](Via)(Via Regia) is the last portion of the (*Camino Francés*). Historically, because of the [Calixtinus](Codex)(Codex Calixtinus), most pilgrims came from France: typically from [Arles](Arles), [Puy](Le)(Le Puy-en-Velay), [Paris](Paris), and [Vézelay](Vézelay); some from Saint Gilles. [Cluny](Cluny), site of the celebrated medieval abbey, was another important rallying point for pilgrims and, in 2002, it was integrated into the official European pilgrimage route linking Vézelay and Le Puy.
Most Spanish consider the French border in the [Pyrenees](Pyrenees) the natural starting point. By far the most common, modern starting point on the Camino Francés is Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, on the French side of the Pyrenees, with [Roncesvalles](Roncesvalles) on the Spanish side also being popular. The distance from Roncesvalles to Santiago de Compostela through [León](León, Spain) is about .
The **Camino Primitivo**, or *[Way](Original)(Camino Primitivo)*, is the oldest route to Santiago de Compostela, first taken in the 9th century, which begins in [Oviedo](Oviedo, Spain). **Camino Portugués**, or [Portuguese Way](the)(the Portuguese Way), is the second-most-popular route, starting at the cathedral in [Lisbon](Lisbon) (for a total of about 610 km) or at the cathedral in [Porto](Porto) in the north of [Portugal](Portugal) (for a total of about 227 km), and crossing into Galicia at [Valença](Valença, Portugal).
The **Camino del Norte**, or *[Way](Northern)(Northern Way)*, is also less traveled and starts in the Basque city of [Irun](Irun) on the border with France, or sometimes in [Sebastián](San)(San Sebastián). It is a less popular route because of its changes in elevation, whereas the Camino Frances is mostly flat. The route follows the coast along the [of Biscay](Bay)(Bay of Biscay) until it nears Santiago. Though it does not pass through as many historic points of interest as the Camino Frances, it has cooler summer weather. The route is believed to have been first used by pilgrims to avoid traveling through the territories occupied by the Muslims in the Middle Ages.
The Central European camino was revived after the Fall of the [Wall](Berlin)(Berlin Wall). Medieval routes, Camino Baltico and the Via Regia in Poland pass through present-day [Poland](Poland) reach as far north as the [states](Baltic)(Baltic states), taking in [Vilnius](Vilnius), and Eastwards to present-day [Ukraine](Ukraine) and take in [Lviv](Lviv), [Sandomierz](Sandomierz) and [Kraków](Kraków).*Camino Polaco. Teologia - Sztuka - Historia - Teraźniejszość* - Edited by Fr. dr. Piotr Roszak and professor dr. Waldemar Rozynkowski. published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika ([Toruń](Toruń)); volume 1 (2014), volume 2 (2015), volume 3 (2016) in Polish.
### Accommodation
[[de San Xulián de Samos.jpg|thumb|Monastery of San Xuliàn de Samos, which provides shelter for pilgrims](File:Mosteiro)]
In Spain, France, and Portugal, pilgrims' [hostel](hostel)s with beds in dormitories provide overnight accommodation for pilgrims who hold a *credencial* (see below). In Spain this type of accommodation is called a *refugio* or *albergue*, both of which are similar to [hostel](youth)(youth hostel)s or hostelries in the French system of ''[d'étape](gîtes)(Gîte)''.
Hostels may be run by a local parish, the local council, private owners, or pilgrims' associations. Occasionally, these *refugios* are located in monasteries, such as the one in the [of San Xulián de Samos](Monastery)(Monastery of San Xulián de Samos) that is run by monks, and the one in Santiago de Compostela.
The final hostel on the route is the famous [de los Reyes Católicos](Hostal)(Hostal de los Reyes Católicos), which lies in the [del Obradoiro](Plaza)(Plaza del Obradoiro) across the Cathedral. It was originally constructed as hospice and hospital for pilgrims by [Isabella I](Queen)(Isabella I of Castile) of [Castile](Crown of Castile) and [Ferdinand II](King)(Ferdinand II of Aragon) of [Aragon](Crown of Aragon), the [Monarchs](Catholic)(Catholic Monarchs of Spain). Today it is a luxury 5-star [Parador](Paradores) hotel, which still provides free services to a limited number of pilgrims daily.
### *Credencial* or pilgrim's passport
Most pilgrims purchase and carry a document called the *credencial*,Barry Smith, Olimpia Giuliana Loddo and Giuseppe Lorini, "On Credentials", *Journal of Social Ontology*, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/jso-2019-0034 | Published online: 07 Aug 2020. which gives access to overnight accommodation along the route. Also known as the "pilgrim's passport", the *credencial* is stamped with the official St. James stamp of each town or *refugio* at which the pilgrim has stayed. It provides pilgrims with a record of where they ate or slept and serves as proof to the Pilgrim's Office in Santiago that the journey was accomplished according to an official route and thus that the pilgrim qualifies to receive a *compostela* (certificate of completion of the pilgrimage).
### *Compostela*
[[Compostela from 2007](File:Compostelacertificate.jpg|right|thumb|A)]
The *compostela* is a certificate of accomplishment given to pilgrims on completing the Way. To earn the *compostela* one needs to walk a minimum of 100 km or cycle at least 200 km. In practice, for walkers, the closest convenient point to start is [Sarria](Sarria), as it has good bus and rail connections to other places in Spain. Pilgrims arriving in [de Compostela](Santiago)(Santiago de Compostela) who have walked at least the last , or cycled to get there (as indicated on their *credencial*), and who state that their motivation was at least partially religious, are eligible for the *compostela* from the Pilgrim's Office in Santiago.
The *compostela* has been [indulgence](indulgence)d since the Early Middle Ages and remains so to this day, during [Years](Holy)(Jubilee (Christianity)). The English translation reads:
The simpler certificate of completion in Spanish for those with non-religious motivation reads:
}}
English translation:
The Pilgrim's Office gives more than 100,000 compostelas each year to pilgrims from more than 100 countries. However, the requirements to earn a compostela ensure that not everyone who walks on the Camino receives one. The requirements for receiving a compostela are:
1) make the Pilgrimage for religious/spiritual reasons or at least have an attitude of search, 2) do the last 100 km on foot or horseback or the last 200 km by bicycle. 3) collect a certain number of stamps on a credencial.
### Pilgrim's Mass
A Pilgrim's [Mass](Mass (liturgy)) is held in the [of Santiago de Compostela](Cathedral)(Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela) each day at 12:00 and 19:30. Pilgrims who received the *compostela* the day before have their countries of origin and the starting point of their pilgrimage announced at the Mass. The [Botafumeiro](Botafumeiro), one of the largest [censer](censer)s in the world, is operated during certain [Solemnities](Solemnity) and on every Friday, except [Friday](Good)(Good Friday), at 19:30. Priests administer the [of Penance](Sacrament)(Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)), or confession, in many languages. In the [Year](Holy)(Jubilee (Christianity)) of 2010 the Pilgrim's Mass was exceptionally held four times a day, at 10:00, 12:00, 18:00, and 19:30, catering for the greater number of pilgrims arriving in the Holy Year. 8 December 2015 – 20 November 2016, Pope Francis's [Jubilee of Mercy](Extraordinary)(Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy), was also a Holy Year.
### Pilgrimage as tourism
The [de Galicia](Xunta)(Xunta de Galicia) ([Galicia](Galicia (Spain))'s regional government) promotes the Way as a tourist activity, particularly in Holy Compostela Years (when 25 July falls on a Sunday). Following Galicia's investment and advertising campaign for the Holy Year of 1993, the number of pilgrims completing the route has been steadily rising. The most recent Holy Year occurred in 2021, 11 years after the last Holy Year of 2010. More than 272,000 pilgrims made the trip during the course of 2010. The next Holy Year pilgrimage will occur in 2027.
### In film and television
(Chronological)
*The pilgrimage is central to the plot of the film *[Milky Way](The)(The Milky Way (1969 film))* (1969), directed by [surrealist](surrealist) [Buñuel](Luis)(Luis Buñuel). It is intended to critique the Catholic church, as the modern pilgrims encounter various manifestations of Catholic dogma and heresy.
**[Naked Pilgrim](The)(The Naked Pilgrim)* (2003) documents the journey of art critic and journalist [Sewell](Brian)(Brian Sewell) to Santiago de Compostela for the UK's Channel Five. Travelling by car along the French route, he visited many towns and cities on the way including Paris, [Chartres](Chartres), [Roncesvalles](Roncesvalles), [Burgos](Burgos), [León](León, Spain) and [Frómista](Frómista). Sewell, a lapsed Catholic, was moved by the stories of other pilgrims and by the sights he saw. The series climaxed with Sewell's emotional response to the Mass at Compostela.
*The Way of St. James was the central feature of the film *Saint Jacques... La Mecque* (2005) directed by [Serreau](Coline)(Coline Serreau).
*In *[Way](The)(The Way (2010 film))* (2010), written and directed by [Estevez](Emilio)(Emilio Estevez), [Sheen](Martin)(Martin Sheen) learns that his son (Estevez) has died early along the route and takes up the pilgrimage in order to complete it on the son's behalf. The film was presented at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) in September 2010 and premiered in Santiago in November 2010.
* On his [PBS](PBS) travel Europe television series, [Steves](Rick)(Rick Steves) covers *Northern Spain and the Camino de Santiago* in series 6.
*In 2013, [Reeve](Simon)(Simon Reeve (British TV presenter)) presented the "Pilgrimage" series on BBC2, in which he followed various pilgrimage routes across Europe, including the Camino de Santiago in episode 2.
*In 2014, Lydia B Smith and Future Educational Films released *[the Camino: Six Ways to Santiago](Walking)(Walking the Camino: Six Ways to Santiago)* in theatres across the U.S. and Canada. The film features the accounts and perspectives of six pilgrims as they navigate their respective journeys from France to Santiago de Compostela. In 2015, it was distributed across the World, playing theatres throughout Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. It recently aired on NPTV and continues to be featured in festivals relating to the Spirituality, Mind Body, Travel, and Adventure.
*In 2018, series one of [Two](BBC)(BBC Two)'s *[Pilgrimage](Pilgrimage (TV series))* followed this pilgrimage.
## Gallery
File:Burgos-Metal-Pilgrim-2010.jpg|Monument to pilgrims in Burgos
File:Albergue de peregrinos de Mansilla de las Mulas (1402775066).jpg|A pilgrims hostel in Mansilla de las Mulas
File:Ancha es Castilla.jpg|A pilgrim on the barren and impressive meseta, which offers a long and challenging walk
File:Auf dem Weg nach San Juan de Ortega - panoramio (1).jpg|A pilgrim near San Juan de Ortega
File:Camino del Norte (3931187466).jpg|View on el Camino del Norte. San Sebastián, playa de la Concha
File:Camino del Norte (4115035301).jpg|Sea view on el Camino del Norte, approaching Onton
File:Camino-De-Santiago-Hiker.jpg|A pilgrim along the northern route of the Camino de Santiago
## Selected literature
(Alphabetical by author's surname)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## See also
*[de Santiago (route descriptions)](Camino)(Camino de Santiago (route descriptions))
*[Calixtinus](Codex)(Codex Calixtinus)
*[of Saint James](Confraternity)(Confraternity of Saint James)
*[of Saint James](Cross)(Cross of Saint James)
*[de la Calzada](Dominic)(Dominic de la Calzada)
*[Hajj](Hajj)
* [door](holy)(Holy door (Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela))
*[100 Kannon Pilgrimage](Japan)(Japan 100 Kannon Pilgrimage)
*[Kodo](Kumano)(Kumano Kodo)
*[Remnant](Mary)(Mary Remnant)
*[of Santiago](Order)(Order of Santiago)
*[Ways of St. James](Palatine)(Palatine Ways of St. James)
*[of Miracles](Path)(Path of Miracles)
*[Pilgrimage](Shikoku)(Shikoku Pilgrimage)
*[Jacobi](Via)(Via Jacobi)
*[the Camino: Six Ways to Santiago](Walking)(Walking the Camino: Six Ways to Santiago)
*[Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France](World)(World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France)
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Camino de Santiago)
[pilgrimage sites](Category:Catholic)(Category:Catholic pilgrimage sites)
[landscapes](Category:Cultural)(Category:Cultural landscapes)
[Cultural Routes](Category:European)(Category:European Cultural Routes)
[culture](Category:Galician)(Category:Galician culture)
[trails in Europe](Category:Hiking)(Category:Hiking trails in Europe)
[routes](Category:Pilgrimage)(Category:Pilgrimage routes)
[in Galicia (Spain)](Category:Religion)(Category:Religion in Galicia (Spain))
[de Compostela](Category:Santiago)(Category:Santiago de Compostela)
[legends](Category:Spanish)(Category:Spanish legends)
[Heritage Sites in Spain](Category:World)(Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain)
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Black screen of death
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black_screen_of_death
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# Black screen of death
*Revision ID: 1156266167 | Timestamp: 2023-05-22T01:36:00Z*
---
[[File:Win3x Black Screen of Death.gif|thumb|A hardware black screen of death that occurs when the system [drive](hard)(hard drive) is unable to load the [boot record](master)(master boot record). The screen is blank apart from a flashing white [cursor](text)(text cursor).]]
The **black screen of death** is a [system error](fatal)(fatal system error) displayed by some versions of the [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) operating system after encountering a critical system error.
## Windows 3.x
[[example of an EMM386 error message in Windows 3.0 that results in a black screen during Standard Mode.](Image:EMM386.PNG|thumb|right|An)]
In [3.x](Windows)(Windows 3.1x) the **black screen of death** is the behavior that occurred when a DOS-based application failed to execute properly. It was often known to occur in connection with attempting certain operations while networking drivers were resident in memory. (Commonly, but not exclusively, it was seen while the [NetWare](Novell)(Novell NetWare) client for [DOS](DOS), NETX, was loaded.).
The issue was fixed in most instances by adding an additional section in the [SYSTEM.INI](SYSTEM.INI) of affected clients with the text TimerCriticalSection = 10000. The following files were also updated, vtdapi.386re.386 and vipx.38id-1991 by Ed Brown, a technician with [Coca-Cola Company](the)(the Coca-Cola Company)'s IT department in [Atlanta](Atlanta), GA. He reports that the company was rolling out [3.0](Windows)(Windows 3.0) within the Global Marketing group and when the users would attempt to run [WordPerfect](WordPerfect), they would receive a black screen. This is also just a black screen.
## Later versions of Windows
[MS-DOS](MS-DOS), [95](Windows)(Windows 95), [98](Windows)(Windows 98), [2000](Windows)(Windows 2000), [Me](Windows)(Windows Me), [XP](Windows)(Windows XP), [Vista](Windows)(Windows Vista), [7](Windows)(Windows 7), and [8](Windows)(Windows 8) also display a Black Screen of Death when the operating system cannot boot. There are many different causes for this problem to occur, and each one requires a different solution. At least two of these causes and solutions are in the public domain.
For instance, the failure is sometimes caused by a missing file. This also occurs when the user enables file compression on all the files and the operating system compresses. Rarely an experienced user must reinstall Windows. In the case of a missing file, the boot screen will most likely inform the user the name of the missing file. In the case of operating system compression, the computer will not be able to boot, even into [mode](safe)(safe mode). However, booting from another device and uncompressing the files will usually solve this particular case of problem.
In late 2009, several new reports of the Black Screen of Death in [XP](Windows)(Windows XP), [Vista](Windows)(Windows Vista), and [7](Windows)(Windows 7) emerged. At first, several claims pointed at [Update](Windows)(Windows Update). This was later recanted by [Prevx](Prevx) as an erroneous report. Microsoft reported that no security update was causing the issue, and may be tied to [malware](malware). In other cases, the black screen was replaced with a [screen of death](blue)(blue screen of death). A Black Screen of Death may also be caused by certain components of the computer overheating, in place of the traditional blue screen, that appeared to indicate a [error](Stop)(Stop error). This black screen was simplified compared to the previous blue screen, omitting instructions that the user is recommended to take.
[10](Windows)(Windows 10) also displays a black screen of death due to an unfinished update in addition to the aforementioned causes above; in the former case, the system restarts after the update and the user is presented with the login screen, however after logging in the user is stuck with another black screen instead. Performing a hard-shutdown of the computer and cold-booting it is the only way for the user to resolve this problem.
## macOS
In some versions of [macOS](macOS) (such as [X Lion](OS)(OS X Lion)), a hardware or software issue could cause the system to display a black screen of death instead of a [panic](kernel)(kernel panic). This is usually pointed to a graphics card failure or a sleep/wake issue.
## See also
*[system error](Fatal)(Fatal system error)
## References
## External links
* [Windows 7 black screen of death](http://www.geekworldnews.org/windows-7-black-screen.html)
[errors](Category:Computer)(Category:Computer errors)
[of death](Category:Screens)(Category:Screens of death)
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Dragon
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dragon
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# Dragon
*Revision ID: 1160346774 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T22:35:34Z*
---
Dragon lizard|Komodo dragon|Draconian (disambiguation)Draconian|Dracones|Dragoon}}
A **dragon** is a large [magical](Magic (supernatural)) [creature](legendary)(legendary creature) that appears in the [folklore](folklore) of many cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but [in western cultures](dragons)(European dragon) since the [Middle Ages](High)(High Middle Ages) have often been depicted as winged, horned, and capable of breathing fire. [in eastern cultures](Dragons)(Chinese dragon) are usually depicted as wingless, four-legged, [serpentine](Snake) creatures with above-average intelligence. Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization of [feline](Felidae), [reptilian](Reptile), [mammal](mammalian), and [avian](Bird) features. Scholars believe vast extinct or migrating [crocodiles](Crocodile) bear the closest resemblance, especially when encountered in forested or swampy areas, and are most likely the template of modern Oriental dragon imagery.
## Etymology
[[File:Beowulf - dracan.jpg|thumb|left|An early appearance of the [English](Old)(Old English) word *dracan* in *[Beowulf](Beowulf)*[Beowulf; a heroic poem of the 8th century, with tr., note and appendix by T. Arnold](https://books.google.com/books?id=OCc8TF53RhMC&pg=PA196), 1876, p. 196.]]
The word *dragon* entered the [language](English)(English language) in the early 13th century from [French](Old)(Old French) *dragon*, which, in turn, comes from the (nominative ) meaning "huge serpent, dragon", from [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) , (genitive , ) "serpent".[Δράκων](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Ddra%2Fkwn2) , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, at Perseus project The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological. The Greek word is most likely derived from the Greek verb () meaning "I see", the [aorist](aorist) form of which is (). This is thought to have referred to something with a "deadly glance," or unusually bright or "sharp" eyes, or because a snake's eyes appear to be always open; each eye actually sees through a big transparent scale in its eyelids, which are permanently shut. The Greek word probably derives from an [Indo-European](Indo-European) base meaning "to see"; the [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) root () also means "to see".
## Myth origins
[[File:Bone of Wawel Dragon.JPG|thumb|Several bones purported to belong to the [Dragon](Wawel)(Wawel Dragon) hang outside of [Cathedral](Wawel)(Wawel Cathedral), but actually belong to a [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) mammal.]]
Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe and the earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes. Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of the [Near East](ancient)(ancient Near East) and appear in [Mesopotamian art](ancient)(Art of Mesopotamia) and literature. Stories about [storm-gods](Weather god) slaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all Near Eastern and [Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European religion) mythologies. Famous prototypical draconic creatures include the *[mušḫuššu](mušḫuššu)* of [Mesopotamia](ancient)(Mesopotamia); [Apep](Apep) in [mythology](Egyptian)(Egyptian mythology); [Vṛtra](Vritra) in the *[Rigveda](Rigveda)*; the [Leviathan](Leviathan) in the [Bible](Hebrew)(Hebrew Bible); [Grand'Goule](Big Ghoul) in the [Poitou](Poitou) region in [France](France); [Python](Python (mythology)), [Ladon](Ladon (mythology)), [Wyvern](Wyvern), and [Kulshedra](Kulshedra) in [Mythology](Albanian)(Albanian folk beliefs) and the [Hydra](Lernaean)(Lernaean Hydra) in [mythology](Greek)(Greek mythology); [Jörmungandr](Jörmungandr), [Níðhöggr](Níðhöggr), and [Fafnir](Fafnir) in [mythology](Norse)(Norse mythology); and [dragon](the)(The dragon (Beowulf)) from *[Beowulf](Beowulf)*.
Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed.
In his book *[Instinct for Dragons](An)(An Instinct for Dragons)* (2000), David E. Jones (anthropologist) suggests a hypothesis that humans, like [monkey](monkey)s, have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, [cats](large)(Big cat), and [of prey](birds)(Bird of prey). He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare. The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes. Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors. Dragons are usually said to reside in "dark caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors.
In her book *The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times* (2000), [Mayor](Adrienne)(Adrienne Mayor) argues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to [dinosaur](dinosaur)s and other prehistoric animals. She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by "observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of the [Hills](Siwalik)(Siwalik Hills) below the [Himalayas](Himalayas)" and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of the [of Troy](Monster)(Cetus (mythology)) may have been influenced by fossils of *[Samotherium](Samotherium)*, an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region. In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as "dragon bones" and are commonly used in [Chinese medicine](traditional)(traditional Chinese medicine). Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long "been considered barren of large fossils." In one of her later books, she states that, "Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such as [dragon](Komodo)(Komodo dragon)s, [monster](Gila)(Gila monster)s, [iguana](iguana)s, [alligator](alligator)s, or, in California, [lizards](alligator)(Elgaria), though this still fails to account for the Scandinavian legends, as no such animals (historical or otherwise) have ever been found in this region."
Robert Blust in *The Origin of Dragons* (2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events. In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow.Blust, Robert. “The Origin of Dragons.” *Anthropos*, vol. 95, no. 2, 2000, pp. 519–536. *JSTOR*, www.jstor.org/stable/40465957. Accessed 6 June 2020.
## African folklore
### Egypt
[[File:Set speared Apep.jpg|thumb|Illustration from an ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript showing the god [Set](Set (deity)) spearing the serpent [Apep](Apep) as he attacks the [boat](sun)(Matet boat) of [Ra](Ra)]]
In [mythology](Egyptian)(Egyptian mythology), [Apep](Apep) or Apophis is a giant serpentine creature who resides in the [Duat](Duat), the Egyptian Underworld. The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused by [Ra](Ra) descending to the Duat to battle Apep. In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made of [flint](flint). Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar and [eclipse](solar)(solar eclipse)s were thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime. In some myths, Apep is slain by the god [Set](Set (deity)). [Nehebkau](Nehebkau) is another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep. Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils. Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in the [Texts](Pyramid)(Pyramid Texts) whose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon. He was ultimately defeated by the [Pharaoh](Pharaoh), a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule.
The [ouroboros](ouroboros) was a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail. The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced", a serpent with five heads, who, according to the [Amduat](Amduat), the oldest surviving [of the Afterlife](Book)(Book of the Dead), was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively. The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in [tomb](the)(KV62) of [Tutankhamun](Tutankhamun). In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by [Gnostic](Gnosticism) Christians and chapter 136 of the *[Sophia](Pistis)(Pistis Sophia)*, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth". In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail. A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-century [Marcianus](Codex)(Codex Marcianus CCXXVIII (406)) was copied in numerous works on alchemy.
## Asian folklore
### West Asia
#### Ancient
##### Mesopotamia
[[File:Sirrush.jpg|thumb|left|The *[mušḫuššu](mušḫuššu)* is a serpentine, draconic monster from [Mesopotamian mythology](ancient)(Ancient Mesopotamian religion) with the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird. Here it is shown as it appears in the [Gate](Ishtar)(Ishtar Gate) from the city of [Babylon](Babylon).]]
Ancient people across the [East](Near)(Near East) believed in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons". These ancient people were unaware of the existence of [dinosaur](dinosaur)s or similar creatures in the distant past. References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia)n literature. In [poetry](Sumerian)(Sumerian poetry), great kings are often compared to the *[ušumgal](Ušumgallu)*, a gigantic, serpentine monster. A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in [artwork](Mesopotamian)(Art of Mesopotamia) from the [Period](Akkadian)(Akkadian Empire) ( 2334 – 2154 BC) until the [Period](Neo-Babylonian)(Neo-Babylonian Empire) (626 BC–539 BC). The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open. It may have been known as the *(ūmu) nā’iru*, which means "roaring weather beast", and may have been associated with the god [Ishkur](Hadad) (Hadad). A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the [Period](Neo-Assyrian)(Neo-Assyrian Empire) (911 BC–609 BC). A relief probably commissioned by [Sennacherib](Sennacherib) shows the gods [Ashur](Ashur (god)), [Sin](Sin (mythology)), and Adad standing on its back.
Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the [Period](Hellenistic)(Hellenistic Period) (323 BC–31 BC). This creature, known in [Akkadian](Akkadian language) as the *[mušḫuššu](mušḫuššu)*, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem. It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god [Ninazu](Ninazu), but later became the attendant to the [Hurrian](Hurrian religion) storm-god [Tishpak](Tishpak), as well as, later, Ninazu's son [Ningishzida](Ningishzida), the Babylonian [god](national)(national god) [Marduk](Marduk), the scribal god [Nabu](Nabu), and the Assyrian national god Ashur.
Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of [Tiamat](Tiamat), the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic *[Eliš](Enûma)(Enûma Eliš)*. She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent, but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty" and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic. Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate, all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness.
##### Levant
[[File:Destruction of Leviathan.png|thumb|*The Destruction of [Leviathan](Leviathan)* (1865) by [Doré](Gustave)(Gustave Doré)]]
In the [Ugarit](Ugarit)ic [Cycle](Baal)(Baal Cycle), the sea-dragon [Lōtanu](Lotan) is described as "the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads." In *KTU* 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god [Baal](Baal), but, in *KTU* 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess [Anat](Anat). In the [of Psalms](Book)(Psalms), [74](Psalm)(Psalm 74), Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon [Leviathan](Leviathan), is slain by [Yahweh](Yahweh), god of the kingdoms of [Israel](Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)) and [Judah](Kingdom of Judah), as part of the creation of the world. In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order:
Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of the Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it. Job 41:19–21 states that the Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent. In some parts of the Old Testament, the Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh. Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to [Egypt](Ancient Egypt). Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced [Rahab](Rahab (Egypt))'." Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..." In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the [pharaoh](pharaoh) of Egypt is described as a "dragon" (*tannîn*). In the story of [and the Dragon](Bel)(Bel and the Dragon) from the [of Daniel](Book)(Book of Daniel), the prophet [Daniel](Daniel (biblical figure)) sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians. Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair"; the dragon eats them and bursts open.Daniel 14:23–30
#### Ancient and Post-classical
#### Iran/Persia
[Dahaka](Azhi)(Azhdaha) (Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu. Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak. Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon.For Azi Dahaka as dragon see: Ingersoll, Ernest, et al., (2013). The Illustrated Book of Dragons and Dragon Lore. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN B00D959PJ0 The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed "Az", Old Armenian mythological figure Aždahak, Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها), as well as the Kurdish ejdîha (ئەژدیها).
The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages.Appears numerous time in, for example: D. N. MacKenzie, Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.Detelić, Mirjana. "St Paraskeve in the Balkan Context" In: Folklore 121, no. 1 (2010): 101 (footnote nr. 12). Accessed March 24, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29534110.Kropej, Monika. Supernatural beings from Slovenian myth and folktales. Ljubljana: Institute of Slovenian Ethnology at ZRC SAZU. 2012. p. 102. ISBN 978-961-254-428-7
Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples.
The [Azhdarchid](Azhdarchid) group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for "dragon" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka.
;In Zoroastrian literature
Aži Dahāka is the most significant and long-lasting of the ažis of the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism. He is described as a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads, and as being cunning, strong, and demonic. In other respects, Aži Dahāka has human qualities, and is never a mere animal. In a post-Avestan Zoroastrian text, the Dēnkard, Aži Dahāka is possessed of all possible sins and evil counsels, the opposite of the good king Jam (or Jamshid). The name Dahāg (Dahāka) is punningly interpreted as meaning "having ten (dah) sins".
In [Persia](Persia)n [Sufi](Sufism) literature, [Rumi](Rumi) writes in his *[Masnavi](Masnavi)*III: 976–1066; V: 120 that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (*[nafs](nafs)*), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle.
[[kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 - Aga Khan Museum - Toronto, Canada - DSC06935.jpg|thumb|Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 – Aga Khan Museum – Toronto, Canada](File:Rustam)]
In Ferdowsi's *[Shahnameh](Shahnameh),* the [Iranian](Iranian peoples) hero [Rostam](Rostam) must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, [Rakhsh](Rakhsh). As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam's [Labors](Seven)(Rostam's Seven Labours).
Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the *Shahnameh* and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of *[Babr-e-Bayan](Babr-e Bayan)*. In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the *babr-e bayān*. In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed [Rakhsh](Rakhsh). On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In the [Mandean](Mandaeism) tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward.
### East Asia
#### China
[[File:Nine-Dragons1.jpg|thumb|A dragon from the [Dragons Scroll](Nine)(Nine Dragons (painting)) by [Rong](Chen)(Chen Rong (painter)), 1244 AD.]]
[[File:Shan hai jing Zhuyin.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the dragon [Zhulong](Zhulong (mythology)) from a seventeenth-century edition of the *[Shanhaijing](Classic of Mountains and Seas)*]]
[[File:Pot Eivormige pot met met een feng huang en een draak, AK-MAK-110.jpg|thumb|Dragon art on a vase, [dynasty](Yuan)(Yuan dynasty)]]The word "dragon" has come to be applied to the [creature](legendary)(legendary creature) in [mythology](Chinese)(Chinese mythology), [*loong*](Chinese dragon) (traditional 龍, simplified 龙, Japanese simplified 竜, [Pinyin](Pinyin) *lóng*), which is associated with good fortune, and many [Asia](East)(East Asia)n deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions. Dragons were also identified with the [of China](Emperor)(Emperor of China), who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles.
Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an [onomatopoeia](onomatopoeia) of the sound of thunder or *lùhng* in [Cantonese](Cantonese).Guan, Caihua. (2001) *English-Cantonese Dictionary: Cantonese in Yale Romanization*. .
The Chinese dragon () is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy. Its origins are vague, but its "ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels."Welch, Patricia Bjaaland. *Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery*, Tuttle Publishing, 2008, p. 121 A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons. The *[zhuan](Zuo)(Zuo zhuan)*, which was probably written during the [States period](Warring)(Warring States period), describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well. He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning "dragon-raiser". In another story, [Jia](Kong)(Kong Jia), the fourteenth emperor of the [dynasty](Xia)(Xia dynasty), was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven, but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong. One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king, who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again. Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace.
The image of the Chinese dragon was roughly established in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, but there was no great change for a long time. In the Han dynasty (202 B.C. – 220 A.D.), [Yinglong](Yinglong), as a symbol of feudal imperial power, frequently appeared in Royal Dragon vessels, which means that most of the dragon image designs used by the royal family in the Han dynasty are Yinglong patterns. [Yinglong](Yinglong) is a winged dragon in ancient Chinese legend. At present, the literature records of Yinglong's winged image can be tested from "Guangya"（广雅), "wide elegant" during the Three Kingdoms period, but Yinglong's winged design has been found in bronze ware from the Shang and Zhou dynasties to stone carvings, silk paintings, and lacquerware of the Han dynasty. The literature records of Yinglong can be traced back to the documents of the pre-Qin period, such as "Classic of Mountains and Seas", "Chuci", and so on. According to the records in "Classic of Mountains and Seas", the Chinese mythology 2200 years ago, Ying long had the main characteristics of later Chinese dragons – the power to control the sky and the noble mythical status.XiaoCongRong.[探究中华龙纹设计的历史流变(Exploring the historical evolution of Chinese dragon design)](https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDAUTO&filename=JGWC202146037&uniplatform=NZKPT&v=rOoqDQ-6QPdOb4gqZMFRclaRzpu0QeUcL1dDBZuAFZvvvyK_boqwTl4F8cR4uinz)[J].今古文创,2021(46):92–93.
However, since the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279 A.D.), the image of the real dragon symbolizing China's imperial power was no longer the Yinglong with wings, but the common wingless Yellow Dragon in modern times. For the evolution of Yinglong and Huanglong (Yellow Dragon), scholar Chen Zheng proposed in "Yinglong – the origin of the image of the real dragon" that from the middle of the Zhou dynasty, Yinglong's wings gradually became the form of flame pattern and cloud pattern at the dragon's shoulder in artistic creation, which derived the wingless long snake shape. The image of Huanglong was used together with the winged Yinglong. Since then, with a series of wars, Chinese civilization suffered heavy losses, resulting in the forgetting of the image of winged Yinglong, and the image of wingless Yellow Dragon replaced the original Yinglong and became the real dragon symbolizing China's imperial power. On this basis, scholars Xiao Congrong（肖聪榕）put forward that the simplified artistic creation of Ying Long's wings by Chinese ancestors is a continuous process, that is, the simplification of dragon's wings is an irreversible trend. Xiao Congrong believes that the phenomenon of "Yellow Dragon" Replacing "Ying Long" can not be avoided regardless of whether Chinese civilization has suffered disaster or not.
One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one. He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao, but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away. In Chinese legend, the culture hero [Hsi](Fu)(Fu Hsi) is said to have been crossing the [River](Lo)(Luo River (Henan)), when he saw the *[ma](lung)(Longma)*, a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank. He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots. He later used these dots as letters and invented [writing](Chinese)(Written Chinese), which he used to write his book *[Ching](I)(I Ching)*. In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon. Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed. After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven.
In the *[Shanhaijing](Classic of Mountains and Seas)*, a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during the [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty), various deities and demigods are associated with dragons. One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long ("responding dragon"), who helped the [Huangdi](Yellow Emperor), the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrant [Chiyou](Chiyou). The dragon [Zhulong](Zhulong (mythology)) ("torch dragon") is a god "who composed the universe with his body." In the *Shanhaijing*, many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi, [Shennong](Shennong), [Yao](Emperor)(Emperor Yao), and [Shun](Emperor)(Emperor Shun). The god [Zhurong](Zhurong) and the emperor [Qi](Qi of Xia) are both described as being carried by two dragons, as are Huangdi, [Zhuanxu](Zhuanxu), [Yuqiang](Yuqiang), and Roshou in various other texts. According to the *[Huainanzi](Huainanzi)*, an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge, which was ended by the mother goddess [Nüwa](Nüwa) by slaying the dragon.
[[File:A Seated Portrait of Ming Emperor Taizu.jpg|thumb|upright|[Emperor](Hongwu)(Hongwu Emperor) with dragon emblem on his chest. c. 1377]]
A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China. The *[Houhanshu](Houhanshu)*, compiled in the fifth century BC by [Ye](Fan)(Fan Ye (historian)), reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region around [Lao](Mount)(Mount Lao) became pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing. She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons. The woman showed them to him, but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning "sitting back". The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, who [tattoo](tattoo)ed dragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor. The [people](Miao)(Miao people) of southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave. The [people](Han)(Han Chinese) have many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family in [Shandong](Shandong). When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail. Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to the [Dragon River](Black)(Amur River) in northeast China, where he became the god of that river. On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain. He is still worshipped as a rain god.
[[File:Dragon Gods.svg|thumb|left|Diagram representing the Four Dragon Kings of the [Seas](Four)(Four Seas) in relation to the central Dragon King of the Earth]]
In China, a dragon is thought to have power over rain. Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs of [dancing](dragon)(Dragon dance) and [boat racing](dragon)(Dragon boat). Dragons are closely associated with rain and [drought](drought) is thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness. Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts. The *[Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals](Luxuriant)(Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals)*, attributed to the Han dynasty scholar [Zhongshu](Dong)(Dong Zhongshu), prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain. Texts from the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) advise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives; since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out. Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons. The Chinese dragon kings are thought of as the inspiration for the Hindu myth of the naga. According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability, so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures.
[[File:Chinese draak.jpg|thumb|Head of a dragon from a Chinese [dance](dragon)(dragon dance) performed in [Helsinki](Helsinki) in the year 2000.]]
Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons. During various holidays, including the [Festival](Spring)(Chinese New Year) and [Festival](Lantern)(Lantern Festival), villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of a [dance](dragon)(dragon dance). The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest, but now it is done mostly only for entertainment. During the [Duanwu](Dragon Boat Festival) festival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold a [boat race](dragon)(Dragon boat), in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks. The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poet [Yuan](Qu)(Qu Yuan) committed suicide by drowning himself in the [River](Miluo)(Miluo River) and people raced out in boats hoping to save him. But most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune. Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, the [emperor](Chinese)(Emperor of China) gradually became closely identified with dragons, and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon. Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon was ordered to be executed. After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons.
The impression of dragons in a large number of Asian countries has been influenced by Chinese culture, such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on. Chinese tradition has always used the dragon totem as the national emblem, and the "Yellow Dragon flag" of the Qing dynasty has influenced the impression that China is a dragon in many European countries.
File:Changshadragon.jpg|[painting depicting a man riding a dragon](Silk)(Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon), dated to 5th–3rd centuries BC
File:Attributed to Li Zhaodao Dragon-boat Race. Palace Museum, Beijing.jpg|Tang dynasty painting of a [boat race](dragon)(dragon boat) attributed to Li Zhaodao
File:Flag of China (1889–1912).svg|[of the Qing dynasty](Flag)(Flag of the Qing dynasty) from 1889 to 1912, showing a Chinese dragon
File:Dragon on Longshan Temple.JPG|Dragon sculpture on top of [Temple](Lungshan)(Lungshan Temple (Taipei)), Taipei, Taiwan
File:Dança do dragão.jpg|Members of the Chinese Youth Society of [Melbourne](Melbourne) performing for Chinese New Year, at [Casino](Crown)(Crown Melbourne), demonstrate a basic "corkscrew" routine
#### Korea
[[File:청룡_조선고적도보.jpg|thumb|The Blue Dragon mural depiction at the [tombs](Goguryeo)(Goguryeo tombs).]]
The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as the [Chinese](Chinese dragon) and [dragon](Japanese)(Japanese dragon)s. It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard. Very occasionally, a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythical [Cintamani](Cintamani), in its claws or its mouth. It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons. As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence. Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds. Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds. And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore.
In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch. [Aryeong](Lady)(Lady Aryeong), who was the first queen of [Silla](Silla), is said to have been born from a [cockatrice](cockatrice),[yusa](Samguk)(Samguk yusa) while the grandmother of [of Goryeo](Taejo)(Taejo of Goryeo), founder of [Goryeo](Goryeo), was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea.The book of the genealogy of [of Goryeo](Taejo)(Taejo of Goryeo) – *Pyeonnyeon-Tong-Long* (편년통록) And [Munmu](King)(Munmu of Silla) of Silla who, on his deathbed, wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom. Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family. The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포). In the [dynasty](Joseon)(Joseon dynasty), the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back. The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia.
Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originally [Imugis](:ko:이무기) (이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents. There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons. Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon, *yong* or *mireu*, if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven. Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons. By other accounts, an Imugi is a *proto-dragon* which must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully-fledged dragon. In either case, they are said to be large, benevolent, [python](Pythonidae)-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck.
#### Japan
[[File:Hokusai Dragon.jpg|thumb|Painting of a Japanese dragon by [Hokusai](Hokusai) ( 1730 – 1849)]]
Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China. Like some other dragons, most Japanese dragons are [deities](water)(water deities) associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248),[Charles](Gould,)(Charles Gould (geologist)). 1896. [ Mythical Monsters"](https://archive.org/details/mythicalmonster00goulgoog). W. H. Allen & Co. the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". A story about the *[samurai](samurai)* [no Mitsunaka](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Mitsunaka) tells that, while he was hunting in his own territory of [Settsu](Settsu Province), he dreamt under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it. Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse. When he woke up, the seahorse was standing before him. He rode it to the [Sumiyoshi](Sumiyoshi taisha) temple, where he prayed for eight days. Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow.
It was believed that dragons could be appeased or [exorcised](exorcism) with metal. [Yoshisada](Nitta)(Nitta Yoshisada) is said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea at [Sagami](Sagami Province) to appease the dragon-god of the sea and [no Tsurayuki](Ki)(Ki no Tsurayuki) threw a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose. Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them to [law](Buddhist)(Buddhist law); the Japanese Buddhist deities [Benten](Benten) and [Kwannon](Kwannon) are often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon. Several Japanese *[sennin](sennin)* ("immortals") have taken dragons as their mounts. Bômô is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven. The *[rakan](Arhat)* Handaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with on *kagamibuta*. The *[shachihoko](shachihoko)* is a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes with fire emerging from its armpits. The *fun* has the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird. A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool in [Province](Yamashiro)(Yamashiro Province) and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the "howling of a wild dog". This event was believed to herald terrible famine. In the Japanese village of Okumura, near [Edo](Edo), during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw, [magnolia](magnolia) leaves, and [bamboo](bamboo) and parade it through the village to attract rainfall.
### South Asia
#### India
[[File:Paphal (Musée du Quai Branly) (4489839164).jpg|thumb|Head of the dragon-god [Pakhangba](Pakhangba) depicted on a musical instrument from [Manipur](Manipur), India]]
In the *[Rigveda](Rigveda)*, the oldest of the four [Vedas](Vedas), [Indra](Indra), the Vedic god of storms, battles [Vṛtra](Vritra), a giant serpent who represents drought. Indra kills Vṛtra using his *[vajra](vajra)* (thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain, which is described in the form of cattle: "You won the cows, hero, you won the [Soma](Soma (drink)),/You freed the seven streams to flow" (*Rigveda* 1.32.12). In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpent [Viśvarūpa](Trisiras), the son of [Tvaṣṭṛ](Tvastar), guards a wealth of cows and horses. Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god named [Āptya](Trita)(Trita), who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free. Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita. This same story is alluded to in the [Avesta](Younger)(Younger Avesta), in which the hero [Thraētaona](Fereydun), the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragon [Dahāka](Aži)(Zahhak) and takes his two beautiful wives as spoils. Thraētaona's name (meaning "third grandson of the waters") indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought.
The [Druk](Druk) (), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of the [symbols of Bhutan](national)(national symbols of Bhutan). In the [Dzongkha](Dzongkha) language, [Bhutan](Bhutan) is known as *Druk Yul* "Land of Druk", and Bhutanese leaders are called [Gyalpo](Druk)(Druk Gyalpo), "Thunder Dragon Kings". The druk was adopted as an emblem by the [Lineage](Drukpa)(Drukpa Lineage), which originated in [Tibet](Tibet) and later spread to Bhutan.
### Southeast Asia
#### Vietnam
[[File:Stylised map of Đại-Nam (Minh Mạng period).jpg|thumb|Stylised map of Đại Nam ([Mạng](Minh)(Minh Mạng) period)]]
[[File:Rồng thời Nguyễn, Tử cấm thành, Huế.jpg|thumb|alt=Vietnamese Dragon typical type.|Nguyễn dynasty dragon, [City of Huế](Imperial)(Imperial City of Huế)]]
[[File:Rồng trên cổ vật Dragon on antiquities5 (6915076816).jpg|thumb|Dragons on antiques from the [Lý](Lý dynasty)– [Trần](Trần dynasty) dynasties]]
[[File:Rồng trên cổ vật Dragon on antiquities13 (7061149771).jpg|thumb|Dragons on antiques from the [Lê](Lê dynasty)–[Nguyễn](Nguyễn dynasty) dynasties]]
The Vietnamese dragon ( [龍](Wikt:龍)) was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and was associated with royalty. Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly beings associated with creation and life.
## European folklore
### Proto-Indo-European
Serpent slayer|Serpents in the Bible}}
The story of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in almost all [mythology](Indo-European)(Indo-European mythology). In most stories, the hero is some kind of [thunder-god](weather god). In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is either multi-headed or "multiple" in some other way. Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water. [Lincoln](Bruce)(Bruce Lincoln) has proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows: First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named **Tritos* ("the third"), who is so named because he is the third man on earth, but a three-headed serpent named *** steals them. **Tritos* pursues the serpent and is accompanied by **Hanér*, whose name means "man". Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle.
### Ancient Greek
[[File:Fragmentary jar with scene of Herakles slaying the Hydra of Lerna, South Italy, 375-340 BC, ceramic - Fitchburg Art Museum - DSC08671.JPG|thumb|right|Greek [red-figure](red-figure) vase painting depicting [Heracles](Heracles) slaying the [Hydra](Lernaean)(Lernaean Hydra), 375–340 BC]]
The ancient Greek word usually translated as "dragon" (δράκων *drákōn*, [genitive](genitive) δράκοντοϛ *drákontos*) could also mean "snake",Chad Hartsock, *Sight and Blindness in Luke-Acts: The Use of Physical Features in Characterization*, Brill, Leiden-Boston, 2008, [pp. 193–4](https://archive.org/details/sightblindnessin00chad/page/193). but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power. The first mention of a "dragon" in [Greek literature](ancient)(ancient Greek literature) occurs in the *[Iliad](Iliad)*, in which [Agamemnon](Agamemnon) is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate.Drury, Nevill, *The Dictionary of the Esoteric*, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003 , [p.79](https://books.google.com/books?id=k-tVr09oq3IC&dq=earliest+mention+of+dragon&pg=PA79) . In lines 820–880 of the *[Theogony](Theogony)*, a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by the [Boeotia](Boeotia)n poet [Hesiod](Hesiod), the Greek god [Zeus](Zeus) battles the monster [Typhon](Typhon), who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises. Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon into [Tartarus](Tartarus). In the *[Hymn to Apollo](Homeric)(Homeric Hymns)*, the god [Apollo](Apollo) uses his [arrows](poisoned)(Arrow poison) to slay the serpent [Python](Python (mythology)), who has been causing death and pestilence in the area around [Delphi](Delphi). Apollo then sets up his shrine there.
The Roman poet [Virgil](Virgil) in his poem [*Culex*](Appendix Vergiliana#Culex ("The Gnat")), lines 163–201 [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/appvergculex.html], describing a shepherd having a fight with a big [snake](constricting)(constriction), calls it "[serpens](wikt:serpent)" and also "[draco](wikt:draco)", showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable.
[[File:Douris cup Jason Vatican 16545.jpg|thumb|left|Attic red-figure kylix painting from 480–470 BC showing Athena observing as the [Colchian](Colchis) dragon disgorges the hero [Jason](Jason)]]
Hesiod also mentions that the hero [Heracles](Heracles) slew the [Hydra](Lernaean)(Lernaean Hydra), a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of [Lerna](Lerna). The name "Hydra" means "water snake" in Greek. According to the *[Bibliotheka](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus))* of Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of the [Labors of Heracles](Twelve)(Labors of Hercules). Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra, but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to be [cauterized](Cauterization) to prevent them from growing back. Heracles was aided in this task by his nephew [Iolaus](Iolaus). During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot, but he crushed it under his heel. [Hera](Hera) placed the crab in the sky as the constellation [Cancer](Cancer (constellation)). One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off. For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure a [apple](golden)(golden apple) from the tree in the [of the Hesperides](Garden)(Hesperides), which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps, which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls "[Ladon](Ladon (mythology))". In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads. In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal, but [Sophocles](Sophocles) and [Euripides](Euripides) both describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how. Some suggest that the golden apple was not claimed through battle with Ladon at all but through Heracles charming the Hesperides. American School of Classical Studies at Athens |url=https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/publications/hesperia/article/33/1/76-82 |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=www.ascsa.edu.gr}} The mythographer [Herodorus](Herodorus) is the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club. [of Rhodes](Apollonius)(Apollonius of Rhodes), in his epic poem, the *[Argonautica](Argonautica)*, describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra.
In [Pindar](Pindar)'s *Fourth Pythian Ode*, [Aeëtes](Aeëtes) of [Colchis](Colchis) tells the hero [Jason](Jason) that the [Fleece](Golden)(Golden Fleece) he is seeking is in a [copse](Coppicing) guarded by a dragon, "which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship". Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter, [Medea](Medea). The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figure *[kylix](kylix)* dated to 480–470 BC, showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him and [Athena](Athena), the goddess of wisdom, stands watching. A fragment from [of Athens](Pherecydes)(Pherecydes of Athens) states that Jason killed the dragon, but fragments from the *Naupactica* and from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped. In Euripides's *[Medea](Medea (play))*, Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself. In the final scene of the play, Medea also flies away on a chariot pulled by two dragons. In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes's *Argonautica*, Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece. Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from a *phialē*, or shallow cup.
[[File:Kadmos dragon Louvre N3157.jpg|thumb|[Paestan](Paestum) red-figure kylix-krater ( 350–340 BC) showing Cadmus fighting the dragon of [Ares](Ares)]]
In the [myth](founding)(founding myth) of [Thebes](Thebes, Greece), [Cadmus](Cadmus), a [Phoenicia](Phoenicia)n prince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down. Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena. His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the god [Ares](Ares), and the dragon killed them. Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge, either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword. Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth. An army of giant warriors (known as *[spartoi](spartoi)*, which means "sown men") grew from the teeth like plants. Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left. To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years. At the end of this period, Cadmus married [Harmonia](Harmonia (mythology)), the daughter of Ares and [Aphrodite](Aphrodite). Cadmus and Harmonia moved to [Illyria](Illyria), where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves.
In the fifth century BC, the Greek historian [Herodotus](Herodotus) reported in Book IV of his *[Histories](Histories (Herodotus))* that western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents and, in Book III, he states that [Arabia](Pre-Islamic Arabia) was home to many small, winged serpents, which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that produced [frankincense](frankincense). Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia. The second-century BC Greek astronomer [Hipparchus](Hipparchus) ( 190 BC – 120 BC) listed the constellation [Draco](Draco (constellation)) ("the dragon") as one of forty-six constellations. Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars, but the later astronomer [Ptolemy](Ptolemy) ( 100 – 170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in his *[Almagest](Almagest)*.
[[File:Reggio calabria museo nazionale mosaico da kaulon.jpg|thumb|left|Ancient Greek mosaic from [Caulonia](Caulonia (ancient city)), [Italy](Italy), depicting a *[cetus](Cetus (mythology))* or sea-dragon]]
In the [Testament](New)(New Testament), Revelation 12:3, written by [of Patmos](John)(John of Patmos), describes a vision of a [Red Dragon](Great)(Serpents in the Bible#Ancient serpent) with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail, an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of the [beasts from the sea](four)(Four kingdoms of Daniel) in the [of Daniel](Book)(Book of Daniel) and the [Leviathan](Leviathan) described in various Old Testament passages. The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun ... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky and pursues the [of the Apocalypse](Woman)(Woman of the Apocalypse). Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "[war broke out in Heaven](And)(War in Heaven). Michael and his angels fought against Dragon. Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him." Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (*ho Kantegor*).
In , [Philostratus](Flavius)(Philostratus) discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India in *The Life of [of Tyana](Apollonius)(Apollonius of Tyana)* (II,17 and III,6–8). The [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that, "In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth." According to a collection of books by [Aelianus](Claudius)(Claudius Aelianus) called *On Animals*, [Ethiopia](Aethiopia) was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals. In the 4th century, [of Caesarea](Basil)(Basil of Caesarea), on chapter IX of his [to Young Men on Greek Literature](Address)(Address to Young Men on Greek Literature), mentions mythological dragons as guarding treasures and riches.
### Post-classical Germanic
[[File:Sigurd.svg|thumb|Drawing of the [carving](Ramsund)(Ramsund carving) from 1030, illustrating the *[saga](Völsunga)(Völsunga saga)* on a rock in [Sweden](Sweden). At (5), [Sigurd](Sigurd) plunges his sword into [Fafnir](Fafnir)'s underside.]]
In the [Norse](Old)(Old Norse) poem *[Grímnismál](Grímnismál)* in the *[Edda](Poetic)(Poetic Edda)*, the dragon [Níðhöggr](Níðhöggr) is described as gnawing on the roots of [Yggdrasil](Yggdrasil), the world tree. In [mythology](Norse)(Norse mythology), [Jörmungandr](Jörmungandr) is a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm of [Miðgarð](Midgard) in the sea around it. According to the *[Gylfaginning](Gylfaginning)* from the *[Edda](Prose)(Prose Edda)*, written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographer [Sturluson](Snorri)(Snorri Sturluson), [Thor](Thor), the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait. Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer, [Mjölnir](Mjölnir). Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: "and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed. But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea."
Towards the end of the [English](Old)(Old English) epic poem *[Beowulf](Beowulf)*, a slave steals a cup from the hoard of [sleeping dragon](a)(The dragon (Beowulf)), causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside. The [hero of the poem](eponymous)(Beowulf (hero)) insists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age, but [Wiglaf](Wiglaf), the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle. Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded, but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon. Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king.
In the Old Norse *[saga](Völsunga)(Völsunga saga)*, the hero [Sigurd](Sigurd) catches the dragon [Fafnir](Fafnir) by digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water and kills him by stabbing him in the underside. At the advice of [Odin](Odin), Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand the [of the birds](language)(language of the birds), who he hears talking about how his mentor [Regin](Regin) is plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself. The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout many [Norse](Old)(Old Norse) sagas. The fourteenth-century *Flóres saga konungs ok sona hans* describes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it. In the *[saga víðförla](Yngvars)(Yngvars saga víðförla)*, the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up.
### Post-classical Western
[[File:Vortigern-Dragons.jpg|thumb|Fifteenth-century manuscript illustration of the battle of the [Red](Welsh Dragon) and [Dragons](White)(White dragon) from [of Monmouth](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey of Monmouth)'s *[of the Kings of Britain](History)(Historia Regum Britanniae)*]]
The modern, western image of a dragon developed in [Europe](western)(western Europe) during the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages) through the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions. The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures. The twelfth-century [Welsh](Wales) monk, [of Monmouth](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey of Monmouth), recounts a famous legend in his *[Regum Britanniae](Historia)(Historia Regum Britanniae)* in which the child prophet [Merlin](Merlin) witnesses the Romano-Celtic warlord [Vortigern](Vortigern) attempt to build a tower on [Snowdon](Mount)(Snowdon) to keep safe from the [Anglo-Saxons](Anglo-Saxons), but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground. Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it. Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing a [dragon](red)(Welsh Dragon) and a [dragon](white)(white dragon), who immediately begin fighting. Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales, but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one. This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century.
[[Harley MS 3244.png|thumb|left|*MS Harley 3244*, a medieval manuscript dated to around 1260 AD, contains the oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon](File:Dragon)]
The oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon appears in [hand-painted illustration](a)(:File:Dragon Harley MS 3244.png) from the medieval manuscript *MS Harley 3244*, which was produced in around 1260 AD. The dragon in the illustration has two sets of wings and its tail is longer than most modern depictions of dragons, but it clearly displays many of the same distinctive features. Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave. They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites. They are often identified with Satan, due to the references to Satan as a "dragon" in the Book of Revelation. The thirteenth-century *[Legend](Golden)(Golden Legend)*, written in Latin, records the story of [Margaret of Antioch](Saint)(Margaret the Virgin), a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in the [Persecution](Diocletianic)(Diocletianic Persecution) and thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon, but she made the [of the cross](sign)(sign of the cross) and the dragon vanished. In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed.
[[File:St George and the Dragon Verona ms 1853 26r.jpg|thumb|Manuscript illustration from [Verona](Verona) of [George slaying the dragon](Saint)(Saint George and the Dragon), dating to 1270]]
The legend of [George and the Dragon](Saint)(Saint George and the Dragon) may be referenced as early as the sixth century AD, but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-century [Georgian](Georgian language) text. The most famous version of the story from the *Golden Legend* holds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene in [Libya](Ancient Libya). After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived. Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep and the people were forced to start offering it their own children. One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten. Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess. When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess's [girdle](girdle) around its neck. Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity. All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword. In some versions, Saint George marries the princess, but, in others, he continues wandering.
[Gargoyle](Gargoyle)s are carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings. Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found on [Greek](ancient)(ancient Greek temple) and [temple](Egyptian)(Egyptian temple)s, but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them. One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known as *[Gargouille](La)(Gargouille)* had been causing floods and sinking ships on the river [Seine](Seine), so the people of the town of [Rouen](Rouen) would offer the dragon a [sacrifice](human)(human sacrifice) once each year to appease its hunger. Then, around 600 AD, a priest named [Romanus](Romanus of Rouen) promised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon. Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle.
Dragons are prominent in medieval [heraldry](heraldry). [Pendragon](Uther)(Uther Pendragon) was famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royal [of arms](coat)(coat of arms). Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs, but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a "dragon" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a "[wyvern](wyvern)" (which could only have exactly two). In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence, but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces. Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a "[cockatrice](cockatrice)". A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy. A [basilisk](basilisk) is a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in a [midden](midden) by a nine-year-old cockatrice. Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly.
### Post-classical Eastern
[[File:Ivan Bilibin 065.jpg|thumb|[Gorynych](Zmey)(Zmey Gorynych), a [three-headed](Polycephaly) dragon from [folklore](Russian)(Folklore of Russia).]]
[[File:Münster wawelski.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the [Dragon](Wawel)(Wawel Dragon) from [Münster](Sebastian)(Sebastian Münster)'s *[Universalis](Cosmographie)(Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster))* (1544).]]
In [mythology and folklore](Albanian)(Albanian mythology), *[stihi](stihi)*, *[ljubi](ljubi)*, *[bollar, errshaja, and kulshedra](bolla,)(Kulshedra)* are mythological figures described as serpentine dragons. It is believed that *bolla*, a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoes [metamorphosis](metamorphosis) passing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human. The *bollar* and *errshaja* are the intermediate stages, while the *kulshedra* is the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters against mankind. She is usually fought and defeated by a [drangue](drangue), a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans. Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles.
In [mythology](Slavic)(Slavic mythology), the words *"zmey"*, *"zmiy",* or *"zmaj"* are used to describe dragons. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for "snake", which are normally feminine (like Russian *zmeya*). In [Romania](Romania), there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named *[zmeu](zmeu)*. Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously) *смок*, *цмок*, or *smok*. In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also called *lamya* (ламя, ламjа, lamja). Although quite similar to other [dragon](European)(European dragon)s, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities.
In [Russian](Folklore of Russia) and [folklore](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian folklore), [Gorynych](Zmey)(Zmey Gorynych) is a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns. He is said to have breathed fire and smelled of [sulfur](sulfur). It was believed that [eclipse](eclipse)s were caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun. According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of the [tsar](tsar) and imprisoned her in his castle in the [Mountains](Ural)(Ural Mountains). Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire. Then a palace guard in [Moscow](Moscow) named [Tsarevich](Ivan)(Ivan Tsarevich) overheard two crows talking about the princess. He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle. When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him. Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once. Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess.
A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of the [Dragon](Wawel)(Wawel Dragon), which is first recorded in the *[Polonorum](Chronica)(Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae)* of [Kadłubek](Wincenty)(Wincenty Kadłubek), written between 1190 and 1208. According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign of [Krakus](King)(Krakus) and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week. If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide. Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon. Since they could not slay it by hand, they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur. Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself, telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon. The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished. In the fifteenth century, [Długosz](Jan)(Jan Długosz) rewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon. Another version of the story told by [Bielski](Marcin)(Marcin Bielski) instead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon. Bielski's version is now the most popular.
## Modern depictions
[[File:Smaug par David Demaret.jpg|thumb|left|Modern [illustration](fan)(Fan art) by David Demaret of the dragon [Smaug](Smaug) from [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien)'s 1937 [fantasy](high)(high fantasy) novel *[Hobbit](The)(The Hobbit)*]]
Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within the [fantasy](fantasy) genre. As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such as [Diderot](Denis)(Denis Diderot) were already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: "There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons". In [Carroll](Lewis)(Lewis Carroll)'s classic [novel](children's)(Children's literature) *[the Looking-Glass](Through)(Through the Looking-Glass)* (1872), one of the inset poems describes the [Jabberwock](Jabberwocky), a kind of dragon. Carroll's illustrator [Tenniel](John)(John Tenniel), a famous [cartoonist](political)(Editorial cartoon), humorously showed the Jabberwock with the [waistcoat](waistcoat), [teeth](buck)(Malocclusion), and [eyes](myopic)(Near-sightedness) of a [Victorian](Victorian era) university lecturer, such as Carroll himself. In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper. In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans. They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons. Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "such comic and idyllic stories" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature.
One of the most iconic modern dragons is [Smaug](Smaug) from [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien)'s classic novel, *[Hobbit](The)(The Hobbit)*. Dragons also appear in the best-selling *[Potter](Harry)(Harry Potter)* series of children's novels by [K. Rowling](J.)(J. K. Rowling). Other prominent works depicting dragons include [McCaffrey](Anne)(Anne McCaffrey)'s *[of Pern](Dragonriders)(Dragonriders of Pern)*, [K. Le Guin](Ursula)(Ursula K. Le Guin)'s *[Cycle](Earthsea)(Earthsea)*, [R. R. Martin](George)(George R. R. Martin)'s series *[Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire)*, and [Paolini](Christopher)(Christopher Paolini)'s *[Cycle](Inheritance)(Inheritance Cycle)*. Sandra Martina Schwab writes, "With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 film *Reign of Fire*, dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction. Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy. The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles. In children's literature the friendly dragon becomes a powerful ally in battling the child's fears." The popular [game](role-playing)(role-playing game) system *[& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons)* (D&D) makes heavy use of [dragons](Dragon (Dungeons & Dragons)).
File:Jabberwocky.jpg|[Tenniel](John)(John Tenniel)'s illustration of the [Jabberwock](Jabberwocky) for [Carroll](Lewis)(Lewis Carroll)'s *[the Looking-Glass](Through)(Through the Looking-Glass)*, showing the dragon as a [myopic](Near-sightedness) professor
File:Gringotts Dragon (42428011465).jpg|Fire-breathing statue of the Ukrainian Ironbelly from *[Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2)* at [Studios Florida](Universal)(Universal Studios Florida)
File:DnD Dragon.png|Representation of a dragon as it appears in the role-playing game *[& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons)*
## See also
*[Balaur](Balaur)
*[Basilisk](Basilisk)
*[(heraldry)](Bat)(Bat (heraldry))
*[Behemoth](Behemoth)
*[Cockatrice](Cockatrice)
*[Dragonology](Dragonology)
*[(mythology)](Feilong)(Feilong (mythology))
*[Guivre](Guivre)
*[(medieval zoology)](Ichneumon)(Ichneumon (medieval zoology))
*[Worm](Lambton)(Lambton Worm)
*[Hydra](Lernaean)(Lernaean Hydra)
*[Mokele-mbembe](Mokele-mbembe)
*[Peluda](Peluda)
*[Creek monster](Partridge)(Partridge Creek monster)
*[Scylla](Scylla)
*[serpent](Sea)(Sea serpent)
*[Snallygaster](Snallygaster)
*[Wyvern](Wyvern)
**[Last Dragon](The)(The Last Dragon (2004 film))*, fictional 2004 documentary
*[of dragons in literature](List)(List of dragons in literature)
*[of dragons in mythology and folklore](List)(List of dragons in mythology and folklore)
*[of dragons in popular culture](List)(List of dragons in popular culture)
## References
### Bibliography
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* Bates, Roy. *Chinese Dragons*. Oxford University Press, 2002. .
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* Garrett, Valery M. *Chinese Dragon Robes*. Oxford University Press, 1999. .
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* Visser, Marinus Willem de; [*The Dragon in China and Japan*](https://archive.org/details/cu31924021444728) , Amsterdam, J. Müller 1913.
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## External links
*
*
*
[ ](Category:Dragons)
[beasts](Category:Heraldic)(Category:Heraldic beasts)
[tale stock characters](Category:Fairy)(Category:Fairy tale stock characters)
[animals](Category:Mythological)(Category:Mythological animals)
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Once Upon a Studio
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once_upon_a_studio
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# Once Upon a Studio
*Revision ID: 1160339046 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:26:35Z*
---
| screenplay =
| story =
| producer =
| starring = [Mattinson](Burny)(Burny Mattinson)[Iwan](Bret)(Bret Iwan)[Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams)[Gad](Josh)(Josh Gad)
| cinematography =
| editing =
| music =
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Disney StudiosMotion Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 9 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
}}
***Once Upon a Studio*** is a 2023 American [action](live)(live action)/[animated](animated) short film directed by Trent Correy and Dan Abraham, produced by [Disney Animation Studios](Walt)(Walt Disney Animation Studios) and released by [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures). The short film tells the story of Disney Artist [Mattinson](Burny)(Burny Mattinson) and a new employee as they discover Disney characters are coming to life at nighttime.
Abraham and Correy described the short film as a "love letter" to the studio. Serving as inspiration of Disney's 100th anniversary that will occur in October 2023, the art style combines [animation](computer)(computer animation) with Disney's classic [animation](watercolor)(Traditional animation) and live-action.
*Once Upon a Studio* premiered at the [International Animation Film Festival](Annecy)(Annecy International Animation Film Festival) on June 11, 2023, and will released on November 22, 2023, alongside theatrical screenings of *[Wish](Wish (film))*.
## Premise
Disney Artist [Mattinson](Burny)(Burny Mattinson) and a new employee discover Disney characters are coming to life at nighttime.
## Cast
* [Mattinson](Burny)(Burny Mattinson) as himself (live action)
* [Iwan](Bret)(Bret Iwan) as [Mouse](Mickey)(Mickey Mouse)
* [Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams) as [Genie](the)(Genie (Disney)) (archive recordings)
* [Gad](Josh)(Josh Gad) as [Olaf](Olaf (Frozen))
## Production
According to directors Trent Correy and Dan Abraham, *Once Upon a Studio* is described as a "love letter" to the studio. The short film features 400 characters, bringing back more than 40 voice actors, including the [Genie](Genie (Disney))'s dialogue which will be sourced from previously unused audio recorded by [Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams), according to [Gad](Josh)(Josh Gad), the voice of [Olaf](Olaf (Frozen)).
## Release
*Once Upon a Studio* premiered at the [International Animation Film Festival](Annecy)(Annecy International Animation Film Festival) during the opening ceremony on June 11, 2023, and will subsequently be accompanied with *[Wish](Wish (film))* in theaters. Like *Once Upon a Studio*, *Wish* combines [animation](computer)(computer animation) with Disney's classic [animation](watercolor)(Traditional animation), as well as being inspired by Disney's 100th anniversary, which will occur in October 2023.
## References
[Disney animated short films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s Disney animated short films)
[computer-animated films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 computer-animated films)
[films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 films)
[animated short films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s animated short films)
[short films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 short films)
[animated films](Category:3D)(Category:3D animated films)
[3D films](Category:American)(Category:American 3D films)
[animated short films](Category:American)(Category:American animated short films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
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the_church_of_jesus_christ_of_latter-day_saints
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# The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
*Revision ID: 1159855310 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:39:20Z*
---
| polity = [Hierarchical](Episcopal polity)
| leader_title = [President](President of the Church (LDS Church))
| leader_name = [M. Nelson](Russell)(Russell M. Nelson)
| area =
| founder = [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith)
| founded_date = as [of Christ](Church)(Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints))
| founded_place =
| headquarters = [Lake City, Utah](Salt)(Salt Lake City), United States
| separations =
| congregations = 31,330 (2022)
| members = }}
| missionaries = 62,544 (2022)
| aid =
| tertiary = [4](Church Educational System#Higher education)
| website =
| other_names = |Mormon Church,|Church of Jesus Christ,|Restored Church of Jesus Christ}}
}}
**The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints**, informally known as the **LDS Church** or **Mormon Church**, is a [restorationist](Restorationism) [nontrinitarian](Nontrinitarianism) [Christian](Christianity) denomination belonging to [Mormonism](Mormonism). The church is headquartered in the United States in [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City), [Utah](Utah) and has established congregations and built [temples](Temple (LDS Church)) worldwide. According to the church, it has over 17 million [members](the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints membership statistics) and 62,544 [volunteer missionaries](full-time)(Missionary (LDS Church)). Based on these numbers, the church is the [Christian denomination](fourth-largest)(Christianity in the United States) in the United States as of 2012, after the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church), [Baptist Convention](Southern)(Southern Baptist Convention) and [Methodist Church](United)(United Methodist Church), and reported over 6.7 million US members . Total Church Membership|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/united-states|publisher=Intellectual Reserve, Inc.|website=MormonNewsroom.org|access-date=July 18, 2019|archive-date=June 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628015016/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/united-states|url-status=live}} It is by far the [denomination](largest)(List of denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement) in the [Day Saint movement](Latter)(Latter Day Saint movement) founded by [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith) during the early 19th-century period of religious revival known as the [Great Awakening](Second)(Second Great Awakening).
Church theology includes the Christian doctrine of [salvation](Salvation (Christianity)) only through Jesus Christ,"For salvation cometh to none such except it be through repentance and faith on the Lord Jesus Christ." Book of Mormon, and his [atonement](substitutionary)(substitutionary atonement) on behalf of mankind. The church has an [canon](open)(biblical canon) of four [texts](scriptural)(religious text): the [Bible](Bible), the [of Mormon](Book)(Book of Mormon), the [and Covenants](Doctrine)(Doctrine and Covenants), and the [of Great Price](Pearl)(Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)). Other than the Bible, the majority of the church canon consists of material the church's members believe to have been revealed by God to Joseph Smith, including commentary and [exegesis](exegesis) about the Bible, texts described as [parts of the Bible](lost)(apocryphal), and other works believed to be written by [prophets](ancient)(Prophet), including the Book of Mormon. Because of doctrinal differences, many Christian groups consider the church to be distinct and [from mainstream Christianity](separate)(Mormonism and Christianity).
Latter-day Saints believe that the church [president](President of the Church (LDS Church)) is a modern-day "[seer, and revelator](prophet,)(prophet, seer, and revelator)" and that Jesus Christ, under the direction of [the Father](God)(God the Father), leads the church by revealing his will and delegating his [keys](priesthood)(Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)) to its president. The president heads a hierarchical structure descending from [areas](Area (LDS Church)) to [stakes](Stake (Latter Day Saints)) and [wards](Ward (LDS Church)). [Bishops](Bishop (Latter Day Saints)), drawn from the [laity](laity), lead the wards. Male members may be ordained to the [priesthood](Priesthood (LDS Church)), provided they are living the standards of the church. Women are not ordained to the priesthood, but occupy leadership roles in some church [organizations](auxiliary organization (LDS Church)).
Both men and women may serve as [missionaries](Missionary). The church maintains a large [program](missionary)(Missionaries (LDS Church)) that [proselytizes](proselytism) and conducts [services](humanitarian)(LDS Humanitarian Services) worldwide. The LDS Church also funds and participates in humanitarian projects independent of its missionary efforts. Faithful members adhere to church laws of [purity](sexual)(Law of chastity), [health](Word of Wisdom), [fasting](Fasting#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and [observance](Sabbath)(Sabbath in Christianity#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and contribute ten percent of their income to the church in [tithing](Tithing (Latter Day Saints)). The church teaches sacred [ordinances](Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)) through which adherents make [covenants](Covenant (Latter Day Saints)) with God, including [baptism](Baptism (Mormonism)), [confirmation](Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)), the [sacrament](Sacrament (LDS Church)), priesthood ordination, [endowment](Endowment (Latter Day Saints)) and [marriage](celestial)(celestial marriage).
The church has [criticized](been)(Criticism of the LDS Church) throughout its history. Modern criticisms include disputed factual claims, treatment of minorities, and financial controversies. The church's practice of polygamy (plural marriage) was controversial until it was officially rescinded in 1890.
## History
[[File:Joseph Smith, Jr. portrait owned by Joseph Smith III.jpg|thumb|200px|[Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith), first [president](President of the Church) of the [of Christ](Church)(Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints))]]
The history of the church is typically divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith), which is in common with all churches associated with the Latter Day Saint movement, (2) a pioneer era under the leadership of [Young](Brigham)(Brigham Young) and his 19th-century successors, and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century as [Utah](Utah) achieved statehood.
### Beginnings
Joseph Smith formally organized the church as the [of Christ](Church)(Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)), on April 6, 1830, in [New York](western)(burned-over district).Scholars and eyewitnesses disagree whether the church was organized in [New York](Manchester,)(Manchester (town), New York) at the Smith log home, or in [Fayette](Fayette, New York) at the home of [Whitmer](Peter)(Peter Whitmer). ; (arguing that organization in Manchester is most consistent with eye-witness statements). The LDS Church officially favors organization in Fayette. Smith later changed the name to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints after he stated he had received a revelation to do so.. Initial converts were drawn to the church in part because of the newly published Book of Mormon, a self-described chronicle of [American](indigenous)(Indigenous peoples of the Americas) prophets that Smith said he had translated from [plates](golden)(golden plates).Book of Mormon, ["Introduction"](//www.churchofjesuschrist.org/scriptures/bofm/introduction).
Smith intended to establish the [Jerusalem](New)(New Jerusalem) in North America, called [Zion](Zion (Latter Day Saints)).; LDS ; LDS : "the city New Jerusalem shall be built by the gathering of the saints, beginning at [County, Missouri](Jackson), even the place of the temple, which temple shall be reared in this generation". In 1831, the church moved to [Ohio](Kirtland,)(Kirtland, Ohio), (citing letter by Smith to Kirtland converts, quoted in ). In 1834, Smith designated Kirtland as one of the "[stakes](Stake (Latter Day Saints))" of Zion, referring to the tent–stakes metaphor of [Isaiah](Book of Isaiah) . and began establishing an outpost in [County, Missouri](Jackson)(Jackson County, Missouri),; . where Smith planned to eventually move the church headquarters.Smith said in 1831 that God intended the Mormons to "retain a strong hold in the land of Kirtland, for the space of five years". ([and Covenants](Doctrine)(Doctrine and Covenants) ). However, in 1833, Missouri settlers violently expelled the Latter Day Saints from Jackson County.; (noting that the brutality of the Jackson Countians aroused sympathy for the Mormons and was almost universally deplored by the media). The church attempted to recover the land through a [expedition](paramilitary)(Zion's Camp), but did not succeed.; . Nevertheless, the church flourished in Kirtland as Smith published new revelations and the church built the [Temple](Kirtland)(Kirtland Temple),; (by summer of 1835, there were 1500 to 2000 Saints in Kirtland); *Desert Morning News 2008 Church Almanac* p. 655 (from 1831 to 1838, church membership grew from 680 to 17,881). culminating in a dedication of the building similar to the day of [Pentecost](Pentecost).; . The Kirtland era ended in 1838, after a [scandal](financial)(Kirtland Safety Society) rocked the church and caused widespread defections.; ("Ultimately, the rituals and visions dedicating the Kirtland temple were not sufficient to hold the church together in the face of a mounting series of internal disputes.") Smith regrouped with the remaining church in [West, Missouri](Far)(Far West, Missouri), (referring to the Far West church as the "church in Zion"); (The revelation calling Far West "Zion" had the effect of "implying that Far West was to take the place of Independence".) but tensions soon escalated into [conflicts](violent)(Mormon War (1838)) with the old Missouri settlers.; ; ; . Believing the Latter Day Saints to be in insurrection, the [governor](Missouri)(Lilburn Boggs) ordered that they be "[or driven from the State](exterminated)(Missouri Executive Order 44)". (Boggs' executive order stated that the Mormon community had "made war upon the people of this State" and that "the Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the State if necessary for the public peace"). In 1976, [Missouri](Missouri) issued a formal apology for this unconstitutional order . In 1839, the Saints converted a swampland on the banks of the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) into [Illinois](Nauvoo,)(Nauvoo, Illinois), which became the church's new headquarters..
Nauvoo grew rapidly as [missionaries](Mormon missionary) sent to Europe and elsewhere gained new converts who then flooded into Nauvoo.; . Meanwhile, Smith introduced [polygamy](polygamy) to his closest associates.; . He also established [ceremonies](Sealing (Mormonism)), which he stated the Lord had revealed to him, to allow righteous people to [gods](become)(Exaltation (Mormonism)) in the afterlife, (Smith echoed the words of Paul that faithful saints may become co-heirs with Jesus Romans 8:17); ; (the [anointing](second)(second anointing) provided a conditional guarantee that those persons who were pure and faithful would be exalted, even if they sinned, if they were sealed by the Holy Spirit of promise). and a [institution](secular)(Council of Fifty) to govern the [Millennial](Millennium) kingdom.; (describing the Council of Fifty noting that Smith prophesied "the entire overthrow of this nation in a few years", at which time the Kingdom of God would be prepared to lead) He also introduced the church to a full accounting of his [Vision](First)(First Vision), in which two heavenly "personages" appeared to him at age 14. This vision would come to be regarded by the LDS Church as the most important event in human history since the [of Jesus](resurrection)(resurrection of Jesus). First Vision: This Is My Beloved Son. Hear Him! |url= http://josephsmith.net/article/the-first-vision?lang=eng |work= JosephSmith.net |access-date= September 23, 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141021231512/http://josephsmith.net/article/the-first-vision?lang=eng |archive-date= October 21, 2014 |url-status= live }}; (belief in the First Vision now considered second in importance only to belief in the divinity of Jesus.);
On June 27, 1844, Smith and his brother, [Hyrum](Hyrum Smith), were [by a mob](killed)(Death of Joseph Smith) in [Illinois](Carthage,)(Carthage, Illinois),; ; . while being held on charges of treason. Because Hyrum was Joseph's designated successor, their deaths caused a [crisis](succession)(Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)),; . and Brigham Young assumed leadership over a majority of the church's membership.. Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was the senior [apostle](Apostle (Latter Day Saints)) of the [of the Twelve](Quorum)(Quorum of the Twelve).
Other splinter groups followed other leaders around this time. These groups have no affiliation with the LDS Church,. however they share a common heritage in their early church history. Collectively, they are called the Latter Day Saint movement. The largest of these smaller groups is the [of Christ](Community)(Community of Christ), based in [Missouri](Independence,)(Independence, Missouri), followed by [Church of Jesus Christ](the)(The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)), based in [Pennsylvania](Monongahela,)(Monongahela, Pennsylvania). Like the LDS Church, these faiths believe in Joseph Smith as a prophet and founder of their religion. They also accept the Book of Mormon, and most accept at least some version of the [and Covenants](Doctrine)(Doctrine and Covenants). However, they tend to disagree to varying degrees with the LDS Church concerning doctrine and church leadership.
### Pioneer era
[[File:BrighamYoung1.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[Young](Brigham)(Brigham Young) led the LDS Church from 1844 until his death in 1877.]]
For two years after Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents. Brigham Young led his followers, later called the [pioneers](Mormon)(Mormon pioneers), westward to [Nebraska](Nebraska) and then in 1847 on to what later became the [Territory](Utah)(Utah Territory), which at the time had been part of the indigenous lands of the Ute, Goshute, and Shoshone nations, and claimed by [until 1848](Mexico)(Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo). Over the course of many years, over 60,000 settlers arrived, who then branched out and colonized a large region now known as the [Corridor](Mormon)(Mormon Corridor).
Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity, and initially governed both the church and the state as a [theocratic](theocracy) leader. He also publicized the practice of [marriage](plural)(Mormonism and polygamy) in 1852. Modern research suggests that around 20 percent of Mormon families may have participated in the practice.
By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of accusations involving polygamy and the theocratic rule of the Utah Territory by Young.See Tullidge, Edward, *History of Salt Lake City*, 132-35 (Original from the University of Michigan, 1886). The [Mormon War](Utah)(Utah War) ensued from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the relatively peaceful invasion of Utah by the [States Army](United)(United States Army). The most notable instance of violence during this conflict was the [Meadows massacre](Mountain)(Mountain Meadows massacre), in which leaders of a local Mormon militia ordered the massacre of a civilian emigrant party who was traveling through Utah during the escalating military tensions. After the massacre was discovered, the church became the target of [media criticism](significant)(Mountain Meadows massacre and the media) for it.
After the Army withdrew, Young agreed to step down from power and be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial governor, [Cumming](Alfred)(Alfred Cumming (governor)). Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory. Coterminously, tensions between Mormon settlers and indigenous tribes continued to escalate as settlers began colonizing a growing area of tribal lands. While Mormons and indigenous peoples made attempts at peaceful coexistence, skirmishes ensued from about 1849 to 1873 culminating in the armed conflicts of [War](Walkara's)(Walkara), the [River Massacre](Bear)(Bear River Massacre), and the [Hawk War](Black)(Black Hawk War (1865–1872)).
After Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other church presidents, who resisted efforts by the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages. In 1878, the United States Supreme Court, in *[v. United States](Reynolds)(Reynolds v. United States)*, decreed that "religious duty" to engage in plural marriage was not a valid defense to prosecutions for violating state laws against polygamy. Conflict between Mormons and the [government](U.S.)(Federal government of the United States) escalated to the point that, in 1890, Congress disincorporated the LDS Church and seized most of its assets. Soon thereafter, church president [Woodruff](Wilford)(Wilford Woodruff) issued a [manifesto](1890 Manifesto) that officially suspended the performance of new polygamous marriages in the United States. Relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896. Relations further improved after 1904, when church president [F. Smith](Joseph)(Joseph F. Smith) again [polygamy](disavowed)(Reed Smoot hearings) before the United States Congress and issued a "[Manifesto](Second)(Second Manifesto)", calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of [excommunicating](excommunication) its members found practicing polygamy. Some [fundamentalist](Mormon fundamentalism) groups with relatively small memberships have broken off and continue to practice polygamy, but the Church distances itself from them.
### Modern times
[[File:Washington_D.C._Temple_At_Dusk.jpg|thumb|upright=1|left|The [D.C. Temple](Washington)(Washington D.C. Temple), completed in 1974, was the first built in the eastern half of the United States since 1846.]]
During the 20th century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization. In 2000, the church reported 60,784 missionaries and global church membership stood at just over 11 million. Nominal worldwide membership surpassed 16 million in 2018. Slightly under half of church membership lives within the United States.
The church has become a strong proponent of the [family](nuclear)(nuclear family) and at times played a prominent role in political matters, including opposition to [Peacekeeper missile](MX)(LGM-118 Peacekeeper) bases in Utah and [Nevada](Nevada), the [Rights Amendment](Equal)(Equal Rights Amendment), legalized gambling, [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage), and [death](physician-assisted)(euthanasia).
A number of official changes have taken place to the organization during the modern era. In 1978, the church [its previous policy](reversed)(1978 Revelation on Priesthood) of excluding black men of African descent from the priesthood, which had been in place since 1852; members of all races can now be ordained to the priesthood. Also, since the early 1900s, the church has instituted a [Correlation Program](Priesthood)(Priesthood Correlation Program) to centralize church operations and bring them under a hierarchy of priesthood leaders. During the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), the church also began operating a church welfare system, and it has conducted humanitarian efforts in cooperation with other religious organizations including [Relief Services](Catholic)(Catholic Relief Services) and [Aid](Muslim)(Muslim Aid), as well as secular organizations such as the [Red Cross](American)(American Red Cross).
During the second half of the 20th century and beginnings of the 21st, the church has responded to various challenges to its doctrine and authority. Challenges have included rising [secularization](secularization), focusing specifically on secularization challenges in Western and Eastern Europe challenges to the correctness of the translation of the [of Abraham](Book)(Book of Abraham), See also [Dialogue Topic Pages #5: The Book of Abraham](https://www.dialoguejournal.com/podcasts/dialogue-topic-pages-5-the-book-of-abraham/) and sources located there. and primary documents forged by [Hofmann](Mark)(Mark Hofmann) purporting to contradict important aspects of official early church history. The church's positions regarding [homosexuality](Homosexuality and the LDS Church), [women](Women and Mormonism), and [people](black)(Black people and Mormonism) have all been publicly debated during this timeframe.
For over 100 years, the church was a major sponsor of [Scouting](Scouting) programs for boys, particularly in the United States. The LDS Church was the largest [organization](chartered)(Boy Scouts of America#Chartered organizations and units) in the [Scouts of America](Boy)(Boy Scouts of America), having joined the Boy Scouts of America as its first charter organization in 1913. In 2020, the church ended its relationship with the BSA and began an alternate, religion-centered youth program, which replaced all other youth programs. Prior to leaving the Scouting program, LDS Scouts made up nearly 20 percent of all enrolled Boy Scouts, more than any other church.
## Beliefs
[[File:Christus statue temple square salt lake city.jpg|right|thumb|Latter-day Saints believe in the [resurrection](resurrection) of Jesus, as depicted in this replica of [Thorvaldsen](Bertel)(Bertel Thorvaldsen)'s *[Christus](Christus (statue))* statue located in the North Visitors' Center on [Square](Temple)(Temple Square) in [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City).]]
### Nature of God
LDS Church theology includes the belief in a [Godhead](Godhead (Latter Day Saints)) composed of [the Father](God)(God the Father), his son, Jesus Christ, and the [Ghost](Holy)(Holy Ghost) as three separate Persons who share a unity of purpose or will; however, they are viewed as three distinct Beings making one Godhead. This is in contrast with the predominant Christian view, which holds that God is a [Trinity](Trinity) of three distinct persons in [essence](one)(Homoousian). The Latter-day Saint conception of the Godhead is similar to what contemporary Christian theologians call *[trinitarianism](social)(social trinitarianism).* The beliefs of the church also include the belief that God the Father and his son, Jesus Christ, are separate beings with bodies of flesh and bone, while the Holy Ghost lacks such a physical body.
According to statements by church leaders, God sits at the head of the human family and is married to a [Mother](Heavenly)(Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)), who is the mother of human spirits. However, church leaders have also categorically discouraged prayers to her and counseled against "speculation" regarding her.
### Jesus Christ
Church members believe in Jesus Christ as the literal [of God](Son)(Son of God (Christianity)) and [Messiah](Messiah), [crucifixion](his)(Crucifixion of Jesus) as a conclusion of a [offering](sin)(sin offering), and subsequent [resurrection](Resurrection of Jesus). However, Latter-day Saints reject the [creeds](ecumenical)(ecumenical creeds) and the definition of the [Trinity](Trinity). Jesus is also seen as the elder brother of all who live in this world.
The church teaches that Jesus performed a [atonement](substitutionary)(substitutionary atonement); in contrast with other Christian denominations, the church teaches this atonement began in the garden of [Gethsemane](Gethsemane) and continued it to his crucifixion (rather than the orthodox belief that the crucifixion alone was the physical atonement). The church also teaches that Christ appeared to other peoples after his death, including spirits of the dead in the spirit world,[Robert L. Millet, "The Vision of the Redemption of the Dead (D&C 138)," in Sperry Symposium Classics: The Doctrine and Covenants, ed. Craig K. Manscill (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2004), 314–331.](https://rsc.byu.edu/sperry-symposium-classics-doctrine-covenants/vision-redemption-dead-dc-138-0) and indigenous Americans.[Savior visits Nephites after Resurrection. The Church News. Sept. 10, 1988.](https://www.thechurchnews.com/1988/9/10/23263646/savior-visits-nephites-after-resurrection)
The church also teaches that Jesus is the true founder and leader of the church itself. The physical establishment of the church by Smith in 1830 is seen as simply the reestablishment of the same [church](primitive)(History of Christianity#Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324)) that existed under Jesus and his Apostles. Similarly, the church teaches that Jesus leads the church presently by means of continual and direct revelation to its leaders, especially its current president.
#### Comparison with Nicene Christianity
The LDS Church shares various teachings with other branches of Christianity. These include a belief in the Bible, the [of Jesus](divinity)(divinity of Jesus), and his [atonement](Atonement in Christianity) and [resurrection](resurrection of Jesus Christ). LDS theology also includes belief in the doctrine of salvation through Jesus alone, [restorationism](Restorationism (Christian primitivism)), [millennialism](millennialism), [continuationism](continuationism), conditional [atonement](substitutionary)(substitutionary atonement) or [substitution](penal)(penal substitution), and a form of [succession](apostolic)(apostolic succession). The LDS Church, in its turn, does not accept baptisms performed in any other churches, as it teaches that baptism is only valid when it is conducted through proper priesthood authority.}}
Nevertheless, the LDS Church differs from other churches within contemporary Christianity in other ways. Differences between the LDS Church and most of traditional Christianity include disagreement about the nature of God, belief in a theory of [salvation](human)(Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)) that includes three [heavens](degrees of glory), a doctrine of [exaltation](Exaltation (Latter Day Saints)) which includes the ability of humans to become gods and goddesses in the [afterlife](afterlife), a belief in [continuing](continuous revelation) [revelation](revelation (Latter Day Saints)) and an open scriptural canon, and unique ceremonies performed privately in temples, such as the endowment and sealing ceremonies. A number of major Christian denominations view the LDS Church as standing apart from [creed](creed)al Christianity.See ([Church USA](Presbyterian)(Presbyterian Church USA), stating that "Mormonism is a new and emerging religious tradition distinct from the historic apostolic tradition of the Christian Church"); [Lutheran Church in America](Evangelical)(Evangelical Lutheran Church in America), stating that LDS Church doctrine regarding the [Trinity](Trinity) is "substantially different from that of orthodox, creedal Christianity".*''|publisher=Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|date=June 5, 2001|first=Joseph|last=Ratzinger|access-date=August 15, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814140809/http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20010605_battesimo_mormoni_en.html|archive-date=August 14, 2006|url-status=live}} (the official Roman Catholic view).
* (a Presbyterian view).
* (a Lutheran view).
* (an Episcopalian view).
* (an Orthodox view). However, church members self-identify as Christians.[Mormons in America: Certain in Their Beliefs, Uncertain of Their Place in Society](https://www.pewforum.org/2012/01/12/mormons-in-america-executive-summary/) , Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life 2012, p.10: Mormons are nearly unanimous in describing Mormonism as a Christian religion, with 97% expressing this point of view
The faith itself views other modern Christian faiths as having departed from true Christianity by way of a [apostasy](general)(Great Apostasy) and maintains that it is a restoration of 1st-century Christianity and the only true and authorized Christian church. (traditional Christian denominations "were believing in incorrect doctrines, and that none of them was acknowledged of God as His church and kingdom"). Stating that Jesus told Smith that all existing Christian creeds "were an abomination in his sight". Church leaders assert it is the only true church and that other churches do not have the authority to act in Jesus' name.According to [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith), Jesus told him that the other churches claiming to be Christian creeds "were an abomination in the Lords sight; that those professors [religion](of) were all corrupt". *Pearl of Great Price*, [Smith–History](Joseph)(Joseph Smith–History) 1:19.
### Cosmology and plan of salvation
[[File:Phil and Marlene.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A couple after their [marriage](Celestial marriage) in the [Utah Temple](Manti)(Manti Utah Temple). The church teaches that marriages, or sealings, performed in their temples may continue after death.]]
The church's cosmology and plan of salvation include the doctrines of a [pre-existence](pre-existence), an earthly mortal existence, [degrees of heaven](three)(Degrees of Glory) and exaltation.
According to these doctrines, every human spirit is a spiritual child of a Heavenly Father and each has the potential to continue to learn, grow, and progress in the eternities, eventually achieving eternal life, which is to become one with God in the same way that Jesus Christ is one with the Father, thus allowing the children of God to become divine beings – that is, gods – themselves. This view on the doctrine of [theosis](Divinization (Christian)) is also referred to as becoming a "joint-heir with Christ". The process by which this is accomplished is called exaltation, a doctrine which includes the reunification of the mortal family after the [resurrection](resurrection) and the ability to have spirit children in the afterlife and inherit a portion of God's kingdom. To obtain this state of godhood, the church teaches that one must have faith in Jesus Christ, [repent](repentance) of his or her sins, strive to keep the commandments faithfully, and participate in ordinances.
According to LDS Church theology, men and women may be sealed to one another so that their marital bond continues into the eternities.. Thus, there is a common view within the LDS Church that though prohibited by the LDS Church in mortality, [marriage](plural)(plural marriage) will exist in the afterlife. ("In the case of a man marrying a wife in the everlasting covenant who dies while he continues in the flesh and marries another by the same divine law, each wife will come forth in her order and enter with him into his glory."); (stating of his deceased wives: "my wives will be mine forever").}} Children may also be sealed to their biological or adoptive parents to form permanent familial bonds, thus allowing all immediate and extended family relations to endure past death.See ; . Children born to biological parents who have been sealed to each other are considered "born in the covenant" and need not be sealed to their parents. See The most significant LDS ordinances may be performed via proxy in behalf of those who have died, such as [for the dead](baptism)(baptism for the dead). The church teaches that all will have the opportunity to hear and accept or reject the gospel of Jesus Christ, either in this life or the next.
Within church cosmology, the fall of [and Eve](Adam)(Adam and Eve in Mormonism) is seen positively. The church teaches that it was essential to allow humankind to experience separation from God, to exercise full [agency](Agency (sociology)) in making decisions for their own happiness. Religious Studies Center|url=https://rsc.byu.edu/no-weapon-shall-prosper/fortunate-fall-adam-eve|access-date=November 12, 2021|website=rsc.byu.edu}}
### Restorationism
[[File:Joseph Smith first vision stained glass.jpg|upright|thumb|Adherents believe that [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith) was called to be a modern-day prophet through a [visitation](First Vision) from [the Father](God)(God the Father) and [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus).|right]]
The LDS Church teaches that, subsequent to the death of Jesus and his original apostles, his church, along with the authority to act in Jesus Christ's name and the church's attendant spiritual gifts, were [lost](Great Apostasy#Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), due to a combination of external persecutions and internal heresies. The restoration—as represented by the church began by Joseph Smith—refers to a return of the authentic priesthood power, [gifts](spiritual)(Gifts of the Spirit in Mormonism), ordinances, living [prophets](Prophet, seer, and revelator) and revelation of the [primitive](Early Christianity) Church of Christ. This restoration is associated with a number of events which are understood to have been necessary to re-establish the early Christian church found in the [Testament](New)(New Testament), and to prepare the earth for the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming (LDS Church)) of Jesus.Russell, Thomas A. (2010). ''Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions''. Irvine, CA: [Publishers](Universal)(Universal Publishers (United States)): 'Mormon Restorationism is the largest [religious movement](indigenous)(Christian revival#United States 1800–1850) found in North America. Among its member churches are the approximately 100 or so groups that trace their roots,' Chapter XVI: 'Joseph Smith, Jr. and Mormon Restorationism,' p. 151. In particular, Latter-day Saints believe that angels appeared to Joseph Smith and a limited number of his associates, and bestowed various priesthood authorities on them.
### Prophetic leadership
The church is led by a [president](President of the Church (LDS Church)), who is considered a "prophet, seer, and revelator." Within the church, he is referred to as "the Prophet" or the "President of the Church." He is considered the only person who is authorized to receive revelation from God on behalf of the whole world or entire church. As such, the church teaches that he is essentially infallible when speaking on behalf of God – although the exact circumstances when his pronouncements should be considered authoritative are debated within the church. In any case, modern declarations with broad doctrinal implications are often issued by joint statement of the [Presidency](First)(First Presidency (LDS Church)); they may be joined by the [of the Twelve Apostles](Quorum)(Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)) as well. Church members believe Joseph Smith was the first modern-day prophet.
Normally, the Prophet and two other ordained apostles he chooses as counselors form the First Presidency, the presiding body of the church; twelve other apostles form the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. When a president dies, his successor is chosen from the remaining apostles, and is invariably the longest-tenured of the group. Following the death of church president [S. Monson](Thomas)(Thomas S. Monson) on January 2, 2018, senior apostle Russell M. Nelson was announced as president on January 16.
### Home and family
The church and its members consider marriage and family highly important, with emphasis placed on large, nuclear families. In 1995, the church's First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve issued "[Family: A Proclamation to the World](The)(The Family: A Proclamation to the World)", which stresses the importance of the family. The proclamation defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman and stated that the family unit is "central to the Creator's plan for the eternal destiny of His children." The document further says that "gender is an essential characteristic of individual premortal, mortal, and eternal identity and purpose," that the father and mother have differing but equal roles in raising children, and that successful marriages and families, founded upon the teachings of Jesus Christ, can last eternally.. See also: [Family: A Proclamation to the World](The)(The Family: A Proclamation to the World) The proclamation also promotes specific roles essential to maintaining the strength of the family unit – the roles of a husband and father as the family's breadwinner and spiritual leader and those of a wife and mother as a nurturing caregiver. Both parents are charged with the duties of childrearing.
LDS Church members are encouraged to set aside one evening each week, typically Monday, to spend together in "[Home Evening](Family)(Family Home Evening)." Family Home Evenings typically consist of gathering as a family to study the faith's gospel principles, and other family activities. Daily family prayer is also encouraged.
### Sources of doctrine
[[Saint Scripture Quadruple Combination.jpg|upright=.6|thumb|The written canon of the LDS Church is referred to as its *standard works*|left](File:Latter-day)]
The theology of the LDS Church consists of a combination of biblical doctrines with modern revelations and other commentary by LDS leaders, particularly Joseph Smith. The most authoritative sources of theology are the faith's canon of four religious texts, called the "[works](standard)(standard works)". Included in the standard works are the [Bible](Bible), the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the [of Great Price](Pearl)(Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)).
The Book of Mormon is a foundational sacred book for the church; the terms "Mormon" and "Mormonism" come from the book itself. The LDS Church teaches that the [Moroni](Angel)(Angel Moroni) told Smith about golden plates containing the record, guided him to find them buried in the [Cumorah](Hill)(Hill Cumorah), and provided him the means of translating them from [Egyptian](Reformed)(Reformed Egyptian). It claims to give a history of the inhabitants from a [society](now-extinct)(Nephites) living on the American continent and their distinct [Judeo-Christian](Judeo-Christian) teachings. The Book of Mormon is very important to modern Latter-day Saints, who consider it the world's most perfect text.
The Bible, also part of the church's canon, is believed to be the word of God – subject to an acknowledgment that its translation may be incorrect, or that authoritative sections may have been lost over the centuries. Most often, the church uses the [King James Version](Authorized)(Authorized King James Version). Two extended portions of the [Smith Translation of the Bible](Joseph)(Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible) have been canonized and are thus considered authoritative. Additionally, over 600[H. Faulring](Scott)(Scott H. Faulring), [P. Jackson](Kent)(Kent P. Jackson), and [J. Matthews](Robert)(Robert J. Matthews), eds.'' Joseph Smith's New Translation of the Bible: Original Manuscripts.'' Provo, Utah: [Studies Center](Religious)(Religious Studies Center), Brigham Young University, 2004, p. 39. of the more doctrinally significant verses from the translation are included as excerpts in the current [Church edition](LDS)(LDS edition of the Bible) of the Bible. Other revelations from Smith are found in the Doctrine and Covenants, and in the Pearl of Great Price.
Another source of authoritative doctrine is the pronouncements of the current Apostles and members of the First Presidency. The church teaches that the First Presidency and the Quorum of Twelve Apostles are prophets and that their teachings are generally given under inspiration from God through the Holy Spirit.
In addition to doctrine given by the church as a whole, individual members of the church believe that they can also receive [revelation](personal)(Revelation (Latter Day Saints)#Personal revelation) from God in conducting their lives, and in revealing truth to them, especially about spiritual matters. Generally, this occurs through thoughts and feelings from the [Ghost](Holy)(Holy Ghost), in response to [prayer](prayer). Similarly, the church teaches its members may receive individual guidance and counsel from God through
blessings from priesthood holders. In particular, [blessing](patriarchal)(patriarchal blessing)s are considered special blessings that are received only once in the recipient's life, which are recorded, transcribed, and archived.
## Practices
### Ordinances
In the church, an ordinance is a [rite](sacred)(Ritual) or [ceremony](ceremony) that has spiritual and symbolic meanings, and acts as a means of conveying [grace](divine)(Grace in Christianity#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon)). Ordinances are physical acts which signify or symbolize an underlying spiritual act; for some ordinances, the spiritual act is the finalization of a [covenant](Covenant (Latter Day Saints)) between the ordinance recipient and [God](God in Mormonism). Ordinances are generally performed under [priesthood](Priesthood (LDS Church)) authority.
The ordinance of baptism is believed to bind its participant to Jesus Christ, who saves them in their imperfection if they continually keep their [promises](Covenant (biblical)) to him. Baptism is performed by immersion, and is typically administered to children starting at age eight.
Church members believe that through the ordinances of temple sealing and [endowment](temple)(Endowment (Latter Day Saints)), anyone can be eternally connected with their families beyond this life and can be perfected in Jesus Christ to eventually become like their Heavenly Parents—in essence [gods](Apotheosis).
Other ordinances performed in the church include [confirmation](Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)), the [sacrament](Sacrament (LDS Church)) (equivalent to the [Eucharist](Eucharist) or holy communion), and priesthood ordination.
### Word of Wisdom
The LDS Church asks its members to adhere to a dietary code called the Word of Wisdom, in which they abstain from the consumption of alcohol, coffee, tea, tobacco, and illicit or harmful substances. The Word of Wisdom also encourages the consumption of herbs and grains along with the moderate consumption of meat.
When Joseph Smith published the Word of Wisdom in 1833, it was considered only advice; violation did not restrict church membership. During the 1890s, though, church leaders started emphasizing the Word of Wisdom more. In 1921, church president [J. Grant](Heber)(Heber J. Grant) made obeying the Word of Wisdom a requirement to engage in worship inside of the faith's temples. From that time, church leadership has emphasized the forbidding of coffee, tea, tobacco, and alcohol, but not the other guidelines concerning meat, grains, and herbs.
### Law of chastity
Church members are expected to follow a [code](moral)(moral code) called the law of chastity, which prohibits [adultery](adultery), homosexual behavior, and sexual relations before or outside of marriage. As part of the law of chastity, the church strongly opposes pornography, and considers masturbation an immoral act.
### Tithing and other donations
Church members are expected to donate one-tenth of their income to support the operations of the church, including construction of temples, meetinghouses, and other buildings, and other church uses. Members are also encouraged to [fast](fasting) (abstain from food and drink) on the [Sunday of each month](first)(Fast Sunday) for two consecutive meals. They donate at least the cost of the two skipped meals as a "fast offering", which the church uses to assist the poor and needy and expand its [efforts](humanitarian)(LDS Humanitarian Services).
Local leadership is not remunerated financially, and is expected to tithe as well. Missionaries, however, are not expected to pay tithing directly as their living expenses are paid from church funds.
### Missionary service
[[File:MISSIONNAIRES MORMONS.JPG|thumb|upright|[Missionaries](Missionary (LDS Church)) typically commit to 18–24 months of full-time service.]]
All able LDS young men are expected to serve a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. Missionaries do not choose where they serve or the language in which they will proselytize, and are expected to fund their missions themselves or with the aid of their families. Prospective male missionaries must be at least 18 years old and no older than 25, not yet married, have completed secondary school, and meet certain criteria for physical fitness and spiritual worthiness. Missionary service is not compulsory, nor is it required for young men to retain their church membership.
Unmarried women 19 years and older may also serve as missionaries, generally for a term of 18 months. However, the LDS Church emphasizes that women are not under the same expectation to serve as male members are, and may serve solely as a personal decision. There is no maximum age for missionary service for women.
Retired couples are also encouraged to serve missions, and may serve 6-, 12-, 18-, or 23-month terms.["Missionary Policy Changes Give More Seniors Opportunity to Serve"](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/missionary-policy-changes-give-more-seniors-opportunity-to-serve) , LDS Church News Release, June 2, 2011. Unlike younger missionaries, these senior missionaries may serve in non-proselytizing capacities such as [aid](humanitarian)(humanitarian aid) workers or [history](family)(family history) specialists. Other men and women who desire to serve a mission, but may not be able to perform full-time service in another state or country due to health issues, may serve in a non-proselyting mission. They might assist at [Square](Temple)(Temple Square) in Salt Lake City or aid in the [seminary](Seminary (LDS Church)) system in schools.
All proselyting missionaries are organized geographically into administrative areas called [missions](Mission (LDS Church)). The efforts in each mission are directed by an older adult male [president](mission)(mission president). As of July 2020, there were [missions](407)(List of missions of the LDS Church) of the church.[Eight New Missions to Open in July 2020](https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/eight-new-missions-july-2020) , *Newsrooom*, November 21, 2019. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
### Sabbath day observance
Church members are expected to set aside Sundays as a day of "rest and worship." Typically, weekly worship meetings occur solely on Sundays. Shopping and recreation are discouraged on Sundays as well.
## Worship and meetings
### Weekly meetings
Meetings for worship and study are held at [meetinghouse](meetinghouse)s, which are typically utilitarian in character. The main focus of Sunday worship is the Sacrament meeting, where the [sacrament](Eucharist) is passed to church members; sacrament meetings also include prayers, the singing of [hymns](hymns) by the congregation or choir, and impromptu or planned [sermons](sermons) by church laity. Also included in weekly meetings are times for [School](Sunday)(Sunday School), or separate instructional meetings based on age and gender, including the [Society](Relief)(Relief Society) for women.
Church congregations are organized geographically. Members are generally expected to attend the congregation with their assigned geographical area; however, some geographical areas also provide separate congregations for young single adults, older single adults, or for speakers of alternate languages. For Sunday services, the church is grouped into either larger congregations known as [wards](Ward (LDS Church)), or smaller congregations known as branches. Regional church organizations, encompassing multiple congregations, include [stakes](Stake (Latter Day Saints)), missions, [districts](District (LDS Church)) and [areas](Area (LDS Church)).
The church's [Men](Young)(Young Men (organization)) and [Women](Young)(Young Women (organization)) organizations meet at the meetinghouse once a week, on a day other than Sunday, where the youth participate in activities.
### Temple worship
[[File:Salt Lake Temple, Utah - Sept 2004-2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The [Lake Temple](Salt)(Salt Lake Temple)]]
In LDS theology, a temple is considered to be a holy building, dedicated as a "House of the Lord" and held as more sacred than a typical meetinghouse or chapel. In temples, church members participate in ceremonies that are considered the most sacred in the church, including [marriage](Sealing (Mormonism)), and an endowment ceremony that includes a [and anointing](washing)(washing and anointing), receiving a [garment](temple)(temple garment), and making covenants with God. Baptisms for the dead – as well as other temple ordinances on behalf of the dead – are performed in the temples as well.
Temples are considered by church members to be the most sacred structures on earth, and as such, operating temples are not open to the public. Permission to enter is reserved only for church members who pass [interviews with ecclesiastical leaders](periodic)(Temple (LDS Church)#Worthiness interview) and receive a special recommendation card, called a temple recommend, that they present upon entry. Church members are instructed not to share details about temple ordinances with non-members or even converse about them outside the temple itself. As of November 2022, there are [operating temples worldwide](175)(List of temples of the LDS Church).
In order to perform ordinances in temples on behalf of deceased family members, the church emphasizes genealogical research, and encourages its lay members to participate in genealogy.
It operates [FamilySearch](FamilySearch), the largest genealogical organization in the world.
### Conferences
Twice each year, general authorities address the worldwide church through [conference](general)(General Conference (LDS Church)). General conference sessions are translated into as many as 80 languages and are broadcast from the 21,000-seat Conference Center in Salt Lake City. During this conference, church members [acknowledge](formally)(Common consent (Latter Day Saints)), or "sustain", the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles as prophets, seers, and revelators.
Individual stakes also hold formal conferences within their own boundaries biannually; wards hold conferences annually.
## Organization and structure
### Name and legal entities
The church teaches that it is a continuation of the Church of Christ established in 1830 by Joseph Smith. This original church underwent several name changes during the 1830s, being called the Church of Jesus Christ, the Church of God; in 1834, the name was officially changed to the Church of the Latter Day Saints. In April 1838, the name was officially changed to "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints"., , reproduced in . After Smith died, Brigham Young and the largest body of Smith's followers incorporated the LDS Church in 1851 by legislation of the [of Deseret](State)(State of Deseret) under the name "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",The initial incorporation by the non-existent [of Deseret](State)(State of Deseret) was not legally valid, but was soon ratified by the [Territory](Utah)(Utah Territory) in 1851 and 1855. See *Late Corporation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. Romney*, 136 U.S. 44–45 (1890). which included a hyphenated "Latter-day" and a [British-style](British English) lower-case *d*.
Common informal names for the church include the LDS Church, the Latter-day Saints, and the Mormons. The term *Mormon Church* is in common use. The church requests that the official name be used when possible or, if necessary, shortened to "the Church", "the Church of Jesus Christ", or "Latter-day Saints". ComeUntoChrist |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/comeuntochrist/believe |access-date=April 26, 2022 |website=www.churchofjesuschrist.org |language=en |quote="Latter-day Saints" is a good way to refer to your friends who are members of the Church.}} In August 2018, church president Russell M. Nelson asked members of the church and others to cease using the terms "LDS", "Mormon" and "Mormonism" to refer to the church, its membership, or its belief system and instead to call the church by its full and official name.}} Subsequent to this announcement, the church's premier vocal ensemble, the [Tabernacle Choir](Mormon)(Mormon Tabernacle Choir), was officially renamed and became the "Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square". Reaction to the name change policy has been mixed.
The church currently functions as a [sole](corporation)(corporation sole), incorporated in Utah.
Intellectual Reserve is a nonprofit corporation wholly owned by the church, which holds the church's intellectual property, such as copyrights, trademarks, and other media.
### Priesthood hierarchy
[[File:Russell M. Nelson.png|upright|left|thumb|[M. Nelson](Russell)(Russell M. Nelson), President of the LDS Church ]]
The LDS Church is organized in a hierarchical priesthood structure administered by its male members. Members of the church-wide leadership are called [authorities](general)(general authority). They exercise both [ecclesiastical](ecclesiastical) and administrative leadership over the church and direct the efforts of regional leaders down to the local level. General authorities and mission presidents work full-time for the church, and typically receive stipends from church funds or investments.Ludlow, Daniel H., *Latter-day Prophets Speak: Selections from the Sermons and Writings of Church Presidents*, 1948/1993, ch. 32. As well as speaking in general conference, general authorities speak to church members in local congregations throughout the world; they also speak to youth and young adults in broadcasts and at the [Educational System](Church)(Church Educational System) (CES) schools, such as [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University) (BYU). Local congregations are typically led by [bishops](Bishop (Latter Day Saints)), who perform similar functions to [pastor](pastor)s in the Protestant tradition, or [parish](Parish (Catholic Church)) priests in the Roman Catholic Church.
Each active church member is expected to receive one or more [callings](Religious calling#Latter-day Saints), or positions of assigned responsibility within the church. Individual members are expected to neither ask for specific callings, nor decline callings that are extended to them by their leaders. Leadership positions in the church's various congregations are filled through the calling system, and the vast majority of callings are filled on a volunteer basis.Brian L. Pitcher, ["Callings"](https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Callings) in *[of Mormonism](Encyclopedia)(Encyclopedia of Mormonism)*.For a time, the church had a paid local clergy; however, that practice was discontinued in the early 1900s. See [Michael Quinn](D.)(D. Michael Quinn) (1997), *Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power,* Salt Lake City: Signature Books, ch. 6. Members volunteer general custodial work for local church facilities.
All males who are living the standards of the church are generally considered for the priesthood and are ordained to the priesthood as early as age 11. Ordination occurs by a ceremony where [are laid](hands)(laying on of hands) on the head of the one ordained. The priesthood is divided into an order for young men aged 11 years and older (called the [priesthood](Aaronic)(Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints))) and an order for men 18 years of age and older (called the [priesthood](Melchizedek)(Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints))). The Priesthood of Aaron|url = https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/aaronic-priesthood|website = www.churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date = December 3, 2015|archive-date = October 24, 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211024050000/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/aaronic-priesthood?lang=eng|url-status = live}}
Some church leaders and scholars have spoken of women holding or exercising priesthood power. However, women are not formally ordained to the priesthood, and they do not participate in public functions administered by the priesthood—such as passing the Sacrament, giving priesthood blessings, or holding leadership positions over congregations as a whole. Since 2013, the [Women](Ordain)(Ordain Women) organization has sought formal priesthood ordination for women.
### Programs and organizations
[[File:BYU mountain view.JPG|right|thumb|The campus of [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University), one of several educational institutions sponsored by the church]]
Under the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five organizations that fill various roles in the church: Relief Society, the [Men](Young)(Young Men (organization)) and Young Women organizations, [Primary](Primary (LDS Church)), and [School](Sunday)(Sunday School (LDS Church)). Women serve as presidents and counselors in the presidencies of the Relief Society, Young Women, and Primary, while men serve as presidents and counselors of the Young Men and Sunday School. The church also operates several programs and organizations in the fields of proselytizing, education, and church welfare such as LDS Humanitarian Services. Many of these organizations and programs are coordinated by the [Correlation Program](Priesthood)(Priesthood Correlation Program), which is designed to provide a systematic approach to maintain worldwide consistency, orthodoxy, and control of the church's ordinances, doctrines, organizations, meetings, materials, and other programs and activities.
The church operates CES, which includes BYU, [BYU–Idaho](Brigham Young University–Idaho), [BYU–Hawaii](Brigham Young University–Hawaii), and [College](Ensign)(Ensign College). The church also operates [of Religion](Institutes)(Institute of Religion) near the campuses of many colleges and universities. For high-school aged youth, the church operates a four-year [program](Seminary)(LDS Seminary), which provides religious classes for students to supplement their secular education. The church also sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the [Education Fund](Perpetual)(Perpetual Education Fund), which provides educational opportunities to students from [nations](developing)(developing nations).
[[File:LDS genealogy library slc utah.jpg|thumb|left|The church's [History Library](Family)(Family History Library) is the world's largest library dedicated to [research](genealogical)(genealogy)]]
The church's welfare system, initiated in 1930 during the Great Depression, provides aid to the poor. Leaders ask members to fast once a month and donate the money they would have spent on those meals to help the needy, in what is called a fast offering. Money from the program is used to operate [storehouse](Bishop's)(Bishop's storehouse)s, which package and store food at low cost. Distribution of funds and food is administered by local [bishops](Bishop (Latter Day Saints)). The church also distributes money through its [Philanthropies](LDS Philanthropies) division to disaster victims worldwide.
Other church programs and departments include [Services](Family)(Family Services), which provides assistance with [adoption](adoption), [and family counseling](marital)(relationship counseling), [psychotherapy](psychotherapy), and [counseling](addiction)(intervention (counseling)); the LDS Church History Department, which collects church history and records; and the Family History Department, which administers the church's large family history efforts, including FamilySearch, the world's largest [history library](family)(Family History Library) and organization. Other facilities owned and operated by the church include Temple Square, the [Office Building](Church)(Church Office Building), the [Administration Building](Church)(Church Administration Building), the [History Library](Church)(Church History Library) and the [Mountain Records Vault](Granite)(Granite Mountain Records Vault).
### Finances
Since 1941, the church has been classified by the [IRS](IRS) as a [organization](501(c)(3))(501(c)(3) organization) and is therefore tax-exempt. Donations are tax-deductible in the United States. The church has not released church-wide financial statements since 1959.[Peggy Fletcher](Stack,)(Peggy Fletcher Stack). ["Order to release financial data has LDS Church, courts on collision course"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070715191640/http://www.sltrib.com/themix/ci_6364841). *[Lake Tribune](Salt)(Salt Lake Tribune)*. July 13, 2007. Accessed July 13, 2007. In the absence of official statements, people interested in knowing the church's financial status and behavior, including both members of the church and people outside the church, have attempted to estimate or guess.
In 1997, *[Time](Time Magazine)* magazine called the LDS Church one of the world's wealthiest churches per capita. Its for-profit, non-profit, and educational subsidiary entities are audited by an independent accounting firm. In addition, the church employs an independent [audit](audit) department that provides its certification at each annual general conference that church contributions are collected and spent in accordance with church policy.
The church receives significant funds from tithes and fast offerings. According to the church, tithing and fast offering money is devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used in for-profit ventures. It has been estimated that the LDS Church received $33 billion in donations from its members in 2010, and that during the 2010s its net worth increased by about $15 billion per year. According to estimates by [Businessweek](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg Businessweek), the LDS Church's net worth was $40 billion as of 2012.
The church's assets are held in a variety of holding companies, subsidiary corporations, and for-profit companies including: [International](Bonneville)(Bonneville International), [KSL](KSL-TV), [Book Company](Deseret)(Deseret Book Company), and holding companies for cattle ranches and farms in at least 12 U.S. States, Canada, New Zealand, and Argentina. Also included are banks and insurance companies, hotels and restaurants, real estate development, forestry and mining operations, and transportation and railway companies. Investigative journalism from the [& Transparency Foundation](Truth)(Truth & Transparency Foundation) in 2022 suggests the church may be the owner of the most valuable real estate portfolio in the United States, with a minimum market value of $15.7 billion. The church has also invested in for-profit business and real estate ventures such as [Creek Center](City)(City Creek Center). The Church-owned investment firm [Peak Advisors](Ensign)(Ensign Peak Advisors) publicly reports management of approximately $37.8 billion of financial securities, as of 2020.
## Culture
Due to the differences in lifestyle promoted by church doctrine and history, members of the church have developed a distinct culture. It is primarily concentrated in the [West](Intermountain)(Intermountain West).
Many of the church's more distinctive practices follow from their adherence to the Word of Wisdom – which includes abstinence from tobacco, alcohol, coffee, and tea – and their observance of Sabbath-day restrictions on recreation and shopping. [distinctive cuisine](Common,)(Mormon foodways) includes [potatoes](funeral)(funeral potatoes) and [salad](Jello)(Jello salad). Cultural taboos exist on piercings}} and tattoos}} after church guidance to avoid them; use of the cross as a symbol of worship is uncommon.
### Media and arts
[[File:Mtchoirandorchestra ConferenceCenter (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The Church-sponsored [Choir at Temple Square](Tabernacle)(Mormon Tabernacle Choir) has received various awards and travelled extensively since its inception.]]
LDS-themed media includes [cinema](LDS cinema), [fiction](LDS fiction), websites, and graphical art such as photography and paintings. The church owns a chain of bookstores called [Book](Deseret)(Deseret Book), which provide a channel through which publications are sold; church leaders have authored books and sold them through the publishing arm of the bookstore. [TV](BYU)(BYU TV), the church-sponsored television station, also airs on several networks. The church also produces [pageants](several)(List of pageants of the LDS Church) annually depicting various events of the primitive and modern-day church. Its [pageant *Jesus the Christ*](Easter)(Mesa Arizona Easter Pageant) has been identified as the "largest annual outdoor Easter pageant in the world". The church encourages entertainment without violence, sexual content, or vulgar language; many church members specifically avoid rated-R movies.
The church's official choir, the [Choir at Temple Square](Tabernacle)(Tabernacle Choir), was formed in the mid-19th century and performs in the [Lake Tabernacle](Salt)(Salt Lake Tabernacle). They have travelled to more than 28 countries, and are considered one of the most famous choirs in the world. The choir has received a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award), three [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award)s, two [Award](Peabody)(Peabody Award)s, and the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts).
Notable members of the church in the media and arts include: [Osmond](Donny)(Donny Osmond), an American singer, dancer, and actor; [Scott Card](Orson)(Orson Scott Card), author of ''[Game](Ender's)(Ender's Game)''; [Meyer](Stephenie)(Stephenie Meyer), author of the *[Twilight](Twilight (novel series))* series; and [Beck](Glenn)(Glenn Beck), a conservative radio host, television producer, and author. Notable productions related to the church, though produced by individuals not affiliated with it, include *[Among the Mormons](Murder)(Murder Among the Mormons)*, a 2021 [Netflix](Netflix) documentary; and *[Book of Mormon](The)(The Book of Mormon (musical))*, a big-budget musical about [missionaries](Mormon)(Mormon missionaries) that received nine [Awards](Tony)(2011 Tony Awards).
### Political involvement
The LDS Church states it generally takes no partisan role in politics, but encourages its members to play an active role as responsible citizens in their communities, including becoming informed about issues and voting. The church maintains that the faith's values can be found among many political parties.
A 2012 [Center](Pew)(Pew Center) on Religion and Public Life survey indicates that 74 percent of U.S. members lean towards the [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States)). Some liberal members say they feel that they have to defend their worthiness due to political differences. Democrats and those who lean Democrat made up 18% of church members surveyed in the 2014 [Research Center's](Pew)(Pew Research Center) Religious Landscape Survey.
The official church stance on staying out of politics does not include if there are instances of what church leaders deem to be moral issues, or issues the church "believes ... directly affect [its] interests." It has previously opposed same-sex marriage in [Prop 8](California)(California Proposition 8 (2008)#Religious organizations), supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against homosexual persons in housing and employment, opposed gambling, opposed storage of nuclear waste in Utah, and supported an approach to U.S. immigration policy as outlined in the [Compact](Utah)(Utah Compact). It also opposed a ballot initiative legalizing medicinal marijuana in Utah, but supported a possible alternative to it. In 2019 and 2021, the church stated its opposition to the [Act](Equality)(Equality Act (United States)), which would prohibit discrimination in the United States on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, but supports alternate legislation that it says would protect both LGBTQ rights and religious freedom. In 2022, the church stated its support for the [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act) – which would codify same-sex marriage as legal in the United States – due to the "protections for religious freedom" it includes.
In the [United States Congress](117th)(117th United States Congress), there are nine LDS Church members, including all six members of Utah's congressional delegation, all of whom are Republicans. [Utah's](Governor of Utah) current [governor](Governor (United States)), [Cox](Spencer)(Spencer Cox (politician)), is also a church member, as are supermajorities in both houses of the [State Legislature](Utah)(Utah State Legislature). Church member and current [Senator](U.S.)(List of United States senators from Utah) [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney) was the Republican Party's nominee in the [2012 presidential election](U.S.)(2012 United States presidential election).
## Demographics
The church reports a worldwide membership of 16 million. The church's definition of "membership" includes all persons who were ever baptized, or whose parents were members while the person was under the age of eight (called "members of record"), who have neither been excommunicated nor asked to have their names removed from church records. with approximately 8.3 million residing outside the United States, as of December 2011.Subtracting U.S. membership of 6,144,582 (December 31, 2011) from total worldwide membership (December 31, 2011) of 14,441,346, results in 8,296,764 (rounded to 8.3 million) members outside the United States of America
According to its statistics, the church is the fourth largest religious body in the United States. Although the church does not publish attendance figures, researchers estimate that attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million. Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46 percent of membership, Latin America 38 percent, and members in the rest of the world 16 percent. The 2012 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey, conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International, found that approximately 2 percent of the U.S. adult population self-identified as Mormon.
[[Church Membership 1830-2021.png|350px|thumb|left|The church saw prodigious numerical growth in the latter half of the 20th century, but the growth has since leveled off.](File:LDS)]
Membership is concentrated geographically in the Intermountain West, in a specific region sometimes known as the *[corridor](Mormon)(Mormon corridor)*. Church members and some others from the United States colonized this region in the mid-to-late 1800s, dispossessing several indigenous tribes in the process.
The church experienced rapid numerical growth in the 20th century, especially in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 21st century, however, church membership growth has slowed.Stewart, David G. 2022. "The End of Growth? Fading Prospects for Latter-day Saint Expansion," Journal of the Mormon Social Science Association 1, no. 1: 21–71. [https://doi.org/10.54587/JMSSA.0102](https://doi.org/10.54587/JMSSA.0102) Still, in the last decade, the church has more than doubled in size in Africa; the largest regional increases by raw numbers occurred in the United States, South America, and Africa.
In the United States, church members tend to be more highly educated than the general population.Heaton, Tim B. 2022. "Education, Religious Participation, and Conservatism Among Mormons in the United States," Journal of the Mormon Social Science Association 1, no. 1: 1–20. [https://doi.org/10.54587/JMSSA.0101](https://doi.org/10.54587/JMSSA.0101) , 54 percent of LDS men and 44 percent of women have post-secondary education; the general American population stands at 37 percent and 28 percent, respectively. The racial and ethnic composition of membership in the United States is one of the least diverse in the country. Church membership is predominantly white; the membership of blacks is significantly lower than the general U.S. population.
The LDS Church does not release official statistics on church activity, but it is likely that only approximately 40 percent of its recorded membership in the United States and 30 percent worldwide regularly attend weekly Sunday worship services. Reporting on a presentation given by the church's chief information officer, a *Deseret News* article indicated that one of Maxfield's statistics was that "about 36% [church members](of) attend weekly sacrament meetings". The *Deseret News* later retracted this and a few other statistics and added the following disclaimer: "some of the statistics originally reported in this article have been removed because they have not been verified by the LDS Church. The information was removed at the request of the speaker." A statistical analysis of the 2014 Pew Religious Landscape Survey assessed that "about one-third of those with a Latter-day Saint background... left the Church", identifying as disaffiliated. Activity rates vary with age, and disengagement occurs most frequently between age 16 and 25. Young single adults are more likely to become inactive than their married counterparts, and women tend to be more active than men.
## Humanitarian services
[[File:USN sailors at Beirut pier with aid cargo Aug 4 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|[Navy sailors](U.S.)(United States Navy) moving LDS Church–donated humanitarian supplies to [Lebanon](Beirut,)(Beirut, Lebanon), in 2006]]
The LDS Church provides worldwide [service](humanitarian)(humanitarianism), and is considered widely known for it. The church's welfare and humanitarian efforts are coordinated by Philanthropies, a church department under the direction of the [Bishopric](Presiding)(Presiding Bishop (LDS Church)). Welfare efforts, originally initiated during the Great Depression, provide aid for the poor, financed by donations from church members. Philanthropies is also responsible for philanthropic (that is, not tithing or fast offering) donations to the LDS Church and other affiliated charities, such as the Church History Library, the Church Educational System (and its subsidiary organizations), the Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square and funds for [missionaries](LDS)(missionary (LDS Church)). Donations are also used to operate bishop's storehouses, which package and store food for the poor at low cost, and provide other local services. In 2016, the church reported that it had spent a total of $1.2 billion on humanitarian aid over the previous 30 years.
Church humanitarian aid includes organizing food security, clean water, mobility, and healthcare initiatives, operating [stores](thrift)(Deseret Industries), maintaining a service project website, and directly funding or partnering with other organizations. The church reports that the value of all charitable donations in 2021 was $906 million. Independent reporting has found that the Church's charity organization, LDS Charities, gave a total of $177 million from 2008 to 2020.
The church also distributes money and aid to disaster victims worldwide. In 2005, the church partnered with Catholic Relief Services to provide aid to Niger. In 2010, it partnered with [Relief](Islamic)(Islamic Relief) to help victims of flooding in Pakistan. Latter-day Saint Charities (a branch of the church's welfare department) increased food production during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) and donated healthcare supplies to 16 countries affected by the crisis.
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* The church has donated $4 million to aid refugees fleeing from the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). In 2022, the church gave $32 million to the United Nations World Food Programme, in its largest one-time donation to a humanitarian organization to that point.
## Discrimination and persecution
The LDS Church and other churches within Mormonism have been the subject of discrimination and sometimes violent persecution. The most vocal and strident opposition occurred during the 19th century, particularly the forceful expulsion from Missouri and Illinois in the 1830s and 1840s, during the Utah War of the 1850s, and in the second half of the century.
Violent persecution against the LDS Church occurred in the early 1830s in [Missouri](Missouri). Mormons quickly earned long-lasting enmity in the frontier communities, due to discordant cultural attitudes (including opposition to slavery in a slave state) and their practice of voting as a bloc (thus gaining significant political power). This enmity culminated in the Missouri Mormon War and Governor Boggs' "extermination order."
Modern-day opposition to the church and Mormonism can broadly be divided into two separate strains of thought: the secular, and the religious. Secular criticism focuses primarily on refuting the church's truth claims; religious opposition, led mostly by [Evangelical](Evangelical)s, argues that Mormonism is heretical or diabolical.Introvigne, pp. 154,158. Cf. also Peterson, pp. 231–260.
In recent years, an increasing number of meetinghouses and other church facilities [been the targets of vandalism or arson](have)(List of attacks against Latter-day Saint churches). In 2022, the Orem Utah Temple was damaged by arson while under construction.
## Criticism and controversy
The LDS Church has been subject to criticism and the subject of controversy since its early years in New York and [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania).
Modern criticism of the church includes disputed factual claims, allegations of historical revisionism by the church, child sexual abuse, anti-gay teachings, racism, and sexism. Notable 20th-century critics include [and Sandra Tanner](Jerald)(Jerald and Sandra Tanner) and historian [Brodie](Fawn)(Fawn Brodie).[Fawn Brodie and Her Quest for Independence](https://www.jstor.org/stable/45225763) Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought Vol. 22, No. 2 (Summer 1989), pp. 79–95.
### Child sexual abuse
The church has been criticized for a number of alleged abuses perpetrated by local church leadership. In other cases, church leaders have been criticized for allegedly failing to properly report abuse to law enforcement.
### Scriptures
In the late 1820s, criticism centered on the claim by Joseph Smith to have been led to a set of gold plates from which the Book of Mormon was reputedly translated. (discussing an organized boycott of Book of Mormon by residents of [Palmyra](Palmyra (town), New York), and opposition by Colesville and Bainbridge residents).
Mainstream academic scholarship does not conclude the Book of Mormon is of an ancient origin and considers the book to be a 19th-century composition. Scholars have pointed out a number of [anachronisms](Anachronisms in the Book of Mormon) within the text. They argue that no evidence of a reformed Egyptian language has ever been discovered.Standard language references such as Peter T. Daniels and William Bright, eds., ''The World's Writing Systems* (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) (990 pages); David Crystal, *The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language* (Cambridge University Press, 1997); and Roger D. Woodard, ed., *The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages* (Cambridge University Press, 2004) (1162 pages) contain no reference to "reformed Egyptian." "Reformed Egyptian" is also ignored in Andrew Robinson, *Lost Languages: The Enigma of the World's Undeciphered Scripts* (New York: McGraw Hill, 2002), although it is mentioned in Stephen Williams, *Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991). Also, general archaeological and genetic evidence has not supported the book's statements about any known indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Since its publication in 1842, the Book of Abraham (currently published as part of the canonical Pearl of Great Price) has also been a major source of controversy. Numerous non-Mormon Egyptologists, beginning in the late 19th century,. have disagreed with Joseph Smith's explanations of the book's facsimiles. Translations of the original papyri – by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists – do not match the text of the Book of Abraham as purportedly translated by Joseph Smith.. Indeed, the transliterated text from the recovered papyri and facsimiles published in the Book of Abraham contain no direct references to Abraham.... Scholars have also asserted that damaged portions of the papyri have been reconstructed incorrectly by Smith or his associates.
### Polygamy
Polygamy (called plural marriage within the church) was practiced by church leaders for more than half of the 19th century, and practiced publicly from 1852 to 1890 by between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families. It was instituted privately in the 1830s by founder Joseph Smith and announced publicly in 1852 at the direction of Brigham Young.
For over 60 years, the [and the United States](church)(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States) were at odds over the issue: at one point, the Republican platform referenced "the twin relics of barbarism—polygamy and slavery." The church defended the practice as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government aggressively sought to eradicate it;
in 1862, the United States Congress passed the [Anti-Bigamy Act](Morrill)(Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act), which prohibited plural marriage in the territories.
In 1890, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially terminated the practice in the United States, although it did not dissolve existing plural marriages. Some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages in Canada and Mexico, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto," calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease. Several small fundamentalist groups, seeking to continue the practice, split from the LDS Church, but the mainline church now excommunicates members found practicing polygamy and distances itself from those fundamentalist groups.
### Ethnic minorities
#### Black people
[[Image:Green Flake Colorized.jpg|left|thumb|upright|150px|[Flake](Green)(Green Flake), an enslaved Black man reported to have driven the first wagon of LDS pioneers to the [Lake Valley](Salt)(Salt Lake Valley) in 1847]]
The teachings, attitudes, and practices of top LDS Church leaders towards Black people have changed significantly from its founding years to the modern times, and the church has faced criticism and controversy on these topics.|date=2015|publisher=[of Illinois Press](University)(University of Illinois Press)|location=Chicago|via=[Books](Google)(Google Books)|url-access=limited|isbn=978-0-252-08121-7|id=}}|id=}} Church founder Smith taught that the dark skin of people of Black African ancestry was a sign of their curse from God, and both he and Young taught that Black people were subject to the Biblical [of Ham](curse)(curse of Ham),|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-19-975407-6|via=[Books](Google)(Google Books)|url-access=limited|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199754076.001.0001}} and [of Cain](curse)(curse of Cain).|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-19-975407-6|via=[Books](Google)(Google Books)|url-access=limited|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199754076.001.0001|page=256|quote=Joseph ... sought to 'sh[o]w that the Indians have gr[e]ater cause to complain of the treatment of the whites than the Negroes or Sons of Cain.'}} They also both made statements in support of Black enslavement, and Young legalized Black slavery while acting as Utah territory's governor. |isbn=9780974607627|date= December 2004}}
From 1844 to 1978, the church barred Black women and men from participating in temple ordinances necessary for the highest level of salvation; prevented most men of Black African descent from being ordained to the church's lay, all-male priesthood; supported [segregation](racial)(racial segregation) in its communities and schools;|title= Mormonism and American Politics|author1-first=Randall|author1-last=Balmer |author2-first=Jana |author2-last= Riess |author2-link=Jana Riess |page=168|isbn=9780231540896|date=December 8, 2015|publisher=[University Press](Columbia)(Columbia University Press)}} taught that righteous Black people would be made White after death;}} |title=Race and the Making of the Mormon People |publisher=[Press Books](UNC)(UNC Press Books) |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-469-63376-3}} and opposed interracial marriage. Leaders taught on many occasions during this time that Black people were less righteous in the pre-existence. The temple and priesthood racial restrictions were lifted by top leaders in 1978; public pressure during the United States' [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement) had preceded the priesthood ban being rescinded.
* During the late 1960s and 1970s, black athletes at some universities refused to compete against teams from church owned [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University) as a form of protest.
* A protest in 1974 was in response to the exclusion of black scouts to become leaders in church sponsored [Scout](Boy)(Boy Scouts of America) troops.}} In 2013 the church directly disavowed its previous teachings on race for the first time.
#### Native American people
[[Smith Preaching to the Indians by William Armitage.png|thumb|200px|Artistic depiction of Joseph Smith preaching to Native Americans in Illinois](File:Joseph)]
Over the past two centuries, the relationship between Native American people and the LDS Church has included friendly ties, displacement, battles, slavery, education placement programs, official and unofficial discrimination, and criticism. Church leadership and publications taught that Native Americans are descendants of [Lamanites](Lamanites), a dark-skinned and cursed people from the Book of Mormon. More recently, LDS researchers and publications generally favor a [geographic footprint](smaller)(limited geography model) of [descendants](Lamanite)(Lamanites#Proposed modern descendants).}} There is no direct support amongst mainstream historians and archaeologists for the [of the Book of Mormon](historicity)(historicity of the Book of Mormon) or Middle Eastern origins for any Native American peoples.
Soon after Mormons colonized the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, Native American child slaves became a vital source of their labor, and were exchanged as gifts. The settlers initially had some peaceful relations, but because resources were scarce in the desert, hostilities broke out with the local Native Americans. According to LDS [Historian](Church)(Church Historian and Recorder) [K. Jensen](Marlin)(Marlin K. Jensen) as more LDS immigrants arrived and took over the land of Native nations, "Resources the Indians had relied on for generations diminished, and in time they felt forced to resist and fight for their own survival ... the land and cultural birthright Indians once possessed in the Great Basin were largely taken from them." Within 50 years of Mormon settlement, the population of Utah's Native Americans was reduced by almost 90%.
The church ran an [Placement Program](Indian)(Indian Placement Program) between the 1950s and the 1990s, wherein indigenous children were adopted by white church members. Criticism resulted during and after the program, including claims of improper assimilation and even abuse. However, many of the involved students and families praised the program. Church leaders taught for decades that Native Americans' darker skin would be made lighter due to their righteousness.
#### Jewish people
Some Jewish groups criticized the LDS Church in 1995 after discovering that vicarious baptisms for the dead for victims of the [Holocaust](Holocaust) had been performed by members of the church. After that criticism, church leaders put a policy in place to stop the practice, with an exception for baptisms specifically requested or approved by victims' relatives. Jewish organizations again criticized the church in 2002, 2004, 2008, and 2012 stating that the church failed to honor the 1995 agreement. The LDS Church says it has put institutional safeguards in place to avoid the submission of the names of Holocaust victims not related to Mormon members, but that the sheer number of names submitted makes policing the database of names impractical.
### LGBT people
[[File:Prop8templeProtest.jpg|thumb|left|Protesters in front of the [Beach California Temple](Newport)(Newport Beach California Temple) voicing their opposition to the church's support of [8](Prop)(California Proposition 8 (2008))]]
The [policies and treatment of sexual minorities](church's)(Homosexuality and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) and [minorities](gender)(Gender minorities and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) have long been the subject of external criticism, as well as internal controversy and disaffection by members. Because of its ban against same-sex sexual activity and same-sex marriage, the LDS church taught for decades that any adherents attracted to the same sex could and should change that through [orientation change efforts](sexual)(sexual orientation change efforts) and righteous striving. The church provided therapy and programs for attempting to change sexual orientation.
Current teachings and policies leave homosexual members with the options of: potentially harmful attempts to change their sexual orientation, entering a [opposite-sex marriage](mixed-orientation)(Mixed-orientation marriage), or lifelong [celibacy](celibacy). Some have argued that church teachings against homosexuality and the treatment of LGBT members by other adherents and leaders have contributing to their elevated rates of [PTSD](Post-traumatic stress disorder) and [depression](Major depressive disorder), as well as suicide and teen homelessness. The church's decades-long, political involvement opposing US same-sex marriage laws has further garnered criticism and protests.
### Criticism of Joseph Smith
In the 1830s, the church was heavily criticized for Smith's handling of a banking failure in Kirtland, Ohio.; . After the Mormons migrated west, there was fear and suspicion about the LDS Church's political and military power in Missouri, (noting that in [County, Missouri](Daviess)(Daviess County, Missouri), non-Mormons "watched local government fall into the hands of people they saw as deluded fanatics"). culminating in the 1838 Mormon War and the Mormon Extermination Order (Missouri Executive Order 44) by Governor Lilburn Boggs. In the 1840s, criticism of the church included its [theocratic](theodemocracy) aspirations in Nauvoo, Illinois. Criticism of the practice of [marriage](plural)(plural marriage) and other doctrines taught by Smith were published in the *[Expositor](Nauvoo)(Nauvoo Expositor).*; (arguing that given its authors' intentions to reform the church, the paper was "extraordinarily restrained" given the explosive allegations it could have raised); A prospectus for the newspaper was published on May 10, and referred to Smith as a "self-constituted monarch". Opposition led to a series of events culminating in the killing of Smith and his brother while jailed in 1844.
### Financial controversy
The church's failure to make its finances public has drawn criticism from commentators who consider its practices too secretive. Critical commentators have asserted that the church uses its corporate structure to "optimize its asset and capital management by moving money and assets between [its] tax-exempt and regular businesses as loans, donations or investments."
In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over $100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, [Peak Advisors](Ensign)(Ensign Peak Advisors) (EP); that it failed to use the funds for charitable purposes and instead used them in for-profit ventures; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds. In response, the church's First Presidency stated that "the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves," and that "a portion" of funds received by the church are "methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve for the future". The church has not directly addressed the fund's size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate. The disclosure of Ensign Peak has led to criticism that the church's wealth may be excessive.
The church has been accused of "significant tax evasion" in Australia. According to an investigation by Australian newspapers, [Daily Age](The)(The Age) and [Sun Herald](The)(The Sun Herald), the church's corporation LDS Charities Australia was the recipient of nearly $70 million in donations annually (which is tax exempt under Australian law, as opposed to religious donations, which are not) but appeared to actually spend very little of it on charity. According to the investigation, tithing and other religious donations were routed through the corporation to ensure they would be tax exempt. The investigation does not reference any internal church documents to confirm their findings. The church has previously fought to keep its internal financial information out of the public record.
In Canada, a total of more than 1 billion dollars collected through tithing has been transferred tax-free to church universities over a 15-year period. In October 2022, *[Sydney Morning Herald](The)(The Sydney Morning Herald)* announced the results of an investigation it conducted together with multiple other media organizations – that while the church publicly claimed to have donated US$1.35 billion to charity between 2008 and 2020, its private financial reports showed that it actually donated only US$0.177 billion to charity in that period.
In February 2023, the [Securities and Exchange Commission](U.S.)(U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission) (SEC) issued a [ $5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP.](2023 Securities and Exchange Commission charges against the LDS Church and Ensign Peak Advisors) The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple [companies](shell)(Shell corporation) from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency. The church released a statement that in 2000 EP "received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio." After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP "adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report."
### Responses
Mormon apologetics organizations, such as [FAIR](FAIR (Mormon apologetics organization)) and the [Institute](Maxwell)(Maxwell Institute), seek to counter criticisms of the church and its leaders. Most of the apologetic work focuses on providing and discussing evidence supporting the claims of Smith and the Book of Mormon. Scholars and authors such as [Nibley](Hugh)(Hugh Nibley), Daniel C. Peterson, and others are well-known apologists within the church.
## See also
* [in the United States](Christianity)(Christianity in the United States)
* [of articles related to the LDS Church](Index)(Index of articles related to the LDS Church)
* [of missions of the LDS Church](List)(List of missions of the LDS Church)
* [of temples of the LDS Church](List)(List of temples of the LDS Church)
* [(word)](Mormon)(Mormon (word))
* [and Islam](Mormonism)(Mormonism and Islam)
* [and Judaism](Mormonism)(Mormonism and Judaism)
* [of new religious movements](List)(List of new religious movements)
## Notes
## References
### Bibliography
*
*.
*
* 6 | doi=10.2307/45226744 | jstor=45226744 | s2cid=254298749 | url=https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/issues/V33N04.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119070137/https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/issues/V33N04.pdf |archive-date=January 19, 2011}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*. See [and Covenants](Doctrine)(Doctrine and Covenants).
*
## External links
### Official church websites
* [ChurchofJesusChrist.org](https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/) – Official church website
* [ComeUntoChrist.org](http://www.comeuntochrist.org) – Official church website, with information about basic beliefs. (formerly Mormon.org)
### Other sites
*
*
|state =autocollapse
}}
[ ](Category:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)
[establishments in New York (state)](Category:1830)(Category:1830 establishments in New York (state))
[denominations established in the 19th century](Category:Christian)(Category:Christian denominations established in the 19th century)
[Smith](Category:Joseph)(Category:Joseph Smith)
[organizations based in the United States](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious organizations based in the United States)
[organizations established in 1830](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious organizations established in 1830)
[belief systems founded in the United States](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious belief systems founded in the United States)
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Click _2006 film
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click__2006_film
|
# Click (2006 film)
*Revision ID: 1159881420 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T03:50:31Z*
---
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = [Semler](Dean)(Dean Semler)
| editing = [Gourson](Jeff)(Jeff Gourson)
| music = [Gregson-Williams](Rupert)(Rupert Gregson-Williams)
| studio =
* [Studios](Revolution)(Revolution Studios)
* [Madison Productions](Happy)(Happy Madison Productions)
* [Film](Original)(Original Film)
}}
| distributor = [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing)
| released =
| runtime = 107 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $82.5 million
| gross = $240.7 million
}}
***Click*** is a 2006 American [fiction](science)(Science fiction film) [fantasy](fantasy film) [film](comedy-drama)(comedy-drama film) directed by [Coraci](Frank)(Frank Coraci), written by [Koren](Steve)(Steve Koren) and [O'Keefe](Mark)(Mark O'Keefe (screenwriter)), and produced by [Sandler](Adam)(Adam Sandler), who also stars. Sandler plays Michael Newman, a [workaholic](workaholic) family man who acquires a magical [remote](universal)(universal remote) that enables him to control reality. The film co-stars [Beckinsale](Kate)(Kate Beckinsale) as his wife Donna and [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken) as Morty, the eccentric stranger who gives Michael the remote.
Filming began in late 2005 and was finished by early 2006. [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) released *Click* in the United States on June 23, 2006. It was made on a budget of $82.5million and grossed $240.7million. It received negative reviews on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) and mixed reviews on [Metacritic](Metacritic). It was nominated for [Makeup](Best)(Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling) at the [Academy Awards](79th)(79th Academy Awards) (it lost the award to ''[Labyrinth](Pan's)(Pan's Labyrinth)*). This makes *Click'' the only Sandler-produced film (as of 2023) to be nominated for an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award).
## Plot
Michael Newman is an architect who is consistently bullied by his overbearing boss, John Ammer, and often chooses work over his wife Donna and his two children, Ben and Samantha. One night, Michael visits the retail store [Bath & Beyond](Bed)(Bed Bath & Beyond) to buy a universal remote control because he keeps owning too many remotes. After an unsuccessful search for a new universal remote control, he stumbles around various departments before falling asleep. Upon waking, he accepts a free remote control from a man named Morty, but when he gives it to Michael, he warns him that it is not returnable.
Michael learns that the remote can be used to control reality much like a television. He uses it to his advantage at work, to cause light-hearted catastrophe, and to fast-forward past illnesses. Morty tells Michael that during these times, his body is on "auto-pilot", going through the motions of everyday life while his mind skips ahead.
After thinking that Ammer has promoted him to a partnership, Michael buys bicycles for his children and a [Spade](Kate)(Kate Spade) purse for Donna. However, Ammer tells him that he has not yet been promoted, so he cannot afford the gifts and must return them immediately. Disappointed that he made his family upset, Michael uses the remote to skip ahead to his promotion, thus missing a year of his life. During this time, he and Donna have entered marriage counseling, his children have matured, and the family dog has died. The remote, having learned his preferences, accidentally starts to do time-skipping automatically. Every time Michael tries to discard or destroy the remote, it keeps on reappearing. Later, he tells Morty to return it where it belongs, but Morty refuses to take it back because it cannot be returned.
At work, Ammer tells Michael he is no longer the CEO of the firm, which would make Michael the new head of the International Division and that in time, Michael could be the new CEO from now on. This causes the remote to instantly fast-forward ten years into the future, where Michael is extremely wealthy, but morbidly obese and lives alone in a luxury apartment. He returns home to discover that Ben, now overweight like himself, and Samantha have both become moody teenagers, and that Donna has divorced him and remarried to Bill, Ben's former childhood swim coach. When he starts to argue with them, the new family dog jumps on Michael and knocks him into a coma. The remote then time-skips six years in the future, when Michael wakes, no longer obese as a result of having undergone [liposuction](liposuction) to save his life as a part of his [cancer](cancer) treatment and subsequent [attack](heart)(heart attack). A full-grown Ben is now a partner at the firm and is also slim having exercised with Bill.
Michael learns that his father, Ted, has died of old age. Morty reappears as Michael mourns him. Michael uses the remote to see when he last saw Ted, when Michael coldly rebuffed Ted's offer to take him and Ben out to dinner. At Ted's grave, Morty appears and reveals to Michael that he is the [of Death](Angel)(Death (personification)). Overcome with guilt and shame, Michael asks to go to a "good place", whereupon the remote fast-forwards him several more years in the future to Ben's wedding. He overhears Samantha refer to Bill as Dad, causing him to have a second heart attack. Later that night, he wakes in the hospital to find his family there, including Samantha, who clarifies that she views both Bill and Michael as her fathers. Ben reveals that he skipped his honeymoon to help fix issues with the firm before a nurse sends everyone away. Afraid that Ben will make the same mistakes just like he did, Michael gathers the last of his strength to follow him and Samantha out of the hospital, but suddenly starts to collapse and die, but not before telling Ben to put his wife before work, and assures his family that he still loves them.
Michael reawakens in Bed Bath & Beyond and finds out that he was dreaming but sees it as a sign that he needs to make changes in his life. He embraces his family and promises to spend more time with them. He finds the remote on the counter along with a note from Morty, who reveals he has given him a second chance because "Good guys need a break." Michael throws the remote in the trash, and much to his surprise, it does not reappear. He then joins his family in a pillow fight.
## Cast
* [Crews](Terry)(Terry Crews) as man singing in car (uncredited)
* [O'Riordan](Dolores)(Dolores O'Riordan) as Singer
}}
## Production
On July 23, 2003, Sony purchased [Koren](Steve)(Steve Koren) and Mark O'Keefe's [script](spec)(spec script) *Click* for $1.75 million, with plans for it to be an [Sandler](Adam)(Adam Sandler) film produced by [Studios](Revolution)(Revolution Studios), [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures), and [H. Moritz](Neal)(Neal H. Moritz)'s company [Film](Original)(Original Film); the purchase occurred as *[Almighty](Bruce)(Bruce Almighty)* (2003), also written by Koren and O'Keefe, had grossed $236 million domestically in its two month run. *Click* was the second comedy Moritz produced for Columbia Pictures, after *[Another Teen Movie](Not)(Not Another Teen Movie)* (2001). Although Sony planned filming to begin in April 2004 after Sandler finished shooting *[Spanglish](Spanglish (film))* (2004), that was postponed for Koren and O'Keefe to rewrite the script under the supervision of [José Campanella](Juan)(Juan José Campanella), who was announced as director in May 2004. However, he was replaced by [Coraci](Frank)(Frank Coraci), who directed the Sandler films *[Wedding Singer](The)(The Wedding Singer)* (1998) and *[Waterboy](The)(The Waterboy)* (1998), in March 2005. Executive producer [Herlihy](Tim)(Tim Herlihy) also revised the script. [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken) joined the cast on February 23, 2005.
[Imageworks](Sony Pictures Imageworks) began working on the film's digital effects in January 2006 without any [and development](research)(research and development). While most of the effects were shot [compositing](compositing)s, three-dimensional graphics were also made for the display on the remote and [painting](matte)(matte painting) a few settings, such as the Bed and Beyond warehouse, a city background at Michael's workplace, and the winter backyard at his home; programs such as [4D](Cinema)(Cinema 4D) and [Maya](Autodesk)(Autodesk Maya) were used to produce the graphics. In order to make the fast-forwarding and rewinding look [DVD](DVD)-like, effects of [video](interlaced)(interlaced video) and [lines](scan)(scan lines) "slicing through" were added. [control photography](Motion)(Motion control photography) and [screen](green)(green screen) effects were used for scenes where Michael looked back on his life with the remote, meaning that were occasionally two Michaels in the same shot; while [rotoscoping](rotoscoping) was used for the sequence where he changes the color of his face with the remote.
For scenes where Michael pauses his surroundings, the effects crew originally planned for everything to be frozen, including the environment; however, they found out this "bothered" the eye, thus switching the plan to only the characters being frozen while the environment (such as leaves on the trees being blown by wind) keeps in motion. The primary challenge for the freeze shots was [sharpening](Image sharpening) the frozen characters as much as possible; there were some cases where the characters would freeze in a very active moment, causing the effects team to have to work with the [blur](motion)(motion blur) that resulted from it. For instances where characters were frozen in a moment where they were still, they were filmed staying in that position for seconds so that, during post-production, the average of multiple frames would create a result absent of [grain](film)(film grain).
## Release and promotion
*Click*s official website debuted in late December 2005, consisting only of the film's official trailer; C.S. Strowbridge of *[Numbers](The)(The Numbers (website))* called the trailer "better than I expected. It seems like Adam Sandler is serious about maturing as an actor." Other interactive features and pages were added later on, such as a plot summary, image gallery, information about the cast and crew, audio and video clips, and a *Control Your Universe* poster generator.
The film screened out of competition at the [Sebastian International Film Festival](San)(San Sebastian International Film Festival). The film was released in the United States on June 23, 2006 and made its UK premiere in a London [Cinema](Empire)(Empire Cinema) on September 28, 2006.
### Home media
*Click* was released on [DVD](DVD), [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [UMD](Universal Media Disc) on October 10, 2006. It was the first dual layer Blu-ray disc released by Sony.
## Reception
### Box office
#### Domestic
Before *Click*s theatrical run, Strowbridge predicted, on the basis of a weak critical reception and the commercial failure of a similar dramedy attempt of Sandler's, *Spanglish*, *Click* would be one of his lesser hits; however, he suggested it could still gross up to $125 million due to its mixture of comedy and drama elements. The weekend before the film's release, [Finke](Nikki)(Nikki Finke) projected an opening weekend gross of $40 million due to similarly-high numbers of prior Sony-produced Sandler comedies such as *[First Dates](50)(50 First Dates)* (2004), *[Deeds](Mr.)(Mr. Deeds)* (2002), and *[Management](Anger)(Anger Management (film))* (2003). The day before the film's theatrical start, *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*s Joshua Rich projected *Click* to have a $55 million opening weekend and a total overall gross of $210 million for its "broadly appealing" [concept](high)(high concept) and the inclusion of Adam Sandler and Kate Beckinsale in lead roles.
Domestically, *Click* opened in 3,749 theaters and debuted at number-one at the box office, grossing $14.5 million on its opening day and $40 million in its opening weekend; Sony distributed the film in a hugely successful year as it was their seventh number-one hit of 2006. Groups of viewers outside the young male demographic were also higher than previous Sandler films; Sony's exit polls showed 51% of attendees being female and 50% over the age of 25. *Click* was also one of the only three films to surpass a $10,000 theater average that weekend with $10,673; the other two were *[Rockers](Wassup)(Wassup Rockers)* and ''[Cohen: I'm Your Man](Leonard)(Leonard Cohen: I'm Your Man)*, both of which played at one theater.
Strowbridge predicted that in its second weekend, *Click* would fall 50% and gross $20 million due to intense competition with *[Returns](Superman)(Superman Returns)*. However, while *Click'' grossed approximately that amount and got dethroned by the superhero film as expected by analysts, what wasn't anticipated was that *[Devil Wears Prada](The)(The Devil Wears Prada (film))* would open with double the gross initially projected; as a result, *The Devil Wears Prada* made $27.5 million in three days and placed *Click* in the number-three spot.
During its third weekend, when the record-breaking ''[of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest)* debuted, *Click'' had the second-strongest hold of all competitors in the top five; it dropped only 40% from the prior weekend, while [Pixar](Pixar)'s *[Cars](Cars (film))* went down 38%, *[Devil Wears Prada](The)(The Devil Wears Prada (film))* 47%, and *Superman Returns* 60%; *Click* also surpassed the $100 million mark that weekend, making it the seventh Sandler film to gross that amount. It later grossed $137.4 million in the United States and $100.3 million internationally, with a total gross of $240.7 million worldwide.
#### International
*Click* opened on June 30, 2006 in Australia and New Zealand to the number-one spot in both countries; in Australia, it made $2.97 million from 281 theaters, in New Zealand $853,000 from 48. The following week, it went down 34% making $1.98 million in Australia while opening to six screens in Ireland with $59,000. By the fourth week of its international run, *Click* had grossed a total of $10.87 million and was running in four countries, $9.51 million of the total gross being from Australia. On the weekend of August 28, 2006, *Click* had a strong number-one debut in Mexico, grossing $1.76 million from 418 theaters, which helped launch the film into the international top ten, specifically number seven; it grossed $4.26 million from 1,159 screens in 22 nations, bringing the international total to $25.71 million. It went down to number nine the following weekend, grossing $3.47 million from 1,104 screens in 27 countries and increasing the total gross to $31.12 million.
### Critical reception
[Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gave *Click* a score of 34% based on 174 reviews. The average score is a 4.78/10, and the consensus is: "This latest Adam Sandler vehicle borrows shamelessly from ''[a Wonderful Life](It's)(It's a Wonderful Life)* and *[to the Future](Back)(Back to the Future)*, and fails to produce the necessary laughs that would forgive such imitation."[Click Movie Reviews, Pictures](http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/click). *[Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes)*. Retrieved September 11, 2020. [Metacritic](Metacritic) gave it a score of 45 out of 100, based on 35 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. [Bradshaw](Peter)(Peter Bradshaw) opined *Click* was an improvement over the previous Sandler flick *[Deeds](Mr.)(Mr. Deeds)* (2002): "It has some moments of good-natured sweetness and Adam Sandler is improving as a comic performer, though he is still conceited and opaque."
The film was criticized for its gross-out humor and unlikeable protagonist. *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* critic Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote *Click* failed at being ''It's a Wonderful Life* because "Michael earns none of George Bailey’s mature wisdom honestly."
When it came to positive reviews, *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* claimed *Click* was predictable as a moral story but "unusually dark, occasionally touching and pretty funny" for a Sandler comedy. *[Empire](Empire (magazine))''s Sam Toy enjoyed the film for its "smart and genuinely moving ideas," Beckinsale's performance, and a strong third act, although dismissed the script for being overstuffed, the first half of the film for Sandler being too restrained in his everyman role, and actors such as Coolidge, Hasselhoff and Walken for being put in small roles.
### Accolades
* [Academy Awards](79th)(79th Academy Awards): [Makeup](Best)(Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling) (Nominated)
* [People's Choice Awards](33rd)(33rd People's Choice Awards): Favorite Movie Comedy (**Won**)
* [Teen Choice Awards](2006)(2006 Teen Choice Awards): [Movie – Comedy](Choice)(Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie – Comedy) (Nominated)
* [Kids' Choice Awards](2007)(2007 Kids' Choice Awards): Favorite Movie (Nominated)
* [Kids' Choice Awards](2007)(2007 Kids' Choice Awards): Favorite Movie Actor (**Won**)
* *[Numbers](The)(The Numbers (website))*: Weekly Website Award (**Won**)
* *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*: Adam Sandler’s 10 Worst Movies Ever (Unranked list)
## References
## External links
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*
*
*
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Killnet
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killnet
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# Killnet
*Revision ID: 1159161011 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T17:02:25Z*
---
**Killnet** is a pro-Russia [group](hacker)(hacker group) known for its [DoS](Denial-of-service attack) (denial of service) and DDoS (distributed denial of service) attacks towards government institutions and private companies in several countries during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). The group is thought to have been formed sometime around March 2022.
## Five Eyes alert
The [Eyes](Five)(Five Eyes) intelligence alliance issued a warning about attacks on critical infrastructure by Russian-aligned groups, including Killnet, in April 2022.
## Attacks
### Romania
Killnet were behind attacks on Romanian government websites from 29 April 2022 to 1 May 2022.
### Moldova
Following [explosions](2022 Transnistria attacks) in unrecognized [Transnistria](Transnistria), the [and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova](Information)(Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova) reported that the pro-Killnet hacking group had launched a series of cyberattacks from abroad against websites of Moldovan official authorities and institutions. This was days after the attack on Romanian websites.
### Czech Republic
Killnet claimed responsibility for attacks on [Czech](Czech Republic) state institution web sites in April 2022.
### Italy
The websites of the Istituto Superiore di Sanità and the Automobile Club of Italy were attacked on Friday 14 May 2022 The Italian Senate website was attacked and blocked for an hour in the same attack. On May 29, 2022, they announced an "irreparable damage" attack on Italy scheduled for the following day. On May 30, 2022, it attacked Italy and managed to block a few websites, while the attack on the CSIRT site was unsuccessful. The attack was not as devastating as predicted. Killnet later complimented the CSIRT for their defensive work, mocking the government to raise a few thousand dollars to the team for their work.
#### Attack on Eurovision 2022
Eurovision Song Contest 2022 § Attempted cyber attacks}}
Killnet hackers are suspected of having made an attempt to block the [Song Contest](Eurovision)(Eurovision Song Contest) website during Ukraine's performance at the with a DDoS attack, which was blocked by the Italian state police, however, the group denied on their [Telegram](Telegram (software)) channel that their attack had failed. They subsequently attacked the state police site emphasizing how they blocked the attack on Eurovision and not the same. Following the attack, they threatened to attack 10 European countries, including Italy.
### Lithuania
The group claimed responsibility for the DDoS attacks against Lithuanian network infrastructure. They said that the cyber attack on Lithuania was in retaliation for it stopping transit of goods to Russia's Kaliningrad exclave.
### Norway
The group targeted Norwegian organizations through various DDoS attacks on June 28, 2022. The [Security Authority of Norway](National)(National Security Authority (Norway)) believed no private data was compromised.
### Latvia
Killnet targeted [Latvia](Latvia)'s [broadcaster](public)(Public Broadcasting of Latvia) in the largest cyberattack in the country's history. The broadcaster said the attack was repelled.
### United States
On 1 August 2022, the group and its founder called "Killmilk" claimed responsibility for a cyber-attack on the American defence corporation [Martin](Lockheed)(Lockheed Martin), as a retaliation for the [HIMARS](HIMARS) systems supplied by U.S. to Ukraine. The group said that the Lockheed Martin “is the actual sponsor of world terrorism" and that "is responsible for thousands and thousands of human deaths." Shortly before the attack, the group announced it will carry out a new type of cyber-attack, different from their [DoS](DoS) and [DDoS](DDoS) cyber-attacks carried out before. Killmilk said the attack targeted Lockheed Martin's production systems as well as informations about the company’s employees for them to be “persecuted and destroyed around the world!”.
Several US airport websites were attacked on 10 October 2022.
### Japan
On September 6, 2022, Killnet announced that it had attacked 23 websites of four ministries and agencies, including e-Gov, a portal site for administrative information administered by the [Agency](Digital)(Digital Agency), and eLTAX, a local tax website administered by the [of Internal Affairs and Communications](Ministry)(Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications), as well as the social network service "[mixi](mixi)". NHK |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20220906/k10013806361000.html |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=NHKニュース}} On September 7, they also posted a video [war](declaring)(Declaration of war) on the [government](Japanese)(Government of Japan) and announced that they had attacked the [Metro](Tokyo)(Tokyo Metro) and [Metro](Osaka)(Osaka Metro). NHK |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20220907/k10013808121000.html |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=NHKニュース}} At a press conference on the same day, [Cabinet Secretary](Chief)(Chief Cabinet Secretary) [Matsuno](Hirokazu)(Hirokazu Matsuno) explained that no information had been leaked as a result of this attack at this time. As for Killnet's involvement, he stated, "We are aware that they are hinting at a criminal act, but we are still confirming the cause of the failure, including the relevance.
### Georgia
According to the Twitter post published by the threat research firm CyberKnow, Killnet and their founder, Killmilk threatened that they would attack the [government](Georgian)(Government of Georgia (country)) if it continues to work against the Russian Federation.
### Germany
On January 26, 2023, the German [Office for Information Security](Federal)(Federal Office for Information Security) (BSI) announced that a wide-ranging DDoS attack against various agencies and companies in Germany was taking place since the night before. According to the BSI, websites from airports were particularly affected, as well as those of companies in the financial sector and those of the federal and state administrations. The attacks had been announced in advance by Killnet, supposedly as retaliation for the German government's decision to send [2](Leopard)(Leopard 2) battle tanks to the Ukraine.
## References
[gangs](Category:Cyberattack)(Category:Cyberattack gangs)
[in the 2020s](Category:Hacking)(Category:Hacking in the 2020s)
[of the Russo-Ukrainian War](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations of the Russo-Ukrainian War)
[invasion of Ukraine](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian invasion of Ukraine)
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Nope _film
|
nope__film
|
# Nope (film)
*Revision ID: 1160162807 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:34:21Z*
---
| starring =
| cinematography = [van Hoytema](Hoyte)(Hoyte van Hoytema)
| editing = Nicholas Monsour
| music = [Abels](Michael)(Michael Abels)
| studio =
| distributor = Universal Pictures
| released =
| runtime = 130 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $68 million
| gross = $172.3 million
}}
***Nope*** is a 2022 American [fiction](science)(Science fiction film) [film](horror)(horror film) written, directed, and produced by [Peele](Jordan)(Jordan Peele), under his and [Cooper](Ian)(Ian Cooper (artist))'s [Productions](Monkeypaw)(Monkeypaw Productions) banner. It stars [Kaluuya](Daniel)(Daniel Kaluuya) and [Palmer](Keke)(Keke Palmer) as horse-wrangling siblings attempting to capture evidence of an [flying object](unidentified)(unidentified flying object) in [Dulce](Agua)(Agua Dulce, California), California. Appearing in supporting roles are [Yeun](Steven)(Steven Yeun), [Wincott](Michael)(Michael Wincott), [Perea](Brandon)(Brandon Perea), and [David](Keith)(Keith David).
Peele officially announced his then-untitled third directorial film in November 2020. He cited *[Kong](King)(King Kong (franchise))*, *[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (film))* (1993), *[Encounters of the Third Kind](Close)(Close Encounters of the Third Kind)* (1977), *[Signs](Signs (2002 film))* (2002), and *[Wizard of Oz](The)(The Wizard of Oz (1939 film))* (1939) as his main inspirations. Palmer and Kaluuya joined in February 2021. Yeun was cast the next month, and Peele revealed the title in July 2021. Filming began in June 2021 in northern [Angeles County](Los)(Los Angeles County), and wrapped in November.
*Nope* premiered at the [Chinese Theatre](TCL)(TCL Chinese Theatre) in Los Angeles on July 18, 2022, and was theatrically released in the United States on July 22, 2022, by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures). It grossed $172 million worldwide, and received praise for its ambition, performances, themes, visual style, musical score, and Peele's direction. It was also named one of the top ten films of 2022 by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute).
## Plot
[[File: Muybridge race horse animated.gif|left|thumb|"Plate 626" from [Muybridge](Eadweard)(Eadweard Muybridge)'s *[Locomotion](Animal)(Animal Locomotion)*, "the very first assembly of photographs used to create a motion picture", referenced in the movie]]
In [Dulce, California](Agua)(Agua Dulce, California), the Haywood family trains and handles horses for film productions. One day, small metallic objects fall out of the sky, killing Otis Haywood Sr..
Six months later, his children, Emerald "Em" Haywood and a depressed Otis "OJ" Haywood Jr., are fired from a set after their horse, Lucky, reacts violently to its own reflection in a mirror. To raise money, OJ sells some of the horses to Ricky "Jupe" Park, who operates a Western theme park called Jupiter's Claim. Jupe exploits his past trauma as a child actor, when a chimpanzee named Gordy maimed his costars on the set of a sitcom, but left him unharmed.
One night, the Haywoods notice their electricity fluctuating and their horses violently reacting to an unknown presence. They discover an [flying object](unidentified)(unidentified flying object) (UFO) that has been taking their horses and spitting out the inorganic matter, which OJ concludes to have caused their father's death. The siblings decide to document and sell evidence of the UFO's existence, and recruit Angel Torres to set up surveillance cameras. The UFO arrives and abducts a horse and a decoy snatched by Em from Jupiter's Claim.
The next day, Em attempts to recruit famed [cinematographer](Cinematography) Antlers Holst to help them record the UFO. Holst declines, telling Em that chasing wealth and fame is a "dream you will never wake up from." Angel then arrives and reveals that a cloud in the valley never moves; OJ suspects is the UFO's hiding place.
Jupe introduces a live show in Jupiter's Claim where he plans to use Lucky as bait to lure out the UFO. For months Jupe has been feeding the UFO the Haywood’s horses for shows. But the UFO arrives early and devours Jupe and the entire audience, leaving only Lucky. OJ, attempting to retrieve Lucky, realizes that the UFO is actually a territorial, predatory organism. After the creature showers the Haywood household with the detritus and regurgitated remains of the crowd, OJ realizes that it only attacks those who look directly at it. He devises a plan to record it. Em and Angel are hesitant until Em receives a call from Holst, who now agrees to help. OJ names the organism "Jean Jacket", after a horse that Em as a child was promised to train.
To circumvent Jean Jacket's effect of shutting down all electronics nearby, Holst brings a hand-cranked [IMAX](IMAX) film camera. The group will bait Jean Jacket with a field of electrically-powered [man](tube)(tube man) props to deduce its location in the sky. However, a [paparazzo](paparazzi) trespasses onto the field and is thrown from his electric motorcycle when it shuts down near Jean Jacket, which devours him. Though Holst captures footage of Jean Jacket, his obsession with "the impossible shot" results in him being devoured alongside his camera, forcing the remaining three to flee. Angel survives an attack from Jean Jacket by being wrapped in a tarp and barbed wire, causing the creature to unfurl into a new, larger form.
OJ intentionally looks directly at Jean Jacket, allowing Em to use the motorcycle to rush to Jupiter's Claim. There, she untethers the park's large helium balloon mascot of Jupe, the large eyes of which attract Jean Jacket's ire. Jean Jacket attempts to feed on the balloon while Em uses an attraction's analog camera to photograph Jean Jacket as it feeds. Its attempt to eat the perceived threat result in the balloon detonating, killing Jean Jacket. With the picture as proof of the creature's existence and reporters arriving nearby, Em sees an unharmed OJ and Lucky standing outside of Jupiter's Claim.
## Cast
* [Kaluuya](Daniel)(Daniel Kaluuya) as Otis "OJ" Haywood Jr., the son of Otis Haywood Sr.
* [Palmer](Keke)(Keke Palmer) as Emerald "Em" Haywood, the daughter of Otis Haywood Sr., and the sister of Otis Jr.
* [Yeun](Steven)(Steven Yeun) as Ricky "Jupe" Park, a former child actor and owner/creator of the theme park "Jupiter's Claim"
** Jacob Kim as young Ricky "Jupe" Park, who plays Mikey Houston on ''Gordy's Home''
* [Wincott](Michael)(Michael Wincott) as Antlers Holst, a renowned [cinematographer](cinematographer)
* [Perea](Brandon)(Brandon Perea) as Angel Torres, a tech salesman at [Electronics](Fry's)(Fry's Electronics)
* [Schmidt](Wrenn)(Wrenn Schmidt) as Amber Park, Jupe's wife
* [Ferreira](Barbie)(Barbie Ferreira) as Nessie, Angel's co-worker at Fry's
* [Notary](Terry)(Terry Notary) as Gordy, a chimpanzee and star of the sitcom ''Gordy's Home''
* [Graye](Devon)(Devon Graye) as Ryder Muybridge, a paparazzo who rides an electric bike
* [Mills](Donna)(Donna Mills) as Bonnie Clayton, a commercial actress
* [Perkins](Osgood)(Oz Perkins) as Fynn Bachman, a commercial director
* [Jemison](Eddie)(Eddie Jemison) as Buster, a crew member on the commercial
* [David](Keith)(Keith David) as Otis Haywood Sr., the owner of Haywood's Hollywood Horses Ranch
* Sophia Coto as Mary Jo Elliott, who plays Haley Houston on ''Gordy's Home*
** Haley Babula as Mary Jo Elliott (adult)
* [Lafleur](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lafleur) as Phyllis Mayberry, who plays Margaret Houston on *Gordy's Home*
* [Patrick Ralston](Andrew)(Andrew Patrick Ralston) as Tom Bogan, who plays Brett Houston on *Gordy's Home''
## Themes and interpretations
The film has been characterized as containing themes related to [spectacle](spectacle) and [exploitation](Exploitation of labour). *[GQ](GQ)* Gerrick D. Kennedy wrote that *Nope* "is a movie about spectacle. More specifically, our addiction to spectacle [...] *Nope* is about holding a mirror up to all of us and our inability to look away from drama or peril." Kennedy also states that "the erasure of black contributions" to the history of filmmaking plays a significant role in the film. Writer-director [Peele](Jordan)(Jordan Peele) was partly inspired to write *Nope* by the [lockdowns](COVID-19)(COVID-19 lockdowns) and the "endless cycle of grim, inescapable tragedy" in 2020.
[Brody](Richard)(Richard Brody) of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* considered *Nope* to be a film about exploitation and the cinematic history of exploitation in film; he wrote that he thought the premise of the film was "acknowledging and extending cinema's legacy while also redressing its omissions and misrepresentations of history." Brody also noted that the film's action "pivots on the power and the nature of movie technology", and felt that the film critiqued [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery) (CGI) in its TV commercial production scene, writing, "Peele presents [CGI] as a dubious temptation and a form of dangerous power." Brody interpreted the choice to have the space creatures target a black-owned horse farm as "a sardonic vision of the universality of racism".
*[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* writer Jen Yamato noted that [Yeun](Steven)(Steven Yeun)'s Ricky "Jupe" Park attempts to profit off Jean Jacket with his "Star Lasso Experience" show, falsely believing that, because he survived the Gordy incident, he shares a similar kinship with Jean Jacket. Zosha Millman of *[Polygon](Polygon (website))* argues that Jupe's belief that Gordy and Jean Jacket are well-intentioned, despite their capacity to be unpredictable and dangerous, contrasts with the life experience of [Kaluuya](Daniel)(Daniel Kaluuya)'s OJ, "who grew up around unruly animals that it was his job to tame. As a horse trainer, he knows that animals are worthy of our respect. But it's not part of a grand design, or born from a special relationship with the horse. It's an animal, and it could kill you—but it can be tamed and worked with, if you know what you're doing."s Gordy segments (and that weird shoe) are packed with meaning|last=Millman|first=Zosha|date=July 25, 2022|website=[Polygon](Polygon (website))|access-date=July 27, 2022|archive-date=July 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726232555/https://www.polygon.com/23277727/nope-gordys-home-ending-explained|url-status=live}} Discussing Jupe's fate, [Wincott](Michael)(Michael Wincott)'s character, Antlers Holst, makes mention of [& Roy](Siegfried)(Siegfried & Roy)*Nope* is a Mesmerizing and Bewitching Spielbergian Sci-Fi/Horror Arrangement|last=Gonzalez|first=Hector|date=July 22, 2022|website=TheMovieBuff.net|access-date=July 27, 2022|archive-date=July 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729145055/https://www.themoviebuff.net/2022/07/review-jordan-peeles-nope-is-a-mesmerizing-and-bewitching-spielbergian-sci-fi-horror-arrangement/|url-status=live}}—a duo known for training [lion](white)(white lion)s and [tiger](white)(white tiger)s—the latter of whom was attacked and severely injured by one of his tigers. *[GameRevolution](GameRevolution)*s Jason Faulkner further noted "Peele quoting [Genesis* *Evangelion*](*Neon)(Neon Genesis Evangelion)'s [Angels](Angels in Neon Genesis Evangelion) as the principal inspiration for the film and the monster within", and of the true meaning of Jean Jacket's true form's resemblance to the [description of angels](biblical)(Throne (angel)); he notes the verse from [Nahum](Nahum) prefacing the film as indicative of Peele's thoughts on [Bible](the)(Bible), and how if one "think[s] about the way [Jacket](Jean) feeds and the concept of people [to heaven](ascending)(Entering heaven alive), [can](one) connect the dots [that] Jean Jacket[species has]('s) been with humanity for a long time, and an attack from one of the creatures could [be] misinterpreted as something from the divine."
When watching Gordy move about the wrecked set of ''Gordy's Home'', Jupe notices one of his co-star's shoes inexplicably standing upright; as an adult, Jupe has the shoe on display in his room of ''Gordy's Home* mementos. Millman, along with Cooper Hood of *[Rant](Screen)(Screen Rant)'', identify the mysteriously standing shoe as a possible example of a "bad miracle", a label which OJ uses when he and [Palmer](Keke)(Keke Palmer)'s Emerald learn that they are seemingly dealing with a UFO. Hood writes that the shoe standing up can be viewed as a "bad miracle" due to "the unexplainable nature of the phenomenon and how it happened during a tragedy. It plays into the movie's theme of turning tragic events into a spectacle, as Ricky is profiting off the collectible despite the trauma of its circumstances." Yamato, however, questions if Jupe "merely imagine[d] the shoe standing impossibly in the air—and is he misremembering that just before being shot, Gordy turned to him in friendship?" Yamato asserts that Jupe has disguised his trauma from the incident "under a veneer of [capitalist](capitalist) hustle and humor", and characterizes Jupe's experience as a child actor as one in which he was "exploited and then spit out by the fame machine [...] and this sets him up to make the fatal mistake of underestimating a creature that's too dangerous to wrangle." The scene itself would go on to be nominated for Best Scene at the [St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards](2022)(St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards 2022), and the shot from it of Gordy and young Jupe's fists appearing to come close to a fist bump was named by Adam Nayman of *[Ringer](The)(The Ringer (website))* as one of the best shots of 2022, comparing it positively to [Michelangelo](Michelangelo)’s *[Creation of Adam](The)(The Creation of Adam)* and relating it to "the feeling to recoil from an outstretched hand, especially one powerful enough to rip you limb from limb." The sequence was also named one of the best movie scenes of 2022 by Wes Greene of *[Magazine](Slant)(Slant Magazine)*.
## Production
### Development
On October 1, 2019, [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) announced a five-year exclusive production partnership with Peele's [Productions](Monkeypaw)(Monkeypaw Productions). *Nope*, then an untitled project, was announced on November 9, 2020, with Peele set to write, direct and produce. He said, "I wrote it in a time when we were a little bit [about the future of cinema](worried)(Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema). So the first thing I knew is I wanted to create a spectacle. I wanted to create something that the audience would have to come see." Speaking to *GQ*, Peele stated, "So much of what this world was experiencing was this overload of spectacle, and kind of a low point of our addiction to spectacle." He added that he "wrote [film](the) trapped inside, and so I knew I wanted to make something that was about the sky. I knew the world would want to be outside and at the same time, I knew we had this newfound fear from this trauma, from this time of what it meant to go outside. *Can* we go outside? So I slipped some of that stuff in."
Peele publicly cited *[Kong](King)(King Kong (franchise))* and *[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (film))*, movies about humanity's addiction to spectacle, along with *[Encounters of the Third Kind](Close)(Close Encounters of the Third Kind)*, *[Signs](Signs (2002 film))*, and *[Wizard of Oz](The)(The Wizard of Oz (1939 film))* as influences in his writing. He later identified the [of *Neon Genesis Evangelion*](Angels)(Angels in Neon Genesis Evangelion) as the principal inspiration for the film's premise and monster in the film's production notes, impressed by the "hyper minimalism" and "biomechanical design flair" of [the 10th Angel](Sahaquiel,)(Angels in Neon Genesis Evangelion#Sahaquiel). He explained his decision to include a major focus on clouds in the film: "The beauty of the sky is enthralling—the first movies, in a way. Every now and then you'll see a cloud that sits alone and is too low, and it gives me this [vertigo](vertigo) and this sense of Presence with a capital P. I can't describe it, but I knew if I could bottle that and put it into a horror movie, it might change the way people look at the sky."
Peele originally wrote the character of Angel Torres as a "happy-go-lucky" geek-like character until [Perea](Brandon)(Brandon Perea) was cast as the character, who wanted to expand upon the character and portray him as more grounded.
In February 2021, it was reported that Keke Palmer and Daniel Kaluuya had joined the cast, while [Plemons](Jesse)(Jesse Plemons) turned down a role in favor of starring in *[of the Flower Moon](Killers)(Killers of the Flower Moon (film))*. Peele wrote the script with Kaluuya in mind for the role of OJ Haywood. In March, Steven Yeun was added to the cast.
### Filming
[[File:Hiking Vasquez Rocks Nature Area (15302593394).jpg|thumb|The film was shot in [Dulce, California](Agua)(Agua Dulce, California).]]
Principal photography took place from June 2021 to November 2021 in the [Dulce](Agua)(Agua Dulce, California) desert in northern [Angeles County](Los)(Los Angeles County). The production received an estimated $8,364,000 worth of tax credits to shoot in the state of California. The film was shot on a budget of $68 million after tax incentives. It was the first to employ trainees (in this case, six) from Universal Filmed Entertainment Group's California Below-the-Line Traineeship for individuals seeking careers behind the camera. *Nope* was shot by cinematographer [van Hoytema](Hoyte)(Hoyte van Hoytema) using [Kodak](Kodak) film, including [film](65mm)(65mm film) in [IMAX](IMAX), making it the first horror film in history to be shot in this format. Two cameras were used for the nighttime scenes—one for infrared light with narrow bandwidth, and another that captured 70mm film. The overlaid images from these two were then added to the information captured from the film camera, creating the needed footage. On July 22, 2021, Peele revealed the film's title and shared its first promotional release poster, and further castings were confirmed. Peele chose *Nope* as the title because he wanted to acknowledge movie audiences and their expected reactions to the film. He said he had considered calling the film *Little Green Men* to reference a theme in the film of humanity's "[of spectacle](monetization)(Sensationalism)". Filming also took place at the [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California) location of [Electronics](Fry's)(Fry's Electronics), which had closed along with all remaining Fry's locations several weeks before filming. The store was recreated in its operating state for filming. Fry's co-founder Randy Fry and his wife, reporter Vicki Liviakis, were present during filming at the Burbank store; they also had a cameo appearance at the Star Lasso Experience scene, which they filmed in two days.
The 1972 Western film *[and the Preacher](Buck)(Buck and the Preacher)*, starring [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier), is featured throughout the film; Peele said it was "the first film that I know of that had Black cowboys represented in it. The myth that cowboys were just white guys running around, it's just not true, but we don't know that because of Hollywood and the romanticized view of a very brutalized era. The film, it shares a spirit." For her introductory scene, which also opens the film's first trailer, Palmer shot 14 takes of Emerald's monologue about her and OJ's family's history, which initially was not in the script prior to principal photography. Peele described each take as "...very wildly different, uncuttably so. But just a tour de force, one of these things where you see somebody like, 'I'm going to make this choice this time and go for it.' There's improv in there."
### Creature design
[[File:Nope Jean Jacket.jpg|thumb|250px|Jean Jacket in its UFO form chasing OJ Haywood ([Kaluuya](Daniel)(Daniel Kaluuya)) during the film's climax.]]
[Caltech](California Institute of Technology) professor [O. Dabiri](John)(John Dabiri) collaborated with Peele and his team on the design of the Jean Jacket creature's UFO form,*Nope*?|date=July 25, 2022|first=Princess|last=Weekes|website=[Mary Sue](The)(The Mary Sue)|quote=Gordy may have been a friendly [[Chimpanzee|]], but he was still an animal, who shouldn’t have been on a soundstage with chaotic elements that could scare him. He got startled and reacted as his instincts told him to act. The murder of Jupe's family confirms to OJ that this [saucer](flying)(flying saucer) isn't a ship, but a predatory [cryptid](cryptid), one-winged-angel-style creature that acts when its dominance is tested when people look straight at it.|access-date=July 25, 2022|archive-date=July 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725194022/https://www.themarysue.com/what-does-the-gordy-subplot-mean-in-jordan-peels-nope/|url-status=live}} and in particular its final true "biblical angel" form, which was inspired by those of *Neon Genesis Evangelion* and [creatures](sea)(sea creatures) such as [jellyfish](jellyfish), [octopus](octopus)es and [squid](squid), to imagine a hypothetical undiscovered previously extinct sky predator, realistically imagining "how could something like this hide in the clouds", with its ability to "generate electric field" taken from [eels](electric)(electric eels) and [knifefish](ghost)(ghost knifefish), allowing for electric propulsion ("Jean Jacket's fast flying without wings/sails"). [Rocheron](Guillaume)(Guillaume Rocheron) of [Picture Company](Moving)(Moving Picture Company) (MPC) also worked with Dabiri and Peele on the visual effects shots featuring Jean Jacket, utilizing both CGI and [effect](practical)(practical effect)s, the latter particularly involving the use of a helicopter to swirl the dust and dirt on the ground the way the creature does when consuming its victims in the film. The film held its first [screening](test)(test screening)s just 12 weeks before its July 22 release, with the special effects still being worked on.
### Costumes
Costume designer Alex Bovaird employed a "method approach" to create the characters' wardrobes, using 1990s [sitcom](sitcom)s, [rock](indie)(indie rock) bands, and the 1985 film *[Goonies](The)(The Goonies)* as inspiration. To match the film's Californian setting, Bovaird, Peele and their teams decided to create a contrast between "super neon colors against the desert backdrop," and make the film's main characters "look like action heroes, but cool ones." For OJ and Emerald's outfits, Bovaird went against the clichés of how horse ranchers would dress and gave them casual clothes, an example being OJ's orange *[Scorpion King](The)(The Scorpion King)* crew hoodie, along with portraying Emerald as "tomboy-like" by having her wear clothing that she and OJ may have "left at the ranch." Bovaird saw the character of Angel Torres as "a bit of a cynical, angry guy" and some sort of "Latin-[emo](emo)," but still "perky" due to his being a [relief](comic)(comic relief) character, so he dressed him with a dark-colored palette that gets lighter as the film progresses, using band tees, [cut-offs](cut-offs) and [Vans](Vans). Ricky "Jupe" Park's red [cowboy](cowboy) suit that he wears in the Star Lasso Experience scene almost did not make the cut, for Bovaird was unsure if Peele wanted to go "bold". For the costume of Gordy, Bovaird and his team dressed human actor [Notary](Terry)(Terry Notary) in a cardigan sweatshirt in the vein of the one Andy ([Green](Kerri)(Kerri Green)) wore in *The Goonies*, with yellow and black stripes. Notary's actions were then transferred to the CGI chimpanzee created in post-production.
### Sound design
Sound designer Johnnie Burn said in an interview with *[IndieWire](IndieWire)*, "Jordan Peele is a director who really knows how to write for sound." He continued, "The early conversations were along the lines of 'We want to be super realistic.'...And for that, we were kind of resisting the urge to hear anything from the monster too early on, because we wanted it to be credible that this was a predator—and how could something so large be getting away with this if it was making a big noise? ... One of the main sounds we used was silence." Burn represented Jean Jacket's presence in the environment by stripping back layers, such as dialogue, wind, and the chirping of crickets. He additionally engineered wind soundscapes containing faint, obscured sounds, such as screams, to suggest Jean Jacket's movement through the air. The soundtrack was mixed in [Atmos](Dolby)(Dolby Atmos).
### Music
The film's score was composed by [Abels](Michael)(Michael Abels), who had previously worked with Peele on *[Out](Get)(Get Out)* (2017) and *[Us](Us (2019 film))* (2019). Abels described his score as having to meet the "threat level" described by Peele in the script and the ideas imposed by the film's quote "What's a bad miracle?" He added, "The music needs to have both those senses together. Both a little bit of a sense of awe like we would have looking at the [Canyon](Grand)(Grand Canyon), but then also the urge to run far away from the Grand Canyon because falling in would not be good. That's the dichotomy that's present in the film [...] you hear a sense of a little bit of awe and magic, and then there's sheer terror. But then there's also a sense of a real epic adventure towards the end and giant music that accompanies a giant, historic adventure." Working with the film's sound designer Johnnie Burn, Abels felt that the use of silence played an important role in scoring the film, saying, "The tension between the negative space and the music is actually part of the music. Leaving room for the sound design, even when there's a cue playing, was an important part of the way I approached it. A lot of times in the scariest parts, especially in the earlier parts of this film, you're listening to what you hope you're not going to hear or what you thought you might have heard. The stillness allows you to freak out in that way."
The soundtrack album was released by [Lot Music](Back)(Universal Pictures) on July 22, 2022, the same day as the film. The score album also features a [screwed](Chopped and screwed) version of [Hart](Corey)(Corey Hart (singer))'s "[at Night](Sunglasses)(Sunglasses at Night)." Additionally, the film features the songs "[On By](Walk)(Walk On By (song))" by [Warwick](Dionne)(Dionne Warwick), "This Is the Lost Generation" by [Lost Generation](the)(The Lost Generation (band)), and "[the Obeah Man](Exuma,)(Exuma, the Obeah Man)" by [Exuma](Exuma (musician)).
}}
| extra3 = [Foster](Jodie)(Jodie Foster)
| length3 = 2:44
| title4 = Jupiter's Claim
| writer4 = Abels
| extra4 = Abels
| length4 = 1:43
| title5 = Brother Sister Walk
| writer5 = Abels
| extra5 = Abels
| length5 = 1:18
| title6 = [On By](Walk)(Walk On By (song))
| writer6 =
| extra6 = [Warwick](Dionne)(Dionne Warwick)
| length6 = 2:54
| title7 = Growing Up Haywood
| writer7 = Abels
| extra7 = Abels
| length7 = 1:29
| title8 = This Is the Lost Generation
| writer8 =
| extra8 = [Lost Generation](The)(The Lost Generation (band))
| length8 = 3:34
| title9 = Not Good
| writer9 = Abels
| extra9 = Abels
| length9 = 2:00
| title10 = What's a Bad Miracle
| writer10 = Abels
| extra10 = Abels
| length10 = 1:32
| title11 = The Oprah Shot
| writer11 = Abels
| extra11 = Abels
| length11 = 1:51
| title12 = Ancient Aliens
| writer12 = Abels
| extra12 = Abels
| length12 = 2:08
| title13 = Park Kids Prank Haywood
| writer13 = Abels
| extra13 = Abels
| length13 = 1:08
| title14 = It's in the Cloud
| writer14 = Abels
| extra14 = Abels
| length14 = 2:37
| title15 = Holy Sh*t It's Real
| writer15 = Abels
| extra15 = Abels
| length15 = 2:09
| title16 = Progressive Anxiety
| writer16 = Abels
| extra16 = Abels
| length16 = 3:02
| title17 = The Star Lasso Expeeerrriii...
| writer17 = Abels
| extra17 = Abels
| length17 = 0:35
| title18 = Arena Attack
| writer18 = Abels
| extra18 = Abels
| length18 = 1:23
| title19 = [at Night](Sunglasses)(Sunglasses at Night)
| note19 = Jean Jacket Mix
| writer19 = [Hart](Corey)(Corey Hart (singer))
| extra19 = Hart
| length19 = 4:38
| title20 = Blood Rain
| writer20 = Abels
| extra20 = Abels
| length20 = 1:47
| title21 = The Unaccounted For
| writer21 = Abels
| extra21 = Abels
| length21 = 2:36
| title22 = Preparing the Trap
| writer22 = Abels
| extra22 = Abels
| length22 = 2:41
| title23 = [People Eater](Purple)(The Purple People Eater)
| writer23 = [Wooley](Sheb)(Sheb Wooley)
| extra23 =
| length23 = 1:35
| title24 = [the Obeah Man](Exuma,)(Exuma, the Obeah Man)
| writer24 = [Exuma](Exuma (musician))
| extra24 = Exuma
| length24 = 6:12
| title25 = Man Down
| writer25 = Abels
| extra25 = Abels
| length25 = 6:02
| title26 = WTF Is That
| writer26 = Abels
| extra26 = Abels
| length26 = 1:13
| title27 = The Run (Urban Legends)
| writer27 = Abels
| extra27 = Abels
| length27 = 1:42
| title28 = Abduction
| writer28 = Abels
| extra28 = Abels
| length28 = 1:58
| title29 = Havoc
| writer29 = Abels
| extra29 = Abels
| length29 = 0:46
| title30 = Em & Angel Fly
| writer30 = Abels
| extra30 = Abels
| length30 = 2:20
| title31 = A Hero Falls
| writer31 = Abels
| extra31 = Abels
| length31 = 2:47
| title32 = Pursuit
| writer32 = Abels
| extra32 = Abels
| length32 = 1:49
| title33 = Winkin' Well
| writer33 = Abels
| extra33 = Abels
| length33 = 3:42
| title34 = Nope
| writer34 = Abels
| extra34 = Abels
| length34 = 2:31
| total_length = 1:22:55
}}
## Marketing
The release of a teaser poster in July 2021 and first-look images in February 2022 were followed by a trailer on February 13, 2022. The trailer, which featured the 1962 [Theater](Regal)(Regal Theater, Chicago) recording of [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder)'s "[Fingertips](Fingertips)", was praised by critics for simultaneously creating suspense and keeping the storyline under wraps; some reviewers began to speculate the film would be about [life](extraterrestrial)(extraterrestrial life). Jeremy Mathai of *[/Film](/Film)* said it "immediately lit the internet on fire and sent fans scurrying for answers as to whether the main antagonist of the film could *really* be alien invaders from outer space or if Peele has yet another trick up his sleeve." Jordan Hoffman from *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))* said he enjoyed the song choice and an included static shot with scrolling text, which he compared to a similar shot in the trailer for [Kubrick](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick)'s *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))*. *[Verge](The)(The Verge)*s Charles Pulliam-Moore called it "one of the rare modern movies with this much hype around it to make it this close to its release date without the public knowing basically anything about it."s first trailer is a hard yes|date=February 13, 2022|first=Charles|last=Pulliam-Moore|website=[Verge](The)(The Verge)|access-date=February 13, 2022|archive-date=February 13, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213122121/https://www.theverge.com/2022/2/13/22929576/nope-superbowl-trailer-jordan-peele|url-status=live}} The trailer was also broadcast during [Bowl LVI](Super)(Super Bowl LVI), and it earned 86 million views across social media websites during the 24 hours after it aired.
A second poster showing a floating horse was released on March 1, 2022. *[Disgusting](Bloody)(Bloody Disgusting)*s John Squires said it was "entirely possible that *Nope* isn't at all the movie it thus far appears to be, with the marketing throwing us off the scent." Lex Briscuso from */Film* said that "despite the fact that the new visual doesn't give us very many fresh clues, I'm just happy to see new content continue to pop up out of the blue". On April 16, the [Playoffs](NBA)(NBA Playoffs) cross-promoted the film with a clip starring [NBA](NBA) player [Curry](Stephen)(Stephen Curry). Larry Fitzmaurice of *[BuzzFeed](BuzzFeed)* called it "terrifyingly funny". On April 27, additional footage was shown to around 3,000 exhibition insiders at [CinemaCon](CinemaCon); Peele asked attendees to be discreet and not reveal any detail about the story. This footage, depicting several characters saying a variation of the word "nope", was later aired as a 30-second television spot during the [Finals](NBA)(NBA Finals), confirming the existence of UFOs in the film. Jeremy Methai of */Film* called it "thrilling" and noted similarities to the [of Steven Spielberg](filmography)(filmography of Steven Spielberg) while expressing his belief that "there's something much more going on underneath beyond the extremely easy answer of extraterrestrials terrorizing our helpless protagonists." Four character posters were released on June 7, 2022, with a featurette released the next day. The final trailer was released on June 9, 2022, featuring [Undisputed Truth](the)(the Undisputed Truth)'s 1971 rendition of [Temptations](the)(the Temptations)' "[of Confusion](Ball)(Ball of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today))". Reviewers noted its lighter tone and said it did a better job at explaining the premise. Justin Carter of *[Gizmodo](Gizmodo)* said it was reasonable to believe the trailer shared too much information, inadvertently robbing audiences from any potential mystery in the story.s New Trailer Actually Spoil Anything?|date=June 11, 2022|first=Justin|last=Carter|website=[Gizmodo](Gizmodo)|access-date=June 18, 2022|archive-date=June 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618022954/https://gizmodo.com/nope-trailer-2-jordan-peele-movie-1849049467|url-status=live}}
IMAX and [Dolby](Dolby Cinema) posters were released by the end of June 2022. On July 1, an interactive website for Jupiter's Claim, the fictional theme park Yeun's character owns in the film, was published; in addition to providing hints of the plot, it held weekly drawings with in-world prizes. Valerie Ettenhofer of */Film* compared a poster on the website for a fictional film titled *Kid Sheriff* to the poster for the 2003 comedy film *[Holes](Holes (film))*. She described the website as "wonderfully interactive, sort of like an old [Flash](Adobe Flash) game site, but it also gives some insight into what *Nope* might be about." A real-world version of Jupiter's Claim was added permanently as a part of [Studios Hollywood](Universal)(Universal Studios Hollywood)'s [Tour](Studio)(Studio Tour) on July 22, making it the first Studio Tour attraction to open the same day the movie it replicates opens in theaters, the other addition to the attraction is the atmosphere such as the lights and tube men flicker off while the sound of the alien be heard and the actors starting to panic then begin to look up. On July 24, 2022, Peele released the intro to ''Gordy's Home*, the fictional sitcom depicted in the film, on his Twitter account.
## Release
*Nope'' premiered at the [Chinese Theatre](TCL)(TCL Chinese Theatre) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) on July 18, 2022. It was released in theaters in the United States on July 22, 2022, by Universal Pictures, a date first revealed in November 2020. The [Drafthouse Cinema](Alamo)(Alamo Drafthouse Cinema) hosted an outdoor screening of the film at Sunset Ranch Hollywood on July 25, 2022.
It screened at the [Cinesphere](Cinesphere) in IMAX on September 12, 2022, during the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(2022 Toronto International Film Festival) as a special presentation in the main film slate with a pre-film Q&A session with Jordan Peele and Hoyte van Hoytema, despite being released to the public prior to the festival. The film was released to [VOD](Video on demand) on August 26, 2022. It was released on [UHD](4K)(4K resolution), [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), and [DVD](DVD) on October 25, 2022. It was released to streaming on [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)) on November 18, 2022, as part of an 18 month deal where it will stream on Peacock for four months, before moving to [Prime](Amazon)(Amazon Prime) for the next ten months, before moving back to Peacock for the final four.
## Reception
### Box office
*Nope* grossed $123.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $48 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $171.2 million.
In the United States and Canada, *Nope* was projected to gross around $50 million from 3,785 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $19.5 million on its opening day, including $6.4 million (down 14% from the $7.4 million earned by Peele's 2019 film [*Us*](Us (2019 film))) from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $44.4 million, topping the box office. It also posted the best opening weekend for an original film since *Us*. While the film came in on the low-end of projections, *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* still deemed it a success, noting its opening was higher than *[Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood)* ($41 million), another R-rated original film released in July 2019, as well as its Friday-to-Saturday gross not steeply declining, indicating possible legs at the box office. *Deadline* also reported that despite failing to meet Universal's $50 million opening threshold for a longer 31-day theatrical window before going to [video on demand](premium)(Video on demand#Premium),}} Universal would still honor the longer window for the film. The film dropped 58% in its sophomore weekend to $18.6 million, finishing second behind newcomer *[League of Super-Pets](DC)(DC League of Super-Pets)*. It finished third and fifth the following two weekends, with $8.5 million and $5.3 million, respectively. On August 9, 2022, during its third week, the film crossed the $100 million milestone in the United States and Canada, making it the first R-rated film to pass the milestone since *[Boys for Life](Bad)(Bad Boys for Life)* in January 2020. It also surpassed Universal's other horror film *[Kills](Halloween)(Halloween Kills)* ($92 million in the United States and Canada) to become the highest grossing R-rated film in the United States and Canada during the pandemic.
### Critical response
[[File:Jordan Peele (14532261920) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Jordan Peele at the 73rd Annual Peabody Awards in 2014.|[Peele](Jordan)(Jordan Peele) received praise for his direction.]]
Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, the same score as *Us*, while [PostTrak](PostTrak) reported 79% of filmgoers gave it a positive score.
[O. Scott](A.)(A. O. Scott) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* praised the film's "impeccably managed suspense, sharp jokes and a beguiling, unnerving atmosphere of all-around weirdness", and noted that, "While this movie can fairly be described as Spielbergian, it turns on an emphatic and explicit debunking of Spielberg's most characteristic visual trope: the awe-struck upward gaze." [Roeper](Richard)(Richard Roeper) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* gave the film a score of four out of four stars, calling it "an exhilarating piece of cinema filled with memorable characters", and "a classic example of a bold and original film that pays homage to a seemingly endless stream of great movies and yet is more than the sum of its parts." Odie Henderson, writing for *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)*, gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, commending the film's sound mixing and calling it "definitely Peele's creepiest movie," and writing that Peele himself "remains a master of misdirection".
David Sims of *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)* wrote that "*Nope* is tinged with the acidic satire that suffused [Peele's] previous two movies, as Peele examines why the easiest way to process horror these days is to turn it into breathtaking entertainment." Likewise, Michael Shindler of *[American Spectator](The)(The American Spectator)* singled out Holst as a "polite caricature" of [Herzog](Werner)(Werner Herzog), highlighting how the latter contrasts favorably with the film's heroes, and noted that Peele "resists the temptation to warp the plot into a hackneyed morality play," instead playing "the story straight" in the vein of [Verhoeven](Paul)(Paul Verhoeven)'s *[Troopers](Starship)(Starship Troopers (film))*.
Chris Evangelista of *[/Film](/Film)* wrote that "*Nope* may not be Jordan Peele's best movie to date, but it is his most enjoyable. A true summer movie spectacle meant to be writ large across the screen, giving us thrills, chills, laughs, and that most precious of things: movie magic." David Ehrlich of *IndieWire* praised the film, saying "It doesn't hurt that Peele's latest boasts some of the most inspired [] design since [R. Giger](H.)(H. R. Giger) left his mark on the genre, or that Kaluuya's eyes remain some of Hollywood's most special effects, as *Nope* gets almost as much mileage from their weariness as *Get Out* squeezed from their clarity. It's through them that *Nope* searches for a new way of seeing, returns the Haywoods to their rightful place in film history, and creates the rare Hollywood spectacle that doesn't leave us looking for more." *[Rant](Screen)(Screen Rant)*s Ben Kendrick called it "a love letter to filmmaking" and called Brandon Perea's portrayal of Angel Torres a "stand-out" among the supporting cast, while praising Kaluuya and Palmer's performances.
Richard Lawson of *Vanity Fair* was mixed about the film, saying "As *Nope* swerves and reels, it often seems distracted by itself, unable to hold its focus on any one thing long enough for deeper meaning, or feeling, to coalesce." Alonso Duralde of *[TheWrap](TheWrap)* wrote "This ultimately feels like four very promising movies mashed together, with spectacular highlights bumping into each other in a way that's ultimately lacking, even as they all demonstrate the prowess and bravado of the filmmaker." [Bradshaw](Peter)(Peter Bradshaw) of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* gave the film two out of five stars, writing, "There is something clotted and heavy about this film, with sadly not enough of the humour for which Peele justly became celebrated in his double-act days with [Key](Keegan-Michael)(Keegan-Michael Key)."
### Accolades
## Possible sequels
Perea convinced Peele and the Universal executives to change his character's fate in the film's climax from being killed primarily out of interest in a potential [sequel](sequel), saying: "There's no way the story's over in my head. There's no way. For how heroic everything kind of seemed at the end, I'm like there's no way they leave the heroes like this. This is just the start of something new." In an interview with *[Thrillist](Thrillist)*, Jean Jacket designer [O. Dabiri](John)(John Dabiri) suggested that the creature survived its apparent death at the film's conclusion, saying "There's a species of jellyfish that's called the [jellyfish](immortal)(Turritopsis dohrnii) [...] I'm not a movie maker. But if it was me, I would say there would be some interesting opportunity to ask whether we've seen the last of Jean Jacket." In an interview with *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, Peele addressed a character that was cut from the film, listed on [IMDb](IMDb) as "Nobody", saying "The story of that character has yet to be told, I can tell you that. Which is another frustrating way of saying, I'm glad people are paying attention. I do think they will get more answers on some of these things in the future. We're not over telling all of these stories".
In January 2023, Peele expressed interest in a *Nope* sequel featuring multiple members of the occulonimbus species ("Jean Jackets"), exploring "the nature of the occulonimbi", saying that "I didn't want to be sort of literal that Jean Jacket or this occulonimbus species is an [angel](angel), but I do think that there is something about where evolution and design collide that leaves doors open that may or may not be answered in the future".
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
* [Official screenplay](https://www.indiewire.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/NOPE_Script_FINAL_2022.11.29.pdf)
[science fiction horror films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 science fiction horror films)
[Western (genre) films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 Western (genre) films)
[American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
[monster movies](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s monster movies)
[satirical films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s satirical films)
[Western (genre) horror films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s Western (genre) horror films)
[abduction films](Category:Alien)(Category:Alien abduction films)
[monster movies](Category:American)(Category:American monster movies)
[science fiction horror films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction horror films)
[Western (genre) horror films](Category:American)(Category:American Western (genre) horror films)
[Western (genre) science fiction films](Category:American)(Category:American Western (genre) science fiction films)
[about cryptids](Category:Films)(Category:Films about cryptids)
[about extraterrestrial life](Category:Films)(Category:Films about extraterrestrial life)
[about filmmaking](Category:Films)(Category:Films about filmmaking)
[about Hollywood, Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films about Hollywood, Los Angeles)
[about horses](Category:Films)(Category:Films about horses)
[directed by Jordan Peele](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Jordan Peele)
[impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Films)(Category:Films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic)
[produced by Jordan Peele](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Jordan Peele)
[scored by Michael Abels](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Michael Abels)
[set in 1998](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1998)
[set in 2021](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2021)
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[set in Los Angeles County, California](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Los Angeles County, California)
[shot in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles)
[with screenplays by Jordan Peele](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Jordan Peele)
[films](Category:IMAX)(Category:IMAX films)
[Pictures films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures films)
|
Christopher Scarver
|
christopher_scarver
|
# Christopher Scarver
*Revision ID: 1146803191 | Timestamp: 2023-03-27T01:33:42Z*
---
| birth_place = [Wisconsin](Milwaukee,)(Milwaukee, Wisconsin), U.S.
| charge =
| conviction = [degree intentional homicide](First)(Murder (United States law)) (3 counts)
| conviction_penalty = Three [sentences](life)(Life imprisonment in the United States) without the possibility of [parole](parole)
| spouse =
| parents =
| criminal_status = [Incarcerated](Incarcerated)
| children = 1
| victims = 3
| motive = [Robbery](Robbery) (murder of Lohman)[Vigilantism](Vigilantism) (murders of Dahmer and Anderson)
| date = June 1, 1990 (Steve Lohman)November 28, 1994 (Jeffrey Dahmer and Jesse Anderson)
| known_for = Murdering [Dahmer](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Dahmer) and [Anderson](Jesse)(Jesse Anderson)
| imprisoned = [Correctional Facility](Centennial)(Centennial Correctional Facility)
}}
**Christopher J. Scarver Sr.** (born July 6, 1969) is an American convicted triple-murderer who is best-known for murdering his fellow inmates [Dahmer](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Dahmer), a [killer](serial)(serial killer), and [Anderson](Jesse)(Jesse Anderson), a murderer, at the [Correctional Institution](Columbia)(Columbia Correctional Institution (Wisconsin)) in 1994. Scarver used a 20-inch (51 cm) metal bar which he had removed from a piece of exercise equipment in the prison [room](weight)(weight training) to beat and fatally wound Dahmer and Anderson. Scarver was sentenced to two further [sentences](life)(Life imprisonment in the United States) for the murders of Dahmer and Anderson, after being sentenced to life in prison for the murder of Steve Lohman in 1990.
## Early life
Scarver is the second of five children and was born and raised in [Milwaukee](Milwaukee), [Wisconsin](Wisconsin). He attended [Madison High School](James)(James Madison Academic Campus) before dropping out in the eleventh grade, and was eventually kicked out of his mother's house after becoming addicted to alcohol and marijuana. Scarver was hired as a trainee [carpenter](Carpentry) at a Wisconsin Conservation Corps job program. He said that he had been promised by his supervisor, Edward Patts, that upon completion of this program he would be hired full-time, but Patts was dismissed, and as a result, Scarver's full-time position never materialized. This resulted in Scarver drinking heavily, and while in his drunken state, he began to hear voices calling him the "chosen one". He was later diagnosed with [schizophrenia](schizophrenia) and was said to have been suffering from [delusions](messianic)(Messiah complex).
## Murder of Steve Lohman
On June 1, 1990, Scarver went to the Wisconsin Conservation Corps training program office and found site manager John Feyen and employee Steve Lohman present. Forcing Lohman down at gunpoint, Scarver demanded money from Feyen. Upon receiving only US$15 from him (), the enraged Scarver shot Lohman once in the head, killing him. According to authorities, Scarver then said: "Now do you think I'm kidding? I need more money." After Scarver shot Lohman twice more, both [post-mortem](post-mortem), Feyen finally wrote Scarver a US$3,000 check (). As Feyen then fled to his car outside, Scarver fired at him but missed.
In 1992, Scarver was convicted and sentenced to life in prison and sent to the [Correctional Institution](Columbia)(Columbia Correctional Institution (Wisconsin)) in [Wisconsin](Portage,)(Portage, Wisconsin).
## Murders of Jesse Anderson and Jeffrey Dahmer
Two years later, on the morning of November 28, 1994, Scarver was assigned to a work detail with two other inmates: [Anderson](Jesse)(Jesse Anderson), serving time for the murder of his wife; and [Dahmer](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Dahmer), a cannibalistic serial killer. The detail included him cleaning the prison gymnasium toilet. When corrections officers left the three unsupervised, Scarver attacked Jeffrey Dahmer with a metal bar that he had removed from a piece of exercise equipment in the prison weight room; he then beat Jesse Anderson with a wooden stick at the showers. He returned to his cell and informed a corrections officer: "God told me to do it. Jesse Anderson and Jeffrey Dahmer are dead."
Both men were mortally wounded by the beatings. Dahmer was declared dead an hour after arriving at the hospital, and Anderson died two days later after doctors removed him from life support. After being found competent enough to stand trial, Scarver received two more life sentences for Dahmer and Anderson's murders. It is believed that Scarver murdered Dahmer and Anderson, who were both white, because of Dahmer's murders of black males, and because Anderson had stabbed his wife to death and then attempted to frame two black males as the perpetrators of the attack. Scarver was quoted as having said: "Nothing white people do to blacks is just."
### Aftermath
In 1995, Scarver was transferred into the custody of the [Bureau of Prisons](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Prisons) under the register number #08157-045. At the time, prison officials in Wisconsin believed they did not have a facility secure enough to house Scarver. Scarver underwent psychiatric evaluation at [Springfield](MCFP)(United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners) and was later transferred to [Florence](ADX)(ADX Florence), the federal [supermax](Supermax prison) in [Colorado](Florence,)(Florence, Colorado), where he remained until 2000.
In 2000, Scarver was transferred to the [Secure Program Facility](Wisconsin)(Wisconsin Secure Program Facility) when it opened.
In 2001, federal district court judge [Crabb](Barbara)(Barbara Brandriff Crabb) ordered that Scarver and about three dozen other seriously mentally ill inmates be relocated from the Wisconsin facility. Scarver was eventually relocated to the [Correctional Facility](Centennial)(Centennial Correctional Facility) in Colorado.
In 2005, Scarver brought a federal civil rights suit against officials of the [Secure Program Facility](Wisconsin)(Wisconsin Secure Program Facility) in which he argued that he had been subjected to cruel and unusual punishment, contrary to his constitutional rights. A district court judge dismissed the suit against several of the defendants and ruled that the actions of the remaining officials could not be considered unlawful. Scarver unsuccessfully appealed against the decision in 2006. Scarver would later state that he spent 16 years in solitary confinement as a result of the murders of Dahmer and Anderson.
In 2012, an agent representing Scarver announced that Scarver was willing to write a [tell-all](wikt:tell-all) book about the murder of Dahmer.
## See also
* [of homicides in Wisconsin](List)(List of homicides in Wisconsin)
## References
}}
## External links
*[Court TV's Crime Library](https://web.archive.org/web/20140407060228/http://www.crimelibrary.com/serial_killers/notorious/dahmer/21.html)
*[The Child Left Behind, The Words and Poetry of Christopher J. Scarver](https://web.archive.org/web/20160520052844/http://www.414scarver-solutions.com/) (old site, archived May 20, 2015)
*[Christopher J. Scarver blog](https://414scarversolutions.wordpress.com/)
[births](Category:1969)(Category:1969 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[murders in the United States](Category:1990)(Category:1990 murders in the United States)
[murders in the United States](Category:1994)(Category:1994 murders in the United States)
[American criminals](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American criminals)
[people](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American people)
[Christians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Christians)
[carpenters](Category:American)(Category:American carpenters)
[male criminals](Category:American)(Category:American male criminals)
[murderers](Category:American)(Category:American murderers)
[people convicted of murder](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of murder)
[prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment](Category:American)(Category:American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment)
[in Milwaukee](Category:Crime)(Category:Crime in Milwaukee)
[in Wisconsin](Category:Crime)(Category:Crime in Wisconsin)
[from Wisconsin](Category:Criminals)(Category:Criminals from Wisconsin)
[Dahmer](Category:Jeffrey)(Category:Jeffrey Dahmer)
[murderers](Category:Male)(Category:Male murderers)
[convicted of murder by Wisconsin](Category:People)(Category:People convicted of murder by Wisconsin)
[from Milwaukee](Category:People)(Category:People from Milwaukee)
[with schizophrenia](Category:People)(Category:People with schizophrenia)
[sentenced to life imprisonment by Wisconsin](Category:Prisoners)(Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Wisconsin)
[of ADX Florence](Category:Inmates)(Category:Inmates of ADX Florence)
|
John Malkovich
|
john_malkovich
|
# John Malkovich
*Revision ID: 1159391977 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T01:34:00Z*
---
| birth_place = [Illinois](Christopher,)(Christopher, Illinois), U.S.
| alma_mater = [Esper Studio](William)(William Esper Studio)
| occupation =
| works = See [filmography](John Malkovich filmography)
| years_active = 1976–present
| spouse =
| partner = Nicoletta Peyran (1989–present)
| children = 2
}}
**John Malkovich** (born December 9, 1953) is an American actor. He is the recipient of several accolades, including a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award), in addition to nominations for two [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards), a [Award](BAFTA)(British Academy Film Award), two [Actors Guild Awards](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards), and three [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards).
Malkovich started his career as a charter member of the [Theatre Company](Steppenwolf)(Steppenwolf Theatre Company) in Chicago in 1976. He moved to New York City acting in a Steppenwolf production of the [Shepard](Sam)(Sam Shepard) play *[West](True)(True West (play))* (1980). He made his [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) debut as Biff in the revival of the [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller) play *[of a Salesman](Death)(Death of a Salesman)* (1984). He directed the [Pinter](Harold)(Harold Pinter) play *[Caretaker](The)(The Caretaker)* (1986), and acted in [Wilson](Lanford)(Lanford Wilson)'s *[This](Burn)(Burn This)* (1987).
Malkovich has received two [Award for Best Supporting Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor) nominations for *[in the Heart](Places)(Places in the Heart)* (1984), and *[the Line of Fire](In)(In the Line of Fire)* (1993). Other notable film roles include in *[Killing Fields](The)(The Killing Fields (film))* (1984), *[of the Sun](Empire)(Empire of the Sun (film))* (1987), *[Liaisons](Dangerous)(Dangerous Liaisons)* (1988), *[Mice and Men](Of)(Of Mice and Men (1992 film))* (1992), *[Air](Con)(Con Air)* (1997), *[Rounders](Rounders (film))* (1998), *[John Malkovich](Being)(Being John Malkovich)* (1999), *[of the Vampire](Shadow)(Shadow of the Vampire)* (2000), ''[Game](Ripley's)(Ripley's Game (film))* (2002), *[After Reading](Burn)(Burn After Reading)* (2008), and *[Red](Red (2010 film))* (2010). He has also produced films such as *[World](Ghost)(Ghost World (film))* (2001), *[Juno](Juno (film))* (2007), and *[Perks of Being a Wallflower](The)(The Perks of Being a Wallflower (film))* (2012).
For his work on television he received the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie) for *[of a Salesman](Death)(Death of a Salesman (1985 film))* (1985). His other Emmy-nominated roles were for portraying [J. Mankiewicz](Herman)(Herman J. Mankiewicz) in *[281](RKO)(RKO 281)* (1999) and [Talleyrand](Charles)(Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord) in *[Napoléon](Napoléon (miniseries))* (2002). Other television roles include in *[Crossbones](Crossbones (TV series))* (2014), *[Billions](Billions (TV series))* (2018–19), *[New Pope](The)(The New Pope)* (2020), and *[Force](Space)(Space Force (TV series))* (2020–2022).
## Early life
Malkovich was born in [Illinois](Christopher,)(Christopher, Illinois), on December 9, 1953. He grew up in [Illinois](Benton,)(Benton, Illinois). His father, Daniel Leon Malkovich, was a state [conservation](conservation movement) director, who published the conservation magazine *Outdoor Illinois*. His mother, Joe Anne (née Choisser), owned the *[Evening News](Benton)(The Benton Evening News)* daily newspaper and *Outdoor Illinois''. He grew up with an older brother, Danny, and three younger sisters, Amanda, Rebecca, and Melissa. In a May 2020 interview, he revealed that Melissa is his only surviving sibling. His paternal grandparents were Croatian immigrants from the vicinity of [Ozalj](Ozalj); his other ancestry includes English, Scottish, French, and German descent. Malkovich attended Logan Grade School, Webster Junior High School, and [Consolidated High School](Benton)(Benton Consolidated High School). During his high-school years, he appeared in various plays and the musical *[Carousel](Carousel (musical))*. He was also active in a folk gospel group, with whom he sang at churches and community events. As a member of a local [theater](summer)(summer theater) project, he co-starred in [van Itallie](Jean-Claude)(Jean-Claude van Itallie)'s *[Hurrah](America)(America Hurrah)* in 1972.
After graduating from high school in 1972, Malkovich enrolled at [Illinois University](Eastern)(Eastern Illinois University). He then transferred to [State University](Illinois)(Illinois State University), where he majored in theater, but dropped out. He studied acting at the [Esper Studio](William)(William Esper Studio).
## Career
### Acting
[[Malkovich at a screening of "Casanova Variations" in January 2015.jpg|thumb|upright|Malkovich in 2015](File:John)]
In 1976, Malkovich, along with [Allen](Joan)(Joan Allen), [Sinise](Gary)(Gary Sinise), and [Headly](Glenne)(Glenne Headly), became a charter member of the [Theatre Company](Steppenwolf)(Steppenwolf Theatre Company) in Chicago. He moved to New York City in 1980 to appear in a Steppenwolf production of the [Shepard](Sam)(Sam Shepard) play *[West](True)(True West (play))*, for which he won an [Award](Obie)(Obie Award).
In early 1982, he appeared in *[Streetcar Named Desire](A)(A Streetcar Named Desire (play))* with Chicago's Wisdom Bridge Theatre. Malkovich then directed a Steppenwolf co-production, the 1984 revival of [Wilson](Lanford)(Lanford Wilson)'s *[in Gilead](Balm)(Balm in Gilead)*, for which he received a second Obie Award and a [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award). His [Broadway](Broadway theater) debut that year was as Biff in *[of a Salesman](Death)(Death of a Salesman)* alongside [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) as Willy. Malkovich won an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) for this role when the play was [for television](adapted)(Death of a Salesman (1985 film)) by [CBS](CBS) in 1985.
One of his first film roles was as an extra alongside Allen, [Kinney](Terry)(Terry Kinney), [Wendt](George)(George Wendt), and [Metcalf](Laurie)(Laurie Metcalf) in [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman)'s film *[Wedding](A)(A Wedding (1978 film))* (1978). He made his feature-film debut as [Field](Sally)(Sally Field)'s blind boarder Mr. Will in *[in the Heart](Places)(Places in the Heart)* (1984). For his portrayal of Mr. Will, Malkovich received his first Academy Award nomination for [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor). He also portrayed [Rockoff](Al)(Al Rockoff) in *[Killing Fields](The)(The Killing Fields (film))* (1984).
He continued to have steady work in films such as *[of the Sun](Empire)(Empire of the Sun (film))*, directed by [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg), and the film adaptation of [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)'s *[Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie (1987 film))* (both 1987) directed by [Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman) (who appeared in the film) and [Woodward](Joanne)(Joanne Woodward). He then starred in *[Mr. Right](Making)(Making Mr. Right)* (also 1987), directed by [Seidelman](Susan)(Susan Seidelman).
Malkovich gained significant critical and popular acclaim when he portrayed the sinister and sensual Valmont in the film *[Liaisons](Dangerous)(Dangerous Liaisons)* (1988), a film adaptation of the stage play [Liaisons Dangereuses*](*Les)(Les Liaisons Dangereuses (play)) by [Hampton](Christopher)(Christopher Hampton), who had adapted it from the 1782 [novel](Les Liaisons dangereuses) of the same title by [Choderlos de Laclos](Pierre)(Pierre Choderlos de Laclos). He later reprised this role for the music video of "[on Broken Glass](Walking)(Walking on Broken Glass)" by [Lennox](Annie)(Annie Lennox). He played Port Moresby in *[Sheltering Sky](The)(The Sheltering Sky (film))* (1990), directed by [Bertolucci](Bernardo)(Bernardo Bertolucci) and appeared in *[and Fog](Shadows)(Shadows and Fog)* (1991), directed by [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen). In 1990, he recited, in [Croatian](Croatian language), verses of the Croatian [anthem](national)(national anthem) *[naša domovino](Lijepa)(Lijepa naša domovino)* (*Our Beautiful Homeland*) in [Bach](Nenad)(Nenad Bach)'s song "Can We Go Higher?"[Croatianhistory.net: John Malkovich](http://www.croatianhistory.net/etf/art.html#malkov) . Retrieved August 15, 2011.
Malkovich starred in the [film adaptation](1992)(Of Mice and Men (1992 film)) of [Steinbeck](John)(John Steinbeck)'s novella *[Mice and Men](Of)(Of Mice and Men)* as Lennie alongside Gary Sinise as George. He was nominated for another Oscar, again in the Best Supporting Actor category, for *[the Line of Fire](In)(In the Line of Fire)* (1993). He was the narrator for the film *[Alive](Alive (1993 film))* (1993).
Malkovich was directed for the second time (after *Dangerous Liaisons*) by [Frears](Stephen)(Stephen Frears) in *[Reilly](Mary)(Mary Reilly (film))* (1996), a new adaptation of the [Jekyll and Mr. Hyde](Dr.)(Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde) tale, co-starring [Roberts](Julia)(Julia Roberts). Malkovich also appeared in *[Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc](The)(The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc)* (1999), directed by [Besson](Luc)(Luc Besson), playing the French king-to-be [VII](Charles)(Charles VII of France). Though he played the title role in the [Kaufman](Charlie)(Charlie Kaufman)-penned *[John Malkovich](Being)(Being John Malkovich)* (1999), he played a slight variation of himself, as indicated by the character's middle name of "Horatio".
Malkovich made a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in *[Adaptation](Adaptation (film))* (2002) and appeared as himself during the filming of *Being John Malkovich*. He played [Highsmith](Patricia)(Patricia Highsmith)'s antihero [Ripley](Tom)(Tom Ripley) in ''[Game](Ripley's)(Ripley's Game (film))'' (also 2002), the second film adaptation of Highsmith's 1974 novel, the first being [Wenders](Wim)(Wim Wenders)' *[American Friend](The)(The American Friend)* (1977).
Malkovich's other film roles include *[Man in the Iron Mask](The)(The Man in the Iron Mask (1998 film))* (1998), ''[Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](The)(The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film))* (2005), *[Eragon](Eragon (film))* (2006), *[Beowulf](Beowulf (2007 film))*, *[Me Kubrick](Colour)(Colour Me Kubrick)* (both 2007), *[Changeling](Changeling (film))* (2008), *[Red](Red (2010 film))*, *[Secretariat](Secretariat (film))* (both 2010), *[Dark of the Moon](Transformers:)(Transformers: Dark of the Moon)* (2011), and *[2](Red)(Red 2 (film))* (2013). In 2000, Malkovich was approached to play [Goblin](Green)(Green Goblin) in *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (2002 film))'' (2002), but he passed due to scheduling conflicts, [Dafoe](Willem)(Willem Dafoe) was cast in the role. In 2009, Malkovich was approached and then cast for the role of the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) villain [Vulture](Vulture (Marvel Comics)) in the unproduced *[4](Spider-Man)(Spider-Man 4)*. Malkovich in 2014 was the voice actor of Dave the Octopus in the Penguins of Madagascar movie.
Malkovich has hosted three episodes of the [NBC](NBC) sketch show *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*. The first occasion was in January 1989 with musical guest [Baker](Anita)(Anita Baker), the second in October 1993 with musical guest [Joel](Billy)(Billy Joel) (and special appearance by former cast member [Hooks](Jan)(Jan Hooks)), and the third in December 2008 with musical guest [T.I.](T.I.) with [Beatz](Swizz)(Swizz Beatz) (and special appearances by [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake), [Sims](Molly)(Molly Sims) and [Sigler](Jamie-Lynn)(Jamie-Lynn Sigler)). In 2018, Malkovich appeared in [three-part adaptation](a)(The ABC Murders (TV series)) of [Christie](Agatha)(Agatha Christie)'s *[A.B.C. Murders](The)(The A.B.C. Murders)* co-starring [Grint](Rupert)(Rupert Grint) for BBC television, playing the role of fictional Belgian detective Hercule Poirot.
In 2019, Malkovich performed in London's [End](West)(West End theatre), starring in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)’s new play *Bitter Wheat*. He also starred as the title character in the [HBO](HBO) drama series *[New Pope](The)(The New Pope)* (2020). On September 26, 2019, it was announced that Malkovich had been cast as Dr. Adrian Mallory in the current Netflix comedy series *[Force](Space)(Space Force (TV series))*.
### Directing
*[Dancer Upstairs](The)(The Dancer Upstairs (film))*, Malkovich's directorial film debut, was released in 2002.
In 2011, he directed [Sands](Julian)(Julian Sands) in *A Celebration of [Pinter](Harold)(Harold Pinter)* in the [Courtyard](Pleasance)(The Pleasance#Pleasance Edinburgh), Edinburgh, for the [Festival Fringe](Edinburgh)(Edinburgh Festival Fringe).
In 2008, Malkovich directed in French a theater production of *Good Canary* written by [Helm](Zach)(Zach Helm), with Cristiana Realli and Vincent Elbaz in the leading roles. Malkovich won the [Award](Molière)(Molière Award) for best director for it. He also directed it in Spanish in Mexico, then in English at the Rose Theater in London in 2016. Ilan Goodman, Harry Lloyd, and Freya Mavor were in the cast. Malkovich won the Milton Schulman Award for the best director at the Evening Standard Theater Awards in 2016.
In 2012, he directed a production of a newly adapted French-language version of *Les Liaisons Dangereuses* for the [de l'Atelier](Théâtre)(Théâtre de l'Atelier) in Paris. The production had a limited engagement in July 2013 at the [Center for the Performing Arts](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts) in New York City.
Malkovich wrote and starred in a movie called *[Years](100)(100 Years (film))* (2016), directed by [Rodriguez](Robert)(Robert Rodriguez). The movie is locked in a vault in the south of France, not to be seen before 2115.
### Fashion design
Malkovich created his own fashion company, Mrs. Mudd, in 2002. The company released its John Malkovich menswear collection, "Uncle Kimono", in 2003, which was subsequently covered in the international press, and its second clothing line, "Technobohemian", in 2010. Malkovich designed the outfits himself.
## Frequent collaborators
Malkovich was directed many times by Chilean director [Ruiz](Raúl)(Raúl Ruiz (director)) — *[Temps retrouvé](Le)(Time Regained (film))* (*Time Regained*, 1999), *Les Ames Fortes* (*Savage Souls*, 2001), *[Klimt](Klimt (film))* (2006)Film review in [Lemonde](Lemonde) [https://www.lemonde.fr/cinema/article/2006/04/25/klimt-fantasmagorie-en-spirale-autour-d-un-exile-du-reel_765200_3476.html] and *[of Wellington](Lines)(Lines of Wellington)* (2012).
In 2008, directed by Michael Sturminger, he portrayed the story of [Unterweger](Jack)(Jack Unterweger) in a performance for one actor, two sopranos, and period orchestra entitled *Seduction and Despair*, which premiered at Barnum Hall in [Monica, California](Santa)(Santa Monica, California). A fully staged version of the production, entitled *The Infernal Comedy* premiered in [Vienna](Vienna) in July 2009. The show has since been performed in 2009 through 2012 throughout Europe, North America and South America.
Malkovich was also directed by Austrian director Michael Sturminger in ''Casanova's Variations* and its movie adaptation in 2014 (co-starring [Ardant](Fanny)(Fanny Ardant)). For their third collaboration, in 2017, Michael Stürminger directed Malkovich in *Just Call me God – the final speech'', in which he played a [World](Third)(Third World) dictator called Satur Dinam Cha, who is about to be overthrown.
He frequently works with [Sands](Julian)(Julian Sands).
Malkovich played the title role in the film *[Great Buck Howard](The)(The Great Buck Howard)* (2008), a role inspired by mentalist the "[Kreskin](Amazing)(Kreskin)". [Hanks](Colin)(Colin Hanks) co-starred and his father, [Hanks](Tom)(Tom Hanks), appeared as his on-screen father. In November 2009, Malkovich appeared in an advertisement for [Nespresso](Nespresso) with fellow actor [Clooney](George)(George Clooney). He portrayed [Turnbull](Quentin)(Quentin Turnbull) in the film adaptation of *[Hex](Jonah)(Jonah Hex (film))* (2010).
## In the media
In 2014, the photographer [Miller](Sandro)(Sandro Miller) recreated 35 iconic portraits of John Malkovich as the subject, in a project called *Malkovich, Malkovich, Malkovich: Homage to Photographer Master*.
Malkovich starred in his first video-game role in *[of Duty: Advanced Warfare](Call)(Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare)* in the "Exo Zombies" mode. In 1992, he appeared in period costume along with [Laurie](Hugh)(Hugh Laurie) in the [video](music)(Walking on Broken Glass#Music video) for "[on Broken Glass](Walking)(Walking on Broken Glass)" by [Lennox](Annie)(Annie Lennox). In 2015, he appeared in the music video for [Eminem](Eminem)'s single "[Phenomenal](Phenomenal (song))". In 2017, he appeared in some humorous [Bowl commercials](Super)(Super Bowl commercials) portraying himself attempting to gain control of the johnmalkovich.com domain.
## Personal life
[[Malkovich KVIFF Master Class.jpg|thumb|right|Malkovich in 2009](Image:John)]
Malkovich was married to actress [Headly](Glenne)(Glenne Headly) from 1982 to 1988, but they divorced after he had an affair with [Pfeiffer](Michelle)(Michelle Pfeiffer). He began dating Nicoletta Peyran in 1989 after meeting her on the set of *[Sheltering Sky](The)(The Sheltering Sky (film))*, on which she was the second assistant director. Malkovich and Peyran have two children, Amandine and Loewy.
Malkovich has a distinctive voice, which *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* describes as "wafting, whispery, and reedy". He does not consider himself to be a [actor](method)(method actor). He is fluent in French, having lived and worked in theater in [France](southern)(southern France) for nearly 10 years. He and his family left France in a dispute over taxes in 2003, and they have since lived in [Massachusetts](Cambridge,)(Cambridge, Massachusetts).
Malkovich is the co-owner of the restaurant Bica do Sapato and Lux nightclub in [Lisbon](Lisbon). He lost millions of dollars in the [investment scandal](Madoff)(Madoff investment scandal) in 2008. He has raised funds for the [Theater Company](Steppenwolf)(Steppenwolf Theater Company), his sole charity.
Malkovich stated in a 2011 interview that he is not a "political person" and that he does not have "an ideology", revealing that he had not voted since [McGovern](George)(George McGovern) lost his presidential run [1972](in)(1972 U.S. presidential election). At the [Union Society](Cambridge)(Cambridge Union Society) in 2002, when asked whom he would most like to fight to the death, Malkovich replied that he would "rather just shoot" journalist [Fisk](Robert)(Robert Fisk) and politician [Galloway](George)(George Galloway), stating that Galloway was not honest. Journalists speculated that the comment was related to [of Israel](criticism)(criticism of Israel) and the [in Iraq](war)(war in Iraq).
When asked in an interview with the *[Star](Toronto)(Toronto Star)* in 2008 whether having spiritual beliefs was necessary to portray a spiritual character, he said, "No, I'd say not... I'm an [atheist](Atheism). I wouldn't say I'm without spiritual belief particularly, or rather, specifically. Maybe I'm agnostic, but I'm not quite sure there's some great creator somehow controlling everything and giving us free will. I don't know; it doesn't seem to make a lot of sense to me."
On June 6, 2013, Malkovich was walking in [Toronto](Toronto) when a 77-year-old man named Jim Walpole tripped and accidentally cut his throat on a piece of scaffolding. Malkovich applied pressure to Walpole's neck to reduce bleeding before Walpole was rushed to a hospital, where he received stitches and later credited Malkovich with saving his life.
## Awards and nominations
* [of Danica Hrvatska](Order)(Order of Danica Hrvatska) ([Croatia](Croatia)), with the face of [Marulić](Marko)(Marko Marulić) ([Zagreb](Zagreb), 2003)
* [of Merit (Ukraine)](Order)(Order of Merit (Ukraine)), 3rd class ([Kyiv](Kyiv), 2018)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
* [John Malkovich](http://www.boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?view=Actor&id=johnmalkovich.htm) on [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo)
}}
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Olympique de Marseille
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olympique_de_marseille
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# Olympique de Marseille
*Revision ID: 1160353487 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:47:41Z*
---
*Les Olympiens* (The Olympians)*Les Minots* (The youngs from Marseille)
| short name = OM, Marseille
| founded =
| ground = [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome)
| capacity = 67,394
| owner = [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive)) (95%)[Louis-Dreyfus](Margarita)(Margarita Louis-Dreyfus) (5%)
| chairman = [Longoria](Pablo)(Pablo Longoria)
| chrtitle = President
| manager = *Vacant*
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| league =
| season =
| position =
| website = http://www.om.net
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**Olympique de Marseille** (, ; , ), also known simply as **Marseille** or by the abbreviation **OM** (, ), is a [French](France) professional [football](association football) club based in [Marseille](Marseille) that competes in [1](Ligue)(Ligue 1), the [flight](top)(French football league system) of [football](French)(Football in France). Founded in 1899, the club has won nine [titles](league)(List of French football champions), ten [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) titles, three [de la Ligue](Coupe)(Coupe de la Ligue) titles, three [des Champions](Trophée)(Trophée des Champions) titles, a national record of one [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) and a joint national record of one [Intertoto Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Intertoto Cup). Additionally, Marseille has played in three [Europa League](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League) finals. In [1993](1992–93 UEFA Champions League), coach [Goethals](Raymond)(Raymond Goethals) led the team to become the first and only French club to win the [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League), defeating [Milan](A.C. Milan) 1–0 in the final, the first under the UEFA Champions League branding of the tournament. In 2010, Marseille won its first Ligue 1 title in 18 years under the management of former club captain [Deschamps](Didier)(Didier Deschamps).
Marseille's home ground is the 67,394-capacity [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome) in the southern part of the city, where they have played since 1937. The club has a large fan-base, having regularly averaged the highest attendance in French football. Marseille's average home gate for the [season](2018–19)(2018–19 Ligue 1) was 50,361, the highest in Ligue 1. The stadium underwent renovation from 2011 to 2014, increasing its capacity to 67,000 ahead of France's hosting of [Euro 2016](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2016).
In 1997, Marseille was purchased by Franco-Swiss businessman [Louis-Dreyfus](Robert)(Robert Louis-Dreyfus). Following his death in 2009, his widow [Margarita](Margarita Louis-Dreyfus) became the club's majority shareholder in 2010. American businessman [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive)) bought 95% of the club's stake in 2016, and appointed businessman [Eyraud](Jacques-Henri)(Jacques-Henri Eyraud) as the club president, later replaced by [Longoria](Pablo)(Pablo Longoria) in 2021.
Marseille was placed twenty-eighth in the global ranking drawn up by the British consultancy organisation Brand Finance in terms of brand power, where it was rated with a [rating](credit)(credit rating) AA ("very strong") with a [score](Score (statistics)) of 71.3 out of 100, as well as twenty-eighth in terms of [value](brand)(Brand valuation) (€173 million)and twenty-eighth by [value](enterprise)(enterprise value) (€458 million as of 2023).
## History
[[Dufaure de Montmirail.jpg|thumb|200px|OM founder, René Dufaure de Montmirail.](File:René)]
Olympique de Marseille was founded as an omnisport club in 1892 by René Dufaure de Montmirail, a French sports official. Known as Sporting Club, US Phocéenne and Football Club de Marseille in the first seven years after its foundation, the club adopted the name *Olympique de Marseille* in 1899 in honour of the anniversary of Marseille's founding by [Greeks](Greeks) from [Phocaea](Phocaea) some 25 centuries earlier, with the name Olympique, coming from ancient [Games](Olympic)(Olympic Games).
At first, [union](rugby)(rugby union) was the most important team sport of the club, the motto *Droit au but* coming from rugby. Affiliated with the [des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques](Union)(Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques) (USFSA) since 1898, it was only in 1902, thanks to English and [people](German)(German people) (according to [Gascard](André)(André Gascard)), that football began to be played by Olympique de Marseille. Richer and better organised than other football teams of Marseille (Sporting, Stade, Phocéenne), Olympique de Marseille, then playing at the [de l'Huveaune](Stade)(Stade de l'Huveaune), took the leadership in the city. In 1904, Olympique de Marseille won the first *Championnat du Littoral*, involving opposing teams from Marseille and its suburbs, and took part in the final rounds of the 11th [championship](French)(Ligue 1). At that time, the word *"football"* applied to rugby, and people used the word *"Association" (which would be soccer in North America)* for football.
[[de Marseille - OM - 1911.jpg|thumb|The team of 1911.](File:Olympique)]
During the 1920s, Olympique de Marseille became an important team in France, winning the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) in 1924, 1926 and 1927. The team won the [championship](French)(Ligue 1) in 1929, defeating [français](Club)(Club français). The Coupe de France in 1924 was the club's first major title, won against [Sète](FC)(FC Sète), a side that dominated [football](French)(Football in France) at the time. In the '20s, numerous [internationals](French)(France national football team), such as [Dewaquez](Jules)(Jules Dewaquez), Jean Boyer or [Alcazar](Joseph)(Joseph Alcazar), played for Marseille. In 1930, Marseille lost against Sète, which would be the winner, in the semi-final round. In 1931, the team became champion of the South-East, with victories against rivals such as Sète. In the Coupe de France, l'OM lost in five matches to Club français, winning the second match that was cancelled due to the disqualification of Marseille striker Vernicke. Even though the 1931–32 season was less successful, Marseille easily entered the professional ranks, becoming a member of the union of professional clubs in 1932. On 13 January 1932 at 9:15 pm, at the Brasserie des Sports, Mr. Dard, Mr. Bison, Dr. Rollenstein, Mr. Etchepare, Mr. Leblanc, Mr. Mille, Mr. Anfosso, Mr. Sabatier, Mr. Seze, Mr. Bazat, Mr. Molteroj and Mr. Pollack elected the following committee:
Honorary presidents: Paul Le Cesne et Fernand Bouisson
President: M. Dard
Vice-Presidents: Mr. Leblanc, Mr. Bison, Mr. Etchepare, Dr. Rollenstein et Mr. Anfosso
general secretary: Mr. Possel-Daydier
Treasurer: Mr Bison (assisted by Mr Ribel).
For the first championship, [1](Division)(Ligue 1) was divided into two pools. Marseille finished second in the first, behind [Lille](Lille OSC). For its first match of the championship, Marseille defeated the future champion, Lille. In 1937, Marseille won its first professional [championship](French)(Ligue 1) thanks to goal difference *(+30 for Marseille, +17 for [Sochaux](FC Sochaux-Montbéliard))*. The arrival of Vasconcellos made the defence stronger, whereas former goalkeeper [Di Lorto](Laurent)(Laurent Di Lorto) shone with [Sochaux](FC Sochaux-Montbéliard) and [France](France national football team). In the meantime, Marseille won the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) in 1935 and 1938 but failed a double success in 1934, due to [Sète](FC)(FC Sète). In 1938, [Benbarek](Larbi)(Larbi Benbarek) signed with Marseille and became *"the black pearl"* for the team. [War II](World)(World War II) would cut his career short. The 1942–43 season was full of records: 100 goals in 30 matches, including 20 in one match (20–2 against [Avignon](AC Arles-Avignon)), in which Aznar scored nine goals, including the first eight (Marseille was leading 8–0), playing only 70 minutes. Aznar scored 45 goals in 30 matches, plus 11 in cup games, for a record of 56 goals in 38 matches. With the *minots* (young players) of the moment (Scotti, Robin, Dard, Pironti), Marseille won the cup in two matches against [Bordeaux](FC Girondins de Bordeaux) (4–0). In 1948, thanks to a draw against [Sochaux](FC Sochaux-Montbéliard), Marseille became the champions of France. The two last victories at the [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome) against Roubaix (6–0) and [Metz](FC Metz) (6–3) were important, as Aznar and Robin's returned in spring.
In 1952, Marseille were about to be relegated, but [Andersson](Gunnar)(Gunnar Andersson (footballer)) saved his team, finishing as top scorer with 31 goals. The team won (5–3) on aggregate against [Valenciennes](US Valenciennes). The same year, Marseille lost at the [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome) against [Saint-Étienne](AS Saint-Étienne) 10–3, but Liberati was injured. In 1953, Gunnar Andersson would take the record of goals scored in one season with 35. Marseille was runner-up in the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) ([Nice](OGC Nice) won 2–1) in 1954 and the [Drago](Coupe)(Coupe Drago) in 1957 to ([Lens](RC Lens) which won 3–1). Marseille were struggling at the time and were relegated for the first time in 1959. From 1959 to 1965, the team played in the second division, except during the 1962–63 season, finishing 20th out of 20 in the first division. In 1965, Marcel Leclerc became president.
### 1965–1986: Leclerc era and crisis
[[File:Jairzinho 1974.jpg|thumb|Brazilian [World Cup](1970)(1970 FIFA World Cup) winner [Jairzinho](Jairzinho) joined OM in 1974.]]
The first period of Olympique de Marseille's domination of the French League started in the early 1970s under Marcel Leclerc's presidency (1965–1972). His ambition allowed Marseille to return to the First division in 1965–66. They went on to win the *Coupe de France* in 1969 as well as the First division in 1971 with a record of 44 goals by [Skoblar](Josip)(Josip Skoblar), helped by [Magnusson](Roger)(Roger Magnusson). The arrival of [Carnus](Georges)(Georges Carnus) and [Bosquier](Bernard)(Bernard Bosquier) from [Saint-Étienne](AS Saint-Étienne) helped them to win the Ligue 1 and the Coupe de France in 1972. Marseille played in the [Cup](European)(UEFA Champions League) in 1971–72 and 1972–73, but were knocked-out by [Ajax](AFC Ajax) of [Cruyff](Johan)(Johan Cruyff) and [Juventus](Juventus F.C.), respectively. However, success was not to last. Marcel Leclerc was forced to leave the club on 19 July 1972. The President was a stubborn man, and he threatened the league to withdraw his professional team from Ligue 1 because the federation refused to accept three foreign players per team (Leclerc wanted to acquire the Hungarian star [Varga](Zoltán)(Zoltán Varga (footballer, born 1945)) but he had already the maximum number of two foreigners in his team). Marseille decided, instead of following Leclerc against the league, to fire him.[Football](France)(France Football), N°2936 bis, PP 28–29 ''La nuit des longs couteaux à l'OM* Then followed an era of crisis, with Marseille only winning a Coupe de France in 1976 and being relegated to the second division, where they played with a bunch of young local players: the *Minots'' who allowed the team to return to First division in 1984. [Di Meco](Éric)(Éric Di Meco) was one of them.
### 1986–1996: Tapie era, bribery scandal, and decline
On 12 April 1986, [Tapie](Bernard)(Bernard Tapie) became president, thanks to [Marseille](Marseille) mayor [Defferre](Gaston)(Gaston Defferre), and promptly built the greatest team seen in France up to that point. His first signings were [Forster](Karl-Heinz)(Karl-Heinz Forster) and [Giresse](Alain)(Alain Giresse), who were bought after the [FIFA World Cup](1986)(1986 FIFA World Cup). Tapie signed a large number of highly regarded players over the next six years in his pursuit of the European Cup, such as [Papin](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Papin), [Pele](Abedi)(Abedi Pele), [Allofs](Klaus)(Klaus Allofs), [Cantona](Eric)(Eric Cantona), [Waddle](Chris)(Chris Waddle), [Francescoli](Enzo)(Enzo Francescoli), [Amoros](Manuel)(Manuel Amoros), [Mozer](Carlos)(Carlos Mozer), [Tigana](Jean)(Jean Tigana), [Deschamps](Didier)(Didier Deschamps), [Stojković](Dragan)(Dragan Stojković), [Boli](Basile)(Basile Boli), [Desailly](Marcel)(Marcel Desailly), [Völler](Rudi)(Rudi Völler), and [Bokšić](Alen)(Alen Bokšić) as well as appointing high-profile coaches like [Beckenbauer](Franz)(Franz Beckenbauer), [Gili](Gérard)(Gérard Gili) and [Goethals](Raymond)(Raymond Goethals). Between 1989 and 1992, Olympique de Marseille won four league titles in a row and the [Cup](French)(French Cup). The team also reached the [Cup final](Champions)(1991 European Cup Final) for the first time in 1991, losing on penalties to [Star Belgrade](Red)(Red Star Belgrade). The highlight of the club's history is winning the new format [League](Champions)(UEFA Champions League) in 1993. [Boli](Basile)(Basile Boli) scored the only goal against Italy's [Milan](A.C. Milan) in the [final](1993 UEFA Champions League Final) held in [Munich](Munich)'s [Stadium](Olympic)(Olympic Stadium (Munich)). That triumph was the first time ever for a French club and it made [Deschamps](Didier)(Didier Deschamps) and [Barthez](Fabien)(Fabien Barthez) the youngest captain and goalkeeper, respectively, to capture the title.
This triumph, however, was followed by a decade of decline. In 1994, due to financial irregularities and a match-fixing scandal involving then-president [Tapie](Bernard)(Bernard Tapie), they suffered enforced relegation to [second division](the)(Ligue 2), where Marseille stayed for two years before returning to the [division](First)(Ligue 1). Moreover, they lost their 1992–93 Division 1 title and the right to play in the [UEFA Champions League](1993–94)(UEFA Champions League 1993-94), the [European Super Cup](1993)(1993 European Super Cup) and the [Intercontinental Cup](1993)(1993 Intercontinental Cup). This scandal, called ''l'affaire VA-OM'' (VA for [Sportive Valenciennes-Anzin](Union)(Valenciennes FC) and OM for Olympique de Marseille), was exposed by [Valenciennes](Valenciennes FC), whose players [Glassmann](Jacques)(Jacques Glassmann), [Burruchaga](Jorge)(Jorge Burruchaga) and [Robert](Christophe)(Christophe Robert) were contacted by Marseille player [Eydelie](Jean-Jacques)(Jean-Jacques Eydelie) to let OM win and, more importantly, not to injure any OM player ahead of the [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) final.
### 1996–2009: Return to success
[[File:Didier Deschamps 2011 (cropped).jpeg|thumb|right|OM won six titles with [Deschamps](Didier)(Didier Deschamps) as manager between 2009 and 2011.]]
Marseille returned to the top flight in 1996 with backing from [Adidas](Adidas)'s CEO [Louis-Dreyfus](Robert)(Robert Louis-Dreyfus). He chose [Courbis](Rolland)(Rolland Courbis) as coach, signed [Ravanelli](Fabrizio)(Fabrizio Ravanelli), [Blanc](Laurent)(Laurent Blanc), and [Köpke](Andreas)(Andreas Köpke), and Marseille finished 11th for his return. For the [season](1998–99)(1998–99 French Division 1), the team celebrated their centenary and built a team of stars: [Pires](Robert)(Robert Pires), [Maurice](Florian)(Florian Maurice), and [Dugarry](Christophe)(Christophe Dugarry), culminating in a second-place finish in the [championship](French)(1998–99 French Division 1), behind [Bordeaux](FC Girondins de Bordeaux) and an appearance in the [Cup Final in 1999](UEFA)(1999 UEFA Cup Final), losing to [Parma](Parma F.C.). Courbis left the team in November 1999 after a poor start to the season.
The closest Marseille got to another trophy was when they reached the [Cup Final in 2004](UEFA)(2004 UEFA Cup Final), impressively beating [Dnipro](FC Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk), [Internazionale](Inter Milan), [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.), and [United](Newcastle)(Newcastle United F.C.) along the way. But they were beaten in the final by newly crowned Spanish champions [Valencia](Valencia CF) and once again fans were forced to continue waiting for the next trophy to come along. In 2005, Marseille succeeded in winning the [Cup](Intertoto)(Intertoto Cup), beating the likes of [Lazio](S.S. Lazio) and [de La Coruña](Deportivo)(Deportivo de La Coruña) in doing so, and earning another shot at the [Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League).
[[File:Didier Drogba'14.JPG|thumb|left|[Drogba](Didier)(Didier Drogba) played for OM in the [season](2003–2004)(2003–04 Ligue 1).]]
In January 2007, there was negotiation between Louis-Dreyfus and [Kachkar](Jack)(Jack Kachkar), a Canadian doctor and businessman *(CEO of pharmaceutical company Inyx)*, about selling the club. As [Kachkar](Jack)(Jack Kachkar) took too much time to buy the team, Louis-Dreyfus decided on 22 March 2007 not to sell to the Canadian businessman. Another close call to glory was in the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) [against](final)(2007 Coupe de France Final) [Sochaux](FC Sochaux-Montbéliard) in May 2007. However, they lost on penalties after a 2–2 draw after extra time, to the disappointment of everyone linked with the club, but they soon wiped all that disappointment away by qualifying for the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League group stage after securing second place with one game to spare.
In the [League](Champions)(UEFA Champions League), Marseille became the first [team](French)(Ligue 1) to win at [Anfield](Anfield) when they beat [runners-up](2007)(2007 UEFA Champions League Final) Liverpool 1–0, and the team took six out of six points from their opening two games. They only drew one more match, and in a winner-takes-all final group game they lost 4–0 to Liverpool, who became the first [team](English)(Premier League) to win at the [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome). Marseille, coming third in the [League Group A](Champions)(2007–08 UEFA Champions League group stage#Group A), then joined the [Cup](UEFA)(2007–08 UEFA Cup knockout stage).
Marseille finished the [season with a second-place finish in Ligue 1](2008–09)(2008–09 Ligue 1), following a tight race with Bordeaux for the title. This earned them direct entry into the [stages of the UEFA Champions League](group)(2009–10 UEFA Champions League group stage), their third consecutive season in the competition. Marseille won the [Coupe de la Ligue Final](2010)(2010 Coupe de la Ligue Final) beating Bordeaux 3–1 at the [de France](Stade)(Stade de France) in March 2010. This was their first major title since their Champions League triumph 17 years earlier. Two months later, Marseille won their first [championship](league)(Ligue 1) for 18 years with two games to spare after beating [Rennes](Stade Rennais F.C.) 3–1. Marseille defeated rivals [Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.) (PSG) on penalties to win the 2010 [des Champions](Trophée)(Trophée des Champions) at [7 Novembre](Stade)(Stade 7 Novembre) in [Rades](Rades), [Tunisia](Tunisia), before the season began. Marseille then became the first team to win back-to-back [de la Ligue](Coupe)(Coupe de la Ligue) successes when they won the [2011](2011 Coupe de la Ligue Final) edition by beating [Montpellier](Montpellier HSC) 1–0 on 23 April. Before that, they qualified for the [16](last)(2010–11 UEFA Champions League knockout phase#Round of 16) of the [Champions League](UEFA)(2010–11 UEFA Champions League) for the first time since their historic success, but lost 2–1 at [Trafford](Old)(Old Trafford) to [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.) and also set a [League](Champions)(UEFA Champions League) record by thrashing [Žilina](MŠK Žilina) 7–0 in what was the biggest away win in the competition's history. In 2011, Marseille lost the [1 championship title](Ligue)(2010–11 Ligue 1) but qualified for the [Champions League](UEFA)(2011–12 UEFA Champions League) for the fifth time in a row, a club record. On 27 July 2011, Marseille won the [Trophée des Champions](2011)(2011 Trophée des Champions) title by beating [Lille](Lille OSC) 5–4 at [de Tanger](Stade)(Stade de Tanger) in Morocco. The result was significant as OM were 3–1 down with five minutes to go, only to embark on a remarkable comeback which saw 5 goals scored in the last five minutes with [Ayew](André)(André Ayew) scoring a hat-trick.
### 2009–2014: Deschamps, Baup, Anigo
The club struggled in the 2011–12 season, going to the bottom of the Ligue 1 table after six matches. Nevertheless, Marseille rebounded, winning 3–0 against [Dortmund](Borussia)(Borussia Dortmund) in the [League](Champions)(2011–12 UEFA Champions League), as well as a 3–0 success over rivals PSG in November of that year. Marseille ended 2011 with a good sequence, also qualifying for the knockout stages of the Champions League for the second season running.
In February 2012, Marseille embarked on 13 games without victory, but rallied to qualify for the quarter-finals of the Champions League for the first time since [the competition in 1993](winning)(1992-93 UEFA Champions League). Despite an indifferent club form, OM lost to eventual finalists [Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich), and slumped to an overall tenth-place finish in [1](Ligue)(2011–12 Ligue 1). However, the club retained the [de la Ligue](Coupe)(Coupe de la Ligue) for the third year running, beating [Lyon](Olympique Lyonnais) 1–0 in the [Final](2011–12 Coupe de la Ligue).
In the summer of 2012, Deschamps resigned, and later took on the [France](France national football team) job. [Baup](Elie)(Elie Baup) took over, leading the club to a surprising second-place finish in the [season](2012–13)(2012–13 Ligue 1) despite selling multiple key players, including [Rémy](Loïc)(Loïc Rémy), [Azpilicueta](César)(César Azpilicueta) and [Mbia](Stéphane)(Stéphane Mbia). Marseille returned to the Champions League, spending close to €40 million on the likes of [Payet](Dimitri)(Dimitri Payet), [Thauvin](Florian)(Florian Thauvin) and [Imbula](Giannelli)(Giannelli Imbula). The club were top of the table at the end of August 2013, but OM proceeded to lose all six games in [Europe](2013–14 UEFA Champions League), suffering the ignominy of becoming the first French team, and the biggest European team to date, to have picked up zero points in a Champions League group stage.
Baup was sacked on 7 December 2013, following the 1–0 defeat to [Nantes](FC Nantes) at Stade Velodrome. He was replaced on an interim basis by [Anigo](José)(José Anigo). In Anigo's brief tenure, OM went out of the two cups, and struggled, leading to continued protests and jeers by fans. The club finished sixth in the [season](2014)(2013-14 Ligue 1), missing out on an important European competition place for the first time in ten years. Anigo left the club soon after, taking on an ambassadorial/scouting role in North Africa, his first post outside of the city for more than four decades.
### 2014–2015: Bielsa era and stagnation
[[File:Dimitri Payet - France v Armenia.jpg|thumb|right|[Payet](Dimitri)(Dimitri Payet) is the leader of the *OM Champions project* of [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive)).]]
Marseille announced on 2 May 2014 an agreement with [Bielsa](Marcelo)(Marcelo Bielsa), who took the managerial hotseat. Bielsa was the club's first Argentine coach and the first coach to lead the team into the renovated Velodrome, which opened in August with a fixture against Montpellier. In Bielsa's first season in charge, the club led the league table for seven months but finished fourth and thus qualified for the [Europa League](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League). June 2015 saw three key players leave the club—[Gignac](André-Pierre)(André-Pierre Gignac) and [Ayew](André)(André Ayew) left the club for [UANL](Tigres)(Tigres UANL) and [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.), respectively, after their contracts expired, while [Payet](Dimitri)(Dimitri Payet) left to join [Ham United](West)(West Ham United F.C.) for a €15 million transfer fee.
After a solid pre-season, which included a 2–0 win over [Juventus](Juventus F.C.) in the [Louis-Dreyfus Trophy](Robert)(Robert Louis-Dreyfus Trophy) and the signature of nine players, Bielsa resigned from his post, just minutes after the first Ligue 1 game of the [season](2015–16)(2015–16 Ligue 1) against [Caen](SM Caen). Marseille lost the game 1–0, and Bielsa shocked the footballing world with his unexpected decision, citing a lack of trust with the club's management, who he said had reneged on a previously agreed contract extension. Bielsa's departure reportedly left his players in a state of shock, many of whom learnt the news via social media in the dressing room.
On 19 August 2015, [Míchel](Míchel (footballer, born 1963)) was announced as Marseille's new coach. He endured a frustrating season, with OM failing to win a home game in [1](Ligue)(Ligue 1) for more than six months. Following a number of poor performances, Míchel was sacked in April by club owner Margarita Louis Dreyfus, citing poor conduct as the team's coach. The sacking came on the eve of the club's Coupe de France semi-final fixture. As in 2015, Passi was installed as the caretaker coach. Under his direction, Marseille reached the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France) final for the first time in nine years, losing out [4–2](2016 Coupe de France Final) to rivals Paris Saint-Germain. OM would finish the league season in 13th, the club's worst league finish in 15 years.
In the summer of 2016, Marseille once more sold off a number of key players to meet financial obligations and to clear its wage bill ahead of an impending takeover. [Mandanda](Steve)(Steve Mandanda), the club's long-serving captain ended eight years at the club and moved to [Palace](Crystal)(Crystal Palace F.C.), [N'Koulou](Nicolas)(Nicolas N'Koulou) moved to [Lyon](Olympique Lyonnais), while striker [Batshuayi](Michy)(Michy Batshuayi) was sold to [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.) for a club record €40 million.
### 2016–present: New ownership and revival
Marseille began the [Ligue 1](2016–17)(2016–17 Ligue 1) season with interim manager [Passi](Franck)(Franck Passi) at the helm. On 29 August 2016, it was announced that American businessman [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive)) had agreed to buy the club from [Louis-Dreyfus](Margarita)(Margarita Louis-Dreyfus). The purchase deal was completed for a reported price tag of €45 million on 17 October 2016. Within the next few days, McCourt appointed [Eyraud](Jacques-Henri)(Jacques-Henri Eyraud) as the club's president, [Garcia](Rudi)(Rudi Garcia) as the manager of the club's first team and [Zubizarreta](Andoni)(Andoni Zubizarreta) as director of sport.
On 3 May 2018, Marseille reached the final of the [UEFA Europa League](2017–18)(2017–18 UEFA Europa League) after eliminating [Bull Salzburg](Red)(FC Red Bull Salzburg) in the semi-finals 3–2 on aggregate, 14 years after its last final in a European competition in [2004](2003–04 UEFA Cup) against [Valencia](Valencia CF). However, they lost [final](the)(2018 UEFA Europa League Final) to [Madrid](Atlético)(Atlético Madrid).
In the [Ligue 1](2019–20)(2019–20 Ligue 1) season, [Villas-Boas](Andre)(Andre Villas-Boas) became head coach. Marseille finished second after the season was ended early due to the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic), thus qualifying for the [UEFA Champions League](2020–21)(2020–21 UEFA Champions League) for the first time since 2013–14.
In February 2021, after this string of losses, conflict with players, and lack of support from sporting director [Longoria](Pablo)(Pablo Longoria) and President Jacques-Henri Eyraud, head coach [Villas-Boas](Andre)(Andre Villas-Boas) offered to resign, three days after a violent riot by protesting Marseille fans at the team training grounds had forced postponement of a league match with Rennes. Marseille sacked Villas-Boas, and replaced the coach with Argentine [Sampaoli](Jorge)(Jorge Sampaoli). The club also appointed Pablo Longoria to be the team's new president, replacing Jacques-Henri Eyraud, as Eyraud had also been a target of the ire of Marseille fans.
In January 2022, Marseille player [Gueye](Pape)(Pape Gueye) was banned from playing for 4 months by FIFA, while Marseille were given a ban on making transfers in both the summer 2022 and January 2023 transfer windows, and forced to pay €2.5 million to [Watford](Watford F.C.). This came after the English club brought litigation against Marseille over the transfer of Gueye, who had originally signed a contract with Watford, but after finding out his agent had lied to him about the salary on offer, broke the contract and signed with Marseille. Marseille appealed FIFA's decision. In the [Ligue 1](2021–22)(2021–22 Ligue 1) season, Marseille finished in second place, securing Champions League football for the first time since 2020. In the final matchday, they were helped by Lens's equalizing goal in the final moments of a 2–2 draw with [Monaco](AS Monaco FC).
## Le Classique
[[2007.jpg|thumb|200px|PSG-OM in 2007.](File:PSG-OM)]
***Le Classique*** is a football match that is contested between Paris Saint-Germain and Olympique de Marseille. The term Classique is modelled on [Clásico](El)(El Clásico), contested between [Barcelona](FC Barcelona) and [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid C.F). Like all the game's major rivalries, the antipathy between PSG and Marseille extends outside the pitch. The French *clásico* has a historical, cultural and social importance that makes it more than just a football game, pitching capital against province, and the traditional wealth and high culture of Paris against the industrial and cosmopolitan traditions of Marseille. However, this rivalry appears only in the 1990s, where it is promoted by the respective owners of PSG - Canal+, the TV channel which broadcast the Ligue 1 football matches - and Olympique de Marseile - Bernard Tapie, also owner of the sports company Adidas -, for obvious marketing reasons. It is sometimes seen as 'the favourite son' of [football](French)(Football in France) against its [terribles*](*enfants)(L'enfant terrible). With PSG being located in the north in the [capital](French)(Paris) and Marseille located along the [coast](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean Sea), the rivalry is often referred to as *"the North versus the South."* PSG and Marseille are two of just three [clubs](French)(Ligue 1) to have won major [trophies](European)(UEFA), PSG having won the [Cup Winners' Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Cup Winners' Cup) in [1996](1996 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final) and Marseille won the UEFA Champions League in [1993](1993 UEFA Champions League Final), and they were the two dominant forces before the emergence of [Lyon](Olympique Lyonnais) at the beginning of the 21st century. However, despite their recent ups and downs, PSG and Marseille remain fierce rivals, giving this match a special atmosphere.Antonio Missiroli. [European football cultures and their integration: the'short' Twentieth Century](http://www.iss.europa.eu/fr/publications/detail-page/article/european-football-cultures-and-their-integration-theshort-twentieth-century/) , EU Institute for Security Studies (ISS), 1 March 2002. [Classique](Le)(Le Classique) Retrieved 21 April 2012 "Le Classique" is also known as "Le Classico".[Le Classico results](http://www.om-passion.com/confrontations_Marseille_Paris.html)
## Stadium
[[File:Stade Vélodrome (20150405).jpg|thumb|321x321px|Stade Vélodrome in 2015 against [PSG](Paris Saint-Germain), the tifo was deployed during the players entrance.]]
From 1904 to 1937, Marseille played at the [de l'Huveaune](Stade)(Stade de l'Huveaune), a stadium owned by the club, in contrast to its current stadium. L'Huveaune, once named Stade Fernand Buisson in honour of a former [rugby](Rugby football) player of the club who became a member of the [National Assembly](French)(French National Assembly), was renovated at the beginning of the twenties, thanks to supporter's financial help. It had a capacity of . In 1937, ''l'OM'' moved into the much larger [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome) after compelling the city of [Marseille](Marseille) to lower its rent. The club made use of the Stade de l'Huveaune again during the renovation of the Vélodrome for [1984](Euro)(UEFA Euro 1984), during the 1982/83 season. The Vélodrome again underwent redevelopment in time for the [World Cup](1998)(1998 World Cup) and was transformed into an immense ground composed of two [Curva](Curva (stadia)) ends (Virage Nord and Virage Sud – North Curve and South Curve) which house the supporters groups as well as the main stand, Jean Bouin, and the imposing Ganay stand. In a third renovation, in preparation for [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016), the municipality covered the stands with a roof, and increased its capacity to 67,000 to host the [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016) games.
Before the start of each home game the song "[Jump](Jump (Van Halen song))" by [Halen](Van)(Van Halen) is heard.
When a goal is scored by Marseille in their home matches the song "[with Me](Come)(Come with Me (Puff Daddy song))" by [Daddy](Puff)(Puff Daddy) is played.
## Kits and crest
Marseille's traditional [kit](Kit (association football)) colours were white shirts and shorts with blue socks until 1986. Since 1986, Marseille have played with white shirts, white shorts and white socks, and the blue color became lighter due to [Adidas](Adidas) marketing but in 2012–2013, the club returned to its original kit, wearing blue socks.
Club founder [Dufaure de Montmirail](René)(:fr:René Dufaure de Montmirail) drew inspiration from his personal [seal](Seal (impression)), which featured interlaced letters *"D"* and *"M"*, to create the club's first badge. The club's motto, *"Droit au but"*, dates from the days when the club's main sport was rugby, under the name *"Football Club de Marseille"*. The original badge featured an ornate letter *"M"* superimposed over an "O", with the club motto draped across the glyph. The logo persisted for three decades, until 1935, when an [deco](art)(art deco) shield was adopted, with a simple *"M"* encased within the *"O"*. In 1972, OM redesigned its logo, this time preferring a complex *"M"* letterform. In 1986, the club re-adopted its first badge; the logo evolved slightly over the next few decades, gaining a star in 1993 to commemorate the club's [Champions League trophy](UEFA)(European Champion Clubs' Cup). To commemorate the club's 100th anniversary in 1999, a variant featuring a golden *"O"* and a turquoise *"M"* was used; a similar 110th anniversary logo was used during the [season](2009–10)(2009–10 Ligue 1). The most recent form was revealed on 17 February 2004; the *"O"* and *"M"* are rendered as a single unit in turquoise without shading or borders, and the logo is capped by the golden star representing the victory in the Champions League and sits above. The club's motto *Droit Au But* (French for "Straight to the Goal") also rendered in gold appears under the badge.
### Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors
## Supporters
[[Vélodrome (Marseille).jpg|thumb|OM fans in 2007.](File:Stade)]
### Virage Nord De Peretti
The atmosphere in the [Vélodrome](Stade)(Stade Vélodrome) is created by the dominance of OM's own supporters who are located in the [Curva](Curva (stadia)) style ends behind both goals. The North Curve is home to the Marseille Trop Puissant, Fanatics, and Dodger's supporters associations who buy up the tickets at the start of each season and sell them on to their members. The Virage Nord is next to the away enclosure, which is protected by high fences. In 2002, the Virage Nord was officially given the name of Patrice de Peretti *(1972–2000)*, the late founder and leader of the supporters group Marseille Trop Puissant (MTP). In 2010, the third kit of OM was a tribute to MTP, with the [yellow and green colours of Africa](red,)(Pan-African colours), symbols of this left-wing curva. In 2018, owner [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive)) and president [Eyraud](Jacques-Henri)(Jacques-Henri Eyraud) decided to exclude the Yankee Nord due to a number of delictuous activities, especially concerning tickets ; they therefore forbid them to sell the said tickets, and the association is no longer officially recognized by the club.
### Virage Sud Chevalier Roze
The virage is named after [Roze](Nicolas)(Nicolas Roze (chevalier)), a noble who distinguished himself in particular by creating a hospital in Marseille during the [Plague of Marseille](Great)(Great Plague of Marseille) in 1720. As with the Virage Nord, the South Curve is controlled by supporter's associations with the Commando [Ultra](Ultras) '84, the first group of ultra supporters in France created in August 1984, and the South Winners dominating the central section and Club Central des Supporters filling the remaining sections of the stand.
The 2007/08 third shirt of OM was a tribute to South Winners fans whose colours are orange, as they are traditionally left wing fans.
### AEK Athens, AS Livorno and Sampdoria
[[File:AEK fans vs PSG 2007.jpg|thumb|AEK fans ([21](Original)(Original 21)) lifting an OM fans (Commando Ultra '84) banner.]]
There is a strong relationship between [Athens](AEK)(AEK Athens F.C.), [Livorno](AS)(A.S. Livorno Calcio), [Sampdoria](UC)(UC Sampdoria) and Marseille. Marseille fans often lift banners and create choreography in support of the fellow teams.
At the opposite, also because of different political opinions they use to argue with many [Lazio](SS)(SS Lazio) fans.
## Players
### First-team squad
### Out on loan
### Reserve squad
### Player of the season
## Personnel
### Technical staff
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Position !! Name
|-
|Manager|| [Tudor](Igor)(Igor Tudor)
|-
| rowspan=2| Assistant managers || [Vukas](Hari)(Hari Vukas)
|-
| [Abardonado](Jacques)(Jacques Abardonado)
|-
|Video analyst || Giuseppe Maiuri
|-
|Goalkeeping coach || Antonello Brambilla
|-
|Fitness coach || Carlo Spignoli
|-
| rowspan=2| Club doctors || Abdou Sbihi
|-
| Jean-Baptiste Grisoli
|-
|Assistant Doctor || Mathias Giustiniani
|-
| rowspan=5| Physiotherapists || Maxime Matton
|-
| Youssef Rahou
|-
| Pierre Vespignani
|-
| Stéphane Ré
|-
| Yannick Dyduch
|-
|Nutritionist || Cécile Capdeville
|-
|Osteopath || Gilles Davin
### Management
{| class=wikitable
|-
!Position
!Staff
|-
|Owner || [McCourt](Frank)(Frank McCourt (executive))
|-
|Majority Shareholder || McCourt Global LLC
|-
|President || [Longoria](Pablo)(Pablo Longoria)
|-
|Sporting Director || Javier Ribalta
|-
|Technical Director || [Friio](David)(David Friio)
|-
|General Manager || Laurent Colette
|-
|Secretary-GeneralLegal Council || Alexandre Miahle
|-
|Chief Financial Officer || Stéphane Tessier
|-
|Director of Strategy || Pedro Iriondo
|-
|Director of Communications || Jacques Cardoze
|-
|Director of Academy || Marco Otero
## Honours
Marseille have won the French national championship nine times; with nine Ligue 1 titles they are behind only [Saint-Étienne](AS Saint-Étienne) and Paris Saint-Germain, who both have ten. However, the first championship won by Marseille was in 1929, before the professional era of French football. Marseille also have the second best record in the [de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France), with ten titles. Marseille have achieved two championship and cup "[Doubles](Double (association football))", in 1972 and 1989. They are the [French club](only)(Football in France) to win the UEFA Champions League, doing so in 1993.
### Domestic competitions
[[File:L'OM, vainqueur de la Coupe de la Ligue.jpg|thumb|Marseille players celebrate winning the [de la Ligue](Coupe)(Coupe de la Ligue) in [2010](2009–10 Coupe de la Ligue)]]
[[File:Olympique de Marseille 2011.jpeg|thumb|Marseille lifting the [des Champions](Trophée)(Trophée des Champions) in [2011](2011 Trophée des Champions)]]
* **[1](Ligue)(Ligue 1)**
****Winners (9)**: [1936–37](1936–37 French Division 1), [1947–48](1947–48 French Division 1), [1970–71](1970–71 French Division 1), [1971–72](1971–72 French Division 1), [1988–89](1988–89 French Division 1), [1989–90](1989–90 French Division 1), [1990–91](1990–91 French Division 1), [1991–92](1991–92 French Division 1), [2009–10](2009–10 Ligue 1)
***Runners-up* (13): [1937–38](1937–38 French Division 1), [1938–39](1938–39 French Division 1), [1969–70](1969–70 French Division 1), [1974–75](1974–75 French Division 1), [1986–87](1986–87 French Division 1), [1993–94](1993–94 French Division 1), [1998–99](1998–99 French Division 1), [2006–07](2006–07 Ligue 1), [2008–09](2008–09 Ligue 1), [2010–11](2006–07 Ligue 1), [2012–13](2012–13 Ligue 1), [2019–20](2019–20 Ligue 1), [2021–22](2021–22 Ligue 1)
* **[2](Ligue)(Ligue 2)**
** **Winners (1)**: [1994–95](1994–95 French Division 2)
** *Runners-up* (2): [1965–66](1965–66 French Division 2), [1995–96](1995–96 French Division 2)
* **[de France](Coupe)(Coupe de France)**
** **Winners (10)**: [1923–24](1924 Coupe de France Final), [1925–26](1926 Coupe de France Final), [1926–27](1927 Coupe de France Final), [1934–35](1935 Coupe de France Final), [1937–38](1938 Coupe de France Final), [1942–43](1943 Coupe de France Final), [1968–69](1968–69 Coupe de France), [1971–72](1971–72 Coupe de France), [1975–76](1975–76 Coupe de France), [1988–89](1988–89 Coupe de France)
** *Runners-up* (9): [1933–34](1934 Coupe de France Final), [1939–40](1940 Coupe de France Final), [1953–54](1954 Coupe de France Final), [1985–86](1985–86 Coupe de France), [1986–87](1986–87 Coupe de France), [1990–91](1990–91 Coupe de France), [2005–06](2005–06 Coupe de France), [2006–07](2006–07 Coupe de France), [2015–16](2015–16 Coupe de France)
* **[de la Ligue](Coupe)(Coupe de la Ligue)**
** **Winners (3)**: [2009–10](2009–10 Coupe de la Ligue), [2010–11](2010–11 Coupe de la Ligue), [2011–12](2011–12 Coupe de la Ligue)
***[des Champions](Trophée)(Trophée des Champions)**
** **Winners (3)**: 1971, [2010](2010 Trophée des Champions), [2011](2011 Trophée des Champions)
***Runners-up* (3): 1969, 1972, [2020](2020 Trophée des Champions)
***[Charles Drago](Coupe)(Coupe Charles Drago)**
** **Winners (1)**: [1957](List of French football champions)
### International competitions
* **[Cup / UEFA Champions League](European)(UEFA Champions League)**
** **Winners (1)**: [1992–93](1992–93 UEFA Champions League)
** *Runners-up* (1): [1990–91](1990–91 European Cup)
* **[Cup / UEFA Europa League](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League)**
** *Runners-up* (3): [1998–99](1998–99 UEFA Cup), [2003–04](2003–04 UEFA Cup), [2017–18](2017–18 UEFA Europa League)
* **[Intertoto Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Intertoto Cup)**
** **Winners (1)**: [2005](2005 UEFA Intertoto Cup)
### Ballon d'Or
The following players received the [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or) award whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:
* [Papin](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Papin) – 1991
Two other former [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or) winners were hired by Olympique de Marseille: [Weah](George)(George Weah) played for Marseille in 2000–01 after winning the [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or) in 1995 and [Beckenbauer](Franz)(Franz Beckenbauer) coached the team for six months in 1990.
### European Golden Shoe
The following players have won the [Golden Shoe](European)(European Golden Shoe) whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:
* [Skoblar](Josip)(Josip Skoblar) (44 goals) – 1971
### UNFP Player of the Year
The following players have won the [Player of the Year](UNFP)(Trophées UNFP du football#Player of the Year) whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:
* [Drogba](Didier)(Didier Drogba) – 2004
### UNFP Young Player of the Year
The following players have won the [Young Player of the Year](UNFP)(Trophées UNFP du football#Young Player of the Year) whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:
* [Ribéry](Franck)(Franck Ribéry) – 2006
* [Nasri](Samir)(Samir Nasri) – 2007
* [Saliba](William)(William Saliba) – 2022
## Footnotes
## References
; Citations
; Bibliography
*
*
## External links
* [Official site](http://www.om.net)
}}
[ ](Category:Olympique de Marseille)
[football clubs established in 1899](Category:Association)(Category:Association football clubs established in 1899)
[clubs](Category:G-14)(Category:G-14 clubs)
[clubs in Marseille](Category:Football)(Category:Football clubs in Marseille)
[establishments in France](Category:1899)(Category:1899 establishments in France)
[Champions League winning clubs](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Champions League winning clubs)
[M](Category:UEFA Intertoto Cup winning clubs)
[1 clubs](Category:Ligue)(Category:Ligue 1 clubs)
|
Josh Freese
|
josh_freese
|
# Josh Freese
*Revision ID: 1159551876 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T02:08:02Z*
---
| birth_name = Joshua Ryan Freese
| birth_place = [Florida](Orlando,)(Orlando, Florida), U.S.
| genre =
| occupation = Musician
| instrument = Drums
| module =
}}
| years_active = 1988–present
| current_member_of =
| past_member_of =
}}
**Joshua Ryan Freese** (born December 25, 1972) is an American drummer. He is the son of [tuba](tuba) soloist [Freese](Stan)(Stan Freese) and the older brother of musician [Freese](Jason)(Jason Freese).[freese family](https://ocweekly.com/the-family-business-stan-freese-and-sons-josh-and-jason-6417670/)
He has been a member of [Fighters](Foo)(Foo Fighters) (since 2023), [Vandals](the)(the Vandals) (since 1989), and [Devo](Devo) (since 1996), having formerly played drums for [N' Roses](Guns)(Guns N' Roses) from 1997 to 2000, [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle) from 1999 to 2012, and previously worked with [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails) (2005-2008), [Weezer](Weezer) (2009-2011), and [with Rome](Sublime)(Sublime with Rome) from (2011-2017). A noted [session](Session musician) drummer, he has appeared on over 400 records.[Josh Freese Discography](http://www.discogs.com/artist/Josh+Freese), Discogs.com. 2010. In the fall of 2016, he returned to performing with [Sting](Sting (musician)), with whom he previously toured and recorded in 2005. Freese performed with Foo Fighters for the [Hawkins](Taylor)(Taylor Hawkins) Tribute Concerts in 2022 and joined the band as Hawkins's replacement the following year.
## Early life
Josh Freese was born on December 25, 1972, in [Florida](Orlando,)(Orlando, Florida), U.S.A. His father, [Freese](Stan)(Stan Freese), conducted the Disney World (Florida) and Disneyland (California) band, and his mother was a classical pianist. Freese began playing the drums when he was 8 years old. Freese attended [Dorado High School](El)(El Dorado High School (Placentia, California)) in Placentia, California. He started playing professionally at the age of 12 (in a primarily Top 40 band at Disneyland). He played electronic drums in the teen-and-tween rock band named Polo, a Junior Star Search winner. Polo already had a drummer before joining the Magic Kingdom, band founder [Keegan](Jimmy)(Jimmy Keegan), but they found room on stage for the son of Disneyland's Director of Bands, Stan Freese. Other bands on the same stage were limited to performing Top 40 hits, but such constraints did not apply to Polo. The band recorded and released an eponymous EP that received some airplay on [KROQ](KROQ-FM).
The young Freese's familial connections and corresponding exposure led to an endorsement deal with the [Simmons](Simmons (electronic drum company)) electronic drum company. There is an old Simmons commercial (directed by Mitch Brisker), featuring Freese on the additional content section of [Vandals](the)(the Vandals)' *[at the House of Blues](Live)(Live at the House of Blues (The Vandals album))* DVD. At the age of 16, he left high school and started touring and making records, first with [Zappa](Dweezil)(Dweezil Zappa) and then with the Vandals. He has worked with many respected artists in the last 25 years, as a first call session drummer, band member and sometimes as a temporary replacement. Freese's younger brother, [Freese](Jason)(Jason Freese), plays keyboards in [Day](Green)(Green Day) and has also recorded and toured with [Goo Goo Dolls](the)(Goo Goo Dolls), [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre), [Jewel](Jewel (singer)), [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz), [Phair](Liz)(Liz Phair), [Hot Tubs](Foxboro)(Foxboro Hot Tubs), [Walsh](Joe)(Joe Walsh), and [Weezer](Weezer).
## Career
Freese started his drumming career in a Top 40 cover band called Polo at the [Terrace](Tomorrowland)(Tomorrowland Terrace) Stage at Disneyland from 1985 to 1988. Freese has since been a member of [rock](punk)(punk rock) band [Vandals](the)(the Vandals) since 1989, and has played on all the band's albums since then, with the exception of 2000's *[What I Almost Stepped In...](Look)(Look What I Almost Stepped In...)*, on which current [Sevenfold](Avenged)(Avenged Sevenfold) drummer [Wackerman](Brooks)(Brooks Wackerman) was deputised due to Freese's commitments with [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle). In 2004, the Vandals released a live DVD as part of [Fu Records](Kung)(Kung Fu Records)' *[Show Must Go Off!](The)(The Show Must Go Off!)* series. The DVD is of particular interest to Josh Freese fans thanks to the inclusion of the Josh Freese-cam, a camera focused on Freese for the entire duration of the show, also including a picture-in-picture of Freese's [drum](kick)(Bass drum) pedal.
[[Freese, Coachella 2022.jpg|thumb|Josh Freese, Coachella 2022](File:Josh)]
Freese played on the [Grooves](Infectious)(Infectious Grooves) album "[Ark](Sarsippius')(Sarsippius' Ark) and on the [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies) album *[Art of Rebellion](The)(The Art of Rebellion)* in 1992. He played on the Korean group [Taiji and Boys](Seo)(Seo Taiji and Boys)' 1994 and 1995 albums *[Taiji and Boys III](Seo)(Seo Taiji and Boys III)* and *[Taiji and Boys IV](Seo)(Seo Taiji and Boys IV)*. He was a member of [N' Roses](Guns)(Guns N' Roses) from 1997 to 1999, replacing [Sorum](Matt)(Matt Sorum) and signing a 2-year contract. He recorded the song "[My God](Oh)(Oh My God (Guns N' Roses song))" for the *[of Days](End)(End of Days (film))* soundtrack and co-wrote the song "[Democracy](Chinese)(Chinese Democracy (song))" with [Rose](Axl)(Axl Rose). Freese drummed on 30 tracks to potentially be included on [Democracy](Chinese)(Chinese Democracy), but his recordings were scrapped and re-recorded note-for-note by [Mantia](Bryan)(Bryan Mantia). He was credited with arrangements on four tracks on the final release of the album. He left the band in 2000 to launch [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle) with [James Keenan](Maynard)(Maynard James Keenan) and [Howerdel](Billy)(Billy Howerdel).
In 1996, Freese joined a reformed [Devo](Devo) for a show at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival), replacing [Kendrick](David)(David Kendrick). Freese has become their primary drummer in concert and in the studio since. Freese has said that he learned to play drums thanks to Devo's 1980 album *[of Choice](Freedom)(Freedom of Choice (album))*. Freese played drums on Devo's 2010 album *[for Everybody](Something)(Something for Everybody (Devo album))*, and provided backing vocals on Devo's non-album holiday song, "Merry Something to You".
In 1999, Freese drummed on Mike Ness' first solo album Cheating At Solitaire, but was replaced by Charlie Quintana when it came to live performances. In 2011, he drummed on Social Distortion's seventh studio album Hard Times And Nursery Rhymes. After the album's release, David Hidalgo Jr. became Social Distortion's current full-time drummer
In 2002 he played session drums on [Young and the Hopeless](The)(The Young and the Hopeless) by [Charlotte](Good)(Good Charlotte). Freese was the session drummer on the 2003 album *[Fallen](Fallen (Evanescence album))* by [Evanescence](Evanescence) and on the Acroma album released on Universal Records. He has drummed for [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle) since their first album, and is considered one of the core members. As of 2006, the band is on hiatus. Since then, founder [Howerdel](Billy)(Billy Howerdel) has started up a new band ([Divide](Ashes)(Ashes Divide)) with drums contributed by Freese. Freese took over from drummer [Welty](Ron)(Ron Welty) for the recording of [Offspring](the)(the Offspring)'s 2003 album *[Splinter](Splinter (The Offspring album))* after Welty's departure from the band. He is credited for playing drums on the album, but [Willard](Atom)(Atom Willard) later took on the position as the band's full-time drummer. In July 2007, it was announced [Willard](Atom)(Atom Willard) had left the band. He would be replaced by [Parada](Pete)(Pete Parada). In the meantime, Freese was called upon to record the new Offspring album, *[and Fall, Rage and Grace](Rise)(Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace)*. In January 2011, he mentioned on his website that he was working with the Offspring again on their next album *[Go By](Days)(Days Go By (The Offspring album))*. He also recorded drums for [Static-X](Static-X) on their 2003 album *[Zone](Shadow)(Shadow Zone)* after the departure of original drummer Ken Jay. Freese was also the session drummer on ["Head" Welch](Brian)(Brian "Head" Welch)'s debut solo album, *[Me From Myself (album)](Save)(Save Me From Myself (album))*.
[[File:SUBLIME with Rome, Red Carpet Rehab10 Las Vegas, Hard Rock Hotel (8670448061).jpg|thumb|Freese (center) alongside his [with Rome](Sublime)(Sublime with Rome) bandmates.]]
Freese participated in [Sting](Sting (musician))'s "Broken Music Tour" in April 2005 with guitarist [Miller](Dominic)(Dominic Miller) and guitarist [Fontayne](Shane)(Shane Fontayne). The tour kicked off April 1 in [Jose, California](San)(San Jose, California) and ended on May 14 in New York. Josh also appeared with Sting during the record breaking '[8](Live)(Live 8)' concert in London's Hyde Park on July 2, 2005. In fall of 2005 he recorded new material with Sting in Italy at the singer's [Tuscany](Tuscany) estate but plans for release have yet to be set.
Freese contributed drum tracks for [Lostprophets](Lostprophets)' third album, *[Transmission](Liberation)(Liberation Transmission)*, recording all his parts in two days. [Barker](Travis)(Travis Barker) was originally earmarked as the session drummer of choice for the album, but producer [Rock](Bob)(Bob Rock), who had worked with Freese before, wanted him instead. Freese has worked on and off with Paul Westerberg since 1992 and provided the drums on two [Replacements](The Replacements (band)) tracks, that appear on their greatest-hits package, "Don't You Know Who I Think I Was".
Freese toured with [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails) on their 2005–06 *[Teeth](With)(With Teeth)* winter arena and summer amphitheater tours after the illness of drummer [Dillon](Jerome)(Jerome Dillon). He contributed live drum tracks to the songs "Hyperpower!" and "[G](Capital)(Capital G)" on the Nine Inch Nails album *[zero](Year)(Year Zero (album))*, released in 2007. Freese continued touring with Nine Inch Nails throughout 2007 in support of *Year Zero*, mainly outside of the U.S. In 2008, he worked with [Reznor](Trent)(Trent Reznor) in the studio on *[Slip](The)(The Slip (album))* and signed on for more extensive North American and overseas touring with the band through 2008 on their "Lights in the Sky" 2008 tour. He left the tour at the end of 2008 in order to spend more time with his family and long-time girlfriend, who was pregnant with the couple's third child at the time.
Freese also completed drum tracks for the band [Light Burns](Black)(Black Light Burns), which consists of Wes Borland (Limp Bizkit, Big Dumb Face, From First to Last), Danny Lohner (Nine Inch Nails) and Josh Eustis (Telefon Tel Aviv). He also played on *Rebel Hiss* which is the first single from [Jubilee](Jubilee (band)) headed by ex-bandmate (and ex lead guitarist for Nine Inch Nails) [North](Aaron)(Aaron North) on guitar and vocals.
He has co-written songs with [of the Stone Age](Queens)(Queens of the Stone Age), the Vandals, [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle), [Dwarves](Dwarves (band)), [Moon](Goon)(Goon Moon), Devo and Sting.
He played on drums for a small selection of [Undead](Hollywood)(Hollywood Undead) songs on their debut album, *[Songs](Swan)(Swan Songs (Hollywood Undead album))*. He also played some shows in early 1998 with the band [311](311 (band)) as a fill-in drummer for them on the Warped tour in Australia, Japan and Hawaii. Chad Sexton, 311's drummer had broken a hand just before a show in Australia early in the tour. Freese was already on the tour playing with the Vandals every day and played with both bands for the majority of the tour. Freese filled in for an injured [Coleman, Jr.](Claude)(Claude Coleman, Jr.) on [Ween](Ween)'s 2003 album *[Quebec](Quebec (album)).* Freese performed the drums on [Daughtry](Daughtry (band))'s debut album by the same title, *[Daughtry](Daughtry (album))*.
Freese performed with [Weezer](Weezer) in their support of [Blink-182](Blink-182)'s 2009 tour, as Weezer drummer [Wilson](Patrick)(Patrick Wilson (drummer)) played guitar for 90% of Weezer's set. Freese continued to tour with Weezer in 2010 and 2011 as well as appearing live with [Sting](Sting (musician)), the Vandals and [Devo](Devo). Freese also played drums on Japanese Mega-star [Hamasaki](Ayumi)(Ayumi Hamasaki)'s 2009 album *[LEVEL](NEXT)(Next Level (Ayumi Hamasaki album))*, on the track "identity". Freese can also be heard on the [Weezer](Weezer) release *[Raditude](Raditude)* and on [Bublé](Michael)(Michael Bublé)'s tracks "[Love](Crazy)(Crazy Love (Van Morrison song))" and "[Met You Yet](Haven't)(Haven't Met You Yet)".
On August 3, 2010, Josh Freese posted via Facebook "I'm happy to report that A Perfect Circle is waking up from its 6-year slumber...and we're going to be 'doing stuff' soon." Freese toured in 2012 with [with Rome](Sublime)(Sublime with Rome) after [Gaugh](Bud)(Bud Gaugh) announced his departure from the band.
In 2011, Freese became the touring drummer for [Paramore](Paramore) on the South American leg of their [New Eyes World Tour](Brand)(Brand New Eyes World Tour) after the band announced the departure of the Farro brothers ([Zac](Zac Farro) and [Josh](Josh Farro)). On October 2, 2012, Freese announced via his Twitter page: "After 13 years, I've decided to leave [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle) with no plans of returning." He played drums with [Replacements](the)(The Replacements (band)) in August and September 2013 as the Replacements played their first gigs in 22 years (Riot Fest 2013). Freese continued playing in the Replacements in their 2014 and 2015 shows. He appears on the 2014 [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen) album *[Hopes](High)(High Hopes (album))*, playing drums on "This Is Your Sword". In August 2021, he joined [Offspring](The)(The Offspring) on their tour after the band fired their ex-drummer [Parada](Pete)(Pete Parada) from the group due to his [vaccination](COVID-19)(COVID-19 vaccine) status.
In 2022, he played drums with [gecs](100)(100 gecs) as well as [Elfman](Danny)(Danny Elfman) at the [Music & Arts Festival](Coachella)(Coachella (festival)) in [Indio](Indio, California), California.
He also appeared with [Fighters](Foo)(Foo Fighters) for the [Hawkins](Taylor)(Taylor Hawkins) Tribute Concerts held in London and Los Angeles in late 2022. On May 21, 2023, it was revealed during a live-streamed Foo Fighters concert entitled "Preparing Music For Concerts" that Freese had joined the band full-time as their drummer.
### Solo work
#### Early solo releases
In 1998, Freese recorded a number of songs that he wrote and performed himself (including bass, guitar, keyboards and vocals). The result is the lo-fi, 6-song [EP](Extended play) *Destroy Earth As Soon As Possible*, released under the name 'Princess' by T.O.N/Stone Lizard Records.
In 2000, the songs "Caffeine and Vaseline" and "Rock N' Roll Chicken" were revived for the 12-song album *The Notorious One Man Orgy*, this time released under Freese's own name by [Fu Records](Kung)(Kung Fu Records). Guest appearances include [Gossard](Stone)(Stone Gossard), [Fitzgerald](Warren)(Warren Fitzgerald), [Ward](Michael)(Michael Ward (musician)), [Workman](Lyle)(Lyle Workman), and Freese's brother Jason.
#### *Since 1972* (2009)
Josh released his second solo album, *[1972](Since)(Since 1972)*, via his website on March 24, 2009. *Since 1972* was distributed similarly to the value-added packages offered by [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails)'s recent releases. Freese's album was offered as a $7 digital download, and a $15 CD/DVD on his website. As a marketing stunt, the website offers unique incentive packages at prices up to $75,000. Publications covering the offer include [SuicideGirls](SuicideGirls), The UK's [Guardian](The)(The Guardian), [NPR](NPR), and [Herald](Boston)(Boston Herald).
Freese states on his purchase page for the album: ''"I'm not expecting to sell any of those ridiculously priced packages but I sure did get a lot of good press and attention to the fact that I'm putting out a record because of it! Mission accomplished."''
## Personal life
Freese lives in [California](Southern)(Southern California) with his wife and their four children.
## Equipment
In a 2007 *[Center](Guitar)(Guitar Center)* interview, Freese stated:
"My set up never gets that crazy or out of the ordinary I don't think. You can pretty much always count on starting off with the basic Ringo 4 piece set up and add from there. With the Vandals that's all I use. With Devo add a second rack tom. With NIN keep only 1 rack but have 2 floors and a 3rd floor off to the left of my hi-hat (with NIN the drums are all about 2 inches bigger than I normally would use... 14 rack. 24 kick, 18 and 20-inch floors... 16 off the side of my hihat). With A Perfect Circle 2 racks and 2 floors, 2nd snare off the left of my hihat... more cymbals with APC too. With Sting there are 3 racks but smaller sizes and only 1 floor. Never too many cymbals (except with APC I guess). In the studio my drums are usually something really basic a 4, 5, or 6 piece kit with lots of snare and cymbal choices."
## Discography
**Solo discography**
**Destroy Earth As Soon As Possible* (1998, as "Princess")
**The Notorious One Man Orgy* (2000)
**[1972](Since)(Since 1972)* (2009)
**[New Friends](My)(My New Friends)* (2011)
## References
## External links
* ["Interview with Josh Freese"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130609083338/http://idhitthatpodcast.podomatic.com/entry/2013-05-12T23_21_28-07_00) – ''I'd Hit That'' (podcast, 2013) – via [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive)
}}
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[American drummers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American drummers)
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[male drummers](Category:American)(Category:American male drummers)
[punk rock drummers](Category:American)(Category:American punk rock drummers)
[rock drummers](Category:American)(Category:American rock drummers)
[session musicians](Category:American)(Category:American session musicians)
[Light Burns members](Category:Black)(Category:Black Light Burns members)
[members](Category:Devo)(Category:Devo members)
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[N' Roses members](Category:Guns)(Category:Guns N' Roses members)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
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|
AIM-9 Sidewinder
|
aim-9_sidewinder
|
# AIM-9 Sidewinder
*Revision ID: 1158802521 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T09:40:46Z*
---
(Block II) (Block II Plus) (training missile)(All as in 2019)
| propellant =
| production_date = 1953-present
| service = 1956–present
| engine = Hercules/Bermite Mk. 36 [rocket](solid-fuel)(solid-fuel rocket)
| weight =
| length =
| height =
| diameter =
| wingspan =
| speed = [Mach](Mach number) 2.5+
| vehicle_range =
| ceiling =
| altitude =
| filling = WDU-17/B [blast-fragmentation](annular)(continuous-rod warhead)
| filling_weight =
| guidance = [homing](Infrared)(Infrared homing) (most models)[radar homing](Semi-active)(Semi-active radar homing) (AIM-9C)
| detonation = IR [fuze](proximity)(proximity fuze)
| launch_platform = Aircraft, naval vessels, fixed launchers, and ground vehicles
}}
The **AIM-9 Sidewinder** (where "AIM" stands for "Air Intercept Missile") is a short-range [missile](air-to-air)(air-to-air missile) which entered service with the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) in 1956, and subsequently was adopted by the [Air Force](US)(US Air Force) in 1964. Since then, the Sidewinder has proved to be an enduring international success, and its latest variants remain standard equipment in most [Western-aligned](Western world) air forces. The [Soviet](Soviet Union) [K-13](K-13 (missile)) (AA-2 'Atoll'), a [reverse-engineered](Reverse engineering#Reverse engineering for military applications) copy of the AIM-9B, was also widely adopted by a number of nations.
Low-level development started in the late 1940s, emerging in the early 1950s as a guidance system for the modular [rocket](Zuni)(Zuni rocket). This modularity allowed for the introduction of newer seekers and rocket motors, including the AIM-9C variant, which used [radar homing](semi-active)(semi-active radar homing) and served as the basis of the [Sidearm](AGM-122)(AGM-122 Sidearm) [missile](anti-radar)(anti-radar missile). Originally a tail-chasing system, early models saw extensive use during the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) but had a low success rate. This led to all-aspect capabilities in the L version which proved to be an extremely effective weapon during combat in the [War](Falklands)(Falklands War) and the [Mole Cricket 19](Operation)(Operation Mole Cricket 19) ("Bekaa Valley Turkey Shoot") in Lebanon. Its adaptability has kept it in service over newer designs like the [Agile](AIM-95)(AIM-95 Agile) and [SRAAM](SRAAM) that were intended to replace it.
The Sidewinder is the most widely used air-to-air missile in the West, with more than 110,000 missiles produced for the U.S. and 27 other nations, of which perhaps one percent have been used in combat. It has been built under license by some other nations including [Sweden](Sweden), and can even equip helicopters, such as the [AH-1Z Viper](Bell)(Bell AH-1Z Viper). The AIM-9 is one of the oldest, lowest cost, and most successful air-to-air missiles, with an estimated 270 aircraft kills in its history of use.
The United States Navy hosted a 50th-anniversary celebration for the Sidewinder in 2002. [Boeing](Boeing) won a contract in March 2010 to support Sidewinder operations through to 2055, guaranteeing that the weapons system will remain in operation until at least that date. Air Force Spokeswoman Stephanie Powell noted that due to its relatively low cost, versatility, and reliability it is "very possible that the Sidewinder will remain in Air Force inventories through the late 21st century".
## Design
[[missile (blue) intercepts a target (red) by maintaining constant bearing to it (green)](File:proportional_navigation_example.svg|thumb|upright=0.5|A)]
The Sidewinder is not guided by the actual position recorded by the detector, but by the *change* in position since the last sighting. So if the target remained at 5 degrees left between two rotations of the mirror, the electronics would not output any signal to the control system. Consider a missile fired at right angles to its target; if the missile is flying at the same speed as the target, it should "lead" it by 45 degrees, flying to an impact point far in front of where the target was when it was fired. If the missile is traveling four times the speed of the target, it should follow an angle about 11 degrees in front. In either case, the missile should keep that angle all the way to interception, which means that the angle that the target makes against the detector is constant. It was this constant angle that the Sidewinder attempted to maintain. This "[pursuit](proportional)(proportional navigation)" system is straightforward to implement and offers high-performance lead calculation almost for free and can respond to changes in the target's flight path,Echo-locating bats, as they pursue flying insects, also adopt such a strategy, see this [Biology](PLoS)(PLoS Biology) report: which is much more efficient and makes the missile "lead" the target.
## History
### Origins
[[File:Heat-Homing Rocket on AD Skyraider c1952.JPG|thumb|left|Prototype Sidewinder-1 missile on an [Skyraider](AD-4)(A-1 Skyraider) during flight testing]]
During [War II](World)(World War II), various researchers in Germany designed infrared guidance systems of various complexity. The most mature development of these, codenamed *Hamburg*, was intended for use by the [& Voss BV 143](Blohm)(Blohm & Voss BV 143) [bomb](glide)(glide bomb) in an anti-ship role. *Hamburg* used a single IR [photocell](photocell) as its detector along with a spinning disk with lines painted on it, alternately known as a "reticle" or "chopper". The reticle spun at a fixed speed, causing the output of the photocell to be interrupted in a pattern, and the precise timing of the resulting signal indicated the bearing of the target. Although *Hamburg* and similar devices like *Madrid* were essentially complete, the work of mating them to a missile had not been carried out by the time the war ended.
In the immediate post-war era, Allied [intelligence](military)(military intelligence) teams collected this information, along with many of the engineers working on these projects. Several lengthy reports on the various systems were produced and disseminated among the western aircraft firms, while a number of the engineers joined these companies to work on various missile projects. By the late 1940s a wide variety of missile projects were underway, from huge systems like the [Bomi](Bell)(Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar) rocket-powered bomber to small systems like air-to-air missiles. By the early 1950s, both the US Air Force and [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force) had started major IR seeker missile projects.
[[File:F104-AIM9.gif|thumb|alt=Video vignette of an F-104 destroying a QF-80 target drone with an AIM-9 Sidewinder missile|A [Starfighter](F-104)(F-104 Starfighter) test-firing an AIM-9 Sidewinder against a [QF-80](Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star) target drone at [Lake](China)(Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake)]]
The development of the Sidewinder missile began in 1946 at the Naval Ordnance Test Station (NOTS), Inyokern, California, now the [Air Weapons Station China Lake](Naval)(Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake), as an in-house research project conceived by [B. McLean](William)(William B. McLean). McLean initially called his effort "Local Fuze Project 602" using laboratory funding, volunteer help and fuze funding to develop what they called a heat-homing rocket. The name *Sidewinder* was selected in 1950 and is the common name of *[cerastes](Crotalus)(Crotalus cerastes)*, a [rattlesnake](rattlesnake), which uses infrared sensory organs to hunt warm-blooded prey.
It did not receive official funding until 1951 when the effort was mature enough to show to Admiral ["Deak" Parsons](William)(William S. Parsons), the Deputy Chief of the [of Ordnance](Bureau)(Bureau of Ordnance) (BuOrd). It subsequently received designation as a program in 1952. Originally called the **Sidewinder 1**, the first live firing was on 3 September 1952. The missile intercepted a drone for the first time on 11 September 1953. The missile carried out 51 guided flights in 1954, and in 1955 production was authorized.
In 1954, the US Air Force carried out trials with the original **AIM-9A** and the improved **AIM-9B** at the Holloman Air Development Center. The first operational use of the missile was by [F9F-8 Cougar](Grumman)(Grumman F9F-8 Cougar)s and [Furies](FJ-3)(North American FJ-2/-3 Fury) of the United States Navy in the middle of 1956.
### First Generation Rear-Aspect Variants
Nearly 100,000 of the first generation (AIM-9B/C/D/E) of the Sidewinder were produced with Raytheon and General Electric as major sub-contractors. [Philco-Ford](Philco-Ford) produced the guidance and control sections of the early missiles. The NATO version of the first generation missile was built under license in Germany by [Gerätetechnik](Bodenseewerk)(Diehl BGT Defence); 9,200 examples were built.
#### Combat debut: Taiwan Strait, 1958
The first combat use of the Sidewinder was on 24 September 1958, with the [of China (Taiwan) Air Force](Republic)(Republic of China Air Force), during the [Taiwan Strait Crisis](Second)(Second Taiwan Strait Crisis). During that period of time, [ROCAF](Republic of China Air Force) [American F-86 Sabre](North)(North American F-86 Sabre)s were routinely engaged in air battles with the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China) over the [Strait](Taiwan)(Taiwan Strait). The PRC [MiG-17s](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17) had higher altitude ceiling performance and in similar fashion to Korean War encounters between the F-86 and earlier MiG-15, the PRC formations cruised above the ROC Sabres, immune to their .50 cal weaponry and only choosing battle when conditions favored them.
In a highly secret effort, the United States provided a few dozen Sidewinders to ROC forces and an Aviation Ordnance Team from the U.S. Marine Corps to modify their aircraft to carry the Sidewinder. In the first encounter on 24 September 1958, the Sidewinders were used to ambush the MiG-17s as they flew past the Sabres thinking they were invulnerable to attack. The MiGs broke formation and descended to the altitude of the Sabres in swirling dogfights. This action marked the first successful use of air-to-air missiles in combat, the downed MiGs being their first casualties.
During the Taiwan Strait battles of 1958, a [ROCAF](Republic of China Air Force) AIM-9B hit a [PLAAF](PLAAF) [MiG-17](MiG-17) without exploding; the missile lodged in the airframe of the MiG and allowed the pilot to bring both plane and missile back to base. Soviet engineers later said that the captured Sidewinder served as a "university course" in missile design and substantially improved Soviet air-to-air capabilities. They were able to [reverse-engineer](reverse-engineer) a copy of the Sidewinder, which was manufactured as the **[K-13](Vympel)(Vympel K-13)/R-3S** missile, [reporting name](NATO)(NATO reporting name) **AA-2 Atoll**.
The Vympel K-13 entered service with Soviet air forces in 1960.
#### Vietnam War service 1965–1973
Performance of the 454 Sidewinders launchedMichel III p. 287 during the war was not as satisfactory as hoped. Both the USN and USAF studied the performance of their aircrews, aircraft, weapons, training, and supporting infrastructure. The USAF conducted the classified [Red Baron Report](https://archive.org/details/DTICWSEGReport116Volume1RedBaronAirtoAirEncountersSoutheastAsia28October1987/page/n3) while the Navy conducted a study concentrating primarily on performance of air-to-air weapons that was informally known as the "[Report](Ault)(Ault Report)". The impact of both studies resulted in modifications to the Sidewinder by both services to improve its performance and reliability in the demanding air-to-air arena.
[[File:F-4B VF-111 CVA-43.jpg|thumb|AIM-9D-armed F-4B of [VF-111](VF-111 (1956-1995)) on ]]
#### Vietnam War AIM-9 claimed aerial combat kills
In total 452 Sidewinders were fired during the Vietnam War, resulting in a [probability](kill)(kill probability) of 0.18.
Note: the speed of the B model was around 1.7 Mach and the other models above 2.5.
### Later Generation All-aspect variants
### AIM-9L
[[File:AIM-9L DF-ST-82-10199.jpg|thumb|AIM-9L Captive air training missile with part/section in blue color, denoting [inert](inert munitions) [warhead](warhead) and [motor](rocket)(rocket motor), for training purposes.]]
The next major advance in IR Sidewinder development was the **AIM-9L** (**"Lima"**) model which was in full production in 1977.Bonds 1989, p. 229. This was the first "[all-aspect](all-aspect)" Sidewinder with the ability to attack from all directions, including head-on, which had a dramatic effect on close-in combat tactics. Its first combat use was by a pair of US Navy [F-14s](F-14 Tomcat) in the [of Sidra in 1981](Gulf)(Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)) versus two Libyan [Su-22s](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-17), both of the latter being destroyed by AIM-9Ls. Its first use in a large-scale conflict was by the United Kingdom during the 1982 [War](Falklands)(Falklands War). In this campaign the "Lima" reportedly achieved kills from 80% of launches, a dramatic improvement over the 10–15% levels of earlier versions, scoring 17 kills and 2 shared kills against Argentine aircraft.
### AIM-9M
The **AIM-9M** is an improved AIM-9L having better background rejection and infrared countermeasures discrimination, and a low-smoke motor to reduce the visual signature of the weapon. Deployed in large numbers during the 1991 [War](Gulf)(Gulf War), the AIM-9M was responsible for all 10 Sidewinder kills recorded during that conflict.
### BOA/Box Office
[Lake](China)(Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake) developed an improved compressed carriage control configuration titled BOA. "Compressed carriage" missiles have smaller control surfaces to allow more missiles to fit in a given space.http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADP010957 The surfaces may be permanently "clipped", or may fold out when the missile is launched.
### AIM-9X
[[Navy 041102-N-5345W-096 Aviation Ordnanceman Airman Christopher Walker prepares to pull the arming pin on an AIM-9X Sidewinder air-to-air missile.jpg|thumb|A sailor removing the arming pin from an AIM-9X mounted on the wingtip of a US Navy F/A-18C Hornet in 2004](File:US)]
[Electronics](Hughes)(Hughes Aircraft Company) was awarded a contract for development of the **AIM-9X** Sidewinder in 1996 after a competition against [Raytheon](Raytheon Missiles & Defense) for the next short-range aerial combat missile, though Raytheon purchased the defense portions of Hughes Electronics the following year. The AIM-9X entered service in November 2003 with the USAF (the lead platform was the [F-15C](McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle)) and the USN (the lead platform was the F/A-18C) and is a substantial upgrade to the Sidewinder family featuring an [infrared](imaging)(Infrared homing#Imaging systems) focal-plane array (FPA) seeker with claimed 90° off-boresight capability, compatibility with [display](helmet-mounted)(helmet-mounted display)s such as the new U.S. [Helmet Mounted Cueing System](Joint)(Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System) (JHMCS), and a totally new two-axis thrust-vectoring control (TVC) system providing increased turn capability over traditional control surfaces (60Gs). Utilizing the JHMCS, a pilot can point the AIM-9X missile's seeker and "lock on" by simply looking at a target, thereby increasing air combat effectiveness. It retains the same rocket motor, fuze and warhead of the AIM-9M, but its lower drag gives it improved range and speed.Sweetman, Bill, Warming trend, Aviation Week and Space Technology, July 8, 2013, p.26 The AIM-9X also includes an internal cooling system, eliminating the need for use of launch-rail nitrogen bottles (U.S. Navy and Marines) or internal argon bottles (USAF). It also features an electronic safe and arm device similar to the AMRAAM, allowing for a reduction in minimum range, and reprogrammable infrared [Counter Measures](Counter)(Counter Counter Measures) (IRCCM) capability that coupled with the FPA provides improved look down into clutter and performance against the latest [IRCM](IRCM). Though not part of the original requirement, the AIM-9X demonstrated potential for [after launch](lock-on)(lock-on after launch) capability, allowing for possible internal use for the [F-35](F-35 Lightning II), F-22 Raptor and even in a submarine-launched configuration for use against ASW platforms. The AIM-9X has been tested for a surface attack capability, with mixed results.["Raytheon AIM-9X Block II Air/Air Missile."](http://defense-update.com/20110920_raytheon-aim-9x-block-ii-airair-missile.html) *Defense Update*, 20 September 2011.
#### Block II
Testing work on the AIM-9X Block II version began in September 2008. The Block II adds lock-on after launch capability with a datalink, so the missile can be launched first and then directed to its target afterwards by an aircraft with the proper equipment for 360-degree engagements, such as the F-35 or the F-22. By January 2013, the AIM-9X Block II was about halfway through its operational testing and performing better than expected. [NAVAIR](NAVAIR) reported that the missile was exceeding performance requirements in all areas, including lock-on after launch (LOAL). One area where the Block II needs improvement is helmetless high off-boresight (HHOBS) performance. It is functioning well on the missile, but performance is below that of the Block I AIM-9X. The HHOBS deficiency does not impact any other Block II capabilities, and is planned to be improved upon by a software clean-up build. Objectives of the operational test were due to be completed by the third quarter of 2013.[AIM-9X Block II performing better than expected](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/aim-9x-block-ii-performing-better-than-expected-381569/) – Flightglobal.com, January 28, 2013 However, as of May 2014 there have been plans to resume operational testing and evaluation (including surface-to-air missile system compatibility). , Raytheon had delivered 5,000 AIM-9X missiles to the armed services.[Raytheon Delivers 5,000th AIM-9X Sidewinder Air-to-Air Missile](http://www.deagel.com/news/US-Navy-Delivers-5000th-AIM-9X-Sidewinder-Air-to-Air-Missile_n000011563.aspx) – Deagel.com, 15 June 2013 On 18 June 2017, after an AIM-9X did not successfully track a targeted [Air Force](Syrian)(Syrian Air Force) [Fitter](Su-22)(Su-22 Fitter), US Navy Lt. Cmdr. Michael "Mob" Tremel flying a F/A-18E Super Hornet used an [AMRAAM](AMRAAM) AAM to successfully destroy the enemy aircraft. There is a theory that the Sidewinder is tested against American and not Soviet/Russian flares. The Sidewinder is used to rejecting American but not Soviet/Russian flares. Similar issues arose from the testing of the AIM-9P model. The missile would ignore American flares but go for Soviet ones due to these flares have "different burn time, intensity and separation."
In February 2015, the U.S. Army successfully launched an AIM-9X Block II from the new [Launcher](Multi-Mission)(Multi-Mission Launcher) (MML), a truck-mounted missile launch container that can hold 15 of the missiles. The MML is part of the Indirect Fire Protection Capability Increment 2-Intercept (IFPC Inc. 2-I) to protect ground forces against [missile](cruise)(cruise missile) and [aerial vehicle](unmanned)(unmanned aerial vehicle) threats. The AIM-9X Block II has been determined by the Army to be the best solution to cruise missile and UAV threats because of its passive imaging infrared seeker. The MML will complement the [Avenger](AN/TWQ-1)(AN/TWQ-1 Avenger) air defense system and is expected to begin fielding in 2019.[New Launcher to Deploy C-RAM, C-UAV and Counter Cruise-Missile Defenses by 2019](http://defense-update.com/20150328_mml.html#.VZ7OLMIw8dU) – Defense-Update.com, 28 March 2015
#### Block III
In September 2012, Raytheon was ordered to continue developing the Sidewinder into a Block III variant, even though the Block II had not yet entered service. The USN projected that the new missile would have a 60 percent longer range, modern components to replace old ones, and an [munition](insensitive)(insensitive munition)s warhead, which is more stable and less likely to detonate by accident, making it safer for ground crews. The need for the AIM-9 to have an increased range was caused by [radio frequency memory](digital)(digital radio frequency memory) (DRFM) [jammers](Radar jamming and deception) that can blind the onboard radar of an [AMRAAM](AIM-120D)(AIM-120 AMRAAM), so the Sidewinder Block III's passive imaging [homing](infrared)(infrared homing) guidance system was seen as a useful alternative. Although it could supplement the AMRAAM for beyond visual range (BVR) engagements, it would still be capable of performing within visual range (WVR). Modifying the AIM-9X was seen as a cost-effective alternative to developing a new missile in a time of declining budgets. To achieve the range increase, the rocket motor would have a combination of increased performance and missile power management. The Block III would "leverage" the Block II's guidance unit and electronics, including the AMRAAM-derived datalink. The Block III was scheduled to achieve initial operational capability (IOC) in 2022, following the increased number of [Lightning II](F-35)(F-35 Lightning II) Joint Strike Fighters to enter service.["US Navy hopes to increase AIM-9X range by 60%."](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/us-navy-hopes-to-increase-aim-9x-range-by-60-388468/) – Flightglobal.com, 18 July 2013[New Sidewinder Tweaks](http://strategypage.com/htmw/htairw/articles/20120905.aspx) – Strategypage.com, September 5, 2012 The Navy pressed for this upgrade in response to a projected threat which analysts have speculated will be due to the difficulty of targeting upcoming Chinese [jet fighter](fifth-generation)(fifth-generation jet fighter)s ([J-20](Chengdu)(Chengdu J-20), [J-31](Shenyang)(Shenyang J-31)) with the radar-guided AMRAAM, specifically that Chinese advances in electronics will mean Chinese fighters will use their [AESA](active electronically scanned array) radars as jammers to degrade the AIM-120's kill probability.Sweetman, Bill, Warming Trend, Aviation Week and Space Technology, July 8, 2013, p.26 However, the Navy's FY 2016 budget canceled the AIM-9X Block III as they cut down buys of the F-35C, as it was primarily intended to permit the fighter to carry six BVR missiles; the insensitive munition warhead will be retained for the AIM-9X program.[F-35Cs Cut Back As U.S. Navy Invests In Standoff Weapons](http://aviationweek.com/defense/f-35cs-cut-back-us-navy-invests-standoff-weapons) – Aviationweek.com, 3 February 2015
### 2023 North American balloon & unidentified object shootdowns
On 4 February 2023, an [Raptor](F-22)(F-22 Raptor) operated by the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) used a single AIM-9X missile to shoot down a suspected [spy balloon](Chinese)(2023 Chinese balloon incident) off the coast of [Beach, South Carolina](Surfside)(Surfside Beach, South Carolina) at an altitude between . Six days later, [object](another)(2023 Alaska high-altitude object) was shot down near Alaska. On 11 and 12 February two more objects were shot down, over [Canada](Yukon,)(2023 Yukon high-altitude object) and [Huron in Michigan](Lake)(2023 Lake Huron high-altitude object) respectively.
## Sidewinder descendants
### Anti-tank variant
[[File:AIM-9L hits tank at China Lake 1971.jpg|thumb|Experimental use of an AIM-9L against tanks at [Lake](China)(Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake), 1971]]
Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake experimented with Sidewinders in the air-to-ground mode including use as an anti-tank weapon.
Starting from 2008, the AIM-9X demonstrated its ability as a successful light air-to-ground missile.
In 2016 [Diehl](Diehl Defence) closed a deal with the [Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support](Federal)(Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support) to develop a laser guided Air-To-Ground variant of the Sidewinder missile based on the AIM-9L variant. In testing with the Swedish [Materiel Administration](Defence)(Defence Materiel Administration) a [Gripen](Saab)(Saab JAS 39 Gripen) could hit one stationary and two moving targets.
On 28 February 2018, the Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps unveiled an anti-tank derivative of the Sidewinder missile named "Azarakhsh" intended for use by [AH-1J SeaCobra](Bell)(Bell AH-1J SeaCobra) attack helicopters.
## Later developments
### Larger rocket motor
Under the High Altitude Project, engineers at China Lake mated a Sidewinder warhead and seeker to a Sparrow rocket motor to experiment with usefulness of a larger motor.
### Other ground launch platforms
In 2016 the AIM-9X was test fired from a [Launcher](Multi-Mission)(Multi-Mission Launcher) at the White Sands Missile Range in [Mexico](New)(New Mexico), USA. During testing with the MML, the AIM-9X experienced issues with overheating. These issues have since been resolved. In September 2021, the U.S. Army signed a contract with [Dynetics](Dynetics) to build prototypes for its Indirect Fires Protection Capability (IFPC), utilizing an MML-based launcher firing the Sidewinder to counter UAVs and cruise missiles. It is planned to be put into service in 2023.[US Army mints deal with Dynetics to build system to counter drones and cruise missiles](https://www.defensenews.com/land/2021/09/24/us-army-mints-deal-with-dynetics-to-build-system-to-counter-drones-and-cruise-missiles/). *[News](Defense)(Defense News)*. 24 September 2021.
In May 2019 the AIM-9X Block II was test fired from the National Advanced Surface to Air Missile System ([NASAMS](NASAMS)) at the [Space Center](Andøya)(Andøya Space Center) in Norway.
## Operators
### Current operators
* AIM-9L/M
* IHS Jane's 360|url=http://www.janes.com/article/61977/norway-and-taiwan-join-aim-9x-block-ii-user-community|website=IHS Jane's 360|location=London|access-date=2016-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705135300/http://www.janes.com/article/61977/norway-and-taiwan-join-aim-9x-block-ii-user-community|archive-date=2016-07-05|url-status=live}}
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* :43 missiles donated by Canada from the stocks of the [Armed Forces](Canadian)(Canadian Armed Forces). The variant was not stated nor if they were to be used by Ukrainian Air Force's fighters or the ground defences like the [NASAMS](NASAMS).
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*Please note that this list is not definitive.*
## See also
### Comparable missiles
* [ASRAAM](ASRAAM)
* [A-Darter](A-Darter)
* [IRIS-T](IRIS-T)
* [Piranha](MAA-1)(MAA-1 Piranha)
* [MICA](MICA (missile))
* [Magic](R.550)(R.550 Magic)
* [Top](Red)(Red Top (missile))
* [Firestreak](De Havilland Firestreak)
* [PL-9](PL-9)
* [5](Python)(Python (missile))
*[R-60](R-60 (missile))
* [R-73](R-73 (missile))
* [Shafrir](Python (missile))
* [Fatter](Fatter)
* [AAM-1](AAM-1 (Japanese missile))/[3](AAM-3)/[5](AAM-5 (Japanese missile))
## References
### Notes
### Citations
### Bibliography
* Babcock, Elizabeth (1999). *Sidewinder – Invention and Early Years.* The China Lake Museum Foundation. 26 pp. A concise record of the development of the original Sidewinder version and the central people involved in its design.
* Bonds, Ray ed. *The Modern US War Machine*. New York City: Crown Publishers, 1989. .
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* McCarthy, Donald J. Jr. *MiG Killers, A Chronology of U.S. Air Victories in Vietnam 1965–1973*. 2009, Specialty Press, North Branch, MN, U.S.A.
* Michel III, Marshall L. *Clashes, Air Combat Over North Vietnam 1965–1972.* 1997. .
* Westrum, Ron (1999). "*Sidewinder—Creative missile development at China Lake."* Naval Institute Press.
## External links
*
* [Defense Industry Daily – AIM-9X Block II: The New Sidewinder Missile](https://web.archive.org/web/20140707004130/https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/aim-9x-block-ii-the-new-sidewinder-missile-011572/)
* [Encyclopædia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9059799/photoconductivity)
* [Raytheon AAM-N-7/GAR-8/AIM-9 Sidewinder – Designation Systems](http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-9.html)
* [The Sidewinder Story](http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Sidewinder-94.html)
* [Sidewinder](http://people.howstuffworks.com/sidewinder.htm) at Howstuffworks.com
* [NAMMO Raufoss – Nordic Ammunition Company](http://www.nammo.com/)
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* ["Fox Two!"](http://www.donhollway.com/foxtwo/index.html) from *Aviation History* magazine, March 2013. Includes photos & video
* [Italy signs up for Aim-9x](https://www.key.aero/article/italy-signs-aim-9x-air-air-missile)
[War air-to-air missiles of the United States](Category:Cold)(Category:Cold War air-to-air missiles of the United States)
[Company products](Category:Raytheon)(Category:Raytheon Company products)
[equipment introduced in the 1950s](Category:Military)(Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1950s)
[technology](Category:Infrared)(Category:Infrared technology)
[weapons](Category:Fire-and-forget)(Category:Fire-and-forget weapons)
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Dr. Strangelove
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dr._strangelove
|
# Dr. Strangelove
*Revision ID: 1159952620 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T15:39:47Z*
---
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Johnson](Laurie)(Laurie Johnson)
| cinematography = [Taylor](Gilbert)(Gilbert Taylor)
| editing = [Harvey](Anthony)(Anthony Harvey)
| studio = [Films](Hawk)(Hawk Films)
| distributor = [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 94 minutes
| country =
* United States
}}
| language = English
| budget = $1.8 million
| gross = $9.2 million
}}
***Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb***, known simply and more commonly as ***Dr. Strangelove***, is a 1964 [satirical](Satire) [political](political film) [war](war film) [comedy film](black)(black comedy film) directed, co-written, and produced by [Kubrick](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick) and starring [Sellers](Peter)(Peter Sellers) in three roles, including the title character. The film also stars [C. Scott](George)(George C. Scott) with [Hayden](Sterling)(Sterling Hayden), [Wynn](Keenan)(Keenan Wynn), [Pickens](Slim)(Slim Pickens), and [Reed](Tracy)(Tracy Reed (English actress)). The film, which satirizes the [War](Cold)(Cold War) fears of a nuclear conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States, is loosely based on the [thriller](Thriller (genre)) novel *[Alert](Red)(Red Alert (novel))* (1958) by [George](Peter)(Peter George (author)), who also co-wrote the screenplay with Kubrick and [Southern](Terry)(Terry Southern).
The story concerns an unhinged United States Air Force general who orders a pre-emptive nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. It separately follows the President of the United States, his advisors, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and a Royal Air Force exchange officer as they attempt to prevent the crew of a B-52 (who were following orders from the general) from bombing the Soviet Union and starting a nuclear war.
The film is often considered one of the best comedies ever made, as well as [of the greatest films of all time](one)(List of films considered the best). In 1998, the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) ranked it twenty-sixth in [list of the best American movies](its)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies) (in the 2007 edition, the film ranked thirty-ninth), and in 2000, it was listed as number three on [list of the funniest American films](its)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs). In 1989, the United States [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) included *Dr. Strangelove* as one of the first 25 films selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
## Plot
[States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) [General](Brigadier)(Brigadier general (United States)) Jack D. Ripper is commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, which houses the 843rd Bomb Wing, flying [bomber](B-52)(Boeing B-52 Stratofortress)s armed with [bomb](hydrogen)(hydrogen bomb)s. The planes are on airborne alert two hours from their targets inside the [USSR](USSR).
General Ripper orders his [officer](executive)(Executive officer#Military), [Captain](Group)(Group Captain) Lionel Mandrake (an [officer](exchange)(exchange officer) from the [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force)), to put the base on alert, confiscate all privately owned radios from base personnel and issue "Wing Attack Plan R" to the patrolling bombers. All the aircraft commence attack flights on the USSR and set their radios to allow communications only through their [114 discriminator](CRM)(CRM 114 (fictional device))s, which are designed to accept only communications preceded by a secret three-letter code known only to General Ripper. Happening upon a radio that had been missed earlier and hearing normal civilian broadcasting, Mandrake realizes that no attack order has been issued by [Pentagon](the)(the Pentagon) and tries to stop Ripper, who locks them both in his office. Ripper tells Mandrake that he believes the [have been fluoridating](Soviets)(Water fluoridation controversy#Communist conspiracy theory (1940s–1960s)) American water supplies to pollute the "precious bodily fluids" of Americans. Mandrake realizes Ripper has become insane.
[[Strangelove (1964) - Trailer.webm|thumb|The film's trailer](File:Dr.)]
In the [Room](War)(Joint War Room) at the Pentagon, General Buck Turgidson briefs President Merkin Muffley and other officers about how "Plan R" enables a senior officer to launch a retaliatory nuclear attack on the Soviets if [superiors have been killed in a first strike](all)(decapitation (military strategy)) on the United States. Trying every CRM code combination to issue a recall order would require two days, so Muffley orders the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army) to storm the base and arrest General Ripper. Turgidson, noting the slim odds of recalling the planes in time, then proposes that Muffley not only let the attack proceed but send reinforcements. According to an unofficial study, this would result in "modest and acceptable civilian casualties" from the "badly damaged and uncoordinated" Soviet military remaining after the initial attack. Muffley rejects Turgidson's recommendation and instead brings Soviet ambassador Alexei de Sadeski into the War Room to telephone [Premier](Soviet)(Soviet Premier) Dimitri Kissov on the "[hotline](Moscow–Washington hotline)". Muffley warns the Premier of the impending attack and offers to reveal the targets, flight plans and defensive systems of the [bomber](bomber)s so that the Soviets can protect themselves.
After a heated discussion with the Premier, the ambassador informs President Muffley that the Soviet Union created a [machine](doomsday)(Doomsday device) as a [deterrent](nuclear)(nuclear deterrent); it consists of many buried [jacketed with "cobalt–thorium G"](bombs)(cobalt bomb), which are set to detonate automatically should any nuclear attack strike the country. The resulting [fallout](nuclear)(nuclear fallout) would then engulf the planet for 93 years, rendering the Earth's surface uninhabitable. The device cannot be deactivated, as it is programmed to explode if any such attempt is made. The President's wheelchair-using scientific advisor, German former [Nazi](Nazi Germany) Dr. Strangelove, points out that such a doomsday machine would only be an effective deterrent if everyone knew about it; de Sadeski replies that the Soviet Premier had planned to reveal its existence to the world the following week at the Party Congress.
U.S. Army troops arrive at Burpelson and battle with the garrison. After General Ripper commits suicide, Mandrake identifies Ripper's CRM code from doodles on his desk blotter and relays it to the Pentagon. Using the code, [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command) successfully recalls all of the bombers except for one, commanded by Major T. J. "King" Kong, due to the radio equipment being damaged by a Soviet [SAM](surface-to-air missile). The Soviets hunt the bomber, but Kong flies below radar and switches targets due to dwindling fuel. As the plane approaches the new target, a Soviet [ICBM](Intercontinental ballistic missile) site, the crew is unable to open the damaged [bay](bomb)(bomb bay) doors. Kong enters the bay and repairs the electrical wiring while straddling an [H-bomb](H-bomb), whereupon the doors open and the bomb is dropped. Kong joyously hoots and waves his cowboy hat as he rides the falling bomb to his death.
Back in the War Room, Dr. Strangelove recommends that the President gather several hundred thousand people to live in deep underground mines where the radiation will not penetrate. He suggests a 10:1 female-to-male ratio for a breeding program to repopulate the Earth once the radiation has subsided, a plan which gathers enthusiastic support from everyone. Worried that the Soviets will do the same, Turgidson warns about a "[gap](mineshaft)(missile gap)" while de Sadeski secretly photographs the War Room. Dr. Strangelove declares he has a plan, then suddenly rises from his wheelchair and exclaims, "Mein Führer, I can walk!" The film cuts to a montage of nuclear explosions, accompanied by [Lynn](Vera)(Vera Lynn)'s rendition of the song "[Meet Again](We'll)(We'll Meet Again)".
## Cast
* [Sellers](Peter)(Peter Sellers) as:
** [captain](Group)(Group captain) Lionel Mandrake, a British [RAF](Royal Air Force) [officer](exchange)(exchange officer)
** Merkin Muffley, the [of the United States](President)(President of the United States)
** Dr. Strangelove, the wheelchair-using [war](nuclear)(Nuclear warfare) expert and former [Nazi](Nazi Party) named Merkwürdigliebe, who has [hand syndrome](alien)(alien hand syndrome)
* [C. Scott](George)(George C. Scott) as General Buck Turgidson, [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff)
* [Hayden](Sterling)(Sterling Hayden) as Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper, [paranoid](paranoid) commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, which is part of the [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command).
* [Wynn](Keenan)(Keenan Wynn) as Colonel "Bat" Guano, the Army officer who finds Mandrake and Ripper
* [Creley](Jack)(Jack Creley) as Mr. Staines, [Security Advisor](National)(National Security Advisor (United States))
* [Pickens](Slim)(Slim Pickens) as Major T. J. "King" Kong, the [B-52](Boeing B-52 Stratofortress) bomber's commander and pilot
* [Bull](Peter)(Peter Bull) as [Ambassador](Soviet)(List of ambassadors of Russia to the United States) Alexei de Sadeski
* [Earl Jones](James)(James Earl Jones) as Lieutenant Lothar Zogg, the B-52's [bombardier](Bombardier (aircrew)) (film debut)
* [Reed](Tracy)(Tracy Reed (English actress)) as Miss Scott, General Turgidson's secretary and [mistress](mistress (lover)), the film's only female character. She also appears as "Miss Foreign Affairs", the [Playmate](Playboy)(Playboy Playmate) in *[Playboy](Playboy)* June 1962 issue,The distinctive bikinied torso on the cover dates this as the real June 1962 issue, which features the pictorial "A Toast to Bikinis" (a reference to [Atoll](Bikini)(Bikini Atoll), an American nuclear test site), shown as the pinups on the inside of the B-52's safe's door. Grant B. Stillman, ["Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0112.html) , 2008. which Major Kong is shown perusing at one point.For the pose, Reed lay flat on her chest and had the January 1963 (Vol. 41, No. 2) issue of *[Affairs](Foreign)(Foreign Affairs)* covering her buttocks. Despite this modest pose, [mother](her)(Penelope Dudley-Ward) was furious. In the novel and advertising posters, the *Playboy* model is identified as "Miss Foreign Affairs." Brian Siano, ["A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html) , 1995 and "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove," a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film.
* [Rimmer](Shane)(Shane Rimmer) as Capt. Ace Owens, the co-pilot of the B-52
### Peter Sellers's multiple roles
| image2 = Dr. Strangelove - President Merkin Muffley.png
| caption2 = President Muffley
| image3 = Dr. Strangelove.png
| caption3 = Dr. Strangelove
}}
[Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) agreed to finance the film if [Sellers](Peter)(Peter Sellers) played at least four major roles. The condition stemmed from the studio's opinion that much of the success of Kubrick's previous film *[Lolita](Lolita (1962 film))* (1962) was based on Sellers's performance in which his single character assumes a number of identities. Sellers had also played three roles in *[Mouse That Roared](The)(The Mouse That Roared (film))* (1959). Kubrick accepted the demand, later saying that "such crass and grotesque stipulations are the *[qua non](sine)(sine qua non)* of the motion-picture business."Lee Hill, ["Interview with a Grand Guy"](http://www.altx.com/int2/terry.southern.html) : interview with Terry Southern
Sellers ended up playing three of the four roles written for him. He had been expected to play Air Force Major T. J. "King" Kong, the B-52 aircraft commander, but from the beginning Sellers was reluctant. He felt his workload was too heavy and he worried he would not properly portray the character's [English](Texan)(Texan English) accent. Kubrick pleaded with him and he asked the screenwriter [Southern](Terry)(Terry Southern) (who had been raised in Texas) to record a tape with Kong's lines spoken in the correct accent, which he practiced using Southern's tapes. But after the start of shooting in the aircraft Sellers sprained his ankle and could no longer work in the cramped aircraft mockup.In the fictionalized [biopic](biopic) *[Life and Death of Peter Sellers](The)(The Life and Death of Peter Sellers)*, it is suggested that Sellers faked the injury as a way to force Kubrick to release him from the contractual obligation to play this fourth role.
Sellers improvised much of his dialogue, with Kubrick incorporating the [ad-libs](ad libitum) into the written screenplay so that the improvised lines became part of the canonical screenplay, a practice known as [retroscripting](retroscripting)."Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove", a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film
#### Group Captain Lionel Mandrake
According to film critic [Walker](Alexander)(Alexander Walker (critic)), the author of biographies of both Sellers and Kubrick, the role of Group Captain Lionel Mandrake was the easiest of the three for Sellers to play, since he was aided by his experience of mimicking his superiors while serving in the RAF during [War II](World)(World War II). There is also a heavy resemblance to Sellers' friend and occasional co-star [Terry-Thomas](Terry-Thomas) and the [prosthetic](prosthetic)-limbed RAF flying ace Sir [Bader](Douglas)(Douglas Bader).
#### President Merkin Muffley
For his performance as President Merkin Muffley, Sellers assumed a [American English](Midwestern)(Midwestern American English) accent. Sellers drew inspiration for the role from [Stevenson](Adlai)(Adlai Stevenson II), a former [Illinois](Illinois) governor who was the Democratic candidate for the [1952](1952 United States presidential election) and [presidential elections](1956)(1956 United States presidential election) and the U.N. ambassador during the [Missile Crisis](Cuban)(Cuban Missile Crisis).
In early takes, Sellers simulated [cold](common cold) symptoms to emphasize the character's apparent weakness. That caused frequent laughter among the film crew, ruining several takes. Kubrick ultimately found this comic portrayal inappropriate, feeling that Muffley should be a serious character. In later takes Sellers played the role straight, though the President's cold is still evident in several scenes.
#### Dr. Strangelove
[[Image:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.jpg|upright|right|thumb|[von Neumann](John)(John von Neumann) promoted the policy of [assured destruction](mutual)(mutual assured destruction).]]
Dr. Strangelove is a scientist and former [Nazi](Nazism), suggesting [Paperclip](Operation)(Operation Paperclip), the US effort to recruit top German technical talent at the end of World War II.Dan Geddes, "[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964)](http://www.thesatirist.com/films/DoctorStrangelove.html) "; *The Satirist*, December 2011.Beverly Merrill Kelley, ''Reelpolitik II: Political Ideologies in '50s and '60s Films''; Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004; p. [263](https://books.google.com/books?id=DgfTlr4ScSIC&pg=PA26) . He serves as President Muffley's scientific adviser in the War Room. When General Turgidson wonders aloud to Mr. Staines ([Creley](Jack)(Jack Creley)), what kind of name "Strangelove" is, possibly a "[Kraut](Kraut) name", Staines responds that Strangelove's original German surname was *Merkwürdigliebe* ("Strange love" in German) and that "he changed it when he became a citizen". Strangelove accidentally addresses the president as *Mein Führer* twice in the film. Dr. Strangelove did not appear in the book *Red Alert*.Jeffrey Townsend, et al., "Red Alert" in John Tibbetts & James Welsh (eds.), *The Encyclopedia of Novels into Films*, New York, 1999, pp. 183–186
The character is an amalgamation of [Corporation](RAND)(RAND Corporation) strategist [Kahn](Herman)(Herman Kahn), rocket scientist [von Braun](Wernher)(Wernher von Braun) (a central figure in Nazi Germany's rocket development program recruited to the US after the war), and [Teller](Edward)(Edward Teller), the "father of the hydrogen bomb".Paul Boyer, "Dr. Strangelove" in Mark C. Carnes (ed.), *Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies*, New York, 1996. Rumors claimed that the character was based on [Kissinger](Henry)(Henry Kissinger), but Kubrick and Sellers denied this; Sellers said: "Strangelove was never modeled after Kissinger—that's a popular misconception. It was always Wernher von Braun." Furthermore, Henry Kissinger points out in his memoirs that at the time of the writing of *Dr. Strangelove*, he was a little-known academic.
The wheelchair-using Strangelove furthers a Kubrick trope of the menacing, seated antagonist, first depicted in *Lolita* through the character "Dr. Zaempf". Strangelove's accent was influenced by that of Austrian-American photographer [Weegee](Weegee), who worked for Kubrick as a special photographic effects consultant. Strangelove's appearance echoes the [scientist](mad)(mad scientist) archetype as seen in the character [Rotwang](Rotwang) in [Lang](Fritz)(Fritz Lang)'s film *[Metropolis](Metropolis (1927 film))* (1927). Sellers's Strangelove takes from Rotwang the single black gloved hand (which, in Rotwang's case is mechanical, because of a lab accident), the wild hair and, most important, his ability to avoid being controlled by political power.Frayling, Christopher. *Mad, Bad, and Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema*. London: Reaktion, 2006. p.26 According to Alexander Walker, Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the [salute](Nazi)(Nazi salute), borrowing one of Kubrick's black leather gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the gesture. Dr. Strangelove apparently has [hand syndrome](alien)(alien hand syndrome). Kubrick wore the gloves on the set to avoid being burned when handling hot lights, and Sellers, recognizing the potential connection to Lang's work, found them to be menacing.
### Slim Pickens as Major T. J. "King" Kong
[[File:Dr. Strangelove - Wing Attack Plan R.png|thumb|Wing Attack Plan R, fresh from the cockpit's safe, allows a [strike](nuclear)(nuclear strike) without the President's authorization.]]
[Pickens](Slim)(Slim Pickens), an established [actor](character)(character actor) and veteran of many Western films, was eventually chosen to replace Sellers as Major Kong after Sellers' injury. Terry Southern's biographer, Lee Hill, said the part was originally written with [Wayne](John)(John Wayne) in mind, and that Wayne was offered the role after Sellers was injured, but he immediately turned it down.Lee Hill, *A Grand Guy: The Life and Art of Terry Southern* (Bloomsbury, 2001), pp.118–119 [Blocker](Dan)(Dan Blocker) of the *[Bonanza](Bonanza)* western television series was approached to play the part, but according to Southern, Blocker's agent rejected the script as being "too [pinko](pinko)". Kubrick then recruited Pickens, whom he knew from his brief involvement in a [Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando) western film project that was eventually filmed as *[Jacks](One-Eyed)(One-Eyed Jacks)*.
His fellow actor [Earl Jones](James)(James Earl Jones) recalls, "He was Major Kong on and off the set—he didn't change a thing—his temperament, his language, his behavior." Pickens was not told that the movie was a black comedy, and he was only given the script for scenes he was in, to get him to play it "straight".
Kubrick's biographer John Baxter explained, in the documentary *Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove*:
Pickens, who had previously played only supporting and character roles, said that his appearance as Maj. Kong greatly improved his career. He later commented, "After *Dr. Strangelove*, my salary jumped five times, and assistant directors started saying 'Hey, Slim' instead of 'Hey, you'."
### George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson
[[File:Dr. Strangelove - General Buck Turgidson.png|thumb|General Buck Turgidson imitating a low-flying [B-52](B-52) "frying chickens in a barnyard"]]
George C. Scott played the role of General Buck Turgidson, the [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). In this capacity General Turgidson was the nation's highest-ranking military officer and the principal military advisor to the President and the [Security Council](National)(United States National Security Council). He is seen during most of the movie advising President Muffley on the best steps to take in order to stop the fleet of B-52 Stratofortresses that was deployed by Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper to drop nuclear bombs on Soviet soil.
According to James Earl Jones, Kubrick tricked Scott into playing the role of Gen. Turgidson in a much more outlandish manner than Scott was comfortable doing. Kubrick talked Scott into doing absurd "practice" takes, which Kubrick told Scott would never be used, as a way to warm up for the "real" takes. Kubrick used these takes rather than the more restrained ones in the final film, causing Scott to swear never to work with Kubrick again.
During the filming, Kubrick and Scott had different opinions regarding certain scenes, but Kubrick obtained Scott's compliance largely by beating him at [chess](chess), which they played frequently on the set.["Kubrick on The Shining"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/interview.ts.html) from Michel Ciment, 'Kubrick', Holt, Rinehart, and Winston; 1st American ed edition (1983),
## Production
### Novel and screenplay
[Kubrick](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick) started with nothing but a vague idea to make a thriller about a nuclear accident that built on the widespread [War](Cold)(Cold War) fear for survival.Brian Siano, ["A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html) , 1995 While doing research, Kubrick gradually became aware of the subtle and paradoxical "[of terror](balance)(balance of terror)" between nuclear powers. At Kubrick's request, [Buchan](Alastair)(Alastair Francis Buchan) (the head of the [for Strategic Studies](Institute)(International Institute for Strategic Studies)) recommended the thriller novel *[Alert](Red)(Red Alert (novel))* by [George](Peter)(Peter George (author)).Alexander Walker, "Stanley Kubrick Directs," Harcourt Brace Co, 1972, , cited in Brian Siano, ["A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html) , 1995 Kubrick was impressed with the book, which had also been praised by [theorist](game)(game theory) and future [Prize in Economics](Nobel)(Nobel Prize in Economics) winner [Schelling](Thomas)(Thomas Schelling) in an article written for the *[of the Atomic Scientists](Bulletin)(Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists)* and reprinted in *[Observer](The)(The Observer)*,Phone interview with Thomas Schelling by Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, published in her book *The Worlds of Herman Kahn; The Intuitive Science of Thermonuclear War* (Harvard University Press, 2005) ["Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0097.html) and immediately bought the film rights.Terry Southern,["Check-up with Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.filmmakermagazine.com/fall2004/line_items/strangelove.php) , article written in 1963 for Esquire but unpublished at the time In 2006, Schelling wrote that conversations between Kubrick, Schelling, and George in late 1960 about a treatment of *Red Alert* updated with intercontinental missiles eventually led to the making of the film.
In collaboration with George, Kubrick started writing a screenplay based on the book. While writing the screenplay, they benefited from some brief consultations with Schelling and later, Herman Kahn.Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, ["The Worlds of Herman Kahn; The Intuitive Science of Thermonuclear War"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0097.html) , Harvard University Press, 2005. In following the tone of the book, Kubrick originally intended to film the story as a serious drama. However, he began to see comedy inherent in the idea of [assured destruction](mutual)(mutual assured destruction) as he wrote the first draft. He later said:
Among the titles that Kubrick considered for the film were *Dr. Doomsday or: How to Start World War III Without Even Trying*, ''Dr. Strangelove's Secret Uses of Uranus*, and *Wonderful Bomb''. After deciding to make the film a black comedy, Kubrick brought in Terry Southern as a co-writer in late 1962. The choice was influenced by reading Southern's comic novel *[Magic Christian](The)(The Magic Christian (novel))*, which Kubrick had received as a gift from Peter Sellers,Terry Southern, ["Notes from The War Room"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0081.html) , *Grand Street*, issue #49 and which itself became a Sellers film in 1969. Southern made important contributions to the film, but his role led to a rift between Kubrick and Peter George; after *[Life](Life (magazine))* magazine published a photo-essay on Southern in August 1964 which implied that Southern had been the script's principal author—a misperception neither Kubrick nor Southern did much to dispel— George wrote a letter to the magazine, published in its September 1964 issue, in which he pointed out that he had both written the film's source novel and collaborated on various incarnations of the script over a period of ten months, whereas "Southern was briefly employed ... to do some additional rewriting for Kubrick and myself and fittingly received a screenplay credit in behind Mr. Kubrick and myself."George Case (2014), *Calling Dr Strangelove: The Anatomy and Influence of the Kubrick Masterpiece* (McFarland & Co, Jefferson, Nth Carolina) p.118,
### Sets and filming
[[Strangelove - The War Room.png|thumb|The War Room with the Big Board in the film](File:Dr.)]
*Dr. Strangelove* was filmed at [Studios](Shepperton)(Shepperton Studios), near [London](London), as Sellers was in the middle of a divorce at the time and unable to leave England. The sets occupied three main [stage](sound)(sound stage)s: the Pentagon War Room, the B-52 Stratofortress bomber and the last one containing both the motel room and General Ripper's office and outside corridor. The studio's buildings were also used as the Air Force base exterior. The film's set design was done by [Adam](Ken)(Ken Adam), the production designer of several [Bond* films](*James)(James Bond in film) (at the time he had already worked on *[No](Dr.)(Dr. No (film))*). The [and white](black)(black and white) cinematography was by [Taylor](Gilbert)(Gilbert Taylor), and the film was edited by [Harvey](Anthony)(Anthony Harvey) and an uncredited Kubrick. The original musical score for the film was composed by [Johnson](Laurie)(Laurie Johnson) and the special effects were by Wally Veevers. The opening theme is an instrumental version of "[a Little Tenderness](Try)(Try a Little Tenderness)." The theme of the chorus from the bomb run scene is a modification of "[Johnny Comes Marching Home](When)(When Johnny Comes Marching Home)." Sellers and Kubrick got along well during the film's production and shared a love of photography.
For the War Room, Ken Adam first designed a two-level set which Kubrick initially liked, only to decide later that it was not what he wanted. Adam next began work on the design that was used in the film, an [expressionist](expressionism) set that was compared with *[Cabinet of Dr. Caligari](The)(The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari)* and Fritz Lang's *Metropolis*. It was an enormous concrete room ( long and wide, with a -high ceiling) suggesting a bomb shelter, with a triangular shape (based on Kubrick's idea that this particular shape would prove the most resistant against an explosion). One side of the room was covered with gigantic strategic maps reflecting in a shiny black floor inspired by dance scenes in [Astaire](Fred)(Fred Astaire) films. In the middle of the room there was a large circular table lit from above by a circle of lamps, suggesting a poker table. Kubrick insisted that the table would be covered with green [baize](baize) (although this could not be seen in the black and white film) to reinforce the actors' impression that they are playing 'a game of poker for the fate of the world.'"A Kubrick Masterclass," interview with Sir Ken Adam by Sir Christopher Frayling, 2005; excerpts from the interview were published online at [Berlinale talent capus](http://www.berlinale-talentcampus.de/www/73/viewentry/118) and the [Script Factory website](http://www.scriptfactory.co.uk/go/WhatWeDo/Extract_285.html) Kubrick asked Adam to build the set ceiling in [concrete](concrete) to force the director of photography to use only the on-set lights from the circle of lamps. Moreover, each lamp in the circle of lights was carefully placed and tested until Kubrick was happy with the result.[Interview with Ken Adam by Michel Ciment](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0082.html) , published in Michel Ciment, "Kubrick," Holt, Rinehart, and Winston; 1st American ed edition (1983),
Lacking cooperation from [Pentagon](the)(United States Department of Defense) in the making of the film, the set designers reconstructed the aircraft cockpit to the best of their ability by comparing the cockpit of a [Superfortress](B-29)(B-29 Superfortress) and a single photograph of the cockpit of a [B-52](B-52 Stratofortress) and relating this to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage. The B-52 was state-of-the-art in the 1960s, and its cockpit was off-limits to the film crew. When some United States Air Force personnel were invited to view the reconstructed B-52 cockpit, they said that "it was absolutely correct, even to the little black box which was the CRM." It was so accurate that Kubrick was concerned about whether Adam's team had carried out all its research legally.
In several shots of the B-52 flying over the polar ice en route to Russia, the shadow of the actual camera plane, a [B-17 Flying Fortress](Boeing)(Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress), is visible on the icecap below. The B-52 was a scale model composited into the Arctic footage, which was sped up to create a sense of jet speed.The camera ship, a former USAAF B-17G-100-VE, serial 44-85643, registered F-BEEA, had been one of four Flying Fortresses purchased from salvage at [Oklahoma](Altus,)(Altus, Oklahoma), in December 1947 by the French [géographique national](Institut)(Institut géographique national (France)) (IGN) and converted for surveying and photomapping work. It was the last active B-17 of a total of fourteen once flown by the IGN, but it was destroyed in a takeoff accident at [Binbrook](RAF)(RAF Binbrook) in 1989 during making of the film *[Belle](Memphis)(Memphis Belle (film))*. Home movie footage included in *Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove* on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film shows clips of the B-17 with a cursive "Dr. Strangelove" painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage.
In 1967, some of the flying footage from *Dr. Strangelove* was re-used in [Beatles](The)(The Beatles)' television film *[Mystery Tour](Magical)(Magical Mystery Tour (film))*. As told by editor Roy Benson in the [BBC](BBC) Radio Documentary *Celluloid Beatles*, the production team of *Magical Mystery Tour* lacked footage to cover the sequence for the song "[Flying](Flying (Beatles instrumental))." Benson had access to the aerial footage filmed for the B-52 sequences of *Dr. Strangelove*, which was stored at Shepperton Studios. The use of the footage prompted Kubrick to call Benson to complain.
### *Fail Safe*
*Red Alert* author Peter George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and [satirist](satire (film and television)) Terry Southern. *Red Alert* was more solemn than its film version, and it did not include the character Dr. Strangelove, though the main plot and technical elements were quite similar. A [novelization](novelization) of the actual film, rather than a reprint of the original novel, was published by Peter George, based on an early draft in which the narrative is bookended by the account of aliens, who, having arrived at a desolated Earth, try to piece together what has happened. It was reissued in October 2015 by Candy Jar Books, featuring never-before-published material on Strangelove's early career.
During the filming of *Dr. Strangelove*, Stanley Kubrick learned that *[Safe](Fail)(Fail Safe (1964 film))*, a film with a similar theme, was being produced. Although *Fail Safe* was to be an ultrarealistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its plot resemblance would damage his film's box office potential, especially if it were released first. Indeed, the novel *[Fail-Safe](Fail-Safe (novel))* (on which the film is based) is so similar to *Red Alert* that Peter George sued on charges of plagiarism and settled out of court.
What worried Kubrick the most was that *Fail Safe* boasted the acclaimed director [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet) and the first-rate dramatic actors [Fonda](Henry)(Henry Fonda) as the American president and [Matthau](Walter)(Walter Matthau) as the advisor to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele. Kubrick decided to throw a legal wrench into *Fail Safe*s production gears. Lumet recalled in the documentary *Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove*: "We started casting. Fonda was already set ... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money. I was set, Walter [the screenwriter](Bernstein,) was set ... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures."
Kubrick argued that *Fail Safe*s own source novel *Fail-Safe* (1962) had been plagiarized from Peter George's *Red Alert*, to which Kubrick owned creative rights. He pointed out unmistakable similarities in intentions between the characters Groeteschele and Strangelove. The plan worked, and the suit was settled out of court, with the agreement that Columbia Pictures, which had financed and was distributing *Strangelove*, also buy *Fail Safe*, which had been an independently financed production. Kubrick insisted that the studio release his movie first,Jacobson, Colin. ["Review:Fail-Safe: Special Edition (1964)."](http://www.dvdmg.com/failsafe.shtml) *dvdmg.com,* 2000. Retrieved: November 21, 2010. and *Fail Safe* opened eight months after *Dr. Strangelove*, to critical acclaim but mediocre ticket sales.
### Ending
The end of the film shows Dr. Strangelove exclaiming, "*Mein Führer,* I can walk!" before cutting to footage of nuclear explosions, with [Lynn](Vera)(Vera Lynn) and her audience singing "We'll Meet Again". This footage comes from nuclear tests such as shot "Baker" of [Crossroads](Operation)(Operation Crossroads) at [Atoll](Bikini)(Bikini Atoll), the [test](Trinity)(Trinity test), a test from [Sandstone](Operation)(Operation Sandstone) and the hydrogen bomb tests from [Redwing](Operation)(Operation Redwing) and [Ivy](Operation)(Operation Ivy). In some shots, old warships (such as the German heavy cruiser *[Eugen](Prinz)(German cruiser Prinz Eugen)*), which were used as targets, are plainly visible. In others, the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop can be seen. Former *[Show](Goon)(The Goon Show)* writer and friend of Sellers [Milligan](Spike)(Spike Milligan) was credited with suggesting Vera Lynn's song for the ending.
### Original ending
[[File:Pie Fight.jpg|thumb|The [pie](cream)(cream pie) fight was removed from the final cut.]]
It was originally planned for the film to end with a scene that depicted everyone in the War Room involved in a [fight](pie)(pie fight). Accounts vary as to why the pie fight was cut. In a 1969 interview, Kubrick said, "I decided it was [farce](farce) and not consistent with the satiric tone of the rest of the film."["An Interview with Stanley Kubrick (1969)"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0069.html) , published in Joseph Gelmis, *The Film Director as Superstar*, 1970, Doubleday and Company: Garden City, New York. Critic Alexander Walker observed that "the cream pies were flying around so thickly that people lost definition, and you couldn't really say whom you were looking at." Nile Southern, son of screenwriter Terry Southern, suggested the fight was intended to be less jovial: "Since they were laughing, it was unusable, because instead of having that totally black, which would have been amazing, like, this blizzard, which in a sense is metaphorical for all of the missiles that are coming, as well, you just have these guys having a good old time. So, as Kubrick later said, 'it was a disaster of [Homer](Homer)ic proportions.
### Effects of the Kennedy assassination on the film
A first test screening of the film was scheduled for November 22, 1963, the day of the [of John F. Kennedy](assassination)(assassination of John F. Kennedy). The film was just weeks from its scheduled premiere, but because of the assassination, the release was delayed until late January 1964, as it was felt that the public was in no mood for such a film any sooner.
During post-production, one line by Slim Pickens, "a fella could have a pretty good weekend in Dallas with all that stuff", was dubbed to change "Dallas" to "[Vegas](Las Vegas)", since Dallas was where Kennedy was killed. The original reference to Dallas survives in the English audio of the French-subtitled version of the film.
The assassination also serves as another possible reason that the pie-fight scene was cut. In the scene, after Muffley takes a pie in the face, General Turgidson exclaims: "Gentlemen! Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!" Editor Anthony Harvey stated that the scene "would have stayed, except that Columbia Pictures were horrified, and thought it would offend the president's family.""No Fighting in the War Room Or: Dr. Strangelove and the Nuclear Threat", a documentary included with the 40th Anniversary Special Edition DVD of the film Kubrick and others have said that the scene had already been cut before preview night because it was inconsistent with the rest of the film.Eric D. Snider, "[What's the big deal?: Dr. Strangelove (1964)](http://www.seattlepi.com/ae/movies/article/What-s-the-big-deal-Dr-Strangelove-1964-734814.php) "; *Seattle Post-Intelligencer*, October 25, 2010.
### Rerelease in 1994
In 1994, the film was re-released. While the 1964 release used a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, the new print was in the slightly squarer 1.66:1 (5:3) ratio that Kubrick had originally intended.LoBrutto, Vincent. "Stanley Kubrick: A Biography." Da Capo Press, 1995, p. 250
## Themes
### Satirizing the Cold War
*Dr. Strangelove* ridicules nuclear war planning.Sean M. Maloney, *Deconstructing Dr. Strangelove: The Secret History of Nuclear War Films* (Potomac Books, 2020) pp 64–65. It mocks numerous contemporary Cold War attitudes such as the "missile gap" but it primarily directs its satire on the theory of mutually assured destruction (MAD), in which each side is supposed to be deterred from a nuclear war by the prospect of a universal cataclysm regardless of who "won". Military strategist and former physicist Herman Kahn, in the book *[Thermonuclear War](On)(On Thermonuclear War)* (1960), used the theoretical example of a "doomsday machine" to illustrate the limitations of MAD, which was developed by John von Neumann.
The concept of such a machine is consistent with MAD doctrine when it is logically pursued to its conclusion. It thus worried Kahn that the military might like the idea of a doomsday machine and build one.*On Thermonuclear War* pp. 144–155 Kahn, a leading critic of MAD and the [administration](Eisenhower)(Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower)'s doctrine of [retaliation](massive)(massive retaliation) upon the slightest provocation by the USSR, considered MAD to be foolish bravado, and urged America to instead plan for [proportionality](proportionality (law)), and thus even a limited nuclear war. With this reasoning, Kahn became one of the architects of the [response](flexible)(flexible response) doctrine which, while superficially resembling MAD, allowed for the possibility of responding to a limited nuclear strike with a proportional, or calibrated, return of fire (see *[escalation](Conflict)(Conflict escalation)*).
Kahn educated Kubrick on the concept of the semi-realistic "cobalt-thorium G" doomsday machine, and then Kubrick used the concept for the film. Kahn in his writings and talks would often come across as cold and calculating, for example, with his use of the term "megadeaths" and in his willingness to estimate how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically. Kahn's dispassionate attitude towards millions of deaths is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a preemptive nuclear war: "Mr. President, I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed. But I do say no more than ten to twenty million killed, tops, uh, depending on the breaks." Turgidson has a binder that is labelled "World Targets in Megadeaths," a term coined in 1953 by Kahn and popularized in his 1960 book *On Thermonuclear War*.
The fallout-shelter-network proposal mentioned in the film, with its inherently high [protection](radiation)(radiation protection) characteristics, has similarities and contrasts to that of the real [civil defense](Swiss)(Military of Switzerland#Military and civil defence) network. Switzerland has an overcapacity of nuclear fallout shelters for the country's population size, and by law, new homes must still be built with a fallout shelter. If the US did that, it would violate the spirit of MAD and, according to MAD adherents, allegedly destabilize the situation because the US could launch a [strike](first)(Pre-emptive nuclear strike) and its population would largely survive a retaliatory second strike (see [§ Theory](MAD)(Mutual assured destruction#Theory)).
To rebut early 1960s novels and Hollywood films like *Fail-Safe* and *Dr. Strangelove*, which raised questions about US control over nuclear weapons, the Air Force produced a documentary film, *SAC Command Post*, to demonstrate its responsiveness to presidential command and its tight control over nuclear weapons.*[SAC Command Post](http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb304/film03.htm) * However, later academic research into declassified documents showed that U.S. military commanders had been given presidentially-authorized pre-delegation for the use of nuclear weapons during the early Cold War, showing that this aspect of the film's plot was plausible.
The characters of Buck Turgidson and Jack Ripper both satirize the real-life Gen. [LeMay](Curtis)(Curtis LeMay) of the Strategic Air Command.
### Sexual themes
In the months following the film's release, director Stanley Kubrick received a fan letter from Legrace G. Benson of the Department of History of Art at [University](Cornell)(Cornell University) interpreting the film as being sexually-layered. The director wrote back to Benson and confirmed the interpretation, "Seriously, you are the first one who seems to have noticed the sexual framework from intromission (the planes going in) to the last spasm (Kong's ride down and detonation at target)."
## Release
The film was a popular success, earning US$4,420,000 in rentals in North America during its initial theatrical release."Big Rental Pictures of 1964", *Variety*, January 6, 1965 p 39. Note this figure is rentals accruing to distributors, not total gross.
## Reception
### Critical response
*Dr. Strangelove* is Kubrick's highest-rated film on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), holding a 98% approval rating based on 96 reviews, with an average rating of 9.10/10. The site's summary states that "Stanley Kubrick's brilliant Cold War satire remains as funny and razor-sharp today as it was in 1964." The film also holds a score of 97 out of 100 on [Metacritic](Metacritic), based on 32 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." The film is ranked number 7 in the All-Time High Scores chart of Metacritic's Video/DVD section. It was selected for preservation in the United States [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry).
*Dr. Strangelove* is on [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert)'s list of *[Great Movies](The)(The Great Movies)*, and he described it as "arguably the best political satire of the century".Roger Ebert, ["Dr. Strangelove (1964)"](http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19990711/REVIEWS08/907110301/1023) , July 11, 1999 One of the most celebrated of all film comedies, in 1998, *[Out](Time)(Time Out (magazine))* conducted a reader's poll and *Dr. Strangelove* was voted the 47th greatest film of all time. *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* voted it at No. 14 on their list of *100 Greatest Movies of All Time*. in 2002, it was ranked as the 5th best film in [& Sound* poll of best films](*Sight)(Sight & Sound#The Sight and Sound Poll of the Greatest Films of All Time).[Sight & Sound's directors' poll](http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors.html) (no longer available ) John Patterson of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* wrote, "There had been nothing in comedy like *Dr Strangelove* ever before. All the gods before whom the America of the stolid, paranoid 50s had genuflected—the Bomb, the Pentagon, the National Security State, the President himself, Texan masculinity and the alleged Commie menace of water-fluoridation—went into the wood-chipper and never got the same respect ever again." It is also listed as number 26 on ''[500 Greatest Movies of All Time](Empire's)(Empire (magazine)#Current List, The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time)*, and in 2010 it was listed by *[Time](Time (magazine))'' magazine as one of the 100 best films since the publication's inception in 1923. The [Guild of America](Writers)(Writers Guild of America, West) ranked its screenplay the 12th best ever written.
In 2000, readers of *[Film](Total)(Total Film)* magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedic film of all time. The film ranked 42nd in BBCs 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films. The film was selected as the 2nd best comedy of all time in a poll of 253 film critics from 52 countries conducted by the BBC in 2017.
### Studio response
Columbia Pictures' early reaction to *Dr. Strangelove* was anything but enthusiastic. In "Notes From The War Room", in the summer 1994 issue of *Grand Street* magazine, co-screenwriter Terry Southern recalled that, as production neared the end, "It was about this time that word began to reach us, reflecting concern as to the nature of the film in production. Was it anti-American? Or just anti-military? And the jackpot question: Was it, in fact, anti-American to whatever extent it was anti-military?"
Southern recalled how Kubrick grew concerned about seeming apathy and distancing by studio heads Abe Schneider and [Rothman](Mo)(Mo Rothman), and by Columbia's characterization of the film as "just a zany, novelty flick which did not reflect the views of the corporation in any way." Southern noted that Rothman was in "prominent attendance" at a ceremony in 1989 when the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) announced it as one of the first 25 films on the National Film Registry.
### Accolades
The film ranked No. 32 on *[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)*s list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV (and Video).
[Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) included the film as #26 in [100 Years...100 Movies](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies), #3 in [100 Years...100 Laughs](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs), #64 in [100 Years...100 Movie Quotes](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes) ("Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room!") and #39 in [100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)).
## Potential sequel
In 1995, Kubrick enlisted [Southern](Terry)(Terry Southern) to script a sequel titled *Son of Strangelove*. Kubrick had [Gilliam](Terry)(Terry Gilliam) in mind to direct. The script was never completed, but index cards laying out the story's basic structure were found among Southern's papers after he died in October 1995. It was set largely in underground bunkers, where Dr. Strangelove had taken refuge with a group of women.
In 2013, Gilliam commented, "I was told after Kubrick died—by someone who had been dealing with him—that he had been interested in trying to do another *Strangelove* with me directing. I never knew about that until after he died but I would have loved to."
## See also
* [114 (fictional device)](CRM)(CRM 114 (fictional device))
* [Hand (nuclear war)](Dead)(Dead Hand)
* [of films considered the best](List)(List of films considered the best)
* [Paperclip](Operation)(Operation Paperclip)—OSS program used to recruit scientists from Nazi Germany
* [in fiction](Politics)(Politics in fiction)
* [Kubrick Archive](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick Archive)
* [bomb](Cobalt)(Cobalt bomb)
* [Atomic Demolition Munition](Special)(Special Atomic Demolition Munition)-type of nuclear bomb that can be strapped to a parachuter.
## References
**Notes**
**Further reading**
* Ellsberg, Daniel "The Doomsday Machine" New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017 .
* Dolan, Edward F., Jr. *Hollywood Goes to War*. London: Bison Books, 1985. .
* Hardwick, Jack and Schnepf, Ed. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies." *The Making of the Great Aviation Films*, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989.
*
* Oriss, Bruce. *When Hollywood Ruled the Skies: The Aviation Film Classics of World War II*. Hawthorne, California: Aero Associates Inc., 1984. .
*
## External links
* *Dr. Strangelove* essay by [Winston Dixon](Wheeler)(Wheeler Winston Dixon) at [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) [https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-film-preservation-board/documents/dr_strangelove.pdf]
* *Dr. Strangelove* essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 598-600 [https://books.google.com/books?id=deq3xI8OmCkC]
*
*
*
*
*
* ["Checkup with Dr. Strangelove"](http://www.filmmakermagazine.com/fall2004/line_items/strangelove.php) by Terry Southern
* [''Don't Panic* covers *Dr. Strangelove*](https://web.archive.org/web/20120305112620/http://dontpaniconline.com/magazine/film/dr-strangelove-) (archived)
* [Continuity transcript](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0055.html)
* ["Commentary on *Dr. Strangelove*](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html) by Brian Siano
* ["Last Secrets of Strangelove Revealed"](http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0112.html) by Grant B. Stillman
* [Study Guide](http://www.nd.edu/~dlindley/handouts/DrS.pdf) by Dan Lindley. See also: [longer version](http://www.nd.edu/~dlindley/handouts/strangelovenotes.html)
* [Annotated bibliography on *Dr. Strangelove*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070526053129/http://alsos.wlu.edu/adv_rst.aspx?query=Strangelove&selection=keyword&results=10) from the Alsos Digital Library
* ["*Dr. Strangelove*: The Darkest Room"](https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/4119-dr-strangelove-the-darkest-room)—an essay by [Bromwich](David)(David Bromwich) at the [Collection](Criterion)(Criterion Collection)
* [Ann Hornaday, "The 34 best political movies ever made" *The Washington Post* (Jan. 23, 2020)](https://www.washingtonpost.com/arts-entertainment/2020/01/23/34-best-political-movies-ever-made/), ranked No. 6
}}
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Book of Revelation
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book_of_revelation
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# Book of Revelation
*Revision ID: 1160008689 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T22:00:54Z*
---
[[File:BibleSPaoloFol331vFrontRev.jpg|thumb|Frontispiece, Book of Revelation, [of San Paolo fuori le Mura](Bible)(Bible of San Paolo fuori le Mura), 9th century]]
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 236.png|thumb|''The [of John](Vision)(John's vision of the Son of Man) on [Patmos](Patmos)'' by [Schnorr von Carolsfeld](Julius)(Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld) 1860]]
[[File:KolbyKircheD7Altar.jpg|thumb|Very rare depiction of scenes from Revelation in an altar. Here in Kolby Church, [Denmark](Denmark), 1550]]
The **Book of Revelation**, or the **Apocalypse of John**. It is most commonly abbreviated as "Rev."}} also erroneously called the **Book of Revelations**, is singular, indicating a single revelation, rather than plural, which would suggest multiple revelations.}} is the final book of the [Testament](New)(New Testament) (and therefore the final book of the [Bible](Christian)(Bible#Christian Bible)). Its title is derived from the [word](first)(Incipit) of the [Greek](Koine)(Koine Greek) text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of Revelation is the only [book](apocalyptic)(Apocalyptic literature) in the [Testament](New)(New Testament) [canon](Biblical canon). It occupies a central place in [eschatology](Christian)(Christian eschatology).
The author names himself as simply "John" in the text, but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second-century Christian writers such as [of Hierapolis](Papias)(Papias of Hierapolis), [Martyr](Justin)(Justin Martyr), [Irenaeus](Irenaeus), [of Sardis](Melito)(Melito of Sardis), [of Alexandria](Clement)(Clement of Alexandria), and the author of the [fragment](Muratorian)(Muratorian fragment) identify [the Apostle](John)(John the Apostle) as the "John" of Revelation. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, with many considering that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet. Modern theological scholars characterize the Book of Revelation's author as "[of Patmos](John)(John of Patmos)". The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the Roman emperor [Domitian](Domitian) (AD 81–96), which evidence tends to confirm. argues that Irenaeus and the earliest traditions of the church placed the writing in the reign of Nero.}}
The book spans three literary genres: the [epistolary](Letter (message)), the [apocalyptic](Apocalyptic literature), and the [prophetic](prophetic). It begins with John, on the island of [Patmos](Patmos) in the [Sea](Aegean)(Aegean Sea), addressing letters to the "[Churches of Asia](Seven)(Seven Churches of Asia)". He then describes a series of prophetic [visions](Vision (spirituality)), including figures such as the Seven-Headed Dragon, [Serpent](the)(Serpents in the Bible#Ancient serpent), and [Beast](the)(The Beast (Revelation)), which culminate in the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) of [Jesus](Jesus).
The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations. [Historicist](Historicism (Christianity)) interpretations see Revelation as containing a broad view of history while [preterist](preterist) interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the [Age](Apostolic)(Apostolic Age) (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the [Roman Empire](Western)(Western Roman Empire) in the 5th century. [Futurists](Futurism (Christianity)), meanwhile, believe that Revelation describes future events with the seven churches growing into the body of believers throughout the age, and a reemergence or continuous rule of a Greco-Roman system with modern capabilities described by John in ways familiar to him; and [or symbolic](idealist)(Idealism (Christian eschatology)) interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events but is an [allegory](allegory) of the [spiritual](Spirituality) path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.
## Composition and setting
[[File:Johannes op Patmos Saint John on Patmos Berlin, Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin, Gemaldegalerie HR.jpg|thumb|*[John the Evangelist on Patmos](St.)(St. John the Evangelist on Patmos)* by [Bosch](Hieronymous)(Hieronymous Bosch), ]]
### Title, authorship, and date
[[File:ApocalypseStSeverFol026vJohnRecievesRev.jpg|thumb|St. John receives his Revelation, [Beatus](Saint-Sever)(Saint-Sever Beatus), 11th century]]
The name *Revelation* comes from the [word](first)(Incipit) of the book in [Greek](Koine)(Koine Greek): (), which means "unveiling" or "revelation". The author names himself as "John", but modern scholars consider it unlikely that the author of Revelation also wrote the [of John](Gospel)(Gospel of John). He was a [Christian](Jewish)(Jewish Christian) prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter.
The book is commonly dated to about AD 95, as suggested by clues in the visions pointing to the reign of the [emperor](Roman emperor) [Domitian](Domitian). The beast with seven heads and the number [666](Number of the beast) seem to allude directly to the emperor [Nero](Nero) (reigned AD 54–68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that [would return](Nero)(Nero Redivivus).
### Genre
Revelation is an [apocalyptic](apocalypse) prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia. The term *apocalypse* means the revealing of divine mysteries; John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the prophecy—the letters to the seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms 21 times, more than any other [Testament](New)(New Testament) book.
### Sources
The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the [Testament](Old)(Old Testament), although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes ideas of older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from [Daniel](Book of Daniel), [Ezekiel](Book of Ezekiel), [Psalms](Book of Psalms), and [Isaiah](Book of Isaiah), with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was clearly often influenced by the Greek.
### Setting
Conventional understanding has been that the Book of Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of an emperor. This is, however, not the only interpretation; Domitian may not have been a despot imposing an imperial cult, and there may not have been any systematic empire-wide persecution of Christians in his time. Revelation may instead have been composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Author Mark B. Stephens posed the Revelation chastised those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire. This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering for withdrawal from, and defiance against, the wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope. In the words of professor [Collins](Adela)(Adela Yarbro Collins), "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality." There is also theological interpretation that the book mainly prophesies the end of Old Covenant order, the Jewish temple and religious economy.
### Canonical history
Revelation was among the last books accepted into the [biblical canon](Christian)(Christian biblical canons), and to the present day some churches that derive from the [of the East](Church)(Church of the East) reject it. Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by [Montanists](Montanism) and other groups considered to be heretical. This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in the East through the 15th century.[Eugenia Scarvelis Constantinou (editor) *Commentary on the Apocalypse*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AmMEhsEYHUsC&pg=PA3) by Andrew of Caesarea (CUA Press 2011 ), pp. 3–6
[Dionysius](Pope Dionysius of Alexandria) (AD 248), bishop of Alexandria and disciple of [Origen](Origen), wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by [Cerinthus](Cerinthus) although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle *(Eusebius, Church History VII.25)*.
[Eusebius](Eusebius), in his [History](Church)(Church History (Eusebius)) (), mentioned that the Apocalypse of John was accepted as a canonical book and rejected at the same time:
}}}}
The Apocalypse of John is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen. Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings.
[of Jerusalem](Cyril)(Cyril of Jerusalem) (AD 348) does not name it among the canonical books (Catechesis IV.33–36).
[Athanasius](Athanasius of Alexandria) (AD 367) in his *Letter 39*, [of Hippo](Augustine)(Augustine of Hippo) () in his book *[Christian Doctrine](On)(De doctrina christiana)* (Book II, Chapter 8), [Rufinus](Tyrannius)(Tyrannius Rufinus) () in his ''Commentary on the Apostles' Creed'', [Innocent I](Pope)(Pope Innocent I) (AD 405) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse and [of Damascus](John)(John of Damascus) (about AD 730) in his work *An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith* (Book IV:7) listed "the Revelation of [the Evangelist](John)(John the Evangelist)" as a canonical book.
### Synods
The [of Laodicea](Council)(Council of Laodicea) (AD 363) omits it as a canonical book.
The , which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the [of Rome](Council)(Council of Rome) (AD 382). This list mentions it as a part of the New Testament canon.
The [of Hippo](Synod)(Synod of Hippo) (in AD 393), followed by the [of Carthage (397)](Council)(Council of Carthage (397)), the [of Carthage (419)](Council)(Council of Carthage (419)), [Council of Florence](the)(the Council of Florence) (1442) and the [of Trent](Council)(Council of Trent) (1546) classified it as a canonical book.
The [Canons](Apostolic)(Canons of the Apostles), approved by the [Orthodox](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church) [in Trullo](Council)(Quinisext Council) in 692, but rejected by [Sergius I](Pope)(Pope Sergius I), omit it.
### Protestant Reformation
Doubts resurfaced during the 16th-century [Protestant](Protestant) [Reformation](Reformation). [Luther](Martin)(Martin Luther) called Revelation "neither apostolic nor prophetic" in the 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament (he revised his position with a much more favorable assessment in 1530), [Zwingli](Huldrych)(Huldrych Zwingli) labelled it "not a book of the Bible",
and it was the only New Testament book on which [Calvin](John)(John Calvin) did not write a commentary. Revelation remains the only New Testament book not read in the [Liturgy](Divine)(Divine Liturgy) of the [Orthodox Church](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church), though Catholic and Protestant liturgies include it.
### Texts and manuscripts
There are approximately 300 Greek manuscripts of Revelation. While it is not extant in the (4th century), it is extant in the other great [uncial](List of New Testament uncials) codices: the (4th century), the (5th century), and the (5th century). In addition, there are numerous [papyri](List of New Testament papyri), especially and (both 3rd century); [minuscules](Lists of New Testament minuscules) (8th to 10th century); and fragmentary quotations in the Church fathers of the 2nd to 5th centuries and the 6th-century Greek commentary on Revelation by Andreas.
## Structure and content
[[File:Beatus-tafel.jpg|thumb|The [of St. Sever](Apocalypse)(Saint-Sever Beatus), ]]
[[Image:BritLibAddMS35166ApocalypseFolio003rAngelApeardToJohn.jpg|thumb|The Angel Appears to John, 13th-century manuscript, [Library](British)(British Library), London]]
[[File:B Escorial a.jpg|thumb|The angel gives John the letter to the churches of Asia, [Escorial](Beatus)(Commentary on the Apocalypse), ]]
### Literary structure
Divisions in the book seem to be marked by the repetition of key phrases, by the arrangement of subject matter into blocks, and associated with its [Christological](Christological) passages, and much use is made of significant numbers, especially the number seven, which represented perfection according to ancient numerology. Nevertheless, there is a "complete lack of consensus" among scholars about the structure of Revelation. The following is therefore an outline of the book's contents rather than of its structure.
### Outline
[[Rider from Tolkovy Apocalyps 17th century.jpg|thumb|Revelation 6.2: "And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer." White Rider from *Tolkovy Apocalyps*, Moscow, 17th century](File:White)]
[[File:B Osma 92v.jpg|thumb|Apocalypse 7, the 144,000 elect. [d'Osma](Beatus)(Beatus d'Osma), 11th century]]
[[File:B Escorial 94v.jpg|thumb|The Fourth Angel sounds his trumpet, Apocalypse 8, [Escorial](Beatus)(Commentary on the Apocalypse), ]]
[[Osma 117v.jpg|thumb|Apocalypse 12, the Woman and the Dragon. Beatus d'Osma, 11th century](File:B)]
[[Escorial 108v.jpg|thumb|A seven-headed leopard-like beast, Apocalypse 13, Beatus Escorial](File:B)]
[[File:Joseph Martin Kronheim - The Sunday at Home 1880 - Revelation 22-17.jpg|thumb|An 1880 [process](Baxter)(Baxter process) colour plate illustrating Revelation 22:17 by Joseph Martin Kronheim]]
[[File:B Escorial 120.jpg|thumb|"Thrust in thy sickle, and reap: for the time is come for thee to reap; for the harvest of the earth is ripe." (14:15), [Beatus](Escorial)(Escorial Beatus) ]]
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun (Rev. 12 1-4) - William Blake.jpg|thumb|right|*The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed with the Sun (Rev. 12 1–4)*, [Blake](William)(William Blake), 1803–1805, [Museum](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Museum)]]
Outline of the book of Revelation:
#The Revelation of Jesus Christ
##The Revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated to John through prophetic visions. (1:1–9)
##John is instructed by the "one like a son of man" to write all that he hears and sees, from the prophetic visions, to [Churches of Asia](Seven)(Seven Churches of Asia). (1:10–13)[[File:VirginMaryStainedGlassStJoseph'sBasilica.jpg|thumb|The [Virgin Mary](Blessed)(Mary, mother of Jesus) depicted as the victorious [of the Apocalypse](Woman)(Woman of the Apocalypse) in a stained-glass window in [Joseph's Basilica](St.)(Basilica of St. Joseph, Alameda). The [Church Fathers](early)(Church Fathers) widely believed the Woman to represent both Mary and the Church. Catholics and Orthodox Christians venerate the Virgin Mary as the "[of Heaven](Queen)(Queen of Heaven)" and "[of the Church](Mother)(Mother of the Church)". ]]
##The appearance of the "one like a son of man" is given, and he reveals what the seven stars and seven lampstands represent. (1:14–20)
# Messages for seven churches of Asia
##[Ephesus](Ephesus): From this church, he "who overcomes is granted to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God." (2:1–7)
### Praised for not bearing those who are evil, testing those who say they are apostles and are not, and finding them to be liars; hating the deeds of the [Nicolaitan](Nicolaitan)s; having persevered and possessing patience.
### Admonished to "do the first works" and to repent for having left their "first love."
##[Smyrna](Smyrna): From this church, those who are faithful until death, will be given "the crown of life." He who overcomes shall not be hurt by the [death](second)(second death). (2:8–11)
### Praised for being "rich" while impoverished and in tribulation.
### Admonished not to fear the "[of Satan](synagogue)(synagogue of Satan)", nor fear a ten-day tribulation of being thrown into prison.
##[Pergamum](Pergamum): From this church, he who overcomes will be given the hidden [manna](manna) to eat and a white stone with a secret name on it." (2:12–17)
### Praised for holding "fast to My name", not denying "My faith" even in the days of [Antipas](Antipas of Pergamum), "My faithful martyr."
### Admonished to repent for having held the doctrine of [Balaam](Balaam), who taught [Balak](Balak) to put a stumbling block before the [of Israel](children)(children of Israel); eating things sacrificed to idols, committing sexual immorality, and holding the "doctrine of the Nicolaitans."
## [Thyatira](Thyatira): From this church, he who overcomes until the end, will be given power over the nations in order to dash them to pieces with a rod of iron; he will also be given the "morning star." (2:18–29)
### Praised for their works, love, service, faith, and patience.
### Admonished to repent for allowing a "prophetess" to promote sexual immorality and to eat things sacrificed to idols.
##[Sardis](Sardis): From this church, he who overcomes will be clothed in white garments, and his name will not be blotted out from the [of Life](Book)(Book of Life); his name will also be confessed before the Father and his angels. (3:1–6)
###Admonished to be watchful and to strengthen since their works have not been perfect before God.
##[Philadelphia](Alaşehir): From this church, he who overcomes will be made a pillar in the temple of God having the name of God, the name of the city of God, "[Jerusalem](New)(New Jerusalem)", and the [of God](Son)(Son of God)'s new name. (3:7–13)
### Praised for having some strength, keeping "My word", and having not denied "My name."
### Reminded to hold fast what they have, that no one may take their crown.
##[Laodicea](Laodicean Church): From this church, he who overcomes will be granted the opportunity to sit with the Son of God on his throne. (3:14–22)
### Admonished to be zealous and repent from being "lukewarm"; they are instructed to buy the "gold refined in the fire", that they may be rich; to buy "white garments", that they may be clothed, so that the shame of their nakedness would not be revealed; to anoint their eyes with eye salve, that they may see.
#Before the Throne of God
## The [of God](Throne)(Throne of God) appears, surrounded by twenty four thrones with twenty-four elders seated in them. (4:1–5)
## The four [creatures](living)(Living creatures (Bible)) are introduced. (4:6–11)
## A scroll, with seven seals, is presented and it is declared that the [of the tribe of Judah](Lion)(Lion of Judah), from the "Root of [David](King David)", is the only one worthy to open this scroll. (5:1–5)
## When the "Lamb having seven horns and seven eyes" took the scroll, the creatures of heaven fell down before the Lamb to give him praise, joined by myriads of angels and the creatures of the earth. (5:6–14)
#[Seals](Seven)(Seven Seals) are opened
##First Seal: A white horse appears, whose crowned rider has a bow with which to conquer. (6:1–2)
##Second Seal: A red horse appears, whose rider is granted a "great sword" to take peace from the earth. (6:3–4)
##Third Seal: A black horse appears, whose rider has "a pair of balances in his hand", where a voice then says, "A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and [see] thou hurt not the oil and the wine." (6:5–6)
##Fourth Seal: A pale horse appears, whose rider is [Death](Death (personification)#In Christianity), and [Hades](Hades in Christianity) follows him. Death is granted a fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, with hunger, with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (6:7–8)
##Fifth Seal: "Under the altar", appeared the souls of martyrs for the "word of God", who cry out for vengeance. They are given white robes and told to rest until the martyrdom of their brothers is completed. (6:9–11)
##Sixth Seal: (6:12–17)
### There occurs a great earthquake where "the sun becomes black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon like blood" (6:12).
### The stars of heaven fall to the earth and the sky recedes like a scroll being rolled up (6:13–14).
### Every mountain and island is moved out of place (6:14).
### The people of earth retreat to caves in the mountains (6:15).
### The survivors call upon the mountains and the rocks to fall on them, so as to hide them from the "wrath of the Lamb" (6:16).
##Interlude: The 144,000 Hebrews are sealed.
###[144,000](The 144,000 of the Book of Revelation) from the [Tribes of Israel](Twelve)(Twelve Tribes of Israel) are sealed as servants of God on their foreheads (7:1–8)
###A great multitude stand before the Throne of God, who come out of the [Tribulation](Great)(Great Tribulation), clothed with robes made "white in the blood of the Lamb" and having [branches](palm)(Martyr's palm) in their hands. (7:9–17)
##Seventh Seal: Introduces the seven trumpets (8:1–5)
###"Silence in heaven for about half an hour" (8:1).
###Seven angels are each given trumpets (8:2).
###An eighth angel takes a "golden [censer](censer)", filled with fire from the heavenly altar, and throws it to the earth (8:3–5). What follows are "peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning, and an earthquake" (8:5).
###After the eighth angel has devastated the earth, the seven angels introduced in verse 2 prepare to sound their trumpets (8:6).
#[trumpets](Seven)(Seven trumpets) are sounded (Seen in Chapters 8, 9, and 12).
##First Trumpet: Hail and fire, mingled with blood, are thrown to the earth burning up a third of the trees and green grass. (8:6–7)
##Second Trumpet: Something that resembles a great mountain, burning with fire, falls from the sky and lands in the ocean. It kills a third of the sea creatures and destroys a third of the ships at sea. (8:8–9)
##Third Trumpet: A great star, named [Wormwood](Wormwood (Bible)), falls from heaven and poisons a third of the rivers and springs of water. (8:10–11)
##Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sun, the moon, and the stars are darkened creating complete darkness for a third of the day and the night. (8:12–13)
##Fifth Trumpet: The First Woe (9:1–12)
### A "star" falls from the sky (9:1).
### This "star" is given "the key to the bottomless pit" (9:1).
### The "star" then opens the bottomless pit. When this happens, "smoke [rises] from [Abyss](the) like smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky [are] darkened by the smoke from the Abyss" (9:2).
### From out of the smoke, locusts who are "given power like that of scorpions of the earth" (9:3), who are commanded not to harm anyone or anything except for people who were not given the "seal of God" on their foreheads (from chapter 7) (9:4).
### The "locusts" are described as having a human appearance (faces and hair) but with lion's teeth, and wearing "breastplates of iron"; the sound of their wings resembles "the thundering of many horses and chariots rushing into battle" (9:7–9).
##Sixth Trumpet: The Second Woe (9:13–21)
###The four [angel](angel)s bound to the great river [Euphrates](Euphrates) are released to prepare two hundred million horsemen.
### These armies kill a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone.
## Interlude: The little scroll. (10:1–11)
###An angel appears, with one foot on the sea and one foot on the land, having an opened little book in his hand.
###Upon the cry of the angel, seven thunders utter mysteries and secrets that are not to be written down by John.
###John is instructed to eat the little scroll that happens to be sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach, and to prophesy.
###John is given a measuring rod to measure the temple of God, the altar, and those who worship there.
###Outside the temple, at the court of the holy city, it is trod by the nations for forty-two months ( years).
###[witnesses](Two)(Two witnesses) prophesy for 1,260 days, clothed in sackcloth. (11:1–14)
##Seventh Trumpet: The Third Woe that leads into the [bowls](seven)(seven bowls) (11:15–19)
###The temple of God opens in heaven, where the ark of his covenant can be seen. There are lightnings, noises, thunderings, an earthquake, and great hail.
#The Seven Spiritual Figures. (Events leading into the Third Woe)
##A Woman "clothed with a white robe, with the sun at her back, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" is in pregnancy with a male child. (12:1–2)
##A great Dragon (with seven heads, ten horns, and seven crowns on his heads) drags a third of the stars of Heaven with his tail, and throws them to the Earth. (12:3–4). The Dragon waits for the birth of the child so he can devour it. However, sometime after the child is born, he is caught up to God's throne while the Woman flees into the wilderness into her place prepared of God that they should feed her there for 1,260 days ( years). (12:5–6). War breaks out in heaven between [Michael](Michael (archangel)) and the Dragon, identified as that old Serpent, the [Devil](Devil), or [Satan](Satan) (12:9). After a great fight, the Dragon and his angels are cast out of Heaven for good, followed by praises of victory for God's kingdom. (12:7–12). The Dragon engages to persecute the Woman, but she is given aid to evade him. Her evasiveness enrages the Dragon, prompting him to wage war against the rest of her offspring, who keep the commandments of God and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. (12:13–17)
##A Beast (with seven heads, ten horns, and ten crowns on his horns and on his heads names of blasphemy) emerges from the Sea, having one mortally wounded head that is then healed. The people of the world wonder and follow the Beast. The Dragon grants him power and authority for forty-two months. (13:1–5)
##The Beast of the Sea blasphemes God's name (along with God's tabernacle and his kingdom and all who dwell in Heaven), wages war against the Saints, and overcomes them. (13:6–10)
##Then, a Beast emerges from the Earth having two horns like a lamb, speaking like a dragon. He directs people to make an image of the Beast of the Sea who was wounded yet lives, breathing life into it, and forcing all people to bear "[mark of the Beast](the)(Number of the beast)". The number of the beast the Bible says is "666". Events leading into the Third Woe:
##The Lamb stands on [Zion](Mount)(Mount Zion) with the 144,000 "first fruits" who are redeemed from Earth and victorious over the Beast and his mark and image. (14:1–5)
###The proclamations of three angels. (14:6–13)
###One like the Son of Man reaps the earth. (14:14–16)
###A second angel reaps "the vine of the Earth" and throws it into "the great winepress of the wrath of God... and blood came out of the winepress... up to one thousand six hundred [stadia](Stadion (unit))." (14:17–20)
###The temple of the tabernacle, in Heaven, is opened (15:1–5), beginning the "Seven Bowls" revelation.
###Seven angels are given a golden bowl, from the Four Living Creatures, that contains the seven last plagues bearing the wrath of God. (15:6–8)
#[bowls](Seven)(Seven bowls) are poured onto Earth:
##First Bowl: A "foul and malignant sore" afflicts the followers of the Beast. (16:1–2)
##Second Bowl: The Sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
##Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4–7)
##Fourth Bowl: The Sun scorches the Earth with intense heat and even burns some people with fire. (16:8–9)
##Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in the Beast's kingdom. (16:10–11)
##Sixth Bowl: The Great River Euphrates is dried up and preparations are made for the kings of the East and the final battle at [Armageddon](Armageddon) between the forces of good and evil. (16:12–16)
##Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake and heavy hailstorm: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17–21)
#Aftermath: Vision of John given by "an angel who had the seven bowls"
##The great Harlot who sits on a scarlet Beast (with seven heads and ten horns and names of blasphemy all over its body) and by many waters: Babylon the Great. The angel showing John the vision of the Harlot and the scarlet Beast reveals their identities and fates (17:1–18)
## New Babylon is destroyed. (18:1–8)
##The people of the Earth (the kings, merchants, sailors, etc.) mourn New Babylon's destruction. (18:9–19)
##The permanence of New Babylon's destruction. (18:20–24)
#The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
##A great multitude praises God. (19:1–6)
##The marriage Supper of the Lamb. (19:7–10)
#The Judgment of the two Beasts, the Dragon, and the Dead (19:11–20:15)
##The Beast and the False Prophet are cast into the Lake of Fire. (19:11–21)
## The Dragon is imprisoned in the Bottomless Pit for a thousand years. (20:1–3)
##The resurrected martyrs live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4–6)
##After the Thousand Years
###The Dragon is released and goes out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the Earth—[and Magog](Gog)(Gog and Magog)—and gathers them for battle at the holy city. The Dragon makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7–9)
###The Dragon is cast into the Lake of Fire with the Beast and the False Prophet. (20:10)
###The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with Death and Hades, are cast into the Lake of Fire, which is the second death. (20:11–15)
#The New Heaven and Earth, and [Jerusalem](New)(New Jerusalem)
##A "new heaven" and "new earth" replace the old heaven and old earth. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1–8)
##God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2–8)
##Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9–27)
##The River of Life and the Tree of Life appear for the healing of the nations and peoples. The curse of sin is ended. (22:1–5)
#Conclusion
##Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6–21)
## Interpretations
Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple historical interpretation, to a prophetic view on what will happen in the future by way of [will](God's)(Will of God) and the [Woman's](Woman of the Apocalypse) (traditionally believed to be the [Mary](Virgin)(Queen of Heaven)) victory over Satan ("[symbolic](Allegory) interpretation"), to different end time scenarios ("futurist interpretation"),Robert J. Karris (ed.) The Collegeville Bible Commentary Liturgical Press, 1992 p. 1296.Ken Bowers, Hiding in plain sight, Cedar Fort, 2000 p. 175. to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all,[Gustav Jung](Carl)(Carl Gustav Jung) in his autobiography *Memories Dream Reflections* said "I will not discuss the transparent prophecies of the Book of Revelation because no one believes in them and the whole subject is felt to be an embarrassing one." ascribing it to a human-inherited [archetype](Jungian archetypes).
### Liturgical
#### Paschal liturgical
This interpretation, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the [Easter](Easter) rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in *The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse* (new edition, 2004) by [H. Shepherd](Massey)(Massey H. Shepherd), an Episcopal scholar, and in [Hahn](Scott)(Scott Hahn)'s ''The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth'' (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (AD 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.Scott Hahn, ''The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth*, . New York: Doubleday, 1999.
They believe the Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book *Eucharist and Eschatology'' (Oxford University Press, 1980). According to [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI) some of the images of Revelation should be understood in the context of the dramatic suffering and persecution of the churches of Asia in the 1st century.
Accordingly, they argue, the Book of Revelation should not be read as an enigmatic warning, but as an encouraging vision of Christ's definitive victory over evil.
#### Oriental Orthodox
In the [Orthodox Church](Coptic)(Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria) the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night or [Friday](Good)(Good Friday).["Night of the Apocalypse"](http://suscopts.org/resources/literature/222/night-of-the-apocalypse/) , published by [Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States](Coptic)(Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States), accessed 23 May 2018
### Eschatological
Most Christian interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories:
* [Historicism](Historicism (Christianity)), which sees in Revelation a broad view of history;
* [Preterism](Preterism), in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the [era](apostolic)(apostolic era) (1st century) or, at the latest, the fall of Jerusalem or the [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire);
* [Futurism](Futurism (Christianity)), which believes that Revelation describes future events (modern believers in this interpretation are often called "[millennialists](Millennialism)"); and
* [Idealism/Allegoricalism](Idealism (Christian eschatology)), which holds that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an [allegory](allegory) of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between [and evil](good)(good and evil).
Additionally, there are significant differences in interpretation of the thousand years (the "millennium") mentioned in Revelation 20:2.
* [Premillennialism](Premillennialism), which holds a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers literal interpretations of the content of the book;
* [Amillennialism](Amillennialism), which rejects a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers allegorical interpretations of the content of the book; and
* [Postmillennialism](Postmillennialism), which includes both literal and allegorical interpretations of the "millennium" but views the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) as following the conversion to Christianity of a gradually improving world.
#### Eastern Orthodox
[[File:Apokalipsis XVI.jpg|thumb|An Orthodox [icon](icon) of the Apocalypse of St. John, 16th century]]
Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.
Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Byzantine Rite Churches, although it is read in the [Rite Orthodox Parishes](Western)(Western Rite Orthodoxy), which are under the same bishops as the Byzantine Rite.
#### Protestant
#### Seventh-day Adventist
Similar to the early Protestants, Adventists maintain a historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse.
Seventh-day Adventists believe the Book of Revelation is especially relevant to believers in the days preceding the second coming of Jesus Christ. "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." "Here is the patience of the saints; here are those who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." As participatory agents in the work of salvation for all humankind, "This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent." The three angels of Revelation 14 represent the people who accept the light of God's messages and go forth as his agents to sound the warning throughout the length and breadth of the earth.
#### Bahá'í Faith
By reasoning analogous with [Millerite](Millerism) historicism, [Bahá'u'lláh](Bahá'u'lláh)'s doctrine of [revelation](progressive)(Progressive revelation (Bahá'í)), a modified historicist method of interpreting prophecy, is identified in the teachings of the [Faith](Bahá'í)(Bahá'í Faith).
[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá](ʻAbdu'l-Bahá), the son and chosen successor of Bahá'u'lláh, has given some interpretations about the 11th and 12th chapters of Revelation in *[Answered Questions](Some)(Some Answered Questions)*. The 1,260 days spoken of in the forms: one thousand two hundred and sixty days, forty-two months, refers to the 1,260 years in the [Calendar](Islamic)(Islamic Calendar) (AH 1260 or AD 1844). The "[witnesses](two)(two witnesses)" spoken of are [Muhammad](Muhammad) and [Ali](Ali). The red Dragon spoken of in Revelation 12:3 – "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" – are interpreted as symbolic of the seven provinces dominated by the [Umayyads](Umayyad dynasty): Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxania. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III and the like, which were not counted for this interpretation.
#### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The [of Mormon](Book)(Book of Mormon) states that [the Apostle](John)(John the Apostle) is the author of Revelation and that he was [foreordained](Foreordination) by God to write it.
[and Covenants](Doctrine)(Doctrine and Covenants), section 77, postulates answers to specific questions regarding the symbolism contained in the Book of Revelation. Topics include: the sea of glass, the four beasts and their appearance, the 24 elders, the book with seven seals, certain angels, the sealing of the 144,000, the little book eaten by John, and the two witnesses in Chapter 11.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the warning contained in Revelation 22:18–19 does not refer to the biblical canon as a whole. Rather, an open and ongoing dialogue between God and the modern-day Prophet and Apostles of the LDS faith constitute an open canon of scripture.
#### Esoteric
Christian Gnostics are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the keynote of their doctrine and their practice."R. [Swiney](Frances)(Frances Swiney) (Rosa Frances Emily Biggs) *The Esoteric Teaching of the Gnostics* London: Yellon, Williams & Co (1909) pp. 3, 4
[Morgan Pryse](James)(James Morgan Pryse) was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the [Chakra](Chakra). He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy."James M. Pryse *Apocalypse Unsealed* London: Watkins (1910). The theory behind the book is given in [Avalon](Arthur)(Arthur Avalon) (Sir John Woodroffe) *The Serpent Power* Madras (Chennai): Ganesh & Co (1913). One version of how these beliefs might have travelled from India to the Middle East, Greece and Rome is given in the opening chapters of [Otto](Rudolf)(Rudolf Otto) *The Kingdom of God and the Son of Man* London: Lutterworth (1938) Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. However, Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view."Christopher Rowland *Revelation* London: Epworth (1993) p. 5
#### Radical discipleship
The radical discipleship interpretation asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i. e., how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this interpretation the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that seek to oppose the ways of God and God's Kingdom. The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values – [imperialism](imperialism), [nationalism](nationalism), and [religion](civil)(civil religion) being the most dangerous and insidious.
This perspective (closely related to [theology](liberation)(liberation theology)) draws on the approach of Bible scholars such as [Myers](Ched)(Ched Myers), [Stringfellow](William)(William Stringfellow), [Horsley](Richard)(Richard Horsley), [Berrigan](Daniel)(Daniel Berrigan), Wes Howard-Brook, and [Rieger](Joerg)(Joerg Rieger). Various [anarchists](Christian)(Christian anarchism), such as [Ellul](Jacques)(Jacques Ellul), have identified the [State](State (polity)) and [power](political)(political power) as [Beast](the)(The Beast (Bible)) and the events described, being their doings and results, the aforementioned 'wrath'.
### Aesthetic and literary
Literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of theories about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish [Midrash](Midrash). Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with [drama](Greek)(Theatre of ancient Greece). In recent years, theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and which are less interested in what the original author intended.
[Cutler Torrey](Charles)(Charles Cutler Torrey) taught [languages](Semitic)(Semitic languages) at [University](Yale)(Yale University). His lasting contribution has been to show how prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are much more meaningful when treated as poets first and foremost. He thought this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose.Charles C. Torrey *The Apocalypse of John* New Haven: Yale University Press (1958). Christopher R. North in his *The Second Isaiah* London: OUP (1964) p. 23 says of Torrey's earlier Isaiah theory, "Few scholars of any standing have accepted his theory." This is the general view of Torrey's theories. However, Christopher North goes on to cite Torrey on 20 major occasions and many more minor ones in the course of his book. So, Torrey must have had some influence and poetry is the key. Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in [Aramaic](Aramaic).*Apocalypse of John* p. 7
According to Torrey, "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until AD 80, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues,*Apocalypse of John* p. 37 the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing."*Apocalypse of John* p. 8 Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6–8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda.*Apocalypse of John* p. 137 Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6:16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way.*Apocalypse of John* p. 140 The surviving Greek translation was a literal translation that aimed to comply with the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be "corrupted" in any way.
[Rossetti](Christina)(Christina Rossetti) was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God."Flowers preach to us if we will hear", begins her poem 'Consider the lilies of the field' *Goblin Market* London: Oxford University Press (1913) p. 87 Her *The Face of the Deep* is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience. Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows."Christians should resemble fire-flies, not glow-worms; their brightness drawing eyes upward, not downward." *The Face of the Deep* p. 26 Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... – who can bear it?"*The Face of the Deep* p. 301 She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy."*The Face of the Deep* p. 292 Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved."*The Face of the Deep* p. 495
Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. [Schüssler Fiorenza](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza) wrote *Revelation: Vision of a Just World* from the viewpoint of rhetoric.Elisabeth Schuessler Fiorenza *Revelation: Vision of a Just World* Edinburgh: T&T Clark (1993). The book seems to have started life as *Invitation to the Book of Revelation* Garden City: Doubleday (1981) Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic.Tina Pippin *Death & Desire: The rhetoric of gender in the Apocalypse of John* Louisville: Westminster-John Knox (1993) p. 105
Professor Schüssler Fiorenza believes that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says humanity is to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. In contrast, Tina Pippin states that John writes "[literature](horror)(Horror fiction)" and "the [misogyny](misogyny) which underlies the narrative is extreme."
[H. Lawrence](D.)(D. H. Lawrence) took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, *Apocalypse*.D H Lawrence *Apocalypse* London: Martin Secker (1932) published posthumously with an introduction (pp. v–xli) by Richard Aldington which is an integral part of the text. He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect"*Apocalypse* p. xxiii which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity"*Apocalypse* p. 6 and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation."*Apocalypse* p. 11 Lawrence did not consider how these two types of Christianity (good and bad in his view) might be related other than as opposites. He noted the difference meant that the John who wrote a gospel could not be the same John who wrote Revelation.
His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous." He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal in "great Chaldean sky-spaces", which he quite liked. After that, Lawrence thought, the book became preoccupied with the birth of the baby messiah and "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world." Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering in hell.
### Academic
Modern biblical scholarship attempts to understand Revelation in its 1st-century historical context within the genre of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature. This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this interpretation, assertions that "the time is near" are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently, the work is viewed as a warning to not conform to contemporary Greco-Roman society which John "unveils" as beastly, demonic, and subject to divine judgment.[Martin](Dale)(Dale Martin (scholar)) 2009 (lecture). . [University](Yale)(Yale University). Accessed 22 July 2013. [Lecture 24 (transcript)](http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/)
New Testament narrative criticism also places Revelation in its first century historical context but approaches the book from a literary perspective.David L. Barr, Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (Santa Rosa: Polebridge Press, 1998); Barr, "Narrative Technique in the Book of Revelation". In Oxford Handbook of Biblical Narrative, ed. Danna Nolan Fewell (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 376–88 For example, narrative critics examine characters and characterization, literary devices, settings, plot, themes, point of view, implied reader, implied author, and other constitutive features of narratives in their analysis of the book.
Although the acceptance of Revelation into the [canon](Biblical canon) has, from the beginning, been controversial, it has been essentially similar to the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was [heterodox](heterodox), and what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John's central message. Thus, the letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature (its purpose is offering hope to the downtrodden), and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary, and social context. Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st century to make sense of what the author may have intended.
Scholar [Whitlock](Barbara)(Barbara Whitlock) pointed out a similarity between the consistent destruction of thirds depicted in the Book of Revelation (a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone, a third of the trees and green grass, a third of the sea creatures and a third of the ships at sea, etc.) and the [mythology](Iranian)(Persian mythology) evil character [Zahhak](Zahhak) or Dahāg, depicted in the [Avesta](Avesta), the earliest religious texts of [Zoroastrianism](Zoroastrianism). Dahāg is mentioned as wreaking much evil in the world until at last chained up and imprisoned on the mythical Mt. Damāvand. The Middle Persian sources prophesy that at the end of the world, Dahāg will at last burst his bonds and ravage the world, consuming one in three humans and livestock, until the ancient hero [Kirsāsp](Garshasp) returns to life to kill Dahāg. Whitlock wrote: "Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Roman Empire's main rival, was part of the intellectual environment in which Christianity came into being, just as were Judaism, the Greek-Roman religion, and the worship of Isis and Mithras. A Zoroastrian influence is completely plausible".Barbara Whitlock, "Tracing out the convoluted sources of Christianity" in George D. Barnes (ed.), "Collected New Essays in Comparative Religion"
## Old Testament origins
Much of Revelation employs ancient sources, primarily but not exclusively from the Old Testament. For example, Howard-Brook and GwytherWes Howard-Brook & Anthony Gwyther *Unveiling Empire* New York: Orbis (1999) p. 76 regard the [of Enoch](Book)(Book of Enoch) as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures."
Academics showed little interest in this topic until recently.S Moyise p. 13 reports no work whatsoever done between 1912 and 1984 An anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871Anon *An exposition of the Apocalypse on a new principle of literal interpretation* Aberdeen: Brown (1871) prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 ("Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord") within Revelation 11 and writes Revelation 12:7 side by side with the role of "the Satan" in the [of Job](Book)(Book of Job). The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time.
[Moyise](Steve)(Steve Moyise) uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament [allusion](allusion)s than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation."S. Moyise *The Old Testament in the Book of Revelation* Sheffield: [Academic Press](Sheffield)(Sheffield Academic Press) (1995) p. 31 Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, Psalms, and Ezekiel, while neglecting, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch that are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers.
Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental. The author seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, the author borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40–48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs a temple because it is God's dwelling. [Boxall](Ian)(Ian Boxall)Ian Boxall The Revelation of St John London: Continuum & Peabody MA: Hendrickson (2006) p. 254 writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying to identify this "something new", Boxall argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence and linking most of them to the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.
Some commentators argue that it is these purposes – and not the structure – that really matter. [K. Beale](G.)(Gregory Beale) believes that, however much John makes use of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfillment of [7](Daniel)(Daniel 7).G. K. Beale John's use of the Old Testament in Revelation Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press (1998) p. 109 [Bauckham](Richard)(Richard Bauckham) has argued that John presents an early view of the Trinity through his descriptions of the visions and his identifying Jesus and the Holy Spirit with YHWH. Brandon Smith has expanded on both of their proposals while proposing a "trinitarian reading" of Revelation, arguing that John uses Old Testament language and allusions from various sources to describe a multiplicity of persons in YHWH without sacrificing monotheism, which would later be codified in the trinitarian doctrine of [Christianity](Nicene)(Nicene Christianity).Brandon D. Smith, "The Trinity in the Book of Revelation: Seeing Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in John’s Apocalypse" (IVP Academic, 2022)
## Olivet discourse
According to [Stuart Russell](James)(J. Stuart Russell), the book is an exposition of Olivet Discourse found in the [Gospels](Synoptic)(Synoptic Gospels) in [24](Matthew)(Matthew 24) and [25](Matthew 25), [13](Mark)(Mark 13), and [21](Luke)(Luke 21). Russell suggests there are parallels between the prophecy told by Jesus to the disciples and the prophecy recorded in the Book of Revelation, such as wars, famines, pestilence, earthquakes, false prophets, the darkening of the sun and moon, and stars falling from heaven.
## Figures in Revelation
In order of appearance:
# The author (see [the Apostle](John)(John the Apostle) or [of Patmos](John)(John of Patmos))
# One like the Son of man who gives the revelation
# Antipas, the faithful martyr
# [Nicolaitans](Nicolaitans)
# Jezebel
# The One who sits on the throne ([God](God))
# [four living creatures](The)(Four living creatures)
# The twenty four elders
# The Lamb, with seven horns and seven eyes ([of Judah](Lion)(Lion of Judah))
# Saints under the altar
# [Horsemen of the Apocalypse](Four)(Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse)
# The souls of them that were slain for the word of God
# Four angels holding the four winds of the Earth
# The seal-bearer angel ([144,000](144,000) of Israel sealed)
# A great multitude from every nation
# Seven angelic trumpeters
# The star called Wormwood
# Angel of Woe
# Scorpion-tailed Locusts
# The angel of the bottomless pit (Hebrew: [Abaddon](Abaddon), Greek: Apollyon)
# Four angels bound to the great river [Euphrates](Euphrates)
# Two hundred million man [cavalry](cavalry)
# The mighty angel with little book open and when he cried of seven thunders uttered their voices
# [Two Witnesses](The)(The Two Witnesses)
# [Woman](The)(Woman of the Apocalypse) and her child
# The Dragon, fiery red with seven heads and ten horns ([Satan](Satan))
# [Michael the Archangel](Saint)(Saint Michael the Archangel)
# The Beast, with seven heads and ten horns ([of the Sea](Antichrist/Beast)(Antichrist))
# The False Prophet ([of the Earth](Beast)(False prophet#The false prophet of Revelation))
# The three angels
# The angelic reapers and the grapes of wrath
# Voice from heaven
# Seven plague angels (Seven bowls of wrath)
# Angel of the waters
# [Whore of Babylon](The)(The Whore of Babylon) (Mother of harlots)
# Word of God/Rider on a white horse
# Angel binding Satan for one thousand years
# Those of the first resurrection
# [and Magog](Gog)(Gog and Magog) (after the one thousand years)
# Those of the second resurrection
## See also
* [and Omega](Alpha)(Alpha and Omega)
* [Apocalypse*](*The)(The Apocalypse (2000 film)) – 2000 film
* [of John – dated astronomically](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse of John – dated astronomically)
* [of Peter](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse of Peter)
* [of Zerubbabel](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse of Zerubbabel)
* [Apocalypticism](Apocalypticism)
* [of Caesarea](Arethas)(Arethas of Caesarea)
* [cosmology](Biblical)(Biblical cosmology)
* [numerology](Biblical)(Biblical numerology)
* [of Ezekiel](Book)(Book of Ezekiel)
* [eschatological differences](Christian)(Christian eschatological differences)
* [principle](Day-year)(Day-year principle)
* [Apocalypse manuscripts](English)(English Apocalypse manuscripts)
* [Apocalypticae](Horae)(Horae Apocalypticae)
* [Maccabees](Maccabees)
* [Masada](Masada)
* [New Earth](The)(The New Earth)
* [of the Beast](Number)(Number of the beast)
* [Patmos](Patmos)
* [variants in the Book of Revelation](Textual)(Textual variants in the New Testament#Book of Revelation)
* [Vespasian](Vespasian)
* [of the Apocalypse](Woman)(Woman of the Apocalypse)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
* Barr, David, L. (1998). *Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation.* Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, .
* Bass, Ralph E., Jr. (2004). *Back to the Future: A Study in the Book of Revelation*, Greenville, South Carolina: Living Hope Press, .
*
*
* [G.K.](Beale)(Gregory Beale) (1999). *The Book of Revelation*, [NIGTC](New International Greek Testament Commentary), Grand Rapids: Cambridge.
*
* [W.](Bousset)(Wilhelm Bousset), *Die Offenbarung Johannis*, Göttingen 18965, 19066.
* Boxall, Ian, (2006). *The Revelation of Saint John* (Black's New Testament Commentary) London: Continuum, and Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson. U.S. edition:
* Boxall, Ian (2002). *Revelation: Vision and Insight – An Introduction to the Apocalypse*, London: SPCK
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Ford, J. Massyngberde (1975). *Revelation*, The [Bible](Anchor)(Anchor Bible), New York: Doubleday .
* Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (1998). *Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation*, Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, .
* Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (2002). *The Beast of Revelation*, Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, .
* [Scott](Hahn,)(Scott Hahn) (1999). ''The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth*, Darton, Longman, Todd,
*
* Hernández, Juan (2006). [*Scribal habits and theological influences in the Apocalypse*](https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1YlHaGpooC&pg=PA1), Tübingen
*
* Hudson, Gary W. (2006). *Revelation: Awakening The Christ Within*, Vesica Press,
* Jennings, Charles A. (2001). *The Book of Revelation From An Israelite and Historicist Interpretation*, Truth in History Publications. .
* Kiddle M. (1941). *The Revelation of St. John* (The Moffat New Testament Commentary), New York – London
* Kirsch, Thomas (2006). *A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization*. New York: HarperOne
*
*
* [Ernst](Lohmeyer,)(Ernst Lohmeyer) (1953). *Die Offenbarung des Johannes*, Tübingen
*
* [Lodowicke](Muggleton,)(Lodowicke Muggleton) (2010). *Works on the Book of Revelation* London
* Müller, U.B. (1995). *Die Offenbarung des Johannes*, Güttersloh
*
*
*
*
* [Elaine](Pagels,)(Elaine Pagels) (2012). *Revelations: Visions, Prophecy, and Politics in the Book of Revelation*, Viking Adult,
* Prigent P., *L'Apocalypse*, Paris 1981.
*
*
*
* Roloff J. (1987). *Die Offenbarung des Johannes*
*
* [Massey H.](Shepherd,)(Massey H. Shepherd) (2004). *The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse*, James Clarke,
*
*
*
*
* Sweet, J. P. M. (1979, Updated 1990). *Revelation*, London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. .
*
* Vitali, Francesco (2008). *Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse*, TAU Editrice, Todi
*
* Wikenhauser, A. *Offenbarung des Johannes*, Regensburg 1947, 1959.
* Witherington, Ben III (2003). *Revelation*, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge University Press, .
* [Th.](Zahn)(Theodor Zahn), *Die Offenbarung des Johannes'', t. 1–2, Leipzig 1924–1926.
## External links
* [Early Christian Writings:](http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/revelation.html) Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
* ["Revelation to John."](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500324/Revelation-to-John) *Encyclopædia Britannica* Online.
* [Apocalypse, Book of](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01594b.htm) – Article from the *Catholic Encyclopedia*
* [Understanding the Book of Revelation](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/revelation/white.html) – Article by L. Michael White from PBS *Frontline* program "Apocalypse!"
*[*The Marvelous Address: The Revelation of the Beloved (Disciple)*](http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4086) is an 18th-century manuscript about the book of Revelation written in [Garshuni](Garshuni) (Arabic written in Syriac script).
* [*Jewish Encyclopedia*](http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=248&letter=R)
* Various versions
*
**
* [The Apocalypse](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054914), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer, Marina Benjamin & Justin Champion (*In Our Time*, 17 July 2003)
}}
[ ](Category:Book of Revelation)
[Christian texts](Category:1st-century)(Category:1st-century Christian texts)
[apocalyptic writings](Category:Christian)(Category:Christian apocalyptic writings)
[literature](Category:Johannine)(Category:Johannine literature)
[Antilegomena](Category:Luther's)(Category:Luther's Antilegomena)
[Testament books](Category:New)(Category:New Testament books)
|
Jack Quaid
|
jack_quaid
|
# Jack Quaid
*Revision ID: 1160154122 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:29:05Z*
---
| birth_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2012–present
| partner =
| father = [Quaid](Dennis)(Dennis Quaid)
| mother = [Ryan](Meg)(Meg Ryan)
| relatives = [Quaid](Randy)(Randy Quaid) (uncle)
}}
**Jack Henry Quaid** (born April 24, 1992) is an American actor. The son of actors [Ryan](Meg)(Meg Ryan) and [Quaid](Dennis)(Dennis Quaid), he made his acting debut with a minor role in the dystopian film *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film))* (2012). Quaid then had his breakout role as vigilante [Campbell](Hughie)(Hughie Campbell) in the [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) superhero series *[Boys](The)(The Boys (TV series))* (2019–present).
Among other roles, Quaid was part of the main cast of [HBO](HBO)'s drama series *[Vinyl](Vinyl (TV series))* (2016) and has had numerous [acting](voice)(voice acting) roles such as [Boimler](Brad)(Brad Boimler) in *[Trek: Lower Decks](Star)(Star Trek: Lower Decks)* (2020–present). In film, he has appeared in *[Lucky](Logan)(Logan Lucky)* (2017) and as [Kirsch](Richie)(List of Scream (film series) characters#Richie Kirsch) in the slasher films *[Scream](Scream (2022 film))* (2022) and *[VI](Scream)(Scream VI)* (2023).
## Early life
Quaid was born on April 24, 1992, in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), to actors [Ryan](Meg)(Meg Ryan) and [Quaid](Dennis)(Dennis Quaid). He was President of the Bad Movie Club at [School](Crossroads)(Crossroads School (Santa Monica, California)) in [Monica, California](Santa)(Santa Monica, California), and later he attended NYU's [School of the Arts](Tisch)(Tisch School of the Arts) for three years.
## Career
In 2012, Quaid made his film debut as [Marvel](List of The Hunger Games characters#Marvel) in the film *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film))*. In an interview, he explained his experience while filming: "We had torrential downpours, flooding, scorching heat and then a bear would wander onto the set. But it was an amazing bonding experience. We definitely all had a great story to tell about what we did on our summer vacation." He also said that he was warned of a backlash from fans because of his character's dastardly acts: "When I got cast, I was told that people would be spitting on me in the streets." In 2013, he reprised Marvel for a flashback scene in *[Hunger Games: Catching Fire](The)(The Hunger Games: Catching Fire)* in a cameo appearance.
Following his involvement with the *Hunger Games* franchise, Quaid took part in a series of independent films, including his own film *Roadies*, which was funded through donations on the [crowdsourcing](crowdsourcing) website [Indiegogo](Indiegogo). During this time, he was part of the [comedy](sketch)(sketch comedy) troop Sasquatch Sketch, which was active from 2013 to 2017, produced dozens of comedy videos, and performed live in the Los Angeles area. Quaid also acted in other comedic [webseries](Web series) and shorts.
Quaid appeared in the main cast of the short-lived HBO television series *[Vinyl](Vinyl (TV series))*, which premiered in February 2016. In 2017, he appeared in [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)’s heist comedy *[Lucky](Logan)(Logan Lucky)*, and starred as Jordan Welch in the [horror](horror film) [comedy](comedy film) film *[Girls](Tragedy)(Tragedy Girls)*, which was released in theaters on October 20, 2017.
On March 6, 2018, *[Deadline](Deadline Hollywood)* announced that Quaid was cast as ["Hughie" Campbell](Hugh)(Hughie Campbell (The Boys)), the lead role of the [Amazon](Amazon Studios) drama series *[Boys](The)(The Boys (TV series))*. The series premiered in July 2019. Since its debut, it has been renewed for a second, third, and fourth season. In late 2018, Quaid and his fellow *[Boys](The)(The Boys (TV series))* co-star [Moriarty](Erin)(Erin Moriarty (actress)) both appeared in the music video for [Clearwater Revival](Creedence)(Creedence Clearwater Revival)'s song "[You Ever Seen the Rain?](Have)(Have You Ever Seen the Rain?)".
In July 2019, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* announced that Quaid was cast as [Brad Boimler](Ensign)(Brad Boimler) in the new [All Access](CBS)(CBS All Access) animated series *[Trek: Lower Decks](Star)(Star Trek: Lower Decks)*. This follows his voice acting role on the [Netflix](Netflix) animated series *[Girls Forever!](Harvey)(Harvey Girls Forever!)*.
In the same year, Quaid starred in romantic-comedy *[One](Plus)(Plus One (2019 film))*. In September 2020, he was cast in the [*Scream* film](fifth)(Scream (2022 film)), which was released on January 14, 2022.
Quaid was cast in [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan)'s upcoming historical epic *[Oppenheimer](Oppenheimer (film))*, scheduled for release on July 21, 2023.
## Personal life
Quaid resides in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California). He was in a relationship with actress Lizzy McGroder from 2016 to 2021.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video games
### Web series
### Music video
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
[births](Category:1992)(Category:1992 births)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent)
[people of French descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of French descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[people of Polish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Polish descent)
[School alumni](Category:Crossroads)(Category:Crossroads School alumni)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from Los Angeles](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Los Angeles)
[School of the Arts alumni](Category:Tisch)(Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni)
|
Sailor Moon
|
sailor_moon
|
# Sailor Moon
*Revision ID: 1159015785 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T18:01:53Z*
---
| demographic = *[Shōjo](Shōjo manga)*
| magazine = [Nakayoshi](Nakayoshi)
| magazine_en =
| first = December 28, 1991
| last = February 3, 1997
| volumes =
| volume_list = List of Sailor Moon chapters
}}
and later as ***Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon***|lead=yes}} is a Japanese [manga](manga) series written and illustrated by [Takeuchi](Naoko)(Naoko Takeuchi). It was originally serialized in [Kodansha](Kodansha)'s [manga](*shōjo*)(Shōjo manga) magazine *[Nakayoshi](Nakayoshi)* from 1991 to 1997; the 52 individual chapters were published in 18 [volumes](Tankōbon). The series follows the adventures of a schoolgirl named [Tsukino](Usagi)(Sailor Moon (character)) as she transforms into the eponymous character to search for a magical artifact, the "Phantom Silver Crystal"}}. She leads a group of comrades, the Sailor Soldiers, called Sailor Guardians in later editions, as they battle against villains to prevent the theft of the Silver Crystal and the destruction of the [System](Solar)(Solar System).
The manga was adapted into [anime series](an)(Sailor Moon (TV series)) produced by [Animation](Toei)(Toei Animation) and broadcast in Japan from 1992 to 1997. Toei also developed three animated feature films, a television special, and three short films based on the anime. A live-action television adaptation, *[Guardian Sailor Moon](Pretty)(Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon (2003 TV series))*, aired from 2003 to 2004, and a second anime series, *[Moon Crystal](Sailor)(Sailor Moon Crystal)*, began [simulcast](simulcast)ing in 2014. The manga series was licensed for an English language release by [Comics](Kodansha)(Kodansha Comics) in North America, and in Australia and New Zealand by Random House Australia. The entire anime series has been licensed by [Media](Viz)(Viz Media) for an English language release in North America and by [Entertainment](Madman)(Madman Entertainment) in Australia and New Zealand.
Since its release, *Sailor Moon* has received universal acclaim, with praise for its art, characterization, and humor. The manga has sold over 46 million copies worldwide, making it one of the [manga series](best-selling)(List of best-selling manga), as well as one of the best-selling [manga](*shōjo*)(Shōjo manga) series of all time. The franchise has also generated in worldwide merchandise sales.
## Plot
One day in [Juban](Azabu-Jūban), [Tokyo](Tokyo), a [middle-school](Education in Japan) student named [Tsukino](Usagi)(Sailor Moon (character)) befriends [Luna](Luna (Sailor Moon)), a talking black cat who gives her a magical brooch enabling her to transform into Sailor Moon: a guardian destined to save [Earth](Earth) from the forces of evil. Luna and Usagi assemble a team of fellow Sailor Guardians to find their princess and the Silver Crystal. They encounter the studious Ami Mizuno, who awakens as [Mercury](Sailor)(Sailor Mercury); Rei Hino, a local [Shinto](Shinto) [maiden](shrine)(Miko) who awakens as [Mars](Sailor)(Sailor Mars); Makoto Kino, a tall and strong transfer student who awakens as [Jupiter](Sailor)(Sailor Jupiter); and Minako Aino, a young aspiring [idol](Japanese idol) who had awakened as [Venus](Sailor)(Sailor Venus) a few months prior, accompanied by her talking feline companion [Artemis](List of Sailor Moon characters#Artemis). Additionally, they befriend Mamoru Chiba, a high school student who assists them on occasion as [Mask](Tuxedo)(Tuxedo Mask).
In the first arc, the group battles the [Kingdom](Dark)(Dark Kingdom), whose members attempt to find the Silver Crystal and free an imprisoned, evil entity called Queen Metaria. Usagi and her team discover that in their previous lives, they were members of the ancient Moon Kingdom in a period of time called the Silver Millennium. The Dark Kingdom waged war against them, destroying the Moon Kingdom. Its ruler [Serenity](Queen)(List of Sailor Moon characters#Queen Serenity) sent her daughter Princess Serenity, [reincarnated](Reincarnation) as Usagi, along with her protectors the Sailor Guardians, their feline advisers Luna and Artemis, and the princess's true love Prince Endymion, who in turn was reborn as Mamoru.
At the beginning of the second arc, the Sailor Guardians meet Usagi and Mamoru's future daughter [Chibiusa](Chibiusa), who arrives from a 30th-century version of Tokyo known as "Crystal Tokyo", which is ruled by Neo Queen Serenity, Usagi of the future and has been attacked by the group of villains known as the [Moon Clan](Black)(Black Moon Clan). During their journey, Sailor Moon and her friends meet [Pluto](Sailor)(Sailor Pluto), Guardian of the Time-Space Door. During the climactic battle of the arc, Sailor Pluto dies trying to save the sailor soldiers and Chibiusa was brainwashed by the enemy and turned into the Black Lady, but was eventually reformed and awakens as a Guardian herself—Sailor Chibi Moon.
The third arc introduces car-racer Haruka Tenoh and violinist Michiru Kaioh, who appear as [Uranus](Sailor)(Sailor Uranus) and [Neptune](Sailor)(Sailor Neptune), whose duty is to guard the Solar System against external threats. Physics student Setsuna Meioh, Sailor Pluto's reincarnation, joins Uranus and Neptune in their mission to kill a mysterious girl named Hotaru Tomoe, whom they identify as the Guardian of Destruction [Saturn](Sailor)(Sailor Saturn). However, when Saturn awakens she joins the final fight against the main antagonists of the arc, the [Busters](Death)(Death Busters), sacrificing her life in the process. With her newly obtained powers as Super Sailor Moon, Usagi restores the Earth and Hotaru is reincarnated as a baby.
The fourth arc explores the Sailor Guardians' dreams and nightmares when the villainous group [Moon Circus](Dead)(Dead Moon Circus) exploits the Guardians' deepest fears, invades Elysion (which hosts the Earth's Golden Kingdom), and captures its [priest](high)(high priest) [Helios](List of Sailor Moon characters#Helios/Pegasus), who turned into a Pegasus and tried to ask Guardians for help. This storyline also addresses Mamoru's relevance as protector of the Earth and owner of the Golden Crystal, the sacred stone of the Golden Kingdom. Mamoru and all ten of the reunited Guardians combine their powers, enabling Usagi to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon and defeat Dead Moon's leader, [Nehelenia](Queen)(Dead Moon Circus#Queen Nehelenia).
In the final arc the [Starlights](Sailor)(List of Sailor Moon characters#Sailor Starlights) from the Planet Kinmoku, their ruler [Kakyuu](Princess)(List of Sailor Moon characters#Princess Kakyuu), and the mysterious little girl [Chibi-Chibi](List of Sailor Moon characters#Chibi-Chibi) join Usagi in her fight against [Galactica](Shadow)(Shadow Galactica), a group of both corrupted and false Sailor Guardians and led by [Galaxia](Sailor)(Shadow Galactica#Sailor Galaxia), who have been rampaging across the galaxy and killing other Sailor Guardians to steal their Star Seeds, Sailor Crystals—the essence of their lives. After Mamoru and all of the main Solar System Guardians are killed by Shadow Galactica, Usagi travels to the Galaxy Cauldron, the birthplace of all Star Seeds of the [Way](Milky)(Milky Way), in an attempt to revive her loved ones and to confront [Chaos](Shadow Galactica#Chaos), the source of all strife in the galaxy.
## Production
### Creation of *Sailor Moon*
[Takeuchi](Naoko)(Naoko Takeuchi) redeveloped *Sailor Moon* from her 1991 manga serial *[Sailor V](Codename:)(Codename: Sailor V)*, which was first published on August 20, 1991, and featured Sailor Venus as the main protagonist. Takeuchi wanted to create a story with a theme about girls in outer space. While discussing with her editor Fumio Osano, he suggested the addition of [fuku](Sailor)(Sailor fuku). When *Codename: Sailor V* was proposed for adaptation into an anime by [Animation](Toei)(Toei Animation), Takeuchi redeveloped the concept so Sailor Venus became a member of a team. The resulting manga series became a fusion of the popular magical girl genre and the *[Sentai](Super)(Super Sentai)* series, of which Takeuchi was a fan. Recurring motifs include [astronomy](astronomy), [astrology](astrology), [gemology](gemology), [mythology](Greco-Roman)(Classical mythology), [elemental themes](Japanese)(Japanese mythology), teen fashions, and schoolgirl antics.
Takeuchi said discussions with Kodansha originally envisaged a single story arc; the storyline was developed in meetings a year before serialization began. After completing the arc, Toei and Kodansha asked Takeuchi to continue the series. She wrote four more story arcs, which were often published simultaneously with the five corresponding seasons of the anime adaptation. The anime ran one or two months behind the manga. As a result, the anime follows the storyline of the manga fairly closely, although there are deviations. Takeuchi later said because Toei's production staff were mostly male, she feels the anime has "a slight [perspective](male)(male gaze)."
Takeuchi later said she planned to kill off the protagonists, but Osano rejected the notion and said, "[Moon*](*Sailor) is a [manga](*shōjo*)(Shōjo manga)!" When the anime adaptation was produced, the protagonists were killed in the final battle with the Dark Kingdom, although they were revived. Takeuchi resented that she was unable to do that in her version. Takeuchi also intended for the *Sailor Moon* anime adaptation to last for one season, but due to the immense popularity, Toei asked Takeuchi to continue the series. At first, she struggled to develop another storyline to extend the series. While discussing with Osano, he suggested the inclusion of Usagi's daughter from the future, Chibiusa.
### Westernization
After the *Sailor Moon* anime was released in North America and dubbed in English, fans and academics alike noted that the dub had westernized *Sailor Moon* from how it had been released in Japan. In the 1990s English version of *Sailor Moon*, the westernization of the characters is seen in how a majority of the character names are changed from Japanese to English names. Sailor Moon's civilian name, Usagi Tsukino, is turned into Serena. The love interest of Sailor Moon, Mamoru Chiba, is turned into Darien Shields. Other examples of westernization referenced by *Sailor Moon*'s audience were things like flipping scenes of traffic to have cars [on the right side of the road](drive)(Left- and right-hand traffic) along with the English dub changing any conversations between characters that contained lesser-known (in the United States at the time) Japanese cultural references. According to [America](Bandai)(Bandai America), the company in charge of Sailor Moon merchandise in the western hemisphere, the approach to advertising *Sailor Moon* was to make the show and super-heroine "'culturally appropriate' for the American market".
## Media
### Manga
Written and illustrated by [Takeuchi](Naoko)(Naoko Takeuchi), *Sailor Moon* was serialized in the monthly manga anthology *[Nakayoshi](Nakayoshi)* from December 28, 1991, to February 3, 1997. The side-stories were serialized simultaneously in *RunRun*—another of Kodansha's manga magazines. The 52 individual chapters were published in 18 *[tankōbon](tankōbon)* volumes by [Kodansha](Kodansha) from July 6, 1992, to April 4, 1997. In 2003, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 12 *shinzōban* volumes to coincide with the release of the [series](live-action)(Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon (live-action series)). The manga was retitled *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon* and included new cover art, and revised dialogue and illustrations. The ten individual short stories were also released in two volumes. In 2013, the chapters were once again re-released in 10 *kanzenban* volumes to commemorate the manga's 20th anniversary, which includes digitally remastered artwork, new covers and color artwork from its *Nakayoshi* run. The books have been enlarged from the typical Japanese manga size to A5. The short stories were republished in two volumes, with the order of the stories shuffled. *Codename: Sailor V* was also included in the third edition.
The *Sailor Moon* manga was initially licensed for an English release by Mixx (later [Tokyopop](Tokyopop)) in North America. The manga was first published as a serial in *[MixxZine](TOKYOPOP (magazine))* beginning in 1997, but was later removed from the magazine and made into a separate, low print monthly comic to finish the first, second and third arcs. At the same time, the fourth and fifth arcs were printed in a secondary magazine called *[Smile](Smile (magazine))*. Pages from the Tokyopop version of the manga ran daily in the Japanimation Station, a service accessible to users of [Online](America)(America Online). The series was later collected into a three-part graphic novel series spanning eighteen volumes, which were published from December 1, 1998, to September 18, 2001. In May 2005, Tokyopop's license to the *Sailor Moon* manga expired, and its edition went out of print.
In 2011, [Comics](Kodansha)(Kodansha Comics) announced they had acquired the license for the *Sailor Moon* manga and its lead-in series *Codename: Sailor V* in English. They published the twelve volumes of *Sailor Moon* simultaneously with the two-volume edition of *Codename Sailor V* from September 2011 to July 2013. The first of the two related short story volumes was published on September 10, 2013; the second was published on November 26, 2013. At [Expo](Anime)(Anime Expo) 2017, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release *Sailor Moon* in an "Eternal Edition", featuring a new English translation, new cover artwork by Takeuchi, and color pages from the manga's original run, printed on extra-large premium paper. The first Eternal Edition volume was published on September 11, 2018; the tenth and final volume was published on October 20, 2020. On July 1, 2019, Kondasha Comics began releasing the Eternal Editions digitally, following an announcement the day before about the series being released digitally in ten different languages. In November 2020, Kodansha Comics announced plans to re-release the *Sailor Moon* manga again as part of their "Naoko Takeuchi Collection". The company described the new edition as a "more affordable, portable" version of the Eternal Edition. The first volume was published on April 5, 2022.
*Sailor Moon* has also been licensed in other English-speaking countries. In the United Kingdom, the volumes are distributed by Turnaround Publisher Services. In Australia, the manga is distributed by Penguin Books Australia.
The manga has been licensed in Russia and [CIS](Commonwealth of Independent States) for distribution by XL-Media publishing company, a subdivision of [Eksmo](Eksmo) publishing company. The first volume was released in 2018.
### Anime series
#### Overview
#### *Sailor Moon*
Toei Animation produced an anime television series based on the 52 manga chapters, also titled *Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon*. [Sato](Junichi)(Junichi Sato) directed the first season, [Ikuhara](Kunihiko)(Kunihiko Ikuhara) took over second through fourth season, and [Igarashi](Takuya)(Takuya Igarashi) directed the fifth and final season. The series premiered in Japan on [Asahi](TV)(TV Asahi) on March 7, 1992, and ran for 200 episodes until its conclusion on February 8, 1997. Upon its release, the show quickly rose to be Toei Animation's highest ranked TV series. Most of the international versions, including the English adaptations, are titled *Sailor Moon*.
#### *Sailor Moon Crystal*
On July 6, 2012, Kodansha and Toei Animation announced that it would commence production of a new anime adaptation of *Sailor Moon*, called *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal*, for a simultaneous worldwide release in 2013 as part of the series's 20th anniversary celebrations, and stated that it would be a closer adaptation of the manga than the first anime. *Crystal* premiered on July 5, 2014, and new episodes would air on the first and third Saturdays of each month. New cast were announced, along with [Mitsuishi](Kotono)(Kotono Mitsuishi) reprising her role as Sailor Moon. The first two seasons were released together, covering their corresponding arcs of the manga (*Dark Kingdom* and *Black Moon*). A third season based on the *Infinity* arc on the manga premiered on Japanese television on April 4, 2016, known as *Death Busters* arc in this adaptation. [Sakai](Munehisa)(Munehisa Sakai) directed the first and second season, while [Kon](Chiaki)(Chiaki Kon) directed the third season.
#### Films and television specials
Three animated theatrical feature films based on the original *Sailor Moon* series have been released in Japan: *[Moon R: The Movie](Sailor)(Sailor Moon R: The Movie)* in 1993, followed by *[Moon S: The Movie](Sailor)(Sailor Moon S: The Movie)* in 1994, and *[Moon SuperS: The Movie](Sailor)(Sailor Moon SuperS: The Movie)* in 1995. The films are side-stories that do not correlate with the timeline of the original series. A one-hour television special was aired on TV Asahi in Japan on April 8, 1995. [Ikuhara](Kunihiko)(Kunihiko Ikuhara) directed the first film, while the latter two were directed by Hiroki Shibata.
In 1997, an article in *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* stated that [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) was interested in originally acquiring the rights to *Sailor Moon* as a live action film to be directed by [Tong](Stanley)(Stanley Tong) & [Davis](Geena)(Geena Davis) set to star as Queen Beryl, along with [Ryder](Winona)(Winona Ryder) & [Shue](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Shue) planning to star in the film. After Disney put the project on [turnaround](turnaround (filmmaking)), [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) acquired the film rights.
In 2017, it was revealed that *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Crystal* anime's fourth season would be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, adapting the *Dream* arc from the manga. On June 30, 2019, it was announced that the title of the films will be *[Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie](Pretty)(Sailor Moon Eternal)*. The first film was originally to be released on September 11, 2020, but was postponed and released on January 8, 2021, and the second film was released on February 11, 2021. [Kon](Chiaki)(Chiaki Kon) returned from *Crystal*s third season to direct the two films.
In 2022, it was announced that a sequel to *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon Eternal The Movie*, covering the *Stars* arc of the manga would also be produced as a two-part theatrical anime film project, titled *[Guardian Sailor Moon Cosmos The Movie](Pretty)(Sailor Moon Cosmos)*. The two films are directed by Tomoya Takahashi, and will be released on June 9 and 30, 2023.
### Companion books
There have been numerous companion books to *Sailor Moon*. Kodansha released some of these books for each of the five story arcs, collectively called the *Original Picture Collection*. The books contain cover art, promotional material and other work by Takeuchi. Many of the drawings are accompanied by comments on the way she developed her ideas, created each picture and commentary on the anime interpretation of her story. Another picture collection, *Volume Infinity*, was released as a self-published, limited-edition artbook after the end of the series in 1997. This art book includes drawings by Takeuchi and her friends, her staff, and many of the voice actors who worked on the anime. In 1999, Kodansha published the *Materials Collection*; this contained development sketches and notes for nearly every character in the manga, and for some characters that never appeared. Each drawing includes notes by Takeuchi about costume pieces, the mentality of the characters and her feelings about them. It also includes timelines for the story arcs and for the real-life release of products and materials relating to the anime and manga. A short story, *Parallel Sailor Moon* is also featured, celebrating the [of the rabbit](year)(Rabbit (zodiac)).
### Novels
*Sailor Moon* was also adapted for publication as novels and released in 1998. The first book was written by [J. Levy](Stuart)(Stuart J. Levy). The following novels were written by Lianne Sentar.
### Stage musicals
In mid-1993, the first musical theater production based on *Sailor Moon* premiered, starring [Ohyama](Anza)(Anza Ohyama) as Sailor Moon. Thirty such musicals in all have been produced, with one in pre-production. The shows' stories include anime-inspired plotlines and original material. Music from the series has been released on about 20 memorial albums. The popularity of the musicals has been cited as a reason behind the production of the live-action television series, *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon*.
During the original run musicals ran in the winter and summer of each year, with summer musicals staged at the [Sunshine](Sunshine City, Tokyo) Theater in the [Ikebukuro](Ikebukuro) area of Tokyo. In the winter, musicals toured to other large cities in Japan, including [Osaka](Osaka), [Fukuoka](Fukuoka), [Nagoya](Nagoya), [Shizuoka](Shizuoka, Shizuoka), [Kanazawa](Kanazawa, Ishikawa), [Sendai](Sendai), [Saga](Saga, Saga), [Oita](Ōita, Ōita), [Yamagata](Yamagata, Yamagata) and [Fukushima](Fukushima, Fukushima). The final incarnation of the first run, , went on stage in January 2005, following which, [Bandai](Bandai) officially put the series on a hiatus. On June 2, 2013, Fumio Osano announced on his Twitter page that the *Sailor Moon* musicals would begin again in September 2013. The 20th anniversary show *La Reconquista* ran from September 13 to 23 at Shibuya's AiiA Theater Tokyo, with Satomi Ōkubo as Sailor Moon. Satomi Ōkubo reprised the role in the 2014 production *Petite Étrangère* which ran from August 21 to September 7, 2014, again at AiiA Theater Tokyo.
### Live-action film & series
#### Cancelled Disney film adaptation
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During the 1990s, [Disney](Disney) was going to adapt Sailor Moon into a film under the [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures) banner but it was cancelled immediately.
#### Unrealized American adaptation
In 1993, Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, Bandai and Toon Makers, Inc. conceptualized their own version of *Sailor Moon*, which was half live-action and half Western-style animation. Toon Makers produced a 17-minute [of concept](proof)(proof of concept) pilot and a two-minute music video, both of which were directed by Rocky Solotoff, who also worked on the pilot's script. Animation Insider – "Interviews about Animators by Animators" |url=http://www.animationinsider.com/2011/11/rocky-solotoff/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206102216/http://www.animationinsider.com/2011/11/rocky-solotoff/ |archive-date=February 6, 2012 }} Renaissance-Atlantic presented the concept to Toei, but it was turned down as their concept would have cost significantly more than simply exporting and dubbing the anime adaptation. The companies' work is believed by Solotoff to have been handed over to Raymond Iacovacci, one of the producers on the project, who stored the pilot script and animation cels in a storage facility. The logo created for the pilot was kept for the English dub, and Bandai released a "Moon Cycle" as part of its merchandise for the show, based on vehicles designed for the pilot.
The project was rediscovered in 1998 when the music video was screened at the [Expo](Anime)(Anime Expo) convention in Los Angeles, where it was met with laughter by onlookers. A congoer recorded the music video and the audience response, which would later resurface on video sites such as [YouTube](YouTube). The pilot and the music video would go on to be discussed at conventions such as the 2011 [Con](Gen)(Gen Con) and 2012 [Expo](Anime)(Anime Expo). Sailor Moon News |url=http://sailormoonnews.com/2014/06/29/saban-moon-toon-makers-sailor-moon-panel-planned-for-anime-expo-on-july-6th/ |access-date=2022-08-23 |language=en-US}} It was given the monikers of "''Toon Makers' Sailor Moon"* and "Saban Moon" despite having no connection with [Entertainment](Saban)(Saban Entertainment) save for Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, which worked with the company on *[Rangers](Power)(Power Rangers)''. The proof of concept video was widely considered to be [media](lost)(lost media) and director Solotoff reported that he was frequently contacted by people searching for the pilot. In 2012 multiple animation cels from the pilot, along with the script, surfaced on the internet after a storage locker, believed to be the one owned by Iacovacci, was sold.
In 1998, Frank Ward, along with his company Renaissance-Atlantic Entertainment, tried to revive the idea of doing a live-action series based on Sailor Moon, this time called *Team Angel*, without the involvement of Toon Makers. A 2-minute reel was produced and sent to Bandai America, but was also rejected.
In August 2022, the proof of concept was showcased for the first time on [YouTube](YouTube) in a documentary by Ray Mona. Ray Mona obtained both the pilot and its music video, as well and its related materials, from the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress).
#### *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon*
In 2003, [Company](Toei)(Toei Company) produced a Japanese live-action *Sailor Moon* television series using the new translated English title of *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon*. Its 49 episodes were broadcast on [Broadcasting](Chubu-Nippon)(Chubu-Nippon Broadcasting) from October 4, 2003, to September 25, 2004. *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon* featured [Sawai](Miyuu)(Miyuu Sawai) as Usagi Tsukino, [Izumi](Rika)(Rika Izumi) (credited as Chisaki Hama) as Ami Mizuno, [Kitagawa](Keiko)(Keiko Kitagawa) as Rei Hino, [Azama](Mew)(Mew Azama) as Makoto Kino, [Komatsu](Ayaka)(Ayaka Komatsu) as Minako Aino, [Shibue](Jouji)(Jouji Shibue) as Mamoru Chiba, [Han](Keiko)(Keiko Han) reprising her voice role as Luna from the original anime and [Yamaguchi](Kappei)(Kappei Yamaguchi) voicing Artemis. The series was an alternate retelling of the Dark Kingdom arc, adding a storyline different from that in the manga and first anime series, with original characters and new plot developments. In addition to the main episodes, two [direct-to-video](direct-to-video) releases appeared after the show ended its television broadcast. "Special Act" is set four years after the main storyline ends, and shows the wedding of the two main characters. "Act Zero" is a prequel showing the origins of [V](Sailor)(Codename: Sailor V) and Tuxedo Mask.
### Video games
The *Sailor Moon* franchise has spawned several video games across various genres and platforms. Most were made by Bandai and its subsidy Angel; others were produced by [Banpresto](Banpresto). The early games were [fighters](side-scrolling)(Beat 'em up); later ones were unique [games](puzzle)(Computer puzzle game), or [fighting game](versus)(versus fighting game)s. *[Story](Another)(Sailor Moon: Another Story)* was a turn-based [video game](role-playing)(role-playing video game). The only *Sailor Moon* game produced outside Japan, 3VR New Media's *The 3D Adventures of Sailor Moon*, went on sale in North America in 1997, They were developed in association with [Entertainment](DIC)(DIC Entertainment), which held the rights to the game and the TV series. A video game called *Sailor Moon: La Luna Splende* (*Sailor Moon: The Moon Shines*) was released on March 16, 2011, for the [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS).
### Tabletop games
The Dyskami Publishing Company released *Sailor Moon Crystal Dice Challenge*, created by [Ernest](James)(James Ernest) of Cheapass Games and based on the *[Men](Button)(Button Men)* tabletop game in 2017, and *Sailor Moon Crystal Truth or Bluff* in 2018.
### Theme park attractions
A Sailor Moon attraction, *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D*, was announced for [Studios Japan](Universal)(Universal Studios Japan). It featured Sailor Moon and the Inner Guardians arriving at the theme park, only to discover and stop the Youma's plan from stealing people's energies. The attraction ran from March 16 through July 24, 2018.
The sequel attraction, *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D: Moon Palace arc*, ran from May 31, 2019, to August 25, 2019. It featured all 10 Sailor Guardians and Super Sailor Moon.
In January 2022, a new attraction was announced titled *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: The Miracle 4-D ~Moon Palace arc~ Deluxe*. The attraction will feature the same storyline as the last and feature the Sailor Guardians in their princess forms. It will run from March 4, 2022, to August 28, 2022.
### Ice skating show
An ice skating show of *Sailor Moon* was announced on June 30, 2019, starring [Medvedeva](Evgenia)(Evgenia Medvedeva) as the lead. The name for the ice-skating show was announced as *Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Prism on Ice*, as well as the additional casts, with [Anza](Anza (singer)) from the first *Sailor Moon* musicals to play Queen Serenity, and the main voice actresses of the *Sailor Moon Crystal* anime series to voice their individual characters. Takuya Hiramatsu from the musicals was to write the screenplay, Yuka Sato and Benji Schwimmer were to be in charge of choreography, and Akiko Kosaka & Gesshoku Kaigi were to write the music for the show. The show was set to debut in early June 2020, but was first postponed to June 2021, and later to June 2022, due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), and finally cancelled on February 23, 2023, due to an [world situation"]("unstable)(Russo-Ukrainian War).
### Idol group
An idol pop group named SG5, short for Sailor Guardians 5, was announced in June 2022. Early plans to form the group began in 2020, with the official lineup and overall concept finalized in 2022. As part of the process, the group had to seek the approval of Naoko Takeuchi by performing in front of her and giving a presentation. Four of the group members, Sayaka, Ruri, Miyuu, and [Kaede](Kaede (dancer)), had previously performed together as part of the idol group [Happiness](Happiness (group)). The group will officially debut in July 2022 at Anime Expo and is co-managed by LDH Japan Inc. and Three Six Zero. On March 1, 2023, SG5 released their debut single "Firetruck" on streaming platforms alongside a music video with references to the manga.
## Reception
*Sailor Moon* is one of the most popular manga series of all time and continues to enjoy high readership worldwide. More than one million copies of its *tankōbon* volumes had been sold in Japan by the end of 1995. It has been described as iconic. By the series's 20th anniversary in 2012, the manga had sold over 35 million copies in over fifty countries, and the franchise has generated in worldwide [merchandise](merchandise) sales as of 2014. The manga won the [Manga Award](Kodansha)(Kodansha Manga Award) in 1993 for *shōjo*. The English adaptations of both the manga and the anime series became the first successful *shōjo* title in the United States. The character of Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popular [superheroes](female)(female superheroes) of all time.
*Sailor Moon* has also become popular internationally. *Sailor Moon* was broadcast in Spain and France beginning in December 1993; these became the first countries outside Japan to broadcast the series. It was later aired in Russia, South Korea, the Philippines, China, Italy, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia and Hong Kong, before North America picked up the franchise for adaptation. In the Philippines, *Sailor Moon* was one of [carrier network](its)(Associated Broadcasting Company)'s main draws, helping it to become the third-biggest network in the country. In 2001, the *Sailor Moon* manga was Tokyopop's best selling property, outselling the next-best selling titles by at least a factor of 1.5. In [Comic Distributors](Diamond)(Diamond Comic Distributors)'s May 1999 "Graphic Novel and Trade Paperback" category, *Sailor Moon* Volume 3 was the best-selling comic book in the United States.
Academic Timothy J. Craig attributes *Sailor Moon*'s international success to three things. First was the show's magical girl transformation of ordinary characters into superheroes. Second was the ability of marketers to establish the international audience's connection to characters despite their culture being Japanese. The third was the fact that the main superhero was female, something which was still rare in pop culture in countries like the United States during the 1990s.
In his 2007 book *[The Complete Guide](Manga:)(Manga: The Complete Guide)*, [Thompson](Jason)(Jason Thompson (writer)) gave the manga series three stars out of four. He enjoyed the blending of *[shōnen](shōnen manga)* and *shōjo* styles and said the combat scenes seemed heavily influenced by *[Seiya](Saint)(Saint Seiya)*, but shorter and less bloody. He also said the manga itself appeared similar to *Super Sentai* television shows. Thompson found the series fun and entertaining, but said the repetitive plot lines were a detriment to the title, which the increasing quality of art could not make up for; even so, he called the series "sweet, effective entertainment." Thompson said although the audience for *Sailor Moon* is both male and female, Takeuchi does not use excessive [fanservice](fanservice) for males, which would run the risk of alienating her female audience. Thompson said fight scenes are not physical and "boil down to their purest form of a clash of wills", which he says "makes thematic sense" for the manga.
Comparing the manga and anime, Sylvain Durand said the manga artwork is "gorgeous", but its storytelling is more compressed and erratic and the anime has more character development. Durand said "the sense of tragedy is greater" in the manga's telling of the "fall of the Silver Millennium," giving more detail about the origins of the Four Kings of Heaven and on Usagi's final battle against Queen Beryl and Metaria. Durand said the anime omits information that makes the story easy to understand, but judges the anime as more "coherent" with a better balance of comedy and tragedy, whereas the manga is "more tragic" and focused on Usagi and Mamoru's romance.
For the week of September 11, 2011, to September 17, 2011, the first volume of the re-released *Sailor Moon* manga was the best-selling manga on [New York Times* Manga Best Sellers list](*The)(List of The New York Times Manga Best Sellers), with the first volume of *Codename: Sailor V* in second place. The first print run of the first volume sold out after four weeks.
In English-speaking countries, *Sailor Moon* developed a cult following among anime fans and male university students. Patrick Drazen says the [Internet](History of the World Wide Web) was a new medium that fans used to communicate and played a role in the popularity of *Sailor Moon*. Fans could use the Internet to communicate about the series, organize campaigns to return *Sailor Moon* to U.S. broadcast, to share information about episodes that had not yet aired, or to write [fiction](fan)(fan fiction). Gemma Cox of [magazine](*Neo*)(Neo (magazine)) said part of the series's allure was that fans communicated via the Internet about the differences between the dub and the original version.
## Cultural impact and legacy
With their dynamic heroines and action-oriented plots, many credit *Sailor Moon* for reinvigorating the magical girl genre. After its success, many similar magical girl series, including *[Knight Rayearth](Magic)(Magic Knight Rayearth)*, *[Peach](Wedding)(Wedding Peach)*, *[Angel Ririka SOS](Nurse)(Nurse Angel Ririka SOS)*, *[Tail](Saint)(Saint Tail)*, *[Team in Akihabara](Cyber)(Cyber Team in Akihabara)* and *[Cure](Pretty)(Pretty Cure)*, emerged. *Sailor Moon* has been called "the biggest breakthrough" in English-dubbed anime until 1995, when it premiered on [YTV](YTV (TV channel)), and "the pinnacle of little kid *shōjo* anime". Cultural anthropologist [Thorn](Rachel)(Rachel Thorn) said that soon after *Sailor Moon*, *shōjo* manga started appearing in book shops instead of fandom-dominated comic shops. The series are credited as beginning a wider movement of girls taking up *shōjo* manga. Canadian librarian [Poitras](Gilles)(Gilles Poitras) defines a generation of anime fans as those who were introduced to anime by *Sailor Moon* in the 1990s, saying they were both much younger than other fans and were also mostly female.
Historian [Patten](Fred)(Fred Patten) credits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of a *Super Sentai*-like team of magical girls, and Paul Gravett credits the series with revitalizing the magical girl genre itself. A reviewer for *THEM Anime Reviews* also credited the anime series with changing the genre—its heroine must use her powers to fight evil, not simply have fun as previous magical girls had done. The series has also been compared to *[Morphin Power Rangers](Mighty)(Mighty Morphin Power Rangers)*, *[the Vampire Slayer](Buffy)(Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series))*, and *[the Teenage Witch](Sabrina)(Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series))*. Sailor Moon also influenced the development of *[Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir](Miraculous:)(Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir)*, *[W.I.T.C.H.](W.I.T.C.H.)*, *[Club](Winx)(Winx Club)*, *[LoliRock](LoliRock)*, *[vs. the Forces of Evil](Star)(Star vs. the Forces of Evil)*, and *[Spies!](Totally)(Totally Spies!)*.
In [culture](western)(western culture), *Sailor Moon* is sometimes associated with the [feminist](feminist) and [Power](Girl)(Girl Power) movements and with empowering its viewers, especially regarding the "credible, charismatic and independent" characterizations of the Sailor Guardians. Although *Sailor Moon* is regarded as empowering to women and feminism in concept, through the aggressive nature and strong personalities of the Sailor Guardians, it is a specific type of feminist concept where "traditional feminine ideals [are] incorporated into characters that act in traditionally male capacities". While the Sailor Guardians are strong, independent fighters who thwart evil—which is generally a masculine stereotype—they are also ideally feminized in the transformation of the Sailor Guardians from teenage girls into magical girls.
The most notable hyper-feminine features of the Sailor Guardians—and most other females in Japanese girls' comics—are the girls' thin bodies, long legs, and, in particular, round, orb-like eyes. Eyes are commonly known as the primal source within characters where emotion is evoked—sensitive characters have larger eyes than insensitive ones. The stereotypical role of women in Japanese culture is to undertake romantic and loving feelings; therefore, the prevalence of hyper-feminine qualities like the openness of the female eye in Japanese girls' comics is clearly exhibited in *Sailor Moon*. Thus, *Sailor Moon* emphasizes a type of feminist model by combining traditional masculine action with traditional female affection and sexuality through the Sailor Guardians.
## Merchandise
Since the early 2000s, [Animation](Toei)(Toei Animation) has collaborated with various different brands to create merchandise outside of children's demographic. On February 20, 2020, [ColourPop](ColourPop Cosmetics) released a *Sailor Moon* inspired makeup collection. Celebrating the 25th anniversary of *Sailor Moon* in the U.S., streetwear brand KITH released clothing like hoodies and t-shirts with *Sailor Moon* graphics on them. In honor of *Sailor Moon*'s 30th anniversary, brands like [Sanrio](Sanrio), [Uniqlo](Uniqlo), and Maison de FLEUR announced a collaboration in January 2022.
## References
## External links
* [Official Pretty Guardian *Sailor Moon* 25th anniversary project website](http://sailormoon-official.com/)
* [USA Network site (via Internet Archive)](https://web.archive.org/web/19971008031242/http://www.usanetwork.com/content/bungalows/sm/sm.html)
*
*
*
*[*Sailor Moon*](http://toonopedia.com/sailormn.htm) at [Markstein's Toonopedia](Don)(Don Markstein's Toonopedia). [Archived](https://www.webcitation.org/6oBHYVN9M?url=http://toonopedia.com/sailormn.htm) from the original on February 10, 2017.
}}
[ ](Category:Sailor Moon)
[manga](Category:1991)(Category:1991 manga)
[comics endings](Category:1997)(Category:1997 comics endings)
[set in Tokyo](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics set in Tokyo)
[about the Solar System](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about the Solar System)
[manga](Category:Kodansha)(Category:Kodansha manga)
[girl anime and manga](Category:Magical)(Category:Magical girl anime and manga)
[adapted into films](Category:Manga)(Category:Manga adapted into films)
[adapted into television series](Category:Manga)(Category:Manga adapted into television series)
[series](Category:Manga)(Category:Manga series)
[manga](Category:Shōjo)(Category:Shōjo manga)
[titles](Category:Tokyopop)(Category:Tokyopop titles)
[of Kodansha Manga Award (Shōjo)](Category:Winner)(Category:Winner of Kodansha Manga Award (Shōjo))
[in anime and manga](Category:Feminism)(Category:Feminism in anime and manga)
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Yuri Gagarin
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yuri_gagarin
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# Yuri Gagarin
*Revision ID: 1159597379 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T10:12:58Z*
---
| native_name_lang = ru
| birth_name = Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Klushino](Klushino), [SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), Soviet Union
| death_date =
| death_place = [Novosyolovo](Novosyolovo, Vladimir Oblast), Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
| death_cause = [jet crash](MiG-15)(Death of Yuri Gagarin)
| resting_place = [Wall Necropolis](Kremlin)(Kremlin Wall Necropolis), Moscow, Russia
| nationality = Soviet (Russian)
| occupation =
| spouse =
| module =
| selection = [Forces Group 1](Air)(List of astronauts by year of selection#1960) (1960)
| mission = [1](Vostok)(Vostok 1)
}}
| module2 =
| branch =
| rank = [13px](File:RAF AF F5Col since 2010par.svg) *[Polkóvnik](Military ranks of the Soviet Union (1955–1991))* (Colonel)
| serviceyears = 1957–1968
}}
| awards =
| signature = Gagarin Signature.svg
}}
**Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin**; Gagarin's first name is sometimes transliterated as *Yuriy*, *Youri*, or *Yury*.}} (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet pilot and [cosmonaut](Astronaut#Cosmonaut) who, aboard the first successful [spaceflight](crewed)(Human spaceflight), became the first human to journey into [space](outer)(outer space). Travelling on [1](Vostok)(Vostok 1), Gagarin completed one orbit of [Earth](Earth) on 12 April 1961. By achieving this major milestone for the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) amidst the [Race](Space)(Space Race), he became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including the nation's highest distinction: [of the Soviet Union](Hero)(Hero of the Soviet Union).
Hailing from the village of [Klushino](Klushino) in the [SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), Gagarin was a foundryman at a steel plant in [Lyubertsy](Lyubertsy) in his youth. He later joined the [Air Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Air Forces) as a pilot and was stationed at the [Air Base](Luostari)(Luostari/Pechenga (air base)), near the [Union border](Norway–Soviet)(Norway–Russia border), before his selection for the [space program](Soviet)(Soviet space program)me alongside five other cosmonauts. Following his spaceflight, Gagarin became the deputy training director of the [Training Centre](Cosmonaut)(Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center), which was later named after him. He was also elected as a deputy of the [of the Union](Soviet)(Soviet of the Union) in 1962 and then to the [of Nationalities](Soviet)(Soviet of Nationalities), respectively the lower and upper chambers of the [Soviet](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union).
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight, but he served as the backup crew to [1](Soyuz)(Soyuz 1), which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut [Komarov](Vladimir)(Vladimir Komarov). Fearful that a high-level national hero might be killed, Soviet officials banned Gagarin from participating in further spaceflights. After completing training at the [Air Force Engineering Academy](Zhukovsky)(Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy) in February 1968, he was again allowed to fly regular aircraft. However, Gagarin died five weeks later, when the [MiG-15](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15) that he was piloting with flight instructor [Seryogin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Seryogin) crashed near the town of [Kirzhach](Kirzhach).
## Early life
[[Gagarin parents Home (cropped).jpg|thumb|Gagarin family home in Klushino](File:Yuri)]
Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of [Klushino](Klushino), in the [Oblast](Smolensk)(Smolensk Oblast) of the [Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), near Gzhatsk (renamed [Gagarin](Gagarin, Smolensk Oblast) in 1968 after his death). His parents worked on a [sovkhoz](sovkhoz)—Aleksey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a [farmer](dairy)(Dairy farming).}} Yuri was the third of four children. His older brother Valentin was born in 1924, and by the time Yuri was born he was already helping with the cattle on the farm. His sister Zoya, born in 1927, helped take care of "Yura" and their youngest brother Boris, born in 1936.
Like millions of Soviet citizens, his family suffered during the [occupation](German)(German-occupied Europe) during [War II](World)(World War II). During the [advance on Moscow](German)(Battle of Moscow#Mozhaisk defense line (13–30 October)), retreating [Army](Red)(Red Army) soldiers seized the collective farm's livestock. The Nazis captured Klushino on 18 October 1941. On their first day in the village, they burned down the school, ending Yuri's first year of education. The Germans also burned down 27 houses in the village and forced the residents including the Gagarins to work the farms to feed the occupying soldiers. Those who refused were beaten or sent to the concentration camp set up at Gzhatsk.
A Nazi officer took over the Gagarin residence. On the land behind their house, the family was allowed to build a mud hut measuring approximately , where they spent 21 months until the end of the occupation. During this period, Yuri became a saboteur, especially after one of the German soldiers, called "the Devil" by the children, tried to hang his younger brother Boris on an apple tree using the boy's scarf. In retaliation, Yuri sabotaged the soldier's work; he poured soil into the tank batteries gathered to be recharged and randomly mixed the different chemical supplies intended for the task. In early 1943, his two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for [labour](slave)(Ostarbeiter). They escaped and were found by Soviet soldiers who conscripted them into helping with the war effort. They did not return home until after the war, in 1945.
The rest of the Gagarin family believed the two older children were dead, and Yuri became ill with "grief and hunger"; he was also beaten for refusing to work for the German forces and spent the remainder of the war at a hospital as a patient and later as an orderly. His mother was hospitalized during the same period, after a German soldier gashed her leg with a scythe. When the Germans were routed out of Klushino on 9 March 1944, Yuri helped the Red Army find mines buried in the roads by the fleeing German army.
## Education and early career
In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his education. Yuri and Boris were enrolled at a crude school built in the town and run by a young woman who volunteered to be the teacher. They learned to read using a discarded Soviet military manual. A former Soviet airman later joined the school to teach maths and science, Yuri's favourite subjects. Yuri was also part of a group of children that built model aeroplanes. He was fascinated with aircraft from a young age and his interest in aeroplanes was energized after a [Yakovlev](Yakovlev) fighter plane crash landed in Klushino during the war.
[[Gagarin como cadete del club de vuelo de Saratov.jpg|thumb|Gagarin as an air cadet in the Saratov flying club ](File:Yuri)]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at a steel plant in [Lyubertsy](Lyubertsy), near Moscow, and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes. After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in [mouldmaking](moldmaker) and foundry work, he was selected for further training at the Industrial Technical School in [Saratov](Saratov), where he studied tractors. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a [biplane](biplane), and later a [Yak-18](Yakovlev)(Yakovlev Yak-18). He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the [River](Volga)(Volga).
## Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the First Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School in [Orenburg](Orenburg). He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the [MiG-15](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15) in February 1956. Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft, Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a [lieutenant](lieutenant) in the [Air Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Air Forces), having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the [Air Base](Luostari)(Luostari/Pechenga (air base)), close to the Norwegian border in [Oblast](Murmansk)(Murmansk Oblast), for a two-year assignment with the [Fleet](Northern)(Northern Fleet). On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class. After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of [3](Luna)(Luna 3) on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the [space program](Soviet)(Soviet space program)me was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin. By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time. Gagarin was promoted to the rank of [lieutenant](senior)(senior lieutenant) on 6 November 1959, three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space programme.
## Soviet space programme
### Selection and training
[[File:Gagarin Capsule.jpg|thumb|Gagarin's [3KA capsule](Vostok)(Vostok (spacecraft)#Vostok 3KA) and an effigy of him on display at the [Energiya museum](RKK)(RKK Energiya museum) in 2010]]
[[Vostok 1 spacesuit](File:Gagarin-skafander.jpg|thumb|Gagarin's)]
Gagarin's selection for the [programme](Vostok)(Vostok programme) was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician [officer](flag)(flag officer) on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the [in Chief of the Air Force](Commander)(Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Air Force#Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Air Force). The commission limited their selection to pilots between 25 and 30 years old. The chief engineer of the programme [Korolev](Sergei)(Sergei Korolev) also specified that candidates, to fit in the limited space in the [capsule](Vostok)(Vostok (spacecraft)), should weigh less than and be no taller than ; Gagarin was tall.
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of whom 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the [government](Soviet)(Government of the Soviet Union). The first twelve, including Gagarin, were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.
Gagarin began training at the [Airfield](Khodynka)(Khodynka Aerodrome) in central Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regimen involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which [Leonov](Alexei)(Alexei Leonov), a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the [Games](Olympic)(Olympic Games). In April 1960, they began parachute training in [Oblast](Saratov)(Saratov Oblast) and each man completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, over both land and water.
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers; when they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin. One of these candidates, [Khrunov](Yevgeny)(Yevgeny Khrunov), believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary. On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the [Six](Vanguard)(Vanguard Six) or Sochi Six,}} from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were [Kartashov](Anatoly)(Anatoly_Kartashov_(cosmonaut)), [Nikolayev](Andriyan)(Andriyan Nikolayev), [Popovich](Pavel)(Pavel Popovich), [Titov](Gherman)(Gherman Titov), and [Varlamov](Valentin)(Valentin Varlamov). However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and [Nelyubov](Grigory)(Grigory Nelyubov).
As several of the candidates selected for the programme including Gagarin did not have [education](higher)(higher education) degrees, they were enrolled in a correspondence course programme at the [Air Force Engineering Academy](Zhukovsky)(Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy). Gagarin enrolled in September 1960 and did not earn his [diploma](specialist)(specialist diploma) until early 1968. Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance, including [starvation](oxygen)(Hypoxia (medical)) tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing [g-force](g-force)s in a centrifuge. Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an [chamber](anechoic)(anechoic chamber) in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber from 26 July to 5 August. In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
}}
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961 and underwent a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led by Lieutenant-General [Kamanin](Nikolai)(Nikolai Kamanin), the overseer of the Vostok programme. The commission was tasked with ranking the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing, in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from the commission. On the second day, they were given a written examination, following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to [Tyuratam](Tyuratam) for final preparations. Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April. Historian [Azam Siddiqi](Asif)(Asif Azam Siddiqi) writes of the final selection:
backup.}}
### Vostok 1
On 12 April 1961, at 6:07 am [UTC](Coordinated Universal Time), the [3KA-3](Vostok)(Vostok (spacecraft)#Vostok 3KA) ([1](Vostok)(Vostok 1)) spacecraft was launched from [Cosmodrome](Baikonur)(Baikonur Cosmodrome). Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign *Kedr* (, [pine](Siberian)(Pinus sibirica) or [cedar](Cedrus)). The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
}}
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase *Poyekhali!* ()}} later became a popular expression in the [Bloc](Eastern)(Eastern Bloc) that was used to refer to the beginning of the [Age](Space)(Space Age). The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan. Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth.
[[File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogv|left|thumb|An April 1961 [newsreel](newsreel) of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev)]]
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report. He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" () during re-entry. Gagarin was recognised as a qualified Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of [major](major) in a special order given during his flight.
At about , Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's orbital spaceflight records for duration, altitude and lifted mass would not be recognized by the *[Aéronautique Internationale](Fédération)(Fédération Aéronautique Internationale)* (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft. Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft, an omission which became apparent after Titov's flight on [2](Vostok)(Vostok 2) four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised its rules, and acknowledged that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin is internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.
## After the Vostok 1 flight
[[Gagarin welcome Warsaw 1961.jpg|thumb|right|Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961](File:Yuri)]
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space programme and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long [motorcade](motorcade) of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the [Kremlin](Kremlin) where, in a lavish ceremony, [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev) awarded him the title [of the Soviet Union](Hero)(Hero of the Soviet Union). Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to the [War II Victory Parades](World)(Victory Day (Russia)).
[[File:RIAN archive 615544 The USSR pilot-cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova and Yuri Gagarin.jpg|right|thumb|Gagarin and [Tereshkova](Valentina)(Valentina Tereshkova) (seated to his right) signing autographs at a youth forum in 1964]]
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile. On 15 April 1961, accompanied by officials from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters. Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and [Manchester](Manchester). While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him. Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries in the years following his flight. In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, [Bulgaria](People's Republic of Bulgaria), Canada, Cuba, [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovak Socialist Republic), Finland, [Hungary](Hungarian People's Republic), and Iceland. Because of his popularity, US president [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy) barred Gagarin from visiting the United States.
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the [of the Union](Soviet)(Soviet of the Union), and was elected to the Central Committee of the [Communist League](Young)(Komsomol). He later returned to [City](Star)(Star City, Russia), the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a [colonel](lieutenant)(Podpolkovnik) of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of [colonel](Polkovnik) on 6 November 1963. On 20 December, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the cosmonaut training facility. Soviet officials, including Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight". Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.
[[File:Gemini 4 Astronauts Meet Yuri Gagarin.jpg|left|thumb|Gagarin with U.S. Vice President [Humphrey](Hubert)(Hubert Humphrey), French Prime Minister [Pompidou](Georges)(Georges Pompidou) and [4](Gemini)(Gemini 4) astronauts [McDivitt](Jim)(James McDivitt) and [White](Ed)(Ed White (astronaut)) at the 1965 [Air Show](Paris)(Paris Air Show)|alt=]]
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the [of Nationalities](Soviet)(Soviet of Nationalities), the [chamber](upper)(Upper house) of legislature. The following year, he began to re-qualify as a [pilot](fighter)(fighter pilot) and was backup pilot for his friend [Komarov](Vladimir)(Vladimir Komarov) on the [1](Soyuz)(Soyuz 1) flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to [3](Soyuz)(Soyuz 3).
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary. Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft. Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly. After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights. He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training. On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of [spaceplane](spaceplane) aerodynamic configuration and graduated *[laude](cum)(cum laude)* from the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.
## Personal life
[[File:Yuri Gagarin - Göran Sedvall.jpg|thumb|Gagarin and [Sedvall](Göran)(:sv:Göran Sedvall) at the 1964 [bandy final](Swedish)(List of Swedish bandy champions)]]
[[Gagarin with wife in 1964.jpg|right|thumb|Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964|alt=Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.](File:Yuri)]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the [Day](May)(International Workers' Day#Russia) celebrations at the [Square](Red)(Red Square) in Moscow. She was a medical technician who had graduated from Orenburg Medical School. They were married on 7 November of the same year, the same day Gagarin graduated from his flight school, and they had two daughters. [Yurievna Gagarina](Yelena)(Yelena Gagarina), born 1959, is an art historian who has worked as the [general](director)(director general) of the [Kremlin Museums](Moscow)(Moscow Kremlin Museums) since 2001; and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961, is a professor of economics and the department chair at [Russian University of Economics](Plekhanov)(Plekhanov Russian University of Economics) in Moscow. Following his rise to fame, at a [Sea](Black)(Black Sea) resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.
In his youth Gagarin was a keen sportsman and played [hockey](ice)(ice hockey) as a goalkeeper. He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.
Some Soviet sources have said that Gagarin commented during his space flight, "I don't see any God up here," though no such words appear in the verbatim record of his conversations with Earth stations during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview, Gagarin's friend Colonel Valentin Petrov stated that Gagarin never said these words and that the quote originated from Khrushchev's speech at the plenum of the [Committee of the CPSU](Central)(Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) about the state's [campaign](anti-religion)(USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)), saying "Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any god there". Petrov also said Gagarin had been baptised into the [Orthodox Church](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church) as a child, and a 2011 *Foma* magazine article quoted the rector of the Orthodox Church in Star City saying, "Gagarin baptized his elder daughter Yelena shortly before his space flight; and his family used to celebrate Christmas and Easter and keep icons in the house".
## Death
[[File:The urn with Y. A. Gagarin's remains (1934-1968), Moscow Kremlin, Moscow.JPG|thumb|alt=Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27|Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the [Wall](Kremlin)(Kremlin Wall Necropolis)|left]]
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from [Air Base](Chkalovsky)(Chkalovsky Air Base), Gagarin and flight instructor [Seryogin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Seryogin) died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of [Kirzhach](Kirzhach). The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes interred in the [of the Kremlin](walls)(Kremlin Wall Necropolis). Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories, including several conspiracy theories. At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the [KGB](KGB). According to a biography of Gagarin by [Doran](Jamie)(Jamie Doran) and [Bizony](Piers)(Piers Bizony), *Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin*, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."
The KGB's report, declassified in March 2003, claimed that the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a [spin](spin (aerodynamics)), either due to a [strike](bird)(bird strike) or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin. Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to [deprivation](oxygen)(oxygen deprivation) and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft. A similar theory, published in *[& Space](Air)(Air & Space)* magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation. In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the [Committee of the Communist Party](Central)(Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvred sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".
[[File:Landing. Mig-15 RA-0488G (10316391126).jpg|thumb|A [MiG-15UTI](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15), the same type as Gagarin was flying when he was killed]]
Alexei Leonov, who was also a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a [Su-15](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-15) was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.
## Awards and honours
### Medals and orders of merit
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union, [of Lenin](Order)(Order of Lenin), [Master of Sports of the Soviet Union](Merited)(Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union) and the first [of the USSR](Pilot-Cosmonaut)(Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR). On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after [Russian pioneer of space aeronautics](the)(Konstantin Tsiolkovsky). Gagarin had also been awarded four [commemorative medals](Soviet)(Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Union#Commemorative medals) over the course of his career.
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labour from Czechoslovakia on 29 April 1961, and Hero of Socialist Labour (Bulgaria, including the [of Georgi Dimitrov](Order)(Order of Georgi Dimitrov)) the same year. On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of the [Revolution](Cuban)(Cuban Revolution) (26 July), President [Dorticos](Osvaldo)(Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado) of Cuba presented him with the first [of Playa Girón](Order)(Order of Playa Girón), a newly created medal.
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 [la Vaulx Medal](De)(De la Vaulx Medal) from the *Fédération Aéronautique Internationale* in Switzerland. He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the [of the Republic of Indonesia](Star)(Star of the Republic of Indonesia) (2nd Class), the [of the Cross of Grunwald](Order)(Order of the Cross of Grunwald) (1st Degree) in [Poland](Polish People's Republic), the [of the Flag of the People's Republic of Hungary](Order)(Order of the Flag of the People's Republic of Hungary) (1st Class with diamonds), the [of Labour](Hero)(Hero of Labor (Vietnam)) award from [Republic of Vietnam](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of Vietnam), the Italian Columbus Day Medal, and a Gold Medal from the [Interplanetary Society](British)(British Interplanetary Society). [President](President of Brazil) [Quadros](Jânio)(Jânio Quadros) of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the [of Aeronautical Merit](Order)(Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil)), Commander grade. During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the [of the Nile](Order)(Order of the Nile) and the golden keys to the gates of [Cairo](Cairo). On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and [Tereshkova](Valentina)(Valentina Tereshkova) were honoured with the [of Karl Marx](Order)(Order of Karl Marx) from the [Democratic Republic](German)(East Germany).
### Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated first in the USSR and since 1991 in Russia and some other former Soviet republics as [Day](Cosmonautics)(Cosmonautics Day).[Russia marks Cosmonautics Day](http://indian.ruvr.ru/news/2014_04_12/Russia-marks-Cosmonautics-Day/) . Russian Radio, 12 April 2014 Since 2000, [Night](Yuri's)(Yuri's Night), an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration. In 2011, it was declared the [Day of Human Space Flight](International)(International Day of Human Space Flight) by the United Nations.
[[File:Statue of Yuri Gagarin at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich.jpg|right|upright|thumb|[Gagarin statue](Yuri)(Statue of Yuri Gagarin, Greenwich) at the [Greenwich Observatory](Royal)(Royal Observatory, Greenwich) in London, England]]
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin, mostly in Russia but also in other Soviet republics. The [Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center](Yuri)(Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center) in Star City was named on 30 April 1968. The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which [1](Sputnik)(Sputnik 1) and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as [Start](Gagarin's)(Gagarin's Start). [Raion](Gagarin)(Gagarin Raion) in [Sevastopol](Sevastopol) was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed the [Air Force Academy](Gagarin)(Gagarin Air Force Academy) in 1968. The town of Gzhatsk where he lived in Smolensk Oblast was renamed [Gagarin](Gagarin, Smolensk Oblast) after his death in 1968, and has since become home to numerous museums and monuments to him. A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called [Gagarin Street](Yuri)(Yuri Gagarin Street, Warsaw). The town of [Armenia](Gagarin,)(Gagarin, Armenia) was renamed in his honour in 1961.
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space programme's [11](Apollo)(Apollo 11) mission in 1969, astronauts [Armstrong](Neil)(Neil Armstrong) and [Aldrin](Buzz)(Buzz Aldrin) left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and Komarov on the Moon's surface. In 1971, [15](Apollo)(Apollo 15) astronauts [Scott](David)(David Scott) and [Irwin](James)(James Irwin) left the small *[Astronaut](Fallen)(Fallen Astronaut)* sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the [Race](Space)(Space Race); the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others. In 1970, a wide [on the far side](crater)(Gagarin (crater)) was named after him. Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the [Space Hall of Fame](International)(International Space Hall of Fame) in [Mexico](New)(New Mexico).
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a [cycle](song cycle) of Soviet patriotic songs titled *The Constellation Gagarin* () was written by [Pakhmutova](Aleksandra)(Aleksandra Pakhmutova) and [Dobronravov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Dobronravov) in 1970–1971.[Созвездье Гагарина](http://www.pakhmutova.ru/songs/sozv.shtml) . Alexandra Pakhmutova's website The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's *poyekhali!*: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand". He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by [Jarre](Jean-Michel)(Jean-Michel Jarre) on *[Métamorphoses](Métamorphoses (album))*, "Gagarin" by [Service Broadcasting](Public)(Public Service Broadcasting (band)), and "Gagarin, I loved you" by [Undervud](Undervud).
[[40-летие космического полета Ю. А. Гагарина.png|right|thumb|upright|Russian ten-rouble coin commemorating Gagarin in 2001](File:RR5514-0005R)]
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship *[Yuriy Gagarin](Kosmonavt)(Soviet ship Kosmonavt Yuriy Gagarin)* was built in 1971 and the Armenian airline [Armavia](Armavia) named their first [Superjet 100](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Superjet 100) in his honour in 2011.
Two [coins](commemorative)(List of commemorative coins of the Soviet Union) were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-rouble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-rouble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-rouble coin in copper-nickel, a three-rouble coin in silver, a ten-rouble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-rouble coin in silver. In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-rouble coin in gold and a three-rouble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.
In 2008, the Russia-based [Hockey League](Kontinental)(Kontinental Hockey League) named their championship trophy the [Cup](Gagarin)(Gagarin Cup). In a 2010 [Foundation](Space)(Space Foundation) survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with the fictional character [T. Kirk](James)(James T. Kirk) from *[Trek](Star)(Star Trek)*. A Russian [docudrama](docudrama) titled *[First in Space](Gagarin:)(Gagarin: First in Space)* was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.
On 27 March 2023 [City Council](Kyiv)(Kyiv City Council) renamed (the capital of [Ukraine](Ukraine)) [Kyiv](Kyiv)'s Yuri Gagarin Street to [Kadeniuk](Leonid)(Leonid Kadeniuk) Avenue (Kadeniuk was the first [astronaut](astronaut) of independent Ukraine). [Avenue Kadeniuk appeared in Kyiv](https://suspilne.media/426630-u-kievi-zavivsa-prospekt-kadenuka-de-same/), [Suspilne](Suspilne) (27 March 2023) The council stated this was done as part of the [of Ukraine](derussification)(Derussification in Ukraine). [Gagarin, Pushkin, Mayakovsky: the Kharkiv region continues to change the streets](https://www.sq.com.ua/ukr/novini/19.10.2022/gagarin-puskin-mayakovskii-u-xarkivskii-oblasti-prodovzuyut-pereimenovuvati-vulici), SQ (19 October 2022) The city council had decided to get rid of names associated with figures who are not related to Ukraine.}}
### Statues, monuments and murals
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in the town named after him as well as in [Orenburg](Orenburg), [Cheboksary](Cheboksary), [Irkutsk](Irkutsk), [Izhevsk](Izhevsk), [Komsomolsk-on-Amur](Komsomolsk-on-Amur), and [Yoshkar-Ola](Yoshkar-Ola) in Russia, as well as in [Nicosia](Nicosia), Cyprus, [Druzhkivka](Druzhkivka), Ukraine, [Karaganda](Karaganda), Kazakhstan, and [Tiraspol](Tiraspol), Moldova. On 4 June 1980, [to Yuri Gagarin](Monument)(Monument to Yuri Gagarin) in Gagarin Square, [Avenue, Moscow](Leninsky)(Leninsky Avenue, Moscow), was opened. The monument is mounted to a tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.
In 2011, a [of Gagarin](statue)(Statue of Yuri Gagarin, Greenwich) was unveiled at [Arch](Admiralty)(Admiralty Arch) in [Mall](The)(The Mall, London) in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of [Cook](James)(James Cook). It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy. In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the [Observatory, Greenwich](Royal)(Royal Observatory, Greenwich).
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in [Houston](Houston). The sculpture was completed in 2011 by Leonov, who is also an artist, and was a gift to Houston commissioned by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor [Parker](Annise)(Annise Parker), NASA Administrator [Bolden](Charles)(Charles Bolden), and Russian Ambassador [Kislyak](Sergey)(Sergey Kislyak) were present for the dedication. The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the [Planetarium](Birla)(Birla Planetarium, Kolkata) in [Kolkata](Kolkata) in February 2012.
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in [Belgrade](Belgrade), Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than a week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin. Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the [Ministry of Culture](Serbian)(Ministry of Culture and Information (Serbia)), nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.
In August 2019, the Italian artist [Jorit](Jorit) painted Gagarin's face on the facade of a twenty-story building in the district of [Odintsovo](Odintsovo), Russia. The mural is the largest portrait of Gagarin in the world.
In March 2021, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Mataram Park (*Taman Mataram*) in [Jakarta](Jakarta), Indonesia in celebration of the 70th anniversary of [diplomatic relations](Indonesia–Russia)(Indonesia–Russia relations) as well as the 60th anniversary of the first human space flight. The statue, sculpted by Russian artist A.D. Leonov and presented by Russian embassy in Jakarta, is considered as "a sign of strengthening relations" between Moscow and Jakarta, which have been sister cities since 2006.
### 50th anniversary
[[2011 Gagarin (1).JPG|right|thumb|50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine, 2011](File:Stamp)]
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A documentary film titled *[Orbit](First)(First Orbit)* was shot from the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station), combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin. The Russian, American, and Italian crew of [27](Expedition)(Expedition 27) aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary. The [TMA-21](Soyuz)(Soyuz TMA-21) spacecraft was named *Gagarin* with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of his mission.
## Notes
## References
### Sources
*
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*
*
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* Translation of *Sportsmeny sovetskoĭ armii*.
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*
* [Part 1 (pages 1–499)](https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf) , [Part 2 (pages 500–1011)](https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf) .
## Further reading
*
* Jenks, A. L. (2019). *[The Cosmonaut Who Couldn’t Stop Smiling: The Life and Legend of Yuri Gagarin](http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv180h6n2)* (NIU Series in Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies). DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
## External links
}}
* [Obituary](https://web.archive.org/web/20140304225134/https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0309.html) by [Press](Associated)(Associated Press), published on *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, 28 March 1968
*
*
; Multimedia
* [Newsreel footage of Yuri Gagarin](https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=qgagarin) at [Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive](https://www.net-film.ru/en/)
* [*First Orbit*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKs6ikmrLgg), 2011 feature film on YouTube by [Orbit](First)(First Orbit)
* [*First Man in Space: Yuri Gagarin*](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0ktgWlN7SE), short film on YouTube by [Roscosmos](Roscosmos)
*
*
* [Photo gallery](http://kp.ru/photo/gallery/1918/?showall=1) by KP.ru
[ ](Category:Yuri Gagarin)
[births](Category:1934)(Category:1934 births)
[in spaceflight](Category:1961)(Category:1961 in spaceflight)
[deaths](Category:1968)(Category:1968 deaths)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[killed in aviation accidents or incidents](Category:Aviators)(Category:Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents)
[at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis)
[Category:Foundrymen](Category:Foundrymen)
[from Gagarinsky District, Smolensk Oblast](Category:People)(Category:People from Gagarinsky District, Smolensk Oblast)
[of the Soviet Union](Category:Heroes)(Category:Heroes of the Soviet Union)
[Masters of Sport of the USSR](Category:Honoured)(Category:Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR)
[of the Order of Georgi Dimitrov](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Georgi Dimitrov)
[of the Order of Lenin](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Lenin)
[of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class)
[convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union](Category:Sixth)(Category:Sixth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union)
[convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union](Category:Seventh)(Category:Seventh convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union)
[aviators](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian aviators)
[explorers](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian explorers)
[cosmonauts](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian cosmonauts)
[Orthodox Christians from Russia](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia)
[Orthodox Christians from the Soviet Union](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian Orthodox Christians from the Soviet Union)
[Air Force officers](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet Air Force officers)
[cosmonauts](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet cosmonauts)
[space program personnel](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet space program personnel)
[of aviation accidents or incidents in 1968](Category:Victims)(Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1968)
[of aviation accidents or incidents in the Soviet Union](Category:Victims)(Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the Soviet Union)
[program cosmonauts](Category:Vostok)(Category:Vostok program cosmonauts)
[Category:Astronaut-politicians](Category:Astronaut-politicians)
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Doc Rivers
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doc_rivers
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# Doc Rivers
*Revision ID: 1159219526 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T01:06:39Z*
---
| birth_place = [Illinois](Chicago,)(Chicago, Illinois), U.S.
| height_ft = 6
| height_in = 4
| weight_lb = 210
| weight_footnote =
| high_school = [East](Proviso)(Proviso East High School) ([Illinois](Maywood,)(Maywood, Illinois))
| college = [Marquette](Marquette Golden Eagles men's basketball) (1980–1983)
| draft_year = 1983
| draft_round = 2
| draft_pick = 31
| draft_team = [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks)
| career_start = 1983
| career_end = 1996
| career_position = [guard](Point)(Point guard)
| career_number = 25
| coach_start = 1999
| coach_end =
| years1 = –
| team1 = [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks)
| years2 =
| team2 = [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers)
| years3 = –
| team3 = [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks)
| years4 = –
| team4 = [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs)
| cyears1 = –
| cteam1 = [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic)
| cyears2 = –
| cteam2 = [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics)
| cyears3 = –
| cteam3 = Los Angeles Clippers
| cyears4 = –
| cteam4 = [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers)
| highlights = **As player:**
* [All-Star](NBA)(List of NBA All-Stars) ()
* [Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award](J.)(J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award) ()
* [Basketball Male Athlete of the Year](USA)(USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year) (1982)
* No. 31 [by Marquette Golden Eagles](retired)(Marquette Golden Eagles men's basketball#Retired jerseys)
* [Basketball USA](Mr.)(Mr. Basketball USA) (1980)
* First-team [All-American](*Parade*)(Parade All-America Boys Basketball Team) (1980)
* [All-American](McDonald's)(McDonald's All-American Game) ([1980](1980 McDonald's All-American Boys Game))
**As coach:**
* [champion](NBA)(List of NBA champions) ()
* [Coach of the Year](NBA)(NBA Coach of the Year Award) ()
* 3× [All-Star Game head coach](NBA)(List of NBA All-Star Game head coaches) (, , )
* [15 Coaches in NBA History](Top)(Top 15 Coaches in NBA History)
| stat1label = [Points](Point (basketball))
| stat1value = 9,377 (10.9 ppg)
| stat2label = [Assists](Assist (basketball))
| stat2value = 4,889 (5.7 apg)
| stat3label = [Steals](Steal (basketball))
| stat3value = 1,563 (1.8 spg)
| bbr = riverdo01
| medal_templates = }}
}}
**Glenn Anton** "**Doc**" **Rivers** (born October 13, 1961) is an American professional [basketball](basketball) coach and former player in the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA). He played in the NBA for 14 seasons and served as a head coach for 25 seasons.
Rivers played [basketball](college)(college basketball) for the [Golden Eagles](Marquette)(Marquette Golden Eagles men's basketball) and was selected by the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks) in the second round of the [NBA draft](1983)(1983 NBA draft). He played [guard](point)(point guard) for the Hawks from 1983 to 1991 and was later a member of the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers), [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks), and [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs). Rivers was an [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star Game) with the Hawks in [1988](1988 NBA All-Star Game).
After retiring as a player in 1996, Rivers began his NBA coaching career. He was the head coach of the [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic) from 1999 to 2003, the [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics) from 2004 to 2013, the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers) from 2013 to 2020, and the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) from 2020 to 2023. Rivers was named the 2000 [Coach of the Year](NBA)(NBA Coach of the Year Award) in his first season with the Magic and won an [championship](NBA)(List of NBA champions) with the Celtics in [2008](2008 NBA Finals).
## High school and college career
Rivers was a [All-American](McDonald's)(McDonald's All-American) for [East High School](Proviso)(Proviso East High School) in the [metropolitan area](Chicago)(Chicago metropolitan area) He was given his nickname while attending a [basketball camp](summer)(Summer camp) at [University](Marquette)(Marquette University) while wearing a "Dr. J" t-shirt of [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) player [Erving](Julius)(Julius Erving).[Doc Rivers](http://www.nba.com/coachfile/doc_rivers) . Nba.com. Retrieved on May 1, 2011. Rivers has alternated on whether the nickname originated from [Eagles](Golden)(Marquette Golden Eagles men's basketball) head coach [McGuire](Al)(Al McGuire) or assistant [Majerus](Rick)(Rick Majerus).
Rivers later played college ball for Marquette, and played on the [national team](U.S.)(United States men's national basketball team) in the [FIBA World Championship](1982)(1982 FIBA World Championship), in which he led the team to the silver medal, after missing the last shot in the final.
After his third season at Marquette, Rivers was drafted in the second round (31st overall) of the [NBA draft](1983)(1983 NBA draft) by the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks). He graduated from Marquette while completing course work as an NBA player.
## Professional career
Rivers played point guard for the Atlanta Hawks from 1983 to 1991, assisting star [Wilkins](Dominique)(Dominique Wilkins) as the team found great regular season success. Rivers' first NBA start was against Erving, who referred to Rivers as "Doc" and "made [him] feel like a million bucks".
He averaged a double-double for the [season](1986–87)(1986-87 NBA season) with 12.8 points and 10.0 assists per game. In 1988, Rivers played in the NBA All-Star Game. He received the [Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award](J.)(J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award) in 1990.
Rivers later spent one year as a starter for the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers) (1991–1992), two years playing for the [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks) (1992–1994), and two years playing for the [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs) (1994–1996). Rivers retired after the 1996 season. During his career, he averaged 10.9 points, 5.7 assists, and 3 rebounds per game.
## Coaching career
### Orlando Magic (1999–2003)
Rivers began his coaching career with the [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic) in 1999, where he coached for more than four [NBA](National Basketball Association) seasons. Rivers won the [of the Year award](Coach)(NBA Coach of the Year Award) in [2000](1999–2000 NBA season) after his first year with the Magic. Despite having been picked to finish last in that year's standings, Rivers led the Magic close to a playoff berth.
During the Magic's free agency spending spree in the summer of 2000, Rivers tried to assemble a "Big Three" team in the NBA. The Magic were courting free agent [Duncan](Tim)(Tim Duncan), who came close to signing with the Magic and teaming up with fellow stars [Hill](Grant)(Grant Hill) and [McGrady](Tracy)(Tracy McGrady). However, Duncan re-signed with the San Antonio Spurs due to Rivers' strict policy of family members not being allowed to travel in the team's plane.
The Magic made the postseason in Rivers's next three years as head coach, but he was fired in 2003 after a 1–10 start to the season.
### Boston Celtics (2004–2013)
[[Rivers.jpg|thumb|left|Rivers in 2011](File:Doc)]
After spending a year working as a commentator for the *[on ABC](NBA)(NBA on ABC)* (calling the [Finals](2004)(2004 NBA Finals) with [Michaels](Al)(Al Michaels)), he was hired by the [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics) as their head coach in 2004. During his first years with the Celtics, he was criticized by many in the media for his coaching style, most vociferously by [Simmons](Bill)(Bill Simmons), who in 2006 publicly called for Rivers to be fired in his columns.
As a result of the Celtics' 109–93 victory over the [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks) on January 21, 2008, Rivers, as the coach of the team with the best winning percentage in the [Conference](Eastern)(Eastern Conference (NBA)), earned the honor to coach the East for the [NBA All-Star Game](2008)(2008 NBA All-Star Game) in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans Hornets).
On June 17, 2008, Rivers won his first and sole [Championship](NBA)(NBA Finals) as a head coach after defeating the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) in six games. The Celtics needed an NBA record 26 postseason games to win it. Rivers played for the team that held the previous record for most games played in a single postseason: the 1994 New York Knicks played 25 postseason games.
Rivers led the Celtics to the [NBA Finals](2010)(2010 NBA Finals) where they once again faced the Los Angeles Lakers and lost the series in seven games.
After deliberating between staying on the job and leaving the job and returning to spend more time with his family in Orlando, Rivers finally decided that he would honor the last year of his contract and return for the 2010–11 season.
On May 13, 2011, after months of rumors that he would retire, ESPN reported that the Celtics and Rivers agreed upon a 5-year contract extension worth $35 million.[Doc Rivers agrees to 5-year extension with Boston Celtics – ESPN Boston](http://sports.espn.go.com/boston/nba/news/story?id=6540602). Sports.espn.go.com (May 14, 2011). Retrieved on April 20, 2012.[Rivers gets five-year extension as coach of Celtics](http://www.nba.com/2011/news/05/13/rivers-contract-celtics.ap/index.html) . NBA.com (May 13, 2011). Retrieved on April 20, 2012.
On February 6, 2013, Rivers notched his 400th win with the Celtics in a 99–95 victory over the [Raptors](Toronto)(Toronto Raptors).["Celtics at Raptors"](http://www.nba.com/games/20130206/BOSTOR/gameinfo.html). *NBA.com*.
### Los Angeles Clippers (2013–2020)
[[Rivers 2013 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Rivers in 2013](File:Doc)]
On June 25, 2013, the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers) acquired Rivers from the Celtics for an unprotected 2015 NBA first-round draft pick. He also became the senior vice president of basketball operations on the team. In his first season as their head coach, Rivers led the Clippers to a franchise-record 57 wins, garnering the 3rd seed in the Western conference. The [NBA playoffs](2014)(2014 NBA playoffs) first round playoff series against the [State Warriors](Golden)(Golden State Warriors) was marred when TMZ released an audiotape containing racially insensitive remarks made by the then-Clippers owner [Sterling](Donald)(Donald Sterling). Though there was a possibility of the Clippers boycotting the series, they would play on, holding a silent protest by leaving their shooting jerseys at center court and obscuring the Clippers logo on their warm-up shirts. Rivers himself stated that he would not return to the Clippers if Sterling remained as owner the following season. NBA commissioner [Silver](Adam)(Adam Silver) responded to the controversy by banning Sterling from the NBA for life and compelling him to sell the team. After the team was sold to [Microsoft](Microsoft) CEO [Ballmer](Steve)(Steve Ballmer) for $2 billion on August 12, 2014, Rivers remained with the Clippers.["Doc Rivers won't return to Clippers under Donald Sterling, per report"](https://www.sbnation.com/nba/2014/4/29/5664400/doc-rivers-coach-return-donald-sterling-racism-controversy). *SBNation.com* (Vox Media). April 29, 2014
On June 16, 2014, the Clippers promoted Rivers to president of basketball operations in conjunction with his continuing head coaching duties. Although [Wohl](Dave)(Dave Wohl) was hired as general manager, Rivers had the final say in basketball matters.["CLIPPERS RESTRUCTURE BASKETBALL OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT"](http://www.nba.com/clippers/news/clippers-restructure-basketball-operations-department). *Los Angeles Clippers*. On August 27, 2014, he signed a new five-year contract with the Clippers.["Doc Rivers Agrees to Contract Through 2019 Season"](http://www.nba.com/clippers/pr-140827). *Los Angeles Clippers*. August 27, 2014
On January 16, 2015, Rivers became the first NBA coach to coach his own son, [Rivers](Austin)(Austin Rivers), until June 26, 2018, when he was traded to the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards) for [Gortat](Marcin)(Marcin Gortat).
On August 4, 2017, Rivers gave up his post as president of basketball operations. However, he continued to split responsibility for basketball matters with executive vice president of basketball operations [Frank](Lawrence)(Lawrence Frank). On May 23, 2018, Rivers and the Clippers agreed to a contract extension.
On May 31, 2019, Rivers made comments on [Leonard](Kawhi)(Kawhi Leonard) during an appearance on ESPN, stating that "He is the most like Jordan that we've seen". The Clippers were fined $50,000 due to Rivers' comments in violation of the league's anti-tampering rule. The Clippers signed Leonard to a three-year contract on July 10, 2019.
In the [season](2019–20)(2019–20 Los Angeles Clippers season), Rivers earned his 900th win as a head coach after the Clippers won at home against the [Trail Blazers](Portland)(Portland Trail Blazers) on November 8, 2019. In the Western Conference seminfinals, the Clippers jumped to a 3–1 lead before losing 4–3 to the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets). Rivers became the first coach in NBA history with three teams who failed to advance from a best-of-seven series after taking a 3–1 lead. He had previously been the only coach in NBA history whose teams had twice failed to advance from a best of seven series after taking a 3–1 lead.
On September 28, 2020, Rivers stepped down following the Clippers' defeat to the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets) in the [semifinals](conference)(2020 NBA playoffs). His record through seven seasons with the team was 356–208, but he was ultimately unable to lead the Clippers to their first conference finals appearance in franchise history.
### Philadelphia 76ers (2020–2023)
On October 3, 2020, the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) announced that they had hired Rivers as their head coach. As the 76ers got off to a 2–0 start in the 2020–21 season, Rivers earned his 945th career win passing Hall of Famer [Fitch](Bill)(Bill Fitch) for 10th on the all-time coaching regular season wins list, with the men ahead of him all having cleared the 1,000-win mark. The 76ers also secured the first seed in the Eastern Conference, and defeated the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards) in five games in the first round of the playoffs, but lost in the semifinals to the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks) in seven games.
On May 16, 2023, the 76ers fired Rivers, days after the team's loss in Game 7 of the conference semifinals to Boston.
## NBA career statistics
### Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1983–84 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 81 || 47 || 23.9 || .462 || .167 || .785 || 2.7 || 3.9 || 1.6 || .4 || 9.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1984–85 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 69 || 58 || 30.8 || **.476** || .417 || .770 || 3.1 || 5.9 || **2.4** || **.8** || 14.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1985–86 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 53 || 50 || 29.6 || .474 || .000 || .608 || 3.1 || 8.4 || 2.3 || .2 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1986–87 Atlanta Hawks season)
| **82** || **82** || 31.6 || .451 || .190 || .828 || 3.6 || **10.0** || 2.1 || .4 || 12.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1987–88 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 80 || 80 || 31.3 || .453 || .273 || .758 || **4.6** || 9.3 || 1.8 || .5 || 14.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1988–89 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 76 || 76 || 32.4 || .455 || .347 || **.861** || 3.8 || 6.9 || **2.4** || .5 || 13.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1989–90 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 48 || 44 || 31.8 || .454 || .364 || .812 || 4.2 || 5.5 || **2.4** || .5 || 12.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1990–91 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 79 || 79 || **32.7** || .435 || .336 || .844 || 3.2 || 4.3 || 1.9 || .6 || **15.2**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(1991–92 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| 59 || 25 || 28.1 || .424 || .283 || .832 || 2.5 || 3.9 || 1.9 || .3 || 10.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[York](New)(1992–93 New York Knicks season)
| 77 || 45 || 24.5 || .437 || .317 || .821 || 2.5 || 5.3 || 1.6 || .1 || 7.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[York](New)(1993–94 New York Knicks season)
| 19 || 19 || 26.3 || .433 || .365 || .636 || 2.1 || 5.3 || 1.3 || .3 || 7.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[York](New)(1994–95 New York Knicks season)
| 3 || 0 || 15.7 || .308 || **.600** || .727 || 3.0 || 2.7 || 1.3 || .0 || 6.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Antonio](San)(1994–95 San Antonio Spurs season)
| 60 || 0 || 15.7 || .360 || .344 || .732 || 1.7 || 2.6 || 1.0 || .4 || 5.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|[Antonio](San)(1995–96 San Antonio Spurs season)
| 78 || 0 || 15.8 || .372 || .343 || .750 || 1.8 || 1.6 || .9 || .3 || 4.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 864 || 605 || 27.3 || .444 || .328 || .784 || 3.0 || 5.7 || 1.8 || .4 || 10.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 1 || 0 || 16.0 || .500 || || .455 || 3.0 || 6.0 || || || 9.0
### Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1984](1984 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1983–84 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 5 || || 26.0 || .500 || .000 || .878 || 2.0 || 3.2 || **2.4** || **.8** || 13.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1986](1986 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1985–86 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 9 || 9 || 29.1 || .435 || **.500** || .738 || 4.7 || 8.7 || 2.0 || .0 || 12.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1987](1987 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1986–87 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 8 || 8 || 30.6 || .383 || || .500 || 3.4 || **11.3** || 1.1 || .4 || 7.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1988](1988 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1987–88 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 12 || 12 || 34.1 || **.511** || .318 || **.907** || **4.9** || 9.6 || 2.1 || .2 || **15.7**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1989](1989 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1988–89 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 5 || 5 || **38.2** || .386 || .316 || .708 || 4.8 || 6.8 || 1.4 || .4 || 13.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1991](1991 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](1990–91 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 5 || 5 || 34.6 || .469 || .091 || .895 || 4.0 || 3.0 || 1.0 || .4 || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1992](1992 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(1991–92 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| 5 || 4 || 37.4 || .446 || **.500** || .815 || 3.8 || 4.2 || 1.2 || .0 || 15.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1993](1993 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[York](New)(1992–93 New York Knicks season)
| **15** || **15** || 30.5 || .453 || .355 || .767 || 2.6 || 5.7 || 1.9 || .1 || 10.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1995](1995 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Antonio](San)(1994–95 San Antonio Spurs season)
| **15** || 0 || 21.2 || .389 || .370 || .839 || 1.9 || 1.6 || .9 || .6 || 7.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[1996](1996 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Antonio](San)(1995–96 San Antonio Spurs season)
| 2 || 0 || 10.0 || .333 || **.500** || || .5 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 1.5
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 81 || 58 || 29.5 || .446 || .338 || .767 || 3.3 || 5.9 || 1.5 || .3 || 11.4
## Head coaching record
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](1999–2000 Orlando Magic season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||41||41|||| style="text-align:center;"|4th in [Atlantic](Atlantic Division (NBA))|||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2000–01 Orlando Magic season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||43||39|||| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Atlantic||4||1||3||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2001 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2001–02 Orlando Magic season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||44||38|||| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Atlantic||4||1||3||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2002 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2002–03 Orlando Magic season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||42||40|||| style="text-align:center;"|4th in Atlantic||7||3||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2003 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2003–04 Orlando Magic season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 11||1||10|||| style="text-align:center;"|(fired)|||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|—
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2004–05 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||45||37|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||7||3||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2005 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2005–06 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||33||49|||| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Atlantic|||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2006–07 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||24||58|||| style="text-align:center;"|5th in Atlantic||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|- style="background:#FDE910;"
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2007–08 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||66||16|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||26||16||10||
| style="text-align:center;"|**Won [Championship](NBA)(2008 NBA Finals)**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2008–09 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||62||20|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||14||7||7||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2009 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2009–10 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||50||32|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||24||15||9||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [Finals](NBA)(2010 NBA Finals)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2010–11 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||56||26|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||9||5||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2011 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2011–12 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 66||39||27|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||20||11||9||
| style="text-align:center;"| Lost in [finals](Conference)(2012 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Boston](2012–13 Boston Celtics season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 81||41||40|||| style="text-align:center;"|3rd in Atlantic||6||2||4||
| style="text-align:center;"| Lost in [round](First)(2013 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2013–14 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||57||25|||| style="text-align:center;"|1st in [Pacific](Pacific Division (NBA))||13||6||7||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2014 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2014–15 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||56||26||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||14||7||7||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2015 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2015–16 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||53||29||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||6||2||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2016 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2016–17 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||51||31||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||7||3||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2017 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2017–18 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||42||40||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2018–19 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||48||34||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||6||2||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [round](First)(2019 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Clippers](L.A.)(2019–20 Los Angeles Clippers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 72||49||23||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Pacific||13||7||6||
| style="text-align:center;"| Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2020 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Philadelphia](2020–21 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 72||49||23||||style="text-align:center;"|1st in Atlantic||12||7||5||
| style="text-align:center;"| Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2021 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Philadelphia](2021–22 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||51||31||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Atlantic||12||6||6||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2022 NBA playoffs)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[Philadelphia](2022–23 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 82||54||28||||style="text-align:center;"|2nd in Atlantic||11||7||4||
| style="text-align:center;"|Lost in [semifinals](Conference)(2023 NBA playoffs)
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 1,860||1,097||763|||| ||204||104||100||||
## Personal life
Rivers is the nephew of former NBA player [Brewer](Jim)(Jim Brewer (basketball)).[Doc Rivers Coaching Info](http://www.nba.com/coachfile/doc_rivers/index.html?nav=page) at [NBA.com](National Basketball Association)
Rivers has four children. His oldest son, [Jeremiah](Jeremiah Rivers), played basketball at [University](Georgetown)(Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball) and [University](Indiana)(Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball),[Doc Rivers' son to transfer from Georgetown](http://sports.espn.go.com/ncb/news/story?id=3386049). Sports.espn.go.com (May 7, 2008). Retrieved on April 20, 2012. and has played in the [D-League](NBA)(NBA D-League) for the [Red Claws](Maine)(Maine Red Claws). His daughter Callie played [volleyball](Florida Gators women's volleyball) for the [of Florida](University)(University of Florida)[Rivers flows through it – News –](http://www.gatorsports.com/article/20071206/NEWS/71207001/1016) . Gatorsports.com (December 6, 2007). Retrieved on April 20, 2012. and is married to NBA player [Curry](Seth)(Seth Curry). Rivers's son [Austin](Austin Rivers) is an NBA player who plays for the [Timberwolves](Minnesota)(Minnesota Timberwolves). His youngest son, Spencer, is a guard who played for [Park High School](Winter)(Winter Park High School) and for [Irvine](UC)(UC Irvine Anteaters men's basketball).
Rivers became good friends with [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) (MLB) [of Fame](Hall)(National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum) [pitcher](pitcher) [Smoltz](John)(John Smoltz) during his tenure with the Hawks. In 2009, Rivers was credited with helping lure Smoltz into signing with the [Red Sox](Boston)(Boston Red Sox) while he was the head coach of the Celtics.
Rivers is a cousin of former NBA guard [Irvin](Byron)(Byron Irvin) and former MLB [outfielder](outfielder) [Singleton](Ken)(Ken Singleton).[– Doc Rivers](http://www.insidehoops.com/coach/doc-rivers.shtml). Insidehoops.com. Retrieved on April 20, 2012.
Rivers has [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).
## See also
*[of National Basketball Association career steals leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game)
*[of National Basketball Association players with most steals in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with most steals in a game)
## References
## External links
* [Coaching stats](https://www.basketball-reference.com/coaches/riverdo01c.html) at Basketball-Reference.com
* [Coach bio](http://archive.nba.com/coachfile/doc_rivers/) at NBA.com
}}
[births](Category:1961)(Category:1961 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[FIBA World Championship players](Category:1982)(Category:1982 FIBA World Championship players)
[African-American sportspeople](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century African-American sportspeople)
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List of years in film
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list_of_years_in_film
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# List of years in film
*Revision ID: 1159761434 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T10:58:49Z*
---
This page indexes the individual *year in film* pages. Each year is annotated with its significant events.
__NOTOC__
* [century in film](19th)(#19th century in film)
* 20th century in film:
** [1900s](#1900s) – [1910s](#1910s) – [1920s](#1920s) – [1930s](#1930s) – [1940s](#1940s) – [1950s](#1950s) – [1960s](#1960s) – [1970s](#1970s) – [1980s](#1980s) – [1990s](#1990s)
* 21st century in film:
** [2000s](#2000s) – [2010s](#2010s) – [2020s](#2020s)
## 19th century in film
Before Muybridge's 1878 work, photo sequences were not recorded in real-time because light-sensitive emulsions needed a long exposure time. The sequences were basically made as time-lapse recordings. It is possible that people at the time actually viewed such photographs come to life with a phénakisticope or zoetrope (this certainly happened with Muybridge's work).
* **[1826](1826)** – *[from the Window at Le Gras](View)(View from the Window at Le Gras)*, [Niépce](Nicéphore)(Nicéphore Niépce) takes the oldest known extant photograph.
* **[1833](1833)** – Since 1833 onwards, 'animated films' or rather animated effects began to be made with the use of [phénakisticopes](phenakistiscope), [zoetrope](zoetrope)s and [praxinoscope](praxinoscope)s.
* **[1865](1865)** – *Revolving*, self-portrait by French photographer [Nadar](Nadar). Around 1865 he produced this series of self-portraits consisting of 12 [frame](frame (film))s showing different angles of him sitting still in a chair. Except for a smile in 1 frame, not even a fold in his jacket or a single hair seems to change between the different angles. This could be regarded as a predecessor to the [chronophotography](chronophotography) which Marey and Muybridge started to experiment with more than 10 years later. As the sequence revolves around space rather than time it is even more related to the [effect](bullet-time)(bullet time) popularized by *[Matrix](The)(The Matrix)* about 135 years later. There's no clue if more than one camera was used in the shoot, but it's certainly well-executed.
## 1870s
* **[1874](1874)** – *[de Vénus](Passage)(Passage de Vénus)*, first precedent of a film. On December 9, 1874, french astronomer [Janssen](Pierre)(Pierre Janssen) and Brazilian engineer [Antônio de Almeida](Francisco)(Francisco Antônio de Almeida) using Janssen's '[revolver](photographic)(photographic revolver)' photograph the [of the planet Venus across the Sun](transit)(1874 transit of Venus). They were purportedly taken in [Japan](Japan). It is the oldest film on [IMDb](IMDb) and [Letterboxd](Letterboxd).
* **[1878](1878)** – *[Horse in Motion](The)(The Horse in Motion)*, British photographer [Muybridge](Eadweard)(Eadweard Muybridge) take a series of "automatic electro-photographs" depicting the movement of a horse. Muybridge shot the photographs in June 1878. An additional card reprinted the single image of the horse "Occident" trotting at high speed, which had previously been published by Muybridge in 1877. The most famous of these electro-photographs is "Sallie Gardner" taken on June 19, 1878. Railroad tycoon [Stanford](Leland)(Leland Stanford) hired Muybridge to settle the questions of whether a galloping horse ever had all four of its feet off the ground. Muybridge's photos showed the horse with all four feet off the ground. Muybridge went on a lecture tour showing his photographs on a moving-image device he called the [zoopraxiscope](zoopraxiscope).
## 1880s
* **[1885](1885 in film)** – American inventors [Eastman](George)(George Eastman) and [Goodwin](Hannibal)(Hannibal Goodwin) each invent a sensitized [celluloid](celluloid) [base](film base) roll [film](photographic)(photographic film) to replace the glass plates then in use.
* **[1885](1885 in film)** – ''L'homme Machine*, directed by French scientist [Marey](Étienne-Jules)(Étienne-Jules Marey). The oldest black and white [animated](animation) known film.
* **[1886](1886 in film)** – [Le Prince](Louis)(Louis Le Prince) is granted an [American](United States) dual-patent on [16-lens device](a)(Louis Le Prince#LePrince Cine Camera-Projector types) that combines a [picture camera](motion)(Movie camera) with a [projector](Movie projector).
* **[1887](1887 in film)** – *[Walking Around a Corner](Man)(Man Walking Around a Corner)'', directed by French inventor [Le Prince](Louis)(Louis Le Prince). The oldest known film. Although according to David Wilkinson's 2015 documentary *[First Film](The)(The First Film)* it's not film, but a series of photographs, 16 in all, each taken from one of the lens from Le Prince's camera. Pictures from the film were sent in a letter dated 18 August 1887 to his wife. Le Prince went on to develop the one lens camera and on the 14th October 1888 he finally made the world's first moving image, *[Garden Scene](Roundhay)(Roundhay Garden Scene)*.
* **[1888](1888 in film)** – *[Garden Scene](Roundhay)(Roundhay Garden Scene)*, the earliest surviving film by French inventor [Le Prince](Louis)(Louis Le Prince), is shot in [Leeds](Leeds), [Yorkshire](West)(West Yorkshire), [England](England), through a groundbreaking 20 [frames](film frame) per second. Others short films made at the same time were *Accordion Player* and *Traffic Crossing Leeds Bridge*.
* **[1889](1889 in film)** - [Kodak](Eastman)(Eastman Kodak) is the first company to begin commercial production of film on a flexible transparent [base](film base), [celluloid](celluloid).
## 1890s
* **[1890](1890 in film)** - ''[Trafalgar Square](London's)(London's Trafalgar Square)*; *[Monkeyshines](Monkeyshines)*
* **[1891](1891 in film)** - *[Greeting](Dickson)(Dickson Greeting)*; *[Boxing](Men)(Men Boxing)*; *[Athlete](Newark)(Newark Athlete)*
* **[1892](1892 in film)** – *[Clown et ses chiens](Le)(Le Clown et ses chiens)*; *[Pierrot](Pauvre)(Pauvre Pierrot)*; *[bon bock](Un)(Un bon bock)*, first projected [animated](animation) films released by [Reynaud](Émile)(Émile Reynaud).
* **[1893](1893 in film)** – *[Blacksmiths](Blacksmith Scene)'', the first film shown publicly on the [Kinetoscope](Kinetoscope), a system given to Edison; [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison) creates "America's First Film Studio", [Maria](Black)(Edison's Black Maria).
* **[1894](1894 in film)** –
***[Carmencita](Carmencita (film)),* according to film historian [Musser](Charles)(Charles Musser), directed and produced by [K.L. Dickson](William)(William Kennedy Dickson), the [Scottish](Scottish people) [inventor](inventor) credited with the invention of the [picture](motion)(film) [camera](movie camera) under the employ of [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison) was the first woman to appear in front of an Edison motion picture camera and may have been the first woman to appear in a motion picture within the United States.
***[Dickson Experimental Sound Film](The)(The Dickson Experimental Sound Film)* made by [Dickson](William)(William Kennedy Dickson) in late 1894 or early 1895 is the first known film with live-recorded sound and appears to be the first motion picture made for the [Kinetophone](Kinetoscope#Kinetophone), the proto-[sound-film](sound film) system developed by Dickson and [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison). It is also discussed whether it is considered as the first [film](LGBT)(LGBT film). Further in his book *The Celluloid Closet* (1981), film historian [Russo](Vito)(Vito Russo) discusses the film, claiming, without attribution, that it was titled *The Gay Brothers*.Russo (1987), pp. 6–7. For rebuttal of Russo's claim, see, e.g., Dixon (2003), p. 53; Justin DeFreitas, "Moving Pictures: Documentary Puts Modern Gay Cinema in Context", *Berkeley Daily Planet*, July 7, 2006 (available [online](http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/article.cfm?archiveDate=07-07-06&storyID=24579)). Russo's unsupported naming of the film has been adopted widely online and in at least three books, and his unsubstantiated assertions that the film's content is homosexual are frequently echoed.See *Movies of the 90s*, ed. Juergen Mueller (Bonn: Taschen, 2001), p. 147. See also Larry P. Gross, *Up from Invisibility: Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Media in America* (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), p. 57. Gross also erroneously calls it a "five-minute avant-garde film" and describes the men as dancing to music "played on an Edison gramophone", though he does properly state that "we don't know what Dickson intended this light-hearted scene to suggest" (ibid.). The passage is adapted from a section introduction written by Gross for *The Columbia Reader on Lesbians & Gay Men in Media, Society, and Politics*, ed. Larry P. Gross and James D. Woods (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), p. 291. In addition to there being no evidence for the title Russo gives the film, in fact, the word "gay" was not generally used as a synonym for "homosexual" at the time the film was made. A particularly relevant example of the way the word "gay" was actually used is provided by a later Edison Manufacturing Company film, directed by [S. Porter](Edwin)(Edwin S. Porter). As described by scholar Linda Williams, *The Gay Shoe Clerk* (1903).
* **[1895](1895 in film)** – In Paris, France on December 28, 1895, [Lumière brothers](the)(Auguste and Louis Lumière) screen ten films at the Salon Indien du Grand Café in Paris making the first commercial public screening ever made, marked traditionally as **the birth date of the film**; [Film Company](Gaumont)(Gaumont Film Company), the oldest ever [studio](film)(film studio), is founded by inventor [Gaumont](Léon)(Léon Gaumont).
* **[1896](1896 in film)** – ''[d'un train en gare de La Ciotat](L'Arrivée)(L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat)*, one of the six more short films released by the Lumière brothers; [Pathé-Frères](Pathé-Frères) is founded.
* **[1897](1897 in film)** – [Vitagraph](Vitagraph) is founded in [York City](New)(New York City).
* **[1898](1898 in film)** –*[Astronomer's Dream](The)(The Astronomer's Dream)*; *[Cavalier's Dream](The)(The Cavalier's Dream)*; *[a Ghost](Photographing)(Photographing a Ghost)*; *[Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus (1898 film))*
* **[1899](1899 in film)** – *[Dreyfus Affair](The)(The Dreyfus Affair (film series))* and *[Cendrillon](Cendrillon (1899 film))* (first screen adaptation of the traditional fairy tale *[Cinderella](Cinderella)'') released by [Méliès](Georges)(Georges Méliès); earliest known use of a colour motion picture film footage by [Raymond Turner](Edward)(Edward Raymond Turner).
## 1900s
* **[1900](1900 in film)** – *[Holmes Baffled](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes Baffled)*, *[of Arc](Joan)(Joan of Arc (1900 film))*, *[Enchanted Drawing](The)(The Enchanted Drawing)*
* **[1901](1901 in film)** – *[Beard](Blue)(Blue Beard (1901 film))*, *[Theatre](Star)(Star Theatre (film))*, *[Thief!](Stop)(Stop Thief!)*, ''[or, Marley's Ghost](Scrooge,)(Scrooge, or, Marley's Ghost)*
* **[1902](1902 in film)** – *[Trip to the Moon](A)(A Trip to the Moon)*
* **[1903](1903 in film)** – *[Great Train Robbery](The)(The Great Train Robbery (1903 film))*, *[Infernal Cauldron](The)(The Infernal Cauldron)*, *[of an American Fireman](Life)(Life of an American Fireman)*, *[an Elephant](Electrocuting)(Electrocuting an Elephant)*, *[Kingdom of the Fairies](The)(The Kingdom of the Fairies)*
* **[1904](1904 in film)** – *[Impossible Voyage](The)(The Impossible Voyage)*; [Titanus](Titanus) is founded
* **[1905](1905 in film)** – *[Black Imp](The)(The Black Imp)*, *[Dream](Rip's)(Rip's Dream)*, *[of Sherlock Holmes; or, Held for Ransom](Adventures)(Adventures of Sherlock Holmes; or, Held for Ransom)*
* **[1906](1906 in film)** – *[Story of the Kelly Gang](The)(The Story of the Kelly Gang)*, *[Merry Frolics of Satan](The)(The Merry Frolics of Satan)*, *['?' Motorist](The)(The '?' Motorist)*, *[of a Rarebit Fiend](Dream)(Dream of a Rarebit Fiend (1906 film))*, *[Phases of Funny Faces](Humorous)(Humorous Phases of Funny Faces)*; [Film](Nordisk)(Nordisk Film) is founded
* **[1907](1907 in film)** – *[Ben-Hur](Ben-Hur (1907 film))*, *[Eclipse, or the Courtship of the Sun and Moon](The)(The Eclipse, or the Courtship of the Sun and Moon)*, *[prodigue](L'Enfant)(L'Enfant prodigue (film))*
* **[1908](1908 in film)** – *[Fantasmagorie](Fantasmagorie (1908 film))*, *[Visit to the Seaside](A)(A Visit to the Seaside)*, *[Taming of the Shrew](The)(The Taming of the Shrew (1908 film))*, *[Thieving Hand](The)(The Thieving Hand)*, *[Assassination of the Duke of Guise](The)(The Assassination of the Duke of Guise)*; first use of [Kinemacolor](Kinemacolor); [News](Pathé)(Pathé News) invents the [newsreel](newsreel).
* **[1909](1909 in film)** – *[Country Doctor](The)(The Country Doctor (1909 film))*, *[Corner in Wheat](A)(A Corner in Wheat)*, *[Nicotine; or, The Smoke Fairy](Princess)(Princess Nicotine; or, The Smoke Fairy)*, *[Misérables](Les)(Les Misérables (1909 film))*; [mm film](35)(35 mm movie film) becomes a filmmaking standard across the world.
## 1910s
* **[1910](1910 in film)** – *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein (1910 film))*, *[Old California](In)(In Old California (1910 film))*, *[the Border States](In)(In the Border States)*, *[Fawn's Devotion](White)(White Fawn's Devotion)*
* **[1911](1911 in film)** – *[L'Inferno](L'Inferno (film))*, *[Munchausen's Dream](Baron)(Baron Munchausen's Dream)*, *[of Sevastopol](Defence)(Defence of Sevastopol)*, *[Lonedale Operator](The)(The Lonedale Operator)*
* **[1912](1912 in film)** – *[Cameraman's Revenge](The)(The Cameraman's Revenge)*, *[României](Independenţa)(Independenţa României)*, *[Musketeers of Pig Alley](The)(The Musketeers of Pig Alley)* , *[III](Richard)(Richard III (1912 film))''; [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) and [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures), Hollywood's two oldest major film studios, are founded; the [Board of Film Classification](British)(British Board of Film Classification) is established.
* **[1913](1913 in film)** – *[Bangville Police](The)(The Bangville Police)*, *[Fantômas](Fantômas (1913 serial))*, ''[Oldfield's Race for a Life](Barney)(Barney Oldfield's Race for a Life)*, *[Harishchandra](Raja)(Raja Harishchandra)*; invention of the [trailer](film)(Trailer (promotion))
* **[1914](1914 in film)** – *[Cabiria](Cabiria)*, *[Perils of Pauline](The)(The Perils of Pauline (1914 serial))*, *[Punctured Romance](Tillie's)(Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914 film))*, *[of Bethulia](Judith)(Judith of Bethulia)*
* **[1915](1915 in film)** – *[Birth of a Nation](The)(The Birth of a Nation)*, *[Tramp](The)(The Tramp (film))*, *[Vampires](Les)(Les Vampires)*, *[Fool There Was](A)(A Fool There Was (1915 film))*
* **[1916](1916 in film)** – *[Intolerance](Intolerance (film))*, *[Leagues Under the Sea](20,000)(20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916 film))*, *[the Dinosaur](Gertie)(Gertie the Dinosaur)*, *[Queen of Spades](The)(The Queen of Spades (1916 film))*; invention of [Technicolor](Technicolor).
* **[1917](1917 in film)** – *[of Sunnybrook Farm](Rebecca)(Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1917 film))*, *[Man There Was](A)(A Man There Was)*
* **[1918](1918 in film)** – *[Outlaw and His Wife](The)(The Outlaw and His Wife)*, *[Maris](Stella)(Stella Maris (1918 film))*, *[Mickey](Mickey (1918 film))*, *[Sands](Shifting)(Shifting Sands (1918 film))*
* **[1919](1919 in film)** – *[Husbands](Blind)(Blind Husbands)*, *[Blossoms](Broken)(Broken Blossoms)*, *[Heart Susie](True)(True Heart Susie)*, *[Bukid](Dalagang)(Dalagang Bukid)*, *[and Female](Male)(Male and Female)*; [Artists](United)(United Artists) is founded.
## 1920s
* **[1920](1920 in film)** – *[Cabinet of Dr. Caligari](The)(The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari)*, *[Down East](Way)(Way Down East)*, *[Flapper](The)(The Flapper)*, *[Mark of Zorro](The)(The Mark of Zorro (1920 film))*, *[Jekyll and Mr. Hyde](Dr.)(Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1920 Paramount film))*, *[Golem: How He Came into the World](The)(The Golem: How He Came into the World)*, *[Our Gates](Within)(Within Our Gates)*
* **[1921](1921 in film)** – *[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse](The)(The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (film))*, *[Kid](The)(The Kid (1921 film))*, *[Phantom Carriage](The)(The Phantom Carriage)*, *[Paradise](Fool's)(Fool's Paradise (1921 film))*, *[Sheik](The)(The Sheik (film))*, *[Mechanical Man](The)(The Mechanical Man)*
* **[1922](1922 in film)** – *[Nosferatu](Nosferatu)*, *[Häxan](Häxan)*, *[Wives](Foolish)(Foolish Wives)*, *[Little Rascals](The)(The Little Rascals)*, *[and Sand](Blood)(Blood and Sand (1922 film))*, *[of the North](Nanook)(Nanook of the North)*, *[Mabuse the Gambler](Dr.)(Dr. Mabuse the Gambler)*; [Picture Association of America](Motion)(Motion Picture Association) is established.
* **[1923](1923 in film)** – *[Last!](Safety)(Safety Last!)*, *[Hunchback of Notre Dame](The)(The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film))*, *[Hospitality](Our)(Our Hospitality)*, *[Ten Commandments](The)(The Ten Commandments (1923 film))*; [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) and [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures) are founded; [mm film](16)(16 mm film) introduced.
* **[1924](1924 in film)** – *[Jr.](Sherlock)(Sherlock Jr.)*, *[Thief of Bagdad](The)(The Thief of Bagdad (1924 film))*, *[Greed](Greed (1924 film))*, *[Last Laugh](The)(The Last Laugh (1924 film))*, *[Who Gets Slapped](He)(He Who Gets Slapped (film))*, *[Nibelungen](Die)(Die Nibelungen)*; [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) and [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) are founded
* **[1925](1925 in film)** – *[Gold Rush](The)(The Gold Rush)*, *[Battleship Potemkin](The)(The Battleship Potemkin)*, *[Big Parade](The)(The Big Parade)*, *[Phantom of the Opera](The)(The Phantom of the Opera (1925 film))*, *[Ben-Hur](Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1925 film))*
* **[1926](1926 in film)** – *[General](The)(The General (1926 film))*, *[Adventures of Prince Achmed](The)(The Adventures of Prince Achmed)*, *[Juan](Don)(Don Juan (1926 film))*
* **[1927](1927 in film)** – *[Jazz Singer](The)(The Jazz Singer)*, *[Metropolis](Metropolis (1927 film))*, *[& Hardy](Laurel)(Laurel & Hardy)*, *[Wings](Wings (1927 film))*, *[A Song of Two Humans](Sunrise:)(Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans)*, *[Napoléon](Napoléon (1927 film))*, *[King of Kings](The)(The King of Kings (1927 film))*
* **[1928](1928 in film)** – *[Passion of Joan of Arc](The)(The Passion of Joan of Arc)*, *[Willie](Steamboat)(Steamboat Willie)*, *[Chien Andalou](Un)(Un Chien Andalou)*, *[of New York](Lights)(Lights of New York (1928 film))*, *[Circus](The)(The Circus (1928 film))*, *[Crowd](The)(The Crowd (1928 film))*; [Pictures](RKO)(RKO Pictures) is founded
* **[1929](1929 in film)** – *[Chien Andalou](Un)(Un Chien Andalou)*, *[Blackmail](Blackmail (1929 film))*, *[Box](Pandora's)(Pandora's Box (1929 film))*, *[with a Movie Camera](Man)(Man with a Movie Camera)*, *[Broadway Melody](The)(The Broadway Melody)*, *[Disraeli](Disraeli (1929 film))*, *[Virginian](The)(The Virginian (1929 film))*; [Academy Awards](1st)(1st Academy Awards)
## 1930s
* **[1930](1930 in film)** – *[Tunes](Looney)(Looney Tunes)*, *[of Jazz](King)(King of Jazz)*, *[Quiet on the Western Front](All)(All Quiet on the Western Front (1930 film))*, *[Earth](Earth (1930 film))*, *[End](Journey's)(Journey's End (1930 film))*, *[Blue Angel](The)(The Blue Angel)*, *[Crackers](Animal)(Animal Crackers (1930 film))*, *[Angels](Hell's)(Hell's Angels (film))*, *[Big House](The)(The Big House (1930 film))*, *[Boop](Betty)(Betty Boop)*
* **[1931](1931 in film)** – *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein (1931 film))*, *[Dracula](Dracula (1931 English-language film))*, *[Champ](The)(The Champ (1931 film))*, *[Public Enemy](The)(The Public Enemy)*, *[Caesar](Little)(Little Caesar (film))*, *[Cimarron](Cimarron (1931 film))*, *[M](M (1931 film))*, *[Lights](City)(City Lights)*, *[Front Page](The)(The Front Page (1931 film))*
* **[1932](1932 in film)** – *[Express](Shanghai)(Shanghai Express (film))*, *[Scarface](Scarface (1932 film))*, *[the Ape Man](Tarzan)(Tarzan the Ape Man (1932 film))*, *[Mummy](The)(The Mummy (1932 film))*, *[Freaks](Freaks (1932 film))*, *[in Paradise](Trouble)(Trouble in Paradise (1932 film))*, *[Sign of the Cross](The)(The Sign of the Cross (1932 film))*, *[Hotel](Grand)(Grand Hotel (1932 film))*; [mm film](8)(8 mm film) introduced.
* **[1933](1933 in film)** – *[Kong](King)(King Kong (1933 film))*, *[Diggers of 1933](Gold)(Gold Diggers of 1933)*, *[& Ginger](Fred)(Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers)*, *[Invisible Man](The)(The Invisible Man (1933 film))*, *[Street](42nd)(42nd Street (film))*, *[Soup](Duck)(Duck Soup (1933 film))*, *[Three Stooges](The)(The Three Stooges filmography#The Three Stooges: Moe, Larry and Curly)*, *[Done Him Wrong](She)(She Done Him Wrong)*
* **[1934](1934 in film)** – *[L'Atalante](L'Atalante)*, *[Happened One Night](It)(It Happened One Night)*, *[Thin Man](The)(The Thin Man (film))*, *[Cleopatra](Cleopatra (1934 film))*, *[Goddess](The)(The Goddess (1934 film))*, *[of Life](Imitation)(Imitation of Life (1934 film))*, *[Melodrama](Manhattan)(Manhattan Melodrama)*, *[Black Cat](The)(The Black Cat (1934 film))*, *[Eyes](Bright)(Bright Eyes (1934 film))*
* **[1935](1935 in film)** – *[Night at the Opera](A)(A Night at the Opera (film))*, *[of Frankenstein](Bride)(Bride of Frankenstein)*, *[39 Steps](The)(The 39 Steps (1935 film))*, *[on the Bounty](Mutiny)(Mutiny on the Bounty (1935 film))*, *[Blood](Captain)(Captain Blood (1935 film))*, *[of the Will](Triumph)(Triumph of the Will)*; [Century Studios](20th)(20th Century Studios) and [Rank Organisation](The)(General Film Distributors) are founded
* **[1936](1936 in film)** – *[Times](Modern)(Modern Times (film))*, *[Time](Swing)(Swing Time (film))*, *[Deeds Goes to Town](Mr.)(Mr. Deeds Goes to Town)*, *[Gordon](Flash)(Flash Gordon (serial))*, *[Man Godfrey](My)(My Man Godfrey)*, *[Great Ziegfeld](The)(The Great Ziegfeld)*, *[and Get It](Come)(Come and Get It (1936 film))*, *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet (1936 film))*
* **[1937](1937 in film)** – *[White and the Seven Dwarfs](Snow)(Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film))*, *[Life of Emile Zola](The)(The Life of Emile Zola)*, *[Grande Illusion](La)(La Grande Illusion)*, *[le Moko](Pépé)(Pépé le Moko)*, *[Prisoner of Zenda](The)(The Prisoner of Zenda (1937 film))*, *[Horizon](Lost)(Lost Horizon (1937 film))*
* **[1938](1938 in film)** – *[Up Baby](Bringing)(Bringing Up Baby)*, *[Adventures of Robin Hood](The)(The Adventures of Robin Hood)*, *[Nevsky](Alexander)(Alexander Nevsky (film))*, *[Jezebel](Jezebel (1938 film))*, *[Christmas Carol](A)(A Christmas Carol (1938 film))*, *[Town](Boys)(Boys Town (film))*, *[with Dirty Faces](Angels)(Angels with Dirty Faces)*
* **[1939](1939 in film)** – *[with the Wind](Gone)(Gone with the Wind (film))*, *[Wizard of Oz](The)(The Wizard of Oz (1939 film))*, *[Rules of the Game](The)(The Rules of the Game)*, *[Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes (1939 film series))*, *[Hunchback of Notre Dame](The)(The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film))*, *[Mice and Men](Of)(Of Mice and Men (1939 film))*, *[Smith Goes to Washington](Mr.)(Mr. Smith Goes to Washington)*, *[Stagecoach](Stagecoach (1939 film))*
## 1940s
* **[1940](1940 in film)** – *[Girl Friday](His)(His Girl Friday)*, *[Great Dictator](The)(The Great Dictator)*, *[and Jerry](Tom)(Tom and Jerry)*, *[Bunny](Bugs)(Bugs Bunny)*, *[Rebecca](Rebecca (1940 film))*, *[Pinocchio](Pinocchio (1940 film))*, *[Fantasia](Fantasia (1940 film))*, *[Grapes of Wrath](The)(The Grapes of Wrath (film))*, *[Philadelphia Story](The)(The Philadelphia Story (film))*, *[Blue Bird](The)(The Blue Bird (1940 film))*, [to...* series](*Road)(Road to...), *[Woodpecker](Woody)(Woody Woodpecker (film series))*
* **[1941](1941 in film)** – *[Kane](Citizen)(Citizen Kane)*, *[Lady Eve](The)(The Lady Eve)*, *[York](Sergeant)(Sergeant York (film))*, *[Dumbo](Dumbo)*, *[Green Was My Valley](How)(How Green Was My Valley (film))*, *[Maltese Falcon](The)(The Maltese Falcon (1941 film))*, *[Wolf Man](The)(The Wolf Man (1941 film))*
* **[1942](1942 in film)** – *[Casablanca](Casablanca (film))*, *[Miniver](Mrs.)(Mrs. Miniver)*, *[Magnificent Ambersons](The)(The Magnificent Ambersons (film))*, *[Be or Not to Be](To)(To Be or Not to Be (1942 film))*, *[Bambi](Bambi)*, *[Doodle Dandy](Yankee)(Yankee Doodle Dandy)*, *[People](Cat)(Cat People (1942 film))*, *[Amigos](Saludos)(Saludos Amigos)*, *[Black Swan](The)(The Black Swan (film))*
* **[1943](1943 in film)** – *[Ossessione](Ossessione)*, *[Song of Bernadette](The)(The Song of Bernadette (film))*, *[Can Wait](Heaven)(Heaven Can Wait (1943 film))*, *[of the Opera](Phantom)(Phantom of the Opera (1943 film))*, *[Life and Death of Colonel Blimp](The)(The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp)*, *[Come Home](Lassie)(Lassie Come Home)*, *[of a Doubt](Shadow)(Shadow of a Doubt)*, *[Whom the Bell Tolls](For)(For Whom the Bell Tolls (film))*, *[Ox-Bow Incident](The)(The Ox-Bow Incident)*, *[in the Sky](Cabin)(Cabin in the Sky (film))*, *[Droopy](Droopy)*, *[Gang's All Here](The)(The Gang's All Here (1943 film))*
* **[1944](1944 in film)** – *[My Way](Going)(Going My Way)*, *[Indemnity](Double)(Double Indemnity)*, *[Me in St. Louis](Meet)(Meet Me in St. Louis)*, *[the Terrible](Ivan)(Ivan the Terrible (1944 film))*, *[Laura](Laura (1944 film))*, *[Have and Have Not](To)(To Have and Have Not (film))*, *[My Sweet](Murder,)(Murder, My Sweet)*, *[Three Caballeros](The)(The Three Caballeros)*, *[Gaslight](Gaslight (1944 film))*, *[Bill](Buffalo)(Buffalo Bill (1944 film))*, *[Beauty](Bathing)(Bathing Beauty)*; [Golden Globe Awards](1st)(1st Golden Globe Awards)
* **[1945](1945 in film)** – *[Encounter](Brief)(Brief Encounter)*, *[of Paradise](Children)(Children of Paradise)*, *[Angel](Fallen)(Fallen Angel (1945 film))*, *[Her to Heaven](Leave)(Leave Her to Heaven)*, *[Lost Weekend](The)(The Lost Weekend (film))*, *[Naughty Nineties](The)(The Naughty Nineties)*, *[Aweigh](Anchors)(Anchors Aweigh (film))*, *[Picture of Dorian Gray](The)(The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film))*, *[Open City](Rome,)(Rome, Open City)*, *[Spellbound](Spellbound (1945 film))*, *[Came Jones](Along)(Along Came Jones (1945 film))*
* **[1946](1946 in film)** – *[a Wonderful Life](It's)(It's a Wonderful Life)*, *[Notorious](Notorious (1946 film))*, *[Darling Clementine](My)(My Darling Clementine)*, *[Expectations](Great)(Great Expectations (1946 film))*, *[Best Years of Our Lives](The)(The Best Years of Our Lives)*, *[of the South](Song)(Song of the South)*, *[Mine Music](Make)(Make Mine Music)*, *[and the Beast](Beauty)(Beauty and the Beast (1946 film))*, *[Big Sleep](The)(The Big Sleep (1946 film))*, *[Skies](Blue)(Blue Skies (1946 film))*, *[Harvey Girls](The)(The Harvey Girls)*; [Cannes Film Festival](First)(1946 Cannes Film Festival)
* **[1947](1947 in film)** – *[on 34th Street](Miracle)(Miracle on 34th Street)*, *[Narcissus](Black)(Black Narcissus)*, *[Lady from Shanghai](The)(The Lady from Shanghai)*, *[and Fancy Free](Fun)(Fun and Fancy Free)*, *[Verdoux](Monsieur)(Monsieur Verdoux)*, *[of the Past](Out)(Out of the Past)*, *[Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer](The)(The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer)*, *[Man Out](Odd)(Odd Man Out)*, *[with Father](Life)(Life with Father (film))*
* **[1948](1948 in film)** – *[Thieves](Bicycle)(Bicycle Thieves)*, *[Red Shoes](The)(The Red Shoes (1948 film))*, *[River](Red)(Red River (1948 film))*, *[Guys from Texas](Two)(Two Guys from Texas)*, *[Hamlet](Hamlet (1948 film))*, *[Parade](Easter)(Easter Parade (film))*, *[Time](Melody)(Melody Time)*, *[Paleface](The)(The Paleface (1948 film))*, *[Treasure of the Sierra Madre](The)(The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (film))*, *[of Arc](Joan)(Joan of Arc (1948 film))*, *[Dear to My Heart](So)(So Dear to My Heart)*, *[Three Musketeers](The)(The Three Musketeers (1948 film))*; [British Academy Film Awards](1st)(1st British Academy Film Awards)
* **[1949](1949 in film)** – *[Third Man](The)(The Third Man)*, *[Spring](Late)(Late Spring)*, *[the King's Men](All)(All the King's Men (1949 film))*, *[Heat](White)(White Heat)*, *[Galore!](Whisky)(Whisky Galore! (1949 film))*, *[Dog](Stray)(Stray Dog (film))*, *[Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad](The)(The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad)*, *[Heiress](The)(The Heiress)*, *[the Town](On)(On the Town (film))*, *[Dream is Yours](My)(My Dream is Yours)*, *[and Delilah](Samson)(Samson and Delilah (1949 film))*, *[Tulsa](Tulsa (film))*
## 1950s
* **[1950](1950 in film)** – *[Rashomon](Rashomon)*, *[Boulevard](Sunset)(Sunset Boulevard (film))*, *[About Eve](All)(All About Eve)*, *[Cinderella](Cinderella (1950 film))*, *[Harvey](Harvey (1950 film))*, *[of the Bride](Father)(Father of the Bride (1950 film))*, *[Orphée](Orpheus (film))*, *[Get Your Gun](Annie)(Annie Get Your Gun (film))*, *[a Lonely Place](In)(In a Lonely Place)*, *[de Bergerac](Cyrano)(Cyrano de Bergerac (1950 film))*, *[Solomon's Mines](King)(King Solomon's Mines (1950 film))*, *[Yesterday](Born)(Born Yesterday (1950 film))*, *[of the High Seas](Pirates)(Pirates of the High Seas)*, *[Moon](Destination)(Destination Moon (film))*
* **[1951](1951 in film)** – *[and Bathsheba](David)(David and Bathsheba (film))*, *[Streetcar Named Desire](A)(A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 film))*, *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))*, *[Day the Earth Stood Still](The)(The Day the Earth Stood Still)*, *[in Wonderland](Alice)(Alice in Wonderland (1951 film))*, *[Vadis](Quo)(Quo Vadis (1951 film))*, *[Great Caruso](The)(The Great Caruso)*, *[African Queen](The)(The African Queen (film))*, *[Thing from Another World](The)(The Thing from Another World)*, *[in the Hole](Ace)(Ace in the Hole (1951 film))*, *[on a Train](Strangers)(Strangers on a Train (film))*, *[Place in the Sun](A)(A Place in the Sun (1951 film))*, *[Before Dawn](Decision)(Decision Before Dawn)*
* **[1952](1952 in film)** – *[in the Rain](Singin')(Singin' in the Rain)*, *[Noon](High)(High Noon)*, *[Bad and the Beautiful](The)(The Bad and the Beautiful)*, *[Quiet Man](The)(The Quiet Man)*, *[Limelight](Limelight (1952 film))*, *[Is Cinerama](This)(This Is Cinerama)*, *[Greatest Show on Earth](The)(The Greatest Show on Earth (film))*; first [3D](3D film) films
* **[1953](1953 in film)** – *[Pan](Peter)(Peter Pan (1953 film))*, *[Story](Tokyo)(Tokyo Story)*, *[Here to Eternity](From)(From Here to Eternity)*, *[Shane](Shane (film))*, *[When Wet](Dangerous)(Dangerous When Wet)*, *[War of the Worlds](The)(The War of the Worlds (1953 film))*, *[Ugetsu](Ugetsu)*, *[Robe](The)(The Robe (1953 film))*, *[in Store](Trouble)(Trouble in Store)*, *[Jane](Calamity)(Calamity Jane (1953 film))*, *[Earrings of Madame de...](The)(The Earrings of Madame de...)*, *[Salome](Salome (1953 film))*, *[Holiday](Roman)(Roman Holiday)*, *[Band Wagon](The)(The Band Wagon)*, *[Prefer Blondes](Gentlemen)(Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953 film))*, *[Fury](Gun)(Gun Fury)*; first use of [CinemaScope](CinemaScope); British cinema advertisement company [& Dean](Pearl)(Pearl & Dean) is founded.
* **[1954](1954 in film)** – *[Godzilla](Godzilla (1954 film))*, *[Window](Rear)(Rear Window)*, *[Samurai](Seven)(Seven Samurai)*, *[M for Murder](Dial)(Dial M for Murder)*, *[Christmas](White)(White Christmas (film))*, *[Leagues Under the Sea](20,000)(20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film))*, *[from the Black Lagoon](Creature)(Creature from the Black Lagoon)*, *[the Bailiff](Sansho)(Sansho the Bailiff)*, *[Star Is Born](A)(A Star Is Born (1954 film))*, *[the Waterfront](On)(On the Waterfront)*, *[Strada](La)(La Strada)*, *[Coins in the Fountain](Three)(Three Coins in the Fountain (film))*, *[Brides for Seven Brothers](Seven)(Seven Brides for Seven Brothers)*, *[Barefoot Contessa](The)(The Barefoot Contessa)*, *[Ring Circus](3)(3 Ring Circus)*, *[Adventures of Hajji Baba](The)(The Adventures of Hajji Baba)*
* **[1955](1955 in film)** – *[Kentuckian](The)(The Kentuckian (1955 film))*, *[Without a Cause](Rebel)(Rebel Without a Cause)*, *[Night of the Hunter](The)(The Night of the Hunter (film))*, *[Catch a Thief](To)(To Catch a Thief)*, *[Seven Year Itch](The)(The Seven Year Itch)*, *[Marty](Marty (film))*, *[Ordet](Ordet)*, *[Panchali](Pather)(Pather Panchali)*, *[That Heaven Allows](All)(All That Heaven Allows)*, *[of a Summer Night](Smiles)(Smiles of a Summer Night)*, *[and the Tramp](Lady)(Lady and the Tramp)*, *[Oklahoma!](Oklahoma! (1955 film))*, *[Arkadin](Mr.)(Mr. Arkadin)*, *[Court Jester](The)(The Court Jester)*, *[Roberts](Mister)(Mister Roberts (1955 film))*, *[Jungle](Blackboard)(Blackboard Jungle)*
* **[1956](1956 in film)** – *[Ten Commandments](The)(The Ten Commandments (1956 film))*, *[Society](High)(High Society (1956 film))*, *[Dick](Moby)(Moby Dick (1956 film))*, *[Carousel](Carousel (film))*, *[King and I](The)(The King and I (1956 film))*, *[Giant](Giant (1956 film))*, *[Searchers](The)(The Searchers)*, *[Man Escaped](A)(A Man Escaped)*, *[Planet](Forbidden)(Forbidden Planet)*, *[of the Body Snatchers](Invasion)(Invasion of the Body Snatchers)*, *[and Fog](Night)(Night and Fog (1956 film))*, *[the World in 80 Days](Around)(Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film)), [Eyes](Wakeful)(Wakeful Eyes)*, *[Around the Clock](Rock)(Rock Around the Clock (film))*, *[to the Dance](Invitation)(Invitation to the Dance (film))*, *[Rock, Rock!](Rock,)(Rock, Rock, Rock! (film))*
* **[1957](1957 in film)** – *[Bridge on the River Kwai](The)(The Bridge on the River Kwai)*, *[Angry Men](12)(12 Angry Men (1957 film))*, *[Smell of Success](Sweet)(Sweet Smell of Success)*, *[Yeller](Old)(Old Yeller (film))*, *[Seventh Seal](The)(The Seventh Seal)*, *[of Evil](Touch)(Touch of Evil)*, *[Rock](Jailhouse)(Jailhouse Rock (film))*, *[All Go to the Lobby](Let's)(Let's All Go to the Lobby)*, *[India](Mother)(Mother India)*, *[Snow Queen](The)(The Snow Queen (1957 film))*, *[Strawberries](Wild)(Wild Strawberries (film))*, *[of Glory](Paths)(Paths of Glory)*, *[of Blood](Throne)(Throne of Blood)*, *[Curse of Frankenstein](The)(The Curse of Frankenstein), [Again](Back)(Back Again (film))*
* **[1958](1958 in film)** – *[Vertigo](Vertigo (film))*, *[pour l'échafaud](Ascenseur)(Elevator to the Gallows)*, *[Gigi](Gigi (1958 film))*, *[Pacific](South)(South Pacific (1958 film))*, *[on a Hot Tin Roof](Cat)(Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958 film))*, *[On](Carry)(Carry On (franchise))*, *[and Diamonds](Ashes)(Ashes and Diamonds (film))*, *[Jalsaghar](Jalsaghar)*, *[Fly](The)(The Fly (1958 film))*, *[Blob](The)(The Blob)*, *[of the 50 Foot Woman](Attack)(Attack of the 50 Foot Woman), [the Algerian](Jamila,)(Jamila, the Algerian)*, *[Thumb](Tom)(Tom Thumb (film))*
* **[1959](1959 in film)** – *[Ben-Hur](Ben-Hur (1959 film))*, *[Like It Hot](Some)(Some Like It Hot)*, *[400 Blows](The)(The 400 Blows)*, *[Boy! Hey Girl!](Hey)(Hey Boy! Hey Girl!)*, *[Hands with the Devil](Shake)(Shake Hands with the Devil (1959 film))*, *[by Northwest](North)(North by Northwest)*, *[of a Murder](Anatomy)(Anatomy of a Murder)*, *[Beauty](Sleeping)(Sleeping Beauty (1959 film))*, *[Bravo](Rio)(Rio Bravo (film))*, *[Pickpocket](Pickpocket (film))*, *[mon amour](Hiroshima)(Hiroshima mon amour)*, *[Talk](Pillow)(Pillow Talk (film)), [Women](Forbidden)(Forbidden Women (1959 film)), [the Ruins](Among)(Among the Ruins), [Second Man](The)(The Second Man (1959 film))*, *[of Life](Imitation)(Imitation of Life (1959 film))*, *[9 from Outer Space](Plan)(Plan 9 from Outer Space)*, *[Song of the Nightingale](The)(The Song of the Nightingale (film))*
## 1960s
* **[1960](1960 in film)** – *[Psycho](Psycho (1960 film))*, *[Spartacus](Spartacus (film))*, *[Breathless](Breathless (1960 film))*, *[Apartment](The)(The Apartment)*, *[Exodus](Exodus (1960 film))*, *[Magnificent Seven](The)(The Magnificent Seven)*, *[Dolce Vita](La)(La Dolce Vita)*, *[and Women](Money)(Money and Women)*, *[L'Avventura](L'Avventura)*, *[and Adoration](Love)(Love and Adoration)*, *[Boy and the Pirates](The)(The Boy and the Pirates)*, *[Time Machine](The)(The Time Machine (1960 film)), [Scrap of Bread](A)(A Scrap of Bread)*, *[Family Robinson](Swiss)(Swiss Family Robinson (1960 film))*, *[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn](The)(The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1960 film))*
* **[1961](1961 in film)** – *[Side Story](West)(West Side Story (1961 film))*, *[at Tiffany's](Breakfast)(Breakfast at Tiffany's (film))*, *[Italian Style](Divorce,)(Divorce, Italian Style)*, *[Hub Keda](El)(El Hub Keda)*, *[at Nuremberg](Judgment)(Judgment at Nuremberg)*, *[Yojimbo](Yojimbo (film))*, *[Year at Marienbad](Last)(Last Year at Marienbad)*, *[Wa Banati](Ana)(Ana wa Banati)*, *[Storm of Love](A)(A Storm of Love)*, *[Hundred and One Dalmatians](One)(One Hundred and One Dalmatians)*, *[Absent-Minded Professor](The)(The Absent-Minded Professor)*
* **[1962](1962 in film)** – *[of Arabia](Lawrence)(Lawrence of Arabia (film))*, *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))*, *[Man Who Shot Liberty Valance](The)(The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance)*, *[No](Dr.)(Dr. No (film))*, *[Seas to Calais](Seven)(Seven Seas to Calais)*, *[Ever Happened to Baby Jane?](What)(What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (film))*, *[Childhood](Ivan's)(Ivan's Childhood)*, *[Manchurian Candidate](The)(The Manchurian Candidate (1962 film))*, *[Lolita](Lolita (1962 film))*, *[Jetée](La)(La Jetée)*, *[and Cybele](Sundays)(Sundays and Cybele), [at the Tower](Appointment)(Appointment at the Tower), [Cursed Palace](The)(The Cursed Palace)*, *[Purr-ee](Gay)(Gay Purr-ee)*, *[Music Man](The)(The Music Man (1962 film))*
* **[1963](1963 in film)** – *[Birds](The)(The Birds (film))*, *[Great Escape](The)(The Great Escape (film))*, *[Pink Panther](The)(The Pink Panther (1963 film))*, *[Jones](Tom)(Tom Jones (1963 film))*, *[Hud](Hud (1963 film))*, *[Cleopatra](Cleopatra (1963 film))*, *[Charade](Charade (1963 film))*, *[8½](8½)*, *[on Your Life](Not)(Not on Your Life)*, *[Hands](Soft)(Soft Hands (film))*, *[in the Field](Lilies)(Lilies of the Field (1963 film))*, *[Haunting](The)(The Haunting (1963 film))*, *[the West Was Won](How)(How the West Was Won (film))*, *[Nutty Professor](The)(The Nutty Professor (1963 film))*, *[a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World](It's)(It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World)*, *[Sword in the Stone](The)(The Sword in the Stone (1963 film))*, *[and the Argonauts](Jason)(Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film))*, *[Today and Tomorrow](Yesterday,)(Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow)*, *[Leopard](The)(The Leopard (1963 film))*, *[and Low](High)(High and Low (1963 film))*, *[la Douce](Irma)(Irma la Douce), [the Victorious](Saladin)(Saladin the Victorious)*, *[McLintock!](McLintock!)*
* **[1964](1964 in film)** – *[Poppins](Mary)(Mary Poppins (film))*, *[Hard Day's Night](A)(A Hard Day's Night (film))*, *[Fair Lady](My)(My Fair Lady (film))*, *[Strangelove](Dr.)(Dr. Strangelove)*, *[Fistful of Dollars](A)(A Fistful of Dollars)*, *[Goldfinger](Goldfinger (film)), [Husband on Vacation](A)(A Husband on Vacation)*, *[Umbrellas of Cherbourg](The)(The Umbrellas of Cherbourg)*, *[Tiger Walks](A)(A Tiger Walks)*
* **[1965](1965 in film)** – *[Sound of Music](The)(The Sound of Music (film))*, *[Zhivago](Doctor)(Doctor Zhivago (film))*, *[Great Race](The)(The Great Race)*, *[Ballou](Cat)(Cat Ballou)*, *[a Few Dollars More](For)(For a Few Dollars More)*, *[than My Life](Dearer)(Aghla Min Hayati)*, *[Repulsion](Repulsion (film))*
* **[1966](1966 in film)** – *[Persona](Persona (1966 film))*, *[Good, the Bad and the Ugly](The)(The Good, the Bad and the Ugly)*, *[Blowup](Blowup)*, *[Voyage](Fantastic)(Fantastic Voyage)*, *[Afraid of Virginia Woolf?](Who's)(Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (film))*, *[Hasard Balthazar](Au)(Au Hasard Balthazar)*, *[Battle of Algiers](The)(The Battle of Algiers)*, *[Man for All Seasons](A)(A Man for All Seasons (1966 film))*, *[Wild Angels](The)(The Wild Angels)*, *[the Pooh](Winnie)(Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree#Winnie the Pooh featurettes)*, *[Alfie](Alfie (1966 film))*, *[Free](Born)(Born Free (film)), [Wife, the Director General](My)(My Wife, the Director General), [Wife from Paris](A)(A Wife from Paris)*, *[Rublev](Andrei)(Andrei Rublev (film))*
* **[1967](1967 in film)** – *[and Clyde](Bonnie)(Bonnie and Clyde (film))*, *[Graduate](The)(The Graduate)*, *[Playtime](Playtime)*, *[de jour](Belle)(Belle de jour (film))*, *[Hand Luke](Cool)(Cool Hand Luke)*, *[the Heat of the Night](In)(In the Heat of the Night (film))*, *[Jungle Book](The)(The Jungle Book (1967 film))*, *[Look Back](Dont)(Dont Look Back)*, *[Dirty Dozen](The)(The Dirty Dozen)*, *[Producers](The)(The Producers (1967 film))*, *[Wife's Dignity](My)(My Wife's Dignity)*, *[Dolittle](Doctor)(Doctor Dolittle (1967 film))*, *[and the Beanstalk](Jack)(Jack and the Beanstalk (1967 film))*, *[Modern Millie](Thoroughly)(Thoroughly Modern Millie), [Second Wife](The)(The Second Wife (1967 film))*
* **[1968](1968 in film)** – *[A Space Odyssey](2001:)(2001: A Space Odyssey (film))*, *[Baby](Rosemary's)(Rosemary's Baby (film))*, *[of the Apes](Planet)(Planet of the Apes (1968 film))*, *[Upon a Time in the West](Once)(Once Upon a Time in the West)*, *[of the Living Dead](Night)(Night of the Living Dead)*, *[Kisses](Stolen)(Stolen Kisses)*, *[Wife's Goblin](My)(My Wife's Goblin)*, *[Submarine](Yellow)(Yellow Submarine (film))*, *[Man Who Lost His Shadow](The)(The Man Who Lost His Shadow),* *[Oliver!](Oliver! (film))*, *[Chitty Bang Bang](Chitty)(Chitty Chitty Bang Bang)*, *[Love Bug](The)(The Love Bug)*, *[Bullitt](Bullitt)*, *[Girl](Funny)(Funny Girl (film))*, *[Mine and Ours](Yours,)(Yours, Mine and Ours (1968 film))*
* **[1969](1969 in film)** – *[Cowboy](Midnight)(Midnight Cowboy)*, *[Grit](True)(True Grit (1969 film))*, *[Cassidy and the Sundance Kid](Butch)(Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid)*, *[Rider](Easy)(Easy Rider)*, *[Wild Bunch](The)(The Wild Bunch)*, *[Z](Z (1969 film))*, *[Color of Pomegranates](The)(The Color of Pomegranates)*, *[Italian Job](The)(The Italian Job (1969 film))*, *[Boy Named Charlie Brown](A)(A Boy Named Charlie Brown), [Morning, My Dear Wife](Good)(Good Morning, My Dear Wife)*, *[Computer Wore Tennis Shoes](The)(The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes)*
## 1970s
* **[1970](1970 in film)** – *[Story](Love)(Love Story (1970 film))*, *[Conformist](The)(The Conformist (1970 film))*, *[Performance](Performance (film))*, *[Patton](Patton (film))*, *[M*A*S*H](M*A*S*H (film))*, *[Woodstock](Woodstock (film))*, *[Aristocats](The)(The Aristocats)*, *[Tora! Tora!](Tora!)(Tora! Tora! Tora!)*, *[Husband's Wife](My)(My Husband's Wife)*, *[Easy Pieces](Five)(Five Easy Pieces)*, *[Airport](Airport (1970 film))*, *[It Be](Let)(Let It Be (1970 film))*; first [IMAX](IMAX) films
* **[1971](1971 in film)** – *[French Connection](The)(The French Connection (film))*, *[Clockwork Orange](A)(A Clockwork Orange (film))*, *[Wonka & the Chocolate Factory](Willy)(Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory)*, *[Harry](Dirty)(Dirty Harry)*, *[Carter](Get)(Get Carter)*, *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)*, *[on the Roof](Fiddler)(Fiddler on the Roof (film))*, *[and Maude](Harold)(Harold and Maude)*, *[Dogs](Straw)(Straw Dogs (1971 film))*, *[Duel](Duel (1971 film))*, *[Shaft](Shaft (1971 film)), [Killers](The)(The Killers (1971 film))*, *[on the Nile](Chitchat)(Chitchat on the Nile)*, *[and Broomsticks](Bedknobs)(Bedknobs and Broomsticks)*
* **[1972](1972 in film)** – *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)*, *[the Wrath of God](Aguirre,)(Aguirre, the Wrath of God)*, *[Poseidon Adventure](The)(The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film))*, *[and Whispers](Cries)(Cries and Whispers)*, *[People of the Nile](Those)(Those People of the Nile)*, *[Solaris](Solaris (1972 film))*, *[Throat](Deep)(Deep Throat (film))*, *[Flamingos](Pink)(Pink Flamingos)*, *[Come Home](Snoopy)(Snoopy Come Home)*, *[the Cat](Fritz)(Fritz the Cat (film))*, *[Up, Doc?](What's)(What's Up, Doc? (1972 film))*, *[Tango in Paris](Last)(Last Tango in Paris)*, *[charme discret de la bourgeoisie](Le)(Le charme discret de la bourgeoisie), [Men](Featureless)(Featureless Men)*
* **[1973](1973 in film)** – *[Exorcist](The)(The Exorcist (film))*, *[the Dragon](Enter)(Enter the Dragon)*, *[Amarcord](Amarcord)*, *[Sting](The)(The Sting)*, *[Graffiti](American)(American Graffiti)*, *[Moon](Paper)(Paper Moon (film))*, *[Streets](Mean)(Mean Streets)*, *[Wicker Man](The)(The Wicker Man)*, *[of Sadness](Belladonna)(Belladonna of Sadness)*, *[Planet](Fantastic)(Fantastic Planet)*, *[Hood](Robin)(Robin Hood (1973 film))*, *[Web](Charlotte's)(Charlotte's Web (1973 film))*, *[Thunder](Distant)(Distant Thunder (1973 film))*, *[for Night](Day)(Day for Night (film))*, *[Other Man](The)(The Other Man (1973 film))*, *[Papillon](Papillon (1973 film))*, *[Serpico](Serpico)*, *[Badlands](Badlands (film))*, *[Plains Drifter](High)(High Plains Drifter)*
* **[1974](1974 in film)** – *[Woman Under the Influence](A)(A Woman Under the Influence)*, *[Godfather Part II](The)(The Godfather Part II)*, *[Chinatown](Chinatown (1974 film))*, *[Fear Eats the Soul](Ali:)(Ali: Fear Eats the Soul)*, *[Texas Chain Saw Massacre](The)(The Texas Chain Saw Massacre)*, *[of the Paradise](Phantom)(Phantom of the Paradise)*, *[Frankenstein](Young)(Young Frankenstein)*, *[Saddles](Blazing)(Blazing Saddles)*, *[Conversation](The)(The Conversation)*, *[Entertainment!](That's)(That's Entertainment!)*, *[Christmas](Black)(Black Christmas (1974 film))*, *[Towering Inferno](The)(The Towering Inferno), [Summer We Must Love](In)(In Summer We Must Love)*, *[Benji](Benji (1974 film))*
* **[1975](1975 in film)** – *[Jaws](Jaws (film))*, *[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film))*, *[Rocky Horror Picture Show](The)(The Rocky Horror Picture Show)*, *[Passenger](The)(The Passenger (1975 film))*, *[Guilty](The)(The Guilty (1975 film))*, *[Karnak](Karnak (film))*, *[Day Afternoon](Dog)(Dog Day Afternoon)*, *[Nashville](Nashville (film))*, *[Lyndon](Barry)(Barry Lyndon)*, *[Mirror](Mirror (1975 film))*, *[Python and the Holy Grail](Monty)(Monty Python and the Holy Grail)*, *[Uzala](Dersu)(Dersu Uzala (1975 film))*, *[Sholay](Sholay)*; [recorder](videocassette)(videocassette recorder)s appear on mass markets.
* **[1976](1976 in film)** – *[Driver](Taxi)(Taxi Driver)*, *[Sweet Alice](Alice)(Alice Sweet Alice)*, *[Rocky](Rocky)*, *[Network](Network (1976 film))*, *[Carrie](Carrie (1976 film))*, *[the President's Men](All)(All the President's Men (film))*, *[the Realm of the Senses](In)(In the Realm of the Senses)*, *[1900](1900 (film))*, *[Omen](The)(The Omen)*, *[Run](Logan's)(Logan's Run (film))*, *[Malone](Bugsy)(Bugsy Malone)*, *[Outlaw Josey Wales](The)(The Outlaw Josey Wales)*, *[Smurfs and the Magic Flute](The)(The Smurfs and the Magic Flute)*, *[Friday](Freaky)(Freaky Friday (1976 film))*
* **[1977](1977 in film)** – *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars (film))*, *[Encounters of the Third Kind](Close)(Close Encounters of the Third Kind)*, *[Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh](The)(The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh)*, *[Hall](Annie)(Annie Hall)*, *[Wizards](Wizards (film))*, *[Night Fever](Saturday)(Saturday Night Fever)*, *[Ann & Andy: A Musical Adventure](Raggedy)(Raggedy Ann & Andy: A Musical Adventure)*, *[Bridge Too Far](A)(A Bridge Too Far (film))*, *[Rescuers](The)(The Rescuers)*, *[Providence](Providence (1977 film))*, *[House](House (1977 film))*, *[Suspiria](Suspiria)*, *[Eraserhead](Eraserhead)*, *[with Dick and Jane](Fun)(Fun with Dick and Jane (1977 film))*
* **[1978](1978 in film)** – *[Superman](Superman (1978 film))*, *[Grease](Grease (film))*, *[Halloween](Halloween (1978 film))*, *[Deer Hunter](The)(The Deer Hunter)*, *[of the Dead](Dawn)(Dawn of the Dead (1978 film))*, *[of the Body Snatchers](Invasion)(Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1978 film))*, *[Express](Midnight)(Midnight Express (film))*, *[Down](Watership)(Watership Down (film))*, *[Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings (1978 film))*, *[of Heaven](Days)(Days of Heaven)*, *[in Smoke](Up)(Up in Smoke)*, *[Lampoon's Animal House](National)(Animal House)*
* **[1979](1979 in film)** – *[Alien](Alien (film))*, *[Now](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse Now)*, *[Max](Mad)(Mad Max (film))*, *[Warriors](The)(The Warriors (1979 film))*, *[vs. Kramer](Kramer)(Kramer vs. Kramer)*, *[Python's Life of Brian](Monty)(Monty Python's Life of Brian)*, *[Castle of Cagliostro](The)(The Castle of Cagliostro)*, *[Trek: The Motion Picture](Star)(Star Trek: The Motion Picture)*, *[Muppet Movie](The)(The Muppet Movie)*, *[Stalker](Stalker (1979 film))*, *[Manhattan](Manhattan (1979 film))*, *[That Jazz](All)(All That Jazz (film))*
## 1980s
* **[1980](1980 in film)** – *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))*, *[Bull](Raging)(Raging Bull)*, *[Empire Strikes Back](The)(The Empire Strikes Back)*, *[Airplane!](Airplane!)*, *[Blues Brothers](The)(The Blues Brothers (film))*, *[Caddyshack](Caddyshack)*, *[People](Ordinary)(Ordinary People)*, *[the 13th](Friday)(Friday the 13th (1980 film))*, *[Fame](Fame (1980 film))*, *[Kagemusha](Kagemusha)*, *[Elephant Man](The)(The Elephant Man (film))*, *[to 5](9)(9 to 5 (film))*, *[Benjamin](Private)(Private Benjamin (1980 film))*, *[Does Not Believe in Tears](Moscow)(Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears)*, *[Gods Must Be Crazy](The)(The Gods Must Be Crazy)*
* **[1981](1981 in film)** – *[of the Lost Ark](Raiders)(Raiders of the Lost Ark)* (first *[Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones)* film), *[of Fire](Chariots)(Chariots of Fire)*, *[Reds](Reds (film))*, *[Evil Dead](The)(The Evil Dead)*, *[Golden Pond](On)(On Golden Pond (1981 film))*, *[from Heaven](Pennies)(Pennies from Heaven (1981 film))*, *[Fox and the Hound](The)(The Fox and the Hound)*, *[Boot](Das)(Das Boot)*, *[Pop](American)(American Pop)*, *[Out](Blow)(Blow Out)*, *[Metal](Heavy)(Heavy Metal (film))*, *[Arthur](Arthur (1981 film))*, *[Scanners](Scanners)*, *[Bandits](Time)(Time Bandits)*, *[of the Titans](Clash)(Clash of the Titans (1981 film))*, *[American Werewolf in London](An)(An American Werewolf in London)*, *[from New York](Escape)(Escape from New York), [Not Lying But I'm Beautifying](I'm)(I'm Not Lying But I'm Beautifying)*
* **[1982](1982 in film)** – *[Runner](Blade)(Blade Runner)*, *[Poltergeist](Poltergeist (1982 film))*, *[Thing](The)(The Thing (1982 film))*, *[Tron](Tron)*, *[Choice](Sophie's)(Sophie's Choice (film))*, *[Tootsie](Tootsie)*, *[and Alexander](Fanny)(Fanny and Alexander)*, *[Fitzcarraldo](Fitzcarraldo)*, *[Gandhi](Gandhi (film))*, *[the Extra-Terrestrial](E.T.)(E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial)*, *[Dark Crystal](The)(The Dark Crystal)*, *[Secret of NIMH](The)(The Secret of NIMH)*, *[Song](Heidi's)(Heidi's Song)*, *[Last Unicorn](The)(The Last Unicorn (film))*, *[Trek II: The Wrath of Khan](Star)(Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan)*, *[Blood](First)(First Blood)*, *[Annie](Annie (1982 film))*, *[Hrs.](48)(48 Hrs.)*, *[Times at Ridgemont High](Fast)(Fast Times at Ridgemont High)*, *[Officer and a Gentleman](An)(An Officer and a Gentleman), [Peacock](The)(The Peacock (1982 film))*, *[Plague Dogs](The)(The Plague Dogs (film))*
* **[1983](1983 in film)** – *[Jackson's Thriller](Michael)(Michael Jackson's Thriller (music video))*, *[of the Jedi](Return)(Return of the Jedi)*, *[of Endearment](Terms)(Terms of Endearment)*, *[Business](Risky)(Risky Business)*, *[Soleil](Sans)(Sans Soleil)*, *[L'Argent](L'Argent (1983 film))*, *[King of Comedy](The)(The King of Comedy (film))*, *[Right Stuff](The)(The Right Stuff (film))*, *[Brew](Strange)(Strange Brew)*, *[Python's The Meaning of Life](Monty)(Monty Python's The Meaning of Life)*, *[Lampoon's Vacation](National)(National Lampoon's Vacation)*, *[Scarface](Scarface (1983 film))*, *[Nostalghia](Nostalghia)*, *[Flashdance](Flashdance)*, *[Places](Trading)(Trading Places)*, *[Christmas Story](A)(A Christmas Story)*; [THX](THX) sound system is developed.
* **[1984](1984 in film)** – *[Ghostbusters](Ghostbusters)*, *[Is Spinal Tap](This)(This Is Spinal Tap)*, *[Amadeus](Amadeus (film))*, *[Terminator](The)(The Terminator)*, *[Gremlins](Gremlins)*, *[of the Valley of the Wind](Nausicaä)(Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (film))*, *[the Stone](Romancing)(Romancing the Stone)*, *[Karate Kid](The)(The Karate Kid)*, *[Upon a Time in America](Once)(Once Upon a Time in America)*, *[Texas](Paris,)(Paris, Texas (film))*, *[Footloose](Footloose (1984 film))*, *[Splash](Splash (film))*, *[Hills Cop](Beverly)(Beverly Hills Cop)*, *[Nightmare on Elm Street](A)(A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984 film))*, *[Candles](Sixteen)(Sixteen Candles)*, *[River](The)(The River (1984 film))*, *[NeverEnding Story](The)(The NeverEnding Story (film))*, *[Academy](Police)(Police Academy (film))*
* **[1985](1985 in film)** – *[to the Future](Back)(Back to the Future)*, *[Breakfast Club](The)(The Breakfast Club)*, *[of Africa](Out)(Out of Africa (film))*, *[Color Purple](The)(The Color Purple (film))*, *[Brazil](Brazil (1985 film))*, *[Shoah](Shoah (film))*, *[Ran](Ran (film))*, *[and See](Come)(Come and See)*, *[Goonies](The)(The Goonies)*, *[Care Bears Movie](The)(The Care Bears Movie)*, *[de Peltrie](Tony)(Tony de Peltrie)*, *[Black Cauldron](The)(The Black Cauldron (film))*, *[Big Adventure](Pee-wee's)(Pee-wee's Big Adventure)*, *[Night](Fright)(Fright Night (1985 film))*, *[Room with a View](A)(A Room with a View (1985 film))*
* **[1986](1986 in film)** – *[Gun](Top)(Top Gun)*, *[Aliens](Aliens (film))*, *[Velvet](Blue)(Blue Velvet (film))*, *[Sacrifice](The)(The Sacrifice (1986 film))*, *[Bueller's Day Off](Ferris)(Ferris Bueller's Day Off)*, *[Platoon](Platoon (film))*, *[and Her Sisters](Hannah)(Hannah and Her Sisters)*, *[By Me](Stand)(Stand By Me (film))*, *[American Tail](An)(An American Tail)*, *[in the Sky](Castle)(Castle in the Sky)*, *[Adventures of Milo and Otis](The)(The Adventures of Milo and Otis)*, *[in Pink](Pretty)(Pretty in Pink)*, *[the Duck](Howard)(Howard the Duck (film))*, *[Transformers: The Movie](The)(The Transformers: The Movie)*, *[Jr.](Luxo)(Luxo Jr.)*, *[Dundee](Crocodile)(Crocodile Dundee)*, *[Amigos](Three)(Three Amigos)*, *[School](Stewardess)(Stewardess School)*, *[Labyrinth](Labyrinth (1986 film))*, *[of the Navigator](Flight)(Flight of the Navigator)*, *[Trouble in Little China](Big)(Big Trouble in Little China)*, *[Circuit](Short)(Short Circuit (1986 film))*, *[Battle of the Rock Lords](GoBots:)(GoBots: Battle of the Rock Lords)*, *[Fly](The)(The Fly (1986 film))*, *[Shop of Horrors](Little)(Little Shop of Horrors (1986 film))*, *[Great Mouse Detective](The)(The Great Mouse Detective)*
* **[1987](1987 in film)** – *[Metal Jacket](Full)(Full Metal Jacket)*, *[Princess Bride](The)(The Princess Bride (film))*, *[RoboCop](RoboCop)*, *[Attraction](Fatal)(Fatal Attraction)*, *[Dancing](Dirty)(Dirty Dancing)*, *[Chipmunk Adventure](The)(The Chipmunk Adventure)*, *[Brave Little Toaster](The)(The Brave Little Toaster)*, *[of Desire](Wings)(Wings of Desire)*, *[Dead](The)(The Dead (1987 film))*, *[Dead II](Evil)(Evil Dead II)*, *[Last Emperor](The)(The Last Emperor)*, *[Untouchables](The)(The Untouchables (film))*, *[Arizona](Raising)(Raising Arizona)*, *[Street](Wall)(Wall Street (1987 film))*, *[Lost Boys](The)(The Lost Boys)*, *[Hellraiser](Hellraiser)*, *[Predator](Predator (1987 film))*, *[Moonstruck](Moonstruck)*, *[and Glory](Hope)(Hope and Glory (film))*, *[Trains and Automobiles](Planes,)(Planes, Trains and Automobiles)*, *[of the Sun](Empire)(Empire of the Sun (film))*, *[Weapon](Lethal)(Lethal Weapon)*, *[Mannnequin](Mannequin (1987 film))*, *[Innerspace](Innerspace)*, *[Spaceballs](Spaceballs)*, *[Morning, Vietnam](Good)(Good Morning, Vietnam)*, *[News](Broadcast)(Broadcast News (film))*, *[Feast](Babette's)(Babette's Feast)*. *[revoir les enfants](Au)(Au revoir les enfants)*, *[of the Universe](Masters)(Masters of the Universe (film))*
* **[1988](1988 in film)** – *[Hard](Die)(Die Hard)*, *[Man](Rain)(Rain Man)*, *[Neighbor Totoro](My)(My Neighbor Totoro)*, *[Beetlejuice](Beetlejuice)*, *[Akira](Akira (1988 film))*, *[Paradiso](Cinema)(Cinema Paradiso)*, *[Play](Child's)(Child's Play (1988 film))*, *[Accused](The)(The Accused (1988 film))*, *[Big](Big (1988 film))*, *[of the Fireflies](Grave)(Grave of the Fireflies)*, *[Willow](Willow (film))*, *[Moonwalker](Moonwalker)*, *[Framed Roger Rabbit](Who)(Who Framed Roger Rabbit)*, *[of Terror](Days)(Days of Terror)*, *[Land Before Time](The)(The Land Before Time (film))*, *[Last Temptation of Christ](The)(The Last Temptation of Christ (film))*, *[Ringers](Dead)(Dead Ringers (1988 film))*, *[Mistress of the Dark](Elvira:)(Elvira: Mistress of the Dark (film))*, *[Heathers](Heathers)*, *[Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad!](The)(The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad!)*, *[Big Blue](The)(The Big Blue)*, *[Bear](The)(The Bear (1988 film)), [le Directeur](Monsieur)(Monsieur le Directeur)*
* **[1989](1989 in film)** – *[Batman](Batman (1989 film))*, *[the Right Thing](Do)(Do the Right Thing)*, *[Miss Daisy](Driving)(Driving Miss Daisy)*, *[& Ted's Excellent Adventure](Bill)(Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure)*, *[Fish Called Wanda](A)(A Fish Called Wanda)*, *[Abyss](The)(The Abyss)*, *[Harry Met Sally...](When)(When Harry Met Sally...)*, *[Little Mermaid](The)(The Little Mermaid (1989 film))* (first installment of the [Renaissance](Disney)(Disney Renaissance)), *[Delivery Service](Kiki's)(Kiki's Delivery Service)*, *[Anything...](Say)(Say Anything...)*, *[at Bernie's](Weekend)(Weekend at Bernie's)*, *[and Misdemeanors](Crimes)(Crimes and Misdemeanors)*, *[Left Foot](My)(My Left Foot)*, *[Poets Society](Dead)(Dead Poets Society)*, *[Me Up! Tie Me Down!](Tie)(Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!)*, *[of Dreams](Field)(Field of Dreams (film))*, *[on the Fourth of July](Born)(Born on the Fourth of July (film))*, *[I Shrunk the Kids](Honey,)(Honey, I Shrunk the Kids)*; first publication of *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))*
## 1990s
* **[1990](1990 in film)** – *[Alone](Home)(Home Alone)*, *[Ghost](Ghost (1990 film))*, *[Goodfellas](Goodfellas)*, *[Close-Up](Close-Up (1990 film))*, *[with Wolves](Dances)(Dances with Wolves)*, *[Scissorhands](Edward)(Edward Scissorhands)*, *[at Heart](Wild)(Wild at Heart (film))*, *[Recall](Total)(Total Recall (1990 film))*, *[Misery](Misery (film))*, *[Woman](Pretty)(Pretty Woman)*, [of Hope*](*Journey)(Journey of Hope (film)), *[Hunt for Red October](The)(The Hunt for Red October (film))*, *[Arachnophobia](Arachnophobia (film))*, *[Rescuers Down Under](The)(The Rescuers Down Under)*, *[Mutant Ninja Turtles](Teenage)(Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990 film))*, *[Tracy](Dick)(Dick Tracy (1990 film))*, *[Darkman](Darkman)*
* **[1991](1991 in film)** – *[2: Judgment Day](Terminator)(Terminator 2: Judgment Day)*, *[Silence of the Lambs](The)(The Silence of the Lambs (film))*, *[and the Beast](Beauty)(Beauty and the Beast (1991 film))*, *[JFK](JFK (film))*, *[& Louise](Thelma)(Thelma & Louise)*, *[Brighter Summer Day](A)(A Brighter Summer Day)*, *[Fink](Barton)(Barton Fink)*, *[Game](Wicked)(Wicked Game (film))*, *[Addams Family](The)(The Addams Family (1991 film))*, *[Girl](My)(My Girl (film))*, *[Break](Point)(Point Break (1991 film))*, *[n the Hood](Boyz)(Boyz n the Hood)*
* **[1992](1992 in film)** – *[Bodyguard](The)(The Bodyguard (1992 film))*, *[Unforgiven](Unforgiven)*, *[Dogs](Reservoir)(Reservoir Dogs)*, *[Instinct](Basic)(Basic Instinct)*, *[Aladdin](Aladdin (1992 Disney film))*, *[Few Good Men](A)(A Few Good Men)*, *[Player](The)(The Player (1992 film))*, *[Crying Game](The)(The Crying Game)*, *[World](Wayne's)(Wayne's World (film))*, *[Rosso](Porco)(Porco Rosso)*, *[The Last Rainforest](FernGully:)(FernGully: The Last Rainforest)*, *[Indochine](Indochine (film))*, *[Candyman](Candyman (1992 film))*, *[Becomes Her](Death)(Death Becomes Her)*, *[World](Cool)(Cool World)*, *[League of Their Own](A)(A League of Their Own)*
* **[1993](1993 in film)** – *[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (film))*, *[List](Schindler's)(Schindler's List)*, *[Piano](The)(The Piano)*, *[Day](Groundhog)(Groundhog Day (film))*, *[the Name of the Father](In)(In the Name of the Father (film))*, *[Nightmare Before Christmas](The)(The Nightmare Before Christmas)*, *[Philadelphia](Philadelphia (film))*, [Colours* trilogy](*Three)(Three Colours trilogy), *[Willy](Free)(Free Willy)*, *[Pocus](Hocus)(Hocus Pocus (1993 film))*, *[Cliffhanger](Cliffhanger (film))*, *[Scroll](Ninja)(Ninja Scroll)*, *[Mask of the Phantasm](Batman:)(Batman: Mask of the Phantasm)*, *[in Seattle](Sleepless)(Sleepless in Seattle)*, *[Romance](True)(True Romance)*, *[and Confused](Dazed)(Dazed and Confused (film))*, *[Doubtfire](Mrs.)(Mrs. Doubtfire)*
* **[1994](1994 in film)** – *[Shawshank Redemption](The)(The Shawshank Redemption)*, *[Fiction](Pulp)(Pulp Fiction)*, *[Gump](Forrest)(Forrest Gump)*, *[of the Fall](Legends)(Legends of the Fall)*, *[Lion King](The)(The Lion King)*,*[Clerks](Clerks (film))*, *[Sátántangó](Sátántangó)*, *[Swan Princess](The)(The Swan Princess)*, *[with the Vampire](Interview)(Interview with the Vampire (film))*, *[Speed](Speed (1994 film))*, *[Lies](True)(True Lies)*, *[Thieves](Five-Star)(Five-Star Thieves)*, *[Crow](The)(The Crow (1994 film))*, *[Maverick](Maverick (film))*, *[The Professional](Léon:)(Léon: The Professional)*, *[Postino: The Postman](Il)(Il Postino: The Postman)*, *[Colours: Red](Three)(Three Colours: Red)*, *[Ventura: Pet Detective](Ace)(Ace Ventura: Pet Detective)*, *[Mask](The)(The Mask (1994 film))*, *[and Dumber](Dumb)(Dumb and Dumber)*, *[the Olive Trees](Through)(Through the Olive Trees)*, *[Weddings and a Funeral](Four)(Four Weddings and a Funeral)*, *[Day Out](Baby's)(Baby's Day Out)*
* **[1995](1995 in film)** – *[Braveheart](Braveheart)*, *[Se7en](Seven (1995 film))*, *[13](Apollo)(Apollo 13 (film))*, *[Story](Toy)(Toy Story)*, *[Babe](Babe (film))*, *[Usual Suspects](The)(The Usual Suspects)*, *[Heat](Heat (1995 film))*, *[Boys](Bad)(Bad Boys (1995 film) )*, *[Monkeys](12)(12 Monkeys)*, *[Clueless](Clueless (film))*, *[Kombat](Mortal)(Mortal Kombat (1995 film))*, *[Casper](Casper (film))*, *[City of Lost Children](The)(The City of Lost Children)*, *[in the Shell](Ghost)(Ghost in the Shell (1995 film))*, *[Balto](Balto (film))*, *[Jumanji](Jumanji)*, *[Las Vegas](Leaving)(Leaving Las Vegas)*, *[Casino](Casino (1995 film))*, *[Haine](La)(La Haine)*, [trilogy](*Before*)(Before trilogy), *[and Sensibility](Sense)(Sense and Sensibility (film))*, *[Pocahontas](Pocahontas (1995 film))*, first [DVD](DVD)s released.
* **[1996](1996 in film)** – *[Day](Independence)(Independence Day (1996 film))*, *[Fargo](Fargo (1996 film))*, *[Jam](Space)(Space Jam)*, *[Trainspotting](Trainspotting (film))*, *[Maguire](Jerry)(Jerry Maguire)*, *[Impossible](Mission:)(Mission: Impossible (film))*, *[Scream](Scream (1996 film))*, *[Attacks!](Mars)(Mars Attacks!)*, *[the Spy](Harriet)(Harriet the Spy (film))*, *[Thing You Do!](That)(That Thing You Do!)*, *[with Disaster](Flirting)(Flirting with Disaster (film))*, *[English Patient](The)(The English Patient (film))*, *[We Dance?](Shall)(Shall We Dance? (1996 film))*, *[Away Home](Fly)(Fly Away Home)*, *[Shine](Shine (film))*, *[Matilda](Matilda (1996 film))*, *[and Butt-Head Do America](Beavis)(Beavis and Butt-Head Do America)*, *[Hunchback Of Notre Dame](The)(The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film))*, *[and the Giant Peach](James)(James and the Giant Peach (film))*, *[Nutty Professor](The)(The Nutty Professor (1996 film))*, *[Gilmore](Happy)(Happy Gilmore)*
* **[1997](1997 in film)** – *[Titanic](Titanic (1997 film))*, *[in Black](Men)(Men in Black (1997 film))*, *[Gattaca](Gattaca)*, *[Will Hunting](Good)(Good Will Hunting)*, *[Nights](Boogie)(Boogie Nights)*, *[Brown](Jackie)(Jackie Brown)*, *[Powers](Austin)(Austin Powers)*, *[Confidential](L.A.)(L.A. Confidential (film))*, [Games*](*Funny)(Funny Games (1997 film)), *[of Cherry](Taste)(Taste of Cherry)*, *[Hana-bi](Hana-bi)*, *[Full Monty](The)(The Full Monty)*, *[Mononoke](Princess)(Princess Mononoke)*, *[Anastasia](Anastasia (1997 film))*, *[is Beautiful](Life)(Life is Beautiful)*, *[Fifth Element](The)(The Fifth Element)*, *[Know What You Did Last Summer](I)(I Know What You Did Last Summer)*, *[Contact](Contact (1997 American film))*, *[Blue](Perfect)(Perfect Blue)*, *[Don't Dance](Cats)(Cats Don't Dance)*
* **[1998](1998 in film)** – *[Private Ryan](Saving)(Saving Private Ryan)*, *[History X](American)(American History X)*, *[in Love](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in Love)*, *[Big Lebowski](The)(The Big Lebowski)*, *['66](Buffalo)(Buffalo '66)*, *[Voice](Little)(Little Voice (film))*, *[Thin Red Line](The)(The Thin Red Line (1998 film))*, *[Pleasantville](Pleasantville (film))*, *[Blade](Blade (1998 film))*, *[Prince of Egypt](The)(The Prince of Egypt)*, *[Antz](Antz)*, *[The First Movie](Pokémon:)(Pokémon: The First Movie)*, *[Bulworth](Bulworth)*, *[Mask of Zorro](The)(The Mask of Zorro)*, *[Truman Show](The)(The Truman Show)*, *[Wedding Singer](The)(The Wedding Singer)*, *[and Loathing in Las Vegas](Fear)(Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (film))*, *[Stock and Two Smoking Barrels](Lock,)(Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels)*, *[Hour](Rush)(Rush Hour (1998 film))*, *[Something About Mary](There's)(There's Something About Mary)*, *[Lola Run](Run)(Run Lola Run)*, *[Ring](Ring (film))*, *[Paulie](Paulie (film))*, *[Ned](Waking)(Waking Ned)*
* **[1999](1999 in film)** – *[Matrix](The)(The Matrix)*, *[Beauty](American)(American Beauty (1999 film))*, *[Interrupted](Girl,)(Girl, Interrupted (film))*, *[Iron Giant](The)(The Iron Giant)*, *[Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut](South)(South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut)*, *[Sixth Sense](The)(The Sixth Sense)*, *[Club](Fight)(Fight Club)*, *[Magnolia](Magnolia (film))*, *[Hill](Notting)(Notting Hill (film))*, *[Little](Stuart)(Stuart Little (film))*, *[Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace](Star)(Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace)*, *[Blair Witch Project](The)(The Blair Witch Project)*, *[Wide Shut](Eyes)(Eyes Wide Shut)*, *[Travail](Beau)(Beau Travail)*, *[Neighbors the Yamadas](My)(My Neighbors the Yamadas)*, *[About My Mother](All)(All About My Mother)*, *[Pie](American)(American Pie (film))*, *[Green Mile](The)(The Green Mile (film))*, *[Election](Election (1999 film))*, [Mummy*](*The)(The Mummy (1999 film)), *[Don't Cry](Boys)(Boys Don't Cry (1999 film))*, *[Space](Office)(Office Space)*, *[Quest](Galaxy)(Galaxy Quest)*, *[John Malkovich](Being)(Being John Malkovich)*
## 2000s
* **[2000](2000 in film)** – *[Momma's House](Big)(Big Momma's House)*, *[Tiger, Hidden Dragon](Crouching)(Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon)*, *[the Mood for Love](In)(In the Mood for Love)*, *[Gladiator](Gladiator (2000 film))*, *[Elliot](Billy)(Billy Elliot)*, *[Away](Cast)(Cast Away)*, *[Platform](Platform (2000 film))*, *[Memento](Memento (film))*, *[Brockovich](Erin)(Erin Brockovich (film))*, *[Famous](Almost)(Almost Famous)*, *[Brother, Where Art Thou?](O)(O Brother, Where Art Thou?)*, *[Fidelity](High)(High Fidelity (film))*, *[the Parents](Meet)(Meet the Parents)*, *[Royale](Battle)(Battle Royale (film))*, *[X-Men](X-Men (film))*, *[Destination](Final)(Final Destination (film))*, *[Unbreakable](Unbreakable (film))*, *[Psycho](American)(American Psycho (film))*, *[Night Falls](Before)(Before Night Falls (film))*, *[for a Dream](Requiem)(Requiem for a Dream)*; first [cinema](digital)(digital cinema) in Europe by Phillippe Binant.
* **[2001](2001 in film)** – *[Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings (film series))*, *[Potter](Harry)(Harry Potter (film series))*, *[Shrek](Shrek)*, *[Beautiful Mind](A)(A Beautiful Mind (film))*, *[Royal Tenenbaums](The)(The Royal Tenenbaums)*, *[Away](Spirited)(Spirited Away (film))*, *[Drive](Mulholland)(Mulholland Drive (film))*, *[Darko](Donnie)(Donnie Darko)*, *[Fast & the Furious](The)(The Fast and the Furious (2001 film))*, *[Rouge!](Moulin)(Moulin Rouge!)*, *[Zoolander](Zoolander)*, *[Day](Training)(Training Day)*, *[Hawk Down](Black)(Black Hawk Down (film))*, *[Life](Waking)(Waking Life)*, *[Ball](Monster's)(Monster's Ball)*, *[Eleven](Ocean's)(Ocean's Eleven)*, *[Kids](Spy)(Spy Kids)*, *[Amélie](Amélie)*, *[Jones's Diary](Bridget)(Bridget Jones's Diary (film))*, *[Croft: Tomb Raider](Lara)(Lara Croft: Tomb Raider)*
* **[2002](2002 in film)** – *[of God](City)(City of God (2002 film))*, *[to Her](Talk)(Talk to Her)*, *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (2002 film))*, *[Chicago](Chicago (2002 film))*, *[Mile](8)(8 Mile (film))*, *[Report](Minority)(Minority Report (film))*, *[Pianist](The)(The Pianist (2002 film))*, *[Ark](Russian)(Russian Ark)*, *[Hours](The)(The Hours (film))*, *[Quiet American](The)(The Quiet American (2002 film))*, *[of New York](Gangs)(Gangs of New York)*, *[& Stitch](Lilo)(Lilo & Stitch)*, *[for Columbine](Bowling)(Bowling for Columbine)*, *[a Boy](About)(About a Boy (film))*, *[Frieda](Frida (film))*, *[Days Later](28)(28 Days Later)*, *[It Like Beckham](Bend)(Bend It Like Beckham)*, *[Big Fat Greek Wedding](My)(My Big Fat Greek Wedding)*, *[Love](Punch-Drunk)(Punch-Drunk Love)*, *[Ring](The)(The Ring (2002 film))*, *[Luck Tomorrow](Better)(Better Luck Tomorrow)*, *[Me If You Can](Catch)(Catch Me If You Can)*, *[Bourne Identity](The)(The Bourne Identity (2002 film))*, *[Adaptation](Adaptation (film))*
* **[2003](2003 in film)** – *[Oldboy](Oldboy (2003 film))*, *[Bill](Kill)(Kill Bill: Volume 1)*, *[Seabiscuit](Seabiscuit (film))*, *[of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl)*, *[Nemo](Finding)(Finding Nemo)*, *[Actually](Love)(Love Actually)*, *[Elf](Elf (film))*, *[in Translation](Lost)(Lost in Translation (film))*, *[Elephant](Elephant (2003 film))*, *[Monster](Monster (2003 film))*, *[Fish](Big)(Big Fish (film))*, *[Mountain](Cold)(Cold Mountain (film))*, *[Santa](Bad)(Bad Santa)*, *[Room](The)(The Room)*, *[of Rock](School)(School of Rock)*, *[Upon a Time in Mexico](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Mexico)*
* **[2004](2004 in film)** – *[Dodgeball](Dodgeball (film))*, *[Sunshine of the Spotless Mind](Eternal)(Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind)*, *[Dollar Baby](Million)(Million Dollar Baby)*, *[Incredibles](The)(The Incredibles)*, *[Passion of the Christ](The)(The Passion of the Christ)*, *[Sideways](Sideways)*, *[Rwanda](Hotel)(Hotel Rwanda)*, *[Downfall](Downfall (2004 film))*, *[Night Lights](Friday)(Friday Night Lights (film))*, *[Aviator](The)(The Aviator (2004 film))*, *[Ray](Ray (film))*, *[Hellboy](Hellboy (2004 film))*, *[Saw](Saw (2004 film))*, *[of the Dead](Shaun)(Shaun of the Dead)*, *[The Legend of Ron Burgundy](Anchorman:)(Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy)*, *[America: World Police](Team)(Team America: World Police)*, *[Chicks](White)(White Chicks)*, *[Girls](Mean)(Mean Girls)*, *[Dynamite](Napoleon)(Napoleon Dynamite)*, *[Neverland](Finding)(Finding Neverland (film))*, *[Captain and the World of Tomorrow](Sky)(Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow)*, *[& Kumar Go to White Castle](Harold)(Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle)*, *[Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou](The)(The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou)''; Anti-piracy campaign "Piracy. It's a crime", which features the first line [Wouldn't Steal a Car](You)(You Wouldn't Steal a Car), first advertised.
* **[2005](2005 in film)** – *[Caché](Caché (film))*, *[New World](The)(The New World (2005 film))*, *[Mountain](Brokeback)(Brokeback Mountain)*, *[Begins](Batman)(Batman Begins)*, *[Death of Mr. Lazarescu](The)(The Death of Mr. Lazarescu)*, *[History of Violence](A)(A History of Violence)*, *[& Prejudice](Pride)(Pride & Prejudice (2005 film))*, *[the Line](Walk)(Walk the Line)*, *[of the Penguins](March)(March of the Penguins)*, *[Munich](Munich (2005 film))*, *[Capote](Capote (film))*, ''[Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy](The)(The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film))*, *[for Vendetta](V)(V for Vendetta (film))*, *[40 Year Old Virgin](The)(The 40 Year Old Virgin)*, *[Serenity](Serenity (2005 film))*, *[City](Sin)(Sin City (film))*, *[Crashers](Wedding)(Wedding Crashers)*, *[Night, and Good Luck](Good)(Good Night, and Good Luck)*, *[Click](Click (2006 film))*, *[Zathura](Zathura)*, *[Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D](The)(The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D)*, *[& Mrs. Smith](Mr.)(Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film))*
* **[2006](2006 in film)** – *[Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby](Talladega)(Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby)*, *[300](300 (film))*, *[Labyrinth](Pan's)(Pan's Labyrinth)*, *[of Men](Children)(Children of Men)*, *[Departed](The)(The Departed)*, *[Dreamgirls](Dreamgirls (film))*, *[Lives of Others](The)(The Lives of Others)*, *[Prestige](The)(The Prestige (film))*, *[Feet](Happy)(Happy Feet)*, *[Queen](The)(The Queen (2006 film))*, *[Borat](Borat)*, *[Miss Sunshine](Little)(Little Miss Sunshine (film))*, *[Pursuit of Happyness](The)(The Pursuit of Happyness)*, *[Devil Wears Prada](The)(The Devil Wears Prada (film))*, *[Incovenient Truth](An)(An Incovenient Truth)*, *[Last King of Scotland](The)(The Last King of Scotland (film))*, *[on a Plane](Snakes)(Snakes on a Plane)*, *[Babel](Babel (film))*, *[Man](Little)(Little Man (2006 film))*, *[93](United)(United 93 (film))*, *[Super Ex-Girlfriend](My)(My Super Ex-Girlfriend)*; First [Blu-ray](Blu-ray)s released
* **[2007](2007 in film)** – *[Will Be Blood](There)(There Will Be Blood)*, *[Country for Old Men](No)(No Country for Old Men (film))*, *[Am Legend](I)(I Am Legend (film))*, *[Ratatouille](Ratatouille (film))*, *[the Wild](Into)(Into the Wild (film))*, *[Juno](Juno (film))*, *[Atonement](Atonement (2007 film))*, *[Superbad](Superbad (film))*, *[Grindhouse](Grindhouse (film))*, *['r Treat](Trick)(Trick 'r Treat)*, *[Persepolis](Persepolis (film))*, *[Once](Once (film))*, *[Clayton](Michael)(Michael Clayton)*, *[Simpsons Movie](The)(The Simpsons Movie)*, *[Enchanted](Enchanted (film))*, *[Transformers](Transformers (2007 film))*, *[Vie En Rose](La)(La Vie En Rose (film))*, *[Up](Knocked)(Knocked Up)*, *[of Rambow](Son)(Son of Rambow)*, *[Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street](Sweeney)(Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film))*, *[Norbit](Norbit)*
* **[2008](2008 in film)** – *[& Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay](Harold)(Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay)*, *[Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight (film))*, the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films) begins, *[WALL-E](WALL-E)*, *[Millionaire](Slumdog)(Slumdog Millionaire)*, *[Mia!](Mamma)(Mamma Mia! (film))*, *[Torino](Gran)(Gran Torino)*, *[Wrestler](The)(The Wrestler (2008 film))*, *[Hancock](Hancock (film))*, *[Milk](Milk (2008 American film))*, *[Cristina Barcelona](Vicky)(Vicky Cristina Barcelona)*, *[Frost/Nixon](Frost/Nixon (film))*, *[Cloverfield](Cloverfield)*, *[Man](Ip)(Ip Man (film series))*, *[Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder)*, *[Fu Panda](Kung)(Kung Fu Panda (film))*, *[Taken](Taken (film))*, *[with Bashir](Waltz)(Waltz with Bashir)*, *[& Me](Marley)(Marley & Me (film))*, *[Bruges](In)(In Bruges)*, *[on Wire](Man)(Man on Wire)*, *[Road](Revolutionary)(Revolutionary Road (film))*, *[Reader](The)(The Reader (2008 film))*, *[Curious Case of Benjamin Button](The)(The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film))*
* **[2009](2009 in film)** – *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))*, *[Basterds](Inglourious)(Inglourious Basterds)*, *[Up](Up (2009 film))*, *[Serious Man](A)(A Serious Man)*, *[9](District)(District 9)*, *[Hangover](The)(The Hangover)*, *[Coraline](Coraline (film))*, *[Hurt Locker](The)(The Hurt Locker)*, *[Precious](Precious (film))*, *[Princess and the Frog](The)(The Princess and the Frog)*, *[Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film))*, *[Lovely Bones](The)(The Lovely Bones (film))*, *[Moon](Moon (2009 film))*, *[Education](An)(An Education)*, *[In The Air](Up)(Up in the Air (2009 film))*, *[the Loop](In)(In the Loop)*, *[Zombieland](Zombieland)*, *[Heart](Crazy)(Crazy Heart)*
## 2010s
* **[2010](2010 in film)** – *[King's Speech](The)(The King's Speech)*, *[Inception](Inception)*, *[Swan](Black)(Black Swan (film))*, *[Social Network](The)(The Social Network)*, *[to Train Your Dragon](How)(How to Train Your Dragon (film))*, *[Me](Despicable)(Despicable Me (film))*, *[Bone](Winter's)(Winter's Bone)*, *[Tangled](Tangled)*, *[Hours](127)(127 Hours)*, *[Grit](True)(True Grit (2010 film))*, *[Fighter](The)(The Fighter)*, *[Kick-Ass](Kick-Ass (film))*, *[Pilgrim vs. the World](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim vs. the World)*, *[Tub Time Machine](Hot)(Hot Tub Time Machine)*, *[Valentine](Blue)(Blue Valentine (film))*, *[Kids Are All Right](The)(The Kids Are All Right (film))*, *[Ups](Grown)(Grown Ups (2010 film))*
* **[2011](2011 in film)** – *[Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas](A)(A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas)*, *[Artist](The)(The Artist (film))*, *[Bridesmaids](Bridesmaids (2011 film))*, *[Hugo](Hugo (film))*, *[Drive](Drive (2011 film))*, *[Intouchables](The)(The Intouchables)*, *[Separation](A)(A Separation)*, *[Tree of Life](The)(The Tree of Life (film))*, *[Girl with the Dragon Tattoo](The)(The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011 film))*, *[in Paris](Midnight)(Midnight in Paris)*, *[Adventures of Tintin](The)(The Adventures of Tintin (film))*, *[Horse](War)(War Horse (film))*, *[Moneyball](Moneyball (film))*, *[Stupid, Love](Crazy,)(Crazy, Stupid, Love)*, *[Tailor Soldier Spy](Tinker)(Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (film))*, *[Help](The)(The Help (film))*, *[Cabin in the Woods](The)(The Cabin in the Woods)*, *[of the Planet of the Apes](Rise)(Rise of the Planet of the Apes)*
* **[2012](2012 in film)** – *[of Pi](Life)(Life of Pi (film))*, *[Argo](Argo (2012 film))*, *[Lincoln](Lincoln (film))*, *[Unchained](Django)(Django Unchained)*, *[Dark Knight Rises](The)(The Dark Knight Rises)*, *[Misérables](Les)(Les Misérables (2012 film))*, *[Ted](Ted (film))*, *[Linings Playbook](Silver)(Silver Linings Playbook)*, *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film))*, *[Perfect](Pitch)(Pitch Perfect)*, *[Jump Street](21)(21 Jump Street (film))*, *[Mike](Magic)(Magic Mike)*, *[Looper](Looper (film))*, *[Master](The)(The Master (2012 film))*, *[of the Southern Wild](Beasts)(Beasts of the Southern Wild)*, *[& Celestine](Ernest)(Ernest & Celestine)*, *[Dark Thirty](Zero)(Zero Dark Thirty)*, *[It Ralph](Wreck)(Wreck It Ralph)*
* **[2013](2013 in film)** – *[Wolf of Wall Street](The)(The Wolf of Wall Street (2013 film))*, *[Gravity](Gravity (2013 film))*, *[Frozen](Frozen (2013 film))*, *[the Millers](We're)(We're the Millers)*, *[Years a Slave](12)(12 Years a Slave (film))*, *[Milkha Bhaag](Bhaag)(Bhaag Milkha Bhaag)*, *[Great Beauty](The)(The Great Beauty)*, *[Rush](Rush (2013 film))*, *[Hustle](American)(American Hustle)*, *[Buyers Club](Dallas)(Dallas Buyers Club)*, *[Llewyn Davis](Inside)(Inside Llewyn Davis)*, *[Her](Her (film))*, *[Wind Rises](The)(The Wind Rises)*, *[Conjuring](The)(The Conjuring)*, *[Nebraska](Nebraska (film))*, *[Rim](Pacific)(Pacific Rim (film))*, *[Philomena](Philomena (film))*, *[Prisoners](Prisoners (2013 film))*, *[Jasmine](Blue)(Blue Jasmine)*, *[is the Warmest Colour](Blue)(Blue is the Warmest Colour)*
* **[2014](2014 in film)** – *[Interstellar](Interstellar (film))*, *[Boyhood](Boyhood (2014 film))*, *[Grand Budapest Hotel](The)(The Grand Budapest Hotel)*, *[Lego Movie](The)(The Lego Movie)*, *[Paddington](Paddington (film))*, *[Birdman](Birdman (film))*, *[Whiplash](Whiplash (2014 film))*, *[The Secret Service](Kingsman:)(Kingsman: The Secret Service)*, *[Babadook](The)(The Babadook)*, *[Interview](The)(The Interview)*, *[Sniper](American)(American Sniper)*, *[Machina](Ex)(Ex Machina (film))*, *[Hero 6](Big)(Big Hero 6 (film))*, *[Selma](Selma (film))*, *[of Tomorrow](Edge)(Edge of Tomorrow)*, *[Wick](John)(John Wick (film))*, *[Girl](Gone)(Gone Girl (film))*, *[Fault in Our Stars](The)(The Fault in Our Stars (film))*, *[Frank](Frank (film))*, *[Foxcatcher](Foxcatcher)*, *[Nightcrawler](Nightcrawler (film))*, *[Alice](Still)(Still Alice)*, *[Wild](Wild (2014 film))*, *[Imitation Game](The)(The Imitation Game (2014 film))*, *[Million Ways to Die in the West](A)(A Million Ways to Die in the West)*, *[Theory of Everything](The)(The Theory of Everything (2014 film))*, *[Along](Ride)(Ride Along (film))*
* **[2015](2015 in film)** – *[Max: Fury Road](Mad)(Mad Max: Fury Road)*, *[Revenant](The)(The Revenant (2015 film))*, *[Out](Inside)(Inside Out (2015 film))*, *[Hateful Eight](The)(The Hateful Eight)*, *[Spotlight](Spotlight (film))*, *[Martian](The)(The Martian (film))*, *[of Spies](Bridge)(Bridge of Spies (film))*, *[Anomalisa](Anomalisa)*, *[Big Short](The)(The Big Short (film))*, *[Room](Room (2015 film))*, *[the Sheep Movie](Shaun)(Shaun the Sheep Movie)*, *[Carol](Carol (film))*, *[Creed](Creed (film))*, *[Amy](Amy (2015 film))*, *[Ascending](Jupiter)(Jupiter Ascending)*, *[Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton (film))*, *[Spy](Spy (2015 film))*
* **[2016](2016 in film)** – *[Shaolin do Sertão](O)(O Shaolin do Sertão)*, *[La Land](La)(La La Land)*, *[Deadpool](Deadpool (film))*, *[Zootopia](Zootopia)*, *[Name](Your)(Your Name)*, *[Arrival](Arrival (2016 film))*, *[Moana](Moana (2016 film))*, *[by the Sea](Manchester)(Manchester by the Sea (film))*, *[Moonlight](Moonlight (2016 film))*, *[Ridge](Hacksaw)(Hacksaw Ridge)*, *[Fences](Fences (film))*, *[Lion](Lion (2016 film))*, *[Dangal](Dangal (film))*, *[To Busan](Train)(Train To Busan)*, *[and the Two Strings](Kubo)(Kubo and the Two Strings)*, *[Street](Sing)(Sing Street)*, *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)*, *[Breathe](Don't)(Don't Breathe (2016 film))*, *[This Corner of the World](In)(In This Corner of the World (film))*, *[Daniel Blake](I,)(I, Daniel Blake)*, *[Silence](Silence (2016 film))*, *[or High Water](Hell)(Hell or High Water (2016 film))*
* **[2017](2017 in film)** – *[Shape of Water](The)(The Shape of Water)*, *[Woman](Wonder)(Wonder Woman (2017 film))*, *[Out](Get)(Get Out)*, *[It](It (2017 film))*, *[Coco](Coco (2017 film))*, *[Dunkirk](Dunkirk (2017 film))*, *[Logan](Logan (film))*, *[Disaster Artist](The)(The Disaster Artist (film))*, *[Driver](Baby)(Baby Driver)*, *[Tonya](I,)(I, Tonya)*, *[2](Paddington)(Paddington 2)*, *[Runner 2049](Blade)(Blade Runner 2049)*, *[Silent Child](The)(The Silent Child)*, *[a Heartbeat](In)(In a Heartbeat (film))*, *[Bird](Lady)(Lady Bird (film))*, *[Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri](Three)(Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri)*, *[Me by Your Name](Call)(Call Me by Your Name (film))*, *[Thread](Phantom)(Phantom Thread)*, *[Hour](Darkest)(Darkest Hour (film))*; The [Weinstein scandal](Harvey)(Harvey Weinstein scandal) begins.
* **[2018](2018 in film)** – *[Rhapsody](Bohemian)(Bohemian Rhapsody (film))*, *[Into the Spider-Verse](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse)*, *[Favourite](The)(The Favourite)*, *[Roma](Roma (2018 film))* (which is released on [Netflix](Netflix)), *[Grade](Eighth)(Eighth Grade (film))*, *[Quiet Place](A)(A Quiet Place (film))*, *[Hereditary](Hereditary (film))*, *[Player One](Ready)(Ready Player One (film))*, *[Ball Super: Broly](Dragon)(Dragon Ball Super: Broly)*, *[Rich Asians](Crazy)(Crazy Rich Asians (film))*, *[BlacKkKlansman](BlacKkKlansman)*, *[of Dogs](Isle)(Isle of Dogs (film))*, *[Book](Green)(Green Book (film))*, *[Solo](Free)(Free Solo)*, *[Shoplifters](Shoplifters (film))*, *[Rampage](Rampage (2018 film))*
* **[2019](2019 in film)** – *[Joker](Joker (2019 film))*, *[1917](1917 (2019 film))*, *[Parasite](Parasite (2019 film))*, *[Rocketman](Rocketman (film))*, *[Women](Little)(Little Women (2019 film))*, *[Irishman](The)(The Irishman)*, *[Farewell](The)(The Farewell (2019 film))*, *[Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood)*, *[Bombshell](Bombshell (2019 film))*, *[Detective Pikachu](Pokémon)(Pokémon Detective Pikachu)*, *[Lighthouse](The)(The Lighthouse (2019 film))*, *[Story](Marriage)(Marriage Story (2019 film))*, *[Gems](Uncut)(Uncut Gems)*, *[Out](Knives)(Knives Out (film))*, *[v Ferrari](Ford)(Ford v Ferrari)*, *[Is My Name](Dolemite)(Dolemite Is My Name)*, *[Rabbit](Jojo)(Jojo Rabbit)*, *[Booksmart](Booksmart (film))*, *[Jewell](Richard)(Richard Jewell (film))*, *[Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood](A)(A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood)*
## 2020s
* **[2020](2020 in film)** – *[Nomadland](Nomadland (film))*, *[Slayer: Mugen Train](Demon)(Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie: Mugen Train)*, *[Tenet](Tenet (film))*, *[Minari](Minari (film))*, *[Eight Hundred](The)(The Eight Hundred)*, *[Hamilton](Hamilton (2020 film))*, *[Mank](Mank)*, *[Soul](Soul (2020 film))*, *[Invisible Man](The)(The Invisible Man (2020 film))*, *[Holmes](Enola)(Enola Holmes (film))*, *[5 Bloods](Da)(Da 5 Bloods)*, *[Trial of the Chicago 7](The)(The Trial of the Chicago 7)*, *[Round](Another)(Another Round (film))*, *[Young Woman](Promising)(Promising Young Woman)*, *[Father](The)(The Father (2020 film))*, *[Wolfwalkers](Wolfwalkers)*, *[Rainey's Black Bottom](Ma)(Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (film))*, *[Half of It](The)(The Half of It)*; due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema), a number of films shut down production, or are either removed from their originally scheduled releases and moved to new release dates or digital releases.
* **[2021](2021 in film)** – *[Dune](Dune (2021 film))*, *[Power of the Dog](The)(The Power of the Dog (film))*, *[Encanto](Encanto)*, *[and the Black Messiah](Judas)(Judas and the Black Messiah)*, *[Belfast](Belfast (film))*, *[Pizza](Licorice)(Licorice Pizza)*, *[Look Up](Don't)(Don't Look Up)*, *[Last Duel](The)(The Last Duel (2021 film))*, *[Flee](Flee (film))*, *[Side Story](West)(West Side Story (2021 film))*, *[Guy](Free)(Free Guy)*, *[of Gucci](House)(House of Gucci)*, *[Spencer](Spencer (film))*, *[CODA](CODA (2021 film))*, *[White Tiger](The)(The White Tiger (2021 film))*, *[Richard](King)(King Richard (film))*, *[Tick... Boom!](Tick,)(Tick, Tick... Boom! (film))*, *[Lost Daughter](The)(The Lost Daughter (film))*, *[Snyder's Justice League](Zack)(Zack Snyder's Justice League)*
* **[2022](2022 in film)** – *[Everywhere All at Once](Everything)(Everything Everywhere All at Once)*, *[del Toro's Pinocchio](Guillermo)(Guillermo del Toro's Pinocchio)*, *[Gun: Maverick](Top)(Top Gun: Maverick)*, *[Batman](The)(The Batman (film))*, *[Northman](The)(The Northman)*, *[Tár](Tár)*, *[Fabelmans](The)(The Fabelmans)*, *[X](X (film series))*, *[The Way of Water](Avatar:)(Avatar: The Way of Water)*, *[of Sadness](Triangle)(Triangle of Sadness)*, *[RRR](RRR (film))*, *[Elvis](Elvis (2022 film))*, *[Aftersun](Aftersun)*, *[Banshees of Inisherin](The)(The Banshees of Inisherin)*, *[Woman King](The)(The Woman King)*, *[Quiet on the Western Front](All)(All Quiet on the Western Front (2022 film))*, *[Said](She)(She Said (film))*, *[the Musical](Matilda)(Matilda the Musical (film))*, *[Whale](The)(The Whale (2022 film))*, *[Talking](Women)(Women Talking (film))*, *[Lyle, Crocodile](Lyle,)(Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile (film))*
* **[2023](2023 in film)** – *[Super Mario Bros. Movie](The)(The Super Mario Bros. Movie)*, *[Bear](Cocaine)(Cocaine Bear)*, *[and the Wasp: Quantumania](Ant-Man)(Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania)*, *[for Brady](80)(80 for Brady)*, *[Air](Air (2023 film))*, *[of the Galaxy Vol. 3](Guardians)(Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3)*, *[& Dragons: Honor Among Thieves](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves)*, *[Across the Spider-Verse](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse)*
## See also
* [of cinematic firsts](List)(List of cinematic firsts)
## References
### Sources
* *The Silent Cinema Reader* edited by Lee Grieveson and Peter Kramer
* *Movies of the 30s*, edited by Jürgen Müller, [Taschen](Taschen)
* *The Magic of Méliès'', documentary by Jacques Mény, special collector's edition DVD, Spain
[Film](Category:Culture-related timelines)
[ ](Category:Film by year)
[*](Category:Films by decade)
[Film](Category:Timelines by year)
[Film](Category:Lists of years by topic)
|
Matteo Lane
|
matteo_lane
|
# Matteo Lane
*Revision ID: 1155819182 | Timestamp: 2023-05-19T21:45:02Z*
---
| birth_place = [Heights, Illinois](Arlington)(Arlington Heights, Illinois), U.S.
| medium =
| genre =
| subject =
| alma_mater = [of the Art Institute of Chicago](School)(School of the Art Institute of Chicago) ([BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts))
| active = 2011–present
| website=
}}
**Matteo Lane** (born June 28, 1986) is an American comedian, illustrator, and singer.
## Early life and education
Matteo Lane was born in 1986, raised in [Heights, Illinois](Arlington)(Arlington Heights, Illinois), and lived on the [Side](North)(North Side (Chicago)). Through his mother, Lane is of Mexican and Italian descent. His father is a [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) veteran and is of Irish descent. Lane's Italian family originates from [Agrigento](Agrigento) and [Messina](Messina) in [Sicily](Sicily). He was nicknamed Matteo by his Italian family. Lane, who is gay, has an older brother who is also gay. He speaks English, Italian, Spanish, and French, and studied German in high school. Lane started to sing opera at the age of 15 under vocal coach Nick Falco. At the [of the Art Institute of Chicago](School)(School of the Art Institute of Chicago), he studied oil painting and drawing. Lane studied art for five months in [Umbria](Umbria) as an oil painter and opera singer before returning to Chicago. He graduated with a [of Fine Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Fine Arts) in 2009.https://www.saic.edu/news/saic-alum-star-new-mtv-prank-show
## Career
As a singer, Lane performed in bars in [Boystown](Boystown (Chicago)) before starting his comedy career circa 2011 at open mics in Chicago. He moved to New York to work as a [artist](storyboard)(storyboard artist) circa 2012. In an interview, Lane stated that it was "the most boring job in the world." He later quit the position to pursue comedy. After being featured in "New Faces" at the 2014 [for Laughs](Just)(Just for Laughs) festival, MTV invited Lane to appear on *[Code](Guy)(Guy Code)*. He was later in *[Off](Joking)(Joking Off)* and was cast in MTV's *Ladylike* along with [Byer](Nicole)(Nicole Byer), Jade Catta-Preta, and Blair Socci. Lane was on a panel for a segment about [Davis](Kim)(Kim Davis) on *[Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore](The)(The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore)*. In 2018, Lane represented Italy at "The Ethnic Show" at the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal. He is the host of the [Snapchat](Snapchat) comedy *Ghost Hunt*.
Lane is an advocate for the gay community. He has been the victim of several homophobic incidents during his shows. On being an openly gay comedian, Lane reports, "I think it's slowly getting better but it's all such new territory in so many ways. I'm not saying they are not gay comics that have existed — I know these people exist". He added that "I'm just saying this is the first time ever that gay, queer, male comedians are sort of on the spotlight that straight comedians are being seen in. So it's all kind of just new. It's all new and discovered and all new territory. I think it's exciting."
His favorite performance venues in New York City are [Cellar](Comedy)(Comedy Cellar), The Stand, and New York Comedy Club. He is a co-star and creator of the [IFC](IFC (U.S. TV channel)) series *Janice and Jeffrey*.
Lane and [Willmann](Emma)(Emma Willmann) are co-hosts of a queer-themed podcast, *Inside the Closet*. They are both also featured in [Netflix](Netflix)'s *[Comedy Lineup](The)(The Comedy Lineup)*. On May 1, 2018, Lane and [Tortorella](Nico)(Nico Tortorella) were featured on a [*Nancy*](Nancy (podcast)) podcast.
## Personal life
On [out](coming)(coming out), Lane stated in an interview that "I've spent my entire life feeling shame for being gay and once I came out of the closet, I realized that I'm proud to be gay." Lane's favorite singers are [Carey](Mariah)(Mariah Carey), [LaBelle](Patti)(Patti LaBelle), [Houston](Whitney)(Whitney Houston), [Dion](Celine)(Celine Dion), and [Hudson](Jennifer)(Jennifer Hudson). He is a long-time friend of [composer](composer (music)) and [pianist](pianist) Henry Koperski, with whom he sometimes performs.
## Political views
In a 2017 interview, Lane stated that while he does not discuss [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) directly in his acts, his "material in itself is a stand against Trump."
## Awards and honors
In 2018, Lane was recognized by *[Advocate](The)(The Advocate (LGBT magazine))* as one of the LGBT Icons, Innovators, and Disruptors for his work in the field of stand-up comedy.
## See also
* [culture in New York City](LGBT)(LGBT culture in New York City)
* [of LGBT people from New York City](List)(List of LGBT people from New York City)
## References
## External links
*
*
[births](Category:1986)(Category:1986 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians)
[American LGBT people](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American LGBT people)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[American male singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male singers)
[American painters](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American painters)
[illustrators](Category:American)(Category:American illustrators)
[gay artists](Category:American)(Category:American gay artists)
[gay actors](Category:American)(Category:American gay actors)
[gay musicians](Category:American)(Category:American gay musicians)
[LGBT actors](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT actors)
[LGBT comedians](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT comedians)
[LGBT painters](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT painters)
[LGBT singers](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT singers)
[male actors of Mexican descent](Category:American)(Category:American male actors of Mexican descent)
[male comedians](Category:American)(Category:American male comedians)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male singers](Category:American)(Category:American male singers)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[people of Italian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Italian descent)
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[stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians)
[storyboard artists](Category:American)(Category:American storyboard artists)
[from Illinois](Category:Comedians)(Category:Comedians from Illinois)
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[singers](Category:Gay)(Category:Gay singers)
[painters](Category:Gay)(Category:Gay painters)
[people from Illinois](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT people from Illinois)
[of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni](Category:School)(Category:School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni)
[actors from Chicago](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Chicago)
[from Arlington Heights, Illinois](Category:People)(Category:People from Arlington Heights, Illinois)
[from Illinois](Category:Painters)(Category:Painters from Illinois)
[from Illinois](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from Illinois)
|
Queenpins
|
queenpins
|
# Queenpins
*Revision ID: 1154311974 | Timestamp: 2023-05-11T16:37:40Z*
---
| producer =
| writer =
| starring =
| music = Siddhartha Khosla
| cinematography = Andrew Wehde
| editing = Kayla Emter
| studio =
| distributor = [STXfilms](STXfilms)
| released =
| runtime = 110 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $20 million
| gross = $1.2 million
}}
***Queenpins*** is a 2021 American [film](comedy)(comedy film) written and directed by [Gaudet](Aron)(Aron Gaudet) and [Pullapilly](Gita)(Gita Pullapilly). It stars [Bell](Kristen)(Kristen Bell), [Howell-Baptiste](Kirby)(Kirby Howell-Baptiste), [Walter Hauser](Paul)(Paul Walter Hauser), [Rexha](Bebe)(Bebe Rexha), and [Vaughn](Vince)(Vince Vaughn). [Stiller](Ben)(Ben Stiller) serves as an executive producer under his [Hour Productions](Red)(Red Hour Productions) banner.
Released in the United States on September 10, 2021 by [STXfilms](STXfilms), the film received mixed reviews from critics and was a [office bomb](box)(box office bomb), grossing only $1.2 million against a $20 million production budget.
## Plot
Dejected and frustrated suburban housewife Connie Kaminski (née Stevens), a three-time gold-medal-winning former Olympic racewalker, has followed the conventional life path set for her by society ever since she was young. Her sacrifices have never been appreciated and she has been overlooked by her husband Rick, an [IRS](Internal Revenue Service) senior audit specialist, her loved ones and the rest of society. Alienated by her uninspiring existence being unemployed and having suffered a miscarriage in an attempt to conceive a child, Connie commiserates with her best friend Joanna "JoJo" Johnson, who has been unable to secure proper employment since having her identity stolen and thus lives with her mother Josephine, attempting to generate revenue by making YouTube videos while being amorously pursued by the local mailman, Earl.
After a particularly frustrating day, Connie writes a complaint letter to General Mills about the Wheaties she ate being stale, and soon, she receives a [coupon](coupon) for a free box of cereal. Greg Garcia, a cashier at her local A&G Family Marts store, explains to her that companies habitually respond to complaint letters by sending coupons for free items. She and JoJo then learn that the coupons originate from an Advanced Solutions factory in [Chihuahua](Chihuahua (state)), [Mexico](Mexico), deciding to travel there and collect the coupons to redistribute to other mothers and wives. They encounter married employees Alejandro and Rosa Diaz, who agree to send them the unused coupons. Afterwards, the duo begins their own website and small business "Savvy Super Saver", which helps them sell numerous coupons and generate profit. However, Ken Miller, a hapless [prevention](loss)(Retail loss prevention) officer for the A&G Family Marts stores in the [United States](Southwestern)(Southwestern United States), learns about the coupons and the losses several companies are taking, and pressures his superiors before ultimately deciding to handle the case himself.
The ladies’ account is frozen due to suspicious activity, so Connie realizes they need to prove their business is legitimate. They contact the hacker who stole JoJo’s identity, Tempe Tina, and are taken to her secret location, where she instructs the pair on how to conceal their operation and secure their money, suggesting they use JoJo’s cosmetics brand Back 2 Black to disguise their coupon business. After six months, the pair figure their money is safe to use, but because the money is dirty, they need to spend and clean it. They start buying things like sports cars, boats, planes, and guns, but Tina then criticizes their overspending and tells them that because their money was always clean, their purchases are just making them look more suspicious, instructing them to withdraw money from the bank in small increments and to sell off all their big purchases.
Meanwhile, Ken is partnered with [postal inspector](U.S.)(United States Postal Inspection Service) Simon Kilmurry. The duo bond on their mission, with Simon sympathizing with Ken's unwavering devotion. They interview people from grocery stores that the ladies frequent, almost all of whom recognize Connie due to her constantly irritating coupon usage, even successfully linking her to the "Savvy Super Saver" website as she uses its slogan while shopping. The duo then interview a group of postal workers, who remember JoJo, especially because Earl is always watching her videos.
After gathering sufficient evidence, Simon and Ken finally get agents to arrest the pair. While JoJo is released on bail, Rick visits Connie only so he can admonish her, having been informed by Simon that she and JoJo have defrauded over 240 companies of tens of millions of dollars. Having had enough of his lack of support, she declares that she wants a divorce. Though the pair face forty-years-to-life, the companies that they victimized clandestinely press the courts for leniency to avoid bad press, resulting in ten days imprisonment plus one year of probation for JoJo and eleven months incarceration (parole eligible in eight) for Connie. Though most of their fraudulent earnings have been confiscated, the pair have hundreds of thousands of dollars from their illegal activities stashed away, and JoJo starts a relationship with Earl and relocates to [Montenegro](Montenegro), a non-extradition country, where the pair can immediately restart the scam upon Connie's release. It is also revealed that Connie, after numerous unsuccessful attempts to conceive following her miscarriage, is finally pregnant through in vitro fertilization.
## Cast
In addition, the scenes involving the gun sale include short appearances by co-director and co-writer Aron Gaudet's brother Nick as a barista, as well as actor and director [Cassavetes](Nick)(Nick Cassavetes) as Captain Pain, the leader of the group buying the guns.
## Production
In May 2019, it was announced [Bell](Kristen)(Kristen Bell) and [Jones](Leslie)(Leslie Jones (comedian)) had joined the cast of the film, with [Gaudet](Aron)(Aron Gaudet) and [Pullapilly](Gita)(Gita Pullapilly) directing from a screenplay they wrote. In July 2020, it was announced [Walter Hauser](Paul)(Paul Walter Hauser) and [Vaughn](Vince)(Vince Vaughn) had joined the cast of the film. In September 2020, [Howell-Baptiste](Kirby)(Kirby Howell-Baptiste) joined the cast of the film, replacing Jones, with [Stiller](Ben)(Ben Stiller) joining as an executive producer under his [Hour Productions](Red)(Red Hour Productions) banner, with [Entertainment](STX)(STX Entertainment) set to distribute. In October 2020, [Rexha](Bebe)(Bebe Rexha) joined the cast of the film. In December 2020, [Okeniyi](Dayo)(Dayo Okeniyi), [McHale](Joel)(Joel McHale), [Cassavetes](Nick)(Nick Cassavetes), Michael Masini, [Rust](Paul)(Paul Rust), [Franco](Eduardo)(Eduardo Franco (actor)), [Evan Jackson](Marc)(Marc Evan Jackson), Lidia Porto, Greta Oglesby, [McBrayer](Jack)(Jack McBrayer) and [Mumolo](Annie)(Annie Mumolo) joined the cast of the film.
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began in October 2020, during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
## Release
In June 2021, [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) and [Paramount+](Paramount+) acquired U.S. pay TV and streaming rights to the film for about $20 million. It was released on September 10, 2021.
## Reception
### Box office
Other box office grosses include Russia ($326,012), Ukraine ($221,109),
Netherlands ($200,244), United Arab Emirates ($123,281), Hungary ($88,609), Croatia ($41,810), Lithuania ($18,354), Iceland ($11,774), South Africa ($5,900) and Portugal ($5,501).
### Critical reception
On the review aggregator website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film holds an approval rating of 47% based on 62 reviews with an average rating of 5.40/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Lowbrow humor and inconsistent storytelling undercut *Queenpins* talented cast, making this coupon-clipping comedy a disappointingly poor bargain." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a weighted average score of 45 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Hauser's performance as fraud specialist Ken Miller received praise from critics who praised his onscreen chemistry with Vaughn while noting that the film established him as a comedic actor after his breakthrough role in 2019's *[Jewell](Richard)(Richard Jewell (film))*.
## References
## External links
*
*
[crime comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American crime comedy films)
[impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Films)(Category:Films impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic)
[set in the Las Vegas Valley](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the Las Vegas Valley)
[set in Carson City, Nevada](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Carson City, Nevada)
[set in Montenegro](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Montenegro)
[set in Phoenix, Arizona](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Phoenix, Arizona)
[set in Salt Lake City](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Salt Lake City)
[Entertainment films](Category:STX)(Category:STX Entertainment films)
[comedy films](Category:2021)(Category:2021 comedy films)
[films](Category:2021)(Category:2021 films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
[American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
|
The Ark _TV series
|
the_ark__tv_series
|
# The Ark (TV series)
*Revision ID: 1153186858 | Timestamp: 2023-05-04T18:40:28Z*
---
| creator = [Devlin](Dean)(Dean Devlin) and [Glassner](Jonathan)(Jonathan Glassner)
| starring =
| based_on =
| opentheme =
| composer =
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 12
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| location = PFI Studios, [Belgrade](Belgrade), [Serbia](Serbia)
| cinematography =
| editor =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company =
| network = [Syfy](Syfy)
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
}}
***The Ark*** is an American [fiction](science)(science fiction) television series created by [Devlin](Dean)(Dean Devlin) and [Glassner](Jonathan)(Jonathan Glassner), who also serve as [showrunner](showrunner)s for the series. It premiered on [Syfy](Syfy) on February 1, 2023, with the first season consisting of twelve episodes. The series stars [Burke](Christie)(Christie Burke) as Lt. Sharon Garnet who becomes the *de facto* captain of an interstellar spacecraft after a disaster. It also stars [Ritchie](Reece)(Reece Ritchie), [Fleeshman](Richard)(Richard Fleeshman), Stacey Michelle Read, Ryan Adams, Pavle Jerinić, Shalini Peiris, [Wolfe](Christina)(Christina Wolfe), and Tiana Upcheva. In April 2023, the series was renewed for a second season.
## Premise
A hundred years in the future, a spacecraft known as *Ark One* is shuttling a complement of would-be colonists away from a devastated Earth to a new home, [b](Proxima)(Proxima Centauri b). The ship suffers a catastrophic event that kills almost all of the technical crew and all of the ship's senior officers. The survivors must work to reorganize themselves to maintain the ship and stay on course to reach their destination.
## Cast and characters
### Main
* [Burke](Christie)(Christie Burke) as Lt. Sharon Garnet, one of the three highest-ranking remaining members of the crew and the de facto captain of the ship after the disaster
* [Ritchie](Reece)(Reece Ritchie) as Lt. Spencer Lane, one of the three highest-ranking remaining members of the crew; he is suspicious of Garnet's leadership
* [Fleeshman](Richard)(Richard Fleeshman) as Lt. James Brice, one of the three highest-ranking remaining members of the crew and a self-proclaimed "navigation wonk" who now has to take on other duties after the disaster
* Stacey Michelle Read as Alicia Nevins, a waste management engineer with coding skills who is promoted to chief of life support
* Ryan Adams as Angus Medford, a farm and [4-H](4-H) youth from horticulture whose duties include crop development at the prospective colony
* Pavle Jerinić as Felix Strickland, acting head of security enforcement
* Shalini Peiris as Dr. Sanjivni Kabir, the only remaining doctor on the medical staff
* [Wolfe](Christina)(Christina Wolfe) as Dr. Cat Brandice, a social media star and "TV relationship specialist" who Garnet orders to be the head of ship-wide mental health
* Tiana Upcheva as Eva Markovic, acting head of maintenance, engineering and construction
### Supporting
* [Brenner](Lisa)(Lisa Brenner) as Lieutenant Commander Susan Ingram, a career military officer, who would have been the superior officer to the surviving crew
* Miles Barrow as Baylor Trent, an ensign and Ingram's protégé
* Dominik Čičak as Harris Beckner, a member of Eva's engineering team and her secret lover
* Chris Leask as Jasper Dades, a crew member with a secret
Paul Murray co-stars as Ark inventor William Trust, and Mercedes De La Cruz co-stars as his wife, Helena Trust. Samantha Glassner co-stars as *Ark 3* survivor Kelly Fowler. Jelena Stupljanin co-stars as Trust's rival, Evelyn Maddox.
## Episodes
|viewers=|viewers_type= |country=U.S. |episodes=
|Viewers = 578,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 408,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 310,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 350,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 340,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 361,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 426,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 403,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 339,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 357,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 437,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
|Viewers = 463,000
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = BEE165
}}
}}
## Production
*The Ark* went straight-to-series in late January 2022 with a 12-episode order from [SyFy](SyFy). Principal photography began at PFI Studios in [Belgrade](Belgrade), [Serbia](Serbia) in March of that year. [Devlin](Dean)(Dean Devlin) and [Glassner](Jonathan)(Jonathan Glassner) serve as [showrunner](showrunner)s and producers.
In March 2022, it was announced that the regular cast of the series had been set, with [Burke](Christie)(Christie Burke) starring as Lt. Sharon Garnet, along with [Fleeshman](Richard)(Richard Fleeshman), [Ritchie](Reece)(Reece Ritchie), Stacey Read, and newcomer Ryan Adams. In April 2022, it was announced that [Brenner](Lisa)(Lisa Brenner) would be a recurring guest star, playing Commander Susan Ingram, with [Wolfe](Christina)(Christina Wolfe), Shalini Peiris, Miles Barrow, Pavle Jerinić, and Tiana Upcheva also recurring.
On April 12, 2023, Syfy renewed the series for a second season.
## Broadcast and release
The series trailer was released in December 2022. It premiered on [Syfy](Syfy) on February 1, 2023, with episodes to be streamed the next day on [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)).
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
* [*After The Ark*](https://www.electricnow.tv/shows/after-ark/) (*The Ark* aftershow)
[American drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American drama television series)
[American mystery television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American mystery television series)
[American science fiction television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American science fiction television series)
[American television series debuts](Category:2023)(Category:2023 American television series debuts)
[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[television series](Category:Post-apocalyptic)(Category:Post-apocalyptic television series)
[original programming](Category:Syfy)(Category:Syfy original programming)
[shows filmed in Serbia](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows filmed in Serbia)
|
Perfect Blue
|
perfect_blue
|
# Perfect Blue
*Revision ID: 1153307175 | Timestamp: 2023-05-05T13:41:37Z*
---
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = Hisao Shirai
| editing = Harutoshi Ogata
| music = Masahiro Ikumi
| studio = [Madhouse](Madhouse (company))
| distributor = Rex Entertainment
| released =
| runtime = 81 minutes
| country = Japan
| language = Japanese
| budget = ()
| gross = $768,050
}}
is a 1997 Japanese [animated](Anime) [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) film directed by [Kon](Satoshi)(Satoshi Kon). It is based on the novel by [Takeuchi](Yoshikazu)(Yoshikazu Takeuchi), with a screenplay written by Sadayuki Murai. Featuring the voices of [Iwao](Junko)(Junko Iwao), [Matsumoto](Rica)(Rica Matsumoto), [Niiyama](Shiho)(Shiho Niiyama), Masaaki Okura, Shinpachi Tsuji and Emiko Furukawa, the plot follows a member of a [idol](Japanese)(Japanese idol) group who retires from music to pursue an acting career. As she becomes a victim of [stalking](stalking), gruesome murders take place, and she begins losing her grip on reality.[Extreme Cinema: The 40 Most Disturbing Horror Movies Ever Made – PHASR](https://phasrmedia.com/most-disturbing-horror-movies/)
The film deals with the blurring of the line between fantasy and reality, a commonly found theme in Kon's later works, such as *[Actress](Millennium)(Millennium Actress)* (2001) and *[Paprika](Paprika (2006 film))* (2006).
## Plot
Mima Kirigoe, member of a [J-pop](J-pop) idol group named "CHAM!", decides to leave the group to become a full-time actress. She gets stalked by an obsessive fan named Me-Mania, who is upset by her change from a clean-cut image. Following directions from a fan letter, Mima discovers a website called "Mima's Room" containing public diary entries written from her perspective, and which has her daily life and thoughts recorded in great detail. During her acting career, she is joined by manager and former pop-idol Rumi Hidaka, and her agent, Tadokoro. Mima confides in Rumi about "Mima's Room", but is advised to ignore it.
Mima's first job is a minor role in a television detective drama called *Double Bind*, however, Tadokoro lobbies the producers of *Double Bind*, and succeeds in securing Mima a larger part that involves a rape scene. Despite Rumi's objections, Mima accepts the role, although this leaves her severely affected. On her way home, she sees her reflection dressed in her former idol outfit. The reflection claims she's "the real Mima". Between the ongoing stresses of filming *Double Bind*, her lingering regret over leaving *CHAM!*, her paranoia of being stalked, and her increasing obsession with "Mima's Room", Mima begins to suffer from [psychosis](psychosis): in particular, struggling to distinguish real life from her work in show business, and having repeated apparently unreal sightings of her former self, "the real Mima".
Several people who had been involved in her acting are murdered. Mima finds evidence which makes her appear to be the prime suspect, and her mental instability makes her doubt her own memories and innocence, as she recalls brutally murdering pornographer Murano. Mima manages to finish shooting *Double Bind*, the final scene of which reveals that her character killed and assumed the identity of her sister due to trauma-induced [identity disorder](dissociative)(dissociative identity disorder). After the rest of the filming staff have left the studio, Me-Mania, acting on e-mailed instructions from "the real Mima" to "eliminate the impostor", attempts to rape and kill her, but Mima knocks him unconscious with a hammer.
Mima is found backstage by Rumi and taken back to Rumi's home, where she wakes up in a room modelled on Mima's own room, only to discover that Rumi was the culprit behind "Mima's Room", the serial murders, and the [à deux](folie)(folie à deux) that manipulated and scapegoated Me-Mania. Rumi previously developed a second personality who believed herself to be the "real Mima", using information from Mima's confiding in her as the basis for "Mima's Room". She also reveals her motives: she is displeased by Mima retiring from the idol industry and hence, seeks to destroy and replace her in order to 'redeem' her image. At wit's end, Rumi's "Mima" personality chases Mima through the city to murder her. Mima incapacitates Rumi with a mirror shard in self-defense. After freeing herself, Rumi hallucinates the lights of an oncoming truck as stage lights and steps out into the road to pose in front of the approaching vehicle, but Mima manages to save her from being run over at the last second. With that, Mima's hallucinations seem to be over.
Some time later, Mima is now a well-known actress and visits Rumi in a mental institution. Rumi's doctor says that she still believes she is a pop idol most of the time. Mima says she's learned a lot from her experience, thanks to Rumi. As Mima leaves the hospital, she overhears two nurses talking about her. They think she is a lookalike, as the real Mima Kirigoe would supposedly have no reason to visit a mental institution. As Mima enters her car, she smiles at herself in the rear-view mirror before declaring, "No, I'm real."
## Cast
The following actors in the English adaptation are listed in the credits without specification to their respective roles: [Lyon](James)(Jamieson Price), Frank Buck, [Lucas](David)(Steve Blum), Elliot Reynolds, [Beachwood](Kermit)(Matt K. Miller), Sam Strong, Carol Stanzione, Ty Webb, [Regan](Billy)(Bill Timoney), Dari Mackenzie, [C. Cole](George)(Paul St. Peter), Syd Fontana, Sven Nosgard, Bob Marx, Devon Michaels, [Wicks](Robert)(Bob Buchholz) and Mattie Rando. – closing credits
## Production
This film was Satoshi Kon's first directorial effort.
It all started when [Maruyama](Masao)(Masao Maruyama (film producer)), a producer at Madhouse at the time, who had appreciated Kon's work on the [OVA](OVA) ''[Bizarre Adventure](JoJo's)(JoJo's Bizarre Adventure)'', contacted him to ask if he would be interested in directing in the fall of 1994.
The original author, Yoshikazu Takeuchi, allegedly first planned a [film](live-action)(live-action film) based on his novel. However, due to funding difficulties, it was downgraded to [direct-to-video](direct-to-video) and then direct-to-video animation.
When Kon received the initial offer, it was for an OVA project, so he made *Perfect Blue* as a video animation.
Then, it was decided to be released as a movie in a hurry just before its completion.
This work was originally made as a video animation for a narrow market, so it was expected to disappear as soon as a few people talked about it.
The fact that such a work was treated as a film, invited to many film festivals around the world, and released as a package in many countries was unexpected for those involved.
[horror](Psychological)(Psychological horror) was not a mainstream genre in Japanese animation, and there was no precedent for it at the time, so it would normally have been rejected. So no one thought it would be a hit since it was just adopted by chance. That's why Kon was able to get the job.
By the time Kon was offered the job, the title *Perfect Blue* and the content, a story about a B-class [idol](Japanese idol) and a perverted fan had already been set.
He hadn't read the original novel and only read the script for the film, which was said to be close to the original, and the script was never used in the actual film.
There is no [play-within-a-play](play-within-a-play) in the original story, nor is there a motif of blurring the boundary between dream and reality.
The first plot was a simple [splatter](Splatter film)/psycho-horror story about an idol girl that is attacked by a perverted fan who cannot tolerate her image change, and there were also many depictions of bleeding, so it was not suitable for Kon who does not like horror or idols.
Kon said that if he were free to make a plan, he would never have thought of such a setting.
This genre was overused, having already been dealt with in various works such as *[Seven](Seven (1995 film))*, *[Instinct](Basic)(Basic Instinct)*, *[Silence of the Lambs](The)(The Silence of the Lambs (film))*, etc., and was also something that anime was not good at.
Since most of the works in that genre pursue how perverted or crazy the perpetrators, the murderers, are, Kon focused on "how the inner world of the protagonist, the victim, is broken by being targeted by the stalker" in order to outsmart the audience.
On the other hand, the play within a play, *Double Bind*, is more like a parody than a straight psycho-horror, and he made it with the intention of criticizing Japanese TV dramas that are easily made by imitating Hollywood fads immediately.
Kon decided to take on the role of director because he couldn't resist the allure of directing for the first time, and because the original author allowed him to change the story as he liked as long as he kept three things in mind to make the film work: the main character is a B-grade idol, she has a rabid fan (stalker), and it is a horror film.
So he took some elements from the original work, such as the uniquely Japanese existence of idols, the "[otaku](otaku)" fans that surround them, and the stalkers that have become more radical, and came up with as many ideas as possible with the scriptwriter, Sadayuki Murai, with the intention of using them to create a completely new story.
And the film needed a core motif, which had to be found not by the screenwriter or anyone else, but by the director, Kon himself.
So he came up with the motif of two things that should have a "borderline," such as "dream and reality," "memory and fact," and "oneself and others," becoming borderless and blending together, based on the short film [Rose](Magnetic)(Magnetic Rose) (from [Memories](Memories (1995 film))), for which he had written a script, and the suspended manga "Opus.
In the meantime, he came up with the idea that "a character more like 'me' than 'I', the protagonist, to the people around 'me' " is created on the Internet without 'my' knowledge.
The character is "the past me" for the protagonist, and this "other me" that should have existed only on the Internet has materialized due to external factors (the consciousness of the fans who want the protagonist to be like that) and internal factors (the protagonist's regret that she might have been more comfortable in the past). And then the composition that the character and the protagonist herself confronted emerged.
It was only then that he became convinced that this work could be established as his own video work.
Kon decided to interpret the original story above as a story about an idol girl who broke down by a sudden change in her environment or by a stalker who targets her, and wrote a completely new script with Sadayuki Murai.
Initially, Murai wrote the first draft of the script, and Kon added or removed ideas from it. They spent a lot of time discussing, and many of the ideas came out of that.
Next, Kon wrote all the storyboards, where he also made changes to dialogue and other elements.
The drawing work was also carried out in parallel.
The company that purchased the [videogram](videogram) and television rights to *Perfect Blue* before the film was completed advised the distributor to submit the film to the [International Film Festival](Fantasia)(Fantasia International Film Festival) in [Montreal](Montreal), [Canada](Canada), so that it could be released overseas first.
Since it was his first film, director Kon was still unknown. Therefore, the distributor introduced the film as the first directorial effort of a disciple of [Otomo](Katsuhiro)(Katsuhiro Otomo), the creator of *[Akira](Akira (manga))*, which had already become a hit overseas.
Otomo is credited as a planning collaborator, but he never arranged for the company to ask Kon to direct the film, nor was he involved in the film. However, it seems that Otomo once advised the original author about the circumstances of the animation industry when he was touting around the animation project here and there.
At Fantasia, the film was so well received that a second screening was hurriedly arranged for those who could not see it, and it was eventually voted by the audience as the best international film.
Thanks to that, the distributor began to receive invitations from more than 50 film festivals, including [Germany](Germany), [Sweden](Sweden), [Australia](Australia), and [Korea](South)(South Korea).
The distributor began negotiations with distributors in various European countries and eventually succeeded in selling the film in major markets such as [Spanish](Spanish language), [French](French language), [Italian](Italian language), [English](English language) and [German](German language)-speaking countries prior to its release in [Japan](Japan).
The distributor was successful in obtaining permission from filmmakers [Corman](Roger)(Roger Corman) and [Kershner](Irvin)(Irvin Kershner) to use their comments in recommending the film free of charge worldwide. As a result, their comments were used on international theater flyers and in worldwide promotions.
Later, there was a rumor that director [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky) had purchased the remake rights for *Perfect Blue*. However, when he spoke with Kon in a magazine in 2001, he stated that he had to abandon the purchase of the rights due to various reasons.
He also said that it was a homage to the movie that his movie *[for a Dream](Requiem)(Requiem for a Dream)* had the same angles and shots as *Perfect Blue*.
A live action film adaptation of the novel, *[Blue: Yume Nara Samete](Perfect)(Perfect Blue: Yume Nara Samete)*, was later made and released in 2002. This version was directed by [Satō](Toshiki)(Toshiki Satō) from a screenplay by [Imaoka](Shinji)(Shinji Imaoka) and Masahiro Kobayashi.
## Release schedule
*Perfect Blue* premiered on August 5, 1997, at the Fantasia Film Festival in Montreal, Canada, and had its general release in Japan on February 28, 1998.
The film was also released on [UMD](Universal Media Disc) by [Bay Entertainment](Anchor)(Anchor Bay Entertainment) on December 6, 2005. It featured the film in widescreen, leaving the film kept within black bars on the [PSP](PlayStation Portable)'s 16:9 screen. This release also contains no special features and only the English audio track. The film was released on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [DVD](DVD) in [B](Region)(Blu-ray Disc#Region codes) by [Limited](Anime)(Anime Limited) in 2013. In the U.S., *Perfect Blue* aired on the [Encore](Encore (TV network)) cable television network and was featured by the [Fi Channel](Sci)(Syfy) on December 10, 2007, as part of its Ani-Monday block. In Australia, *Perfect Blue* aired on the [Television Network](SBS)(SBS (Australian TV channel)) on April 12, 2008, and previously sometime in mid 2007 in a similar timeslot.
The film had a theatrical re-release in the United States by [GKIDS](GKIDS) on September 6 and 10, 2018, with both English dubbed and subtitled screenings. GKIDS and [Factory](Shout!)(Shout! Factory) released the film on Blu-ray Disc in North America on March 26, 2019.
## Analysis
In an analysis of *Perfect Blue* and Kon's other works, professor [Napier](Susan)(Susan J. Napier) states that "*Perfect Blue* announces its preoccupation with perception, identity, voyeurism, and performance – especially in relation to the female – right from its opening sequence. The perception of reality cannot be trusted, with the visual set up only to not be reality, especially as the psychodrama heights towards the climax." Napier also sees themes related to [idols](pop)(Japanese idol) and their performances as impacting the gaze and the issue of their roles. Mima's madness results from her own subjectivity and attacks on her identity. The ties to [Hitchcock](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock)'s work are broken with the murder of her male controllers. *Otaku* describes the film as a "critique of the consumer society of contemporary Japan."
## Reception and legacy
The film was well received critically in the festival circuit, winning awards at the 1997 [Festival](Fantasia)(Fantasia Festival) in Montréal, and [Fantasporto](Fantasporto) Film Festival in Portugal.
Critical response in the United States upon its theatrical release was also positive. , the film had an 83% approval rating on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 7.3/10. The consensus stated, "*Perfect Blue* is overstylized, but its core mystery is always compelling, as are the visual theatrics." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a score of 67 based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." *[Time](Time (magazine))* included the film on its Top 5 Anime film list, *[Film](Total)(Total Film)* ranked *Perfect Blue* twenty-fifth on their list of greatest animated films, and [/Film](/Film) named it the scariest animated film ever. It also made the list for *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*s best movies never seen from 1991 to 2011. In 2022, *[IndieWire](IndieWire)* named *Perfect Blue* the twelfth best movie of the 1990s.
Dennis Harvey of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* wrote that while the film "ultimately disappoints with its just-middling tension and underdeveloped scenario, it still holds attention by trying something different for the genre". Hoai-Tran Bui of *[/Film](/Film)* called *Perfect Blue* "deeply violent, both physically and emotionally", writing that "this is a film that will leave you with profound psychological scars, and the feeling that you want to take a long, long shower". Bob Graham of the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* noted the film's ability to "take the thriller, media fascination, psychological insight and pop culture and stand them all on their heads" via its "knowing, adult view of what seems to be a young-teenage paradise." Writing for [News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network), reviewer Tim Henderson described the film as "a dark, sophisticated psychological thriller" with its effect of "over-obsession funneled through early Internet culture" and produces a "reminder of how much celebrity fandom has evolved in only a decade". Reviewing the 2019 GKIDS Blu-Ray release, Neil Lumbard of Blu-Ray.com heralded *Perfect Blue* as "one of the greatest anime films of all time" and "a must-see masterpiece that helped to pave the way for more complex anime films to follow," while Chris Beveridge of *The Fandom Post* noted "this is not a film one can watch often overall, nor should you, but when you settle into it you put everything else away, turn down the lights, and savor an excellent piece of filmmaking."
[Madonna](Madonna) incorporated clips from Perfect Blue into a remix of her song "[It Feels Like for a Girl](What)(What It Feels Like for a Girl)" as a video interlude during her [World Tour](Drowned)(Drowned World Tour) in 2001. – entry: Urotsukidoji
American filmmaker [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky) acknowledged the similarities in his 2010 film *[Swan](Black)(Black Swan (film))*, but denied that *Black Swan* was inspired by *Perfect Blue*; his previous film *[for a Dream](Requiem)(Requiem for a Dream)* features a remake of a scene from *Perfect Blue*. A re-issued blog entry mentioned Aronofsky's film *Requiem for a Dream* as being among Kon's list of films he viewed for 2010. In addition, Kon blogged about his meeting with Aronofsky in 2001.
## Other media
[Seas Entertainment](Seven)(Seven Seas Entertainment) obtained the English-language publication rights for the original 1991 *Perfect Blue* story *Perfect Blue: Complete Metamorphosis* and the 2002 anthology sequel *Perfect Blue: Awaken from a Dream* in April 2017. They released them in February and April 2018, respectively.
## Notes
## References
; Book references
*
}}
## External links
*
* [Official Geneon Entertainment website](https://web.archive.org/web/20110906042705/http://www.geneonuniversal.jp/rondorobe/perfect-blue/)
* [Official Madhouse Animation website](http://www.madhouse.co.jp/works/1999-1997/works_movie_perfectblue.html)
*
*
*
*
*
[Japanese-language films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s Japanese-language films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s psychological thriller films)
[anime films](Category:1997)(Category:1997 anime films)
[directorial debut films](Category:1997)(Category:1997 directorial debut films)
[films](Category:1997)(Category:1997 films)
[thriller films](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated thriller films)
[films based on novels](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime films based on novels)
[about actors](Category:Films)(Category:Films about actors)
[about schizophrenia](Category:Films)(Category:Films about schizophrenia)
[about singers](Category:Films)(Category:Films about singers)
[about stalking](Category:Films)(Category:Films about stalking)
[based on Japanese novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on Japanese novels)
[directed by Satoshi Kon](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Satoshi Kon)
[adult animated films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese adult animated films)
[idols in anime and manga](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese idols in anime and manga)
[nonlinear narrative films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese nonlinear narrative films)
[serial killer films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese serial killer films)
[(company)](Category:Madhouse)(Category:Madhouse (company))
[realism films](Category:Magic)(Category:Magic realism films)
[thriller anime and manga](Category:Psychological)(Category:Psychological thriller anime and manga)
|
Australia _continent
|
australia__continent
|
# Australia (continent)
*Revision ID: 1159688254 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T22:47:30Z*
---
Australia (country)|Australasia|Oceania}}
([7th](Continent#Area and population))
|population = 39,357,469 ([6th](list of continents and continental subregions by population))
|density =
|demonym = [Australian](Australians)/[Papuan](Indigenous people of New Guinea)
|countries =
|
}}
|list_countries =
|dependencies = ([Australia](Australia))
| ([Australia](Australia))
}}
[Islands](Aru)(Aru Islands Regency) ([Indonesia](Indonesia))
| [New Guinea](Western)(Western New Guinea) ([Indonesia](Indonesia))
}}
|unrecognized =
|languages = [English](Australian English), [Indonesian](Indonesian language), [Pisin](Tok)(Tok Pisin), [Motu](Hiri)(Hiri Motu language), 269 indigenous [Papuan](Papuan languages) and [languages](Austronesian)(Austronesian languages), and about 70 [Australian languages](Indigenous)(Australian Aboriginal languages)
|time = [UTC+8](UTC+08:00), [UTC+9:30](UTC+09:30), [UTC+10](UTC+10:00)
|internet = [.au](.au), [.id](.id), and [.pg](.pg)
|cities = [Sydney](Sydney)
# [Australia](Melbourne)(Melbourne Australia)
# [Brisbane](Brisbane)
# [Perth](Perth)
# [Adelaide](Adelaide)
# [Coast](Gold)(Gold Coast, Queensland)–[Heads](Tweed)(Tweed Heads, New South Wales)
# [Newcastle](Newcastle, New South Wales)–[Maitland](Maitland, New South Wales)
# [Canberra](Canberra)–[Queanbeyan](Queanbeyan)
# [Jayapura](Jayapura)
# [Moresby](Port)(Port Moresby)
}}
}}
The [continent](continent) of **Australia**, sometimes known in technical contexts by the names **Sahul** (), **Australia-New Guinea**, **Australinea**, **Meganesia**, or **Papualand** to distinguish it from the [of Australia](country)(Australia), is located within the [Southern](Southern Hemisphere) and [Eastern](Eastern Hemisphere) hemispheres. The name "[Sahul](Sahul)" takes its name from the [Shelf](Sahul)(Sahul Shelf), which is a part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The continent includes [Australia](mainland)(mainland Australia), [Tasmania](Tasmania), the island of [Guinea](New)(New Guinea) ([New Guinea](Papua)(Papua New Guinea) and [New Guinea](Western)(Western New Guinea)), the [Islands](Aru)(Aru Islands Regency), the [and Cartier Islands](Ashmore)(Ashmore and Cartier Islands), most of the [Sea Islands](Coral)(Coral Sea Islands), and some other [islands](nearby)(list of islands of Australia). Situated in the geographical region of [Oceania](Oceania), Australia is the [of the seven traditional continents](smallest)(Continent#Area and population).
The continent includes a [shelf](continental)(continental shelf) overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the [Sea](Arafura)(Arafura Sea) and [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait) between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and [Strait](Bass)(Bass Strait) between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When [level](sea)(sea level)s were lower during the [ice age](Pleistocene)(quaternary glaciation), including the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum) about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying [arid](arid) to [semi-arid](semi-arid climate) mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania.
With a total land area of , the Australian continent is the smallest, lowest, flattest, and second-driest continent (after [Antarctica](Antarctica)) on [Earth](Earth). As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans.
Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most [culturally](cultural diversity) and linguistically diverse countries in the world. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres. [Papua](West)(West Papua (province)), a [of Indonesia](province)(Provinces of Indonesia), is home to an estimated 44 [tribal groups](uncontacted)(uncontacted peoples). Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly [urbanised](Urbanization), and has the world's [economy](14th-largest)(list of countries by GDP (nominal)) with the second-highest [development index](human)(list of countries by Human Development Index) globally.Data refer mostly to the year 2014. [World Economic Outlook Database-April 2015](https://web.archive.org/web/20150906100138/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=39&pr.y=6&sy=2012&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C624%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C453%2C960%2C968%2C423%2C922%2C935%2C714%2C128%2C862%2C611%2C135%2C321%2C716%2C243%2C456%2C248%2C722%2C469%2C942%2C253%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C576%2C939%2C936%2C644%2C961%2C819%2C813%2C172%2C199%2C132%2C733%2C646%2C184%2C648%2C524%2C915%2C361%2C134%2C362%2C652%2C364%2C174%2C732%2C328%2C366%2C258%2C734%2C656%2C144%2C654%2C146%2C336%2C463%2C263%2C528%2C268%2C923%2C532%2C738%2C944%2C578%2C176%2C537%2C534%2C742%2C536%2C866%2C429%2C369%2C433%2C744%2C178%2C186%2C436%2C925%2C136%2C869%2C343%2C746%2C158%2C926%2C439%2C466%2C916%2C112%2C664%2C111%2C826%2C298%2C542%2C927%2C967%2C846%2C443%2C299%2C917%2C582%2C544%2C474%2C941%2C754%2C446%2C698%2C666&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=), [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund). Accessed on 25 April 2015. Australia also has the world's [largest](9th)(list of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population) [population](immigrant)(immigration to Australia).United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, (2019). 'International Migration' in International migrant stock
2019. Accessed from [International migrant stock 2015: maps](https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1) on 24 May 2017.
## Terminology
[[File:Australia New Guinea continent.jpg|thumb|[Australia](Mainland)(Mainland Australia) showing the continental [Shelf](Sahul)(Sahul Shelf) (light blue) extending to the islands of New Guinea in the north, the island of Timor in the northwest, and Tasmania in the south]]
The continent of Australia is sometimes known by the names Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish it from the country of Australia, and consists of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. This includes [Australia](mainland)(mainland Australia), [Tasmania](Tasmania), and the island of [Guinea](New)(New Guinea), which comprises [New Guinea](Papua)(Papua New Guinea) and [New Guinea](Western)(Western New Guinea) (Papua and West Papua, provinces of [Indonesia](Indonesia)). The name "Sahul" takes its name from the [Shelf](Sahul)(Sahul Shelf), which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent.
The term [Oceania](Oceania), originally a "great division" of the world in the 1810s, was replaced in [language](English)(English language) countries by the concept of Australia as one of the world's continents in the 1950s. Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of [tectonics](plate)(plate tectonics), [Antarctica](Antarctica), Australia and [Greenland](Greenland) were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in English-speaking countries.: "...the 1950s... was also the period when... Oceania as a "great division" was replaced by Australia as a continent along with a series of isolated and continentally attached islands. [78: When Southeast Asia was conceptualised as a world region during World War II..., Indonesia and the Philippines were perforce added to Asia, which reduced the extent of Oceania, leading to a reconceptualisation of Australia as a continent in its own right. This manoeuvre is apparent in postwar atlases](Footnote)" Scottish [cartographer](cartographer) [Bartholomew](John)(John Bartholomew) wrote in 1873 that, "the [World](New)(New World) consists of [America](North)(North America), and the peninsula of [America](South)(South America) attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — [Europe](Europe), [Asia](Asia), [Africa](Africa), North America, South America and Oceania."
The American author [Griswold Goodrich](Samuel)(Samuel Griswold Goodrich) wrote in his 1854 book *History of All Nations* that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (consisting of North America and South America) and the [World](Old)(Old World) (consisting of Africa, Asia and Europe). In his 1879 book *Australasia*, British naturalist [Russel Wallace](Alfred)(Alfred Russel Wallace) commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature." He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. He considered it to encompass the insular Pacific area between Asia and the Americas, and claimed it extended up to the [Islands](Aleutian)(Aleutian Islands), which are among the northernmost islands in the Pacific Ocean. However, definitions of Oceania varied during the 19th century. In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially-based subdivisions; *[Australasia](Australasia)*, *Malaysia* (encompassing the [Archipelago](Malay)(Malay Archipelago)), *[Melanesia](Melanesia)*, *[Micronesia](Micronesia)* and *[Polynesia](Polynesia)*.
Today, the Malay Archipelago is typically considered part of [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), and the term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, [Zealandia](Zealandia) and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the [seven-continent](continent) model. It has been recognized by the [Nations](United)(United Nations) as one of the world's five major continental divisions since its foundation in 1947, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the [Americas](Americas). The UN's definition of Oceania utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. They include [Samoa](American)(American Samoa), Australia and their [territories](external)(states and territories of Australia), the [Islands](Cook)(Cook Islands), the [States of Micronesia](Federated)(Federated States of Micronesia), [Polynesia](French)(French Polynesia), [Fiji](Fiji), [Guam](Guam), [Kiribati](Kiribati), the [Islands](Marshall)(Marshall Islands), [Nauru](Nauru), [Caledonia](New)(New Caledonia), New Zealand, [Niue](Niue), the [Mariana Islands](Northern)(Northern Mariana Islands), [Palau](Palau), Papua New Guinea, [Islands](Pitcairn)(Pitcairn Islands), [Samoa](Samoa), the [Islands](Solomon)(Solomon Islands), [Tokelau](Tokelau), [Tonga](Tonga), [Tuvalu](Tuvalu), [Vanuatu](Vanuatu), [and Futuna](Wallis)(Wallis and Futuna), and the [States Minor Outlying Islands](United)(United States Minor Outlying Islands) ([Island](Baker)(Baker Island), [Island](Howland)(Howland Island), [Island](Jarvis)(Jarvis Island), [Atoll](Midway)(Midway Atoll), [Atoll](Palmyra)(Palmyra Atoll), and [Island](Wake)(Wake Island)). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still [colonies](colony) at that point.
The island states of [Indonesia](Indonesia), [Japan](Japan), the [Philippines](Philippines), [Singapore](Singapore) and [Taiwan](Taiwan), all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated [sea](marginal)(marginal sea)s, are excluded from the UN definition. The states of [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong) and [Malaysia](Malaysia), located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as is the nation of [Brunei](Brunei), which shares the island of [Borneo](Borneo) with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further excluded are [Timor](East)(East Timor) and [New Guinea/Western New Guinea](Indonesian)(Western New Guinea), areas which are biogeographically or geologically associated with the Australian landmass. This definition of Oceania is used in statistical reports, by the [Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee), and by many atlases. [CIA World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook) also categorize Oceania or the Pacific area as one of the world's major continental divisions, but use the term "Australia and Oceania" to refer to the area. Their definition does not include Australia's subantarctic external territory [Island and McDonald Islands](Heard)(Heard Island and McDonald Islands), but is otherwise the same as the UN definition, and it is also used for statistical purposes.
In countries such as [Argentina](Argentina), [Brazil](Brazil), [China](China), [Chile](Chile), [Rica](Costa)(Costa Rica), [Ecuador](Ecuador), [France](France), [Greece](Greece), [Italy](Italy), [Mexico](Mexico), the [Netherlands](Netherlands), [Peru](Peru), [Spain](Spain), [Switzerland](Switzerland) or [Venezuela](Venezuela), Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other countries, including [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), [Norway](Norway), [Poland](Poland) and [Russia](Russia), Australia and [Eurasia](Eurasia) are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world". In the *Pacific Ocean Handbook* (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears wrote that he categorized Australia, New Zealand and Pacific islands under the label of Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither [realm](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations) has close ties with Asia." He further added that, "the term *Australasia* is not relished by [Zealanders](New)(New Zealanders) and this name is too often confused with *Australia*." Some 19th century definitions of Oceania grouped Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia together under the label of *Australasia*, in other 19th century definitions of Oceania, the term was only used to refer to Australia itself, with New Zealand being categorized with the islands of Polynesia in such definitions.
Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Before the 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called *Australasia*, derived from the [Latin](Latin) , meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term *Greater Australia* was introduced for the Pleistocene continent. Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, the name *Sahul* was extended from its previous use for just the [Shelf](Sahul)(Sahul Shelf) to cover the continent.
In 1984 W. Filewood suggested the name *Meganesia*, meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists.e.g. Others have used *Meganesia* with different meanings: travel writer [Theroux](Paul)(Paul Theroux) included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and [Hawaii](Hawaii). Another biologist, [Dawkins](Richard)(Richard Dawkins), coined the name *Australinea* in 2004. *Australia–New Guinea* has also been used.e.g.
## Geology and geography
[[File:Map of Sunda and Sahul.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The [Sahul](Sahul Shelf) continent]]
The Australian continent, being a part of the [Plate](Indo-Australian)(Indo-Australian Plate) (more specifically, the [Plate](Australian)(Australian Plate)), is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on EarthPain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012): Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape. In: *Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia*. Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. Pp. 227–275 and it has had a relatively stable geological history. [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of [Zealandia](Zealandia). New Zealand and Australia are both part of the Oceanian sub-region known as [Australasia](Australasia), with New Guinea being in [Melanesia](Melanesia).
The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the [Sea](Arafura)(Arafura Sea) and [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait) between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and [Strait](Bass)(Bass Strait) between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When [level](sea)(sea level)s were lower during the [ice age](Pleistocene)(quaternary glaciation), including the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum) about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying [arid](arid) to [semi-arid](semi-arid climate) mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. The [shelf](continental)(continental shelf) connecting the islands, half of which is less than deep, covers some , including the [Shelf](Sahul)(Sahul Shelf) and [Strait](Bass)(Bass Strait).
Geological forces such as [uplift](tectonic)(tectonic uplift) of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of [Gondwana](Gondwana). Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism.
[[File:Post-Glacial Sea Level.png|thumb|upright=1.7|[level rise](Sea)(Early Holocene sea level rise) since the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum).]]
The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate, Australia does not have any active volcanic regions, the only continent with this distinction. The lands were joined with [Antarctica](Antarctica) as part of the southern supercontinent [Gondwana](Gondwana) until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the [glacial period](last)(last glacial period) ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed [Strait](Bass)(Bass Strait), separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating the [Islands](Aru)(Aru Islands Regency), mainland Australia, [Guinea](New)(New Guinea), and Tasmania.
A northern arc consisting of the [Guinea Highlands](New)(New Guinea Highlands), the [Ampat Islands](Raja)(Raja Ampat Islands), and [Halmahera](Halmahera) was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the [Plate](Pacific)(Pacific Plate). The [Banda Arc](Outer)(Outer Banda Arc) was accreted along the northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of [Timor](Timor), [Tanimbar](Tanimbar), and [Seram](Seram Island). Papua New Guinea has [volcanoes](several)(List of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea), as it is situated along the [Ring of Fire](Pacific)(Pacific Ring of Fire). Volcanic eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to [earthquake](earthquake)s and [tsunami](tsunami)s because of this. [Wilhelm](Mount)(Mount Wilhelm) in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the continent, and at [sea level](above)(above sea level), [Jaya](Puncak)(Puncak Jaya) is the [mountain](highest)(highest mountain).
## Human history
The Australian continent and [Sunda](Sunda (landmass)) were points of early human migrations after leaving Africa.
Recent research points to a planned migration of hundreds of people using bamboo rafts, which eventually landed on Sahul.
### Indigenous peoples
[[File:Aboriginal rock art on the Barnett River, Mount Elizabeth Station.jpg|thumb|left|Aboriginal pictographs known as [Wandjina](Wandjina) in the Wunnumurra Gorge, [River](Barnett)(Barnett River), [Western Australia](Kimberley,)(Kimberley, Western Australia)]]
[Australians](Indigenous)(Indigenous Australians), that is [Australians](Aboriginal)(Aboriginal Australians) and [Strait Islanders](Torres)(Torres Strait Islanders) people, are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. They migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia at least 50,000 years ago, based on archaeological evidence. More recent research points to earlier arrival, possibly 65,000 years ago.
They are believed to be among the [human migrations out of Africa](earliest)(recent African origin of modern humans). There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day [Guinea](New)(New Guinea) and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and [intermarriage](Interracial marriage).[Diamond](Jared)(Jared Diamond). (1997). *[Germs, and Steel](Guns,)(Guns, Germs, and Steel)*. Random House. London. pp 314–316 The [known human remains](earliest)(Mungo Man) were found at [Mungo](Lake)(Lake Mungo remains), a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known [cremation](cremation)s, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. [Dreamtime](Dreamtime) remains a prominent feature of [Aboriginal art](Australian)(Australian Aboriginal art), the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.
[Papuan](Papuan peoples) habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago in New Guinea. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as the seventh century, and archipelagic rule of New Guinea by the 13th. At the beginning of the seventh century, the [Sumatra](Sumatra)-based empire of [Srivijaya](Srivijaya) (7th century–13th century) engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like [sandalwood](sandalwood) and [birds-of-paradise](birds-of-paradise) in [to China](tribute)(List of tributaries of Imperial China), but later making slaves out of the natives. The rule of the [Java](Java)-based empire of [Majapahit](Majapahit) (1293–1527) extended to the western fringes of New Guinea. Recent archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied sites in the highlands at New Guinean altitudes of up to , rather than being restricted to warmer coastal areas.
### Pre-colonial history
[[File:Mercator_World_Map.jpg|thumb|Terra Australis, as it appears on a map by [Mercator](Rumold)(Rumold Mercator), 1587]]
Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of the continent.Albert-Marie-Ferdinand Anthiaume, "Un pilote et cartographe havrais au XVIe siècle: Guillaume Le Testu", *Bulletin de Géographie Historique et Descriptive,* Paris, Nos 1–2, 1911, pp. 135–202, n.b. p. 176. Ancient Greek philosopher [Aristotle](Aristotle) speculated of a large landmass in the southern hemisphere, saying, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...". His ideas were later expanded by [Ptolemy](Ptolemy) (2nd century AD), who believed that the lands of the [Hemisphere](Northern)(Northern Hemisphere) should be balanced by land in the [south](Southern hemisphere). The theory of balancing land has been documented as early as the 5th century on maps by [Macrobius](Macrobius), who uses the term Australis on his maps.
[Australis](Terra)(Terra Australis), a hypothetical [continent](continent) first posited in [antiquity](Classical antiquity), appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries.John Noble Wilford: The Mapmakers, the Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography from Antiquity to Space Age, p. 139, Vintage Books, Random House 1982, Scientists, such as [Mercator](Gerardus)(Gerardus Mercator) (1569) and [Dalrymple](Alexander)(Alexander Dalrymple) as late as 1767 argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large [landmass](landmass) in the [south](Southern Hemisphere) as a [counterweight](counterweight) to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere.Carlos Pedro Vairo, TERRA AUSTRALIS Historical Charts of Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and Antarctica. Ed. Zagier & Urruty Publicationa, 2010. The cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent included [del Fuego](Tierra)(Tierra del Fuego), separated from South America by a small strait; [Guinea](New)(New Guinea); and what would come to be called Australia.*Spieghel der Australische Navigatie;* cited by A. Lodewyckx, "The Name of Australia: Its Origin and Early Use", *The Victorian Historical Magazine,* Vol. XIII, No. 3, June 1929, pp. 100–191.
### European exploration
[[File:Thevenot - Hollandia Nova detecta 1644.png|thumb|A typical map from the [Age of Dutch cartography](Golden)(Golden Age of Dutch cartography), printed in Paris, 1663]]
In 1606 Dutch navigator [Janszoon](Willem)(Willem Janszoon) made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent of Australia in [York Peninsula](Cape)(Cape York Peninsula).J.P. Sigmond and L.H. Zuiderbaan (1979) *Dutch Discoveries of Australia*.Rigby Ltd, Australia. pp. 19–30 Dutch explorer [Janszoon Tasman](Abel)(Abel Tasman) circumnavigated and landed on parts of the [Australia](Australia)n continental coast and discovered [Diemen's Land](Van)(Van Diemen's Land) (now [Tasmania](Tasmania)), [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) in 1642, and [Fiji](Fiji) islands. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.
In the quest for [Australis](Terra)(Terra Australis), Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator [Fernandes de Queirós](Pedro)(Pedro Fernandes de Queirós), discovered the [Pitcairn](Pitcairn Islands) and [Vanuatu](Vanuatu) archipelagos, and sailed the [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait) between [Australia](Australia) and [Guinea](New)(New Guinea), named after navigator [Vaz de Torres](Luís)(Luís Vaz de Torres), who was the first European to explore the Strait. When [Europe](Europe)ans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of [Tidore](Tidore)'s sovereignty over [Guinea](New)(New Guinea). The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the [Portuguese](Portuguese people) and [Spanish](Spanish people) navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century.
On 23 April 1770 British explorer [Cook](James)(James Cook) made his first recorded direct observation of [Australians](indigenous)(indigenous Australians) at [Island](Brush)(Brush Island) near [Point](Bawley)(Bawley Point, New South Wales). On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the [Peninsula](Kurnell)(Cronulla sand dunes, Kurnell Peninsula). It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as the [Gweagal](Gweagal), who he fired upon, injuring one. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered the eastern coastline of Australia. Captain [Phillip](Arthur)(Arthur Phillip) led the *[Fleet](First)(First Fleet)* of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into [Sydney](Sydney) on 26 January 1788. This was to be the location for the new colony. Phillip described [Cove](Sydney)(Sydney Cove) as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".
### Modern history
In 1883, the [of Queensland](Colony)(Queensland) tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve.John Waiko. *Short History of Papua New Guinea* (1993) The [of Australia](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Australia) came into being when the [Constitution](Federal)(Constitution of Australia) was proclaimed by the [Governor-General](Governor-General of Australia), [Hopetoun](Lord)(John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow), on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of [in Australia](federalism)(federalism in Australia) came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and the States. With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a [protectorate](British)(British protectorate) had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. [New Guinea](British)(British New Guinea) was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian [of Papua](Territory)(Territory of Papua), with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906.
[[File:Aust soldiers Wewak June 1945.jpg|thumb|An Australian light machine gun team in action near [Wewak](Wewak), [New Guinea](Papua)(Papua New Guinea), in June 1945]]
The [of Darwin](Bombing)(Bombing of Darwin) on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of [Moresby](Port)(Port Moresby), in the Australian [of New Guinea](Territory)(Territory of New Guinea). Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the [Track](Kokoda)(Kokoda Track campaign), in the highlands of [Guinea](New)(New Guinea). The [of Buna–Gona](Battle)(Battle of Buna–Gona), between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the [Guinea campaign](New)(New Guinea campaign), which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.
Following the 1998 commencement of [across Indonesia](reforms)(Reformation (Indonesia)), Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, "Special Autonomy" status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial and often criticised.[U.S. Dept. of Defence](https://web.archive.org/web/20090211034152/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA462594); [International Crisis Group](https://web.archive.org/web/20090808210217/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=1764); and [International Crisis Group](http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4364&l=1) . Archived 19 August 2014. The region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of [Papua](Papua, Indonesia) and [Papua](West)(West Papua (province)). Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister [Somare](Michael)(Michael Somare), who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined the [Nations](United)(United Nations) (UN) on 10 October 1975.
Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers".cited in Michael Dugan and Josef Swarc (1984) p. 139 Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two [war](world)(world war)s and became a long-standing [of the United States](ally)(ANZUS) when threatened by [Japan](Imperial)(Imperial Japan) during [War II](World)(World War II). Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014.
## Ecology
### Flora
[[File: Eucalyptus forest2.jpg|thumb|Australian eucalyptus forest in a state of [regeneration](regeneration (biology))]]
[[File:20170903 Papouasie Baliem valley 12.jpg|thumb|[Valley](Baliem)(Baliem Valley) in the [Guinea Highlands](New)(New Guinea Highlands)]]
For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When [America](South)(South America) eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold [Circumpolar Current](Antarctic)(Antarctic Circumpolar Current) changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long-established broad-leaf [deciduous](deciduous) forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved [sclerophyllous](sclerophyllous) plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape.
Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the [conifer](conifer)s *[Podocarpus](Podocarpus)* (eastern Australia and New Guinea), the rainforest emergents *[Araucaria](Araucaria)* (eastern Australia and New Guinea), *[Nothofagus](Nothofagus)* (New Guinea and [Tasmania](Tasmania)) and *[Agathis](Agathis)* (northern [Queensland](Queensland) and New Guinea), as well as [fern](tree)(tree fern)s and several species of *Eucalyptus*. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to [aridity](aridity) and fire which include [scleromorphy](sclerophyll) and [serotiny](serotiny). These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families [Proteaceae](Proteaceae) (*[Banksia](Banksia)s* and *[Grevillea](Grevillea)s*), [Myrtaceae](Myrtaceae) (*[Eucalyptus](Eucalyptus)* or gum trees, *[Melaleuca](Melaleuca)s* and *[Callistemon](Callistemon)s*), [Fabaceae](Fabaceae) (*[Acacia](Acacia)*s or wattles), and [Casuarinaceae](Casuarinaceae) (*[Casuarina](Casuarina)s* or she-oaks), which are typically found in the Australian mainland. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many [rainforest](tropical)(tropical rainforest) species with origins in Asia, such as *[acuminatissima](Castanopsis)(Castanopsis acuminatissima),* *[Lithocarpus](Lithocarpus)* spp., [elaeocarps](Elaeocarpaceae), and [laurels](Lauraceae), together with typically Australasian flora. In the New Guinean highlands, conifers such as *[Dacrycarpus](Dacrycarpus), [Dacrydium](Dacrydium), [Papuacedrus](Papuacedrus)* and *[Libocedrus](Libocedrus)* are present.
For many species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered [Dividing Range](Great)(Great Dividing Range). Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the [plate](Eurasian)(Eurasian plate) to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming the high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait) that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of [Wallacea](Wallacea), which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia)'s rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between the islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia.
Among the fungi, the remarkable association between *[Cyttaria](Cyttaria)* *gunnii* (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus *[Nothofagus](Nothofagus)* is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern [Argentina](Argentina) and [Chile](Chile).
### Fauna
[[regius-20031005.jpg|thumb|left|The king bird-of-paradise is one of over 300 bird species in West Papua.](File:Cicinnurus)]
Due to the spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related [biota](biome). There are over 300 bird species in [Papua](West)(West Papua (province)), of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the [munia](grey-banded)(grey-banded munia), [bowerbird](Vogelkop)(Vogelkop bowerbird), and the [bird-of-paradise](king)(king bird-of-paradise).[WWF: Bird wonders of New Guinea's western-most province](http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/new_guinea_forests/conservation_new_guinea_forests/sites_new_guinea_forests/papua_new_guinea_bird_head_peninsula/), retrieved 11 May 2010
Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of [mammals](mammals of Australia), 89% of [reptiles](reptiles of Australia), 24% of fish and insects and 93% of [amphibian](amphibian)s that inhabit the continent are [endemic](endemic) to Australia.Williams, J. et al. 2001. [*Biodiversity, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001* (Theme Report)](http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/pubs/biodiversity.pdf), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, [tectonic](plate tectonics) stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and [flora](Flora of Australia) over geological time. Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird;Egerton, p. 122. 45% of these are endemic to Australia. Predominant bird species in Australia include the [magpie](Australian)(Australian magpie), [raven](Australian)(Australian raven), the [currawong](pied)(pied currawong), [pigeon](crested)(crested pigeon)s and the [kookaburra](laughing)(laughing kookaburra).Egerton, L. ed. 2005. *Encyclopedia of Australian wildlife*. Reader's Digest The [koala](koala), [emu](emu), [platypus](platypus) and [kangaroo](kangaroo) are [animals](national)(national animals) of Australia, and the [devil](Tasmanian)(Tasmanian devil) is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The [goanna](goanna) is a [predatory](predatory) lizard native to the [mainland](Australian)(Australian mainland).Underhill D (1993) ''Australia's Dangerous Creatures'', Reader's Digest, Sydney, New South Wales,
[[cinereus 2 Gould.jpg|thumb|upright|Natural history illustrator John Gould popularised the koala with his 1863 work *The Mammals of Australia*.](File:Phascolarctus)]
As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique [fauna](Fauna (animals)), [flora](Flora (plants)) and [mycobiota](Fungi) developed. [Marsupial](Marsupial)s and [monotreme](monotreme)s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the [placental](Placentalia) [mammals](mammals) and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, [rodent](rodent)s and [bat](bat)s; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity of [coral](coral) life and 1,200 species of [fish](fish) have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. [Bird](Aves) life also flourished—in particular, the [songbird](songbird)s (order [Passeriformes](Passerine), suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of [Gondwana](Gondwana) that later became [Australia](Australia), New Zealand, [Guinea](New)(New Guinea), and [Antarctica](Antarctica), before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.
Animal groups such as [macropods](Macropodidae), [monotremes](monotremes), and [cassowaries](Cassowary) are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life.
* While much of the rest of the world underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity, Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at such a pace that the overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual movement toward the [equator](equator). [Temperature](Temperature)s in Australia–New Guinea, in other words, remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and a vast number of different animal, fungal and plant species were able to evolve to fit particular [niche](ecological)(ecological niche)s.
* Because the continent was more isolated than any other, very few outside species arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed unimpeded.
* Finally, despite the fact that the continent was already very old and thus relatively infertile, there are dispersed areas of high fertility. Where other continents had [volcanic](Volcanism) activity and/or massive [glaciation](Glacier) events to turn over fresh, unleached [rock](Rock (geology))s rich in [mineral](mineral)s, the rocks and [soil](soil)s of Australia–New Guinea were left largely untouched except by gradual [erosion](erosion) and deep [weathering](weathering). In general, fertile soils produce a profusion of life, and a relatively large number of species/level of biodiversity. This is because where [nutrient](nutrient)s are plentiful, competition is largely a matter of outcompeting rival species, leaving great scope for innovative [co-evolution](co-evolution) as is witnessed in tropical, fertile ecosystems. In contrast, infertile soils tend to induce competition on an abiotic basis meaning individuals all face constant environmental pressures, leaving less scope for divergent evolution, a process instrumental in creating new species.
Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most [tropical](tropical climate) in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in the tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by [growth](population)(population growth).
## Climate
In New Guinea, the climate is mostly [monsoonal](monsoonal) (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October), and [rainforest](tropical)(tropical rainforest climate) with slight seasonal temperature variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around year round. But the higher altitudes, such as [Mendi](Mendi), are constantly around with cool lows nearing , with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The [Guinea Highlands](New)(New Guinea Highlands) are one of the few regions close to the [equator](equator) that experience [snowfall](snowfall), which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly of rainfall annually.
The Australian landmass's climate is mostly [desert](desert) or [semi-arid](Semi-arid climate), with the southern coastal corners having a [temperate](Temperateness) climate, such as [oceanic](oceanic climate) and [subtropical](humid)(humid subtropical) climate in the east coast and [climate](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean climate) in the west. The northern parts of the country have a [climate](tropical)(tropical climate). [Snow](Snow) falls frequently on the [highlands](Great Dividing Range) near the east coast, in the states of [Victoria](Victoria (Australia)), [South Wales](New)(New South Wales), [Tasmania](Tasmania) and in the [Capital Territory](Australian)(Australian Capital Territory). Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above to well below . Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The [Niño-Southern Oscillation](El)(El Niño-Southern Oscillation) is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences [drought](extensive)(Drought in Australia)s alongside considerable wet periods.
## Demography
### Religion
[[1 110096 Drawing of migrants disembarking from a ship, ca. 1885.jpg|thumb|upright|Migrants to Australia disembarking from a ship, ca. 1885](File:StateLibQld)]
[Christianity](Christianity) is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to [religion](no)(Irreligion).[Christianity in its Global Context, 1970–2020 Society, Religion, and Mission](https://web.archive.org/web/20130815184022/http://wwwgordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf), Center for the Study of Global Christianity Other religions in the region include [Islam](Islam), [Buddhism](Buddhism) and [Hinduism](Hinduism), which are prominent [religion](minority)(minority religion)s in Australia. Traditional religions are often [animist](Animism), found in New Guinea. [Islam](Islam) is widespread in the [New Guinea](Indonesian)(Indonesian New Guinea). Many Papuans [their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices](combine)(Religious syncretism).
### Languages
"[Australian languages](Aboriginal)(Aboriginal Australian languages)", including the large [Pama–Nyungan](Pama–Nyungan) family, "[languages](Papuan)(Papuan languages)" of [Guinea](New)(New Guinea) and neighbouring islands, including the large [Guinea](Trans–New)(Trans–New Guinea) family, and "[languages](Tasmanian)(Tasmanian languages)" are generic terms for the native languages of the continent other than those of [Austronesian](Austronesian languages) family. Predominant languages include [English](English language) in Australia, [Pisin](Tok)(Tok Pisin) in Papua New Guinea, and [Indonesian](Indonesian language) (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. [to Australia](Immigration)(Immigration to Australia) have brought overseas languages such as [Italian](Italian language), [Greek](Greek language), [Arabic](Arabic language), [Filipino](Filipino language), [Mandarin](Mandarin language), [Vietnamese](Vietnamese language) and [Spanish](Spanish language), among others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in [language](mixed)(mixed language)s such as [Maisin](Maisin language). [Pisin](Tok)(Tok Pisin) is an English [language](creole)(creole language) spoken in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers.[Papua New Guinea](http://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG), Ethnologue
### Immigration
Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a [country](multicultural)(Multiculturalism in Australia). Sydney is the most [multicultural](multicultural) city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken, with about 40 percent of residents speaking a [other than English](language)(Languages Other Than English) at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been [overseas](born)(foreign born), with top countries being [Italy](Italy), [Lebanon](Lebanon), [Vietnam](Vietnam) and [Iraq](Iraq), among others. [Melbourne](Melbourne) is also fairly multicultural, having the largest [Greek-speaking](Greek community of Melbourne) population outside of [Europe](Europe), and the second largest [Asian](Asian Australians) population in Australia after Sydney.
## Economy
[[File:Australia - Part 3 (27519420205).jpg|thumb|The [Opera House](Sydney)(Sydney Opera House) is an [image](iconic)(landmark) of [Sydney](Sydney), and the continent itself. Ranking highly in [of life](quality)(quality of life) measurements, Sydney is consistently selected as one of the world's most liveable cities.]]
Australia is the only [World](First)(First World) country on the Australia-New Guinea continent, although the [of Australia](economy)(economy of Australia) is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is [higher](List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita) than that of the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), [Canada](Canada), [Germany](Germany), and [France](France) in terms of [power parity](purchasing)(purchasing power parity).[Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate)](http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/dnltransfer.asp?fID=2), CIA World Factbook The [Securities Exchange](Australian)(Australian Securities Exchange) in [Sydney](Sydney) is the largest [exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific](stock)(List of stock exchanges in Oceania). In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by [PPP-adjusted](Purchasing power parity) GDP. [in Australia](Tourism)(Tourism in Australia) is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15, [tourism](tourism) represented 3.0% of [Australia](Australia)'s [GDP](Gross domestic product) contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals.Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of [of living](quality)(quality of living), making it one of the [livable cities](most)(world's most livable cities). It is classified as an Alpha+ [City](World)(World City) by [GaWC](Globalization and World Cities Research Network). [Melbourne](Melbourne) also ranked highly in the [most liveable city](world's)(World's Most Livable Cities) list, and is a leading [centre](financial)(financial centre) in the [Asia-Pacific](Asia-Pacific) region.[The Global Financial Centres Index 14 (September 2013)](http://www.longfinance.net/images/GFCI14_30Sept2013.pdf) . Y/Zen Group. p 15. Retrieved 4 December 2013.[2012 Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook](http://www.atkearney.com.au/documents/10192/dfedfc4c-8a62-4162-90e5-2a3f14f0da3a) . A.T. Kearney. p 2. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two-thirds of their export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil company and began to export in 2004 and this was the largest project in PNG's history. Papua New Guinea is classified as a [economy](developing)(Developing country) by the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund).[World Economic Outlook Database, October 2015](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2014&ey=2014&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=16&pr1.y=7&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C624%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C453%2C960%2C968%2C423%2C922%2C935%2C714%2C128%2C862%2C611%2C135%2C321%2C716%2C243%2C456%2C248%2C722%2C469%2C942%2C253%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C576%2C939%2C936%2C644%2C961%2C819%2C813%2C172%2C199%2C132%2C733%2C646%2C184%2C648%2C524%2C915%2C361%2C134%2C362%2C652%2C364%2C174%2C732%2C328%2C366%2C258%2C734%2C656%2C144%2C654%2C146%2C336%2C463%2C263%2C528%2C268%2C923%2C532%2C738%2C944%2C578%2C176%2C537%2C534%2C742%2C536%2C866%2C429%2C369%2C433%2C744%2C178%2C186%2C436%2C925%2C136%2C869%2C343%2C746%2C158%2C926%2C439%2C466%2C916%2C112%2C664%2C111%2C826%2C298%2C542%2C927%2C967%2C846%2C443%2C299%2C917%2C582%2C544%2C474%2C941%2C754%2C446%2C698%2C666&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a=), [International Monetary Fund](http://www.imf.org/external/ns/cs.aspx?id=28). Database updated on 6 October 2015. Accessed on 6 October 2015. Strong growth in [New Guinea's mining and resource sector](Papua)(Mining in Papua New Guinea) led to the country becoming the sixth [fastest-growing](List of countries by real GDP growth rate) economy in the world in 2011.[Asian Development Outlook 2015: Financing Asia’s Future Growth](http://www.adb.org/publications/asian-development-outlook-2015-financing-asias-future-growth). Asian Development Bank (March 2015)[[File:Melbourne CBD.jpg|thumb|[Melbourne](Melbourne) has been placed alongside [York City](New)(New York City) and [Berlin](Berlin) as one of the world's great street art spots, ranked the world's [liveable city](most)(most liveable city) for several years running and designated a "City of Literature" by [UNESCO](UNESCO) in its Creative Cities Network."[Melbourne, Australia: City of Literature](http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=39255&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html) ", Creative Cities Network, [UNESCO](UNESCO), retrieved: 10 August 2011]]
## Politics
Australia is a [federal](federalism) [parliamentary](parliamentary system) [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy) with [III](Charles)(Charles III) at its apex as the [of Australia](King)(Monarchy of Australia), a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other [realm](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth realm)s. The King is represented in Australia by the [Governor-General](Governor-General of Australia) at the federal level and by the [Governors](Governors of the Australian states) at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the [Labor Party](Australian)(Australian Labor Party) and the [Coalition](Coalition (Australia)) which is a formal grouping of the [Party](Liberal)(Liberal Party of Australia) and its minor partner, the [Party](National)(National Party of Australia). Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered [centre-right](centre-right) and the Labor Party is considered [centre-left](centre-left).
Papua New Guinea is a [realm](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth realm). As such, King [III](Charles)(Charles III) is its sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet. The monarch is represented by the [of Papua New Guinea](Governor-General)(Governor-General of Papua New Guinea), currently [Dadae](Bob)(Bob Dadae). Papua New Guinea (along with [Islands](Solomon)(Solomon Islands)) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-general are elected by the legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch.[[File:Government House Canberra.JPG|thumb|[House, Canberra](Government)(Government House, Canberra) is the official residence of the [Governor-General](Governor-General of Australia).]]
## Culture
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been [Anglo-Celtic](Anglo-Celtic) [culture](Western)(Western culture), with some [Indigenous](Indigenous Australians) influences.[Jupp](#Jupp), pp. 796–802.[and White](Teo)(#Teo), pp. 118–20. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.[and White](Teo)(#Teo), pp. 125–27. Since the mid-20th century, [popular culture](American)(Culture of the United States) has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.[and White](Teo)(#Teo), pp. 121–23. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations.[Jupp](#Jupp), pp. 808–12, 74–77. The [Museum](Australian)(Australian Museum) in Sydney and the [Gallery of Victoria](National)(National Gallery of Victoria) in Melbourne are the oldest and [largest](List of largest art museums) [museum](museum)s in the continent, as well as in [Oceania](Oceania).Australian Museum, *A Short History of the Australian Museum*, http://australianmuseum.net.au/A-short-history-of-the-Australian-MuseumNational Gallery of Victoria – Victorian Heritage Register Sydney's [Year's Eve](New)(Sydney New Year's Eve) celebrations are the largest in the continent.[[File:Kurulu Village War Chief.jpg|thumb|Kurulu Village War Chief at [Valley](Baliem)(Baliem Valley) in [Guinea](New)(New Guinea)]]
It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in [art](art), [art](performance)(performance art), [weapon](weapon)ry, [costume](costume)s and [architecture](architecture). Papua New Guinea is one of the few cultures in Oceania to practice the tradition of [price](bride)(bride price). In particular, Papua New Guinea is world-famous for carved wooden [sculpture](sculpture): masks, canoes, story-boards.
Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and [painting](bark)(bark painting). Evidence of [art](Aboriginal)(Aboriginal art) in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years. Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the [UNESCO](UNESCO) listed sites at [Uluru](Uluru) and [National Park](Kakadu)(Kakadu National Park) in the Northern Territory, but also within [parks in urban areas](protected)(Sydney rock engravings) such as at [Chase National Park](Ku-ring-gai)(Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park) in Sydney. Aboriginal culture includes a number of practices and ceremonies centered on a belief in the [Dreamtime](Dreamtime). Reverence for the land and oral traditions are emphasised.[[File:Didgeridoo (Imagicity 1070).jpg|thumb|[Didgeridoo](Didgeridoo) player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with [Journey](East)(East Journey)]]
### Sport
Popular sports in Papua New Guinea include various codes of [football](football) ([league](rugby)(rugby league), [union](rugby)(rugby union), [soccer](soccer), and [rules football](Australian)(Australian rules football)), [cricket](cricket), [volleyball](volleyball), [softball](softball), [netball](netball), and [basketball](basketball). Other [sports](Olympic)(Olympic Games) are also gaining popularity, such as [boxing](boxing) and [weightlifting](Olympic weightlifting). [league](Rugby)(Rugby league) is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the *national sport*. The most popular sport in Australia is [cricket](cricket), the most popular sport among Australian women is [netball](netball), while [rules football](Australian)(Australian rules football) is the most popular sport in terms of spectatorship and television ratings.*Australia (Countries & Cultures)*, Tracey Boraas, Capstone Press (2002), Page 54 *Planet Sport*, Kath Woodward, 2012 p. 85 Australia (Cultures of the World), Vijeya Rajendra, Sundran Rajendra, 2002, p. 101 Australia has hosted two Summer Olympic Games: [1956](Melbourne)(1956 Summer Olympics) and [2000](Sydney)(2000 Summer Olympics). Australia has also hosted five editions of the [Games](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Games) ([1938](Sydney)(1938 British Empire Games), [1962](Perth)(1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games), [1982](Brisbane)(1982 Commonwealth Games), [2006](Melbourne)(2006 Commonwealth Games), and [Coast 2018](Gold)(2018 Commonwealth Games)). In 2006 [Australia](Socceroo) joined the [Football Confederation](Asian)(Asian Football Confederation) and qualified for the 2010 and [2014](2014 FIFA World Cup) World Cups as an Asian entrant.
[[Image:Png mosquitos 2008 international cup.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[New Guinea's national team](Papua)(Papua New Guinea national Australian rules football team) at the [International Cup](2008)(2008 International Cup) (Australian rules football) in Melbourne]]
## Notes
## See also
}}
* [Plate](Australian)(Australian Plate)
* [of islands in the Pacific Ocean](List)(List of islands in the Pacific Ocean)
* [of Australia](Outline)(Outline of Australia)
* [Paleoclimatology](Paleoclimatology)
## References
## Bibliography
*
* |isbn=978-0-520-20743-1 }}
* Ebach, Malte C. (ed) (2021) *Handbook of Australasian Biogeography* CRC Press. Ist Edition ISBN 9780367658168
## External links
*
[(continent)](Category:Australia)(Category:Australia (continent))
[Category:Continents](Category:Continents)
[Category:Oceania](Category:Oceania)
[Category:Asia-Pacific](Category:Asia-Pacific)
[Ocean](Category:Pacific)(Category:Pacific Ocean)
[Ocean](Category:Southern)(Category:Southern Ocean)
[Ocean](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian Ocean)
|
2022 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles
|
2022_wimbledon_championships_–_men's_singles
|
# 2022 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles
*Revision ID: 1146593300 | Timestamp: 2023-03-25T21:04:53Z*
---
[Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic)
| runner = [Kyrgios](Nick)(Nick Kyrgios)
| score = 4–6, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6(7–3)
| draw = 128
| seeds = 32
| event = Gentlemen's singles
| before_name = Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles
| after_name = Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles
}}
Three-time defending champion [Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic) defeated [Kyrgios](Nick)(Nick Kyrgios) in the final, 4–6, 6–3, 6–4, 7–6(7–3) to win the gentlemen's singles tennis title at the 2022 Wimbledon Championships. It was his seventh [Wimbledon](Wimbledon Championships) title and 21st [major](Grand Slam (tennis)#Tournaments) singles title overall. Djokovic became the fifth man in the [Era](Open)(Open Era) to record a streak of at least [consecutive titles](four)(All-time tennis records – Men's singles#Consecutive titles per Grand Slam tournament) at one major. By reaching his 32nd men's singles major final, he surpassed the [record](all-time)(List of Grand Slam–related tennis records#Singles career totals (all time)) he had jointly held with [Federer](Roger)(Roger Federer). Djokovic also became the first player (male or female) to win [matches](80)(All-time tennis records – Men's singles#Match wins per Grand Slam tournament) at all four majors with his first-round win over [Soon-woo](Kwon)(Kwon Soon-woo). Because no ranking points were awarded for the tournament in response to its [of Russian and Belarusian players](banning)(Wimbledon ban on Russian and Belarusian players), Djokovic dropped out of the top five in [rankings](ATP)(ATP rankings) after the tournament.
Kyrgios became the first unseeded man to reach a major final since [Tsonga](Jo-Wilfried)(Jo-Wilfried Tsonga) at the [Australian Open](2008)(2008 Australian Open – Men's singles), the first Australian man to reach a major final since [Hewitt](Lleyton)(Lleyton Hewitt) at the [Australian Open](2005)(2005 Australian Open – Men's singles), and the first unseeded or Australian man to reach the Wimbledon final since [Philippoussis](Mark)(Mark Philippoussis) in [2003](2003 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles).
[Nadal](Rafael)(Rafael Nadal) was attempting to complete the first three components of a [Slam](Grand)(List of Grand Slam men's singles champions#Grand Slam achievements), but withdrew before his scheduled semi-final match against Kyrgios due to a torn abdominal muscle. It was the first time a man had withdrawn from Wimbledon before a semi-final or final since [Shields](Frank)(Frank Shields) in [1931](1931 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles). [Norrie](Cameron)(Cameron Norrie) became the fourth British man in the Open Era (after [Taylor](Roger)(Roger Taylor (tennis)), [Henman](Tim)(Tim Henman), and [Murray](Andy)(Andy Murray)) to reach the semi-finals. It was the first time two left-handed men (Norrie and Nadal) had reached the semi-finals since [McEnroe](John)(John McEnroe) and [Ivanišević](Goran)(Goran Ivanišević) in [1992](1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles), and to the semi-finals of any major since Nadal and [Melzer](Jürgen)(Jürgen Melzer) at the [French Open](2010)(2010 French Open – Men's singles).
This was the first edition of Wimbledon to feature a champions [tie-break](Tennis scoring system#Scoring a tiebreak game) (10-point tie-break), when the score reaches six games all in the fifth set, and the third edition to feature a final set tie-break. [Davidovich Fokina](Alejandro)(Alejandro Davidovich Fokina) defeated [Hurkacz](Hubert)(Hubert Hurkacz) in the first round in the first main-draw 10-point tie-break at Wimbledon. It was also the first Wimbledon since the introduction of the ATP rankings in 1973, and the first major since the [Australian Open](1999)(1999 Australian Open – Men's singles), where both the reigning world No. 1 and No. 2 ([Medvedev](Daniil)(Daniil Medvedev) and [Zverev](Alexander)(Alexander Zverev), respectively) did not compete. Medvedev was prohibited from playing due to his Russian nationality, while Zverev had an ankle injury. This marked the first edition of Wimbledon since [1998](1998 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles) not to feature record eight-time champion Roger Federer, resulting he dropped out of the ATP rankings for the first time since 1998. [López](Feliciano)(Feliciano López) made his 81st main-draw major appearance, tying Federer's [record](all-time)(List of Grand Slam–related tennis records#Participation). [Isner](John)(John Isner) broke [Karlović](Ivo)(Ivo Karlović)'s world [of 13,728 career aces](record)(ATP Tour records#Aces) on the ATP Tour in his third-round match against [Sinner](Jannik)(Jannik Sinner).
## Seeds
All [seeds](Glossary of tennis terms#S) per ATP rankings.
**[Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic) (champion)**
[Nadal](Rafael)(Rafael Nadal) *(semi-finals, withdrew due to an abdominal tear)*
[Ruud](Casper)(Casper Ruud) *(second round)*
[Tsitsipas](Stefanos)(Stefanos Tsitsipas) *(third round)*
[Alcaraz](Carlos)(Carlos Alcaraz) *(fourth round)*
[Auger-Aliassime](Félix)(Félix Auger-Aliassime) *(first round)*
[Hurkacz](Hubert)(Hubert Hurkacz) *(first round)*
[Berrettini](Matteo)(Matteo Berrettini) *(withdrew due to positive [COVID-19](COVID-19) test)*
[Norrie](Cameron)(Cameron Norrie) *(semi-finals)*
[Sinner](Jannik)(Jannik Sinner) *(quarter-finals)*
[Fritz](Taylor)(Taylor Fritz) *(quarter-finals)*
[Schwartzman](Diego)(Diego Schwartzman) *(second round)*
[Shapovalov](Denis)(Denis Shapovalov) *(second round)*
[Čilić](Marin)(Marin Čilić) *(withdrew due to positive COVID-19 test)*
[Opelka](Reilly)(Reilly Opelka) *(second round)*
[Carreño Busta](Pablo)(Pablo Carreño Busta) *(first round, retired)*
[Bautista Agut](Roberto)(Roberto Bautista Agut) *(second round, withdrew due to positive COVID-19 test)*
[Dimitrov](Grigor)(Grigor Dimitrov) *(first round, retired)*
[de Minaur](Alex)(Alex de Minaur) *(fourth round)*
[Isner](John)(John Isner) *(third round)*
[van de Zandschulp](Botic)(Botic van de Zandschulp) *(fourth round)*
[Basilashvili](Nikoloz)(Nikoloz Basilashvili) *(third round)*
[Tiafoe](Frances)(Frances Tiafoe) *(fourth round)*
[Rune](Holger)(Holger Rune) *(first round)*
[Kecmanović](Miomir)(Miomir Kecmanović) *(third round)*
[Krajinović](Filip)(Filip Krajinović) *(second round)*
[Sonego](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo Sonego) *(third round)*
[Evans](Dan)(Dan Evans (tennis)) *(first round)*
[Brooksby](Jenson)(Jenson Brooksby) *(third round)*
[Paul](Tommy)(Tommy Paul (tennis)) *(fourth round)*
[Báez](Sebastián)(Sebastián Báez) *(second round)*
[Otte](Oscar)(Oscar Otte) *(third round)*
}}
## Draw
### Finals
[Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD1-score1-1=5
| RD1-score1-2=2
| RD1-score1-3=**6**
| RD1-score1-4=**6**
| RD1-score1-5=**6**
| RD1-seed2=10
| RD1-team2= [Sinner](Jannik)(Jannik Sinner)
| RD1-score2-1=**7**
| RD1-score2-2=**6**
| RD1-score2-3=3
| RD1-score2-4=2
| RD1-score2-5=2
| RD1-seed3=
| RD1-team3= [Goffin](David)(David Goffin)
| RD1-score3-1=**6**
| RD1-score3-2=5
| RD1-score3-3=**6**
| RD1-score3-4=3
| RD1-score3-5=5
| RD1-seed4=9
| RD1-team4=** [Norrie](Cameron)(Cameron Norrie)**
| RD1-score4-1=3
| RD1-score4-2=**7**
| RD1-score4-3=2
| RD1-score4-4=**6**
| RD1-score4-5=**7**
| RD1-seed5=
| RD1-team5= [Garín](Cristian)(Cristian Garín)
| RD1-score5-1=4
| RD1-score5-2=3
| RD1-score5-3=65
| RD1-score5-4=
| RD1-score5-5=
| RD1-seed6=
| RD1-team6=** [Kyrgios](Nick)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD1-score6-1=**6**
| RD1-score6-2=**6**
| RD1-score6-3=**77**
| RD1-score6-4=
| RD1-score6-5=
| RD1-seed7=11
| RD1-team7= [Fritz](Taylor)(Taylor Fritz)
| RD1-score7-1=**6**
| RD1-score7-2=5
| RD1-score7-3=**6**
| RD1-score7-4=5
| RD1-score7-5=64
| RD1-seed8=2
| RD1-team8=** [Nadal](Rafael)(Rafael Nadal)**
| RD1-score8-1=3
| RD1-score8-2=**7**
| RD1-score8-3=3
| RD1-score8-4=**7**
| RD1-score8-5=**710**
| RD2-seed1=1
| RD2-team1=** [Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD2-score1-1=2
| RD2-score1-2=**6**
| RD2-score1-3=**6**
| RD2-score1-4=**6**
| RD2-score1-5=
| RD2-seed2=9
| RD2-team2= [Norrie](Cameron)(Cameron Norrie)
| RD2-score2-1=**6**
| RD2-score2-2=3
| RD2-score2-3=2
| RD2-score2-4=4
| RD2-score2-5=
| RD2-seed3=
| RD2-team3=** [Kyrgios](Nick)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD2-score3-1=w/o
| RD2-score3-2=
| RD2-score3-3=
| RD2-score3-4=
| RD2-score3-5=
| RD2-seed4=2
| RD2-team4= [Nadal](Rafael)(Rafael Nadal)
| RD2-score4-1=
| RD2-score4-2=
| RD2-score4-3=
| RD2-score4-4=
| RD2-score4-5=
| RD3-seed1=1
| RD3-team1=** [Djokovic](Novak)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD3-score1-1=4
| RD3-score1-2=**6**
| RD3-score1-3=**6**
| RD3-score1-4=**77**
| RD3-score1-5=
| RD3-seed2=
| RD3-team2= [Kyrgios](Nick)(Nick Kyrgios)
| RD3-score2-1=**6**
| RD3-score2-2=3
| RD3-score2-3=4
| RD3-score2-4=63
| RD3-score2-5=
}}
### Top half
#### Section 1
[Djokovic](N)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD1-score01-1=**6**
| RD1-score01-2=3
| RD1-score01-3=**6**
| RD1-score01-4=**6**
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02= [Kwon](S-w)(Kwon Soon-woo)
| RD1-score02-1=3
| RD1-score02-2=**6**
| RD1-score02-3=3
| RD1-score02-4=4
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03=** [Kokkinakis](T)(Thanasi Kokkinakis)**
| RD1-score03-1=**77**
| RD1-score03-2=**6**
| RD1-score03-3=**7**
| RD1-score03-4=
| RD1-score03-5=
| RD1-seed04=
| RD1-team04= [Majchrzak](K)(Kamil Majchrzak)
| RD1-score04-1=65
| RD1-score04-2=2
| RD1-score04-3=5
| RD1-score04-4=
| RD1-score04-5=
| RD1-seed05=
| RD1-team05=** [Tabilo](A)(Alejandro Tabilo)**
| RD1-score05-1=**78**
| RD1-score05-2=**6**
| RD1-score05-3=1
| RD1-score05-4=4
| RD1-score05-5=**713**
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Đere](L)(Laslo Đere)
| RD1-score06-1=66
| RD1-score06-2=2
| RD1-score06-3=**6**
| RD1-score06-4=**6**
| RD1-score06-5=611
| RD1-seed07=
| RD1-team07= [Millman](J)(John Millman)
| RD1-score07-1=3
| RD1-score07-2=**6**
| RD1-score07-3=3
| RD1-score07-4=4
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=25
| RD1-team08=** [Kecmanović](M)(Miomir Kecmanović)**
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=2
| RD1-score08-3=**6**
| RD1-score08-4=**6**
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=22
| RD1-team09=** [Basilashvili](N)(Nikoloz Basilashvili)**
| RD1-score09-1=64
| RD1-score09-2=**78**
| RD1-score09-3=3
| RD1-score09-4=**6**
| RD1-score09-5=**6**
| RD1-seed10=Q
| RD1-team10= [Rosol](L)(Lukáš Rosol)
| RD1-score10-1=**77**
| RD1-score10-2=66
| RD1-score10-3=**6**
| RD1-score10-4=3
| RD1-score10-5=3
| RD1-seed11=
| RD1-team11= [Paire](B)(Benoît Paire)
| RD1-score11-1=**6**
| RD1-score11-2=1
| RD1-score11-3=2
| RD1-score11-4=4
| RD1-score11-5=
| RD1-seed12=
| RD1-team12=** [Halys](Q)(Quentin Halys)**
| RD1-score12-1=4
| RD1-score12-2=**6**
| RD1-score12-3=**6**
| RD1-score12-4=**6**
| RD1-score12-5=
| RD1-seed13=WC
| RD1-team13=** [van Rijthoven](T)(Tim van Rijthoven)**
| RD1-score13-1=**79**
| RD1-score13-2=**6**
| RD1-score13-3=**6**
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14= [Delbonis](F)(Federico Delbonis)
| RD1-score14-1=67
| RD1-score14-2=1
| RD1-score14-3=2
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15= [Taberner](C)(Carlos Taberner)
| RD1-score15-1=65
| RD1-score15-2=4
| RD1-score15-3=4
| RD1-score15-4=
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=15
| RD1-team16=** [Opelka](R)(Reilly Opelka)**
| RD1-score16-1=**77**
| RD1-score16-2=**6**
| RD1-score16-3=**6**
| RD1-score16-4=
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=1
| RD2-team01=** [Djokovic](N)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD2-score01-1=**6**
| RD2-score01-2=**6**
| RD2-score01-3=**6**
| RD2-score01-4=
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02= [Kokkinakis](T)(Thanasi Kokkinakis)
| RD2-score02-1=1
| RD2-score02-2=4
| RD2-score02-3=2
| RD2-score02-4=
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03= [Tabilo](A)(Alejandro Tabilo)
| RD2-score03-1=64
| RD2-score03-2=63
| RD2-score03-3=**6**
| RD2-score03-4=3
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=25
| RD2-team04=** [Kecmanović](M)(Miomir Kecmanović)**
| RD2-score04-1=**77**
| RD2-score04-2=**77**
| RD2-score04-3=3
| RD2-score04-4=**6**
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=22
| RD2-team05=** [Basilashvili](N)(Nikoloz Basilashvili)**
| RD2-score05-1=**79**
| RD2-score05-2=0
| RD2-score05-3=**7**
| RD2-score05-4=**77**
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06= [Halys](Q)(Quentin Halys)
| RD2-score06-1=67
| RD2-score06-2=**6**
| RD2-score06-3=5
| RD2-score06-4=65
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=WC
| RD2-team07=** [van Rijthoven](T)(Tim van Rijthoven)**
| RD2-score07-1=**6**
| RD2-score07-2=68
| RD2-score07-3=**79**
| RD2-score07-4=**77**
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=15
| RD2-team08= [Opelka](R)(Reilly Opelka)
| RD2-score08-1=4
| RD2-score08-2=**710**
| RD2-score08-3=67
| RD2-score08-4=64
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=1
| RD3-team01=** [Djokovic](N)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=**6**
| RD3-score01-4=
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=25
| RD3-team02= [Kecmanović](M)(Miomir Kecmanović)
| RD3-score02-1=0
| RD3-score02-2=3
| RD3-score02-3=4
| RD3-score02-4=
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=22
| RD3-team03= [Basilashvili](N)(Nikoloz Basilashvili)
| RD3-score03-1=4
| RD3-score03-2=3
| RD3-score03-3=4
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=WC
| RD3-team04=** [van Rijthoven](T)(Tim van Rijthoven)**
| RD3-score04-1=**6**
| RD3-score04-2=**6**
| RD3-score04-3=**6**
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=1
| RD4-team01=** [Djokovic](N)(Novak Djokovic)**
| RD4-score01-1=**6**
| RD4-score01-2=4
| RD4-score01-3=**6**
| RD4-score01-4=**6**
| RD4-score01-5=
| RD4-seed02=WC
| RD4-team02= [van Rijthoven](T)(Tim van Rijthoven)
| RD4-score02-1=2
| RD4-score02-2=**6**
| RD4-score02-3=1
| RD4-score02-4=2
| RD4-score02-5=
}}
#### Section 2
[Sinner](J)(Jannik Sinner)**
| RD1-score01-1=**7**
| RD1-score01-2=4
| RD1-score01-3=**6**
| RD1-score01-4=**6**
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=WC
| RD1-team02= [Wawrinka](S)(Stan Wawrinka)
| RD1-score02-1=5
| RD1-score02-2=**6**
| RD1-score02-3=3
| RD1-score02-4=2
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03= [Altmaier](D)(Daniel Altmaier)
| RD1-score03-1=3
| RD1-score03-2=5
| RD1-score03-3=5
| RD1-score03-4=
| RD1-score03-5=
| RD1-seed04=
| RD1-team04=** [Ymer](M)(Mikael Ymer)**
| RD1-score04-1=**6**
| RD1-score04-2=**7**
| RD1-score04-3=**7**
| RD1-score04-4=
| RD1-score04-5=
| RD1-seed05=
| RD1-team05=** [Murray](A)(Andy Murray)**
| RD1-score05-1=4
| RD1-score05-2=**6**
| RD1-score05-3=**6**
| RD1-score05-4=**6**
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Duckworth](J)(James Duckworth (tennis))
| RD1-score06-1=**6**
| RD1-score06-2=3
| RD1-score06-3=2
| RD1-score06-4=4
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=Q
| RD1-team07= [Couacaud](E)(Enzo Couacaud)
| RD1-score07-1=**78**
| RD1-score07-2=63
| RD1-score07-3=**6**
| RD1-score07-4=3
| RD1-score07-5=5
| RD1-seed08=20
| RD1-team08=** [Isner](J)(John Isner)**
| RD1-score08-1=66
| RD1-score08-2=**77**
| RD1-score08-3=4
| RD1-score08-4=**6**
| RD1-score08-5=**7**
| RD1-seed09=32
| RD1-team09=** [Otte](O)(Oscar Otte)**
| RD1-score09-1=**6**
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=**6**
| RD1-score09-4=
| RD1-score09-5=
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10= [Gojowczyk](P)(Peter Gojowczyk)
| RD1-score10-1=1
| RD1-score10-2=2
| RD1-score10-3=1
| RD1-score10-4=
| RD1-score10-5=
| RD1-seed11=WC
| RD1-team11= [Clarke](J)(Jay Clarke (tennis))
| RD1-score11-1=63
| RD1-score11-2=1
| RD1-score11-3=66
| RD1-score11-4=
| RD1-score11-5=
| RD1-seed12=Q
| RD1-team12=** [Harrison](C)(Christian Harrison)**
| RD1-score12-1=**77**
| RD1-score12-2=**6**
| RD1-score12-3=**78**
| RD1-score12-4=
| RD1-score12-5=
| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13=** [Griekspoor](T)(Tallon Griekspoor)**
| RD1-score13-1=5
| RD1-score13-2=**7**
| RD1-score13-3=**6**
| RD1-score13-4=**6**
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14= [Fognini](F)(Fabio Fognini)
| RD1-score14-1=**7**
| RD1-score14-2=5
| RD1-score14-3=3
| RD1-score14-4=4
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15= [Struff](J-L)(Jan-Lennard Struff)
| RD1-score15-1=**6**
| RD1-score15-2=5
| RD1-score15-3=**6**
| RD1-score15-4=63
| RD1-score15-5=4
| RD1-seed16=5
| RD1-team16=** [Alcaraz](C)(Carlos Alcaraz)**
| RD1-score16-1=4
| RD1-score16-2=**7**
| RD1-score16-3=4
| RD1-score16-4=**77**
| RD1-score16-5=**6**
| RD2-seed01=10
| RD2-team01=** [Sinner](J)(Jannik Sinner)**
| RD2-score01-1=**6**
| RD2-score01-2=**6**
| RD2-score01-3=5
| RD2-score01-4=**6**
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02= [Ymer](M)(Mikael Ymer)
| RD2-score02-1=4
| RD2-score02-2=3
| RD2-score02-3=**7**
| RD2-score02-4=2
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03= [Murray](A)(Andy Murray)
| RD2-score03-1=4
| RD2-score03-2=64
| RD2-score03-3=**77**
| RD2-score03-4=4
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=20
| RD2-team04=** [Isner](J)(John Isner)**
| RD2-score04-1=**6**
| RD2-score04-2=**77**
| RD2-score04-3=63
| RD2-score04-4=**6**
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=32
| RD2-team05=** [Otte](O)(Oscar Otte)**
| RD2-score05-1=3
| RD2-score05-2=
| RD2-score05-3=
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=Q
| RD2-team06= [Harrison](C)(Christian Harrison)
| RD2-score06-1=1r
| RD2-score06-2=
| RD2-score06-3=
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07= [Griekspoor](T)(Tallon Griekspoor)
| RD2-score07-1=4
| RD2-score07-2=60
| RD2-score07-3=3
| RD2-score07-4=
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=5
| RD2-team08=** [Alcaraz](C)(Carlos Alcaraz)**
| RD2-score08-1=**6**
| RD2-score08-2=**77**
| RD2-score08-3=**6**
| RD2-score08-4=
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=10
| RD3-team01=** [Sinner](J)(Jannik Sinner)**
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=**77**
| RD3-score01-3=**6**
| RD3-score01-4=
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=20
| RD3-team02= [Isner](J)(John Isner)
| RD3-score02-1=4
| RD3-score02-2=64
| RD3-score02-3=3
| RD3-score02-4=
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=32
| RD3-team03= [Otte](O)(Oscar Otte)
| RD3-score03-1=3
| RD3-score03-2=1
| RD3-score03-3=2
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=5
| RD3-team04=** [Alcaraz](C)(Carlos Alcaraz)**
| RD3-score04-1=**6**
| RD3-score04-2=**6**
| RD3-score04-3=**6**
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=10
| RD4-team01=** [Sinner](J)(Jannik Sinner)**
| RD4-score01-1=**6**
| RD4-score01-2=**6**
| RD4-score01-3=68
| RD4-score01-4=**6**
| RD4-score01-5=
| RD4-seed02=5
| RD4-team02= [Alcaraz](C)(Carlos Alcaraz)
| RD4-score02-1=1
| RD4-score02-2=4
| RD4-score02-3=**710**
| RD4-score02-4=3
| RD4-score02-5=
}}
#### Section 3
[Ruud](C)(Casper Ruud)**
| RD1-score01-1=**77**
| RD1-score01-2=**711**
| RD1-score01-3=**6**
| RD1-score01-4=
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02= [Ramos Viñolas](A)(Albert Ramos Viñolas)
| RD1-score02-1=61
| RD1-score02-2=69
| RD1-score02-3=2
| RD1-score02-4=
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03= [Etcheverry](TM)(Tomás Martín Etcheverry)
| RD1-score03-1=3
| RD1-score03-2=**6**
| RD1-score03-3=**6**
| RD1-score03-4=3
| RD1-score03-5=4
| RD1-seed04=
| RD1-team04=** [Humbert](U)(Ugo Humbert)**
| RD1-score04-1=**6**
| RD1-score04-2=3
| RD1-score04-3=4
| RD1-score04-4=**6**
| RD1-score04-5=**6**
| RD1-seed05=
| RD1-team05=** [Goffin](D)(David Goffin)**
| RD1-score05-1=**6**
| RD1-score05-2=**6**
| RD1-score05-3=**77**
| RD1-score05-4=
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=Q
| RD1-team06= [Albot](R)(Radu Albot)
| RD1-score06-1=2
| RD1-score06-2=2
| RD1-score06-3=65
| RD1-score06-4=
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=
| RD1-team07= [Daniel](T)(Taro Daniel)
| RD1-score07-1=4
| RD1-score07-2=4
| RD1-score07-3=5
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=31
| RD1-team08=** [Báez](S)(Sebastián Báez)**
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=**6**
| RD1-score08-3=**7**
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=23
| RD1-team09=** [Tiafoe](F)(Frances Tiafoe)**
| RD1-score09-1=**6**
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=**6**
| RD1-score09-4=
| RD1-score09-5=
| RD1-seed10=Q
| RD1-team10= [Vavassori](A)(Andrea Vavassori)
| RD1-score10-1=4
| RD1-score10-2=4
| RD1-score10-3=4
| RD1-score10-4=
| RD1-score10-5=
| RD1-seed11=Q
| RD1-team11=** [Marterer](M)(Maximilian Marterer)**
| RD1-score11-1=4
| RD1-score11-2=**7**
| RD1-score11-3=**6**
| RD1-score11-4=**7**
| RD1-score11-5=
| RD1-seed12=PR
| RD1-team12= [Bedene](A)(Aljaž Bedene)
| RD1-score12-1=**6**
| RD1-score12-2=5
| RD1-score12-3=4
| RD1-score12-4=5
| RD1-score12-5=
| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13=** [Bublik](A)(Alexander Bublik)**
| RD1-score13-1=**6**
| RD1-score13-2=**6**
| RD1-score13-3=**6**
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14= [Fucsovics](M)(Márton Fucsovics)
| RD1-score14-1=1
| RD1-score14-2=2
| RD1-score14-3=4
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15=** [Lajović](D)(Dušan Lajović)**
| RD1-score15-1=3
| RD1-score15-2=**6**
| RD1-score15-3=0
| RD1-score15-4=
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=16
| RD1-team16= [Carreño Busta](P)(Pablo Carreño Busta)
| RD1-score16-1=**6**
| RD1-score16-2=4
| RD1-score16-3=0r
| RD1-score16-4=
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=3
| RD2-team01= [Ruud](C)(Casper Ruud)
| RD2-score01-1=**6**
| RD2-score01-2=2
| RD2-score01-3=5
| RD2-score01-4=4
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02=** [Humbert](U)(Ugo Humbert)**
| RD2-score02-1=3
| RD2-score02-2=**6**
| RD2-score02-3=**7**
| RD2-score02-4=**6**
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03=** [Goffin](D)(David Goffin)**
| RD2-score03-1=**6**
| RD2-score03-2=**6**
| RD2-score03-3=**6**
| RD2-score03-4=
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=31
| RD2-team04= [Báez](S)(Sebastián Báez)
| RD2-score04-1=1
| RD2-score04-2=2
| RD2-score04-3=4
| RD2-score04-4=
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=23
| RD2-team05=** [Tiafoe](F)(Frances Tiafoe)**
| RD2-score05-1=**6**
| RD2-score05-2=**6**
| RD2-score05-3=**77**
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=Q
| RD2-team06= [Marterer](M)(Maximilian Marterer)
| RD2-score06-1=2
| RD2-score06-2=2
| RD2-score06-3=63
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07=** [Bublik](A)(Alexander Bublik)**
| RD2-score07-1=**79**
| RD2-score07-2=**6**
| RD2-score07-3=**7**
| RD2-score07-4=
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=
| RD2-team08= [Lajović](D)(Dušan Lajović)
| RD2-score08-1=67
| RD2-score08-2=2
| RD2-score08-3=5
| RD2-score08-4=
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=
| RD3-team01= [Humbert](U)(Ugo Humbert)
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=5
| RD3-score01-3=2
| RD3-score01-4=5
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=
| RD3-team02=** [Goffin](D)(David Goffin)**
| RD3-score02-1=4
| RD3-score02-2=**7**
| RD3-score02-3=**6**
| RD3-score02-4=**7**
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=23
| RD3-team03=** [Tiafoe](F)(Frances Tiafoe)**
| RD3-score03-1=3
| RD3-score03-2=**77**
| RD3-score03-3=**77**
| RD3-score03-4=**6**
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=
| RD3-team04= [Bublik](A)(Alexander Bublik)
| RD3-score04-1=**6**
| RD3-score04-2=61
| RD3-score04-3=63
| RD3-score04-4=4
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=
| RD4-team01=** [Goffin](D)(David Goffin)**
| RD4-score01-1=**77**
| RD4-score01-2=5
| RD4-score01-3=5
| RD4-score01-4=**6**
| RD4-score01-5=**7**
| RD4-seed02=23
| RD4-team02= [Tiafoe](F)(Frances Tiafoe)
| RD4-score02-1=63
| RD4-score02-2=**7**
| RD4-score02-3=**7**
| RD4-score02-4=4
| RD4-score02-5=5
}}
#### Section 4
[Norrie](C)(Cameron Norrie)**
| RD1-score01-1=**6**
| RD1-score01-2=**77**
| RD1-score01-3=**6**
| RD1-score01-4=
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02= [Andújar](P)(Pablo Andújar)
| RD1-score02-1=0
| RD1-score02-2=63
| RD1-score02-3=3
| RD1-score02-4=
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03= [Monteiro](T)(Thiago Monteiro (tennis))
| RD1-score03-1=2
| RD1-score03-2=4
| RD1-score03-3=5
| RD1-score03-4=
| RD1-score03-5=
| RD1-seed04=
| RD1-team04=** [Munar](J)(Jaume Munar)**
| RD1-score04-1=**6**
| RD1-score04-2=**6**
| RD1-score04-3=**7**
| RD1-score04-4=
| RD1-score04-5=
| RD1-seed05=WC
| RD1-team05=** [Peniston](R)(Ryan Peniston)**
| RD1-score05-1=**6**
| RD1-score05-2=**6**
| RD1-score05-3=**6**
| RD1-score05-4=
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Laaksonen](H)(Henri Laaksonen)
| RD1-score06-1=4
| RD1-score06-2=3
| RD1-score06-3=2
| RD1-score06-4=
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=
| RD1-team07=** [Johnson](S)(Steve Johnson (tennis))**
| RD1-score07-1=4
| RD1-score07-2=5
| RD1-score07-3=
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=18
| RD1-team08= [Dimitrov](G)(Grigor Dimitrov)
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=2r
| RD1-score08-3=
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=30
| RD1-team09=** [Paul](T)(Tommy Paul (tennis))**
| RD1-score09-1=**6**
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=**77**
| RD1-score09-4=
| RD1-score09-5=
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10= [Verdasco](F)(Fernando Verdasco)
| RD1-score10-1=1
| RD1-score10-2=2
| RD1-score10-3=64
| RD1-score10-4=
| RD1-score10-5=
| RD1-seed11=
| RD1-team11=** [Mannarino](A)(Adrian Mannarino)**
| RD1-score11-1=**6**
| RD1-score11-2=**77**
| RD1-score11-3=4
| RD1-score11-4=4
| RD1-score11-5=**6**
| RD1-seed12=Q
| RD1-team12= [Purcell](M)(Max Purcell)
| RD1-score12-1=3
| RD1-score12-2=60
| RD1-score12-3=**6**
| RD1-score12-4=**6**
| RD1-score12-5=4
| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13= [Coria](F)(Federico Coria)
| RD1-score13-1=3
| RD1-score13-2=2
| RD1-score13-3=63
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14=** [Veselý](J)(Jiří Veselý)**
| RD1-score14-1=**6**
| RD1-score14-2=**6**
| RD1-score14-3=**77**
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15=** [Davidovich Fokina](A)(Alejandro Davidovich Fokina)**
| RD1-score15-1=**77**
| RD1-score15-2=**6**
| RD1-score15-3=5
| RD1-score15-4=2
| RD1-score15-5=**710**
| RD1-seed16=7
| RD1-team16= [Hurkacz](H)(Hubert Hurkacz)
| RD1-score16-1=64
| RD1-score16-2=4
| RD1-score16-3=**7**
| RD1-score16-4=**6**
| RD1-score16-5=68
| RD2-seed01=9
| RD2-team01=** [Norrie](C)(Cameron Norrie)**
| RD2-score01-1=**6**
| RD2-score01-2=3
| RD2-score01-3=5
| RD2-score01-4=**6**
| RD2-score01-5=**6**
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02= [Munar](J)(Jaume Munar)
| RD2-score02-1=4
| RD2-score02-2=**6**
| RD2-score02-3=**7**
| RD2-score02-4=0
| RD2-score02-5=2
| RD2-seed03=WC
| RD2-team03= [Peniston](R)(Ryan Peniston)
| RD2-score03-1=3
| RD2-score03-2=2
| RD2-score03-3=4
| RD2-score03-4=
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=
| RD2-team04=** [Johnson](S)(Steve Johnson (tennis))**
| RD2-score04-1=**6**
| RD2-score04-2=**6**
| RD2-score04-3=**6**
| RD2-score04-4=
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=30
| RD2-team05=** [Paul](T)(Tommy Paul (tennis))**
| RD2-score05-1=**6**
| RD2-score05-2=**6**
| RD2-score05-3=**6**
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06= [Mannarino](A)(Adrian Mannarino)
| RD2-score06-1=2
| RD2-score06-2=4
| RD2-score06-3=1
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07=** [Veselý](J)(Jiří Veselý)**
| RD2-score07-1=**6**
| RD2-score07-2=5
| RD2-score07-3=62
| RD2-score07-4=**6**
| RD2-score07-5=**710**
| RD2-seed08=
| RD2-team08= [Davidovich Fokina](A)(Alejandro Davidovich Fokina)
| RD2-score08-1=3
| RD2-score08-2=**7**
| RD2-score08-3=**77**
| RD2-score08-4=3
| RD2-score08-5=67
| RD3-seed01=9
| RD3-team01=** [Norrie](C)(Cameron Norrie)**
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=**6**
| RD3-score01-4=
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=
| RD3-team02= [Johnson](S)(Steve Johnson (tennis))
| RD3-score02-1=4
| RD3-score02-2=1
| RD3-score02-3=0
| RD3-score02-4=
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=30
| RD3-team03=** [Paul](T)(Tommy Paul (tennis))**
| RD3-score03-1=**6**
| RD3-score03-2=**6**
| RD3-score03-3=**6**
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=
| RD3-team04= [Veselý](J)(Jiří Veselý)
| RD3-score04-1=3
| RD3-score04-2=2
| RD3-score04-3=2
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=9
| RD4-team01=** [Norrie](C)(Cameron Norrie)**
| RD4-score01-1=**6**
| RD4-score01-2=**7**
| RD4-score01-3=**6**
| RD4-score01-4=
| RD4-score01-5=
| RD4-seed02=30
| RD4-team02= [Paul](T)(Tommy Paul (tennis))
| RD4-score02-1=4
| RD4-score02-2=5
| RD4-score02-3=4
| RD4-score02-4=
| RD4-score02-5=
}}
### Bottom half
#### Section 5
[Ymer](E)(Elias Ymer)
| RD1-score01-1=3
| RD1-score01-2=5
| RD1-score01-3=4
| RD1-score01-4=
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02=** [Garín](C)(Cristian Garín)**
| RD1-score02-1=**6**
| RD1-score02-2=**7**
| RD1-score02-3=**6**
| RD1-score02-4=
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=Q
| RD1-team03= [Hüsler](M-A)(Marc-Andrea Hüsler)
| RD1-score03-1=3
| RD1-score03-2=60
| RD1-score03-3=**77**
| RD1-score03-4=**6**
| RD1-score03-5=4
| RD1-seed04=LL
| RD1-team04=** [Grenier](H)(Hugo Grenier)**
| RD1-score04-1=**6**
| RD1-score04-2=**77**
| RD1-score04-3=65
| RD1-score04-4=2
| RD1-score04-5=**6**
| RD1-seed05=LL
| RD1-team05= [Kolář](Z)(Zdeněk Kolář)
| RD1-score05-1=3
| RD1-score05-2=3
| RD1-score05-3=1
| RD1-score05-4=
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06=** [Bonzi](B)(Benjamin Bonzi)**
| RD1-score06-1=**6**
| RD1-score06-2=**6**
| RD1-score06-3=**6**
| RD1-score06-4=
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=Q
| RD1-team07= [Kukushkin](M)(Mikhail Kukushkin)
| RD1-score07-1=3
| RD1-score07-2=2
| RD1-score07-3=3
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=29
| RD1-team08=** [Brooksby](J)(Jenson Brooksby)**
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=**6**
| RD1-score08-3=**6**
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=19
| RD1-team09=** [de Minaur](A)(Alex de Minaur)**
| RD1-score09-1=**6**
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=**7**
| RD1-score09-4=
| RD1-score09-5=
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10= [Dellien](H)(Hugo Dellien)
| RD1-score10-1=1
| RD1-score10-2=3
| RD1-score10-3=5
| RD1-score10-4=
| RD1-score10-5=
| RD1-seed11=WC
| RD1-team11= [Bergs](Z)(Zizou Bergs)
| RD1-score11-1=4
| RD1-score11-2=4
| RD1-score11-3=64
| RD1-score11-4=
| RD1-score11-5=
| RD1-seed12=
| RD1-team12=** [Draper](J)(Jack Draper (tennis))**
| RD1-score12-1=**6**
| RD1-score12-2=**6**
| RD1-score12-3=**77**
| RD1-score12-4=
| RD1-score12-5=
| RD1-seed13=WC
| RD1-team13=** [Broady](L)(Liam Broady)**
| RD1-score13-1=4
| RD1-score13-2=**6**
| RD1-score13-3=**7**
| RD1-score13-4=62
| RD1-score13-5=**6**
| RD1-seed14=Q
| RD1-team14= [Klein](L)(Lukáš Klein)
| RD1-score14-1=**6**
| RD1-score14-2=3
| RD1-score14-3=5
| RD1-score14-4=**77**
| RD1-score14-5=3
| RD1-seed15=LL
| RD1-team15= [Kozlov](S)(Stefan Kozlov)
| RD1-score15-1=3
| RD1-score15-2=2
| RD1-score15-3=2
| RD1-score15-4=
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=12
| RD1-team16=** [Schwartzman](D)(Diego Schwartzman)**
| RD1-score16-1=**6**
| RD1-score16-2=**6**
| RD1-score16-3=**6**
| RD1-score16-4=
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=
| RD2-team01=** [Garín](C)(Cristian Garín)**
| RD2-score01-1=**6**
| RD2-score01-2=**6**
| RD2-score01-3=**6**
| RD2-score01-4=
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=LL
| RD2-team02= [Grenier](H)(Hugo Grenier)
| RD2-score02-1=3
| RD2-score02-2=1
| RD2-score02-3=1
| RD2-score02-4=
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03= [Bonzi](B)(Benjamin Bonzi)
| RD2-score03-1=63
| RD2-score03-2=5
| RD2-score03-3=3
| RD2-score03-4=
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=29
| RD2-team04=** [Brooksby](J)(Jenson Brooksby)**
| RD2-score04-1=**77**
| RD2-score04-2=**7**
| RD2-score04-3=**6**
| RD2-score04-4=
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=19
| RD2-team05=** [de Minaur](A)(Alex de Minaur)**
| RD2-score05-1=5
| RD2-score05-2=**77**
| RD2-score05-3=**6**
| RD2-score05-4=**6**
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06= [Draper](J)(Jack Draper (tennis))
| RD2-score06-1=**7**
| RD2-score06-2=60
| RD2-score06-3=2
| RD2-score06-4=3
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=WC
| RD2-team07=** [Broady](L)(Liam Broady)**
| RD2-score07-1=**6**
| RD2-score07-2=4
| RD2-score07-3=0
| RD2-score07-4=**78**
| RD2-score07-5=**6**
| RD2-seed08=12
| RD2-team08= [Schwartzman](D)(Diego Schwartzman)
| RD2-score08-1=2
| RD2-score08-2=**6**
| RD2-score08-3=**6**
| RD2-score08-4=66
| RD2-score08-5=1
| RD3-seed01=
| RD3-team01=** [Garín](C)(Cristian Garín)**
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=1
| RD3-score01-4=**6**
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=29
| RD3-team02= [Brooksby](J)(Jenson Brooksby)
| RD3-score02-1=2
| RD3-score02-2=3
| RD3-score02-3=**6**
| RD3-score02-4=4
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=19
| RD3-team03=** [de Minaur](A)(Alex de Minaur)**
| RD3-score03-1=**6**
| RD3-score03-2=**6**
| RD3-score03-3=**7**
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=WC
| RD3-team04= [Broady](L)(Liam Broady)
| RD3-score04-1=3
| RD3-score04-2=4
| RD3-score04-3=5
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=
| RD4-team01=** [Garín](C)(Cristian Garín)**
| RD4-score01-1=2
| RD4-score01-2=5
| RD4-score01-3=**77**
| RD4-score01-4=**6**
| RD4-score01-5=**710**
| RD4-seed02=19
| RD4-team02= [de Minaur](A)(Alex de Minaur)
| RD4-score02-1=**6**
| RD4-score02-2=**7**
| RD4-score02-3=63
| RD4-score02-4=4
| RD4-score02-5=66
}}
#### Section 6
[Shapovalov](D)(Denis Shapovalov)**
| RD1-score01-1=**6**
| RD1-score01-2=66
| RD1-score01-3=64
| RD1-score01-4=**6**
| RD1-score01-5=**6**
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02= [Rinderknech](A)(Arthur Rinderknech)
| RD1-score02-1=1
| RD1-score02-2=**78**
| RD1-score02-3=**77**
| RD1-score02-4=4
| RD1-score02-5=1
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03=** [Nakashima](B)(Brandon Nakashima)**
| RD1-score03-1=**6**
| RD1-score03-2=61
| RD1-score03-3=**6**
| RD1-score03-4=**6**
| RD1-score03-5=
| RD1-seed04=Q
| RD1-team04= [Kuhn](N)(Nicola Kuhn)
| RD1-score04-1=3
| RD1-score04-2=**77**
| RD1-score04-3=3
| RD1-score04-4=2
| RD1-score04-5=
| RD1-seed05=
| RD1-team05=** [Galán](DE)(Daniel Elahi Galán)**
| RD1-score05-1=**6**
| RD1-score05-2=**7**
| RD1-score05-3=**77**
| RD1-score05-4=
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Koepfer](D)(Dominik Koepfer)
| RD1-score06-1=4
| RD1-score06-2=5
| RD1-score06-3=61
| RD1-score06-4=
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=PR
| RD1-team07= [Balázs](A)(Attila Balázs)
| RD1-score07-1=1
| RD1-score07-2=0
| RD1-score07-3=3
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=17
| RD1-team08=** [Bautista Agut](R)(Roberto Bautista Agut)**
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=**6**
| RD1-score08-3=**6**
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=26
| RD1-team09=** [Krajinović](F)(Filip Krajinović)**
| RD1-score09-1=5
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=65
| RD1-score09-4=**77**
| RD1-score09-5=**6**
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10= [Lehečka](J)(Jiří Lehečka)
| RD1-score10-1=**7**
| RD1-score10-2=4
| RD1-score10-3=**77**
| RD1-score10-4=65
| RD1-score10-5=4
| RD1-seed11=WC
| RD1-team11= [Jubb](P)(Paul Jubb)
| RD1-score11-1=**6**
| RD1-score11-2=1
| RD1-score11-3=5
| RD1-score11-4=**77**
| RD1-score11-5=5
| RD1-seed12=
| RD1-team12=** [Kyrgios](N)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD1-score12-1=3
| RD1-score12-2=**6**
| RD1-score12-3=**7**
| RD1-score12-4=63
| RD1-score12-5=**7**
| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13= [Carballés Baena](R)(Roberto Carballés Baena)
| RD1-score13-1=4
| RD1-score13-2=1
| RD1-score13-3=1
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14=** [Thompson](J)(Jordan Thompson (tennis))**
| RD1-score14-1=**6**
| RD1-score14-2=**6**
| RD1-score14-3=**6**
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=Q
| RD1-team15= [Ritschard](A)(Alexander Ritschard)
| RD1-score15-1=61
| RD1-score15-2=3
| RD1-score15-3=**7**
| RD1-score15-4=4
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=4
| RD1-team16=** [Tsitsipas](S)(Stefanos Tsitsipas)**
| RD1-score16-1=**77**
| RD1-score16-2=**6**
| RD1-score16-3=5
| RD1-score16-4=**6**
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=13
| RD2-team01= [Shapovalov](D)(Denis Shapovalov)
| RD2-score01-1=2
| RD2-score01-2=**6**
| RD2-score01-3=1
| RD2-score01-4=66
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02=** [Nakashima](B)(Brandon Nakashima)**
| RD2-score02-1=**6**
| RD2-score02-2=4
| RD2-score02-3=**6**
| RD2-score02-4=**78**
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03=** [Galán](DE)(Daniel Elahi Galán)**
| RD2-score03-1=w/o
| RD2-score03-2=
| RD2-score03-3=
| RD2-score03-4=
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=17
| RD2-team04= [Bautista Agut](R)(Roberto Bautista Agut)
| RD2-score04-1=
| RD2-score04-2=
| RD2-score04-3=
| RD2-score04-4=
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=26
| RD2-team05= [Krajinović](F)(Filip Krajinović)
| RD2-score05-1=2
| RD2-score05-2=3
| RD2-score05-3=1
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06=** [Kyrgios](N)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD2-score06-1=**6**
| RD2-score06-2=**6**
| RD2-score06-3=**6**
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07= [Thompson](J)(Jordan Thompson (tennis))
| RD2-score07-1=2
| RD2-score07-2=3
| RD2-score07-3=5
| RD2-score07-4=
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=4
| RD2-team08=** [Tsitsipas](S)(Stefanos Tsitsipas)**
| RD2-score08-1=**6**
| RD2-score08-2=**6**
| RD2-score08-3=**7**
| RD2-score08-4=
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=
| RD3-team01=** [Nakashima](B)(Brandon Nakashima)**
| RD3-score01-1=**6**
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=**6**
| RD3-score01-4=
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=
| RD3-team02= [Galán](DE)(Daniel Elahi Galán)
| RD3-score02-1=4
| RD3-score02-2=4
| RD3-score02-3=1
| RD3-score02-4=
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=
| RD3-team03=** [Kyrgios](N)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD3-score03-1=62
| RD3-score03-2=**6**
| RD3-score03-3=**6**
| RD3-score03-4=**79**
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=4
| RD3-team04= [Tsitsipas](S)(Stefanos Tsitsipas)
| RD3-score04-1=**77**
| RD3-score04-2=4
| RD3-score04-3=3
| RD3-score04-4=67
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=
| RD4-team01= [Nakashima](B)(Brandon Nakashima)
| RD4-score01-1=**6**
| RD4-score01-2=4
| RD4-score01-3=62
| RD4-score01-4=**6**
| RD4-score01-5=2
| RD4-seed02=
| RD4-team02=** [Kyrgios](N)(Nick Kyrgios)**
| RD4-score02-1=4
| RD4-score02-2=**6**
| RD4-score02-3=**77**
| RD4-score02-4=3
| RD4-score02-5=**6**
}}
#### Section 7
[Auger-Aliassime](F)(Félix Auger-Aliassime)
| RD1-score01-1=**77**
| RD1-score01-2=4
| RD1-score01-3=69
| RD1-score01-4=65
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02=** [Cressy](M)(Maxime Cressy)**
| RD1-score02-1=65
| RD1-score02-2=**6**
| RD1-score02-3=**711**
| RD1-score02-4=**77**
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=Q
| RD1-team03= [Zapata Miralles](B)(Bernabé Zapata Miralles)
| RD1-score03-1=66
| RD1-score03-2=4
| RD1-score03-3=4
| RD1-score03-4=
| RD1-score03-5=
| RD1-seed04=Q
| RD1-team04=** [Sock](J)(Jack Sock)**
| RD1-score04-1=**78**
| RD1-score04-2=**6**
| RD1-score04-3=**6**
| RD1-score04-4=
| RD1-score04-5=
| RD1-seed05=Q
| RD1-team05=** [Novak](D)(Dennis Novak)**
| RD1-score05-1=**79**
| RD1-score05-2=2
| RD1-score05-3=**6**
| RD1-score05-4=**6**
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Bagnis](F)(Facundo Bagnis)
| RD1-score06-1=67
| RD1-score06-2=**6**
| RD1-score06-3=4
| RD1-score06-4=3
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=Q
| RD1-team07=** [Kubler](J)(Jason Kubler)**
| RD1-score07-1=**6**
| RD1-score07-2=**6**
| RD1-score07-3=**6**
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=28
| RD1-team08= [Evans](D)(Dan Evans (tennis))
| RD1-score08-1=1
| RD1-score08-2=4
| RD1-score08-3=3
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=24
| RD1-team09= [Rune](H)(Holger Rune)
| RD1-score09-1=3
| RD1-score09-2=5
| RD1-score09-3=4
| RD1-score09-4=
| RD1-score09-5=
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10=** [Giron](M)(Marcos Giron)**
| RD1-score10-1=**6**
| RD1-score10-2=**7**
| RD1-score10-3=**6**
| RD1-score10-4=
| RD1-score10-5=
| RD1-seed11=
| RD1-team11= [Martínez](P)(Pedro Martínez (tennis))
| RD1-score11-1=**6**
| RD1-score11-2=4
| RD1-score11-3=4
| RD1-score11-4=1
| RD1-score11-5=
| RD1-seed12=
| RD1-team12=** [Molčan](A)(Alex Molčan)**
| RD1-score12-1=4
| RD1-score12-2=**6**
| RD1-score12-3=**6**
| RD1-score12-4=**6**
| RD1-score12-5=
| RD1-seed13=WC
| RD1-team13=** [Gray](A)(Alastair Gray)**
| RD1-score13-1=**6**
| RD1-score13-2=**6**
| RD1-score13-3=**77**
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14= [Tseng](C-h)(Tseng Chun-hsin)
| RD1-score14-1=3
| RD1-score14-2=3
| RD1-score14-3=63
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15= [Musetti](L)(Lorenzo Musetti)
| RD1-score15-1=4
| RD1-score15-2=4
| RD1-score15-3=3
| RD1-score15-4=
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=11
| RD1-team16=** [Fritz](T)(Taylor Fritz)**
| RD1-score16-1=**6**
| RD1-score16-2=**6**
| RD1-score16-3=**6**
| RD1-score16-4=
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=
| RD2-team01= [Cressy](M)(Maxime Cressy)
| RD2-score01-1=4
| RD2-score01-2=4
| RD2-score01-3=**6**
| RD2-score01-4=61
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=Q
| RD2-team02=** [Sock](J)(Jack Sock)**
| RD2-score02-1=**6**
| RD2-score02-2=**6**
| RD2-score02-3=3
| RD2-score02-4=**77**
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=Q
| RD2-team03= [Novak](D)(Dennis Novak)
| RD2-score03-1=3
| RD2-score03-2=4
| RD2-score03-3=4
| RD2-score03-4=
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=Q
| RD2-team04=** [Kubler](J)(Jason Kubler)**
| RD2-score04-1=**6**
| RD2-score04-2=**6**
| RD2-score04-3=**6**
| RD2-score04-4=
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=
| RD2-team05= [Giron](M)(Marcos Giron)
| RD2-score05-1=3
| RD2-score05-2=2
| RD2-score05-3=4
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06=** [Molčan](A)(Alex Molčan)**
| RD2-score06-1=**6**
| RD2-score06-2=**6**
| RD2-score06-3=**6**
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=WC
| RD2-team07= [Gray](A)(Alastair Gray)
| RD2-score07-1=3
| RD2-score07-2=63
| RD2-score07-3=3
| RD2-score07-4=
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=11
| RD2-team08=** [Fritz](T)(Taylor Fritz)**
| RD2-score08-1=**6**
| RD2-score08-2=**77**
| RD2-score08-3=**6**
| RD2-score08-4=
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=Q
| RD3-team01= [Sock](J)(Jack Sock)
| RD3-score01-1=2
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=**7**
| RD3-score01-4=64
| RD3-score01-5=3
| RD3-seed02=Q
| RD3-team02=** [Kubler](J)(Jason Kubler)**
| RD3-score02-1=**6**
| RD3-score02-2=4
| RD3-score02-3=5
| RD3-score02-4=**77**
| RD3-score02-5=**6**
| RD3-seed03=
| RD3-team03= [Molčan](A)(Alex Molčan)
| RD3-score03-1=4
| RD3-score03-2=1
| RD3-score03-3=63
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=11
| RD3-team04=** [Fritz](T)(Taylor Fritz)**
| RD3-score04-1=**6**
| RD3-score04-2=**6**
| RD3-score04-3=**77**
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=Q
| RD4-team01= [Kubler](J)(Jason Kubler)
| RD4-score01-1=3
| RD4-score01-2=1
| RD4-score01-3=4
| RD4-score01-4=
| RD4-score01-5=
| RD4-seed02=11
| RD4-team02=** [Fritz](T)(Taylor Fritz)**
| RD4-score02-1=**6**
| RD4-score02-2=**6**
| RD4-score02-3=**6**
| RD4-score02-4=
| RD4-score02-5=
}}
#### Section 8
[Borges](N)(Nuno Borges (tennis))
| RD1-score01-1=4
| RD1-score01-2=4
| RD1-score01-3=63
| RD1-score01-4=
| RD1-score01-5=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02=** [McDonald](M)(Mackenzie McDonald)**
| RD1-score02-1=**6**
| RD1-score02-2=**6**
| RD1-score02-3=**77**
| RD1-score02-4=
| RD1-score02-5=
| RD1-seed03=
| RD1-team03= [Sousa](J)(João Sousa)
| RD1-score03-1=67
| RD1-score03-2=2
| RD1-score03-3=**6**
| RD1-score03-4=**6**
| RD1-score03-5=3
| RD1-seed04=
| RD1-team04=** [Gasquet](R)(Richard Gasquet)**
| RD1-score04-1=**79**
| RD1-score04-2=**6**
| RD1-score04-3=4
| RD1-score04-4=4
| RD1-score04-5=**6**
| RD1-seed05=
| RD1-team05=** [Ruusuvuori](E)(Emil Ruusuvuori)**
| RD1-score05-1=**6**
| RD1-score05-2=**6**
| RD1-score05-3=4
| RD1-score05-4=**6**
| RD1-score05-5=
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06= [Nishioka](Y)(Yoshihito Nishioka)
| RD1-score06-1=2
| RD1-score06-2=2
| RD1-score06-3=**6**
| RD1-score06-4=4
| RD1-score06-5=
| RD1-seed07=
| RD1-team07= [López](F)(Feliciano López)
| RD1-score07-1=2
| RD1-score07-2=3
| RD1-score07-3=3
| RD1-score07-4=
| RD1-score07-5=
| RD1-seed08=21
| RD1-team08=** [van de Zandschulp](B)(Botic van de Zandschulp)**
| RD1-score08-1=**6**
| RD1-score08-2=**6**
| RD1-score08-3=**6**
| RD1-score08-4=
| RD1-score08-5=
| RD1-seed09=27
| RD1-team09=** [Sonego](L)(Lorenzo Sonego)**
| RD1-score09-1=66
| RD1-score09-2=**6**
| RD1-score09-3=**7**
| RD1-score09-4=4
| RD1-score09-5=**6**
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10= [Kudla](D)(Denis Kudla)
| RD1-score10-1=**78**
| RD1-score10-2=3
| RD1-score10-3=5
| RD1-score10-4=**6**
| RD1-score10-5=2
| RD1-seed11=
| RD1-team11= [Popyrin](A)(Alexei Popyrin)
| RD1-score11-1=2
| RD1-score11-2=**6**
| RD1-score11-3=**6**
| RD1-score11-4=63
| RD1-score11-5=3
| RD1-seed12=
| RD1-team12=** [Gaston](H)(Hugo Gaston)**
| RD1-score12-1=**6**
| RD1-score12-2=4
| RD1-score12-3=0
| RD1-score12-4=**77**
| RD1-score12-5=**6**
| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13= [Querrey](S)(Sam Querrey)
| RD1-score13-1=4
| RD1-score13-2=5
| RD1-score13-3=3
| RD1-score13-4=
| RD1-score13-5=
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14=** [Berankis](R)(Ričardas Berankis)**
| RD1-score14-1=**6**
| RD1-score14-2=**7**
| RD1-score14-3=**6**
| RD1-score14-4=
| RD1-score14-5=
| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15= [Cerúndolo](F)(Francisco Cerúndolo)
| RD1-score15-1=4
| RD1-score15-2=3
| RD1-score15-3=**6**
| RD1-score15-4=4
| RD1-score15-5=
| RD1-seed16=2
| RD1-team16=** [Nadal](R)(Rafael Nadal)**
| RD1-score16-1=**6**
| RD1-score16-2=**6**
| RD1-score16-3=3
| RD1-score16-4=**6**
| RD1-score16-5=
| RD2-seed01=
| RD2-team01= [McDonald](M)(Mackenzie McDonald)
| RD2-score01-1=3
| RD2-score01-2=**6**
| RD2-score01-3=4
| RD2-score01-4=3
| RD2-score01-5=
| RD2-seed02=
| RD2-team02=** [Gasquet](R)(Richard Gasquet)**
| RD2-score02-1=**6**
| RD2-score02-2=3
| RD2-score02-3=**6**
| RD2-score02-4=**6**
| RD2-score02-5=
| RD2-seed03=
| RD2-team03= [Ruusuvuori](E)(Emil Ruusuvuori)
| RD2-score03-1=**6**
| RD2-score03-2=1
| RD2-score03-3=4
| RD2-score03-4=4
| RD2-score03-5=
| RD2-seed04=21
| RD2-team04=** [van de Zandschulp](B)(Botic van de Zandschulp)**
| RD2-score04-1=3
| RD2-score04-2=**6**
| RD2-score04-3=**6**
| RD2-score04-4=**6**
| RD2-score04-5=
| RD2-seed05=27
| RD2-team05=** [Sonego](L)(Lorenzo Sonego)**
| RD2-score05-1=**77**
| RD2-score05-2=**6**
| RD2-score05-3=**6**
| RD2-score05-4=
| RD2-score05-5=
| RD2-seed06=
| RD2-team06= [Gaston](H)(Hugo Gaston)
| RD2-score06-1=64
| RD2-score06-2=4
| RD2-score06-3=4
| RD2-score06-4=
| RD2-score06-5=
| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07= [Berankis](R)(Ričardas Berankis)
| RD2-score07-1=4
| RD2-score07-2=4
| RD2-score07-3=**6**
| RD2-score07-4=3
| RD2-score07-5=
| RD2-seed08=2
| RD2-team08=** [Nadal](R)(Rafael Nadal)**
| RD2-score08-1=**6**
| RD2-score08-2=**6**
| RD2-score08-3=4
| RD2-score08-4=**6**
| RD2-score08-5=
| RD3-seed01=
| RD3-team01= [Gasquet](R)(Richard Gasquet)
| RD3-score01-1=5
| RD3-score01-2=**6**
| RD3-score01-3=67
| RD3-score01-4=1
| RD3-score01-5=
| RD3-seed02=21
| RD3-team02=** [van de Zandschulp](B)(Botic van de Zandschulp)**
| RD3-score02-1=**7**
| RD3-score02-2=2
| RD3-score02-3=**79**
| RD3-score02-4=**6**
| RD3-score02-5=
| RD3-seed03=27
| RD3-team03= [Sonego](L)(Lorenzo Sonego)
| RD3-score03-1=1
| RD3-score03-2=2
| RD3-score03-3=4
| RD3-score03-4=
| RD3-score03-5=
| RD3-seed04=2
| RD3-team04=** [Nadal](R)(Rafael Nadal)**
| RD3-score04-1=**6**
| RD3-score04-2=**6**
| RD3-score04-3=**6**
| RD3-score04-4=
| RD3-score04-5=
| RD4-seed01=21
| RD4-team01= [van de Zandschulp](B)(Botic van de Zandschulp)
| RD4-score01-1=4
| RD4-score01-2=2
| RD4-score01-3=66
| RD4-score01-4=
| RD4-score01-5=
| RD4-seed02=2
| RD4-team02=** [Nadal](R)(Rafael Nadal)**
| RD4-score02-1=**6**
| RD4-score02-2=**6**
| RD4-score02-3=**78**
| RD4-score02-4=
| RD4-score02-5=
}}
## Seeded players
The following are the seeded players. Seedings are based on ATP rankings as of 20 June 2022. Rankings and points are as before 27 June 2022.
As a result of special ranking adjustment rules due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), players are defending the higher of (i) their points from the [tournament](2021)(2021 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles) or (ii) the remaining 50% of their points from the [tournament](2019)(2019 Wimbledon Championships – Men's singles). Those points were not mandatory and are included in the table below only if they counted towards the player's ranking as of 27 June 2022. Note that this is a different rankings adjustment system than the one that the WTA is using for the women's tournament.
The ATP is removing ranking points from the 2022 tournament as a result of the [England Club](All)(All England Club)'s decision to [Russian and Belarusian players](ban)(Wimbledon ban on Russian and Belarusian players) from the tournament. ATP Tour Tennis |url=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/atp-statement-removal-of-ranking-points-wimbledon-2022 |access-date= |website=ATP Tour |publisher=[of Tennis Professionals](Association)(Association of Tennis Professionals)}} Points dropping from the 2021 or 2019 tournaments will accordingly be replaced by the player's next best result, regardless of his performance at Wimbledon in 2022. ATP Tour Tennis |url=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/atp-wimbledon-decision-2022-faq |access-date=6 June 2022 |website=ATP Tour |publisher=[of Tennis Professionals](Association)(Association of Tennis Professionals)}}
† This column shows the higher of the player's points from the 2021 tournament or 50% of his points from the 2019 tournament. Only ranking points counting towards the player's ranking as of 27 June 2022 are reflected in the column.
‡ Because the ATP is removing ranking points from the 2022 tournament, 2021 or 2019 points will be replaced by the player's next best result instead.
§ The player had no points from either the 2021 or 2019 tournaments counting towards his ranking on 27 June 2022. Accordingly, no points will be replaced.
### Withdrawn players
The following players would have been seeded, but withdrew before the tournament began.
### Banned players
The following players would have been seeded, but were not permitted to enter the tournament due to the decision to [players from Russia and Belarus](ban)(Wimbledon ban on Russian and Belarusian players).
## Other entry information
### Wild cards
[Bergs](Zizou)(Zizou Bergs)
* [Broady](Liam)(Liam Broady)
* [Clarke](Jay)(Jay Clarke (tennis))
* [Gray](Alastair)(Alastair Gray)
* [Jubb](Paul)(Paul Jubb)
* [Peniston](Ryan)(Ryan Peniston)
* [van Rijthoven](Tim)(Tim van Rijthoven)
* [Wawrinka](Stan)(Stan Wawrinka)
}}
Source:
### Protected ranking
[Ćorić](Borna)(Borna Ćorić) (27)
* [Bedene](Aljaž)(Aljaž Bedene) (75)
* [Balázs](Attila)(Attila Balázs) (101)
}}
### Qualifiers
[Albot](Radu)(Radu Albot)
* [Couacaud](Enzo)(Enzo Couacaud)
* [Harrison](Christian)(Christian Harrison)
* [Hüsler](Marc-Andrea)(Marc-Andrea Hüsler)
* [Klein](Lukáš)(Lukáš Klein)
* [Kubler](Jason)(Jason Kubler)
* [Kuhn](Nicola)(Nicola Kuhn)
* [Kukushkin](Mikhail)(Mikhail Kukushkin)
* [Marterer](Maximilian)(Maximilian Marterer)
* [Novak](Dennis)(Dennis Novak)
* [Purcell](Max)(Max Purcell)
* [Ritschard](Alexander)(Alexander Ritschard)
* [Rosol](Lukáš)(Lukáš Rosol)
* [Sock](Jack)(Jack Sock)
* [Vavassori](Andrea)(Andrea Vavassori)
* [Zapata Miralles](Bernabé)(Bernabé Zapata Miralles)
}}
### Lucky losers
[Borges](Nuno)(Nuno Borges (tennis))
* [Grenier](Hugo)(Hugo Grenier)
* [Kolář](Zdeněk)(Zdeněk Kolář)
* [Kozlov](Stefan)(Stefan Kozlov)
* [Ymer](Elias)(Elias Ymer)
}}
### Withdrawals
The [England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club](All)(All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club) declined entries from Russian and Belarusian players to 2022 Wimbledon Championships, stating that "in the circumstances of such unjustified and unprecedented [aggression](military)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine), it would be unacceptable for the Russian regime to derive any benefits from the involvement of Russian or Belarusian players with The Championships".
The entry list was released based on the ATP rankings for the week of 16 May 2022.
[Harris](Lloyd)(Lloyd Harris (tennis)) (37) → replaced by [Popyrin](Alexei)(Alexei Popyrin) (103)
* [Medvedev](Daniil)(Daniil Medvedev) (2) → replaced by [Daniel](Taro)(Taro Daniel) (105)
* [Rublev](Andrey)(Andrey Rublev) (7) → replaced by [Draper](Jack)(Jack Draper (tennis)) (106)
* [Khachanov](Karen)(Karen Khachanov) (24) → replaced by [Querrey](Sam)(Sam Querrey) (107)
* [Karatsev](Aslan)(Aslan Karatsev) (39) → replaced by [Elahi Galán](Daniel)(Daniel Elahi Galán) (108)
* [Ivashka](Ilya)(Ilya Ivashka) (50) → replaced by [Verdasco](Fernando)(Fernando Verdasco) (109)
* [Zverev](Alexander)(Alexander Zverev) (3) → replaced by [Chun-hsin](Tseng)(Tseng Chun-hsin) (110)
* [Thiem](Dominic)(Dominic Thiem) (6 PR) → replaced by [López](Feliciano)(Feliciano López) (111)
* [Korda](Sebastian)(Sebastian Korda) (30) → replaced by [Kolář](Zdeněk)(Zdeněk Kolář) (LL)
* [Monfils](Gaël)(Gaël Monfils) (22) → replaced by [Grenier](Hugo)(Hugo Grenier) (LL)
* [Ćorić](Borna)(Borna Ćorić) (27 PR) → replaced by [Kozlov](Stefan)(Stefan Kozlov) (LL)
* [Čilić](Marin)(Marin Čilić) (23) → replaced by [Borges](Nuno)(Nuno Borges (tennis)) (LL)
* [Berrettini](Matteo)(Matteo Berrettini) (10) → replaced by [Ymer](Elias)(Elias Ymer) (LL)
}}
## Explanatory notes
## References
## External links
* [Entry List](https://www.wimbledon.com/pdf/update/referees/2022/MS_Entries.pdf)
* [Draw](https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/scores/draws/2022_MS_draw.pdf)
* [ITF Preview](https://www.itftennis.com/media/8244/2022-wimbledon-mens-tournament-preview-second-edition.pdf)
[Singles](Men's)(Category:2022 Wimbledon Championships)
[Championships - Men's Singles](Wimbledon)(Category:2022 ATP Tour)
[2022](Category:Wimbledon Championship by year – Men's singles)
|
American black bear
|
american_black_bear
|
# American black bear
*Revision ID: 1158814606 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T11:54:15Z*
---
Late [Pliocene](Pliocene)–[Holocene](Holocene)
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}
| image = 01 Schwarzbär.jpg
| image_caption = An American black bear in [Manitoba](Manitoba)'s [Mountain National Park](Riding)(Riding Mountain National Park)
| genus = Ursus
| species = americanus
| authority = [Pallas](Peter Simon Pallas), 1780
| range_map = Ursus americanus IUCN range map extant and extirpated.png
| range_map_caption = American black bear range
| synonyms = *Euarctos americanus*
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 16, see [text](#Subspecies)
}}
The **American black bear** (***Ursus americanus***), also known as the **black bear** is a [species](species) of medium-sized [bear](bear) [endemic](Endemism) to [America](North)(North America). It is the continent's smallest and most widely distributed bear species. The American black bear is an [omnivore](omnivore), with its diet varying greatly depending on season and location. It typically lives in largely forested areas, but will leave forests in search of food, and is sometimes attracted to human communities due to the immediate availability of food.
The [Union for Conservation of Nature](International)(International Union for Conservation of Nature) (IUCN) lists the American black bear as a [species](least-concern)(least-concern species), due to its widespread distribution and a large population estimated to be twice that of all other bear species combined. Along with the [bear](brown)(brown bear) (*Ursus arctos*), it is one of only two modern bear species not considered by the IUCN to be globally threatened with extinction.
## Taxonomy and evolution
Despite living in North America, American black bears are not closely related to [bear](brown)(brown bear)s and [bear](polar)(polar bear)s; genetic studies reveal that they split from a common ancestor 5.05 million years ago (mya). American and [black bear](Asian)(Asian black bear)s are considered [taxa](sister)(sister taxa) and are more closely related to each other than to the other modern species of bears.Craighead, Lance (2003). *Bears of the World*, Voyageur Press, According to recent studies, the [bear](sun)(sun bear) is also a relatively recent split from this lineage.Hunter, Luke (2011). *Carnivores of the World*, Princeton University Press,
A small primitive bear called *Ursus abstrusus* is the oldest known North American [fossil](fossil) member of the genus *Ursus*, dated to 4.95 mya. This suggests that *U. abstrusus* may be the direct ancestor of the American black bear, which evolved in North America.Kurten, B., and E. Anderson (1980). *Pleistocene mammals of North America*. Columbia University Press, New York, . Although Wolverton and Lyman still consider *U. vitabilis* an "apparent precursor to modern black bears", it has also been placed within *U. americanus*.
The ancestors of American black bears and Asian black bears diverged from sun bears 4.58 mya. The American black bear then split from the Asian black bear 4.08 mya.Lisette Waits, David Paetkau, and Curtis Strobeck, "Overview" from *Genetics of the Bears of the World*. Chapter 3 of *Bears: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan*, compiled by Christopher Servheen, [Herrero](Stephen)(Stephen Herrero) and Bernard Peyton, IUCN/SSC Bear Specialist Group The earliest American black bear fossils, which were located in [Kennedy, Pennsylvania](Port)(Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania), greatly resemble the Asian species, though later specimens grew to sizes comparable to [bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear)s. From the [Holocene](Holocene) to the present, American black bears seem to have shrunk in size, but this has been disputed because of problems with dating these fossil specimens.
The American black bear lived during the same period as the giant and lesser [bear](short-faced)(Arctodus)s (*Arctodus simus* and *A. pristinus*, respectively) and the Florida spectacled bear (*[floridanus](Tremarctos)(Tremarctos floridanus)*). These [tremarctine](Tremarctinae) bears evolved from bears that had emigrated from Asia to the Americas 7–8 mya. The giant and lesser short-faced bears are thought to have been heavily carnivorous and the Florida spectacled bear more herbivorous, while the American black bears remained arboreal omnivores, like their Asian ancestors. The American black bear's [generalist](generalist species) behavior allowed it to exploit a wider variety of foods and has been given as a reason why, of these three genera, it alone survived climate and vegetative changes through the [Ice Age](last)(Quaternary glaciation) while the other, more specialized North American predators became extinct. However, both *Arctodus* and *Tremarctos* had survived several other, previous [age](ice)(ice age)s. After these prehistoric ursids became extinct during the last glacial period 10,000 years ago, American black bears were probably the only bear present in much of North America until the migration of [bear](brown)(brown bear)s to the rest of the continent.
### Hybrids
[[File:To replace picture in 'Ursid hybrid'.jpg|thumb|A possible American black bear-[bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear) hybrid in the [Territory](Yukon)(Yukon Territory), Canada]]
American black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species and occasionally produce [hybrid](Hybrid (biology)) offspring. According to [Hanna](Jack)(Jack Hanna)'s *Monkeys on the Interstate*, a bear captured in [Florida](Sanford,)(Sanford, Florida) was thought to have been the offspring of an escaped female [black bear](Asian)(Asian black bear) and a male American black bear.["Hybrid Bears".](https://web.archive.org/web/20101226205341/http://www.messybeast.com/genetics/hybrid-bears.htm) *messybeast.com*. In 1859, an American black bear and a [brown bear](Eurasian)(Eurasian brown bear) were bred together in the [Zoological Gardens](London)(London Zoological Gardens), but the three cubs that were born died before they reached maturity. In *[Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication](The)(The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication)*, [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin) noted:
}}
A bear shot in autumn 1986 in [Michigan](Michigan) was thought by some to be an American black bear/grizzly bear hybrid, due to its unusually large size and its proportionately larger brain case and skull. DNA testing was unable to determine whether it was a large American black bear or a grizzly bear.
### Subspecies
Sixteen subspecies are traditionally recognized; however, a recent genetic study does not support designating some of these, such as the Florida black bear, as distinct subspecies. Listed alphabetically according to subspecific name:["*Ursus americanus*"](https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000953), *Mammal Species of the World*, 3rd ed.
## Distribution and population
[[File:Grand Tetons black bear.jpg|thumb|An American black bear at [Teton National Park](Grand)(Grand Teton National Park), [Wyoming](Wyoming)]]
Historically, American black bears occupied the majority of North America's forested regions. Today, they are primarily limited to sparsely settled, forested areas. American black bears currently inhabit much of their original Canadian range, though they seldom occur in the southern farmlands of [Alberta](Alberta), [Saskatchewan](Saskatchewan) and [Manitoba](Manitoba); they have been extirpated on [Edward Island](Prince)(Prince Edward Island) since 1937. The total Canadian black bear population is between 396,000 and 476,000, based on surveys taken in the mid-1990s in seven Canadian provinces, though this estimate excludes American black bear populations in [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick), the [Territories](Northwest)(Northwest Territories), [Scotia](Nova)(Nova Scotia) and Saskatchewan. All provinces indicated stable populations of American black bears over the last decade.
The current range of American black bears in the United States is constant throughout most of the [Northeast](Northeastern United States) and within the [Mountains](Appalachian)(Appalachian Mountains) almost continuously from [Maine](Maine) to northern [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)), the northern [Midwest](Midwestern United States), the [Mountain region](Rocky)(Mountain States), the [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States) and [Alaska](Alaska). However, it becomes increasingly fragmented or absent in other regions. Despite this, American black bears in those areas seem to have expanded their range during the last decade, such as with recent sightings in [Ohio](Ohio), [Illinois](Illinois), and southern [Indiana](Indiana). Sightings of itinerant American black bears in the [Area](Driftless)(Driftless Area) of southeastern [Minnesota](Minnesota), northeastern [Iowa](Iowa), and southwestern [Wisconsin](Wisconsin) are common. In the spring of 2019, biologists with the [Department of Natural Resources](Iowa)(Iowa Department of Natural Resources) confirmed documentation of an American black bear living year-round in woodlands near the town of [Decorah](Decorah, Iowa) in northeastern Iowa, believed to be the first instance of a resident black bear in Iowa since the 1880s.
Surveys taken from 35 states in the early 1990s indicate that American black bears are either stable or increasing, except in [Idaho](Idaho) and [Mexico](New)(New Mexico). The overall population of American black bears in the [States](United)(United States) has been estimated to range between 339,000 and 465,000, though this excludes populations from Alaska, [Idaho](Idaho), [Dakota](South)(South Dakota), [Texas](Texas) and [Wyoming](Wyoming), whose population sizes are unknown. In the state of [California](California), there are an estimated 25,000-35,000 American black bears, making it the largest population of the species in the [United States](contiguous)(contiguous United States).
As of 1993, known Mexican black bear populations existed in four areas, though knowledge on the distribution of populations outside those areas has not been updated since 1959. [Mexico](Mexico) is the only country where the American black bear is classified as "endangered".
There have been several sightings quite far away from where the American black bear is normally found, such as western [Nebraska](Nebraska).
There are about 1,500 bears in [Smoky Mountains National Park](Great)(Great Smoky Mountains National Park). The population density is about two per square mile. They inhabit all elevations in the area.
## Habitat
Throughout their range, habitats preferred by American black bears have a few shared characteristics. They are often found in areas with relatively inaccessible terrain, thick understory vegetation and large quantities of edible material (especially [masts](Mast (botany))). The adaptation to woodlands and thick vegetation in this species may have originally been due to the American black bear having evolved alongside larger, more aggressive bear species, such as the extinct giant [bear](short-faced)(Arctodus) and the still-living [bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear), that monopolized more open habitats and the historic presence of larger predators, such as *[Smilodon](Smilodon)* and the [lion](American)(American lion), that could have preyed on American black bears. Although found in the largest numbers in wild, undisturbed areas and rural regions, American black bears can adapt to surviving in some numbers in [peri-urban](Peri-urbanisation) regions, as long as they contain easily accessible foods and some vegetative coverage.
In most of the contiguous United States, American black bears today are usually found in heavily vegetated mountainous areas, from in elevation. For American black bears living in the [Southwest](American)(Southwestern United States) and [Mexico](Mexico), habitat usually consists of stands of [chaparral](chaparral) and [juniper woods](pinyon)(Pinyon-juniper woodland). In this region, bears occasionally move to more open areas to feed on [pear cactus](prickly)(Opuntia). At least two distinct, prime habitat types are inhabited in the [United States](Southeastern)(Southeastern United States). American black bears in the southern [Mountains](Appalachian)(Appalachian Mountains) survive in predominantly [oak-hickory](oak–hickory forest) and mixed [mesophytic](Mesophyte) forests. In the coastal areas of the Southeast (such as [Florida](Florida), [Carolinas](the)(the Carolinas) and [Louisiana](Louisiana)), bears inhabit a mixture of [flatwoods](flatwoods), [bay](bay)s and swampy hardwood sites.
In the northeastern part of the range (the United States and Canada), prime habitat consists of a forest canopy of [hardwood](hardwood)s such as [beech](beech), [maple](maple), [birch](birch) and [conifer](conifer)ous species. [Corn](Maize) crops and oak-hickory mast are also common sources of food in some sections of the Northeast; small, thick swampy areas provide excellent refuge cover largely in stands of [cedar](white)(Thuja occidentalis). Along the Pacific coast, [redwood](redwood), [spruce](Sitka)(Picea sitchensis) and [hemlock](Tsuga)s predominate as overstory cover. Within these northern forest types are early successional areas important for American black bears, such as fields of brush, wet and dry [meadow](meadow)s, high [tideland](tideland)s, [area](riparian)(Riparian zone)s and a variety of mast-producing hardwood species. The [spruce-fir](Spruce) forest dominates much of the range of the American black bear in the [Rockies](Rocky Mountains). Important non-forested areas here are wet meadows, riparian areas, avalanche chutes, roadsides, burns, sidehill parks and [ridgetops](subalpine)(montane ecosystems).
In areas where human development is relatively low, such as stretches of [Canada](Canada) and [Alaska](Alaska), American black bears tend to be found more regularly in lowland regions. In parts of northeastern Canada, especially [Labrador](Labrador), American black bears have adapted exclusively to semi-open areas that are more typical habitat in North America for brown bears (likely due to the absence there of brown and polar bears, as well as other large carnivore species).
## Description
[[File:Black&brownbears.JPG|thumb|left|American black bears can be distinguished from [bear](brown)(brown bear)s by their smaller size, their less concave skull profiles, their shorter claws and the lack of a shoulder hump.]]
### Build
|image2=Mammals of northern Alaska on the Arctic slope (1956) Ursus americanus californiensis skull.png |caption2=[Skull](Skull)
}}
The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. In [Virginia](Virginia), the total length of adult bear skulls was found to average . Across its range, the greatest skull length for the species has been reportedly measured from . Females tend to have slenderer and more pointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish-brown. The claws are short and rounded, being thick at the base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind and front legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved. The paws of the species are relatively large, with a rear foot length of , which is proportionately larger than other medium-sized bear species, but much smaller than the paws of large adult brown, and especially polar, bears. The soles of the feet are black or brownish and are naked, leathery and deeply wrinkled. The hind legs are relatively longer than those of [black bear](Asian)(Asian black bear)s. The vestigial tail is usually long. The ears are small and rounded and are set well back on the head.
American black bears are highly [dexterous](Fine motor skill), being capable of opening screw-top jars and manipulating door latches. They also have great physical strength; a bear weighing was observed turning flat rocks weighing by flipping them over with a single foreleg. They move in a rhythmic, [sure-footed](sure-footed) way and can run at speeds of . American black bears have good eyesight and have been proven experimentally to be able to learn visual color discrimination tasks faster than [chimpanzee](Common chimpanzee)s and just as fast as domestic [dog](dog)s. They are also capable of rapidly learning to distinguish different shapes such as small triangles, circles and squares.
### Size
[[File:Black bear in yellowstone 3.jpg|thumb|A cinnamon-colored American black bear in [National Park](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone National Park), the U.S.]]
American black bear weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health and season. Seasonal variation in weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than in spring, when black bears emerge from their dens. American black bears on the [Coast](East)(East Coast of the United States) tend to be heavier on average than those on the [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States), although American black bears follow [rule](Bergmann's)(Bergmann's rule) and bears from the Northwest are often slightly heavier than the bears from the Southeast. Adult males typically weigh between , while females weigh 33% less at .
In the state of [California](California), studies have indicated that the average mass is in adult males and in adult females. Adult American black bears in [Flats National Wildlife Refuge](Yukon)(Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge) in east-central [Alaska](Alaska) were found to average in males and in females, whereas on [Island](Kuiu)(Kuiu Island) in southeastern Alaska (where nutritious [salmon](salmon) are readily available) adult American black bears averaged an estimated .Peacock, Elizabeth (2004). ["Population, Genetic and Behavioral Studies of Black Bears *Ursus americanus* in Southeast Alaska"](http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/thesis/peacock_2004_phd.pdf). PhD Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno In [Smoky Mountains National Park](Great)(Great Smoky Mountains National Park), adult males averaged and adult females averaged per one study.["*Ursus americanus* (Pallas); Black Bear"](http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/Mammalia/Ursidae/Ursus/americanus/). Discoverlife.org. Retrieved December 20, 2012. In one of the largest studies on regional body mass, bears in [Columbia](British)(British Columbia) averaged in 89 females and in 243 males. |doi=10.1139/z11-026 }} In [National Park](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone National Park), a population study found that adult males averaged and adult females averaged .Barnes, V. G. and Bray, O. E. (1967) "Population characteristics and activities of black bears in Yellowstone National Park". Final report, Colorado Wildl. Res. Unit, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins; cited in ["Characteristics of Black Bears and Grizzly Bears in YNP"](http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/bearchar.htm). nps.gov Black bears in north-central [Minnesota](Minnesota) averaged in 163 females and in 77 males. In [York](New)(New York State), the two sexes reportedly average for males, and for females.[*Black bears in New York State*](https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/bears1.pdf). New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, page 1. Retrieved November 11, 2021. It was found in [Nevada](Nevada) and the [Tahoe](Lake)(Lake Tahoe) region that American black bears closer to urban regions were significantly heavier than their arid-country dwelling counterparts, with males near urban areas averaging against wild-land males which averaged whereas peri-urban females averaged against the average of in wild-land ones. In [Lakes National Park](Waterton)(Waterton Lakes National Park), [Alberta](Alberta), adults reportedly averaged .Silva, M., & Downing, J. A. (1995). *CRC handbook of mammalian body masses*. CRC Press. Adults typically range from in head-and-body length, and in shoulder height. The typically small tail is long.[*Audubon Field Guide*](http://audubonguides.com/species/Mammals/American-Black-Bear.html). Audubonguides.com. Retrieved September 15, 2011.Kronk, C. (2007). [*Ursus americanus*](http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ursus_americanus.html). Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved September 15, 2011.["American black bear videos, photos and facts – *Ursus americanus*"](http://www.arkive.org/american-black-bear/ursus-americanus/) . ARKive. Retrieved September 15, 2011. Although they are the smallest bear species in [America](North)(North America), large males exceed the size of other bear species, except the [bear](brown)(brown bear) and the [bear](polar)(polar bear).
The biggest wild American black bear ever recorded was a male from [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick), shot in November 1972, that weighed after it had been dressed, meaning it weighed an estimated in life and measured long. Another notably outsized wild American black bear, weighing in at in total, was the cattle-killer shot in December 1921 on the Moqui Reservation in [Arizona](Arizona). The record-sized American black bear from [Jersey](New)(New Jersey) was shot in [County](Morris)(Morris County, New Jersey) December 2011 and scaled .Stabile, Jim (December 16, 2011) ["829-pound bear takes record in N.J. hunt"](https://archive.today/2013.01.20-084026/http://www.dailyrecord.com/article/20111216/NJNEWS/312160008/829-pound-bear-takes-record-N-J-hunt). *Daily Record* Even larger, the most massive American black bear recorded in [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) (one of six weighing over shot in the last 15 years in the state) weighed in at and was shot in November 2010 in [County](Pike)(Pike County, Pennsylvania).["Record-busting, 879-pound bear bagged in Poconos"](http://www.poconorecord.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20101119/NEWS/11190341/-1/NEWS01). Pocono Record. November 19, 2010. Retrieved 2013-08-19. The North American Bear Center, located in [Minnesota](Ely,)(Ely, Minnesota), is home to the world's largest captive male and female American black bears. Ted, the male, weighed in the fall of 2006. Honey, the female, weighed in the fall of 2007.
### Pelage
[[File:Spiritbear.jpg|thumb|upright|A white-colored [bear](Kermode)(Kermode bear) (*U. a. kermodei*)]]
The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs. The fur is not as shaggy or coarse as that of brown bears.Wood, John George (1865). *The Illustrated Natural History*, Vol. 2, George Routledge and Sons. American black bear skins can be distinguished from those of Asian black bears by the lack of a white blaze on the chest and hairier footpads. Despite their name, American black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individual coat colors can range from white, blonde, cinnamon, light brown or dark chocolate brown to jet black, with many intermediate variations existing. Silvery-gray American black bears with a blue luster (this is found mostly on the flanks) occur along a portion of coastal Alaska and British Columbia. White to cream-colored American black bears occur in the coastal islands and the adjacent mainland of southwestern British Columbia. [Albino](Albino) individuals have also been recorded. Black coats tend to predominate in moist areas such as Maine, New England, New York, Tennessee, Michigan and western Washington. Approximately 70% of all American black bears are black, though only 50% of American black bears in the Rocky Mountains are black. Many American black bears in northwestern North America are cinnamon, blonde or light brown in color and thus may sometimes be mistaken for [bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear)s. Grizzly (and other types of brown) bears can be distinguished by their shoulder hump, larger size and broader, more concave skull.Macdonald, D. W. (2006). *The Encyclopedia of Mammals*. Oxford University Press, Oxford .
In his book *The Great Bear Almanac*, Gary Brown summarized the predominance of black or brown/blonde specimens by location:
## Behavior and life history
American black bears have eyesight and hearing comparable to that of humans. Their keenest sense is their sense of smell, which is about seven times more sensitive than a domestic dog's. American black bears are excellent and strong swimmers, swimming for pleasure and to feed (largely on [fish](fish)). They regularly climb trees to feed, escape enemies and hibernate. Four of the eight modern bear species are habitually arboreal (the most arboreal species, the American and Asian black bears and the sun bear, being fairly closely related). Their arboreal abilities tend to decline with age. They may be active at any time of the day or night, although they mainly forage by night. American black bears living near human habitations tend to be more extensively [nocturnal](nocturnal), while those living near brown bears tend to be more often [diurnal](Diurnality).
American black bears tend to be [territorial](Territory (animal)) and non-[gregarious](social animal) in nature. However, at abundant food sources (e.g. spawning [salmon](salmon) or [dump](garbage)(Landfill)s), they may congregate and dominance hierarchies form, with the largest, most powerful males dominating the most fruitful feeding spots.Nowak, R. M. (1991). ''Walker's Mammals of the World*. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London. They [their territories](mark)(Territory (animal)#Scent marking) by rubbing their bodies against trees and clawing at the bark. Annual ranges held by mature male American black bears tend to be very large, though there is some variation. On [Island](Long)(Long Island (Washington)) off the coast of [Washington](Washington (state)), ranges average , whereas on the [Peninsula](Ungava)(Ungava Peninsula) in [Canada](Canada) ranges can average up to , with some male bears traveling as far as at times of food shortages.
American black bears may communicate with various vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking and grunting are the most common sounds and are made in cordial situations to conspecifics, offspring and occasionally humans. When at ease, they produce a loud rumbling hum. During times of fear or nervousness, bears may moan, huff or blow air. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping. In aggressive interactions, black bears produce [guttural](guttural) pulsing calls that may sound like growling. Cubs squeal, bawl or scream when anxious and make a motor-like humming sound when comfortable or nursing. American black bears often mark trees using their teeth and claws as a form of communication with other bears, a behavior common to many species of bears.
### Reproduction and development
Sows usually produce their first litter at the age of 3 to 5 years, with those living in more developed areas tending to get pregnant at younger ages. The breeding period usually occurs in the June–July period, though it can extend to August in the species' northern range. The breeding period lasts for two to three months. Both sexes are [promiscuous](promiscuous). Males try to mate with several females, but large, dominant ones may violently claim a female if another mature male comes near. Copulation can last 20–30 minutes. Sows tend to be short-tempered with their mates after copulating. The fertilized eggs undergo delayed development and do not implant in the female's womb until November. The gestation period lasts 235 days and litters are usually born in late January to early February. Litter size is between one and six cubs, typically two or three. At birth, cubs weigh and measure in length. They are born with fine, gray, down-like hair and their hind quarters are underdeveloped. They typically open their eyes after 28–40 days and begin walking after 5 weeks. Cubs are dependent on their mother's milk for 30 weeks and will reach independence at 16–18 months. At the age of 6 weeks, they attain , by the age of 8 weeks they reach and by the age of 6 months they weigh . They reach sexual maturity at the age of 3 years and attain their full growth at the age of 5 years.
### Longevity and mortality
[[File:Ursus americanus PO 4.ogv|thumb|A female with cubs in [Omega](Parc)(Parc Omega), [Quebec](Quebec)]]
The average lifespan in the wild is 18 years, though it is quite possible for wild individuals to survive for more than 23 years. The record age of a wild individual was 39 years, while that in captivity was 44 years. The average annual survival rate for adult American black bears is variable, ranging from 86% in [Florida](Florida) to 73% in [Virginia](Virginia) and [Carolina](North)(North Carolina). In [Minnesota](Minnesota), 99% of wintering adult bears were able to survive the hibernation cycle in one study. Remarkably, a study of American black bears in [Nevada](Nevada) found that the amount of annual mortality of a population of bears in wilderness areas was 0%, whereas in developed areas in the state this figure rose to 83%. Survival in subadults is generally less assured. In [Alaska](Alaska), only 14–17% of subadult males and 30–48% of subadult females were found in a study to survive to adulthood. Across the range, the estimated number of cubs who survive past their first year is 60%.
With the exception of the rare confrontation with an adult [bear](brown)(brown bear) or a [wolf](gray)(Wolf) pack, adult American black bears are not usually subject to natural predation. However, as evidenced by scats with fur inside of them and the recently discovered carcass of an adult sow with puncture marks in the skull, American black bears may occasionally fall prey to [jaguar](North American jaguar)s in the southern parts of their range. In such scenarios, the big cat would have the advantage if it ambushed the bear, killing it with a crushing bite to the back of the skull. American black bear cubs tend to be more vulnerable to predation than adults. Known predators of bear cubs have included [bobcat](bobcat)s, [coyote](coyote)s, [cougar](North American cougar)s, gray wolves, brown bears and other bears of their own species. Many of these will stealthily snatch small cubs right from under the sleeping mother. There is a single record of a [eagle](golden)(golden eagle) snatching a yearling cub. Once out of hibernation, mother bears may be able to fight off most potential predators. Even cougars will be displaced by an angry mother bear if they are discovered stalking the cubs.["Man Says Bear Saved Him from Mountain Lion Attack in Butte County"](http://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2012/03/29/bear-saves-hiker-from-cougar-in-butte-county/). KOVR. (March 29, 2012). Retrieved 2012-12-21. Flooding of dens after birth may also occasionally kill newborn cubs. However, in current times, American black bear fatalities are mainly attributable to human activities. Seasonally, thousands of American black bears are hunted legally across North America to control their numbers, while some are illegally poached or trapped unregulated. Auto collisions also may claim many American black bear lives annually.
### Hibernation
[[hibernating.jpg|right|thumb|A female and cubs hibernating](File:Bear)]
American black bears were once not considered true or "deep" [hibernators](hibernators), but because of discoveries about the metabolic changes that allow American black bears to remain dormant for months without eating, drinking, urinating or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian hibernation as "specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and cold weather". American black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators. The physiology of American black bears in the wild is closely related to that of bears in captivity. Understanding the physiology of bears in the wild is vital to the bear's success in captivity.
The bears enter their dens in October and November, although in the southernmost areas of their range (i.e. Florida, Mexico, the [United States](Southeastern)(Southeastern United States)), only pregnant females and mothers with yearling cubs will enter hibernation. Prior to that time, they can put on up to of body fat to get them through the several months during which they fast. Hibernation in American black bears typically lasts 3–8 months, depending on regional climate.
Hibernating American black bears spend their time in hollowed-out dens in tree cavities, under logs or rocks, in banks, caves, or culverts and in shallow depressions. Although naturally made dens are occasionally used, most dens are dug out by the bear itself. Females have been shown to be pickier in their choice of dens in comparison to males.
During their time in hibernation, an American black bear's heart rate drops from 40 to 50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute and the metabolic rate can drop to a quarter of the bear's (nonhibernating) [metabolic rate](basal)(basal metabolic rate) (BMR). These reductions in metabolic rate and heart rate do not appear to decrease the bear's ability to heal injuries during hibernation. Their circadian rhythm stays intact during hibernation. This allows the bear to sense the changes in the day based on the ambient temperature caused by the sun's position in the sky. It has also been shown that ambient light exposure and low disturbance levels (that is to say, wild bears in ambient light conditions) directly correlate with their activity levels. The bear keeping track of the changing days allows it to awaken from hibernation at the appropriate time of year to conserve as much energy as possible.
The hibernating American black bear does not display the same rate of muscle and bone atrophy relative to other nonhibernatory animals that are subject to long periods of inactivity due to ailment or old age. A hibernating American black bear loses approximately half the muscular strength compared to that of a well-nourished, inactive human. The bear's bone mass does not change in geometry or mineral composition during hibernation, which implies that the bear's conservation of bone mass during hibernation is due to a biological mechanism. During hibernation American black bears retain all excretory waste, leading to the development of a hardened mass of fecal material in the colon known as a [plug](fecal)(fecal plug). A special hormone, [leptin](leptin), is released into the bear's systems to suppress appetite. The retention of waste during hibernation (specifically in minerals such as [calcium](calcium)) may play a role in the bear's resistance to atrophy.
The body temperature of the American black bear does not drop significantly, like other mammalian hibernators (staying around ) and they remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up and forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow melts. During winter, American black bears consume 25–40% of their body weight. The footpads peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue.
Many of the [physiological](Physiology) changes an American black bear exhibits during hibernation are retained slightly post-hibernation. Upon exiting hibernation, bears retain a reduced heart rate and basal metabolic rate. The metabolic rate of a hibernating bear will remain at a reduced level for up to 21 days after hibernation. After emerging from their winter dens in spring, they wander their home ranges for two weeks so that their metabolism accustoms itself to the activity. In mountainous areas, they seek southerly slopes at lower elevations for forage and move to northerly and easterly slopes at higher elevations as summer progresses.
The time that American black bears emerge from hibernation varies. Factors affecting this include temperature, flooding, and hunger. In southern areas, they may wake up in midwinter. Further north, they may not be seen until late March, April, or even early May. Altitude also has an effect. Bears at lower altitudes tend to emerge earlier. Finally, mature males tend to come out earliest, followed by immature males and females, and lastly mothers with cubs. Mothers with yearling cubs are seen before those with newborns.
### Dietary habits
Generally, American black bears are largely [crepuscular](crepuscular) in foraging activity, though they may actively feed at any time. Up to 85% of the American black bear's diet consists of vegetation, though they tend to dig less than brown bears, eating far fewer [root](root)s, [bulb](bulb)s, [corm](corm)s and [tuber](tuber)s than the latter species. When initially emerging from hibernation, they will seek to feed on [carrion](carrion) from winter-killed animals and newborn [ungulate](ungulate)s. As the spring temperature warms, American black bears seek new shoots of many plant species, especially new [grasses](Graminoid), wetland plants and [forb](forb)s. Young shoots and [bud](bud)s from trees and shrubs during the spring period are also especially important to American black bears emerging from hibernation, as they assist in rebuilding muscle and strengthening the skeleton and are often the only digestible foods available at that time.["American Black Bear Fact Sheet"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110602095210/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1999/2/fact-americanblack.cfm). National Zoo| FONZ. Retrieved September 15, 2011. During summer, the diet largely comprises [fruit](fruit)s, especially [berries](berries) and soft masts such as buds and [drupe](drupe)s. During the [hyperphagia](autumn)(Polyphagia), feeding becomes virtually the full-time task of American black bears. [masts](Hard)(Mast (botany)) become the most important part of the American black bear's diet in autumn and may even partially dictate the species' distribution. Favored masts such as [hazelnut](hazelnut)s, [acorns](oak)(Acorn) and [pine nuts](whitebark)(Whitebark pine) may be consumed by the hundreds each day by a single American black bear during the fall. During the fall period, American black bears may also habitually raid the nut caches of [squirrel](tree)(tree squirrel)s. Also extremely important in fall are berries such as [huckleberries](Huckleberry) and [berries](buffalo)(Shepherdia). American black bears living in areas near human settlements or around a considerable influx of recreational human activity often come to rely on foods inadvertently provided by humans, especially during summertime. These include [refuse](Waste), [birdseed](Bird food), [products](agricultural)(Agriculture) and [honey](honey) from [apiaries](Apiary).
The majority of the American black bear's animal diet consists of [insect](insect)s, such as [bee](bee)s, [jacket](yellow)(yellow jacket)s, [ant](ant)s, [beetle](beetle)s and their larvae. American black bears are also fond of [honey](honey) and will gnaw through trees if hives are too deeply set into the trunks for them to reach it with their paws. Once the hive is breached, the bears will scrape the [honeycomb](honeycomb)s together with their paws and eat them, regardless of stings from the bees. American black bears that live in northern coastal regions (especially the Pacific Coast) will fish for [salmon](salmon) during the night, as their black fur is easily spotted by salmon in the daytime. Other bears, such as the white-furred Kermode bears of the islands of western Canada, have a 30% greater success rate in catching salmon than their black-furred counterparts. Other fish, including [suckers](Catostomidae), [trout](trout) and [catfish](catfish), are readily caught whenever possible. Although American black bears do not often engage in active predation of other large animals for much of the year, the species will regularly prey on [mule](Mule deer) and [deer](white-tailed)(white-tailed deer) fawns in spring, given the opportunity. Bears may catch the scent of hiding fawns when foraging for something else and then sniff them out and pounce on them. As the fawns reach 10 days of age, they can outmaneuver the bears and their scent is soon ignored until the next year. American black bears have also been recorded similarly preying on [elk](elk) calves in Idaho |url=http://www.muledeerworkinggroup.com/Docs/Proceedings/1977-Western%20States%20Elk%20Workshop/Factors%20Affecting%20Calf%20Elk%20Survival%20on%20Coolwater%20Ridge%20in%20No.pdf |last1=Schlegel |first1=M. |year=1976 |title=Factor affecting calf elk survival in north central Idaho |journal=Western Association of State Game and Fish Commission |volume=56 |pages=342–355 |access-date=February 24, 2015 |archive-date=February 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224061024/http://www.muledeerworkinggroup.com/Docs/Proceedings/1977-Western%20States%20Elk%20Workshop/Factors%20Affecting%20Calf%20Elk%20Survival%20on%20Coolwater%20Ridge%20in%20No.pdf |url-status=dead }} and [moose](moose) calves in Alaska.
Predation on adult deer is rare, but it has been recorded. They may even hunt prey up to the size of adult female [moose](moose), which are considerably larger than themselves, by ambushing them. There is at least one record of a male American black bear killing two bull [elk](elk) over the course of six days by chasing them into deep snow banks, which impeded their movements. In [Labrador](Labrador), American black bears are exceptionally carnivorous, living largely off [caribou](Reindeer), usually young, injured, old, sickly or dead specimens, and [rodent](rodent)s such as [vole](vole)s. This is believed to be due to a paucity of edible plant life in this sub-Arctic region and a local lack of competing large carnivores (including other bear species). Like brown bears, American black bears try to use surprise to ambush their prey and target the weak, injured, sickly or dying animals in the herds. Once a deer fawn is captured, it is frequently torn apart alive while feeding. If it is able to capture a mother deer in spring, the bear frequently begins feeding on the udder of lactating females, but generally prefers meat from the [viscera](viscera). American black bears often drag their prey to cover, preferring to feed in seclusion. The skin of large prey is stripped back and turned inside out, with the skeleton usually left largely intact. Unlike gray wolves and coyotes, American black bears rarely scatter the remains of their kills. Vegetation around the carcass is usually matted down by American black bears and their droppings are frequently found nearby. American black bears may attempt to cover remains of larger carcasses, though they do not do so with the same frequency as [cougar](cougar)s and [bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear)s. They will readily consume eggs and nestlings of various [bird](bird)s and can easily access many tree nests, even the huge nests of [eagle](bald)(bald eagle)s. American black bears have been reported stealing deer and other game from human hunters.
### Interspecific predatory relationships
Over much of their range, American black bears are assured [scavenger](scavenger)s that can intimidate, using their large size and considerable strength, and if necessary dominate other predators in confrontations over carcasses. However, on occasions where they encounter [Kodiak](Kodiak bear) or [grizzly](Grizzly bear) bears, the larger two [brown](Brown bear) [subspecies](subspecies) dominate them. American black bears tend to escape competition from brown bears by being more active in the daytime and living in more densely forested areas. Violent interactions, resulting in the deaths of American black bears, have been recorded in [National Park](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone National Park).
American black bears do occasionally compete with [cougar](cougar)s over carcasses. Like brown bears, they will sometimes steal kills from cougars. One study found that both bear species visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and [National Parks](Glacier)(Glacier National Park (U.S.)), usurping 10% of the carcasses. Another study found that American black bears visited 48% of cougar kills in summer in Colorado and 77% of kills in California. As a result, the cats spend more time killing and less time feeding on each kill.
American black bear interactions with [wolves](gray)(Wolf) are much rarer than with brown bears, due to differences in habitat preferences. The majority of American black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species' northern range, with no interactions being recorded in Mexico. Despite the American black bear being more powerful on a one-to-one basis, packs of wolves have been recorded to kill black bears on numerous occasions without eating them. Unlike brown bears, American black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills. Wolf packs typically kill American black bears when the larger animals are in their hibernation cycle.
There is at least one record of an American black bear killing a [wolverine](wolverine) (*Gulo gulo*) in a dispute over food in Yellowstone National Park. Anecdotal cases of [alligator](alligator) predation on American black bears have been reported, though such cases may involve assaults on cubs.["Key West Florida Attractions | Alligator Exhibit"](http://www.keywestaquarium.com/alligator). Key West Aquarium (November 30, 2012). Retrieved 2012-12-20.
At least one [jaguar](jaguar) (*Panthera onca*) has been recorded to have attacked and eaten a black bear: "El Jefe", the jaguar famous for being the first jaguar seen in the United States in over a century.
## Relationships with humans
### In folklore, mythology and culture
[[File:Harry Colebourne and Winnie.jpg|thumb|upright|[Colebourn](Harry)(Harry Colebourn) and [Winnipeg](Winnipeg (bear)), the bear from which [Winnie-the-Pooh](Winnie-the-Pooh) got his name]]
[[american black bear - head 02.jpg|thumb|right|A tame American black bear on a leash](File:Domesticated)]
#### Indigenous
American black bears feature prominently in the stories of some of America's [peoples](indigenous)(indigenous peoples of the Americas). One tale tells of how the black bear was a creation of the [Spirit](Great)(Great Spirit), while the grizzly bear was created by the Evil Spirit.Lippincott, Joshua B. (2009). *Folklore and Legends of the North American Indian*, Abela Publishing Ltd., In the mythology of the [Haida](Haida people), [Tlingit](Tlingit) and [Tsimshian](Tsimshian) people of the Northwest Coast, mankind first learned to respect bears when a girl married the son of a black bear chieftain. In [Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw](Kwakwakaʼwakw) mythology, American black and brown bears became enemies when Grizzly Bear Woman killed Black Bear Woman for being lazy. Black Bear Woman's children, in turn, killed Grizzly Bear Woman's children.[Julia](Averkieva,)(Julia Averkieva) and [Mark](Sherman,)(Mark Sherman (collector)). *Kwakiutl String Figures*, UBC Press, 1992, The [Navajo](Navajo) believed that the Big Black Bear was chief among the bears of the four directions surrounding Sun's house and would pray to it in order to be granted its protection during raids.Clark, LaVerne Harrell (2001). *They Sang for Horses: The Impact of the Horse on Navajo & Apache Folklore*, University Press of Colorado,
[Bear Dunes](Sleeping)(Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore) in [Michigan](Michigan) is named after a Native American legend, where a female bear and her two cubs swam across [Michigan](Lake)(Lake Michigan) to escape a fire on the Wisconsin shore. The mother bear reached the shore and waited for her cubs, but they did not make it across. Two islands mark where the cubs drowned, while the dune marks the spot where the mother bear waited.National Park Service. (2020, September 10). *The story of Sleeping Bear Dunes*. https://www.nps.gov/slbe/learn/kidsyouth/the-story-of-sleeping-bear.htm
#### Anglo-American
[Michtom](Morris)(Morris Michtom), the creator of the [bear](teddy)(teddy bear), was inspired to make the toy when he came across a cartoon of [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) refusing to shoot an American black bear cub tied to a tree. The fictional character [Winnie-the-Pooh](Winnie-the-Pooh) was named after [Winnipeg](Winnipeg (bear)), a female American black bear cub that lived at the [Zoo](London)(London Zoo) from 1915 until her death in 1934.[*A Bear Named Winnie*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070703045949/http://www.cbc.ca/winnie/) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.ca TV (2004) An American black bear cub, who in the spring of 1950 was caught in the [Gap Fire](Capitan)(Capitan Gap Fire), was made into the living representative of [Bear](Smokey)(Smokey Bear), the mascot of the [States Forest Service](United)(United States Forest Service).
[Ted](Terrible)(Terrible Ted (bear)) was a de-toothed and de-clawed American black bear who was forced to perform as a [wrestler](pro)(pro wrestler) and whose "career" lasted from the 1950s to the 1970s. The American black bear is the mascot of the [of Maine](University)(University of Maine) and [University](Baylor)(Baylor University), where the university houses two live American black bears on campus.
### Attacks on humans
[[incidence of bear attacks in parks and campgrounds declined after the introduction of bear-resistant garbage cans and other reforms.](File:Bearmailbox.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The)]
Although an adult bear is quite capable of killing a human, American black bears typically avoid confronting humans. Unlike [bear](grizzly)(grizzly bear)s, which became a subject of fearsome legend among the European settlers of North America, black bears were rarely considered overly dangerous, even though they lived in areas where the pioneers had settled.
American black bears rarely attack when confronted by humans and usually only make mock charges, emit blowing noises and swat the ground with their forepaws. The number of attacks on humans is higher than those by [bear](brown)(brown bear)s in North America, but this is largely because black bears considerably outnumber brown bears. Compared to brown bear attacks, aggressive encounters with American black bears rarely lead to serious injury. Most American black bear attacks tend to be motivated by hunger rather than territoriality and thus victims have a higher probability of surviving by fighting back rather than submitting. Unlike female brown bears, female American black bears are not as protective of their cubs and rarely attack humans in the vicinity of the cubs. However, occasionally such attacks do occur. The worst recorded attack occurred in May 1978, in which an American black bear killed three teenagers fishing in [Park](Algonquin)(Algonquin Park) in [Ontario](Ontario). Another exceptional attack occurred in August 1997 in [River Hot Springs Provincial Park](Liard)(Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Park) in [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), when an emaciated American black bear attacked a mother and child, killing the mother and a man who intervened. The bear was shot while mauling a fourth victim.
The majority of attacks happened in national parks, usually near campgrounds, where the bears had [habituated](habituation) too close human proximity and food. Of 1,028 incidents of aggressive acts toward humans, recorded from 1964 to 1976 in the [Smoky Mountains National Park](Great)(Great Smoky Mountains National Park), 107 resulted in injury and occurred mainly in tourist hot spots where people regularly fed the bears handouts.Kruuk, Hans (2002). *Hunter and Hunted: Relationships Between Carnivores and People*, Cambridge University Press, In almost every case where open garbage dumps that attracted American black bears were closed and handouts ceased, the number of aggressive encounters dropped. However, in the Liard River Hot Springs case, the bear was apparently almost fully dependent on a local garbage dump that had closed and so was starving to death. Attempts to relocate American black bears are typically unsuccessful, as the bears seem able to return to their home range, even without familiar landscape cues.
### Livestock and crop predation
A limitation of food sources in early spring and wild berry and nut crop failures in summer may contribute to American black bears regularly feeding from human-based food sources. These bears often eat crops, especially during autumn hyperphagia when natural foods are scarce. Favored crops include [apple](apple)s, [oat](oat)s and [corn](maize). American black bears can do extensive damage in areas of the northwestern United States by stripping the bark from trees and feeding on the [cambium](Vascular cambium). Livestock depredations occur mostly in spring. Although they occasionally hunt adult [cattle](cattle) and [horse](horse)s, they seem to prefer smaller prey such as [sheep](sheep), [goat](goat)s, [pig](pig)s and young [calves](Cattle#Terminology). They usually kill by biting the neck and shoulders, though they may break the neck or back of the prey with blows with the paws. Evidence of a bear attack includes claw marks and is often found on the neck, back and shoulders of larger animals. [killing](Surplus)(Surplus killing) of sheep and goats are common. American black bears have been known to frighten livestock herds over cliffs, causing injuries and death to many animals; whether or not this is intentional is not known. Occasionally American black bears kill pets, especially [dog](domestic)(Dog)s, which are most prone to harass a bear.["Black Bear Attacks Dog"](http://www.wjhg.com/home/headlines/Black-Bear-Attacks-Dog-163784946.html) . WJHG. Retrieved December 21, 2012. It is not recommended to use unleashed dogs to deter bear attacks. Although large, aggressive dogs can sometimes cause a bear to run, if pressed, angry bears often turn the tables and end up chasing the dogs in return. A bear in pursuit of a pet dog can threaten both [canid](Canidae) and [human](human) lives.["Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Bears"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131120140301/http://www.nps.gov/dena/frequently-asked-questions-regarding-bears.htm). Denali National Park & Preserve, National Park Service. Retrieved December 21, 2012.["Encountering Black Bears in Arkansas"](http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-9087.pdf) . University of Arkansas.
In [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), a group of American black bears were used as [animal](guard)(Guard dog)s to protect a [marijuana](marijuana) plantation.
### Hunting
The hunting of American black bears has taken place since the initial [of the Americas](settlement)(settlement of the Americas). The first piece of evidence dates to a [site](Clovis)(Clovis culture) at [Ranch](Lehner)(Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site), [Arizona](Arizona). Partially [calcined](Calcination) teeth of a 3-month old black bear cub came from a roasting pit, suggesting the bear cub was eaten. The surrounding charcoal was dated to the [Holocene](Early)(Greenlandian) (10,940 BP). Black bear remains also appear to be associated with early peoples in [Tlapacoya](Tlapacoya (archeological site)), [Mexico](Mexico). Native Americans increasingly utilized black bears during the [Holocene](Holocene), particularly in the late Holocene [Midwest](upper)(upper Midwest), e.g., [Hopewell](Hopewell tradition) and [Mississippian](Mississippian culture) cultures.
Some Native American tribes, in admiration for the American black bear's intelligence, would decorate the heads of bears they killed with trinkets and place them on blankets. Tobacco smoke would be wafted into the disembodied head's nostrils by the hunter that dealt the killing blow, who would compliment the animal for its courage. The [Kutchin](Kutchin) typically hunted American black bears during their hibernation cycle. Unlike the hunting of hibernating grizzly bears, which was fraught with danger, hibernating American black bears took longer to awaken and hunting them was thus safer and easier. During the European colonisation of eastern North America, thousands of American black bears were hunted for their meat, fat and fur. [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) wrote extensively on American black bear hunting in his *Hunting the Grisly and other sketches*, in which he stated,
}}
He wrote that American black bears were difficult to hunt by stalking, due to their habitat preferences, though they were easy to trap. Roosevelt described how, in the southern states, planters regularly hunted American black bears on horseback with hounds. [Wade Hampton](General)(Wade Hampton III) was known to have been present at 500 successful American black bear hunts, two-thirds of which he killed personally. He killed 30 or 40 American black bears with only a knife, which he would use to stab the bears between the shoulder blades while they were distracted by his hounds. Unless well trained, horses were often useless in American black bear hunts, as they often bolted when the bears stood their ground. In 1799, 192,000 American black bear skins were exported from [Quebec](Quebec). In 1822, 3,000 skins were exported from the [Bay Company](Hudson's)(Hudson's Bay Company).[Charles Frederick](Partington,)(Charles Frederick Partington) (1835). *The British Cyclopædia of Natural History: Combining a Scientific Classification of Animals, Plants, and Minerals*, Vol. 1, Orr & Smith. In 1992, untanned, fleshed and salted American black bear hides were sold for an average of $165.
In Canada, American black bears are considered as both a big game and furbearer species in all provinces, save for New Brunswick and the Northwest Territories, where they are only classed as a big game species. There are around 80,900 licensed American black bear hunters in all of Canada. Canadian black bear hunts take place in the fall and spring and both male and female bears can be legally taken, though some provinces prohibit the hunting of females with cubs, or yearlings.
Currently, 28 of the [state](U.S.)(U.S. state)s have American black bear hunting seasons. Nineteen states require a bear hunting license, with some also requiring a big game license. In eight states, only a big game license is required to hunt American black bears. Overall, over 481,500 American black bear hunting licenses are sold per year. The hunting methods and seasons vary greatly according to state, with some bear hunting seasons including fall only, spring and fall, or year-round. [Jersey](New)(New Jersey), in November 2010, approved a six-day bear-hunting season in early December 2010 to slow the growth of the American black bear population. Bear hunting had been banned in New Jersey for five years before that time. A [Dickinson University](Fairleigh)(Fairleigh Dickinson University) PublicMind poll found that 53% of New Jersey voters approved of the new season if scientists concluded that American black bears were leaving their usual habitats and destroying private property. Men, older voters and those living in rural areas were more likely to approve of a bear hunting season in New Jersey than women, younger voters and those living in more developed parts of the state. In the western states, where there are large American black bear populations, there are spring and year-round seasons. Approximately 18,000 American black bears were killed annually in the U.S. between 1988 and 1992. Within this period, annual kills ranged from six bears in [Carolina](South)(South Carolina) to 2,232 in [Maine](Maine).
According to Dwight Schuh in his ''Bowhunter's Encyclopedia*, American black bears are the third most popular quarry of [bowhunters](Bowhunting), behind deer and elk.Schuh, Dwight R. (1992). *Bowhunter's Encyclopedia'', Stackpole Books,
#### Meat
American black bear meat had historically been held in high esteem among North America's indigenous people and colonists. American black bears were the only bear species the Kutchin hunted for their meat, though this constituted only a small part of their diet.Nelson, Richard K. (1986). *Hunters of the Northern Forest: Designs for Survival Among the Alaskan Kutchin*, University of Chicago Press, According to the second volume of ''[Forester](Frank)(Frank Forester)'s Field Sports of the United States, and British Provinces, of North America*:
[Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) himself likened the flesh of young American black bears to that of pork, and not as coarse or flavorless as the meat of grizzly bears.Roosevelt, Theodore. *Hunting Trips of a Ranchman: Hunting Trips on the Prairie and in the Mountains'', Adamant Media Corporation, The most favored cuts of the American black bear's meat are concentrated in the legs and loins. Meat from the neck, front legs and shoulders is usually ground into [meat](minced)(Ground meat) or used for [stew](stew)s and [casserole](casserole)s. Keeping the fat on tends to give the meat a strong flavor. As American black bears can have [trichinellosis](trichinellosis), cooking temperatures need to be high in order to kill the parasites.Smith, Richard P. (2007). *Black Bear Hunting*, Stackpole Books,
American black bear fat was once valued as a [cosmetic](cosmetics) article that promoted hair growth and gloss. The fat most favored for this purpose was the hard white fat found in the body's interior. As only a small portion of this fat could be harvested for this purpose, the oil was often mixed with large quantities of hog lard. However, [rights](animal)(animal rights) activism over the last decade has slowed the harvest of these animals; therefore the lard from American black bears has not been used in recent years for the purpose of cosmetics.
## See also
* [of fatal bear attacks in North America](List)(List of fatal bear attacks in North America)
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
## External links
*
* [Wildlifeinformation.org: American Black Bear Conservation Action Plan](https://web.archive.org/web/20110723235737/http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/000ADOBES/Bears/Bears_IUCN_ActionPlan/bearsAP_chapter8.pdf)
[black bears](Category:American)(Category:American black bears)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[Piacenzian first appearances](Category:Extant)(Category:Extant Piacenzian first appearances)
[American black](Bear,)(Category:Hunting in the United States)
[described in 1780](Category:Mammals)(Category:Mammals described in 1780)
[American black](Bear,)(Category:Mammals of North America)
[mammals of North America](Category:Pleistocene)(Category:Pleistocene mammals of North America)
[carnivorans](Category:Pliocene)(Category:Pliocene carnivorans)
[mammals of North America](Category:Pliocene)(Category:Pliocene mammals of North America)
[carnivorans](Category:Quaternary)(Category:Quaternary carnivorans)
[mammals of North America](Category:Quaternary)(Category:Quaternary mammals of North America)
[Category:Scavengers](Category:Scavengers)
[of Alabama](Category:Symbols)(Category:Symbols of Alabama)
[of West Virginia](Category:Symbols)(Category:Symbols of West Virginia)
[named by Peter Simon Pallas](Category:Taxa)(Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas)
[(mammal)](Category:Ursus)(Category:Ursus (mammal))
|
Agatha Christie
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agatha_christie
|
# Agatha Christie
*Revision ID: 1160158312 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:56:13Z*
---
| image = Agatha Christie.png
| alt = Black and white portrait photograph of Christie as a middle-aged woman
| caption = Christie in 1958
| pseudonym = Mary Westmacott
| birth_name = Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Torquay](Torquay), Devon, England
| death_date =
| death_place = Winterbrook House, [Oxfordshire](Wallingford,)(Wallingford, Oxfordshire), England
| resting_place = Church of St Mary, [Cholsey](Cholsey), Oxfordshire
| occupation =
| genre =
| movement = [Age of Detective Fiction](Golden)(Golden Age of Detective Fiction)
| notableworks =
| spouses =
*
}}
| children = [Hicks](Rosalind)(Rosalind Hicks)
| relatives = [Watts](James)(James Watts (British politician)) (nephew)
| signature = Agatha Christie's signature.png
| website =
}}
**Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan**, (; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English writer known for her 66 [novel](detective)(detective novel)s and 14 short story collections, particularly those revolving around fictional detectives [Poirot](Hercule)(Hercule Poirot) and [Marple](Miss)(Miss Marple). She also wrote the world's longest-running play, the murder mystery *[Mousetrap](The)(The Mousetrap)*, which has been performed in the [End](West)(West End theatre) since 1952. A writer during the "[Age of Detective Fiction](Golden)(Golden Age of Detective Fiction)", Christie has been called the "Queen of Crime". She also wrote six novels under the pseudonym **Mary Westmacott**. In 1971, she was made a Dame (DBE) by Queen [II](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth II) for her contributions to literature. *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)* lists Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time, her novels having sold more than two billion copies.
Christie was born into a wealthy upper middle class family in [Torquay](Torquay), Devon, and was largely home-schooled. She was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections, but this changed in 1920 when *[Mysterious Affair at Styles](The)(The Mysterious Affair at Styles)*, featuring detective Hercule Poirot, was published. Her first husband was [Christie](Archibald)(Archie Christie); they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928. Following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926 she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days. During both World Wars, she served in hospital dispensaries, acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels, short stories, and plays. Following her marriage to [archaeologist](archaeologist) [Mallowan](Max)(Max Mallowan) in 1930, she spent several months each year on [digs](Excavation (archaeology)) in the Middle East and used her first-hand knowledge of this profession in her fiction.
According to [UNESCO](UNESCO)'s [Translationum](Index)(Index Translationum), she remains the [individual author](most-translated)(list of most translated individual authors). Her novel *[Then There Were None](And)(And Then There Were None)* is one of the [books](top-selling)(List of best-selling books) of all time, with approximately 100 million copies sold. Christie's stage play *The Mousetrap* holds the world record for the longest initial run. It opened at the [Theatre](Ambassadors)(Ambassadors Theatre (London)) in the West End on 25 November 1952, and by September 2018 there had been more than 27,500 performances. The play was temporarily closed in March 2020 because of [lockdowns](COVID-19)(COVID-19 lockdowns) in London before it reopened in May 2021.
In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the [Writers of America](Mystery)(Mystery Writers of America)'s [Master Award](Grand)(MWA Grand Master Award). Later that year, *[for the Prosecution](Witness)(Witness for the Prosecution (play))* received an [Award](Edgar)(Edgar Award) for best play. In 2013, she was voted the best crime writer and *[Murder of Roger Ackroyd](The)(The Murder of Roger Ackroyd)* the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the [Writers' Association](Crime)(Crime Writers' Association). In September 2015, *And Then There Were None* was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. Many of Christie's books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games, and graphic novels. More than 30 feature films are based on her work.
## Life and career
### Childhood and adolescence: 1890–1907
[[Christie by Douglas John Connah.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Portrait of Christie entitled *Lost in Reverie*, by Douglas John Connah, 1894](File:Agatha)]
Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller was born on 15 September 1890, into a wealthy [middle class](upper)(upper middle class) family in [Torquay](Torquay), Devon. She was the youngest of three children born to Frederick Alvah Miller, "a [gentleman](gentleman) of substance", and his wife Clarissa Margaret "Clara" Miller, née Boehmer.*Marriage Register*. St Peter's Church, Bayswater [Hill](Notting), Middlesex, 1878, No. 399, p. 200.*Birth Certificate*. [Register Office for England and Wales](General)(General Register Office for England and Wales), 1890 September Quarter, Newton Abbot, volume 5b, p. 151. [forenames were not registered.](Christie's)*Baptism Register*. Parish of Tormohun, Devon, 1890, No. 267, [n.p.].
Christie's mother Clara was born in [Dublin](Dublin) in 1854: Frederick Boehmer, 91st Foot. [National Archives](The)(The National Archives (United Kingdom)), Kew. WO 76/456, p. 57. [states his daughter Clarissa Margaret was baptised in Dublin.](Also)|group=lower-alpha}} to [Army](British)(British Army during the Victorian Era) officer Frederick Boehmer and his wife Mary Ann Boehmer née West. Boehmer died in [Jersey](Jersey) in 1863,|group=lower-alpha}} leaving his widow to raise Clara and her brothers on a meagre income. Two weeks after Boehmer's death, Mary's sister Margaret West married widowed dry goods merchant Nathaniel Frary Miller, a US citizen.[*Marriage Register*](https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LM7-W15?i=299). Parish of Westbourne, Sussex, 1863, No. 318, p. 159. To assist Mary financially, they agreed to foster nine-year-old Clara; the family settled in [Timperley](Timperley), Cheshire.[Naturalisation Papers](https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C7314015) : Miller, Nathaniel Frary, from the United States. Certificate 4798 issued 25 August 1865. [National Archives](The)(The National Archives (United Kingdom)), Kew. HO 1/123/4798. Margaret and Nathaniel had no children together, but Nathaniel had a 17-year-old son, Fred Miller, from his previous marriage. Fred was born in New York City and travelled extensively after leaving his Swiss boarding school. He and Clara were married in London in 1878. Their first child, Margaret Frary ("Madge"), was born in Torquay in 1879.*Birth Certificate*. [Register Office for England and Wales](General)(General Register Office for England and Wales), 1879 March Quarter, Newton Abbot, volume 5b, p. 162. The second, Louis Montant ("Monty"), was born in [New Jersey](Morristown,)(Morristown, New Jersey), in 1880, while the family was on an extended visit to the United States.
When Fred's father died in 1869,*Death Certificate*. [Register Office for England and Wales](General)(General Register Office for England and Wales), 1869 June Quarter, Westbourne, volume 02B, p. 230. he left Clara £2,000 (approximately ); in 1881 they used this to buy the [leasehold](Leasehold estate) of a villa in Torquay named [Ashfield](Ashfield, Torquay). It was here that their third and last child, Agatha, was born in 1890. She described her childhood as "very happy". The Millers lived mainly in Devon but often visited her step-grandmother/great-aunt Margaret Miller in [Ealing](Ealing) and maternal grandmother Mary Boehmer in [Bayswater](Bayswater). A year was spent abroad with her family, in the [Pyrenees](French)(Pyrenees), Paris, [Dinard](Dinard), and [Guernsey](Guernsey). Because her siblings were so much older, and there were few children in their neighbourhood, Christie spent much of her time playing alone with her pets and imaginary companions. She eventually made friends with other girls in Torquay, noting that "one of the highlights of my existence" was her appearance with them in a youth production of [and Sullivan](Gilbert)(Gilbert and Sullivan)'s *[Yeomen of the Guard](The)(The Yeomen of the Guard)*, in which she played the hero, Colonel Fairfax.
[[Christie as a child No 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Christie as a girl, early 1900s|alt=Black-and-white portrait photograph of Christie as a girl](File:Agatha)]
According to Christie, Clara believed she should not learn to read until she was eight; thanks to her curiosity, she was reading by the age of four. Her sister had been sent to a boarding school, but their mother insisted that Christie receive her education at home. As a result, her parents and sister supervised her studies in reading, writing and basic arithmetic, a subject she particularly enjoyed. They also taught her music, and she learned to play the piano and the mandolin.
Christie was a voracious reader from an early age. Among her earliest memories were of reading children's books by [Molesworth](Mrs)(Mary Louisa Molesworth) and [Nesbit](Edith)(Edith Nesbit). When a little older, she moved on to the surreal verse of [Lear](Edward)(Edward Lear) and [Carroll](Lewis)(Lewis Carroll). As an adolescent, she enjoyed works by [Hope](Anthony)(Anthony Hope), [Scott](Walter)(Walter Scott), [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens), and [Dumas](Alexandre)(Alexandre Dumas). In April 1901, aged 10, she wrote her first poem, "The Cow Slip".
By 1901, her father's health had deteriorated, because of what he believed were heart problems. Fred died in November 1901 from [pneumonia](pneumonia) and chronic [disease](kidney)(kidney disease).Death Certificate. [Register Office for England and Wales](General)(General Register Office for England and Wales), 1901 December Quarter, Brentford, volume 3A, p. 71. ("Cause of Death. [disease](Bright's)(Bright's disease), chronic. [Pneumonia](Pneumonia). Coma and heart failure.") Christie later said that her father's death when she was 11 marked the end of her childhood.
The family's financial situation had, by this time, worsened. Madge married the year after their father's death and moved to [Cheadle](Cheadle Hulme), Cheshire; Monty was overseas, serving in a British regiment. Christie now lived alone at Ashfield with her mother. In 1902, she began attending Miss Guyer's Girls' School in Torquay but found it difficult to adjust to the disciplined atmosphere. In 1905, her mother sent her to Paris, where she was educated in a series of (boarding schools), focusing on voice training and piano playing. Deciding she lacked the temperament and talent, she gave up her goal of performing professionally as a concert pianist or an opera singer.
### Early literary attempts, marriage, literary success: 1907–1926
After completing her education, Christie returned to England to find her mother ailing. They decided to spend the northern winter of 1907–1908 in the warm climate of Egypt, which was then a regular tourist destination for wealthy Britons. They stayed for three months at the [Palace](Gezirah)(Gezirah Palace) Hotel in [Cairo](Cairo). Christie attended many dances and other social functions; she particularly enjoyed watching amateur polo matches. While they visited some ancient Egyptian monuments such as the [Pyramid of Giza](Great)(Great Pyramid of Giza), she did not exhibit the great interest in [archaeology](archaeology) and [Egyptology](Egyptology) that developed in her later years. Returning to Britain, she continued her social activities, writing and performing in amateur theatrics. She also helped put on a play called *The Blue Beard of Unhappiness* with female friends.
At 18, Christie wrote her first short story, "The House of Beauty", while recovering in bed from an illness. It consisted of about 6,000 words about "madness and dreams", subjects of fascination for her. Her biographer [Morgan](Janet)(Janet Morgan, Lady Balfour of Burleigh) has commented that, despite "infelicities of style", the story was "compelling". (The story became an early version of her story [House of Dreams"]("The)(While the Light Lasts and Other Stories).) Other stories followed, most of them illustrating her interest in [spiritualism](spiritualism) and the [paranormal](paranormal). These included "[Call of Wings](The)(The Hound of Death#The Call of Wings)" and "The Little Lonely God". Magazines rejected all her early submissions, made under pseudonyms (including Mac Miller, Nathaniel Miller, and Sydney West); some submissions were later revised and published under her real name, often with new titles.
[[Christie as a young woman.jpg|thumb|upright|Christie as a young woman, 1910s](File:Agatha)]
Around the same time, Christie began work on her first novel, *Snow Upon the Desert*. Writing under the pseudonym Monosyllaba, she set the book in Cairo and drew upon her recent experiences there. She was disappointed when the six publishers she contacted declined the work. Clara suggested that her daughter ask for advice from the successful novelist [Phillpotts](Eden)(Eden Phillpotts), a family friend and neighbour, who responded to her enquiry, encouraged her writing, and sent her an introduction to his own literary agent, Hughes Massie, who also rejected *Snow Upon the Desert* but suggested a second novel.
Meanwhile, Christie's social activities expanded, with country house parties, riding, hunting, dances, and roller skating. She had short-lived relationships with four men and an engagement to another. In October 1912, she was introduced to ["Archie" Christie](Archibald)(Archie Christie) at a dance given by [and Lady Clifford](Lord)(Baron Clifford of Chudleigh) at [Ugbrooke](Ugbrooke), about from Torquay. The son of a [barrister](barrister) in the [Civil Service](Indian)(Indian Civil Service), Archie was a [Artillery](Royal)(Royal Artillery) officer who was seconded to the [Flying Corps](Royal)(Royal Flying Corps) in April 1913. The couple quickly fell in love. Three months after their first meeting, Archie proposed marriage, and Agatha accepted.
[[File:Nurse at Ashfield.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Christie as a nurse in the [Aid Detachment](Voluntary)(Voluntary Aid Detachment) of the British Red Cross. She is pictured outside her childhood home of [Ashfield](Ashfield, Torquay) in 1915.]]
With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Archie was sent to France to fight. They married on Christmas Eve 1914 at Emmanuel Church, [Clifton](Clifton, Bristol), Bristol, close to the home of his mother and stepfather, when Archie was on home leave.*Marriage Register*. Parish of Emmanuel, Clifton, 1914, No. 305, p. 153. Rising through the ranks, he was posted back to Britain in September 1918 as a colonel in the [Ministry](Air)(Air Ministry). Christie involved herself in the war effort as a member of the [Aid Detachment](Voluntary)(Voluntary Aid Detachment) of the [Red Cross](British)(British Red Cross). From October 1914 to May 1915, then from June 1916 to September 1918, she worked 3,400 hours in the [Hall Red Cross Hospital](Town)(Torquay Town Hall), Torquay, first as a nurse (unpaid) then as a dispenser at £16 (approximately ) a year from 1917 after qualifying as an apothecary's assistant. Her war service ended in September 1918 when Archie was reassigned to London, and they rented a flat in [John's Wood](St.)(St. John's Wood).
Christie had long been a fan of detective novels, having enjoyed [Collins](Wilkie)(Wilkie Collins)'s *[Woman in White](The)(The Woman in White (novel))* and *[Moonstone](The)(The Moonstone)*, and [Conan Doyle](Arthur)(Arthur Conan Doyle)'s early [Holmes](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes) stories. She wrote her first detective novel, *[Mysterious Affair at Styles](The)(The Mysterious Affair at Styles)*, in 1916. It featured [Poirot](Hercule)(Hercule Poirot), a former Belgian police officer with "magnificent moustaches" and a head "exactly the shape of an egg", who had taken refuge in Britain after Germany invaded Belgium. Christie's inspiration for the character came from Belgian refugees living in Torquay, and the Belgian soldiers she helped to treat as a volunteer nurse during the First World War. Her original manuscript was rejected by [& Stoughton](Hodder)(Hodder & Stoughton) and [Methuen](Methuen Publishing). After keeping the submission for several months, [Lane](John)(John Lane (publisher)) at [Bodley Head](The)(The Bodley Head) offered to accept it, provided that Christie change how the solution was revealed. She did so, and signed a contract committing her next five books to The Bodley Head, which she later felt was exploitative. It was published in 1920.
[[Empire Tour 1922 Belcher.jpg|alt=Black-and-white photograph of three men in suits and one woman seated in a room and looking at an open newspaper|thumb|Archie Christie, Major Belcher (tour leader), Mr. Bates (secretary) and Agatha Christie on the 1922 British Empire Expedition Tour](File:British)]
Christie settled into married life, giving birth to her only child, [Margaret Clarissa](Rosalind)(Rosalind Hicks) (later Hicks), in August 1919 at Ashfield. Archie left the Air Force at the end of the war and began working in [City](the)(The City of London) financial sector on a relatively low salary. They still employed a maid. Her second novel, *[Secret Adversary](The)(The Secret Adversary)* (1922), featured a new detective couple [and Tuppence](Tommy)(Tommy and Tuppence), again published by The Bodley Head. It earned her £50 (approximately ). A third novel, *[on the Links](Murder)(Murder on the Links)*, again featured Poirot, as did the short stories commissioned by [Ingram](Bruce)(Bruce Ingram), editor of *[Sketch](The)(The Sketch)* magazine, from 1923. She now had no difficulty selling her work.
In 1922, the Christies joined an around-the-world promotional tour for the [Empire Exhibition](British)(British Empire Exhibition), led by Major [Belcher](Ernest)(Ernest Belcher). Leaving their daughter with Agatha's mother and sister, in 10 months they travelled to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Canada. They learned to [surf](surfing) prone in South Africa; then, in [Waikiki](Waikiki), they were among the first Britons to surf standing up, and extended their time there by three months to practise. She is remembered at the British Surfing Museum as having said about surfing, "*Oh it was heaven! Nothing like rushing through the water at what seems to you a speed of about two hundred miles an hour. It is one of the most perfect physical pleasures I have known*."
When they returned to England, Archie resumed work in the city, and Christie continued to work hard at her writing. After living in a series of apartments in London, they bought a house in [Sunningdale](Sunningdale), Berkshire, which they renamed Styles after the mansion in Christie's first detective novel.
Christie's mother, [Miller](Clarissa)(Clarissa Miller), died in April 1926. They had been exceptionally close, and the loss sent Christie into a deep depression. In August 1926, reports appeared in the press that Christie had gone to a village near [Biarritz](Biarritz) to recuperate from a "breakdown" caused by "overwork".
### Disappearance: 1926
[[File:Christie at Hydro.jpg|thumb|upright|*[Herald](Daily)(Daily Herald (UK newspaper))*, 15 December 1926, announcing that Christie had been found. Missing for 11 days, she was found at the [Hydropathic Hotel](Swan)(Old Swan Hotel) in [Harrogate](Harrogate), Yorkshire|alt=Newspaper article with portraits of Agatha and Archie Christie]]
In August 1926, Archie asked Agatha for a divorce. He had fallen in love with Nancy Neele, a friend of Major Belcher. On 3December 1926, the pair quarrelled after Archie announced his plan to spend the weekend with friends, unaccompanied by his wife. Late that evening, Christie disappeared from their home in Sunningdale. The following morning, her car, a [Cowley](Morris)(Morris Cowley), was discovered at [Corner](Newlands)(Newlands Corner) in [Surrey](Surrey), parked above a chalk quarry with an expired driving licence and clothes inside. It was feared that she may have drowned herself in the [Pool](Silent)(Silent Pool), a nearby beauty spot.
The disappearance quickly became a news story, as the press sought to satisfy their readers' "hunger for sensation, disaster, and scandal". [Secretary](Home)(Home Secretary) [Joynson-Hicks](William)(William Joynson-Hicks) pressured police, and a newspaper offered a £100 reward (approximately ). More than a thousand police officers, 15,000 volunteers, and several aeroplanes searched the rural landscape. [Arthur Conan Doyle](Sir)(Sir Arthur Conan Doyle) gave a spirit medium one of Christie's gloves to find her. Christie's disappearance made international headlines, including featuring on the front page of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Despite the extensive manhunt, she was not found for another 10 days. On 14 December 1926, she was located at the [Hydropathic Hotel](Swan)(Old Swan Hotel) in [Harrogate](Harrogate), Yorkshire, north of her home in Sunningdale, registered as "Mrs Tressa Neele" (the surname of her husband's lover) from " S.A." (South Africa). The next day, Christie left for her sister's residence at [Hall](Abney)(Abney Hall), Cheadle, where she was sequestered "in guarded hall, gates locked, telephone cut off, and callers turned away".
Christie's autobiography makes no reference to the disappearance. Two doctors diagnosed her with "an unquestionable genuine loss of memory", yet opinion remains divided over the reason for her disappearance. Some, including her biographer Morgan, believe she disappeared during a [state](fugue)(fugue state). The author Jared Cade concluded that Christie planned the event to embarrass her husband but did not anticipate the resulting public melodrama. Christie biographer Laura Thompson provides an alternative view that Christie disappeared during a nervous breakdown, conscious of her actions but not in emotional control of herself. Public reaction at the time was largely negative, supposing a publicity stunt or an attempt to frame her husband for murder.}}
### Second marriage and later life: 1927–1976
[[File:Hotel Pera Palace - Istanbul.jpg|thumb|Christie's room at the [Palace Hotel](Pera)(Pera Palace Hotel) in [Istanbul](Istanbul), where the hotel claims she wrote *[on the Orient Express](Murder)(Murder on the Orient Express)*|alt=Colour photograph of a hotel room with Christie memorabilia on the walls]]
In January 1927, Christie, looking "very pale", sailed with her daughter and secretary to [Palmas](Las)(Las Palmas), Canary Islands, to "complete her convalescence", returning three months later.[Inwards Passenger Lists](https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C9438379) . [National Archives](The)(The National Archives (United Kingdom)), Kew. Board of Trade: Commercial and Statistical Department and successors, BT26/837/112.|group=lower-alpha}} Christie petitioned for divorce and was granted a [nisi](decree)(decree nisi) against her husband in April 1928, which was made absolute in October 1928. Archie married Nancy Neele a week later. Christie retained custody of their daughter, Rosalind, and kept the Christie surname for her writing.
Reflecting on the period in her autobiography, Christie wrote, "So, after illness, came sorrow, despair and heartbreak. There is no need to dwell on it."
In 1928, Christie left England and took the [Orient Express]((Simplon))(Orient Express) to [Istanbul](Istanbul) and then to [Baghdad](Baghdad). In Iraq, she became friends with archaeologist [Woolley](Leonard)(Leonard Woolley) and his wife, who invited her to return to their dig in February 1930. On that second trip, she met archaeologist [Mallowan](Max)(Max Mallowan), 13 years her junior. In a 1977 interview, Mallowan recounted his first meeting with Christie, when he took her and a group of tourists on a tour of his expedition site in Iraq. Christie and Mallowan married in [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) in September 1930.*Marriage Certificate*. ScotlandStatutory Register of Marriages, 685/04 0938, 11 September 1930, District of St Giles, Edinburgh. Their marriage lasted until Christie's death in 1976. She accompanied Mallowan on his archaeological expeditions, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the Middle East. Other novels (such as *[at End House](Peril)(Peril at End House)*) were set in and around Torquay, where she was raised. Christie drew on her experience of international train travel when writing her 1934 novel *[on the Orient Express](Murder)(Murder on the Orient Express)*. The [Palace Hotel](Pera)(Pera Palace Hotel) in Istanbul, the eastern terminus of the railway, claims the book was written there and maintains Christie's room as a memorial to the author.|group=lower-alpha}}
[[File:Cresswell Place.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Cresswell Place, [Chelsea](Chelsea, London)|alt=Colour photograph of the front of a three-storey house]]
Christie and Mallowan first lived in Cresswell Place in [Chelsea](Chelsea, London), and later in Sheffield Terrace in [Kensington](Kensington). Both properties are now marked by [plaque](blue)(blue plaque)s. In 1934, they bought Winterbrook House in [Winterbrook](Winterbrook), a hamlet near [Wallingford](Wallingford, Oxfordshire). This was their main residence for the rest of their lives and the place where Christie did much of her writing. This house also bears a blue plaque. Christie led a quiet life despite being known in Wallingford; from 1951 to 1976 she served as president of the local [dramatic society](amateur)(amateur dramatic society).
The couple acquired the [Estate](Greenway)(Greenway Estate) in Devon as a summer residence in 1938; it was given to the [Trust](National)(National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty) in 2000. Christie frequently stayed at [Hall](Abney)(Abney Hall), [Cheshire](Cheshire), which was owned by her brother-in-law, James Watts, and based at least two stories there: a short story, "[Adventure of the Christmas Pudding](The)(The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding)", in the story collection of the same name and the novel *[the Funeral](After)(After the Funeral)*. One Christie [compendium](compendium) notes that "Abney became Agatha's greatest inspiration for country house life, with all its servants and grandeur being woven into her plots. The descriptions of the fictional Chimneys, Stonygates, and other houses in her stories are mostly Abney Hall in various forms."
[[File:DAME AGATHA CHRISTIE 1890-1976 Detective novelist and playwright lived here 1934-1941.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[plaque](Blue)(Blue plaque) at 58 Sheffield Terrace, [Park](Holland)(Holland Park), London|alt=Colour photograph of a wall plaque stating Christie "lived here 1934–1941"]]
[[File:Winterbrook House-geograph-1848557-by-Bill-Nicholls.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Winterbrook House, [Winterbrook](Winterbrook), [Oxfordshire](Oxfordshire). Her final home, Christie lived here with her husband from 1934 until her death in 1976.]]
During World War II, Christie moved to London and lived in a flat at the [Isokon](Isokon Flats) in [Hampstead](Hampstead), whilst working in the pharmacy at [College Hospital](University)(University College Hospital) (UCH), London, where she updated her knowledge of poisons.Worsley, Lucy (2022) *Agatha Christie*, Hodder & Stoughton Her later novel *[Pale Horse](The)(The Pale Horse)* was based on a suggestion from Harold Davis, the chief pharmacist at UCH. In 1977, a [poisoning](thallium)(thallium poisoning) case was solved by British medical personnel who had read Christie's book and recognised the symptoms she described.John Emsley, ["The poison prescribed by Agatha Christie"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-poison-prescribed-by-agatha-christie-thanks-to-the-mystery-writer-the-deadly-properties-of-thallium-sulphate-have-become-common-knowledge-corrected-1534450.html) , *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*, 20 July 1992.
The British intelligence agency [MI5](MI5) investigated Christie after a character called Major Bletchley appeared in her 1941 thriller *[or M?](N)(N or M?)*, which was about a hunt for a pair of deadly [column](fifth)(fifth column)ists in wartime England. MI5 was concerned that Christie had a spy in Britain's top-secret codebreaking centre, [Park](Bletchley)(Bletchley Park). The agency's fears were allayed when Christie told her friend, the codebreaker [Knox](Dilly)(Dilly Knox), "I was stuck there on my way by train from Oxford to London and took revenge by giving the name to one of my least lovable characters."
Christie was elected a [fellow](fellow) of the [Society of Literature](Royal)(Royal Society of Literature) in 1950. In honour of her many literary works, Christie was appointed [of the Order of the British Empire](Commander)(Commander of the Order of the British Empire) (CBE) in the [New Year Honours](1956)(1956 New Year Honours). She was co-president of the [Club](Detection)(Detection Club) from 1958 to her death in 1976. In 1961, she was awarded an honorary [of Literature](Doctor)(Doctor of Letters) [degree](Honorary degree) by the [of Exeter](University)(University of Exeter). In the [New Year Honours](1971)(1971 New Year Honours), she was promoted to [Commander of the Order of the British Empire](Dame)(Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire) (DBE), three years after her husband had been [knighted](Knight Bachelor) for his archaeological work. After her husband's knighthood, Christie could also be [styled](Style (manner of address)) Lady Mallowan.
From 1971 to 1974, Christie's health began to fail, but she continued to write. Her last novel was *[of Fate](Postern)(Postern of Fate)* in 1973. [analysis](Textual)(content analysis) suggested that Christie may have begun to develop [disease](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's disease) or other [dementia](dementia) at about this time.
### Personal qualities
[[File:Agatha Christie in Nederland (detectiveschrijfster), bij aankomst op Schiphol me, Bestanddeelnr 916-8898 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Christie at [Airport](Schiphol)(Amsterdam Airport Schiphol), 17 September 1964|alt=Black-and-white portrait photograph of Christie in later life|left]]
In 1946, Christie said of herself: "My chief dislikes are crowds, loud noises, [gramophone](gramophone)s and cinemas. I dislike the taste of alcohol and do not like smoking. I *do* like sun, sea, flowers, travelling, strange foods, sports, concerts, theatres, pianos, and doing embroidery."
Christie was a lifelong, "quietly devout" member of the [of England](Church)(Church of England), attended church regularly, and kept her mother's copy of *[Imitation of Christ](The)(The Imitation of Christ)* by her bedside. After her divorce, she stopped taking the [sacrament](sacrament) of [communion](Eucharist).
The Agatha Christie Trust For Children was established in 1969, and shortly after Christie's death a charitable memorial fund was set up to "help two causes that she favoured: old people and young children".
Christie's obituary in *[Times](The)(The Times)* notes that "she never cared much for the cinema, or for wireless and television." Further,
she won local prizes for horticultureand buying furniture for her various houses. She was a shy person: she disliked public appearances; but she was friendly and sharp-witted to meet. By inclination as well as breeding, she belonged to the English upper middle class. She wrote about, and for, people like herself. That was an essential part of her charm.}}
## Death and estate
### Death and burial
[[File:Agatha christie's grave.jpg|thumb|upright|Christie's [gravestone](gravestone) at St Mary's Church, [Cholsey](Cholsey), Oxfordshire|alt=Colour photograph of a sandstone headstone]]
Christie died peacefully on 12 January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home at Winterbrook House. When her death was announced, two [End](West)(West End theatre) theatresthe [Martin's](St.)(St Martin's Theatre), where *[Mousetrap](The)(The Mousetrap)* was playing, and [Savoy](the)(Savoy Theatre), which was home to a revival of *Murder at the Vicarage*dimmed their outside lights in her honour. She was buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey, in a plot she had chosen with her husband 10 years previously. The simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and TV reporters, some having travelled from as far away as South America. Thirty wreaths adorned Christie's grave, including one from the cast of her long-running play *The Mousetrap* and one sent "on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers" by the Ulverscroft Large Print Book Publishers.
Mallowan, who remarried in 1977, died in 1978 and was buried next to Christie.
### Estate and subsequent ownership of works
Christie was unhappy about becoming "an employed wage slave", and for tax reasons set up a [company](private)(private limited company) in 1955, Agatha Christie Limited, to hold the rights to her works. In about 1959 she transferred her 278-acre home, Greenway Estate, to her daughter, [Hicks](Rosalind)(Rosalind Hicks).["Obituary: Rosalind Hicks"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1476488/Rosalind-Hicks.html) , *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)*, 13 November 2004. Retrieved 25 January 2015. In 1968, when Christie was almost 80, she sold a 51% stake in Agatha Christie Limited (and the works it owned) to Booker Books (better known as [Author's Division](Booker)(Booker Group#Booker Author's Division)), which by 1977 had increased its stake to 64%. Agatha Christie Limited still owns the worldwide rights for more than 80 of Christie's novels and short stories, 19 plays, and nearly 40 TV films.
In the late 1950s, Christie had reputedly been earning around £100,000 (approximately ) per year. Christie sold an estimated 300 million books during her lifetime. At the time of her death in 1976, "she was the best-selling novelist in history."
One estimate of her total earnings from more than a half-century of writing is $20 million (approximately $ million in ). As a result of her tax planning, her will left only £106,683. Gov.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2020|group=lower-alpha}} (approximately ) net, which went mostly to her husband and daughter along with some smaller bequests. Her remaining 36% share of Agatha Christie Limited was inherited by Hicks, who passionately preserved her mother's works, image, and legacy until her own death 28 years later. The family's share of the company allowed them to appoint 50% of the board and the chairman, and retain a veto over new treatments, updated versions, and republications of her works.[Agatha Christie begins new chapter after £10m selloff](http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Agatha+Christie+begins+new+chapter+after+pounds+10m+selff.-a060775079) , The Free Library, 4 June 1998.
[[File:Greenway - Agatha Christie's House (26192476850).jpg|thumb|right|[Greenway](Greenway Estate) in Devon, Christie's summer home from 1938. The estate was used as a setting for some of her plots, including ''[Man's Folly](Dead)(Dead Man's Folly)*. The final episode of *[Christie's Poirot](Agatha)(Agatha Christie's Poirot)'' was also filmed here in 2013.]]
In 2004, Hicks' obituary in *[Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* noted that she had been "determined to remain true to her mother's vision and to protect the integrity of her creations" and disapproved of "[merchandising](merchandising)" activities. Upon her death on 28 October 2004, the Greenway Estate passed to her son Mathew Prichard. After his stepfather's death in 2005, Prichard donated Greenway and its contents to the [Trust](National)(National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty).
Christie's family and [trusts](family)(Trust (law)), including great-grandson James Prichard, continue to own the 36% stake in Agatha Christie Limited,[Acorn Media buys stake in Agatha Christie estate](https://www.theguardian.com/media/2012/feb/29/acorn-media-bys-stake-agatha-christie) , *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, 29 December 2012. and remain associated with the company. In 2020, James Prichard was the company's chairman. Mathew Prichard also holds the [copyright](copyright) to some of his grandmother's later literary works including *The Mousetrap*. Christie's work continues to be developed in a range of adaptations.
In 1998, Booker sold its shares in Agatha Christie Limited (at the time earning £2,100,000, approximately annual revenue) for £10,000,000 (approximately ) to [Chorion](Chorion (company)), whose portfolio of authors' works included the literary estates of [Blyton](Enid)(Enid Blyton) and [Wheatley](Dennis)(Dennis Wheatley). In February 2012, after a [buyout](management)(management buyout), Chorion began to sell off its literary assets. This included the sale of Chorion's 64% stake in Agatha Christie Limited to Acorn Media UK. In 2014, [Entertainment Inc.](RLJ)(RLJ Companies) (RLJE) acquired Acorn Media UK, renamed it [Media Enterprises](Acorn)(Acorn DVD), and incorporated it as the RLJE UK development arm.
In late February 2014, media reports stated that the [BBC](BBC) had acquired exclusive TV rights to Christie's works in the UK (previously associated with [ITV](ITV (TV network))) and made plans with Acorn's co-operation to air new productions for the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth in 2015.["New era for BBC as the new home of Agatha Christie adaptations"](http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2014-02-28/david-walliams-heralds-new-era-for-bbc-as-the-new-home-of-agatha-christie-adaptations) , *[Times](Radio)(Radio Times)*, 28 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015. As part of that deal, the BBC broadcast *[in Crime](Partners)(Partners in Crime (UK TV series))* and *[Then There Were None](And)(And Then There Were None (miniseries))*, both in 2015. Subsequent productions have included *[Witness for the Prosecution](The)(The Witness for the Prosecution (miniseries))* but plans to televise *[by Innocence](Ordeal)(Ordeal by Innocence (TV series))* at Christmas 2017 were delayed because of controversy surrounding one of the cast members. The three-part adaptation aired in April 2018. A [adaptation](three-part)(The ABC Murders (TV series)) of *[A.B.C. Murders](The)(The A.B.C. Murders)* starring [Malkovich](John)(John Malkovich) and [Grint](Rupert)(Rupert Grint) began filming in June 2018 and was first broadcast in December 2018. A two-part adaptation of *[Pale Horse](The)(The Pale Horse)* was broadcast on BBC1 in February 2020.[BBC One announces new Agatha Christie thriller The Pale Horse](http://www.mammothscreen.com/company-news/bbc-one-announces-new-agatha-christie-thriller-the-pale-horse/) , 24 June 2019, Mammoth Screen *[Comes as the End](Death)(Death Comes as the End)* will be the next BBC adaptation.Paul Hirons, "[Death Comes As The End to be the next BBC Agatha Christie adaptation](https://thekillingtimestv.wordpress.com/2018/12/29/death-comes-as-the-end-to-be-the-next-bbc-agatha-christie-adaptation/) ", *The Killing Times*. 29 December 2018
Since 2020, reissues of Christie's Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot novels by [HarperCollins](HarperCollins) have removed "passages containing descriptions, insults or references to ethnicity".
## Works
### Works of fiction
#### Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple
[[File:American-13-for-Dinner.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Drawing of a gentleman in a dinner suit twirling his large moustache, illustrating the Christie story "13 for Dinner"|An early depiction of detective Hercule Poirot, from *[American Magazine](The)(The American Magazine)*, March 1933]]
Christie's first published book, *[Mysterious Affair at Styles](The)(The Mysterious Affair at Styles)*, was released in 1920 and introduced the detective [Poirot](Hercule)(Hercule Poirot), who appeared in 33 of her novels and more than 50 short stories.
Over the years, Christie grew tired of Poirot, much as Doyle did with Sherlock Holmes. By the end of the 1930s, Christie wrote in her diary that she was finding Poirot "insufferable", and by the 1960s she felt he was "an egocentric creep". Thompson believes Christie's occasional antipathy to her creation is overstated, and points out that "in later life she sought to protect him against misrepresentation as powerfully as if he were her own flesh and blood." Unlike Doyle, she resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular. She married off Poirot's "[Watson](Dr. Watson)", Captain [Hastings](Arthur)(Arthur Hastings), in an attempt to trim her cast commitments.
[Jane Marple](Miss)(Miss Marple) was introduced in a series of short stories that began publication in December 1927 and were subsequently collected under the title *[Thirteen Problems](The)(The Thirteen Problems)*. Marple was a genteel, elderly spinster who solved crimes using analogies to English village life. Christie said, "Miss Marple was not in any way a picture of my grandmother; she was far more fussy and spinsterish than my grandmother ever was," but her autobiography establishes a firm connection between the fictional character and Christie's step-grandmother Margaret Miller ("Auntie-Grannie")hence the appellation "Auntie-Grannie".|group=lower-alpha}} and her "Ealing cronies". Both Marple and Miller "always expected the worst of everyone and everything, and were, with almost frightening accuracy, usually proved right". Marple appeared in 12 novels and 20 stories.
During the Second World War, Christie wrote two novels, *[Curtain](Curtain (novel))* and *[Murder](Sleeping)(Sleeping Murder)*, featuring Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, respectively. Both books were sealed in a [vault](bank)(bank vault), and she made over the copyrights by deed of gift to her daughter and her husband to provide each with a kind of insurance policy. Christie had a heart attack and a serious fall in 1974, after which she was unable to write. Her daughter authorised the publication of *Curtain* in 1975, and *Sleeping Murder* was published posthumously in 1976. These publications followed the success of the [film version](1974)(Murder on the Orient Express (1974 film)) of *Murder on the Orient Express*.
Shortly before the publication of *Curtain*, Poirot became the first fictional character to have an obituary in *The New York Times*, which was printed on page one on 6August 1975.
Christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both Poirot and Miss Marple. In a recording discovered and released in 2008, Christie revealed the reason for this: "Hercule Poirot, a complete egoist, would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady. Hercule Poirota professional sleuthwould not be at home at all in Miss Marple's world."
In 2013, the Christie family supported the release of a new Poirot story, *[Monogram Murders](The)(The Monogram Murders)*, written by British author [Hannah](Sophie)(Sophie Hannah). Hannah later published three more Poirot mysteries, *[Casket](Closed)(Closed Casket (novel))* in 2016, *[Mystery of Three Quarters](The)(The Mystery of Three Quarters)* in 2018., and *The Killings at Kingfisher Hill* in 2020.
#### Formula and plot devices
Christie has been called the "Duchess of Death", the "Mistress of Mystery", and the "Queen of Crime". Early in her career, a reporter noted that "her plots are possible, logical, and always new." According to Hannah, "At the start of each novel, she shows us an apparently impossible situation and we go mad wondering 'How can this be happening?' Then, slowly, she reveals how the impossible is not only possible but the only thing that could have happened."
Christie developed her storytelling techniques during what has been called the [Age"]("Golden)(Golden Age of Detective Fiction) of detective fiction. Author Dilys Winn called Christie "the doyenne of Coziness", a sub-genre which "featured a small village setting, a hero with faintly aristocratic family connections, a plethora of red herrings and a tendency to commit homicide with sterling silver letter openers and poisons imported from Paraguay". At the end, in a Christie hallmark, the detective usually gathers the surviving suspects into one room, explains the course of their deductive reasoning, and reveals the guilty party; but there are exceptions where it is left to the guilty party to explain all (such as *[Then There Were None](And)(And Then There Were None)* and [Night*](*Endless)(Endless Night (novel))).
Christie did not limit herself to quaint English villagesthe action might take place on a small island (*And Then There Were None*), an aeroplane (*[in the Clouds](Death)(Death in the Clouds)*), a train (*Murder on the Orient Express*), a steamship (*[on the Nile](Death)(Death on the Nile)*), a smart London flat (*[on the Table](Cards)(Cards on the Table)*), a resort in the West Indies (*[Caribbean Mystery](A)(A Caribbean Mystery)*), or an archaeological dig (*[in Mesopotamia](Murder)(Murder in Mesopotamia)*)but the circle of potential suspects is usually closed and intimate: family members, friends, servants, business associates, fellow travellers. Stereotyped characters abound (the , the stolid policeman, the devoted servant, the dull colonel), but these may be subverted to stymie the reader; impersonations and secret alliances are always possible. There is always a motivemost often, money: "There are very few killers in Christie who enjoy murder for its own sake."
Professor of Pharmacology Michael C. Gerald noted that "in over half her novels, one or more victims are poisoned, albeit not always to the full satisfaction of the perpetrator." Guns, knives, garrottes, tripwires, blunt instruments, and even a hatchet were also used, but "Christie never resorted to elaborate mechanical or scientific means to explain her ingenuity," according to [Curran](John)(Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks), author and literary adviser to the Christie estate. Many of her clues are mundane objects: a calendar, a coffee cup, wax flowers, a beer bottle, a fireplace used during a heat wave.
According to crime writer [D. James](P.)(P. D. James), Christie was prone to making the unlikeliest character the guilty party. Alert readers could sometimes identify the culprit by identifying the least likely suspect. Christie mocked this insight in her foreword to *Cards on the Table*: "Spot the person least likely to have committed the crime and in nine times out of ten your task is finished. Since I do not want my faithful readers to fling away this book in disgust, I prefer to warn them beforehand *that this is not that kind of book*."
On BBC Radio 4's *[Island Discs](Desert)(Desert Island Discs)* in 2007, [Aldiss](Brian)(Brian Aldiss) said Christie had told him she wrote her books up to the last chapter, then decided who the most unlikely suspect was, after which she would go back and make the necessary changes to "frame" that person. Based upon a study of her working notebooks, Curran describes how Christie would first create a cast of characters, choose a setting, and then produce a list of scenes in which specific clues would be revealed; the order of scenes would be revised as she developed her plot. Of necessity, the murderer had to be known to the author before the sequence could be finalised and she began to type or dictate the first draft of her novel. Much of the work, particularly dialogue, was done in her head before she put it on paper.
In 2013, the 600 members of the [Writers' Association](Crime)(Crime Writers' Association) chose *[Murder of Roger Ackroyd](The)(The Murder of Roger Ackroyd)* as "the best [whodunit](whodunit)... ever written". Author [Symons](Julian)(Julian Symons) observed, "In an obvious sense, the book fits within the conventions... The setting is a village deep within the English countryside, Roger Ackroyd dies in his study; there is a butler who behaves suspiciously... Every successful detective story in this period involved a deceit practised upon the reader, and here the trick is the highly original one of making the murderer the local doctor, who tells the story and acts as Poirot's Watson." Critic Sutherland Scott stated, "If Agatha Christie had made no other contribution to the literature of detective fiction she would still deserve our grateful thanks" for writing this novel.
In September 2015, to mark her 125th birthday, *And Then There Were None* was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. The novel is emblematic of both her use of formula and her willingness to discard it. "*And Then There Were None* carries the 'closed society' type of murder mystery to extreme lengths," according to author Charles Osborne. It begins with the classic set-up of potential victim(s) and killer(s) isolated from the outside world, but then violates conventions. There is no detective involved in the action, no interviews of suspects, no careful search for clues, and no suspects gathered together in the last chapter to be confronted with the solution. As Christie herself said, "Ten people had to die without it becoming ridiculous or the murderer being obvious." Critics agreed she had succeeded: "The arrogant Mrs. Christie this time set herself a fearsome test of her own ingenuity... the reviews, not surprisingly, were without exception wildly adulatory."
#### Character stereotypes and perceived racism
Christie included stereotyped descriptions of characters in her work, especially before 1945 (when such attitudes were more commonly expressed publicly), particularly in regard to Italians, Jews, and non-Europeans. For example, she described "men of [Hebraic](Hebrews) extraction, sallow men with hooked noses, wearing rather flamboyant jewellery" in the short story "The Soul of the Croupier" from the collection *[Mysterious Mr Quin](The)(The Mysterious Mr Quin)*. In 1947, the [League](Anti-Defamation)(Anti-Defamation League) in the US sent an official letter of complaint to Christie's American publishers, [Mead and Company](Dodd,)(Dodd, Mead and Company), regarding perceived [antisemitism](antisemitism) in her works. Christie's British literary agent later wrote to her US representative, authorising American publishers to "omit the word 'Jew' when it refers to an unpleasant character in future books."
In *[Hollow](The)(The Hollow)*, published in 1946, one of the characters is described by another as "a [Whitechapel](Whitechapel) Jewess with dyed hair and a voice like a [corncrake](corncrake) ... a small woman with a thick nose, henna red and a disagreeable voice". To contrast with the more stereotyped descriptions, Christie portrayed some "foreign" characters as victims, or potential victims, at the hands of English malefactors, such as, respectively, Olga Seminoff (''[Party](Hallowe'en)(Hallowe'en Party)*) and Katrina Reiger (in the short story "How Does Your Garden Grow?"). Jewish characters are often seen as un-English (such as Oliver Manders in *[Act Tragedy](Three)(Three Act Tragedy)''), but they are rarely the culprits.
In 2023, the *[Telegraph](The Daily Telegraph)* reported that several Agatha Christie novels have been edited to remove potentially offensive language, including insults and references to ethnicity. Poirot and Miss Marple mysteries written between 1920 and 1976 have had passages reworked or removed in new editions published by HarperCollins, in order to strip them of language and descriptions that modern audiences find offensive, especially those involving the characters Christie’s protagonists encounter outside the UK. Sensitivity readers had made the edits, which were evident in digital versions of the new editions, including the entire Miss Marple run and selected Poirot novels set to be released or that have been released since 2020.
#### Other detectives
In addition to Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, Christie also created amateur detectives Thomas (Tommy) Beresford and his wife, Prudence "Tuppence" *née* Cowley, who appear in four novels and one collection of short stories published between 1922 and 1974. Unlike her other sleuths, the Beresfords were only in their early twenties when introduced in *The Secret Adversary*, and were allowed to age alongside their creator. She treated their stories with a lighter touch, giving them a "dash and verve" which was not universally admired by critics. Their last adventure, *Postern of Fate*, was Christie's last novel.
Harley Quin was "easily the most unorthodox" of Christie's fictional detectives. Inspired by Christie's affection for the figures from the [Harlequinade](Harlequinade), the semi-supernatural Quin always works with an elderly, conventional man called Satterthwaite. The pair appear in 14 short stories, 12 of which were collected in 1930 as *The Mysterious Mr. Quin*. Mallowan described these tales as "detection in a fanciful vein, touching on the fairy story, a natural product of Agatha's peculiar imagination". Satterthwaite also appears in a novel, *Three Act Tragedy*, and a short story, "[Man's Mirror](Dead)(Murder in the Mews)", both of which feature Poirot.
Another of her lesser-known characters is Parker Pyne, a retired civil servant who assists unhappy people in an unconventional manner. The 12 short stories which introduced him, *[Pyne Investigates](Parker)(Parker Pyne Investigates)* (1934), are best remembered for "The Case of the Discontented Soldier", which features Ariadne Oliver, "an amusing and satirical self-portrait of Agatha Christie". Over the ensuing decades, Oliver reappeared in seven novels. In most of them she assists Poirot.
#### Plays
In 1928, [Morton](Michael)(Michael Morton (dramatist)) adapted *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd* for the stage under the name of *[Alibi](Alibi (play))*. The play enjoyed a respectable run, but Christie disliked the changes made to her work and, in future, preferred to write for the theatre herself. The first of her own stage works was *[Coffee](Black)(Black Coffee (play))*, which received good reviews when it opened in the [End](West)(West End theatre) in late 1930.Thompson, Laura (2008), *Agatha Christie: An English Mystery*, London: Headline Review, p. 277, 301. ISBN 978-0-7553-1488-1 She followed this up with adaptations of her detective novels: *[Then There Were None](And)(And Then There Were None (play))* in 1943, *[with Death](Appointment)(Appointment with Death (play))* in 1945, and *[Hollow](The)(The Hollow (play))* in 1951.
In the 1950s, "the theatre ... engaged much of Agatha's attention."Thompson, Laura (2008), *Agatha Christie: An English Mystery*, London: Headline Review, p. 360. ISBN 978-0-7553-1488-1 She next adapted her short radio play into *[Mousetrap](The)(The Mousetrap)*, which premiered in the West End in 1952, produced by [Saunders](Peter)(Peter Saunders (impresario)) and starring [Attenborough](Richard)(Richard Attenborough) as the original Detective Sergeant Trotter. Her expectations for the play were not high; she believed it would run no more than eight months. *The Mousetrap* has long since made theatrical history as the world's longest-running play, staging its 27,500th performance in September 2018.[*The Mousetrap* website](https://www.the-mousetrap.co.uk/Online) , the-mousetrap.co.uk. Retrieved 2 June 2015. The play temporarily closed in March 2020, when all UK theatres shut due to the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic), before it re-opened on 17 May 2021.
In 1953, she followed this with *[for the Prosecution](Witness)(Witness for the Prosecution (play))*, whose [Broadway](Broadway theatre) production won the [York Drama Critics' Circle](New)(New York Drama Critics' Circle) award for best foreign play of 1954 and earned Christie an [Award](Edgar)(Edgar Award) from the [Writers of America](Mystery)(Mystery Writers of America). ''[Web](Spider's)(Spider's Web (play))*, an original work written for actress [Lockwood](Margaret)(Margaret Lockwood) at her request, premiered in the West End in 1954 and was also a hit. Christie became the first female playwright to have three plays running simultaneously in London: *The Mousetrap*, *Witness for the Prosecution* and *Spider's Web*. She said, "Plays are much easier to *write* than books, because you can *see'' them in your mind's eye, you are not hampered by all that description which clogs you so terribly in a book and stops you from getting on with what's happening." In a letter to her daughter, Christie said being a playwright was "a lot of fun!"
#### As Mary Westmacott
Christie published six mainstream novels under the name Mary Westmacott, a pseudonym which gave her the freedom to explore "her most private and precious imaginative garden". These books typically received better reviews than her detective and thriller fiction. Of the first, ''[Bread](Giant's)(Giant's Bread)* published in 1930, a reviewer for *The New York Times'' wrote, "...her book is far above the average of current fiction, in fact, comes well under the classification of a 'good book'. And it is only a satisfying novel that can claim that appellation." It was publicized from the very beginning that "Mary Westmacott" was a pen name of a well-known author, although the identity behind the pen name was kept secret; the dust jacket of ''Giant's Bread'' mentions that the author had previously written "under her real name...half a dozen books that have each passed the thirty thousand mark in sales." (In fact, though this was technically true, it disguised Christie's identity through understatement. By the publication of ''Giant's Bread'', Christie had published 10 novels and two short story collections, all of which had sold considerably more than 30,000 copies.) After Christie's authorship of the first four Westmacott novels was revealed by a journalist in 1949, she wrote two more, the last in 1956.
The other Westmacott titles are: *[Portrait](Unfinished)(Unfinished Portrait (novel))* (1934), *Absent in the Spring* (1944), *The Rose and the Yew Tree* (1948), ''[Daughter's a Daughter](A)(A Daughter's a Daughter)* (1952), and *The Burden* (1956).
### Non-fiction works
Christie published few non-fiction works. *Come, Tell Me How You Live*, about working on an archaeological dig, was drawn from her life with Mallowan. *The Grand Tour: Around the World with the Queen of Mystery* is a collection of correspondence from her 1922 Grand Tour of the [Empire](British)(British Empire), including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. *[Christie: An Autobiography](Agatha)(Agatha Christie: An Autobiography)'' was published posthumously in 1977 and adjudged the Best Critical/Biographical Work at the 1978 Edgar Awards.
### Titles
Many of Christie's works from 1940 onward have titles drawn from literature, with the original context of the title typically printed as an [epigraph](epigraph (literature)).
The inspirations for some of Christie's titles include:
* [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare)'s works: *[Cypress](Sad)(Sad Cypress)*, *[the Pricking of My Thumbs](By)(By the Pricking of My Thumbs)*, *[is a Tide...](There)(Taken at the Flood)*, *[in the Spring](Absent)(Absent in the Spring)*, and *The Mousetrap*, for example. Osborne notes that "Shakespeare is the writer most quoted in the works of Agatha Christie";
* The Bible: *[Under the Sun](Evil)(Evil Under the Sun)*, *[Burden](The)(The Burden)*, and *[Pale Horse](The)(Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse)*;
* Other works of literature: ''[Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side](The)(The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side)'' (from [Tennyson](Tennyson)'s "[Lady of Shalott](The)(The Lady of Shalott)"), *[Moving Finger](The)(The Moving Finger)* (from [FitzGerald](Edward)(Edward FitzGerald (poet))'s translation of the *[of Omar Khayyám](Rubáiyát)(Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám)*), *[Rose and the Yew Tree](The)(The Rose and the Yew Tree)* (from [S. Eliot](T.)(T. S. Eliot)'s *[Quartets](Four)(Four Quartets)*), *Postern of Fate* (from [Elroy Flecker](James)(James Elroy Flecker)'s "Gates of Damascus"), *Endless Night* (from [Blake](William)(William Blake)'s "[of Innocence](Auguries)(Auguries of Innocence)"), *N or M?* (from the *[of Common Prayer](Book)(Book of Common Prayer)*), and *[Tell Me How You Live](Come,)(Come, Tell Me How You Live)* (from [Carroll](Lewis)(Lewis Carroll)'s *[the Looking-Glass](Through)(Through the Looking-Glass)*).
Christie biographer Gillian Gill said, "Christie's writing has the sparseness, the directness, the narrative pace, and the universal appeal of the fairy story, and it is perhaps as modern fairy stories for grown-up children that Christie's novels succeed." Reflecting a juxtaposition of innocence and horror, numerous Christie titles were drawn from well-known children's [rhyme](nursery)(nursery rhyme)s: *And Then There Were None* (from "[Little Niggers](Ten)(And Then There Were None#19th-century original verses)", a rhyme also published as "[Little Indians](Ten)(Ten Little Indians)", both of which were also used for the book's title in some printings), *[Two, Buckle My Shoe](One,)(One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (novel))* (from "[Two, Buckle My Shoe](One,)(One, Two, Buckle My Shoe)"), *Five Little Pigs* (from "[Little Piggy](This)(This Little Piggy)"), *[House](Crooked)(Crooked House)* (from "[Was a Crooked Man](There)(There Was a Crooked Man)"), *[Pocket Full of Rye](A)(A Pocket Full of Rye)* (from "[a Song of Sixpence](Sing)(Sing a Song of Sixpence)"), *[Dickory Dock](Hickory)(Hickory Dickory Dock (novel))* (from "[Dickory Dock](Hickory)(Hickory Dickory Dock)"), and *[Blind Mice](Three)(Three Blind Mice and Other Stories)* (from "[Blind Mice](Three)(Three Blind Mice)").
## Critical reception
[[Christie Memorial (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Memorial to Christie in central London|alt=Colour photograph of a large, book-shaped bronze memorial|left](File:Agatha)]
Christie is regularly referred to as the "Queen of Crime"—which is now trademarked by the Christie estate—or "Queen of Mystery", and is considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation. In 1955, she became the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. She was named "Best Writer of the Century" and the Hercule Poirot series of books was named "Best Series of the Century" at the 2000 [Bouchercon](Bouchercon) World Mystery Convention. In 2013, she was voted "best crime writer" in a survey of 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association of professional novelists. However, the writer [Chandler](Raymond)(Raymond Chandler) criticised the artificiality of her books, as did writer [Symons](Julian)(Julian Symons). The literary critic [Wilson](Edmund)(Edmund Wilson) described her prose as banal and her characterisations as superficial.|group=lower-alpha}}
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In 2011, Christie was named by digital crime drama TV channel [Alibi](Alibi (TV channel)) as the second most financially successful crime writer of all time in the United Kingdom, after James Bond author [Fleming](Ian)(Ian Fleming), with total earnings around [£](£)100 million. In 2012, Christie was among the people selected by the artist [Blake](Peter)(Peter Blake (artist)) to appear in a new version of his most famous work, the Beatles' ''[Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band](Sgt.)(Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band)'' album cover, "to celebrate the British cultural figures he most admires". On the record-breaking longevity of Christie's *The Mousetrap* which had marked its 60th anniversary in 2012, [Moss](Stephen)(Stephen Moss) in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* wrote, "the play and its author are the stars".
In 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of her birth date, 25 contemporary mystery writers and one publisher gave their views on Christie's works. Many of the authors had read Christie's novels first, before other [writers](mystery)(Mystery fiction), in English or in their native language, influencing their own writing, and nearly all still viewed her as the "Queen of Crime" and creator of the [twist](plot)(plot twist)s used by mystery authors. Nearly all had one or more favourites among Christie's mysteries and found her books still good to read nearly 100 years after her first novel was published. Just one of the 25 authors held with Wilson's views.
### Book sales
In her prime, Christie was rarely out of the bestseller list. She was the first crime writer to have 100,000 copies of 10 of her titles published by [Penguin](Penguin Books) on the same day in 1948. , *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)* listed Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time. , her novels had sold more than two billion copies in 44 languages. Half the sales are of English-language editions, and half are translations.billion copies in 44 languages |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509115438/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2018/10/5-page-turning-book-facts/ |url-status=live }} According to [Translationum](Index)(Index Translationum), , she was the most-translated individual author. Christie is one of the most-borrowed authors in UK libraries. She is also the UK's best-selling spoken-book author. In 2002, 117,696 Christie audiobooks were sold, in comparison to 97,755 for [K. Rowling](J.)(J. K. Rowling), 78,770 for [Dahl](Roald)(Roald Dahl) and 75,841 for [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien). In 2015, the Christie estate claimed *And Then There Were None* was "the best-selling crime novel of all time", with approximately 100 million sales, also making it one of the [books](highest-selling)(List of best-selling books) of all time. More than two million copies of her books were sold in English in 2020.
## Legacy
[[File:St Martin's Theatre, Covent Garden, London -plaque-16March2010.jpg|thumb|Commemorative [plaque](blue)(blue plaque) in the West End marking *The Mousetrap* as the world's longest-running play]]
In 2016, the [Mail](Royal)(Royal Mail) marked the centenary of Christie's first detective story by issuing [first class postage stamps](six)(Great Britain commemorative stamps 2010–2019#2016) of her works: *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*, *The Murder of Roger Ackroyd*, *Murder on the Orient Express*, *And Then There Were None*, *The Body in the Library*, and *A Murder is Announced*. *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* reported that, "Each design incorporates [microtext](Microprinting), [ink](UV)(Invisible ink) and [ink](thermochromic)(thermochromic ink). These concealed clues can be revealed using either a magnifying glass, [light](UV)(Ultraviolet) or body heat and provide pointers to the mysteries' solutions."
Her characters and her face appeared on the stamps of many countries like [Dominica](Dominica) and the [Republic](Somali)(Somali Republic). In 2020, Christie was commemorated on a [£](pound sterling)2 coin by the [Mint](Royal)(Royal Mint) for the first time to mark the centenary of her first novel, *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*.
### Adaptations
Christie's works have been adapted for cinema and television. The first was the 1928 British film *[Passing of Mr. Quin](The)(The Passing of Mr. Quin)*. Poirot's first film appearance was in 1931 in *[Alibi](Alibi (1931 film))*, which starred [Trevor](Austin)(Austin Trevor) as Christie's sleuth. [Rutherford](Margaret)(Margaret Rutherford) played Marple in a series of films released in the 1960s. Christie liked her acting, but considered the first film "pretty poor" and thought no better of the rest.
She felt differently about the 1974 film *[on the Orient Express](Murder)(Murder on the Orient Express (1974 film))*, directed by [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet), which featured major stars and high production values; her attendance at the London premiere was one of her last public outings. In 2017, a new film version was released, directed by [Branagh](Kenneth)(Kenneth Branagh), who also starred, wearing "the most extravagant mustache moviegoers have ever seen".
The television adaptation ''[Christie's Poirot](Agatha)(Agatha Christie's Poirot)* (1989–2013), with [Suchet](David)(David Suchet) in the title role, ran for 70 episodes over 13 series. It received nine [BAFTA](British Academy of Film and Television Arts) award nominations and won four BAFTA awards in 1990–1992. The television series *[Marple](Miss)(Miss Marple (TV series))'' (1984–1992), with [Hickson](Joan)(Joan Hickson) as "the BBC's peerless Miss Marple", adapted all 12 Marple novels. The French television series (2009–2012, 2013–2020), adapted 36 of Christie's stories.
Christie's books have also been adapted for [Radio](BBC)(BBC Radio), [video game series](a)(Agatha Christie (video game series)), and [novel](graphic)(graphic novel)s.
## Interests and influences
### Pharmacology
During the First World War, Christie took a break from nursing to train for the Apothecaries Hall Examination. While she subsequently found dispensing in the hospital pharmacy monotonous, and thus less enjoyable than nursing, her new knowledge provided her with a background in potentially toxic drugs. Early in the Second World War, she brought her skills up to date at Torquay Hospital.
As Michael C. Gerald puts it, her "activities as a hospital dispenser during both World Wars not only supported the war effort but also provided her with an appreciation of drugs as therapeutic agents and poisons... These hospital experiences were also likely responsible for the prominent role physicians, nurses, and pharmacists play in her stories." There were to be many medical practitioners, pharmacists, and scientists, naïve or suspicious, in Christie's cast of characters; featuring in *Murder in Mesopotamia*, *Cards on the Table*, *The Pale Horse*, and ''Mrs. McGinty's Dead'', among many others.
Gillian Gill notes that the murder method in Christie's first detective novel, *The Mysterious Affair at Styles*, "comes right out of Agatha Christie's work in the hospital dispensary". In an interview with journalist Marcelle Bernstein, Christie stated, "I don't like messy deaths... I'm more interested in peaceful people who die in their own beds and no one knows why." With her expert knowledge, Christie had no need of poisons unknown to science, which were forbidden under [Knox](Ronald)(Ronald Knox)'s "Ten Rules for Detective Fiction". [Arsenic](Arsenic trioxide), [aconite](aconitine), [strychnine](strychnine), [digitalis](digoxin toxicity), [thallium](thallium), and other substances were used to dispatch victims in the ensuing decades.
### Archaeology
| quote = The lure of the past came up to grab me. To see a dagger slowly appearing, with its gold glint, through the sand was romantic. The carefulness of lifting pots and objects from the soil filled me with a longing to be an archaeologist myself.
}}
In her youth, Christie showed little interest in antiquities. After her marriage to Mallowan in 1930, she accompanied him on annual expeditions, spending three to four months at a time in Syria and Iraq at excavation sites at Ur, [Nineveh](Nineveh), [Arpachiyah](Tell)(Tell Arpachiyah), [Bazar](Chagar)(Chagar Bazar), [Brak](Tell)(Tell Brak), and [Nimrud](Nimrud). The Mallowans also took side trips whilst travelling to and from expedition sites, visiting Italy, Greece, Egypt, Iran, and the Soviet Union, among other places. Their experiences travelling and living abroad are reflected in novels such as *Murder on the Orient Express*, *Death on the Nile*, and *Appointment with Death*.
For the 1931 digging season at Nineveh, Christie bought a writing table to continue her own work; in the early 1950s, she paid to add a small writing room to the team's house at Nimrud. She also devoted time and effort each season in "making herself useful by photographing, cleaning, and recording finds; and restoring ceramics, which she especially enjoyed". She also provided funds for the expeditions.
Many of the settings for Christie's books were inspired by her archaeological fieldwork in the Middle East; this is reflected in the detail with which she describes themfor instance, the [of Abu Simbel](temple)(Abu Simbel temples) as depicted in *Death on the Nile*while the settings for *They Came to Baghdad* were places she and Mallowan had recently stayed. Similarly, she drew upon her knowledge of daily life on a dig throughout *Murder in Mesopotamia*. Archaeologists and experts in Middle Eastern cultures and artefacts featured in her works include Dr Eric Leidner in *Murder in Mesopotamia* and Signor Richetti in *Death on the Nile*.
After the Second World War, Christie chronicled her time in Syria in *Come, Tell Me How You Live*, which she described as "small beera very little book, full of everyday doings and happenings". From 8November 2001 to March 2002, [British Museum](The)(British Museum) presented a "colourful and episodic exhibition" called *Agatha Christie and Archaeology: Mystery in Mesopotamia* which illustrated how her activities as a writer and as the wife of an archaeologist intertwined.
## In popular culture
Some of Christie's fictional portrayals have explored and offered accounts of her disappearance in 1926. The film *[Agatha](Agatha (film))* (1979), with [Redgrave](Vanessa)(Vanessa Redgrave), has Christie sneaking away to plan revenge against her husband; Christie's heirs sued unsuccessfully to prevent the film's distribution. The [Who*](*Doctor)(Doctor Who (series 4)) episode "[Unicorn and the Wasp](The)(The Unicorn and the Wasp)" (17 May 2008) stars [Woolgar](Fenella)(Fenella Woolgar) as Christie, and explains her disappearance as being connected to aliens. The film *[and the Truth of Murder](Agatha)(Agatha and the Truth of Murder)* (2018) sends her under cover to solve the murder of [Nightingale](Florence)(Florence Nightingale)'s [goddaughter](goddaughter), Florence Nightingale Shore. A fictionalised account of Christie's disappearance is also the central theme of a Korean musical, *Agatha*. *The Christie Affair*, a Christie-like mystery story of love and revenge by author Nina de Gramont, was a 2022 novel loosely based on Christie's disappearance.
Other portrayals, such as the Hungarian film *Kojak Budapesten* (1980), create their own scenarios involving Christie's criminal skill. In the TV play *Murder by the Book* (1986), Christie (Dame [Ashcroft](Peggy)(Peggy Ashcroft)) murders one of her fictional-turned-real characters, Poirot. Christie features as a character in [Larsen](Gaylord)(Gaylord Larsen)'s *Dorothy and Agatha* and *The London Blitz Murders* by [Allan Collins](Max)(Max Allan Collins). The American television program *[Mysteries](Unsolved)(Unsolved Mysteries)* devoted a segment to her famous disappearance, with Agatha portrayed by actress Tessa Pritchard. A young Agatha is depicted in the Spanish historical television series *[Hotel](Gran)(Gran Hotel (TV series))* (2011) in which she finds inspiration to write her new novel while aiding local detectives. In the [history](alternative)(alternative history) television film *[and the Curse of Ishtar](Agatha)(Agatha and the Curse of Ishtar)* (2018), Christie becomes involved in a murder case at an archaeological dig in Iraq. In 2019, [Weeks](Honeysuckle)(Honeysuckle Weeks) portrayed Christie in an episode, "No Friends Like Old Friends", in a Canadian drama, *[Drake Mysteries](Frankie)(Frankie Drake Mysteries).*
In 2020, [Terrell](Heather)(Heather Terrell), under the pseudonym of Marie Benedict, published *The Mystery of Mrs. Christie*, a fictional reconstruction of Christie's December 1926 disappearance. The novel was a *[York Times](New)(The New York Times Best Seller list)* and *USA Today* bestseller. In December 2020, Library Reads named Terrell a Hall of Fame author for the book.
[Wilson](Andrew)(Andrew Wilson (author)) has written four novels featuring Agatha Christie as a detective: *A Talent For Murder* (2017), *A Different Kind of Evil* (2018), *Death In A Desert Land* (2019) and *I Saw Him Die* (2020). Christie was portrayed by [Henderson](Shirley)(Shirley Henderson) in the 2022 comedy/mystery film *[How They Run](See)(See How They Run (2022 film))*.
## See also
* [Christie indult](Agatha)(Agatha Christie indult) (an oecumenical request to which Christie was signatory seeking permission for the occasional use of the Tridentine (Latin) mass in England and Wales)
* [Award](Agatha)(Agatha Award)s (literary awards for mystery and crime writers)
* [Christie Award (Japan)](Agatha)(Agatha Christie Award (Japan)) (literary award for unpublished mystery novels)
* [of solved missing person cases](List)(List of solved missing person cases: pre-2000)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* .
*
* Bernthal, J.C. (2022). *Agatha Christie: A Companion to the Mystery Fiction.* Jefferson, NC: [McFarland](McFarland & Company). .
* Curran, John (2009). ''Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks: Fifty Years of Mysteries in the Making*. London: [HarperCollins](HarperCollins). .
* Curran, John (2011). [*Agatha Christie: Murder in the Making*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5MTS-U9F9qsC). London: [HarperCollins](HarperCollins). .
* Curran, John. ["75 facts about Christie"](https://www.agathachristie.com/about-christie/christie-experts/john-curran-75-facts-about-christie). *The Home of Agatha Christie*. Agatha Christie Limited. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
* Gerald, Michael C. (1993). *The Poisonous Pen of Agatha Christie*. Austin, Texas: [of Texas Press](University)(University of Texas Press). .
* .
*
* .
* .
* Morgan, Janet P. (1984). [*Agatha Christie: A Biography*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kl2HDgAAQBAJ). London: [HarperCollins](HarperCollins). . Retrieved 8 March 2015.
* Prichard, Mathew (2012). *The Grand Tour: Around The World With The Queen Of Mystery*. New York, NY: [HarperCollins](HarperCollins). .
*
* .
* Thompson, Laura (2008), [*Agatha Christie: An English Mystery''](https://books.google.com/books?id=pyWqDwAAQBAJ), London: [Review](Headline)(Headline Publishing Group), .
*
## External links
*
* [A Christie reading list](https://storage.googleapis.com/agatha-christie-assets/archive/pdfs/christie-reading-list.pdf) (on official website)
*
*
*
*
*
* [Agatha Christie/Sir Max Mallowan's](http://oxonblueplaques.org.uk/plaques/christie.html) [plaque](blue)(blue plaque) at Cholsey
* [Agatha Christie profile on PBS.org](https://web.archive.org/web/20070115120530/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/marple/christie.html)
* [Agatha Christie profile on FamousAuthors.org](http://www.famousauthors.org/agatha-christie)
* [Agatha Christie recording, oral history](http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/80000490) at the [War Museum](Imperial)(Imperial War Museum)
* [Agatha Christie business papers](http://lib-archives.ex.ac.uk/Record.aspx?&id=EUL+MS+99) at the [of Exeter](University)(University of Exeter)
* ["Shocking Real Murders"](https://www.vowelor.com/book/shocking-real-murders-agatha-christie-review/) (book released to mark the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth)
* [Hercule Poirot Central](http://www.poirot.us/disappear.php)
[ ](Category:Agatha Christie)
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[nurses in World War I](Category:Female)(Category:Female nurses in World War I)
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[of historical mysteries](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers of historical mysteries)
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[pseudonymous writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers)
|
Genndy Tartakovsky
|
genndy_tartakovsky
|
# Genndy Tartakovsky
*Revision ID: 1159853900 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:25:10Z*
---
| birth_place = [Moscow](Moscow), [SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) (Now [Russia](Russia))
| nationality = American and Russian
| occupation =
| known for = ''[Laboratory](Dexter's)(Dexter's Laboratory)**[Jack](Samurai)(Samurai Jack)**[Wars: Clone Wars](Star)(Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series))**[Titan](Sym-Bionic)(Sym-Bionic Titan)**[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania)**[Primal](Primal (TV series))**[Warriors Eternal](Unicorn:)(Unicorn: Warriors Eternal)*
| education = [Institute of the Arts](California)(California Institute of the Arts)
| years_active = 1988–present
| spouse =
| children = 3
| signature = Genndy Tartakovsky signature.svg
}}
**Gennady Borisovich Tartakovsky** (, born ), commonly known as ** Tartakovsky** ( Samurai Jack Adult Swim|date=1 July 2016|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FT6yhhfiUh8&t=16s|access-date=15 July 2016|archive-date=13 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513152429/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FT6yhhfiUh8&t=16s|url-status=live}} is normally transliterated as Gennady or Gennadiy, he shortened its spelling to Genndy after moving to the U.S.}}), is a [Russian-American](Russian-American) animator, writer, producer, and director. He is best known as the creator of various animated television series on [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network) and [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim), including *[Laboratory](Dexter's)(Dexter's Laboratory)*, *[Jack](Samurai)(Samurai Jack)*, *[Wars: Clone Wars](Star)(Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series))*, *[Titan](Sym-Bionic)(Sym-Bionic Titan)*, *[Primal](Primal (TV series))* and *[Warriors Eternal](Unicorn:)(Unicorn: Warriors Eternal)*.
For [Pictures Animation](Sony)(Sony Pictures Animation), he directed the first three films and wrote the fourth film in the *[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania)'' series, and is currently directing two adult animated films for the studio. Additionally, he was a pivotal crew member of *[Powerpuff Girls](The)(The Powerpuff Girls)* and worked on other series such as *[Stupid Dogs](2)(2 Stupid Dogs)* and *[The Animated Series](Batman:)(Batman: The Animated Series)*. Tartakovsky is well known for his unique animation style, including fast-paced action and minimal dialogue.
Throughout his career, Tartakovsky has won five [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards), three [Awards](Annie)(Annie Awards), one [Winner](WAC)(Animation Magazine), one [Award](OIAF)(OIAF Award), one [McCay Award](Winsor)(Winsor McCay Award), among other nominations for his works.
## Early life
Tartakovsky was born on 17 January 1970, in [Moscow](Moscow), to [Jewish](Jews) parents. His father worked as a [dentist](dentist) for government officials and the [Union national ice hockey team](Soviet)(Soviet Union national ice hockey team). Tartakovsky felt that his father was a very strict and old-fashioned man, but they had a close relationship. His mother, Miriam, was an assistant principal at a school. He has a brother, Alexander, who is two years older and a computer consultant in [Chicago](Chicago). Before coming to the [States](United)(United States), his family moved to [Italy](Italy). There, Tartakovsky was first drawn to art, inspired by a neighbor's daughter. Tartakovsky later commented, "I remember, I was horrible at it. For the life of me, I couldn't draw a circle".
Tartakovsky's family moved to the United States when he was seven due to concerns about the effect of [antisemitism](antisemitism in Russia) on their children's lives. The family originally settled in [Ohio](Columbus,)(Columbus, Ohio) and later moved to [Chicago](Chicago). He was greatly influenced by the [comics](comics) he found there; his first purchase was an issue of *[Friends](Super)(Super Friends)*. Tartakovsky began attending Chicago's Eugene Field Elementary School in the third grade. School was difficult because he was seen as a foreigner. He went on to attend Chicago's prestigious [Tech College Prep High School](Lane)(Lane Tech College Prep High School) and says he did not fit in until his sophomore year. When he was 16, his father died of a [attack](heart)(Myocardial infarction). Afterwards, Tartakovsky and his family moved to government-funded housing, and he began working while still attending high school.
To satisfy his ambitious family, which was encouraging him to be a businessman, Tartakovsky tried to take an advertising class, but signed up late and thereby had little choice over his classes. He was assigned to take an animation class and this led to his study of film at [College Chicago](Columbia)(Columbia College Chicago) before moving to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) to study animation at the [Institute of the Arts](California)(California Institute of the Arts) with his friend [Renzetti](Rob)(Rob Renzetti). There he met [McCracken](Craig)(Craig McCracken). At CalArts, Tartakovsky directed and animated two student films, one of which became the basis for ''[Laboratory](Dexter's)(Dexter's Laboratory)*. After two years at CalArts, Tartakovsky got a job at Lapiz Azul Productions in [Spain](Spain) on *[The Animated Series](Batman:)(Batman: The Animated Series)*. There, "he learned the trials of TV animation, labor intensive and cranking it out". While he was in Spain, his mother died of [cancer](cancer).
## Career
Craig McCracken acquired an art director job at [Hanna-Barbera](Hanna-Barbera) for the show *[Stupid Dogs](2)(2 Stupid Dogs)'' and recommended hiring Rob Renzetti and Tartakovsky as well. This was a major turning point in Tartakovsky's career. Hanna-Barbera let Tartakovsky, McCracken, Renzetti and [Rudish](Paul)(Paul Rudish) work in a trailer in the parking lot of the studio, and there Tartakovsky started creating his best-known works. ''Dexter's Laboratory* grew out of a student film with the same title that he produced while at the California Institute of the Arts. Tartakovsky co-wrote and pencilled the 25th issue of the *Dexter's Laboratory'' comic book series, titled "Stubble Trouble", as well as several stories which are collected in the ''Dexter's Laboratory Classics* [paperback](trade)(Trade paperback (comics)). Additionally, he helped produce *[Powerpuff Girls](The)(The Powerpuff Girls)*, co-directed several episodes and served as the animation director and a cinematographer for *[Powerpuff Girls Movie](The)(The Powerpuff Girls Movie)''; he co-wrote one of the franchise's comics. Both ''Dexter's Laboratory* and *The Powerpuff Girls* were nominated repeatedly for [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award)s.
Tartakovsky created the action-adventures series *[Jack](Samurai)(Samurai Jack)*, which premiered in 2001; he also wrote comics for the franchise. The series won him an Emmy in the category of "[Animated Program (For Programming Less Than One Hour)](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program)" in 2004. *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)* creator [Lucas](George)(George Lucas) hired Tartakovsky to direct [Wars: Clone Wars*](*Star)(Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series)) (2003–2005), an animated series taking place between *[of the Clones](Attack)(Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones)* and *[of the Sith](Revenge)(Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith)*. The series won three Emmy awards: two for "[Animated Program (for Programming One Hour or More)](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program)" in 2004 and 2005, and another for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation" (for background designer Justin Thompson in 2005). Tartakovsky was not involved in the [follow-up series](2008)(Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)).
In 2005, Tartakovsky was appointed creative president of [Animation Studios](Orphanage)(The Orphanage (company)). In 2006, he was chosen as the director for a sequel to *[Dark Crystal](The)(The Dark Crystal)*, but was replaced and the film was later scrapped. Tartakovsky served as animation director on the pilot episode of *[of Barbaria](Korgoth)(Korgoth of Barbaria)'', which aired on [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim) in 2006 but was not picked up as a series. He also directed a series of anti-smoking advertisements, one for [Nicorette](Nicorette) in 2006 and two for [Niquitin](Niquitin) in 2008. In 2009, Tartakovsky created a pilot entitled *Maruined* for Cartoon Network's *[Cartoonstitute](The)(The Cartoonstitute)* program, which was not picked up. He also once worked on the *[Film Festival](Nicktoons)(Nicktoons Film Festival)* for [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon) as part of the Grand Jury with [Warburton](Patrick)(Patrick Warburton) and [Oedekerk](Steve)(Steve Oedekerk).
[[File:Genndy Tartakovsky, 2012-crop.jpg|thumb|200px|Tartakovsky in 2012 at [AIAFF](Annecy International Animation Film Festival)]]
In 2009, it was announced that Tartakovsky would write and direct a *Samurai Jack* film from [Seibert](Fred)(Fred Seibert)'s [Studios](Frederator)(Frederator Studios) and [Abrams](J. J.)(J. J. Abrams)' [Robot Productions](Bad)(Bad Robot Productions). In June 2012, Tartakovsky said that he had a story to conclude the series and [character](title)(Samurai Jack#Premise)'s story, but the project had been shelved after Abrams moved on to direct *[Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film))*. In 2010, Tartakovsky created storyboards for [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau)'s *[Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)*. He created a new series for Cartoon Network, *[Titan](Sym-Bionic)(Sym-Bionic Titan)*, between 2010 and 2011. He had hoped to expand on the initial season, but it was not renewed. On 7 April 2011, an animated prologue by Tartakovsky for the horror film *[Priest](Priest (2011 film))* premiered online.
In early 2011, Tartakovsky moved to [Pictures Animation](Sony)(Sony Pictures Animation), where he made his feature film directing debut with *[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania (film))* (2012). In July 2012, he signed a long-term deal with Sony to develop and direct his own original projects. In June 2012, Sony announced that Tartakovsky was slated to direct a computer-animated *[Popeye](Popeye#Canceled animated film)* feature. On 18 September 2014, Tartakovsky revealed an "animation test". In March 2015, Tartakovsky announced that despite the well-received test footage, he was no longer working on the project. He moved onto directing original story *Can You Imagine?*, announced in 2014, but it was cancelled.
Tartakovsky directed *[Transylvania 2](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania 2)*, the sequel to *Hotel Transylvania*, released in 2015. In December 2015, Adult Swim announced that Tartakovsky would return for a [season of *Samurai Jack*](final)(Samurai Jack (season 5)), during which he stepped away from Sony Pictures Animation. When the series finished airing in 2017, Tartakovsky returned to Sony and directed *[Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation)* (2018). After its financial success, two original projects were announced: an R-rated comedy called *Fixed* and an action-adventure film entitled *Black Knight*.
In May 2019, it was announced that Adult Swim had commissioned a new series from Tartakovsky entitled *[Primal](Primal (TV series))*, which is about "a caveman at the dawn of evolution ... [a](and) dinosaur on the brink of extinction". It began airing on 7 October 2019.
On 11 May 2020, it was announced that Tartakovsky's *Popeye* project was being revived by [Features Syndicate](King)(King Features Syndicate), with T. J. Fixman writing the script. Tartakovsky later clarified that he was not working on it yet and funding was still needed, saying that if he had the time he would do it. In mid-2022, an animatic for the film was leaked online and subsequently taken down.
Tartakovsky was involved in the development of the video game *[Jack: Battle Through Time](Samurai)(Samurai Jack: Battle Through Time)*, which was released on 21 August 2020. On 28 October, a new series by him called *Unicorn: Warriors Eternal* was announced; it will focus on a group of teen heroes, drawing inspiration from world mythology, and is being billed as [animation](all-ages)(Children's television series#Demographics). It is being produced by Cartoon Network Studios to be aired on Cartoon Network and HBO Max as part of an attempt by [WarnerMedia](WarnerMedia) to reach a broader range of the "older kid and tween market." This was confirmed in a February 2021 announcement which mentioned the series. Tartakovsky described the project as an "extension of everything that I've done from *Dexter* to *Powerpuff* to *Samurai Jack*. It's all those ideas that we practiced, that sometimes were successful, sometimes not as much".
On June 15, 2022, Tartakovsky inked a cross-studio overall deal with Cartoon Network Studios and Warner Bros. Animation that lets him develop, create and produce animated programs for a variety of platforms, either with original characters or with a [Bros. Discovery](Warner)(Warner Bros. Discovery) IP. [Register](Sam)(Sam Register), president of both companies, said "Genndy is a true visionary who embodies the creator spirit of Cartoon Network Studios. As he continues to push the boundaries of storytelling and animation, we are excited to have a front row seat both here and now also at Warner Bros. Animation."
On March 30, 2023, it was announced that Tartakovsky’s show *[Warriors Eternal](Unicorn:)(Unicorn: Warriors Eternal)* was moved to Adult Swim, with expecting to premiere on the programming block on May 1, 2023.
## Personal life
Tartakovsky married Dawn David in 2000 and has three children with her.
## Filmography
### Television
### Films
### Short films
### Other works
## Bibliography
## Awards and nominations
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
* [Genndy Tartakovsky](https://web.archive.org/web/20100223032747/http://animatedtv.about.com/od/samuraijack/p/tartakovsky.htm) at [About.com](About.com)
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Hadrian
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hadrian
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# Hadrian
*Revision ID: 1160017069 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T23:15:55Z*
---
130
| succession = [emperor](Roman)(Roman emperor)
| reign = 11 August 117 – 10 July 138
| predecessor = [Trajan](Trajan)
| successor = [Pius](Antoninus)(Antoninus Pius)
| birth_name = Publius Aelius Hadrianus
| birth_date = 24 January 76
| birth_place = [Italica](Italica), [Baetica](Hispania)(Hispania Baetica), present-day Spain
| death_date = 10 July 138 (aged 62)
| death_place = [Baiae](Baiae), [Italia](Roman Italy)
| burial_place =
| spouse = [Sabina](Vibia)(Vibia Sabina)
| issue =
| issue-type = Adoptive children
| regnal name = Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus AugustusSalmon, 333
| dynasty = [Nerva–Antonine](Nerva–Antonine dynasty)
| father =
| mother = [Paulina](Domitia)(Domitia Paulina)
| religion = [religion](Hellenistic)(Hellenistic religion)
}}
**Hadrian** (; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was [emperor](Roman)(Roman emperor) from 117 to 138. He was born in [Italica](Italica) (close to modern [Santiponce](Santiponce) in Spain), a Roman *[municipium](municipium)* founded by [settlers](Italic)(Italic peoples) in [Baetica](Hispania)(Hispania Baetica); his branch of the [Aelia](gens)(Aelia (gens)), the *Aeli Hadriani*, came from the town of [Hadria](Atri, Abruzzo). His father was of senatorial rank and was a first cousin of Emperor [Trajan](Trajan). Hadrian married Trajan's grand-niece [Sabina](Vibia)(Vibia Sabina) early in his career before Trajan became emperor and possibly at the behest of Trajan's wife [Plotina](Pompeia)(Pompeia Plotina). Plotina and Trajan's close friend and adviser [Licinius Sura](Lucius)(Lucius Licinius Sura) were well disposed towards Hadrian. When Trajan died, his widow claimed that he had nominated Hadrian as emperor immediately before his death.
Rome's military and Senate approved Hadrian's succession, but four leading senators were unlawfully put to death soon after. They had opposed Hadrian or seemed to threaten his succession, and the Senate held him responsible for their deaths and never forgave him. He earned further disapproval among the elite by abandoning Trajan's expansionist policies and territorial gains in [Mesopotamia](Roman Mesopotamia), [Assyria](Roman Assyria), [Armenia](Roman Armenia), and parts of [Dacia](Roman Dacia). Hadrian preferred to invest in the development of stable, defensible borders and the unification of the empire's disparate peoples. He is known for building [Wall](Hadrian's)(Hadrian's Wall), which marked the northern limit of [Britannia](Roman Britain).
Hadrian energetically pursued his own imperial ideals and personal interests. He visited almost every province of the Empire, accompanied by an imperial retinue of specialists and administrators. He encouraged military preparedness and discipline and fostered, designed, or personally subsidised various civil and religious institutions and building projects. In Rome itself, he rebuilt the [Pantheon](Pantheon, Rome) and constructed the vast [of Venus and Roma](Temple)(Temple of Venus and Roma). In Egypt, he may have rebuilt the [of Alexandria](Serapeum)(Serapeum of Alexandria). He was an ardent admirer of Greece and sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the Empire, so he ordered the construction of many opulent temples there. His intense relationship with Greek youth [Antinous](Antinous) and the latter's untimely death led Hadrian to establish a widespread cult late in his reign. He suppressed the [Kokhba revolt](Bar)(Bar Kokhba revolt) in [Judaea](Judaea Province).
Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness. He saw the Bar Kokhba revolt as the failure of his panhellenic ideal. He executed two more senators for their alleged plots against him, and this provoked further resentment. His marriage to [Sabina](Vibia)(Vibia Sabina) had been unhappy and childless; he adopted [Pius](Antoninus)(Antoninus Pius) in 138 and nominated him as a successor on the condition that Antoninus adopt [Aurelius](Marcus)(Marcus Aurelius) and [Verus](Lucius)(Lucius Verus) as his own heirs. Hadrian died the same year at [Baiae](Baiae), and Antoninus had him deified, despite opposition from the Senate. [Gibbon](Edward)(Edward Gibbon) includes him among the Empire's "[Good Emperors](Five)(Five Good Emperors)", a "[dictator](benevolent)(benevolent dictator)"; Hadrian's own Senate found him remote and authoritarian. He has been described as enigmatic and contradictory, with a capacity for both great personal generosity and extreme cruelty and driven by insatiable curiosity, self-conceit, and ambition.Ando, Clifford "Phoenix", *[Phoenix](Phoenix (journal))*, 52 (1998), pp. 183–185. .
## Early life
[[File:Attica_06-13_Athens_24_Arch_of_Hadrian.jpg|thumb|[Arch](Hadrian's)(Arch of Hadrian (Athens)) in central [Athens](Athens), Greece.Anna Kouremenos 2022: https://www.academia.edu/43746490/_Forthcoming_The_City_of_Hadrian_and_not_of_Theseus_A_Cultural_History_of_Hadrians_Arch
Hadrian's admiration for Greece materialised in such projects ordered during his reign.]]
Hadrian was born on 24 January 76, probably in [Italica](Italica) (near modern [Seville](Seville)), a Roman town in the province of [Baetica](Hispania)(Hispania Baetica); one Roman biographer claims he was born in [Rome](Rome). Hadrian's branch of the gens Aelia came from Hadria (modern [Atri](Atri, Italy)), an ancient town in the [Picenum](Picenum) region of Italia, the source of the name *Hadrianus*. The *Aelii Hadriani* were either part of the original settlers of Italica, founded by [Africanus](Scipio)(Scipio Africanus), and therefore stationed in Hispania for several centuries, or moved there at an unknown time.Alicia M. Canto, [Itálica, *sedes natalis* de Adriano. 31 textos históricos y argumentos para una secular polémica](https://www.academia.edu/1082511/It%C3%A1lica_sedes_natalis_de_Adriano._31_textos_hist%C3%B3ricos_y_argumentos_para_una_secular_pol%C3%A9mica_2004_), *Athenaeum* XCII/2, 2004, 367–408.Ronald Syme, "Hadrian and Italica" (*Journal of Roman Studies*, LIV, 1964; pp.142–149) supports the position that Rome was Hadrian's birthplace. Canto argues that among the ancient sources, only the [Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta), *Vita Hadriani* 2,4, claims this. 25 other sources, including Hadrian's horoscope, state that he was born in Italica. See Stephan Heiler, "The Emperor Hadrian in the Horoscopes of Antigonus of Nicaea", in Günther Oestmann, H. Darrel Rutkin, [von Stuckrad](Kocku)(Kocku von Stuckrad), eds.,*Horoscopes and Public Spheres: Essays on the History of Astrology*, Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 49 : Cramer, FH., *Astrology in Roman Law and Politics*, Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 37, Philadelphia, 1954 (reprinted 1996), 162–178, footnotes 121b, 122 *et al.,*[Googlebooks preview](https://books.google.com/books?id=zv0UAAAAIAAJ) O.Neugebauer and H.B. Van Hoesen, "Greek Horoscopes" *Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society,* 48, 76, Philadelphia, 1959, pp. 80–90, 91, and footnote 19, [googlebooks preview of 1987 edition](https://books.google.com/books?id=kEgnLpm06zQC)
Hadrian's father was [Aelius Hadrianus Afer](Publius)(Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer), a [senator](Roman Senate) of [praetor](praetor)ian rank, born and raised in Italica. Hadrian's mother was [Paulina](Domitia)(Domitia Paulina), daughter of a distinguished Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades ([Cádiz](Cádiz)).Royston Lambert, *Beloved And God*, pp.31–32. His only sibling was an elder sister, [Domitia Paulina](Aelia)(Aelia Domitia Paulina). His [nurse](wet)(wet nurse) was the slave Germana, probably of Germanic origin, to whom he was devoted throughout his life. She was later freed by him and ultimately outlived him, as shown by her funerary inscription, which was found at [Villa](Hadrian's)(Hadrian's Villa) at [Tivoli](Tivoli, Lazio).*[CIL](Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum)* VI 10909 ([http://www.edr-edr.it/edr_programmi/res_complex_comune.php?do=book&id_nr=EDR131420&partId=1](Text) on the Epigraphic Database Roma) Hadrian's great-nephew, [Pedanius Fuscus Salinator](Gnaeus)(Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator (consul 118)), from [Barcino](Barcelona) (Barcelona) would become Hadrian's colleague as co-consul in 118. As a senator, Hadrian's father would have spent much of his time in Rome.On the numerous senatorial families from Spain residing at Rome and its vicinity around the time of Hadrian's birth see R. Syme, 'Spaniards at Tivoli', in *Roman Papers IV* (Oxford, 1988), pp.96–114. Hadrian went on to build an Imperial villa at Tivoli (Tibur) In terms of his later career, Hadrian's most significant family connection was to [Trajan](Trajan), his father's [cousin](first)(first cousin), who was also of senatorial stock, and had been born and raised in Italica. Hadrian and Trajan were both considered to bein the words of [Victor](Aurelius)(Aurelius Victor)"aliens", people "from the outside" (*advenae*).Alicia M. Canto, "La dinastía Ulpio-Aelia (96–192 d.C.): ni tan Buenos, ni tan Adoptivos ni tan Antoninos". *Gerión* (21.1): 263–305. 2003
Hadrian's parents died in 86 when he was ten years old. He and his sister became wards of Trajan and [Acilius Attianus](Publius)(Publius Acilius Attianus) (who later became Trajan's [prefect](Praetorian)(Praetorian prefect)). Hadrian was physically active and enjoyed hunting; when he was 14, Trajan called him to Rome and arranged his further [education](Education in ancient Rome) in subjects appropriate to a young Roman [aristocrat](Aristocracy).Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 24–26 Hadrian's enthusiasm for [literature](Greek)(Ancient Greek literature) and culture earned him the nickname *Graeculus* ("Greekling"), intended as a form of "mild mockery".Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 16–17
## Public service
Hadrian's first official post in Rome was as a member of the *[stlitibus judicandis](decemviri)(decemviri stlitibus judicandis)*, one among many [vigintivirate](vigintisexviri) offices at the lowest level of the *[honorum](cursus)(cursus honorum)* ("course of honours") that could lead to higher office and a senatorial career. He then served as a [tribune](military)(military tribune), first with the [*Adiutrix*](LegioII)(Legio II Adiutrix) in 95, then with the [V Macedonica](Legio)(Legio V Macedonica). During Hadrian's second stint as tribune, the frail and aged reigning emperor [Nerva](Nerva) adopted Trajan as his heir; Hadrian was dispatched to give Trajan the news – or most probably was one of many emissaries charged with this same commission.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p.37 Then Hadrian was transferred to [XXII Primigenia](Legio)(Legio XXII Primigenia) and a third tribunate.John D. Grainger, *Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2004, , p. 109 Hadrian's three tribunates gave him some career advantage. Most scions of the older senatorial families might serve one, or at most two, military tribunates as a prerequisite to higher office.Thorsten Opper, *The Emperor Hadrian*. British Museum Press, 2008, p.39Jörg Fündling, *Kommentar zur Vita Hadriani der Historia Augusta* (= Antiquitas. Reihe 4: Beiträge zur Historia-Augusta-Forschung, Serie 3: Kommentare, Bände 4.1 und 4.2). Habelt, Bonn 2006, , p. 351. When Nerva died in 98, Hadrian is said to have hastened to Trajan, to inform him ahead of the official envoy sent by the governor, Hadrian's brother-in-law and rival Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus.John D. Grainger, *Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis*, p. 109; Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds. *The Cambridge Ancient History – XI*. Cambridge U. P.: 2000, , p. 133.
In 101, Hadrian was back in Rome; he was elected [quaestor](quaestor), then *quaestor imperatoris Traiani*, liaison officer between Emperor and the assembled Senate, to whom he read the Emperor's communiqués and speeches – which he possibly composed on the emperor's behalf. In his role as imperial [ghostwriter](ghostwriter), Hadrian took the place of the recently deceased Licinius Sura, Trajan's all-powerful friend and kingmaker.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p.54 His next post was as *ab actis senatus*, keeping the Senate's records.Boatwright, in Barrett, p. 158 During the [Dacian War](First)(First Dacian War), Hadrian took the field as a member of Trajan's personal entourage, but was excused from his military post to take office in Rome as [of the plebs](tribune)(tribune of the plebs), in 105. After the war, he was probably elected [praetor](praetor).The text of *Historia Augusta* (*Vita Hadriani*, 3.8) is garbled, stating that Hadrian's election to the praetorship was contemporary "to the second consulate of Suburanus and Servianus" – two characters that had non-simultaneous second consulships – so Hadrian's election could be dated to 102 or 104, the later date being the most accepted During the [Dacian War](Second)(Second Dacian War), Hadrian was in Trajan's personal service again. He was released to serve as [legate](legatus) of [I Minervia](Legio)(Legio I Minervia), then as governor of [Pannonia](Lower)(Pannonia Inferior) in 107, tasked with "holding back the [Sarmatians](Sarmatians)".Bowman, p. 133Anthony Everitt, 2013, Chapter XI: "holding back the Sarmatians" may simply have meant maintaining and patrolling the border. Between 107 and 108, Hadrian defeated an invasion of Roman-controlled [Banat](Banat) and [Oltenia](Oltenia) by the [Iazyges](Iazyges). The exact terms of the peace treaty are not known. It is believed the Romans kept Oltenia in exchange for some form of concession, likely involving a one-time tribute payment. The Iazyges also took possession of Banat around this time, which may have been part of the treaty.
Now in his mid-thirties, Hadrian travelled to Greece; he was granted Athenian citizenship and was appointed [archon](eponymous)(eponymous archon) of Athens for a brief time (in 112).The inscription in footnote 1 The Athenians awarded him a statue with an inscription in the [of Dionysus](Theatre)(Theatre of Dionysus) ([IG](Inscriptiones Graecae) II2 3286) offering a detailed account of his *cursus honorum* thus far.The Athenian inscription confirms and expands the one in *Historia Augusta*; see John Bodel, ed., *Epigraphic Evidence: Ancient History From Inscriptions*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, , p. 89His career in office up to 112/113 is attested by the Athens inscription, 112 AD: CIL III, 550 = InscrAtt 3 = IG II, 3286 = Dessau 308 = IDRE 2, 365: *[stlitibus iudicandis](decemvir)(Decemviri)/ sevir [turma](turma)e equitum Romanorum/ [Urbi](praefectus)(Praefectus urbi) feriarum Latinarum/ [militum](tribunus)(military tribune) legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis (95, in Pannonia Inferior)/ tribunus militum legionis V Macedonicae (96, in Moesia Inferior)/ tribunus militum legionis XXII Primigeniae Piae Fidelis (97, in Germania Superior)/ [quaestor](quaestor) (101)/ ab actis senatus/ [plebis](tribunus)(tribune) (105)/ [praetor](praetor) (106)/ [legionis](legatus)(legatus legionis) I Minerviae Piae Fidelis (106, in Germania Inferior)/ [legatus](legatus) Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae Inferioris (107)/ [suffectus](consul)(suffect consul) (108)/ [epulonum](septemvir)(Epulones) (before 112)/ [Augustalis](sodalis)(sodalis Augustalis) (before 112)/ archon Athenis (112/13)*.
He also held office as *legatus [Syriae](Syria (Roman province))* (117): see H.W. Benario in [Roman-emperors.org](http://www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm) Thereafter, no more is heard of him until [Parthian campaign](Trajan's)(Trajan's Parthian campaign). It is possible that he remained in Greece until his recall to the imperial retinue, when he joined Trajan's expedition against [Parthia](Parthian Empire) as a legate.Anthony Birley, *Hadrian the Restless Emperor*, p.68 When the governor of [Syria](Syria (Roman province)) was sent to deal with renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed his replacement, with independent command.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p.75 Trajan became seriously ill, and took ship for Rome, while Hadrian remained in Syria, *de facto* general commander of the Eastern Roman army.Karl Strobel: *Kaiser Traian. Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte*. Regensburg: 2010, p. 401. Trajan got as far as the coastal city of [Selinus](Gazipaşa), in [Cilicia](Cilicia), and died there on 8 August; he would be regarded as one of Rome's most admired, popular and best emperors.
### Relationship with Trajan and his family
Around the time of his quaestorship, in 100 or 101, Hadrian had married Trajan's seventeen- or eighteen-year-old grandniece, [Sabina](Vibia)(Vibia Sabina). Trajan himself seems to have been less than enthusiastic about the marriage, and with good reason, as the couple's relationship would prove to be scandalously poor.Robert H. Allen, *The Classical Origins of Modern Homophobia*, Jefferson: Mcfarland, 2006, , p.120 The marriage might have been arranged by Trajan's empress, Plotina. This highly cultured, influential woman shared many of Hadrian's values and interests, including the idea of the Roman Empire as a commonwealth with an underlying Hellenic culture.Hidalgo de la Vega, Maria José: "Plotina, Sabina y Las Dos Faustinas: La Función de Las Augustas en La Politica Imperial". *Studia historica, Historia antigua*, 18, 2000, pp. 191–224. Available at [http://campus.usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/0213-2052/article/viewFile/6224/6238]. Retrieved 11 January 2017 If Hadrian were to be appointed Trajan's successor, Plotina and her extended family could retain their social profile and political influence after Trajan's death.Plotina may have sought to avoid the fate of her contemporary, former empress [Longina](Domitia)(Domitia Longina), who had fallen into social and political oblivion: see François Chausson, "Variétés Généalogiques IV:Cohésion, Collusions, Collisions: Une Autre Dynastie Antonine", in Giorgio Bonamente, Hartwin Brandt, eds., *Historiae Augustae Colloquium Bambergense*. Bari: Edipuglia, 2007, , p. 143 Hadrian could also count on the support of his mother-in-law, [Matidia](Salonia)(Salonia Matidia), who was the daughter of Trajan's beloved sister [Marciana](Ulpia)(Ulpia Marciana).Marasco, p. 375Tracy Jennings, "A Man Among Gods: Evaluating the Significance of Hadrian's Acts of Deification." *Journal of Undergraduate Research*: 54. Available at [http://www3.nd.edu/~ujournal/wp-content/uploads/Full-Print-Edition-with-cover_09-10.pdf#page=62] . Accessed 15 April 2017 When Ulpia Marciana died in 112, Trajan had her [deified](Imperial cult (ancient Rome)), and made Salonia Matidia an *[Augusta](Augustus (title)#Feminine equivalent)*.This made Hadrian the first senator in history to have an *Augusta* as his mother-in-law, something that his contemporaries could not fail to notice: see Christer Brun, "Matidia die Jüngere", IN Anne Kolb, ed., *Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?: Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008*. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010, , p.230
[[File:(Toulouse) Buste de Trajan type dit 'des Decennalia' - Musée Saint-Raymond, Ra 58 b.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Emperor [Trajan](Trajan); [Saint-Raymond](Musée)(Musée Saint-Raymond), Toulouse]]
Hadrian's personal relationship with [Trajan](Trajan) was complex and may have been difficult. Hadrian seems to have sought influence over Trajan, or Trajan's decisions, through cultivation of the latter's boy favourites; this gave rise to some unexplained quarrel, around the time of Hadrian's marriage to Sabina.Thorsten Opper, *Hadrian: Empire and Conflict*. Harvard University Press, 2008, p. 170David L. Balch, Carolyn Osiek, eds., *Early Christian Families in Context: An Interdisciplinary Dialogue*. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003, , p.301 Late in Trajan's reign, Hadrian failed to achieve a senior consulship, being only suffect consul for 108;Anthony R Birley, *Hadrian: The Restless Emperor*, p.54 this gave him parity of status with other members of the senatorial nobility,Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., *The Cambridge Ancient History*, XI, p. 133 but no particular distinction befitting an heir designate.Mackay, Christopher. *Ancient Rome: a Military and Political History*. Cambridge U. Press: 2007, , p.229 Had Trajan wished it, he could have promoted his protege to [patrician](Patrician (ancient Rome)) rank and its privileges, which included opportunities for a fast track to consulship without prior experience as tribune; he chose not to.Fündling, 335 While Hadrian seems to have been granted the office of tribune of the plebs a year or so younger than was customary, he had to leave Dacia, and Trajan, to take up the appointment; Trajan might simply have wanted him out of the way.Gabriele Marasco, ed., *Political Autobiographies and Memoirs in Antiquity: A Brill Companion*. Leiden: Brill, 2011, , p.375 The *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)* describes Trajan's gift to Hadrian of a diamond ring that Trajan himself had received from [Nerva](Nerva), which "encouraged [Hadrian's] hopes of succeeding to the throne".*Historia Augusta*, *Life of Hadrian*, 3.7In 23 BC [Augustus](Augustus) handed a similar ring to his heir apparent, [Agrippa](Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa): see Judith Lynn Sebesta, Larissa Bonfante, eds., *The World of Roman Costume*. University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 78 While Trajan actively promoted Hadrian's advancement, he did so with caution.Fündling, 351
### Succession
Failure to nominate an heir could invite chaotic, destructive wresting of power by a succession of competing claimants – a civil war. Too early a nomination could be seen as an abdication and reduce the chance for an orderly transmission of power.Fündling, 384; Strobel, 401. As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, Plotina, and closely watched by Prefect Attianus, he could have lawfully adopted Hadrian as heir by means of a simple deathbed wish, expressed before witnesses;John Richardson, "The Roman Mind and the power of fiction" IN Lewis Ayres, Ian Gray Kidd, eds. *The Passionate Intellect: Essays on the Transformation of Classical Traditions : Presented to Professor I.G. Kidd*. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1995, , p. 128 but when an adoption document was eventually presented, it was signed not by Trajan but by Plotina, and was dated the day after Trajan's death.Elizabeth Speller, p. 25 That Hadrian was still in Syria was a further irregularity, as Roman adoption law required the presence of both parties at the adoption ceremony. Rumours, doubts, and speculation attended Hadrian's adoption and succession. It has been suggested that Trajan's young manservant Phaedimus, who died very soon after Trajan, was killed (or killed himself) rather than face awkward questions.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 80 Ancient sources are divided on the legitimacy of Hadrian's adoption: [Cassius](Dio)(Dio Cassius) saw it as bogus and the *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)* writer as genuine.Stephan Brassloff, "Die Rechtsfrage bei der Adoption Hadrians". *Hermes* 49. Bd., H. 4 (Sep. 1914), pp. 590–601 An [aureus](aureus) minted early in Hadrian's reign represents the official position; it presents Hadrian as Trajan's "[Caesar](Caesar (title))" (Trajan's heir designate).The coin legend runs HADRIANO TRAIANO CAESARI; see Roman, Yves, Rémy, Bernard & Riccardi, Laurent:" Les intrigues de Plotine et la succession de Trajan. À propos d'un aureus au nom d'Hadrien César". *Révue des études anciennes*, T. 111, 2009, no. 2, pp. 508–517
## Emperor (117)
### Securing power
[[Empire 125.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The Roman Empire in 125, under the rule of Hadrian](File:Roman)]
According to the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian informed the Senate of his accession in a letter as a *fait accompli*, explaining that "the unseemly haste of the troops in acclaiming him emperor was due to the belief that the state could not be without an emperor".*Historia Augusta*, Life of Hadrian, 6.2 The new emperor rewarded the legions' loyalty with the customary [bonus](Donativum), and the Senate endorsed the acclamation. Various public ceremonies were organised on Hadrian's behalf, celebrating his "divine election" by all the gods, whose community now included Trajan, deified at Hadrian's request.Egyptian papyri tell of one such ceremony between 117 and 118; see Michael Peppard, *The Son of God in the Roman World: Divine Sonship in Its Social and Political Context*. Oxford U. Press, 2011, , pp. 72f
Hadrian remained in the east for a while, suppressing [Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan](the)(Kitos War). He relieved Judea's governor, the outstanding Moorish general [Quietus](Lusius)(Lusius Quietus), of his personal guard of Moorish auxiliaries;Royston Lambert, p. 34Cizek, Eugen. L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus chez Tacite et le " complot " des consulaires. In: ''Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé'', no. 3, octobre 1980. pp. 276–294. Retrieved 10 June 2015. Available at [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bude_0004-5527_1980_num_1_3_1078]
then he moved on to quell disturbances along the [Danube](Danube) frontier. In Rome, Hadrian's former guardian and current [prefect](praetorian)(praetorian prefect), Attianus, claimed to have uncovered a conspiracy involving Lusius Quietus and three other leading senators, Lucius Publilius Celsus, Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus and Gaius Avidius Nigrinus.Elizabeth Speller. There was no public trial for the four – they were tried *in absentia*, hunted down and killed. Hadrian claimed that Attianus had acted on his own initiative, and rewarded him with senatorial status and consular rank; then pensioned him off, no later than 120.It is likely that Hadrian found Attianus' ambition suspect. Attianus was likely dead, or executed, by the end of Hadrian's reign; see Françoise Des Boscs-Plateaux, Un parti hispanique à Rome?: ascension des élites hispaniques et pouvoir politique d'Auguste à Hadrien, 27 av. J.-C.-138 ap. J.-C. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2005, , p. 611 Hadrian assured the senate that henceforth their ancient right to prosecute and judge their own would be respected.
The reasons for these four executions remain obscure. Official recognition of Hadrian as a legitimate heir may have come too late to dissuade other potential claimants.Opper, *Hadrian: Empire and Conflict*, 55 Hadrian's greatest rivals were Trajan's closest friends, the most experienced and senior members of the imperial council;John Antony Crook, *Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian*. Cambridge University Press: 1955, pp. 54f any of them might have been a legitimate competitor for the imperial office (*capaces imperii*);Marasco, p. 377 and any of them might have supported Trajan's expansionist policies, which Hadrian intended to change.[Christol](Michel)(Michel Christol) & D. Nony, *Rome et son Empire*. Paris: Hachette, 2003, , p. 158 One of their number was [Cornelius Palma](Aulus)(Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus) who as a former conqueror of [Nabatea](Arabia)(Arabia (province)) would have retained a stake in the East.Hadrien Bru, ''Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes: Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin*. Leiden: Brill, 2011, , pp. 46f The *Historia Augusta'' describes Palma and a third executed senator, Lucius Publilius Celsus (consul for the second time in 113), as Hadrian's personal enemies, who had spoken in public against him.Carcopino Jérôme. "L'hérédité dynastique chez les Antonins". *Revue des Études Anciennes*. Tome 51, 1949, no.3–4. pp. 262–321. The fourth was [Avidius Nigrinus](Gaius)(Gaius Avidius Nigrinus), an ex-consul, intellectual, friend of [the Younger](Pliny)(Pliny the Younger) and (briefly) Governor of Dacia at the start of Hadrian's reign. He was probably Hadrian's chief rival for the throne; a senator of the highest rank, breeding, and connections; according to the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian had considered making Nigrinus his heir apparent before deciding to get rid of him.Cizek, "L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus"Nigrinus' ambiguous relationship with Hadrian would have consequences late in Hadrian's reign, when he had to plan his own succession; see Anthony Everitt, *Hadrian and the triumph of Rome*. New York: Random House, 2009, .
[[File:Hadrianus coin - 119.jpg|thumb|left|A [denarius](denarius) of Hadrian issued in 119 AD for his third [consulship](Roman consul). Inscription: HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS / LIBERALITAS AVG. CO[N]S III, P. P.]]
Soon after, in 125, Hadrian appointed [Marcius Turbo](Quintus)(Quintus Marcius Turbo) as his Praetorian Prefect.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 91 Turbo was his close friend, a leading figure of the equestrian order, a senior court judge and a [procurator](Procurator (Roman)).Christol & Nony, p. 158Richard P. Saller, *Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire*. Cambridge University Press: 2002, , p. 140 As Hadrian also forbade equestrians to try cases against senators,Richard A. Bauman, *Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome*. London: Routledge, 2002, , p. 83 the Senate retained full legal authority over its members; it also remained the highest court of appeal, and formal appeals to the emperor regarding its decisions were forbidden.[Digest](Digest (Roman law)), 49 2, I,2, quoted by P.E. Corbett, "The Legislation of Hadrian". *University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register*, Vol. 74, No. 8 (Jun. 1926), pp. 753–766 If this was an attempt to repair the damage done by Attianus, with or without Hadrian's full knowledge, it was not enough; Hadrian's reputation and relationship with his Senate were irredeemably soured, for the rest of his reign.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 88 Some sources describe Hadrian's occasional recourse to a network of informers, the *[frumentarii](frumentarii)*,Christopher J. Fuhrmann, *Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order*. Oxford University Press, 2012, , p. 153 to discreetly investigate persons of high social standing, including senators and his close friends.Rose Mary Sheldon, *Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome: Trust in the Gods But Verify*. London: Routledge, 2004, , p. 253
## Travels
[[File:Hadrian Greek BM Sc1381.jpg|thumb|upright|This famous statue of Hadrian in Greek dress was revealed in 2008 to have been forged in the [era](Victorian)(Victorian era) by cobbling together a head of Hadrian and an unknown body. For years, the statue had been used by historians as proof of Hadrian's love of Hellenic culture.[Museum](British)(British Museum), London.]]
Hadrian was to spend more than half his reign outside Italy. Whereas previous emperors had, for the most part, relied on the reports of their imperial representatives around the Empire, Hadrian wished to see things for himself. Previous emperors had often left Rome for long periods, but mostly to go to war, returning once the conflict was settled. Hadrian's near-incessant travels may represent a calculated break with traditions and attitudes in which the empire was a purely Roman hegemony. Hadrian sought to include provincials in a commonwealth of civilised peoples and a common Hellenic culture under Roman supervision.Paul Veyne, *Le Pain et le Cirque*, Paris: Seuil, 1976, , p. 655 He supported the creation of provincial towns ([municipia](Municipium)), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own customs and laws, rather than the imposition of new Roman [colonies](Roman colony) with Roman constitutions.András Mócsy, *Pannonia and Upper Moesia (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire*, Routledge, 2014
A cosmopolitan, ecumenical intent is evident in coin issues of Hadrian's later reign, showing the emperor "raising up" the personifications of various provinces.Paul Veyne, " *Humanitas*: Romans and non-Romans". In Andrea Giardina, ed., *The Romans*, University of Chicago Press: 1993, , p. 364 [Aristides](Aelius)(Aelius Aristides) would later write that Hadrian "extended over his subjects a protecting hand, raising them as one helps fallen men on their feet".Christol & Nony, p. 159 All this did not go well with Roman traditionalists. The self-indulgent emperor [Nero](Nero) had enjoyed a prolonged and peaceful tour of Greece and had been criticised by the Roman elite for abandoning his fundamental responsibilities as emperor. In the eastern provinces, and to some extent in the west, Nero had enjoyed popular support; claims of his imminent [or rebirth](return)(Nero Redivivus legend) emerged almost immediately after his death. Hadrian may have consciously exploited these positive, popular connections during his own travels.Larry Joseph Kreitzer, *Striking New Images: Roman Imperial Coinage and the New Testament World*. Sheffield: A & C Black, 1996, , pp. 194ff In the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian is described as "a little too much Greek", too cosmopolitan for a Roman emperor.Simon Goldhill, *Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire*. Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 12
### Britannia and the West (122)
[[File:Milecastle 39 on Hadrian's Wall.jpg|thumb|left|[Wall](Hadrian's)(Hadrian's Wall), the Roman frontier fortification in northern England. A [milecastle](Milecastle 39) is in the foreground.]]
Prior to Hadrian's arrival in [Britannia](Roman Britain), the province had suffered a major rebellion from 119 to 121.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 123 Inscriptions tell of an *expeditio Britannica* that involved major troop movements, including the dispatch of a detachment ([vexillatio](vexillatio)), comprising some 3,000 soldiers. Fronto writes about military losses in Britannia at the time.Opper, p. 79 Coin legends of 119–120 attest that [Pompeius Falco](Quintus)(Quintus Pompeius Falco) was sent to restore order. In 122 Hadrian initiated the construction of a wall "to separate Romans from barbarians".*Scriptores Historiae Augustae*, Hadrian, xi, 2 The idea that the wall was built in order to deal with an actual threat or its resurgence, however, is probable but nevertheless conjectural.Nick Hodgson, ''Hadrian's Wall: Archaeology and history at the limit of Rome's empire''. Ramsbury: Crowood Press, 2017, A general desire to cease the Empire's extension may have been the determining motive. Reduction of defence costs may also have played a role, as the Wall deterred attacks on Roman territory at a lower cost than a massed border army,Patrick le Roux, ''Le haut-Empire romain en Occident d'Auguste aux Sévères''. Paris: Seuil, 1998, , p. 396 and controlled cross-border trade and immigration.Breeze, David J., and Brian Dobson, "Hadrian's Wall: Some Problems", *Britannia*, Vol. 3, (1972), pp. 182–208 A shrine was erected in York to Britannia as the divine [of Britain](personification)(National personification); coins were struck, bearing her image, identified as [Britania](Britania). By the end of 122, Hadrian had concluded his visit to Britannia. He never saw the finished [that bears his name](wall)(Hadrian's Wall).
Hadrian appears to have continued through southern Gaul. At [Nemausus](Nîmes), he may have overseen the building of a [basilica](basilica) dedicated to his patroness Plotina, who had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 145 At around this time, Hadrian dismissed his secretary *[epistulis](ab)(ab epistulis)*, the biographer [Suetonius](Suetonius), for "excessive familiarity" towards the empress.Jason König, Katerina Oikonomopoulou, Greg Woolf, eds. *Ancient Libraries*. Cambridge U. Press: 2013, , p. 251 Marcius Turbo's colleague as praetorian prefect, [Septicius Clarus](Gaius)(Gaius Septicius Clarus), was dismissed for the same alleged reason, perhaps a pretext to remove him from office.Anthony Everitt, *Hadrian and the triumph of Rome*. Hadrian spent the winter of 122/123 at [Tarraco](Tarraco), in Spain, where he restored the Temple of [Augustus](Augustus).William E. Mierse, *Temples and Towns in Roman Iberia: The Social and Architectural Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third Century B.C. to the Third Century A.D.*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, , p. 141
### Africa, Parthia (123)
In 123, Hadrian crossed the Mediterranean to [Mauretania](Mauretania), where he personally led a minor campaign against local rebels.Royston Lambert, pp. 41–2 The visit was cut short by reports of war preparations by Parthia; Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. At some point, he visited [Cyrene](Cyrene, Libya), where he personally funded the training of young men from well-bred families for the Roman military. Cyrene had benefited earlier in Hadrian's reign (in 119) from his restoration of public buildings destroyed during the earlier, Trajanic Jewish revolt.Anthony Birley, pp. 151–2, 176-180 Birley describes this kind of investment as "characteristic of Hadrian"The rebuilding continued until late in Hadrian's reign; in 138 a statue of [Zeus](Zeus) was erected there, dedicated to Hadrian as Cyrene's "saviour and founder". See E. Mary Smallwood, *The Jews Under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian : a Study in Political Relations*. Leiden, Brill, 2001, 0-391-04155-X, p. 410
### Anatolia; Antinous (123–124)
When Hadrian arrived on the [Euphrates](Euphrates), he personally negotiated a settlement with the Parthian King [I](Osroes)(Osroes I), inspected the Roman defences, then set off westwards, along the Black Sea coast.Anthony Birley, pp. 153–5 He probably wintered in [Nicomedia](Nicomedia), the main city of [Bithynia](Bithynia). Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly before his stay; Hadrian provided funds for its rebuilding and was acclaimed as restorer of the province.Anthony Birley, pp. 157–8
[[File:Bust of Antinous (2). 2nd cent. A.D (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Bust of Antinous from [Patras](Patras), ([Archaeological Museum, Athens](National)(National Archaeological Museum, Athens)]]
It is possible that Hadrian visited [Claudiopolis](Claudiopolis (Bithynia)) and saw the beautiful [Antinous](Antinous), a young man of humble birth who became Hadrian's beloved. Literary and epigraphic sources say nothing of when or where they met; depictions of Antinous show him aged 20 or so, shortly before his death in 130. In 123 he would most likely have been a youth of 13 or 14. It is also possible that Antinous was sent to Rome to be trained as a page to serve the emperor and only gradually rose to the status of imperial favourite.Royston Lambert, pp. 60–1 The actual history of their relationship is mostly unknown.Opper, *Hadrian: Empire and Conflict*, p. 171
With or without Antinous, Hadrian travelled through [Anatolia](Anatolia). Various traditions suggest his presence at particular locations and allege his foundation of a city within Mysia, [Hadrianutherae](Balıkesir), after a successful boar hunt. At about this time, plans to complete the Temple of Zeus in [Cyzicus](Cyzicus), begun by the kings of [Pergamon](Attalid dynasty), were put into practice. The temple received a colossal statue of Hadrian. Cyzicus, [Pergamon](Pergamon), [Smyrna](Smyrna), [Ephesus](Ephesus) and [Sardes](Sardes) were promoted as regional centres for the [cult](imperial)(Imperial cult (ancient Rome)) ([*neocoros*](neocorate)).Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 164–7
### Greece (124–125)
Hadrian arrived in Greece during the autumn of 124, and participated in the [Mysteries](Eleusinian)(Eleusinian Mysteries). He had a particular commitment to Athens, which had previously granted him citizenship and an ;Anna Kouremenos 2022. *The Province of Achaea in the 2nd century CE: The Past Present*. London: Routledge at the Athenians' request, he revised their constitution – among other things, he added a new [phyle](phyle) (tribe), which was named after him.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 175–7 Hadrian combined active, hands-on interventions with cautious restraint. He refused to intervene in a local dispute between producers of [oil](olive)(olive oil) and the Athenian [Assembly](Ecclesia (ancient Athens)) and [Council](Boule (ancient Greece)), who had imposed production quotas on oil producers;Kaja Harter-Uibopuu, "Hadrian and the Athenian Oil Law", in O.M. Van Nijf – R. Alston (ed.), *Feeding the Ancient Greek city*. Groningen- Royal Holloway Studies on the Greek City after the Classical Age, vol. 1, Louvain 2008, pp. 127–141 yet he granted an imperial subsidy for the Athenian grain supply.Brenda Longfellow, *Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage: Form, Meaning and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes*. Cambridge U. Press: 2011, , p. 120 Hadrian created two [foundations](Trust law), to fund Athens' public games, festivals and competitions if no citizen proved wealthy or willing enough to sponsor them as a [Gymnasiarch](Gymnasiarch) or [Agonothetes](Agonothetes).Verhoogen Violette. Review of Graindor (Paul). *Athènes sous Hadrien*, ''Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire*, 1935, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 926–931. Available at [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rbph_0035-0818_1935_num_14_3_1541_t1_0926_0000_2]. Retrieved 20 June 2015 Generally Hadrian preferred that Greek notables, including priests of the imperial cult, focus on more essential and durable provisions, especially [*munera*](Munera (ancient Rome)) such as aqueducts and public fountains ([*nymphaea*](Nymphaeum)).Mark Golden, *Greek Sport and Social Status*, University of Texas Press, 2009, , p. 88 Athens was given two *nymphaea*; one brought water from Mount Parnes to the [Agora](Athenia)(Ancient Agora of Athens) via a complex, challenging and ambitious system of aqueduct tunnels and reservoirs, to be constructed over several years.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 182–4 Several were given to Argos, to remedy a water-shortage so severe and so long-standing that "thirsty Argos" featured in Homeric epic.Cynthia Kosso, Anne Scott, eds., *The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance''. Leiden: Brill, 2009, , pp. 216f
[[File:L'Olympieion (Athènes) (30776483926).jpg|thumb|The [of Olympian Zeus, Athens](Temple)(Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens), completed under Emperor Hadrian in 131.]]
During that winter, Hadrian toured the [Peloponnese](Peloponnese). His exact route is uncertain, but it took in [Epidaurus](Epidaurus); [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)) describes temples built there by Hadrian, and his statue – in [nudity](heroic)(heroic nudity) – erected by its citizens[Petsalis-Diomidis](Alexia)(Alexia Petsalis-Diomidis), *Truly Beyond Wonders: Aelius Aristides and the Cult of Asklepios*. OUP : 2010, , p. 171 in thanks to their "restorer". Antinous and Hadrian may have already been lovers at this time; Hadrian showed particular generosity to [Mantinea](Mantinea), which shared ancient, mythic, politically useful links with Antinous' home at Bithynia. He restored Mantinea's Temple of [Hippios](Poseidon)(Poseidon),Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 177–80David S. Potter,*The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395*. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 44 and according to Pausanias, restored the city's original, classical name. It had been renamed Antigoneia since Hellenistic times, after the Macedonian King [III Doson](Antigonus)(Antigonus III Doson). Hadrian also rebuilt the ancient shrines of [Abae](Abae) and [Megara](Megara), and the [of Argos](Heraion)(Heraion of Argos).Boatwright, p. 134K. W. Arafat, ''Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers''. Cambridge U. Press, 2004, , pp. 162, 185
During his tour of the Peloponnese, Hadrian persuaded the [Sparta](Sparta)n grandee [Herculanus](Eurycles)(Eurycles Herculanus (senator)) – leader of the [Euryclid](Euryclids) family that had ruled Sparta since Augustus' day – to enter the Senate, alongside the Athenian grandee [Atticus the Elder](Herodes)(Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes (suffect consul 133)). The two aristocrats would be the first from "Old Greece" to enter the Roman Senate, as representatives of Sparta and Athens, traditional rivals and "great powers" of the Classical Age.Birley, ["Hadrian and Greek Senators"](http://uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1997/116pdf/116209.pdf), *[für Papyrologie und Epigraphik](Zeitschrift)(Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik)* 116 (1997), pp. 209–245. Retrieved 23 July 2015 This was an important step in overcoming Greek notables' reluctance to take part in Roman political life.Christol & Nony, p. 203 In March 125, Hadrian presided at the Athenian festival of [Dionysia](Dionysia), wearing Athenian dress. The [of Olympian Zeus](Temple)(Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens) had been under construction for more than five centuries; Hadrian committed the vast resources at his command to ensure that the job would be finished.
### Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128)
On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to [Sicily](Sicily). Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 191–200 Back in Rome, he saw the rebuilt Pantheon and his completed villa at nearby [Tibur](Tibur), among the [Hills](Sabine)(Sabine Hills). In early March 127 Hadrian set off on a tour of Italy; his route has been reconstructed through the evidence of his gifts and donations. He restored the shrine of [Cupra](Cupra (goddess)) in [Maritima](Cupra)(Cupra Maritima), and improved the drainage of the [lake](Fucine)(Fucine lake). Less welcome than such largesse was his decision in 127 to divide Italy into four regions under imperial legates with consular rank, acting as governors. They were given jurisdiction over all of Italy, excluding Rome itself, therefore shifting Italian cases from the courts of Rome.J. Declareuil, *Rome the Law-Giver*, London: Routledge, 2013, , p. 72 Having Italy effectively reduced to the status of a group of mere provinces did not go down well with the Roman Senate,Clifford Ando, *Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, and the innovation did not long outlive Hadrian's reign.
Hadrian fell ill around this time; whatever the nature of his illness, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit Africa. His arrival coincided with the good omen of rain, which ended a drought. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer, he found time to inspect the troops; his speech to them survives.Royston Lambert, pp. 71–2 Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128, but his stay was brief, as he set off on another tour that would last three years.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 213–4
### Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death
In September 128, Hadrian attended the [Mysteries](Eleusinian)(Eleusinian Mysteries) again. This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and [Sparta](Sparta) – the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece. Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival around the [League](Amphictyonic)(Amphictyonic League) based in Delphi, but by now he had decided on something far grander. His new [Panhellenion](Panhellenion) was going to be a council that would bring Greek cities together. Having set in motion the preparations – deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would take time – Hadrian set off for Ephesus.Anthony Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 215–20 From Greece, Hadrian proceeded by way of Asia to Egypt, probably conveyed across the Aegean with his entourage by an Ephesian merchant, Lucius Erastus. Hadrian later sent a letter to the Council of Ephesus, supporting Erastus as a worthy candidate for town councillor and offering to pay the requisite fee.Boatwright, p. 81
[[File:Agilkia Hadriantor 03.jpg|thumb|Gateway of Hadrianus in [Philae](Philae)]]
Hadrian arrived in Egypt before the Egyptian New Year on 29 August 130. He opened his stay in Egypt by restoring [the Great](Pompey)(Pompey the Great)'s tomb at [Pelusium](Pelusium),Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 235 offering sacrifice to him as a [hero](Greek hero cult) and composing an [epigraph](epigraph (literature)) for the tomb. As Pompey was universally acknowledged as responsible for establishing Rome's power in the east, this restoration was probably linked to a need to reaffirm Roman Eastern hegemony following social unrest there during Trajan's late reign.Boatwright, p. 142 Hadrian and Antinous held a lion hunt in the Libyan desert; a poem on the subject by the Greek Pankrates is the earliest evidence that they travelled together.Opper, *Hadrian: Empire and Conflict*, p. 173
While Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the [Nile](Nile), Antinous drowned. The exact circumstances surrounding his death are unknown, and accident, suicide, murder and religious sacrifice have all been postulated. *Historia Augusta* offers the following account:
Hadrian founded the city of [Antinoöpolis](Antinopolis) in Antinous' honour on 30 October 130. He then continued down the Nile to [Thebes](Thebes, Egypt), where his visit to the [of Memnon](Colossi)(Colossi of Memnon) on 20 and 21 November was commemorated by four epigrams inscribed by [Balbilla](Julia)(Julia Balbilla). After that, he headed north, reaching the [Fayyum](Fayyum) at the beginning of December.Foertmeyer, pp. 107–108
### Greece and the East (130–132)
[[File:Hadrian Arc Pan.jpg|thumb|left|[of Hadrian](Arch)(Arch of Hadrian (Jerash)) in [Jerash](Jerash), [Transjordan](Transjordan (region)), built to honour Hadrian's visit in 130]]
Hadrian's movements after his journey down the Nile are uncertain. Whether or not he returned to Rome, he travelled in the East during 130–131, to organise and inaugurate his new [Panhellenion](Panhellenion), which was to be focused on the [Temple to Olympian Zeus](Athenian)(Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens). As local conflicts had led to the failure of the previous scheme for a Hellenic association centered on Delphi, Hadrian decided instead for a grand league of all Greek cities.Cortes Copete Juan Manuel. "El fracaso del primer proyecto panhelénico de Adriano".''Dialogues d'histoire ancienne'', vol. 25, n°2, 1999. pp. 91–112. Available at [https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1999_num_25_2_1540] . Retrieved 3 January 2019 Successful applications for membership involved mythologised or fabricated claims to Greek origins, and affirmations of loyalty to imperial Rome, to satisfy Hadrian's personal, idealised notions of Hellenism.Boatwright, p. 150Anthony Kaldellis, *Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition*. Cambridge University Press, 2008, , p. 38 Hadrian saw himself as protector of Greek culture and the "liberties" of Greece – in this case, urban self-government. It allowed Hadrian to appear as the fictive heir to [Pericles](Pericles), who supposedly had convened a previous Panhellenic Congress – such a Congress is mentioned only in Pericles' [biography](Parallel Lives) by [Plutarch](Plutarch), who respected Rome's imperial order.Fernando A. Marín Valdés, *Plutarco y el arte de la Atenas hegemónica*. Universidad de Oviedo: 2008, , p. 76
Epigraphical evidence suggests that the prospect of applying to the Panhellenion held little attraction to the wealthier, Hellenised cities of Asia Minor, which were jealous of Athenian and European Greek preeminence within Hadrian's scheme.A. J. S. Spawforth, *Greece and the Augustan Cultural Revolution*. Cambridge University Press: 2011, , p. 262 Hadrian's notion of Hellenism was narrow and deliberately archaising; he defined "Greekness" in terms of classical roots, rather than a broader, Hellenistic culture.Nathanael J. Andrade, *Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World*. Cambridge University Press, 2013, , p. 176 Some cities with a dubious claim to Greekness, however – such as [Side](Side, Turkey) – were acknowledged as fully Hellenic.Domingo Plácido, ed. *La construcción ideológica de la ciudadanía: identidades culturales y sociedad en el mundo griego antiguo*. Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 2006, , p. 462 The German sociologist [Simmel](Georg)(Georg Simmel) remarked that the Panhellenion was based on "games, commemorations, preservation of an ideal, an entirely non-political Hellenism".Georg Simmel, *Sociology: Inquiries into the Construction of Social Forms*. Leiden: Brill, 2009, , p. 288
Hadrian bestowed honorific titles on many regional centres.Nathanael J. Andrade, *Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World*, Cambridge University Press, 2013, , p. 177 [Palmyra](Palmyra) received a state visit and was given the civic name Hadriana Palmyra.Andrew M. Smith II, *Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation*. Oxford University Press, 2013, , p. 25; Robert K. Sherk, *The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian*. Cambridge University Press, 1988, , p. 190 Hadrian also bestowed honours on various Palmyrene magnates, among them one Soados, who had done much to protect Palmyrene trade between the Roman Empire and Parthia.Hadrien Bru, ''Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes: Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin (31 av. J.-C.-337 ap. J.-C.)*. Leiden: Brill,2011, , pp. 104-105
Hadrian had spent the winter of 131–32 in Athens, where he dedicated the now-completed [of Olympian Zeus](Temple)(Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens),Laura Salah Nasrallah, *Christian Responses to Roman Art and Architecture: The Second-Century Church Amid the Spaces of Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 2010 , p. 96 At some time in 132, he headed East, to Judaea.
### Third Roman–Jewish War (132–136)
[[File:Hadrian visit to Judea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coinage minted to mark Hadrian's visit to Judea. Inscription: HADRIANVS AVG. CO[N]S. III, P. P. / ADVENTVI (arrival) AVG. IVDAEAE – S. C.]]
In [Judaea](Roman)(Roman Judaea), Hadrian visited [Jerusalem](Jerusalem), which was still in ruins after the [Roman–Jewish War](First)(First Roman–Jewish War) of 66–73. He may have planned to rebuild Jerusalem as a [colony](Roman)(Roman colony) – as [Vespasian](Vespasian) had done with [Maritima](Caesarea)(Caesarea Maritima) – with various honorific and fiscal privileges. The non-Roman population would have no obligation to participate in Roman religious rituals but were expected to support the Roman imperial order; this is attested in Caesarea, where some Jews served in the Roman army during both the 66 and 132 rebellions.Giovanni Battista Bazzana, "The Bar Kokhba Revolt and Hadrian's religious policy", IN Marco Rizzi, ed., * Hadrian and the Christians*. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, , pp. 89-91 It has been speculated that Hadrian intended to assimilate the Jewish Temple to the traditional Roman civic-religious [cult](imperial)(Imperial cult (ancient Rome)); such assimilations had long been commonplace practice in Greece and in other provinces, and on the whole, had been successful.Bazzana, 98Cf a project devised earlier by Hellenized Jewish intellectuals such as [Philo](Philo): see Rizzi, *Hadrian and the Christians*, 4 The neighbouring Samaritans had already integrated their religious rites with Hellenistic ones.Emmanuel Friedheim, "Some notes about the Samaritans and the Rabbinic Class at Crossroads" IN Menachem Mor, Friedrich V. Reiterer, eds., * Samaritans – Past and Present: Current Studies*. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010, , p. 197 Strict Jewish monotheism proved more resistant to imperial cajoling, and then to imperial demands.Peter Schäfer, *Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand*. Tübingen 1981, pp. 29–50. A massive anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman Jewish uprising broke out, led by [bar Kokhba](Simon)(Simon bar Kokhba). The Roman governor [(Tynius) Rufus](Tineius)(Quintus Tineius Rufus (consul 127)) asked for an army to crush the resistance; bar Kokhba punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.Chronicle of Jerome, s.v. Hadrian. See: [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm] See also Yigael Yadin, *Bar-Kokhba*, Random House New York 1971, pp. 22, 258 According to [Martyr](Justin)(Justin Martyr) and [Eusebius](Eusebius of Caesaria), that had to do mostly with Christian converts, who opposed bar Kokhba's messianic claims.Alexander Zephyr, *Rabbi Akiva, Bar Kokhba Revolt, and the Ten Tribes of Israel*. Bloomington: iUniverse, 2013,
A tradition based on the *Historia Augusta* suggests that the revolt was spurred by Hadrian's abolition of [circumcision](History of male circumcision#Male circumcision in the Greco-Roman world) (*[milah](brit)(brit milah)*); which as a [Hellenist](Philhellenism) he viewed as [mutilation](mutilation).Mackay, Christopher. *Ancient Rome a Military and Political History*: 230 The scholar Peter Schäfer maintains that there is no evidence for this claim, given the notoriously problematical nature of the *Historia Augusta* as a source, the "tomfoolery" shown by the writer in the relevant passage, and the fact that contemporary Roman legislation on "genital mutilation" seems to address the general issue of [castration](castration) of slaves by their masters.Peter Schäfer, *The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome* Mohr Siebeck, 2003 p. 68Peter Schäfer, *The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest*. Routledge:2003, p. 146[Augusta](Historia)(Augustan History), *Hadrian* [14.2](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#14.2) Other issues could have contributed to the outbreak; a heavy-handed, culturally insensitive Roman administration; tensions between the landless poor and incoming Roman colonists privileged with land-grants; and a strong undercurrent of messianism, predicated on [Jeremiah's](Jeremiah) prophecy that the Temple would be rebuilt seventy years after its destruction, as the [Temple](First)(Solomon's Temple) had been after the [exile](Babylonian)(Babylonian captivity).Shaye Cohen, *From the Maccabees to the Mishnah*, Third Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press,2014, , pp. 25–26
[[File:0 Monument honoraire d’Hadrien - L'empereur accueilli par la déesse Rome (2).JPG|thumb|Relief from an honorary monument of Hadrian (detail), showing the emperor being greeted by the [Roma](goddess)(Roma (mythology)) and the [Genii](Genius (mythology)) of [Senate](the)(Roman Senate) and the Roman People; marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD, [Museums](Capitoline)(Capitoline Museums), Vatican City]]
Given the fragmentary nature of the existing evidence, it is impossible to ascertain an exact date for the beginning of the uprising. It probably began between summer and fall of 132.Steven T. Katz, ed. *The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period*. Cambridge University Press, 1984, , pp. 11-112 The Romans were overwhelmed by the organised ferocity of the uprising. Hadrian called his general [Julius Severus](Sextus)(Sextus Julius Severus) from [Britain](Roman Britain) and brought troops in from as far as the Danube. Roman losses were heavy; an entire legion or its numeric equivalent of around 4,000.Possibly the [Deiotariana](XXII)(Legio XXII Deiotariana), which according to epigraphy did not outlast Hadrian's reign; see [livius.org account](https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html) ; however, Peter Schäfer, following Bowersock, finds no traces in the written sources of the purported annihilation of Legio XXII. A loss of such magnitude would have surely been mentioned (*Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand*, 14). Hadrian's report on the war to the [Senate](Roman)(Roman Senate) omitted the customary salutation, "If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health."Cassius Dio 69, 14.3 The rebellion was quashed by 135. According to [Dio](Cassius)(Cassius Dio), Roman war operations in Judea left some 580,000 Jews dead and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed.''Dio's Roman History* (trans. Earnest Cary), vol. 8 (books 61–70), [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library): London 1925, pp. [449](https://archive.org/stream/diosromanhistory08cassuoft#page/448/mode/2up)–[451](https://archive.org/stream/diosromanhistory08cassuoft#page/450/mode/2up) An unknown proportion of the population was enslaved. [Beitar](Betar (fortress)), a fortified city southwest of Jerusalem, fell after a three-and-a-half-year siege. The extent of punitive measures against the Jewish population remains a matter of debate.Daniel R. Schwartz, Zeev Weiss, eds., *Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple''. Leiden: Brill, 2011, , p. 529, footnote 42
Hadrian erased the province's name from the Roman map, renaming it [Palaestina](Syria)(Syria Palaestina). He renamed Jerusalem [Capitolina](Aelia)(Aelia Capitolina) after himself and [Capitolinus](Jupiter)(Jupiter Capitolinus) and had it rebuilt in Greek style. According to Epiphanius, Hadrian appointed [from Sinope](Aquila)(Aquila of Sinope) in Pontus as "overseer of the work of building the city", since he was related to him by marriage.Epiphanius, "On Weights and Measures" §14: Hadrian's Journey to the East and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem, Renan Baker, *Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik,* Bd. 182 (2012), pp. 157-167. Published by: Rudolf Habelt GmbH, available through jstor (subscription required, accessed 25 March 2012) Hadrian is said to have placed the city's main [Forum](Roman Forum) at the junction of the main [Cardo](Cardo) and [Maximus](Decumanus)(Decumanus Maximus), now the location for the (smaller) [Muristan](Muristan). After the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Hadrian provided the Samaritans with a temple dedicated to Zeus Hypsistos ("Highest Zeus")Ken Dowden, *Zeus*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, , p. 58. on [Gerizim](Mount)(Mount Gerizim).Anna Collar, *Religious Networks in the Roman Empire*. Cambridge University Press: 2013, , pp. 248–249 The bloody repression of the revolt ended Jewish political independence from the Roman imperial order.Geza Vermes, ''Who's Who in the Age of Jesus*, Penguin: 2006, , entry "Hadrian"
Inscriptions make it clear that in 133, Hadrian took to the field with his armies against the rebels. He then returned to Rome, probably in that year and almost certainly – judging from inscriptions – via [Illyricum](Illyria).Ronald Syme, "Journeys of Hadrian" (1988), pp. 164–9
## Final years
[[File:Mars Venus Louvre Ma1009.jpg|thumb|upright|imperial group as [Mars](Mars (mythology)) and [Venus](Venus (mythology)); the male figure is a portrait of Hadrian, the female figure was perhaps reworked [a portrait](into)(Roman portraiture) of [Lucilla](Annia)(Lucilla); [Roman artwork](marble,)(Roman sculpture), c. 120–140 AD, reworked c. 170–175 AD.]]
Hadrian spent the final years of his life in Rome. In 134, he took an imperial [salutation](salutation) for the end of the Third Jewish War (which was not actually concluded until the following year). Commemorations and achievement awards were kept to a minimum, as Hadrian came to see the war "as a cruel and sudden disappointment to his aspirations" towards a cosmopolitan empire.Ronald Syme, "Journeys Of Hadrian". *Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik* 73 (1988) 159–170. Available at [http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1988/073pdf/073159.pdf]. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
[Sabina](Empress)(Vibia Sabina) died, probably in 136, after an unhappy marriage with which Hadrian had coped as a political necessity. The *Historia Augusta'' biography states that Hadrian himself declared that his wife's "ill-temper and irritability" would be reason enough for a divorce, were he a private citizen.*Historia Augusta*, Life of Hadrian, 10.3 That gave credence, after Sabina's death, to the common belief that Hadrian had her poisoned.*Historia Augusta*, Life of Hadrian, 23.9 In keeping with well-established imperial propriety, Sabina – who had been made an *Augusta* sometime around 128Anne Kolb, *Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?: Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008*. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010, , pp. 26-27 – was deified not long after her death.Olivier Hekster, *Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the Constraints of Tradition*. Oxford U. Press: 2015, , pp. 140-142
### Arranging the succession
[[File:Bronze Hadrien Louvre Br4547.jpg|thumb|upright|Posthumous portrait of Hadrian; bronze, Roman artwork, c. 140 AD, perhaps from [Egypt](Roman)(Roman Egypt), [Louvre](Louvre), Paris]]
Hadrian's marriage to Sabina had been childless. Suffering from poor health, Hadrian turned to the issue of succession. In 136, he adopted one of the ordinary [consuls](Roman consul) of that year, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, who, as an emperor-in-waiting, took the name [Aelius Caesar](Lucius)(Lucius Aelius Caesar). He was the son-in-law of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, one of the "four consulars" executed in 118. His health was delicate, and his reputation apparently more that "of a voluptuous, well-educated great lord than that of a leader".Merlin Alfred. Passion et politique chez les Césars (review of Jérôme Carcopino, *Passion et politique chez les Césars*). In: *Journal des savants*. Jan.-Mar. 1958. pp. 5–18. Available at [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jds_0021-8103_1958_num_1_1_3244]. Retrieved 12 June 2015. Various modern attempts have been made to explain Hadrian's choice: [Carcopino](Jerome)(Jerome Carcopino) proposes that Aelius was Hadrian's natural son.Albino Garzetti, *From Tiberius to the Antonines : A History of the Roman Empire AD 14–192*. London: Routledge, 2014, p. 699 It has also been speculated that his adoption was Hadrian's belated attempt to reconcile with one of the most important of the four senatorial families whose leading members had been executed soon after Hadrian's succession. Aelius acquitted himself honourably as joint governor of [Superior](Pannonia)(Pannonia Superior) and [Inferior](Pannonia)(Pannonia Inferior);András Mócsy, *Pannonia and Upper Moesia (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire*. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 102 he held a further consulship in 137 but died on 1 January 138.Anthony Birley, pp. 289–292.
Hadrian next adopted Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (the future emperor [Pius](Antoninus)(Antoninus Pius)), who had served Hadrian as one of the five imperial legates of Italy, and as [proconsul](proconsul) of [Asia](Asia (Roman province)). In the interests of dynastic stability, Hadrian required that Antoninus adopt both Lucius Ceionius Commodus (son of the deceased Aelius Caesar) and Marcus Annius Verus (grandson of an influential senator [the same name](of)(Marcus Annius Verus (grandfather of Marcus Aurelius)) who had been Hadrian's close friend); Annius was already betrothed to Aelius Caesar's daughter [Fabia](Ceionia)(Ceionia Fabia).The adoptions: Anthony Birley, pp. 294–5; T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', *Journal of Roman Studies* (1967), Ronald Syme, *Tacitus*, p. 601. Antoninus as a legate of Italy: Anthony Birley, p. 199Annius Verus was also
the step-grandson of the Prefect of Rome, [Catilius Severus](Lucius)(Lucius Catilius Severus), one of the remnants of the all-powerful group of Spanish senators from Trajan's reign. Hadrian would likely have shown some favour to the grandson in order to count on the grandfather's support; for an account of the various familial and marital alliances involved, see Des Boscs-Plateaux, pp. 241, 311, 477, 577; see also Frank McLynn,*Marcus Aurelius: A Life*. New York: Da Capo, 2010, , p. 84 It may not have been Hadrian, but rather Antoninus Pius – Annius Verus's uncle – who supported Annius Verus' advancement; the latter's divorce of Ceionia Fabia and subsequent marriage to Antoninus' daughter Annia Faustina points in the same direction. When he eventually became Emperor, Marcus Aurelius would co-opt Ceionius Commodus as his co-Emperor, under the name of [Verus](Lucius)(Lucius Verus), on his own initiative.
Hadrian's last few years were marked by conflict and unhappiness. His adoption of Aelius Caesar proved unpopular, not least with Hadrian's brother-in-law [Julius Ursus Servianus](Lucius)(Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus) and Servianus's grandson Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Servianus, though now far too old, had stood in the line of succession at the beginning of Hadrian's reign; Fuscus is said to have had designs on the imperial power for himself. In 137, he may have attempted a [coup](coup d'état) in which his grandfather was implicated; Hadrian ordered that both be put to death.Anthony Birley, pp. 291–2 Servianus is reported to have [before his execution](prayed)(last words) that Hadrian would "long for death but be unable to die".Dio [69.17.2](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/69*.html#17.2) During his final, protracted illness, Hadrian was prevented from suicide on several occasions.Anthony Birley, p. 297
### Death
[[File:Chateau-saint-ange-tibre.jpg|thumb|left|[of Hadrian](Mausoleum)(Castel Sant'Angelo), commissioned by Hadrian as a mausoleum for himself and his family.]]
Hadrian died in the year 138 on 10 July, in his [villa](Roman villa) at [Baiae](Baiae) at the age of 62, having reigned for 21 years.Anthony Birley, p. 300 [Cassius](Dio)(Dio Cassius) and the *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)* record details of his failing health; some modern sources interpret the ear-creases on later portrayals (such as the [Hadrian](Townley)(Townley Hadrian)) as signs of [artery disease](coronary)(coronary artery disease).
He was buried at [Puteoli](Puteoli), near Baiae, on an estate that had once belonged to [Cicero](Cicero). Soon after, his remains were transferred to Rome and buried in the [of Domitia](Gardens)(Gardens of Domitia), close to the almost-complete mausoleum. Upon completion of the [of Hadrian](Mausoleum)(Castel Sant'Angelo) in Rome in 139 by his successor Antoninus Pius, his body was cremated. His ashes were placed there together with those of his wife [Sabina](Vibia)(Vibia Sabina) and his first adopted son, [Aelius Caesar](Lucius)(Lucius Aelius Caesar), who also died in 138. The Senate had been reluctant to grant Hadrian divine honours; but Antoninus persuaded them by threatening to refuse the position of Emperor.Salmon, 816Dio [70.1.1](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/70*.html#1.1) Hadrian was given a [temple](temple of Hadrian) on the [Martius](Campus)(Campus Martius), ornamented with reliefs representing the provinces.Samuel Ball Platner, *A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome*. Cambridge University Press: 2015, , p. 250 The Senate awarded Antoninus the title of "Pius", in recognition of his filial piety in pressing for the [deification](deification) of Hadrian, his adoptive father. At the same time, perhaps in reflection of the senate's ill will towards Hadrian, commemorative coinage honouring his deification was kept to a minimum.Christian Bechtold, *Gott und Gestirn als Präsenzformen des toten Kaisers: Apotheose und Katasterismos in der politischen Kommunikation der römischen Kaiserzeit und ihre Anknüpfungspunkte im Hellenismus*.V&R unipress GmbH: 2011, , p. 259
## Military activities
Most of Hadrian's military activities were consistent with his ideology of empire as a community of mutual interest and support. He focused on protection from external and internal threats; on "raising" existing provinces rather than the aggressive acquisition of wealth and territory through subjugation of "foreign" peoples that had characterised the early empire.Clifford Ando, *Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, , p. 330 Hadrian's policy shift was part of a trend towards the slowing down of the empire's expansion, such expansion being not closed after him (the empire's greatest extent being achieved only during the [dynasty](Severan)(Severan dynasty)), but a significant step in that direction, given the empire's overstretching.Patrick Le Roux, ''Le Haut Empire Romain en Occident, d'Auguste aux Sévères''. Paris: Seuil, 1998, , p. 56 While the empire as a whole benefited from this, military careerists resented the loss of opportunities.
The 4th-century historian Aurelius Victor saw Hadrian's withdrawal from Trajan's territorial gains in [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia) as a jealous belittlement of Trajan's achievements (*Traiani gloriae invidens*).W. Den Boer, *Some Minor Roman Historians*, Leiden: Brill, 1972, , p. 41 More likely, an expansionist policy was no longer sustainable; the empire had lost two legions, the [XXII Deiotariana](Legio)(Legio XXII Deiotariana) and the "lost legion" [Hispania](IX)(IX Hispania), possibly destroyed in a late Trajanic uprising by the [Brigantes](Brigantes) in Britain.[Le Bohec](Yann)(Yann Le Bohec), *The Imperial Roman Army*. London: Routledge, 2013, , p. 55 Trajan himself may have thought his gains in Mesopotamia indefensible and abandoned them shortly before his death.Albino Garzetti, *From Tiberius to the Antonines (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192*. London: Routledge, 2014, , p. 381 Hadrian granted parts of Dacia to the [Roxolani](Roxolani) Sarmatians; their king, Rasparaganus, received Roman citizenship, client king status, and possibly an increased subsidy.The partial withdrawal was probably supervised by the governor of Moesia [Pompeius Falco](Quintus)(Quintus Pompeius Falco); see Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 84, 86. Hadrian's presence on the Dacian front is mere conjecture, but Dacia was included in his coin series with allegories of the provinces.[Eutropius](Eutropius (historian))'s notion that Hadrian contemplated withdrawing from Dacia altogether appears to be unfounded; see Jocelyn M. C. Toynbee, *The Hadrianic School: A Chapter in the History of Greek Art*. CUP Archive, 1934, 79 A controlled partial withdrawal of troops from the Dacian plains would have been less costly than maintaining several Roman cavalry units and a supporting network of fortifications.Julian Bennett, *Trajan-Optimus Priceps*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001, , p. 165
[[File:Statua di Adriano, Antalya, Turchia.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Hadrian in military garb, wearing the [crown](civic)(civic crown) and [cuirass](muscle)(muscle cuirass), from [Antalya](Antalya), Turkey]]
Hadrian retained control over [Osroene](Osroene) through the client king [Parthamaspates](Parthamaspates of Parthia), who had once served as Trajan's client king of Parthia;Opper, *Empire and Conflict*, p. 67 and around 123, Hadrian negotiated a peace treaty with the now-independent Parthia (according to the *Historia Augusta*, disputed). Late in his reign (135), the [Alani](Alans) attacked Roman [Cappadocia](Cappadocia (Roman province)) with the covert support of [Pharasmanes](Pharasmanes II of Iberia), the king of Caucasian [Iberia](Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)). The attack was repulsed by Hadrian's governor, the historian [Arrian](Arrian),N. J. E. Austin & N. B. Rankov, *Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople*. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 4 who subsequently installed a Roman "adviser" in Iberia.Austin & Rankov, p. 30 Arrian kept Hadrian well-informed on matters related to the Black Sea and the Caucasus. Between 131 and 132, he sent Hadrian a lengthy letter (*Periplus of the Euxine*) on a maritime trip around the Black Sea that was intended to offer relevant information in case a Roman intervention was needed.Fergus Millar, *Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Volume 2: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire*. The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, , p. 183
Hadrian also developed permanent fortifications and military posts along the empire's borders (*limites*, [sl.](Grammatical number) *limes*) to support his policy of stability, peace and preparedness. That helped keep the military usefully occupied in times of peace; his wall across Britania was built by ordinary troops. A series of mostly wooden [fortifications](fortifications), forts, [outposts](outpost (military)) and [watchtowers](watchtower (fortification)) strengthened the Danube and [Rhine](Rhine) borders. Troops practised intensive, regular [drill](Exhibition drill) routines. Although his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was [through strength](peace)(peace through strength), even threat,Elizabeth Speller, p. 69 with an emphasis on *disciplina* (discipline), which was the subject of two monetary series. Cassius Dio praised Hadrian's emphasis on "spit and polish" as cause for the generally peaceful character of his reign.Opper, p. 85 Fronto, by contrast, claimed that Hadrian preferred war games to actual war and enjoyed "giving eloquent speeches to the armies" – like the inscribed series of addresses he made while on an inspection tour, during 128, at the new headquarters of [III Augusta](Legio)(Legio III Augusta) in [Lambaesis](Lambaesis).Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 209–212
Faced with a shortage of legionary recruits from Italy and other Romanised provinces, Hadrian systematised the use of less costly [*numeri*](Numerus (Roman military unit)) – ethnic non-citizen troops with special weapons, such as Eastern mounted archers, in low-intensity, mobile defensive tasks such as dealing with border infiltrators and skirmishers.Luttvak, Edward N. *The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third*, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, , p. 123Christol & Nony, p. 180 Hadrian is also credited with introducing units of heavy cavalry ([cataphracts](cataphracts)) into the Roman army. Fronto later blamed Hadrian for declining standards in the Roman army of his own time.*Fronto: Selected Letters*. Edited by Caillan Davenport & Jenifer Manley, London: AC & Black, 2014, , pp. 184f
## Legal and social reforms
[[File:Bust of Emperor Hadrian. Roman 117-138 CE. Probably From Rome, Italy. Formerly in the Townley Collection. Now housed in the British Museum, London.jpg|thumb|left|[of Emperor Hadrian](Bust)(Bust of Hadrian), Roman, 117–138 CE. Probably from Rome, Italy. Formerly in the [Collection](Townley)(Charles Townley), now housed in the [Museum](British)(British Museum), London]]
Hadrian enacted, through the jurist [Julianus](Salvius)(Salvius Julianus), the first attempt to codify Roman law. This was the [Edict](Perpetual)(Praetor's Edict), according to which the legal actions of [praetor](praetor)s became fixed statutes and, as such, could no longer be subjected to personal interpretation or change by any magistrate other than the Emperor.Laura Jansen, *The Roman Paratext: Frame, Texts, Readers*, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 66Kathleen Kuiper (Editor), *Ancient Rome: From Romulus and Remus to the Visigoth Invasion*, New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, p. 133 At the same time, following a procedure initiated by [Domitian](Domitian), Hadrian made the Emperor's legal advisory board, the *consilia principis* ("council of the [princeps](princeps)") into a permanent body, staffed by salaried legal aides.A. Arthur Schiller, *Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development*, Walter de Gruyter: 1978, p. 471 Its members were mostly drawn from the equestrian class, replacing the earlier freedmen of the imperial household.Salmon, 812R.V. Nind Hopkins, *Life of Alexander Severus*, CUP Archive, p. 110 This innovation marked the superseding of surviving Republican institutions by an openly autocratic political system.Adolf Berger, *Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, Volume 43*, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1968, p. 650 The reformed bureaucracy was supposed to exercise administrative functions independently of traditional magistracies; objectively it did not detract from the Senate's position. The new civil servants were free men and as such supposed to act on behalf of the interests of the "Crown", not of the Emperor as an individual. However, the Senate never accepted the loss of its prestige caused by the emergence of a new aristocracy alongside it, placing more strain on the already troubled relationship between the Senate and the Emperor.Salmon, 813
Hadrian codified the customary legal privileges of the wealthiest, most influential or highest-status citizens (described as *splendidiores personae* or *honestiores*), who held a traditional right to pay fines when found guilty of relatively minor, non-treasonous offences. Low-ranking persons – *alii* ("the others"), including low-ranking citizens – were *humiliores* who for the same offences could be subject to extreme physical punishments, including forced labour in the mines or in public works, as a form of fixed-term servitude. While Republican citizenship had carried at least notional equality under law, and the right to justice, offences in imperial courts were judged and punished according to the relative prestige, rank, reputation and moral worth of both parties; senatorial courts were apt to be lenient when trying one of their peers, and to deal very harshly with offences committed against one of their number by low ranking citizens or non-citizens. For treason ([maiestas](Law of majestas)), beheading was the worst punishment that the law could inflict on *honestiores*; the *humiliores* might suffer crucifixion, burning, or [to the beasts in the arena](condemnation)(Damnatio ad bestias).Garnsey, Peter, "Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire", Past & Present, No. 41 (Dec. 1968), pp. 9, 13 (note 35), 16, published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society,
A great number of Roman citizens maintained a precarious social and economic advantage at the lower end of the hierarchy. Hadrian found it necessary to clarify that [decurion](decurion (administrative))s, the usually middle-class, elected local officials responsible for running the ordinary, everyday official business of the provinces, counted as *honestiores*; so did soldiers, veterans and their families, as far as civil law was concerned; by implication, almost all citizens below those ranks - the vast majority of the Empire's population - counted as *humiliores*, with low citizen status, high tax obligations and limited rights. Like most Romans, Hadrian seems to have accepted slavery as morally correct, an expression of the same natural order that rewarded "the best men" with wealth, power and respect. When confronted by a crowd demanding the freeing of a popular slave charioteer, Hadrian replied that he could not free a slave belonging to another person.Westermann, 109 However, he limited the punishments that slaves could suffer; they could be lawfully tortured to provide evidence, but they could not be lawfully killed unless guilty of a capital offence.Marcel Morabito, ''Les Réalités de l'esclavage d'après Le Digeste*. Paris: Presses Univ. Franche-C omté, 1981, , p. 230 Masters were forbidden to sell slaves to a gladiator trainer ([lanista](lanista)) or to a [procurer](Procuring (prostitution)), except as legally justified punishment.Donald G. Kyle, *Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome*. London: Routledge, 2012, ;William Linn Westermann, *The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity*. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1955, p. 115 Hadrian also forbade torture of free defendants and witnesses.[Digest](Digest (Roman law)) 48.18.21; quoted by Q.F. Robinson, *Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007, p. 107[Perkins](Judith)(Judith Perkins), *Roman Imperial Identities in the Early Christian Era*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2009, He abolished [ergastula](ergastula), private prisons for slaves in which kidnapped free men had sometimes been illegally detained.Christopher J. Fuhrmann, *Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order*. Oxford University Press, 2012, , p. 102
Hadrian issued a general [rescript](rescript), imposing a ban on castration, performed on freedman or slave, voluntarily or not, on pain of death for both the performer and the patient.*Digest*, 48.8.4.2, quoted by Paul Du Plessis, *Borkowski's Textbook on Roman Law*. Oxford University Press, 2015, , p. 95 Under the *Lex Cornelia de Sicaris et Veneficis*, castration was placed on a par with conspiracy to murder and punished accordingly.Peter Schäfer, *Judeophobia*, 104. Notwithstanding his philhellenism, Hadrian was also a traditionalist. He enforced dress-standards among the *honestiores*; senators and knights were expected to wear the [toga](toga) when in public. He imposed strict separation between the sexes in theatres and public baths; to discourage idleness, the latter were not allowed to open until 2.00 in the afternoon, "except for medical reasons".Garzetti, p. 411
## Religious activities
[[File:Statue of Hadrian as Pontifex Maximus, 117-138 AD, from Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, Capitoline Museums (13100265983).jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Hadrian as *pontifex maximus'', dated 130–140 AD, from Rome, [Nuovo](Palazzo)(Palazzo Nuovo), [Museums](Capitoline)(Capitoline Museums)]]
One of Hadrian's immediate duties on accession was to seek senatorial consent for the [deification](Apotheosis) of his predecessor, Trajan, and any members of Trajan's family to whom he owed a debt of gratitude. Matidia Augusta, Hadrian's mother-in-law, died in December 119 and was duly deified.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 107 Hadrian may have stopped at [Nemausus](Nîmes) during his return from [Britannia](Roman Britain) to oversee the completion or foundation of a [basilica](basilica) dedicated to his patroness Plotina. She had recently died in Rome and had been deified at Hadrian's request.
As Emperor, Hadrian was also Rome's *[maximus](pontifex)(pontifex maximus)*, responsible for all religious affairs and the proper functioning of official religious institutions throughout the empire. His Hispano-Roman origins and marked pro-Hellenism shifted the focus of the official imperial cult from Rome to the Provinces. While his standard coin issues identified him with the traditional *genius populi Romani*, other issues stressed his personal identification with *Hercules Gaditanus* (Hercules of [Gades](Cádiz)), and Rome's imperial protection of Greek civilisation.Gradel, Ittai, *Emperor Worship and Roman Religion*, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002. , pp. 194–5. He promoted [Sagalassos](Sagalassos) in Greek [Pisidia](Pisidia) as the Empire's leading imperial cult centre; his exclusively Greek *[Panhellenion](Panhellenion)* extolled Athens as the spiritual centre of Greek culture.Howgego, in Howgego, C., Heuchert, V., Burnett, A., (eds), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, Oxford University Press, 2005. , pp. 6, 10.
Hadrian added several imperial cult centres to the existing roster, particularly in Greece, where traditional intercity rivalries were commonplace. Cities promoted as imperial cult centres drew imperial sponsorship of festivals and sacred games, and attracted tourism, trade and private investment. Local worthies and sponsors were encouraged to seek self-publicity as cult officials under the aegis of Roman rule and to foster reverence for imperial authority.Boatwright, p. 136 Hadrian's rebuilding of long-established religious centres would have further underlined his respect for the glories of classical Greece – something well in line with contemporary antiquarian tastes.K. W. Arafat, ''Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers''. Cambridge U. Press, 2004, , p. 162 During Hadrian's third and last trip to the Greek East, there seems to have been an upwelling of religious fervour, focused on Hadrian himself. He was given personal cult as a deity, monuments and civic homage, according to the religious [syncretism](syncretism) of the time.[Le Glay](Marcel)(Marcel Le Glay). "Hadrien et l'Asklépieion de Pergame". In: *Bulletin de correspondance hellénique*. Volume 100, livraison 1, 1976. pp. 347–372. Available at [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bch_0007-4217_1976_num_100_1_2051]. Retrieved 24 July 2015. He may have had the great [of Alexandria](Serapeum)(Serapeum of Alexandria) rebuilt, following damage sustained in 116, during the [War](Kitos)(Kitos War).
In 136, just two years before his death, Hadrian dedicated his Temple of Venus and Roma. It was built on land he had set aside for the purpose in 121, formerly the site of Nero's [House](Golden)(Domus Aurea). The temple was the largest in Rome and was built in a Hellenising style, more Greek than Roman. The temple's dedication and statuary associated the worship of the traditional Roman goddess [Venus](Venus (mythology)), divine ancestress and protector of the Roman people, with the worship of the goddess [Roma](Roma (mythology)) – herself a Greek invention, hitherto worshipped only in the provinces – to emphasise the universal nature of the empire.Mellor, R., "The Goddess Roma" in Haase, W., Temporini, H., (eds), *Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt*, de Gruyter, 1991, , pp. 960–964
### Antinous
[[File:Hadrian and Antinous bust British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|[of Hadrian](Busts)(Bust of Hadrian) and [Antinous](Antinous) in the British Museum]]
Hadrian had [Antinous](Antinous) deified as [Osiris](Osiris)-Antinous by an Egyptian priest at the ancient Temple of Ramesses II, very near the place of his death. Hadrian dedicated a new temple-city complex there, built in a Graeco-Roman style, and named it [Antinoöpolis](Antinopolis).Cassius Dio, LIX.11; *Historia Augusta*, *Hadrian* It was a proper Greek [polis](polis); it was granted an imperially subsidised alimentary scheme similar to Trajan's [alimenta](alimenta),Tim Cornell, Dr Kathryn Lomas, eds., *Bread and Circuses: Euergetism and Municipal Patronage in Roman Italy*. London: Routledge, 2003, , p. 97 and its citizens were allowed intermarriage with members of the native population without loss of citizen status. Hadrian thus identified an existing native cult (to Osiris) with Roman rule.Carl F. Petry, ed. *The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1*. Cambridge University Press, 2008, , p. 15 The cult of Antinous was to become very popular in the Greek-speaking world and also found support in the West. In Hadrian's villa, statues of the [Tyrannicides](Harmodius and Aristogeiton (sculpture)), with a bearded Aristogeiton and a clean-shaven Harmodios, linked his favourite to the classical tradition of [love](Greek)(Greek love).Elsner, Jás, *Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph*, *Oxford History of Art*, Oxford U.P., 1998, , p. 176f. In the west, Antinous was identified with the Celtic sun god [Belenos](Belenos).Williams, p. 61
Hadrian was criticised for the open intensity of his grief at Antinous's death, particularly as he had delayed the apotheosis of his own sister [Paulina](Paulina (sister of Hadrian)) after her death.Hadrian's "Hellenic" emotionalism finds a culturally sympathetic echo in the Homeric Achilles' mourning for his friend Patroclus: see discussion in Vout, Caroline, *Power and eroticism in Imperial Rome*, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 2007. , pp. 52–135. Nevertheless, his recreation of the deceased youth as a cult figure found little opposition.Craig A. Williams, *Roman Homosexuality : Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity*. Oxford University Press: 1999, , pp. 60f Though not a subject of the state-sponsored, official Roman imperial cult, Antinous offered a common focus for the emperor and his subjects, emphasising their sense of community.Marco Rizzi, p. 12 Medals were struck with his effigy, and statues were erected to him in all parts of the empire, in all kinds of garb, including Egyptian dress.Elsner, *Imperial Rome*, p. 183f. Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia and Mantineia in Arcadia. In Athens, festivals were celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. As an "international" cult figure, Antinous had enduring fame, far outlasting Hadrian's reign.see Trevor W. Thompson ["Antinoos, The New God: Origen on Miracle and Belief in Third Century Egypt"](https://www.academia.edu/9076863/Antinoos_The_New_God_Origen_on_Miracle_and_Belief_in_Third-Century_Egypt) for the persistence of Antinous's cult and Christian reactions to it. Freely available. The relationship of P. Oxy. 63.4352 with Diocletian's accession is not entirely clear. Local coins with his effigy were still being struck during [Caracalla's](Caracalla) reign, and he was invoked in a poem to celebrate the accession of [Diocletian](Diocletian).Caroline Vout, *Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome*. Cambridge University Press; 2007, p. 89
### Christians
Hadrian continued Trajan's policy on Christians; they should not be sought out and should only be prosecuted for specific offences, such as refusal to swear oaths.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 127, 183. In a [rescript](rescript) addressed to the proconsul of Asia, [Minicius Fundanus](Gaius)(Gaius Minicius Fundanus), and preserved by [Martyr](Justin)(Justin Martyr), Hadrian laid down that accusers of Christians had to bear the burden of proof for their denunciationsAlessandro Galimberti, "Hadrian, Eleusis, and the beginnings of Christian apologetics" in Marco Rizzi, ed., *Hadrian and the Christians*. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, , pp. 77f or be punished for *calumnia* ([defamation](defamation)).Robert M. Haddad, ''The Case for Christianity: St. Justin Martyr's Arguments for Religious Liberty and Judicial Justice''. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010, , p. 16
## Personal and cultural interests
[[File:Aureus à l'effigie d'Hadrien.jpg|thumb|left|Hadrian on the obverse of an [aureus](aureus) (123). The reverse bears a personification of [Augusti](Aequitas)(Aequitas) or [Moneta](Juno)(Moneta#Juno Moneta). Inscription: IMP. CAESAR TRAIAN. HADRIANVS AVG. / P. M., TR. P., CO[N]S. III.]]
Hadrian had an abiding and enthusiastic interest in art, architecture and public works. As part of his imperial restoration program, he founded, re-founded or rebuilt many towns and cities throughout the Empire, supplying them with temples, stadiums and other public buildings. Examples in the Roman Province of [Thrace](Thrace) include monumental developments to the [Stadium](Stadium of Philippopolis) and [Odeon](Odeon of Philippopolis) of [Philippopolis](Philippopolis (Thrace)) (present-day [Plovdiv](Plovdiv)), the provincial capital,(https://ancient-stadium-plovdiv.eu/?p=12&l=2)(https://lostinplovdiv.com/en/articles/a-photo-walk-through-the-ancient-odeon) and his rebuilding and enlargement of the city of Uskudama, which he renamed Hadrianopolis, and is now known as [Edirne](Edirne). Several other towns and cities – including [Carthage](Roman)(Roman Carthage) – were named or renamed *Hadrianopolis*.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 176-180 Rome's [Pantheon](Pantheon, Rome) (temple "to all the gods"), originally built by [Agrippa](Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa) and destroyed by fire in 80, was partly restored under Trajan and completed under Hadrian in its familiar domed form. [Villa](Hadrian's)(Hadrian's Villa) at Tibur ([Tivoli](Tivoli, Italy)) provides the greatest Roman equivalent of an [Alexandria](Alexandria)n garden, complete with domed [Serapeum](Serapeum), recreating a sacred landscape.It was lost in large part to despoliation by the [d'Este](Cardinal)(Ippolito II d'Este), who had much of the marble removed to build the [d'Este](Villa)(Villa d'Este) in the 16th century.
An anecdote from [Dio](Cassius)(Cassius Dio)'s history suggests Hadrian had a high opinion of his own architectural tastes and talents and took their rejection as a personal offence: at some time before his reign, his predecessor Trajan was discussing an architectural problem with [of Damascus](Apollodorus)(Apollodorus of Damascus) – architect and designer of [Forum](Trajan's)(Trajan's Forum), [Column commemorating his Dacian conquest](the)(Trajan's column), and [bridge across the Danube](his)(Trajan's Bridge) – when Hadrian interrupted to offer his advice. Apollodorus gave him a scathing response: "Be off, and draw your gourds [sarcastic reference to the domes which Hadrian apparently liked to draw](a). You don't understand any of these matters." Dio claims that once Hadrian became emperor, he showed Apollodorus drawings of the gigantic [of Venus and Roma](Temple)(Temple of Venus and Roma), implying that great buildings could be created without his help. When Apollodorus pointed out the building's various insoluble problems and faults, Hadrian was enraged, sent him into exile and later put him to death on trumped-up charges.Brickstamps with [dates](consular)(Fasti) show that the Pantheon's dome was late in Trajan's reign (115), probably under Apollodorus's supervision: see Ilan Vit-Suzan, *Architectural Heritage Revisited: A Holistic Engagement of its Tangible and Intangible Constituents *, Farnham: Ashgate, 2014, , p. 20
Hadrian was a passionate hunter from a young age.*Historia Augusta*, *Hadrian* [2.1](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html#2). In northwest Asia, he founded and dedicated a city to commemorate a she-bear he killed.Fox, Robin *The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian* Basic Books. 2006 p. 574 In Egypt he and his beloved [Antinous](Antinous) killed a lion. In Rome, eight reliefs featuring Hadrian in different stages of hunting decorate a building that began as a monument celebrating a kill.
[[File:Bust Hadrian Musei Capitolini MC817 cropped.jpg|thumb|Bust of the emperor Hadrian in the [Museums](Capitoline)(Capitoline Museums)]]
Hadrian's [philhellenism](philhellenism) may have been one reason for his adoption, like [Nero](Nero) before him, of the [beard](beard#Rome) as suited to Roman imperial dignity; [of Prusa](Dio)(Dio of Prusa) had equated the growth of the beard with the Hellenic ethos.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 62 Hadrian's beard may also have served to conceal his natural facial blemishes.The *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)* however claims that ["he wore a full beard to cover up the natural blemishes on his face"](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/2*.html#26.1), H.A. 26.1 Before him, all emperors except Nero (who occasionally wore sideburns) had been clean-shaven, according to the fashion introduced among the Romans by [Africanus](Scipio)(Scipio Africanus) (236 - 183 BCE); all adult emperors who came after him until [the Great](Constantine)(Constantine the Great) (r. 306 - 337) were bearded; this imperial fashion was revived by [Phocas](Phocas) (r. 602 - 610) at the beginning of the 7th century.
Hadrian was familiar with the rival philosophers [Epictetus](Epictetus) and [Favorinus](Favorinus), and with their works, and held an interest in [philosophy](Roman)(Roman philosophy). During his first stay in Greece, before he became emperor, he attended lectures by Epictetus at [Nicopolis](Nicopolis).Robin Lane Fox, *The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian*. Philadelphia: Basic Books, 2006, , p.578 Shortly before the death of Plotina, Hadrian had granted her wish that the leadership of the [Epicurean](Epicureanism) School in Athens be open to a non-Roman candidate.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, pp. 108f
During Hadrian's time as tribune of the plebs, omens and portents supposedly announced his future imperial condition.For instance, a probably bogus anecdote in *Historia Augusta* relates that as tribune he had lost a cloak that emperors never wore: Michael Reiche, ed., *Antike Autobiographien: Werke, Epochen, Gattungen*. Köln: Böhlau, 2005, , p.225 According to the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian had a great interest in [astrology](astrology) and [divination](divination) and had been told of his future accession to the Empire by a grand-uncle who was himself a skilled astrologer.[L. Joost-Gaugier](Christiane)(Christiane Joost-Gaugier), *Measuring Heaven: Pythagoras and His Influence on Thought and Art in Antiquity and the Middle Ages*. Cornell University Press: 2007, , p. 177
Hadrian wrote poetry in both Latin and Greek; one of the few surviving examples is a Latin poem he reportedly composed on his deathbed (see [below](#Poem by Hadrian)). Some of his Greek productions found their way into the *[Anthology](Palatine)(Palatine Anthology)*.Juan Gil & Sofía Torallas Tovar, *Hadrianus*. Barcelona: CSIC, 2010, , p. 100Direct links to Hadrian's poems in the A.P. with W.R. Paton's translation at the Internet Archive
[VI 332](https://archive.org/stream/greekanthology01pato#page/474/mode/2up),
[VII 674](https://archive.org/stream/greekanthology00patogoog#page/n375/mode/2up),
[IX 137](https://archive.org/stream/greekanthology03pato#page/70/mode/2up),
[IX 387](https://archive.org/stream/greekanthology03pato#page/216/mode/2up) He also wrote an autobiography, which *Historia Augusta* says was published under the name of Hadrian's freedman [of Tralles](Phlegon)(Phlegon of Tralles). It was not a work of great length or revelation but designed to scotch various rumours or explain Hadrian's most controversial actions.T. J. Cornell, ed., *The Fragments of the Roman Historians*. Oxford University Press: 2013, p. 591 It is possible that this autobiography had the form of a series of open letters to [Pius](Antoninus)(Antoninus Pius).Opper, *Hadrian: Empire and Conflict*, p. 26
### Poem by Hadrian
According to the *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)*, Hadrian composed the following poem shortly before his death:Historia Augusta, *Hadrian* Dio [25.9](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/2*.html#25.9); Antony Birley, p. 301
:
:
:
:
:
:::P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp.
:*Roving amiable little soul,*
:''Body's companion and guest,*
:*Now descending for parts*
:*Colourless, unbending, and bare*
:*Your usual distractions no more shall be there...''
The poem has enjoyed remarkable popularity,see e.g.[Forty-three translations of Hadrian's "Animula, vagula, blandula ..." ](http://coldewey.cc/post/17072720047/forty-three-translations-of-hadrians-animula) including translations by Henry Vaughan, A. Pope, Lord Byron.A.A. Barb, ["Animula, Vagula, Blandula"](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1950.9717969?journalCode=rfol20), Folklore, 61, 1950 : "... since [Casaubon](Casaubon) almost three and a half centuries of classical scholars have admired this poem" but uneven critical acclaim.see Note 2 in Emanuela Andreoni Fontecedro's "Animula vagula blandula: Adriano debitore di Plutarco", Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, 1997 According to Aelius Spartianus, the alleged author of Hadrian's biography in the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian "wrote also similar poems in Greek, not much better than this one"."tales autem nec multo meliores fecit et Graecos", Historia Augusta, ibidem [S. Eliot](T.)(T. S. Eliot)'s poem "Animula" may have been inspired by Hadrian's, though the relationship is not unambiguous.Russell E. Murphy, [Critical Companion to T. S. Eliot: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work](https://books.google.com/books?id=thqU29nSVgUC&pg=PA48), 2007. p. 48
## Appraisals
[[of Hadrianus in Venice cropped.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Emperor Hadrian](File:Busts)]
Hadrian has been described as the most versatile of all Roman emperors, who "adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy, hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised the ardor for fame with which he burned."*Varius multiplex multiformis* in the anonymous, ancient *[de Caesaribus](Epitome)(Epitome de Caesaribus)*, 14.6: [trans. Thomas M. Banchich, Canisius College, Buffalo, New York, 2009](http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm) Retrieved 24 March 2018cf Ronald Syme, among others; see Ando, footnote 172 His successor [Aurelius](Marcus)(Marcus Aurelius), in his *[Meditations](Meditations)*, lists those to whom he owes a debt of gratitude; Hadrian is conspicuously absent.McLynn, 42 Hadrian's tense, authoritarian relationship with his Senate was acknowledged a generation after his death by Fronto, himself a senator, who wrote in one of his letters to Marcus Aurelius that "I praised the deified Hadrian, your grandfather, in the senate on a number of occasions with great enthusiasm, and I did this willingly, too [...] But, if it can be said – respectfully acknowledging your devotion towards your grandfather – I wanted to appease and assuage Hadrian as I would [Gradivus](Mars)(Mars Gradivus) or [Pater](Dis)(Dis Pater), rather than to love him.""Wytse Keulen, Eloquence rules: the ambiguous image of Hadrian in Fronto's correspondence". [http://arts.st-andrews.ac.uk/literaryinteractions/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Eloquence-rules-working-paper1.pdf] Retrieved 20 February 2015 Fronto adds, in another letter, that he kept some friendships, during Hadrian's reign, "under the risk of my life" (*cum periculo capitis*).James Uden (2010). "The Contest of Homer and Hesiod and the ambitions of Hadrian". *[of Hellenic Studies](Journal)(Journal of Hellenic Studies)*, 130 (2010), pp. 121–135.[https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/handle/2144/5437/uden_jhs_2010.pdf?sequence=1]. Accessed 16 October 2017 Hadrian underscored the autocratic character of his reign by counting his *dies imperii* from the day of his acclamation by the armies rather than the senate and legislating by frequent use of [decrees](imperial)(Constitution (Roman law)) to bypass the need for the Senate's approval.Edward Togo Salmon,*A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138*. London: Routledge, 2004, , pp. 314f The veiled antagonism between Hadrian and the Senate never grew to overt confrontation as had happened during the reigns of overtly "bad" emperors because Hadrian knew how to remain aloof and avoid an open clash.Paul Veyne, ''L'Empire Gréco-Romain*, p. 40 That Hadrian spent half of his reign away from Rome in constant travel probably helped to mitigate the worst of this permanently strained relationship.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, p. 1
In 1503, [Machiavelli](Niccolò)(Niccolò Machiavelli), though an avowed [republican](republicanism), esteemed Hadrian as an ideal *princeps'', one of Rome's [Good Emperors](Five)(Five Good Emperors). [Schiller](Friedrich)(Friedrich Schiller) called Hadrian "the Empire's first servant". [Gibbon](Edward)(Edward Gibbon) admired his "vast and active genius" and his "equity and moderation", and considered Hadrian's era as part of the "happiest era of human history". In [Syme's](Ronald)(Ronald Syme) view, Hadrian "was a [Führer](Führer), a [Duce](Duce), a [Caudillo](Caudillo)".See also Paul Veyne, ''L'Empire Gréco-Romain'', p. 65 According to Syme, [Tacitus](Tacitus)' description of the rise and accession of [Tiberius](Tiberius) is a disguised account of Hadrian's authoritarian Principate.Victoria Emma Pagán, *A Companion to Tacitus*. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2012, , p. 1 According, again, to Syme, Tacitus' [Annals](Tacitus Annals) would be a work of contemporary history, written "during Hadrian's reign and hating it".Marache, R.: R. Syme, Tacitus, 1958. In: *Revue des Études Anciennes*. Tome 61, 1959, n°1–2. pp. 202–206.available at [http://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1959_num_61_1_3617_t1_0202_0000_2]. Accessed 30 April 2017
While the balance of ancient literary opinion almost invariably compares Hadrian unfavourably to his predecessor, modern historians have sought to examine his motives, purposes and the consequences of his actions and policies.Susanne Mortensen: *Hadrian. Eine Deutungsgeschichte*. Habelt, Bonn 2004, For M.A. Levi, a summing-up of Hadrian's policies should stress the [ecumenical](Ecumene) character of the Empire, his development of an alternate bureaucracy disconnected from the Senate and adapted to the needs of an "enlightened" [autocracy](autocracy), and his overall defensive strategy; this would qualify him as a grand Roman political reformer, creator of an openly [monarchy](absolute)(absolute monarchy) to replace a sham senatorial republic.Franco Sartori, "L'oecuménisme d'un empereur souvent méconnu : [of](review) M.A. Levi, *Adriano, un ventennio di cambiamento*". In: ''Dialogues d'histoire ancienne'', vol. 21, no. 1, 1995. pp. 290–297. Available at [http://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1995_num_21_1_2249]. Retrieved 19 January 2017 [Lane Fox](Robin)(Robin Lane Fox) credits Hadrian as creator of a unified Greco-Roman cultural tradition, and as the end of this same tradition; Hadrian's attempted "restoration" of Classical culture within a non-democratic Empire drained it of substantive meaning, or, in Fox's words, "kill[ed] it with kindness".*The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian*. New York: Basic Books, 2006, , p. 4
## Sources and historiography
In Hadrian's time, there was already a well-established convention that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for fear of contradicting what the emperors wanted to say, read or hear about themselves.Steven H. Rutledge, "Writing Imperial Politics: The Social and Political Background" IN [J. Dominik](William)(William J. Dominik), ed;, *Writing Politics in Imperial Rome* Brill, 2009, , p. 60Adam M. Kemezis, "Lucian, Fronto, and the absence of contemporary historiography under the Antonines". *The American Journal of Philology* Vol. 131, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 285–325 As an earlier Latin source, [Fronto](Marcus Cornelius Fronto)'s correspondence and works attest to Hadrian's character and the internal politics of his rule.Mary Taliaferro Boatwright, *Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire*. Princeton University Press, 2002, pp. 20-26 Greek authors such as [Philostratus](Philostratus) and [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)) wrote shortly after Hadrian's reign, but confined their scope to the general historical framework that shaped Hadrian's decisions, especially those relating the Greek-speaking world, Greek cities and notables.Birley, *Restless Emperor*, 160 Pausanias especially wrote a lot in praise of Hadrian's benefactions to Greece in general and Athens in particular.K.W. Arafat, ''Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers''. Cambridge University Press:2004, , p. 171. Political histories of Hadrian's reign come mostly from later sources, some of them written centuries after the reign itself. The early 3rd-century *Roman History* by [Dio](Cassius)(Cassius Dio), written in Greek, gave a general account of Hadrian's reign, but the original is lost, and what survives, aside from some fragments, is a brief, Byzantine-era abridgment by the 11th-century monk Xiphilinius, who focused on Hadrian's religious interests, the Bar Kokhba war, and little else—mostly on Hadrian's moral qualities and his fraught relationship with the Senate.Boatwright, 20 The principal source for Hadrian's life and reign is, therefore, in Latin: one of several late 4th-century imperial biographies, collectively known as the *[Augusta](Historia)(Historia Augusta)*. The collection as a whole is notorious for its unreliability ("a mish mash of actual fact, [and dagger](cloak)(cloak and dagger), [and sandal](sword)(sword and sandal), with a sprinkling of *[Roi](Ubu)(Ubu Roi)*"),Paul Veyne, ''L'Empire Gréco-Romain*. Paris: Seuil, 2005, , p.312. In the French original: *de l'[Dumas](Alexandre)(Alexandre Dumas), du [péplum](Peplum film genre) et un peu d'Ubu Roi*. but most modern historians consider its account of Hadrian to be relatively free of outright fictions, and probably based on sound historical sources,Danèel den Hengst, *Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire*. Leiden: Brill, 2010, , p. 93. principally one of a lost series of imperial biographies by the prominent 3rd-century senator [Maximus](Marius)(Marius Maximus), who covered the reigns of [Nerva](Nerva) through to [Elagabalus](Elagabalus).Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., *The Cambridge Ancient History', XI: the High Empire, 70–192 A.D.''Cambridge University Press, 2000, , p. 132.
The first modern historian to produce a chronological account of Hadrian's life, supplementing the written sources with other epigraphical, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, was the German 19th-century medievalist [Gregorovius](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Gregorovius).Anthony R Birley, *Hadrian: The Restless Emperor*. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013, , p.7. A 1907 biography by Weber, a German nationalist and later [Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party) supporter, incorporates the same archaeological evidence to produce an account of Hadrian, and especially his [Kokhba war](Bar)(Bar Kokhba revolt), that has been described as ideologically loaded.Thomas E. Jenkins, *Antiquity Now: The Classical World in the Contemporary American Imagination*. Cambridge University Press: 2015, , p. 121.A'haron Oppenheimer, *Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society*.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005, , p. 199.Birley, *Hadrian: the Restless Emperor*, 7: Birley describes the results of [Kornemann](Ernst)(Ernst Kornemann)'s attempt to sift the *Historia Augusta* biography's facts from its fictions (through textual analysis alone) as doubtful. B.W. Henderson's 1923 English language biography of Hadrian focuses on ancient written sources, and largely ignores or overlooks the published archaeological, epigraphic and non-literary evidence used by Weber. Epigraphical studies in the [post-war](post-war) period help support alternate views of Hadrian. [Birley](Anthony)(Anthony Birley)'s 1997 biography of Hadrian sums up and reflects these developments in Hadrian historiography.
## See also
* *[of Hadrian](Memoirs)(Memoirs of Hadrian)*, a 1951 semi-fictional autobiography of Hadrian, written by [Yourcenar](Marguerite)(Marguerite Yourcenar).
* [Phallos](Phallos (novella)), a 2004 novel in which the narrator encounters Hadrian and Antinous just before Antinous's murder and then, once more, minutes afterward, which changes the narrator's life, written by [R. Delany](Samuel)(Samuel R. Delany).
* [*Hadrian*](Hadrian (opera)), a 2018 opera based on Hadrian's life and death and his relationship with Antinous, composed by [Wainwright](Rufus)(Rufus Wainwright).
## Citations
## References
### Primary sources
* [Dio](Cassius)(Cassius Dio) or Dio Cassius *Roman History*. [Greek Text and Translation by Earnest Cary](https://archive.org/stream/diosromanhistory08cassuoft#page/424/mode/2up) at internet archive
* Scriptores Historiae Augustae, *[History](Augustan)(Augustan History)*. [Latin Text](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html) Translated by [David Magie](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html)
* [Victor](Aurelius)(Aurelius Victor), *Caesares*, XIV. Latin
* Anon, *Excerpta* of [Victor](Aurelius)(Aurelius Victor): *[de Caesaribus](Epitome)(Epitome de Caesaribus)*, XIII. Latin
Inscriptions:
* [of Caesarea](Eusebius)(Eusebius of Caesarea), *Church History (Book IV)*,
* Smallwood, E.M, *Documents Illustrating the Principates of Nerva Trajan and Hadrian*, Cambridge, 1966.
### Secondary sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [Edward](Gibbon,)(Edward Gibbon), *[Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire](The)(The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire)*, vol. I, 1776. The Online Library of Liberty
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Reprinted in
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Kouremenos, Anna (2022). *The Province of Achaea in the 2nd century CE: The Past Present*. Routledge. ISBN 9781032014852
*
*
## External links
* [Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html)
* [Hadrian coinage](http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/hadrian/t.html)
* [Catholic Encyclopedia article](http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07104b.htm)
* [Major scultoric find at Sagalassos (Turkey)](http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/hadrian/), 2 August 2007 (between 13 and 16 feet in height, four to five meters), with [some splendid photos courtesy of the Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project](http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/hadrian/1.html)
* [Hadrian, in De Imperatoribus Romanis, Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors](http://www.roman-emperors.org/hadrian.htm)
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Peter the Great
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peter_the_great
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# Peter the Great
*Revision ID: 1158820635 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T12:52:45Z*
---
| successor = [I](Catherine)(Catherine I of Russia)
| predecessor = *Himself as [of Russia](Tsar)(Tsar of Russia)*
| succession1 = [of Russia](Tsar)(Tsar of Russia)
| reign1 = 7 May 1682 –
| predecessor1 = [III](Feodor)(Feodor III of Russia)
| successor1 = *Himself as [of Russia](Emperor)(Emperor of Russia)*
| cor-type1 = [Coronation](Coronation of the Russian monarch)
| coronation1 = 25 June 1682
| reg-type1 = Co-monarch
| regent1 = [V](Ivan)(Ivan V of Russia) (1682–1696)
| reg-type2 = [Regent](Regent)
| regent2 = [Alekseyevna](Sophia)(Sophia Alekseyevna of Russia) (1682–1689)
| spouses =
*
}}
| issue =
| issue-link = #Issue
| issue-pipe = among others
| house = [Romanov](House of Romanov)
| full name = Peter Alekseyevich Romanov
| father = [of Russia](Alexis)(Alexis of Russia)
| mother = [Naryshkina](Natalya)(Natalya Naryshkina)
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Moscow](Moscow), [of Russia](Tsardom)(Tsardom of Russia)
| death_date =
| death_place = [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire)
| burial_date =
| burial_place = [and Paul Cathedral](Peter)(Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg)
| signature = Peter the Great Signature.svg
| religion = [Orthodoxy](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church)
}}
**Peter I** (, ; – ), commonly known as **Peter the Great**,, |group=pron}} was [of all Russia](Tsar)(Tsar of all Russia) from 1682, and the first [of all Russia](Emperor)(Emperor of all Russia) from 1721 until his death in 1725. He [ruled](jointly)(coregency) with his elder half-brother, [V](Ivan)(Ivan V of Russia), until 1696. He is primarily credited with the modernisation of the country, transforming it into a major European power.
Through a number of successful wars, he captured ports at [Azov](Azov) and the [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea), laying the groundwork for the [Russian Navy](Imperial)(Imperial Russian Navy), ending uncontested [Swedish](Swedish Empire) supremacy in the Baltic, and beginning Russia's expansion into an [empire](Russian Empire). He led a cultural revolution that replaced some of the traditionalist and medieval social and political systems with ones that were modern, scientific, [Westernised](Westernised), and based on [Enlightenment](the)(the Enlightenment). Peter's reforms had a lasting impact on Russia, and many institutions of the Russian government trace their origins to his reign. He also founded the city of [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), which remained the capital of Russia until 1918. Following his victory in the [Northern War](Great)(Great Northern War), he adopted the title of emperor in 1721.
The first Russian university, [Petersburg State University](Saint)(Saint Petersburg State University), was founded a year before his death, in 1724. The second one, [State University](Moscow)(Moscow State University), was founded 30 years after his death, during the reign of his daughter [Elizabeth](Elizabeth of Russia).
## Title
The imperial title of Peter the Great was the following:Лакиер А. Б. §66. Надписи вокруг печати. Соответствие их с государевым титулом. // Русская геральдика. – СПб., 1855.
[the grace of God](By)(By the grace of God), the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of [Moscow](Moscow), of [Kiev](Kiev), of [Vladimir](Vladimir, Russia), of [Novgorod](Novgorod), Tsar of [Kazan](Kazan), Tsar of [Astrakhan](Astrakhan) and Tsar of [Siberia](Siberia), sovereign of [Pskov](Pskov), great prince of [Smolensk](Smolensk), of [Tver](Tver), of [Yugorsk](Yugorsk), of [Perm](Perm Governorate), of [Vyatka](Vyatka River), of [Bulgaria](Volga Bulgaria) and others, sovereign and great prince of the [Novgorod](Nizhny Novgorod) Lower lands, of [Chernigov](Chernihiv), of [Ryazan](Ryazan), of [Rostov](Rostov), of [Yaroslavl](Yaroslavl), of [Belozersk](Belozersk), of [Udora](Udorsky District), of [Kondia](Kondia) and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the [lands](Iverian)(Kingdom of Iberia), of the [Kartlian](Kingdom of Kartli (1484–1762)) and [Kings](Georgian)(Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti), of the [lands](Kabardin)(Kabardia), of the [Circassia](Circassia)n and [Mountain](Greater Caucasus) princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.
## Early life
Peter was named after [apostle](the)(Saint Peter), and described as a newborn as "with good health, [mother](his)(Natalya Naryshkina)'s black, vaguely [Tatar](Tatar) eyes, and a tuft of auburn hair".[K. Massie](Robert)(Robert K. Massie), *Peter the Great: His Life and World* (1980), p. 22. He was educated from an early age by several tutors commissioned by his father, [Tsar](Tsar) [of Russia](Alexis)(Alexis of Russia), most notably [Zotov](Nikita)(Nikita Zotov), [Gordon](Patrick)(Patrick Gordon), and [Menesius](Paul)(Paul Menesius). On 29 January 1676, Alexis died, leaving the sovereignty to Peter's elder half-brother, the weak and sickly [III of Russia](Feodor)(Feodor III of Russia).Massie, 25–26. Throughout this period, the government was largely run by [Matveev](Artamon)(Artamon Matveev), an enlightened friend of Alexis, the political head of the [family](Naryshkin)(Naryshkin family) and one of Peter's greatest childhood benefactors.
This position changed when Feodor died in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the Miloslavsky family ([Miloslavskaya](Maria)(Maria Miloslavskaya) was the first wife of Alexis I) and Naryshkin family ([Naryshkina](Natalya)(Natalya Naryshkina) was his second) over who should inherit the throne. Peter's other half-brother, [V of Russia](Ivan)(Ivan V of Russia), was next in line, but was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the [Duma](Boyar)(Boyar) (a council of Russian nobles) chose the 10-year-old Peter to become Tsar, with his mother as [regent](regent).
[[Peter the Great parsuna.jpg|thumb|Peter the Great as a child](File:Young)]
This arrangement was brought before the people of Moscow, as ancient tradition demanded, and was ratified. [Sophia](Sophia Alekseyevna), one of Alexis' daughters from his first marriage, led a [rebellion](Moscow Uprising of 1682) of the [Streltsy](Streltsy) (Russia's elite military corps) in April–May 1682. In the subsequent conflict, some of Peter's relatives and friends were murdered, including Matveev, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence.
The Streltsy made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys (the clan of [Ivan](Ivan V of Russia)) and their allies to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, with Ivan being acclaimed as the senior. Sophia then acted as regent during the minority of the sovereigns and exercised all power. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat. A large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, while feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and problems. This throne can be seen in the [Armoury](Kremlin)(Kremlin Armoury) in Moscow.
Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his name. He engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his [army](toy)(Toy army of Peter I). Peter's mother sought to force him to adopt a more conventional approach and arranged his marriage to [Lopukhina](Eudoxia)(Eudoxia Lopukhina) in 1689. The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced his wife to become a nun and thus freed himself from the union.
By the summer of 1689, Peter, then age 17, planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful [campaigns](Crimean)(Russo-Crimean Wars) against the [Khanate](Crimean)(Crimean Khanate) in an attempt to stop devastating [Tatar raids](Crimean)(Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic lands) into Russia's southern lands. When she learned of his designs, Sophia conspired with some leaders of the Streltsy, who continually aroused disorder and dissent. Peter, warned by others from the Streltsy, escaped in the middle of the night to the impenetrable monastery of [Lavra](Troitse-Sergiyeva)(Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra); there he slowly gathered adherents who perceived he would win the power struggle. Sophia was eventually overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name and her position as a member of the royal family.Massie, (1980) pp 96–106.
[[Tsardom of Russia, ](File:RussianEmpire1700.png|thumb|The)]
Still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Natalya Naryshkina. It was only when Natalya died in 1694 that Peter, then aged 22, became an independent sovereign. Formally, Ivan V was a co-ruler with Peter, though being ineffective. Peter became the sole ruler when Ivan died in 1696 without male offspring, two years later.
Peter grew to be extremely tall as an adult, especially for the time period, reportedly standing . Peter, however, lacked the overall proportional heft and bulk generally found in a man that size. Both his hands and feet were small, and his shoulders were narrow for his height; likewise, his head was small for his tall body. Added to this were Peter's noticeable facial tics, and he may have suffered from *[mal seizures](petit)(absence seizure)*, a form of epilepsy.
During his youth, Peter befriended [Gordon](Patrick)(Patrick Gordon), [Lefort](Franz)(Franz Lefort) and several other foreigners in Russian service and was a frequent guest in Moscow's [Quarter](German)(German Quarter), where he met his Dutch mistress [Mons](Anna)(Anna Mons).
## Reign
[[File:Capture of Azov 1696.png|thumb|*[of Azov](Capture)(Azov campaigns)*, 1696, by [Ker Porter](Robert)(Robert Ker Porter)]]
Peter implemented sweeping [reforms](Economic reforms under Peter the Great) aimed at [modernizing](Modernization) Russia.Evgenii V. Anisimov, *The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress Through Violence in Russia* (Routledge, 2015) Heavily influenced by his advisors from Western Europe, Peter reorganized the Russian army along modern lines and dreamed of making Russia a [power](maritime)(maritime power). He faced much opposition to these policies at home but brutally suppressed rebellions against his authority, including by the [Streltsy](Streltsy), [Bashkirs](Bashkirs), [Astrakhan](Astrakhan), and the greatest civil uprising of his reign, the [Rebellion](Bulavin)(Bulavin Rebellion).
Peter implemented social modernization in an absolute manner by introducing French and [dress](western)(Western dress codes) to his court and requiring courtiers, state officials, and the military to shave their beards and adopt modern clothing styles. One means of achieving this end was the introduction of [for long beards](taxes)(Beard tax#Russia) and robes in September 1698.
In his process to westernize Russia, he wanted members of his family to marry other European royalty. In the past, his ancestors had been snubbed at the idea, but now, it was proving fruitful. He negotiated with [William, Duke of Courland](Frederick)(Frederick William, Duke of Courland) to marry his niece, [Ivanovna](Anna)(Anna of Russia). He used the wedding in order to launch his new capital, [Petersburg](St)(St Petersburg), where he had already ordered building projects of westernized palaces and buildings. Peter hired Italian and German architects to design it.Montefiore p. 187.
As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. For example, by the end of the century Russia came to export more iron than any other country in the world.
To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the [Sea](White)(White Sea) at [Arkhangelsk](Arkhangelsk). The [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea) was at the time controlled by [Sweden](Sweden) in the north, while the [Sea](Black)(Black Sea) and the [Sea](Caspian)(Caspian Sea) were controlled by the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire) and [Empire](Safavid)(Safavid Empire) respectively in the south.
Peter attempted to acquire control of the Black Sea, which would require expelling the [Tatars](Tatars) from the surrounding areas. As part of an agreement with [Poland](Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) that ceded [Kiev](Kiev) to Russia, Peter was forced to wage war against the [Crimea](Crimea)n [Khan](Crimean Khanate) and against the Khan's overlord, the Ottoman Sultan. Peter's primary objective became the capture of the Ottoman fortress of [Azov](Azov), near the [River](Don)(Don River, Russia). In the summer of 1695 Peter organized the [campaigns](Azov)(Azov campaigns) to take the fortress, but his attempts ended in failure.
Peter returned to Moscow in November 1695 and began building a large navy. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year. On 12 September 1698, Peter officially founded the first [Navy](Russian)(Russian Navy) base, [Taganrog](Taganrog) on the [of Azov](Sea)(Sea of Azov).
### Grand Embassy
[[File:Peter I by Kneller.jpg|thumb|180px|Portrait of Peter I by [Kneller](Godfrey)(Godfrey Kneller), 1698. This portrait was Peter's gift to the King of England.]]
Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled "incognito" to Western Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian delegation–the so-called [Embassy"]("Grand)(Grand Embassy of Peter the Great). He used a fake name, allowing him to escape social and diplomatic events, but since he was far taller than most others, he did not fool anyone of importance. One goal was to seek the aid of European monarchs, but Peter's hopes were dashed. France was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, and [Austria](Archduchy of Austria) was eager to maintain peace in the east while conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen an inopportune moment: the Europeans at the time were more concerned about the [of the Spanish Succession](War)(War of the Spanish Succession) over who would succeed the childless King [II of Spain](Charles)(Charles II of Spain) than about fighting the Ottoman Sultan.
The "Grand Embassy" continued nevertheless. While visiting the [Netherlands](Dutch Republic), Peter learned much about life in Western Europe. He studied shipbuilding [Peter the Great: Part 1 of 3 (The Carpenter Czar)](http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/peter-the-great-part-1-of-3-the-carpenter-czar/) . Radio Netherlands Archives. 8 June 1996. Retrieved 8 May 2020. in [Zaandam](Zaandam) (the house he lived in is now a museum, the [Peter House](Czar)(Czar Peter House (Netherlands))) and [Amsterdam](Amsterdam), where he visited, among others, the upper-class De Wilde family. [de Wilde](Jacob)(Jacob de Wilde), a collector-general with the [of Amsterdam](Admiralty)(Admiralty of Amsterdam), had a well-known collection of art and coins, and De Wilde's daughter [de Wilde](Maria)(Maria de Wilde) made an engraving of the meeting between Peter and her father, providing visual evidence of "the beginning of the West European classical tradition in Russia". According to Roger Tavernier, Peter the Great later acquired De Wilde's collection.
Thanks to the mediation of [Witsen](Nicolaes)(Nicolaes Witsen), mayor of Amsterdam and an expert on Russia, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in the largest shipyard in the world, belonging to the [East India Company](Dutch)(Dutch East India Company), for a period of four months. The Tsar helped with the construction of an [Indiaman](East)(East Indiaman) ship specially laid down for him: *Peter and Paul*. During his stay the Tsar engaged many skilled workers such as builders of locks, fortresses, shipwrights, and seamen—including [Cruys](Cornelis)(Cornelis Cruys), a vice-admiral who became, under [Lefort](Franz)(Franz Lefort), the Tsar's advisor in maritime affairs. Peter later put his knowledge of shipbuilding to use in helping build Russia's navy.
Peter paid a visit to surgeon [Ruysch](Frederik)(Frederik Ruysch), who taught him how to draw teeth and catch butterflies, and to [Bakhuysen](Ludolf)(Ludolf Bakhuysen), a painter of seascapes. [van der Heyden](Jan)(Jan van der Heyden), the inventor of the fire hose, received Peter, who was keen to learn and pass on his knowledge to his countrymen. On 16 January 1698 Peter organized a farewell party and invited [Huydecoper van Maarsseveen](Johan)(Joan Huydecoper II), who had to sit between Lefort and the Tsar and drink.Petros Mirilas, et al. "The monarch and the master: Peter the Great and Frederik Ruysch." *Archives of Surgery* 141.6 (2006): 602-606.
[['Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698 (Abraham Storck).jpg|thumb|The frigate *Pieter and Paul* on the IJ while Peter stands on the small ship on the right](File:The)]
In England, Peter met with King [III](William)(William III of England), visited [Greenwich](Greenwich) and [Oxford](Oxford), posed for Sir [Kneller](Godfrey)(Godfrey Kneller), and saw a [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) [Review](Fleet)(Fleet Review) at [Deptford](Deptford, London). He studied the English techniques of city-building he would later use to great effect at [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg).
The Embassy next went to [Leipzig](Leipzig), [Dresden](Dresden), [Prague](Prague) and [Vienna](Vienna). Peter spoke with [II the Strong](Augustus)(Augustus II the Strong) and [I, Holy Roman Emperor](Leopold)(Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor).
Peter's visit was cut short in 1698, when he was forced to rush home by a [of the Streltsy](rebellion)(Streltsy Uprising). The rebellion was easily crushed before Peter returned home from England; of the Tsar's troops, only one was killed. Peter nevertheless acted ruthlessly towards the mutineers. Over one thousand two hundred of the rebels were tortured and executed, and Peter ordered that their bodies be publicly exhibited as a warning to future conspirators. The Streltsy were disbanded, some of the rebels were deported to [Siberia](Siberia), and the individual they sought to put on the Throne —
Peter's half-sister Sophia — was forced to become a nun.
In 1698, Peter sent a delegation to [Malta](Malta), under boyar [Sheremetev](Boris)(Boris Sheremetev), to observe the training and abilities of the [of Malta](Knights)(Knights Hospitaller) and their [fleet](Navy of the Order of Saint John). Sheremetev investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base.
Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to wear European clothing and cut off their long beards, causing his Boyars, who were very fond of their beards, great upset. Boyars who sought to retain their beards were required to pay an annual [tax](beard)(beard tax) of one hundred [rubles](Russian ruble). Peter also sought to end arranged marriages, which were the norm among the Russian nobility, because he thought such a practice was barbaric and led to domestic violence, since the partners usually resented each other.
In 1699, Peter changed the date of the celebration of the new year from 1 September to 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported [of the World](creation)(Anno Mundi), but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from the [of Christ](birth)(Anno Domini). Thus, in the year 7207 of the old Russian calendar, Peter proclaimed that the [Calendar](Julian)(Julian Calendar) was in effect and the year was 1700.
### Great Northern War
[[File:ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19.jpg|thumb|*Peter I of Russia pacifies his marauding troops after retaking Narva in 1704*, by [Sauerweid](Nikolay)(Nikolay Sauerweid), 1859]]
Peter made a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by the [Empire](Swedish)(Swedish Empire) a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by the young King [XII](Charles)(Charles XII of Sweden). Sweden was also opposed by [Denmark–Norway](Denmark–Norway), [Saxony](Electorate of Saxony), and the [Commonwealth](Polish–Lithuanian)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth).
Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the [of Narva](Battle)(Battle of Narva (1700)) in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army.
While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city of [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg) in 1703, in [Ingermanland](Ingria) (a province of the [Empire](Swedish)(Swedish Empire) that he had captured). It was named after his patron saint [Peter](Saint)(Saint Peter). He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg, which he intended to become Russia's capital, so that all stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. Peter moved the capital to St. Petersburg in 1703. While the city was being built he lived in a three-room log cabin with Catherine, where she did the cooking and caring for the children, and he tended a garden as though they were an ordinary couple. Between 1713 and 1728, and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia.
[[File:Peter benois.jpg|thumb|*Peter the Great Meditating the Idea of Building St Petersburg at the Shore of the [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea)*, by [Benois](Alexandre)(Alexandre Benois), 1916]]
Following several defeats, Polish King [II the Strong](Augustus)(Augustus II the Strong) abdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at [Golovchin](Battle of Holowczyn) in July. In the [of Lesnaya](Battle)(Battle of Lesnaya), Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from [Riga](Riga). Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow.
Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invaded [Ukraine](Ukraine). Peter withdrew his army southward, employing [earth](scorched)(scorched earth), destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to capture [Ukraine](Russian-ruled)(Left-bank Ukraine), culminating in the [of Poltava](Battle)(Battle of Poltava) on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King.
[[File:Lomonosov Poltava 1762 1764.jpg|thumb|*Peter I in the [of Poltava](Battle)(Battle of Poltava)*, a mosaic by [Lomonosov](Mikhail)(Mikhail Lomonosov)]]
Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating the [War of 1710](Russo-Turkish)(Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)). Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuing [of the Pruth](Treaty)(Treaty of the Pruth), Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697. In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII.
The Ottomans called him *Mad Peter* (), for his willingness to sacrifice large numbers of his troops in wartime.
Normally, the Boyar Duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the boyars; he instead abolished the Duma and created a [Senate](Governing Senate) of ten members. The Senate was founded as the highest state institution to supervise all judicial, financial and administrative affairs. Originally established only for the time of the monarch's absence, the Senate became a permanent body after his return. A special high official, the Ober-Procurator, served as the link between the ruler and the senate and acted, in Peter own words, as "the sovereign's eye". Without his signature no Senate decision could go into effect; the Senate became one of the most important institutions of Imperial Russia.
[[File:Peter I by Carel de Moor.jpeg|thumb|upright|Peter I, by [de Moor](Carel)(Carel de Moor), 1717]]
Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of [Livonia](Duchy of Livonia (1629–1721)) (the northern half of modern [Latvia](Latvia), and the southern half of modern [Estonia](Estonia)), driving the Swedes into [Finland](Swedish Finland). In 1714 the Russian fleet won the [of Gangut](Battle)(Battle of Gangut). Most of Finland was [by the Russians](occupied)(Greater Wrath).
In 1716 and 1717, the Tsar revisited the Netherlands and went to see [Boerhaave](Herman)(Herman Boerhaave). He continued his travel to the [Netherlands](Austrian)(Austrian Netherlands) and France, where he obtained many books and proposed a marriage between his daughter and King [XV](Louis)(Louis XV). Peter obtained the assistance of the [of Hanover](Electorate)(Electorate of Hanover) and the [of Prussia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Prussia).
The Tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle near [Åland](Åland), Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the [of Nystad](Treaty)(Treaty of Nystad) ended the Great Northern War. Russia acquired [Ingria](Ingria), [Estonia](Reval Governorate), [Livonia](Riga Governorate), and a substantial portion of [Karelia](Old Finland). In turn, Russia paid two million [Riksdaler](Riksdaler) and surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar retained some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712.
### Later years
[[order.jpg|thumb|right|Diamond order of Peter the Great](File:Peter)]
Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 22 October 1721, soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed *Emperor of All Russia*. Some proposed that he take the title *Emperor of the East*, but he refused. [Golovkin](Gavrila)(Gavrila Golovkin), the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of [the Russias](All)(All the Russias)" to Peter's traditional title Tsar following a speech by the archbishop of [Pskov](Pskov) in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by [II of Poland](Augustus)(Augustus II of Poland), [William I of Prussia](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia), and [I of Sweden](Frederick)(Frederick I of Sweden), but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word *emperor* connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the [Roman Emperor](Holy)(Holy Roman Emperor) had claimed [suzerainty](suzerainty) over all Christian nations.
In 1717, [Bekovich-Cherkassky](Alexander)(Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky) led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the [of Khiva](Khanate)(Khanate of Khiva). The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered.
In 1718, Peter investigated why the formerly Swedish province of [Livonia](Livonia) was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government.
After 1718, Peter established colleges in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Peter believed he did not have enough loyal and talented persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote.
In 1722, Peter created a new [of precedence](order)(order of precedence) known as the [of Ranks](Table)(Table of Ranks). Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was [in 1917](overthrown)(February Revolution).
Peter decided that all of the children of the nobility should have some early education, especially in the areas of sciences. Therefore, on 28 February 1714, he issued a decree calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic mathematics and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies.
The once powerful Persian [Empire](Safavid)(Safavid Empire) to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the [War of 1722–1723](Russo-Persian)(Russo-Persian War (1722-1723)), otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the [Caucasus](Caucasus) and [Sea](Caspian)(Caspian Sea) region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising [Derbent](Derbent), [Shirvan](Shirvan), [Gilan](Gilan Province), [Mazandaran](Mazandaran Province), [Baku](Baku), and [Astrabad](Astrabad). Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius [Shah](Nader)(Nader Shah), as part of the [of Resht](Treaty)(Treaty of Resht), the [of Ganja](Treaty)(Treaty of Ganja), and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both.
Peter introduced new taxes to fund improvements in Saint Petersburg. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a [tax](poll)(Tax per head). The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by [serf](serf)s and paupers. In 1725 the construction of [Peterhof](Peterhof Palace), a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof ([Dutch](Dutch language) for "Peter's Court") was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian [Versailles](Palace of Versailles)".
File:Peter I by Clementi.jpg|A portrait of Peter the Great by [Giovanna Clementi](Maria)(Maria Giovanna Clementi)
File:Peter I by I.Nikitin (1720s, Russian museum).jpg|Peter I by I.Nikitin, 1720s, Russian museum
File:Rotterdam, standbeeld L Baranov bij de Veerhaven foto3 2011-01-09 14.14.JPG|A statue of Peter in [Rotterdam](Rotterdam)
### Illness and death
[[File:Deathbed portrait of Peter I by I.Nikitin (1725, Russian museum).jpg|thumb|upright|Peter the Great on his [deathbed](wikt:deathbed), by [Nikitin](Ivan Nikitin (painter))]]
In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his [tract](urinary)(urinary tract) and [bladder](Urinary bladder). In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. According to legend, in November, at [Lakhta](Lakhta, Saint Petersburg) along the Finnish Gulf to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue.
This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler is the only source for the story, and it seems unlikely that no one else would have documented such an act of heroism. This, plus the interval of time between these actions and Peter's death seems to preclude any direct link.
In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with [uremia](uremia). Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: *"Leave all to ..."* and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned.
Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February 1725. An [autopsy](autopsy) revealed his bladder to be infected with [gangrene](gangrene). He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in [Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg](Saints)(Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg), Russia.
## Religion
[[File:Bronze Horseman and St'Isaac's cathedral 1890-1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The 1782 statue of Peter I in Saint Petersburg, informally known as the *[Horseman](Bronze)(Bronze Horseman)*. [Isaac's Cathedral](Saint)(Saint Isaac's Cathedral) is in the background.]]
Peter founded [All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters](The)(The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters), an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox ceremony of the [Ceremony](Epiphany)(Epiphany (holiday)), and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church.
Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the [of Moscow](Patriarch)(List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow). In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of [Philaret](Patriarch Philaret of Moscow) (1619–1633) and [Nikon](Patriarch Nikon of Moscow) (1652–66). The [reform of Peter the Great](Church)(Church reform of Peter the Great) therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a [Synod](Holy)(Holy Synod) that was under the control of a [Procurator](Procurator_(Russia)), and the tsar appointed all bishops.
In 1721, Peter followed the advice of [Prokopovich](Theophan)(Theophan Prokopovich) in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Peter implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army.James Cracraft, *The church reform of Peter the Great* (1971).
A clerical career was not a route chosen by upper-class society. Most parish priests were sons of priests and were very poorly educated and paid. The monks in the monasteries had a slightly higher status; they were not allowed to marry. Politically, the Church was impotent.Lindsey Hughes, *Russia in the Age of Peter the Great* (1998) pp. 332–56.
## Marriages and family
[[File:Peter the Great Interrogating the Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich.jpg|thumb|*Peter I interrogating his son [Alexei](Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia)*, a painting by [Ge](Nikolai)(Nikolai Ge) (1871)]]
Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, [Lopukhina](Eudoxia)(Eudoxia Lopukhina), with the advice of other nobles in 1689. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. He also had a mistress from Holland, [Mons](Anna)(Anna Mons).
Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the [Tsaritsa](Tsaritsa) and forced her to join a convent. The Tsaritsa had borne Peter three children, although only one, [Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia](Alexei)(Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia), had survived past his childhood.
He took [Helena Skowrońska](Marta)(Marta Helena Skowrońska), a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the [Orthodox Church](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church) and took the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter are described as having married secretly between 23 Oct and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married her again, this time officially, at [Isaac's Cathedral](Saint)(Saint Isaac's Cathedral) in Saint Petersburg on 19 February 1712.
His eldest child and heir, Alexei, was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court. He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to.
In 1724, Peter had his second wife, [Catherine](Catherine I of Russia), crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler.
### Issue
[[File: Peter-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg|thumb|150px|Head (original) of the model after which the monument by [ Falconet](Peter Falconet) was cast in gypsum by [Collot](Marie-Anne)(Marie-Anne Collot). [Museum](Russian)(Russian Museum), Saint-Petersburg]]
By his two wives, he had fifteen children. These included four sons named *Pavel* and three sons named *Peter*, all of whom died in infancy. Only three of his children survived to adulthood: Alexei by Eudoxia, Anna and Elizabeth by Catherine. He had only three grandchildren: tsar [II](Peter)(Peter II of Russia) and [Duchess Natalia](Gran)(Grand Duchess Natalya Alexeyevna of Russia (1714–1728)) by Alexei and tsar [III](Peter)(Peter III of Russia) by Anna.
### Mistresses and illegitimate children
* [Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna of Moldavia](Princess)(Maria Cantemir) (1700 – 1754), daughter of [Cantemir](Dimitrie)(Dimitrie Cantemir)
**Unnamed son (1722 – 1723) – who died prematurely. According to other sources, the baby was stilborn.[P. Panaitescu](Petre)(Petre P. Panaitescu), Dimitrie Cantemir. Viața și opera, col. Biblioteca Istorică, vol. III, Ed. Academiei RPR, București, 1958, p. 141.
* [Mary Hamilton](Lady)(Mary Hamilton (lady in waiting)), Catherina I's lady in waiting of Scottish descent.*Peter the Great: A Life From Beginning to*. Hourly History. 2018. Lady Mary insisted that her child (born 1717) was fathered bt her lover.
** miscarriage (1715)[*Peter the Great: A Life From Beginning to*.](https://books.google.com/books?id=mJKeDwAAQBAJ&q=maria+cantemir++gave+birth) Hourly History. 2018. .
** Unnamed child (1717 – 1718)[*Peter the Great: A Life From Beginning to*.](https://books.google.com/books?id=mJKeDwAAQBAJ&q=maria+cantemir++gave+birth) Hourly History. 2018. .
## Legacy
[[File:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|thumb|right|A posthumous portrait of Peter the Great, by [Delaroche](Paul)(Paul Delaroche), ]]
Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "[Bronze Horseman](The)(The Bronze Horseman (poem))" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god.Nicholas Riasanovsky, *The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought* (1985) pp. 57, 84, 279, 283.A. Lenton, "Voltaire and Peter the Great" *History Today* (1968) 18#10 [online](https://www.historytoday.com/archive/voltaire-and-peter-great) Kathleen Scollins, "Cursing at the Whirlwind: The Old Testament Landscape of The Bronze Horseman." *Pushkin Review* 16.1 (2014): 205-231 [online](https://hum.michaelkrasuski.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Scollins_BronzeHorseman_2014.pdf) . Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia.
Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started his invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles.Albert Resis, "Russophobia and the 'Testament' of Peter the Great, 1812-1980" *Slavic Review* 44#4 (1985), pp. 681-693 [online](http://www.academia.edu/download/50985326/The_will_of_Peter_the_great.pdf)
The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as [Pokrovsky](Mikhail)(Mikhail Pokrovsky) presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness."Lindsey Hughes, *Russia in the Age of Peter the Great* (1998) p 464. As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people.Riasanovsky, p. 305.
After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy.Zitser, 2005. Modernization models have become contested ground.Waugh, 2001
Historian Ia. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" Hughes, p. 464 The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin."Hughes, p. 465.
According to *Encyclopaedia Britannica*, "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a [power](great)(great power), without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged."
While the cultural turn in [historiography](historiography) has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture and dress. James Cracraft argues:
:The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development.James Cracraft, "The Russian Empire as Cultural Construct," *Journal of the Historical Society* (2010) 10#2 pp. 167–188, quoting p 170.
## In popular culture
[[File:Peter the Great tomb.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|Tomb of Peter the Great in the [and Paul Fortress](Peter)(Peter and Paul Fortress), St Petersburg]]
Peter has been featured in many histories, novels, plays, films, monuments and paintings.Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, *The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought* (1985).Lindsey Hughes, "'What manner of man did we lose?': Death-bed images of Peter the Great." *Russian History* 35.1-2 (2008): 45-61. They include the poems *[Bronze Horseman](The)(The Bronze Horseman (poem))*, *[Poltava](Poltava (poem))* and the unfinished novel *[Moor of Peter the Great](The)(The Moor of Peter the Great)*, all by [Pushkin](Alexander)(Alexander Pushkin). The former dealt with [Bronze Horseman](The)(The Bronze Horseman), an equestrian statue raised in Peter's honour. [Nikolayevich Tolstoy](Aleksey)(Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy) wrote a biographical historical novel about him, named *Pëtr I*, in the 1930s.
* The 1922 German silent film *[the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great (1922 film))* directed by [Buchowetzki](Dimitri)(Dimitri Buchowetzki) and starring [Jannings](Emil)(Emil Jannings) as Peter
* The 1937–1938 Soviet Union (Russia) film *[the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great (1937 film))*
* The 1976 film *[Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor](How)(How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor)*, starring [Petrenko](Aleksey)(Aleksey Petrenko) as Peter, and [Vysotsky](Vladimir)(Vladimir Vysotsky) as [Petrovich Gannibal](Abram)(Abram Petrovich Gannibal), shows Peter's attempt to build the [Fleet](Baltic)(Baltic Fleet).
* The 2007 film ''[Sovereign's Servant](The)(The Sovereign's Servant)* depicts the unsavoury brutal side of Peter during the campaign.
* Peter was played by [Niklas](Jan)(Jan Niklas) and [Schell](Maximilian)(Maximilian Schell) in the 1986 [NBC](NBC) [miniseries](miniseries) *[the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great (TV series))*.
* A character based on Peter plays a major role in *[Age of Unreason](The)(The Age of Unreason)'', a series of four [history](alternate)(alternate history) novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author [Keyes](Gregory)(Gregory Keyes).
* Peter is one of many supporting characters in [Stephenson](Neal)(Neal Stephenson)'s *[Cycle](Baroque)(Baroque Cycle)* – mainly featuring in the third novel, *The System of the World*.
* Peter was portrayed on [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4) by Isaac Rouse as a boy, Will Howard as a young adult and [Cowan](Elliot)(Elliot Cowan) as an adult in the radio plays *Peter the Great: The Gamblers*[BBC Radio 4 – Drama, Tsar, Peter the Great: The Gamblers](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07w6b7t) . BBC. Retrieved 8 May 2020. and *Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades*,[BBC Radio 4 – Drama, Tsar, Peter the Great: Queen of Spades](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07wndxx) . BBC. Retrieved 8 May 2020. written by [Walker](Mike)(Mike Walker (radio dramatist)) and which were the last two plays in the first series of *Tsar*. The plays were broadcast on 25 September and 2 October 2016.
* A verse in the "[Drinking Song](Engineers')(Godiva's Hymn)" references Peter the Great:
There was a man named Peter the Great who was a Russian Tzar;
When remodeling his the castle put the throne behind the bar;
He lined the walls with vodka, rum, and 40 kinds of beers;
And advanced the Russian culture by 120 years!
* Peter was played by [Isaacs](Jason)(Jason Isaacs) in the 2020 'antihistory' Hulu series [Great*](*The)(The Great (TV series)).
* Peter is featured as the leader of the Russian civilization in the computer game ''Sid Meier's [VI](Civilization)(Civilization VI)*.[Civilization 6 Leader and Civilization Breakdown - Montezuma to Shaka](https://gamerant.com/civilization-6-leader-civilization-breakdown-montezuma-shaka/) . GameRant. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
* Peter was played by [Kolesnikov](Ivan)(Ivan Kolesnikov) in the 2022 Russian historical documentary film *[I: The Last Tsar and the First Emperor](Peter)(Peter I: The Last Tsar and the First Emperor)*.
## See also
* [reform of Peter the Great](Government)(Government reform of Peter the Great)
* [of Russia (1721–96)](History)(History of Russia (1721–96))
* [of the administrative division of Russia](History)(History of the administrative division of Russia)
* , on the modernization of the Russian military under Peter the Great
* [the Great Statue](Peter)(Peter the Great Statue)
* [of Russia family tree](Rulers)(Rulers of Russia family tree)
* [battlecruiser *Pyotr Velikiy*](Russian)(Russian battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy), a Russian Navy battle cruiser named after Peter the Great
* [of people known as "the Great"](List)(List of people known as "the Great")
## Notes
## References
## Sources
* Anisimov, Evgenii V. (2015) *The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress Through Violence in Russia'' (Routledge)
*
* [online](https://archive.org/details/petergreat00bush)
*
*
*
*
* [online](https://archive.org/details/russiainageofpet00hugh)
*
*
*
* , a popular biography; [online](https://archive.org/details/petergreat00robe)
*
*
*
*
*
* [online](https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00rias)
*
*
*
; Historiography and memory
* Brown, Peter B. "Towards a Psychohistory of Peter the Great: Trauma, Modeling, and Coping in Peter's Personality." *Russian History* 35#1-2 (2008): 19–44.
* Brown, Peter B. "Gazing Anew at Poltava: Perspectives from the Military Revolution Controversy, Comparative History, and Decision-Making Doctrines." *Harvard Ukrainian Studies* 31.1/4 (2009): 107–133. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756499)
* Cracraft, James. "Kliuchevskii on Peter the Great." *Canadian-American Slavic Studies* 20.4 (1986): 367–381.
* Daqiu, Zhu. "Cultural Memory and the Image of Peter the Great in Russian Literature." *Russian Literature & Arts* 2 (2014): 19+.
* Gasiorowska, Xenia. *The image of Peter the Great in Russian fiction* (1979) [online](https://archive.org/details/imageofpetergrea0000gasi)
* Platt, Kevin M. F. *Terror and Greatness: Ivan and Peter as Russian Myths* (2011)
* Raef, Mark, ed. *Peter the Great, Reformer or Revolutionary?* (1963) excerpts from scholars and primary sources [online](https://www.questia.com/library/1580400/peter-the-great-reformer-or-revolutionary)
* Resis, Albert. "Russophobia and the" Testament" of Peter the Great, 1812–1980." *Slavic Review* 44.4 (1985): 681-693 [online](http://www.academia.edu/download/50985326/The_will_of_Peter_the_great.pdf).
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. *The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought* (1985).
* Waugh, Daniel Clarke. "We have never been modern: Approaches to the study of Russia in the age of Peter the Great." *Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas H.* 3 (2001): 321-345 [online in English](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41050779) .
*
* Zitser, Ernest A. "The Difference that Peter I Made." in *The Oxford Handbook of Modern Russian History.* ed. by Simon Dixon (2013) [online](https://www.academia.edu/download/52837343/08Zitser_The_Difference_that_Peter_I_Made.pdf)
## Further reading
* Anderson, M.S. "Russia under Peter the Great and the changed relations of East and West." in J.S. Bromley, ed., *The New Cambridge Modern History: VI: 1688-1715* (1970) pp. 716–40.
* Anisimov, Evgenii V. *The Reforms of Peter the Great: Progress through Coercion in Russia* (1993) [online](https://archive.org/details/reformsofpetergr0000anis)
*
* Bushkovitch, Paul. *Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 1671–1725* (2001) [online](https://www.questia.com/library/105314240/peter-the-great-the-struggle-for-power-1671-1725)
* Cracraft, James. *The Revolution of Peter the Great* (2003) [online](https://archive.org/details/revolutionofpete00crac)
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Russia's Military Way to the West: Origins and Nature of Russian Military Power 1700-1800* (Routledge, 2015) pp 9–41
* Graham, Stephen. *Peter The Great* (1929) [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208197)
* Kamenskii, Aleksandr. *The Russian Empire in the Eighteenth Century: Searching for a Place in the World*(1997) pp 39–164.
* Kluchevsky, V.O. *A history of Russia* vol 4 (1926) [online](https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia04kliuuoft) pp 1–230.
** Cracraft, James. "Kliuchevskii on Peter the Great." *Canadian-American Slavic Studies* 20.4 (1986): 367–381.
* Oliva, Lawrence Jay. ed. *Russia in the era of Peter the Great* (1969), excerpts from primary and secondary sources [two week borrowing](https://archive.org/details/russiaineraofpet00oliv)
* Pares, Bernard. *A History Of Russia* (1947) pp 193–225. [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174320)
* Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David, and Bruce W. Menning, eds. *Reforming the Tsar's Army – Military Innovation in Imperial Russia from Peter the Great to the Revolution* (Cambridge UP, 2004) 361 pp. scholarly essays
* Sumner, B. H. *Peter the Great and the emergence of Russia* (1950), brief history by scholar [online](https://archive.org/details/petergreatemerge0000sumn/page/n7/mode/2up)
## External links
* – Historical reconstruction *The Romanovs''. StarMedia. Babich-Design (Russia, 2013)
* [Peter the Great, a Tsar who Loved Science by Philippe Testard-Vaillant](https://news.cnrs.fr/articles/peter-the-great-a-tsar-who-loved-science)
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Braxton Bragg
|
braxton_bragg
|
# Braxton Bragg
*Revision ID: 1159515266 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T20:47:00Z*
---
| death_date =
| birth_place = [North Carolina](Warrenton,)(Warrenton, North Carolina), U.S.
| death_place = [Texas](Galveston,)(Galveston, Texas), U.S.
| placeofburial = [Cemetery, Mobile, Alabama](Magnolia)(Magnolia Cemetery (Mobile, Alabama))
| placeofburial_coordinates =
| spouse =
| allegiance =
| branch =
| serviceyears = 1837–1856 (USA)1861–1865 (CSA)
| rank = [35px](File:Union army lt col rank insignia.jpg) [Brevet](Brevet (military)) [Lieutenant-Colonel](Lieutenant colonel (United States)) (USA)[35px](File:Confederate States of America General-collar.svg) [General](General officers in the Confederate States Army) (CSA)
| commands = [of Mississippi](Army)(Army of Mississippi) (1862)[of Tennessee](Army)(Army of Tennessee) (1863)
| battles =
* **[Seminole War](Second)(Second Seminole War)**
* **[War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War)**
** [of Fort Brown](Siege)(Siege of Fort Texas)
** [of Monterrey](Battle)(Battle of Monterrey)
** [of Buena Vista](Battle)(Battle of Buena Vista)
* **[Civil War](American)(American Civil War)**
** [of Shiloh](Battle)(Battle of Shiloh)
** [of Corinth](Siege)(Siege of Corinth)
** [of Perryville](Battle)(Battle of Perryville)
** [of Stones River](Battle)(Battle of Stones River)
** [Campaign](Tullahoma)(Tullahoma Campaign)
** [of Chickamauga](Battle)(Battle of Chickamauga)
** [for Chattanooga](Battles)(Chattanooga Campaign)
** [Battle of Fort Fisher](Second)(Second Battle of Fort Fisher)
** [Fork](Wyse)(Battle of Wyse Fork)
** [of Bentonville](Battle)(Battle of Bentonville)
| alma_mater = [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy)
| signature = Braxton Bragg signature.png
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
}}
**Braxton Bragg** (March 22, 1817 – September 27, 1876) was an American army [officer](Officer (armed forces)) during the [Seminole War](Second)(Second Seminole War) and [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War) and Confederate [general](General officers in the Confederate States Army) in the [Army](Confederate)(Confederate States Army) during the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War), serving in the [Theater](Western)(Western Theater of the American Civil War). His most important role was as commander of the [of Mississippi](Army)(Army of Mississippi), later renamed the [of Tennessee](Army)(Army of Tennessee), from June 1862 until December 1863.
Bragg, a native of [North Carolina](Warrenton,)(Warrenton, North Carolina), was educated at [Point](West)(United States Military Academy) and became an [artillery](artillery) officer. He served in [Florida](Florida) and then received three [brevet](brevet (military)) promotions for distinguished service in the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), most notably the [of Buena Vista](Battle)(Battle of Buena Vista). He resigned from the U.S. Army in 1856 to become a sugar [plantation](Plantations in the American South) owner in [Louisiana](Louisiana). At the start of the Civil War, Bragg trained soldiers in the [Coast](Gulf)(Gulf Coast of the United States) region. He was a corps commander at the [of Shiloh](Battle)(Battle of Shiloh), where he launched several costly and unsuccessful frontal assaults but nonetheless was commended for his conduct and bravery.
In June 1862, Bragg was elevated to command the Army of Mississippi (later known as the Army of Tennessee). He and [General](Brigadier)(Brigadier General) [Kirby Smith](Edmund)(Edmund Kirby Smith) attempted an invasion of [Kentucky](Kentucky) in 1862, but Bragg retreated following the [of Perryville](Battle)(Battle of Perryville) in October. In December, he fought another battle at [Tennessee](Murfreesboro,)(Murfreesboro, Tennessee), the [of Stones River](Battle)(Battle of Stones River), against the [of the Cumberland](Army)(Army of the Cumberland) under [General](Major)(Major General) [Rosecrans](William)(William Rosecrans), which ended with his retreat. After months without significant fighting, Bragg was outmaneuvered by Rosecrans in the [Campaign](Tullahoma)(Tullahoma Campaign) in June 1863, causing him to surrender [Tennessee](Middle)(Middle Tennessee) to the Union. Bragg retreated to [Chattanooga](Chattanooga, Tennessee) but evacuated it in September as Rosecrans' troops entered Georgia. Later that month, with the assistance of Confederate forces from the [Theater](Eastern)(Eastern Theater of the American Civil War) under [Longstreet](James)(James Longstreet), Bragg was able to defeat Rosecrans at the [of Chickamauga](Battle)(Battle of Chickamauga), the bloodiest battle in the Western Theater, and the only significant Confederate victory therein. Bragg forced Rosecrans back into Tennessee but was criticized for not mounting an effective pursuit. In November, Bragg's army was routed by [General](Major)(Major General) [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant) in the [for Chattanooga](Battles)(Chattanooga Campaign) and pushed back to Georgia. Confederate President [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis) subsequently relieved Bragg of command, recalling him to Richmond as his chief military advisor. Bragg briefly returned to the field as a corps commander near the war's end during the [of the Carolinas](Campaign)(Campaign of the Carolinas).
Bragg is generally considered among the worst generals of the Civil War. Most of the battles he engaged in ended in defeat. Bragg was extremely unpopular with both the officers and ordinary men under his command, who criticized him for numerous perceived faults, including poor battlefield strategy, a quick temper, and overzealous discipline. Bragg has a generally poor reputation with historians, though some point towards the failures of Bragg's subordinates, especially Major General and former Bishop [Polk](Leonidas)(Leonidas Polk)—a close ally of Davis and known enemy of Bragg—as more significant factors in the many Confederate defeats under Bragg's command. The losses suffered by Bragg's forces are cited as highly consequential to the ultimate defeat of [Confederacy](the)(the Confederacy).
## Early life and education
Braxton Bragg was born in [North Carolina](Warrenton,)(Warrenton, North Carolina),Eicher, p. 140; Warner, p. 30; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 92. one of the six sons of Thomas and Margaret Crosland Bragg. One of his older brothers was future [Confederate](Confederate States of America) [General](Attorney)(Attorney General) [Bragg](Thomas)(Thomas Bragg). Bragg was also a cousin of [S. Bragg](Edward)(Edward S. Bragg), who would become a Union general in the Civil War.Owen, Thomas McAdory (1921) *[History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography, Volume 3](https://books.google.com/books?id=nkoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203)* (1921), p. 203. He was often ridiculed as a child because of rumors about his mother's prison sentence for allegedly murdering an [American](African)(African American) freeman, and some of those rumors stated that he was born in prison. Grady McWhiney, the principal biographer of Bragg's early life and career, states that the Bragg family was law-abiding despite these rumors. Although considered by his neighbors to be from the lower class, Thomas Bragg was a carpenter and contractor who became wealthy enough to send Braxton to the Warrenton Male Academy, one of the best schools in the state. He was descended from Captain [Newport](Christopher)(Christopher Newport) of [Virginia](Jamestown,)(Jamestown, Virginia), and his son-in-law Thomas Bragg (1579–1665), who was born in [England](England) and settled in the [of Virginia](Colony)(Colony of Virginia). In the thousands of letters that Bragg wrote during his lifetime, he spoke fondly of his father, but never mentioned his mother.McWhiney, pp. 1–3.
## West Point
When Bragg was only ten years old, his father decided on a military career for him and sought ways to obtain a nomination to the [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy). Eventually, the oldest Bragg son, [John](John Bragg (politician)), recently elected as a state legislator, obtained the support of U.S. Senator for North Carolina [P. Mangum](Willie)(Willie Person Mangum). With Mangum as his sponsor, West Point admitted Braxton at the age of 16. His [included notable future Civil War Union generals](classmates)(List of Union Army officers educated at the United States Military Academy#List) [Hooker](Joseph)(Joseph Hooker) and [Sedgwick](John)(John Sedgwick), and [Confederate generals](future)(List of Confederate States Army officers educated at the United States Military Academy#List) [C. Pemberton](John)(John C. Pemberton), [Early](Jubal)(Jubal Early), and [H. T. Walker](William)(William H. T. Walker). Bragg did well in academic pursuits because of his superior memory rather than diligent study and received fewer disciplinary demerits than most of his contemporaries. He graduated fifth of fifty cadets from the West Point Class of 1837 and was commissioned a [lieutenant](second)(Second lieutenant#United States) in the [U.S. Artillery](3rd)(3rd U.S. Artillery).McWhiney, pp. 5–9, 24–25; Eicher, p. 140.
## Military service
### Early career
Bragg served in the [Seminole War](Second)(Second Seminole War) in [Florida](Florida), initially as an assistant commissary officer and regimental adjutant, seeing no actual combat. He soon began to suffer from a series of illnesses that he blamed on the tropical climate. He sought a medical transfer and was briefly assigned to recruiting duty in Philadelphia, but in October 1840, he was ordered back to Florida. He became a company commander in the 3rd Artillery and commanded Fort Marion, near [Augustine](St.)(St. Augustine, Florida). In this assignment, he stayed relatively healthy but tended toward overwork, laboring administratively to improve the living conditions of his men. He launched a series of argumentative letters with senior Army officials, including the adjutant general and Army paymaster, that established his reputation as "disputatious".McWhiney, pp. 26–33.
Bragg had a reputation for being a disciplinarian who strictly adhered to regulations. There is a famous, apocryphal story, included in [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant)'s memoirs, about Bragg as a company commander at a frontier post where he also served as quartermaster. He submitted a requisition for supplies for his company, then, as quartermaster, declined to fill it. As company commander, he resubmitted the requisition, giving additional reasons for his requirements, but as the quartermaster, he denied the request again. Realizing that he was at a personal impasse, he referred the matter to the post commandant, who exclaimed, "My God, Mr. Bragg, you have quarreled with every officer in the army, and now you are quarreling with yourself!"
It is alleged that some of Bragg's troops attempted to [him](assassinate)(fragging) on two occasions in August and September 1847, but he was not injured either time. In the more serious of the two incidents, one of his soldiers exploded a 12-pound artillery shell underneath his cot. Although the cot was destroyed, somehow Bragg himself emerged without a scratch.Confirmed by Bragg himself. See Battles and Leaders of the Civil War Vol.III p.604 footnote Bragg had suspicions about the perpetrator's identity but had insufficient evidence to bring charges. Later, an Army deserter named Samuel R. Church claimed responsibility for the attack.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 92; McWhiney, pp. 33–34, 97–98; Foote, p. 567; Eicher, p. 140.
Historian [Seidule](Ty)(Ty Seidule) reports that both Bragg's subordinate officers and the regular soldiers under his command in the Army of the Tennessee "hated" Bragg and would, at times, refuse to follow his orders. One private, [Watkins](Sam)(Samuel R. Watkins), who later became a professional writer, said in his memoirs that "None of Bragg's men soldiers ever loved him. They had no faith in his ability as a general. He was looked upon as a merciless tyrant ... He loved to crush the spirit of the men." Seidule says that Bragg's battles often ended in defeat because of his insistence on direct frontal assaults and his "uncanny ability to turn minor wins and losses into strategic defeats."[Ty](Seidule,)(Ty Seidule) (2020) ''Robert E. Lee and Me: A Southerner's Reckoning with the Myth of the Lost Cause*. New York: St. Martins. pp.144-145.
The 3rd Artillery relocated to [Moultrie](Fort)(Fort Moultrie), [South Carolina](Charleston,)(Charleston, South Carolina), in 1843. Here, Bragg was stationed with three future [Army](Union)(Union Army) generals that he came to consider close friends: [H. Thomas](George)(George H. Thomas), [F. Reynolds](John)(John F. Reynolds) (both of whom were lieutenants who reported to Bragg) and [T. Sherman](William)(William T. Sherman). Bragg continued his controversial writing, this time a series of nine articles published 1844–45 in the *Southern Literary Messenger''. The series, "Notes on Our Army," published anonymously (as "A Subaltern"), included specific attacks on the policies of general in chief [Scott](Winfield)(Winfield Scott), whom he called a "vain, petty, conniving man." There were also numerous attacks on Army administrative policies and officers. He included thoughtful recommendations on a proposed structure for the Army general staff that were ignored at the time but echoed in reorganizations that occurred in the early 20th century.McWhiney, pp. 34–38.
Bragg's articles came to the attention of Representative [G. Clinton](James)(James G. Clinton), a New York [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States)) and political opponent of Scott's. While Bragg was on leave in Washington, D.C., in March 1844, Clinton called him to testify before his House Committee on Public Expenditures. Scott ordered him not to testify, in defiance of the Congressional subpoena. Bragg was arrested and sent to [Monroe, Virginia](Fort)(Fort Monroe, Virginia), where he was court-martialed for disobeying orders and disrespecting his superior officers. Bragg conducted his own defense and attempted to turn the trial into a condemnation of Scott. He was found guilty, but an official reprimand from the Secretary of War and suspension at half pay for two months were relatively mild punishments, and Bragg was not deterred from future criticisms of his superiors.McWhiney, pp. 39–51.
### Mexican–American War
[[File:A little more grape Capt. Bragg"--General Taylor at the Battle of Buena Vista, Feby 23d, 1847.jpg|thumb|right|250px|*A Little More Grape, Capt. Bragg* by [Currier](N.)(Nathaniel Currier)]]
In the summer of 1845, Bragg and his artillery company were ordered to join Gen. [Taylor](Zachary)(Zachary Taylor) in the defense of [Texas](Texas) from [Mexico](Mexico). He won promotions for bravery and distinguished conduct in the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), including a [brevet](Brevet (military)) promotion to [captain](Captain (U.S. Army)) for the [of Fort Brown](Battle)(Siege of Fort Texas) (May 1846), to [major](Major (United States)) for the [of Monterrey](Battle)(Battle of Monterrey) (September 1846), and to [colonel](lieutenant)(Lieutenant colonel (United States)) for the [of Buena Vista](Battle)(Battle of Buena Vista) (February 1847). Bragg was also promoted to captain within the [army](regular)(Regular Army (United States)) in June 1846. He became widely admired (professionally, not personally) in Taylor's army for the discipline and drill of his men and the newly tried tactics of light artillery that proved decisive in most of his engagements against the Mexican Army. But it was Buena Vista that brought him national fame. His timely placement of artillery into a gap in the line helped repulse a numerically superior Mexican attack. He fought in support of Col. Jefferson Davis and the [Rifles](Mississippi)(155th Infantry Regiment (United States)), which earned him the admiration of the future U.S. Secretary of War and president of the Confederacy.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 92; McWhiney, pp. 52–88; Eicher, p. 140.
An anecdote circulated about Gen. Taylor commanding, "A little more of the [grape](grapeshot), Capt. Bragg," which caused him to redouble his efforts and save the day. The stories are probably apocryphal and, according to the diary of [Allen Hitchcock](Ethan)(Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)), Taylor's Chief of Staff (and recent son-in-law) [William Bliss](Maj.)(William Wallace Smith Bliss) confirmed that "the stories of the General in connection with Bragg are all false. He never said, 'A little more grape, Captain Bragg,' nor did he say, 'Major Bliss and I will support you.'"According to Bragg, Taylor's orders to him were, "Captain, Give them Hell". See "Battles and Leaders of the Civil War" Vol. III .p.605 Footnote] Nevertheless, Bragg returned to the United States as a popular hero. A northwestern outpost, [Bragg, California](Fort)(Fort Bragg, California), was named in his honor. The citizens of Warrenton presented him with a ceremonial sword. Congressman [Outlaw](David)(David Outlaw) wrote about the honor: "Col. Bragg having, no thanks to them, won for himself a brilliant reputation, is now the object of the most fulsome adulation. Those who formerly sneered at the Braggs as plebeians, as unfit associates for them, they are glad to honor. With what scorn must Col. Bragg, in his secret heart regard them." Bragg traveled to New York, Washington, Mobile, and New Orleans, and in each place, he was honored.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 92; McWhiney, pp. 90–93, 101–102.
On December 31, 1855, Bragg submitted his resignation from the Army, which became effective on January 3, 1856. He and his wife purchased a sugar plantation of north of [Louisiana](Thibodaux,)(Thibodaux, Louisiana). Never one to oppose slavery in concept—his father and wife were enslavers—he used 105 enslaved African-Americans on his property. He continued to uphold his reputation as a stern disciplinarian and an advocate of military efficiency. His methods resulted in almost immediate profitability, despite a large mortgage on the property. He became active in local politics and was elected to the Board of Public Works in 1860. Throughout the 1850s, Bragg had been disturbed by the accelerating sectional crisis. He opposed the concept of [secession](secession), believing that no majority could set aside a written constitution in a republic, but this belief would soon be tested.McWhiney, pp. 141–43, 149; Eicher, p. 140.
### American Civil War
[[Bragg early.jpg|thumb|left|Braxton Bragg, CSAThis photograph is entitled "Braxton Bragg, CSA" by the Library of Congress and is dated 1860–70. His dark uniform displays the three stars of a Confederate colonel on his collar and the single star of a U.S. brigadier general on the shoulder boards, so this photograph was likely taken very early in the war.](File:Braxton)]
Before the start of the Civil War, Bragg was a [colonel](colonel) in the Louisiana Militia. On December 12, 1860, Governor [O. Moore](Thomas)(Thomas O. Moore) appointed him to the state military board, an organization charged with creating a 5,000-man army. He took the assignment even though he had been opposed to secession. On January 11, 1861, Bragg led a group of 500 volunteers to [Rouge](Baton)(Baton Rouge, Louisiana), where they persuaded the commander of the federal arsenal there to surrender. The state convention on [secession](secession) also established a state army, and Moore appointed Bragg its commander, with the rank of [general](major)(major general), on February 20, 1861. He commanded the forces around New Orleans until April 16, but his commission was transferred to be a [general](brigadier)(Brigadier General (CSA)) of the Confederate States Army on March 7, 1861. He commanded forces in [Florida](Pensacola,)(Pensacola, Florida), Alabama, and the Department of West Florida and was promoted to [general](major)(Major General (CSA)) on September 12, 1861. His tenure was successful, and he trained his men to be some of the best-disciplined troops in the Confederate Army, such as the [Georgia](5th)(5th Georgia Volunteer Infantry) and the 6th Florida Regiments.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 94; McWhiney, pp. 150–52; 157–73, 190; Hewitt, pp. 113–14; Eicher, p. 141.Confederate Military History, Vol XI, pps. 175-6; OR Series 1 – Volume 53, Chapter LXV, pps. 230-1, 239–240; NARA Microfilm M861 Roll 11; "Supplement to the Official Records"National Park Service, [The Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System](http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/) .
In December, President Davis asked Bragg to take command of the [Department](Trans-Mississippi)(Trans-Mississippi Department), but Bragg declined. He was concerned about the prospects of victory west of the Mississippi River and the poorly supplied and ill-disciplined troops there. He was also experiencing one of the periodic episodes of ill health that would plague him throughout the war. For years he had suffered from rheumatism, dyspepsia, nerves, and severe migraine headaches, which undoubtedly contributed to his disagreeable personal style. The command went to [Van Dorn](Earl)(Earl Van Dorn). Bragg proposed to Davis that he change his strategy of attempting to defend every square mile of Confederate territory, recommending that his troops were of less value on the Gulf Coast than they would be farther to the north, concentrated with other forces for an attack against the Union Army in Tennessee. Bragg transported about 10,000 men to [Mississippi](Corinth,)(Corinth, Mississippi), in February 1862 and was charged with improving the poor discipline of the Confederate troops already assembled under General [Sidney Johnston](Albert)(Albert Sidney Johnston).McWhiney, pp. 179, 197–203; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 94.
#### Battle of Shiloh
[[Battle April 6 am.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Shiloh, morning of April 6, 1862
](File:Shiloh)]
Bragg commanded a corps (and was also chief of staff) under Johnston at the [of Shiloh](Battle)(Battle of Shiloh), April 6–7, 1862. In the initial surprise Confederate advance, Bragg's corps was ordered to attack in a line almost long, but he soon began directing activities of the units that found themselves around the center of the battlefield. His men became bogged down against a Union salient called the Hornet's Nest, which he attacked for hours with piecemeal frontal assaults. After Johnston was killed in the battle, General [G. T. Beauregard](P.)(P. G. T. Beauregard) assumed command and appointed Bragg his second in command. Bragg was dismayed when Beauregard called off a late afternoon assault against the Union's final position, which was vigorously defended, calling it their last opportunity for victory. On the second day of battle, the Union army counterattacked, and the Confederates retreated to Corinth.Daniel, p. 213; McWhiney, pp. 214–15, 235–43, 247.
Bragg received public praise for his conduct in the battle. On April 12, 1862, Jefferson Davis appointed Bragg a full [general](General (CSA)), the sixth man to achieve that rank and one of only seven in the history of the Confederacy.Eicher, pp. 787, 807. Seven generals were appointed in the CSA; [Bell Hood](John)(John Bell Hood) held temporary general rank, which the Confederate Congress did not confirm. His date of rank was April 6, 1862, coinciding with the first day at Shiloh. After the [of Corinth](Siege)(Siege of Corinth), Beauregard departed on sick leave, leaving Bragg in temporary command of the army in [Mississippi](Tupelo,)(Tupelo, Mississippi). Still, Beauregard failed to inform President Davis of his departure and spent two weeks absent without leave. Davis was looking for someone to replace Beauregard because of his perceived poor performance at Corinth, and the opportunity presented itself when Beauregard left without permission. Bragg was then appointed his successor as commander of the Western Department (known formally as Department Number Two), including the [of Mississippi](Army)(Army of Mississippi), on June 17, 1862.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 105–106; McWhiney, pp. 253, 260; Eicher, p. 141. At Shiloh, the army was called the Army of *the* Mississippi, deviating from the general rule that only Union armies were named after rivers. It was also sometimes referred to as the Army of the West. Post-war, the army has been retrospectively called the Army of Mississippi. On November 20, the command was redesignated the [of Tennessee](Army)(Army of Tennessee).
#### Battle of Perryville
[[File:ACW Western Theater May - October 1862.png|thumb|left|[Theater](Western)(Western Theater of the American Civil War) operations from the [of Corinth](Siege)(Siege of Corinth) through the Kentucky Campaign]]
In August 1862, Confederate Maj. Gen. [Kirby Smith](Edmund)(Edmund Kirby Smith) decided to invade [Kentucky](Kentucky) from Eastern Tennessee, hoping that he could arouse supporters of the Confederate cause in the border state and draw the Union forces under Maj. Gen. [Carlos Buell](Don)(Don Carlos Buell), beyond the [River](Ohio)(Ohio River). Bragg considered various options, including an attempt to retake Corinth or to advance against Buell's army through [Tennessee](Middle)(Middle Tennessee). He eventually heeded Kirby Smith's calls for reinforcement and decided to relocate his Army of Mississippi to join him. He moved 30,000 soldiers in a tortuous railroad journey from Tupelo through [Mobile](Mobile, Alabama) and [Montgomery](Montgomery, Alabama) to [Chattanooga](Chattanooga, Tennessee), while his cavalry and artillery moved by road. Although Bragg was the senior general in the theater, President Davis had established Kirby Smith's Department of East Tennessee as an independent command, reporting directly to Richmond. This decision caused Bragg difficulty during the campaign.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 135–36; Noe, pp. 25–30, 33; McWhiney, pp. 266–71.
Smith and Bragg met in Chattanooga on 31st July 1862. They devised a plan for the campaign: Kirby Smith's Army of Kentucky would first march into Kentucky to dispose of the Union defenders of Cumberland Gap. (Bragg's army was too exhausted from its long journey to begin immediate offensive operations.) Smith would return to join Bragg, and their combined forces would attempt to maneuver into Buell's rear and force a battle to protect his supply lines. Once the armies were combined, Bragg's seniority would apply, and Smith would be under his direct command. Assuming that Buell's army could be destroyed, Bragg and Smith would march farther north into Kentucky, a movement they assumed would be welcomed by the local populace. Any remaining Federal force would be defeated in a grand battle in Kentucky, establishing the Confederate frontier at the Ohio River.Noe, pp. 31–32; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 136–37.
On August 9, Smith informed Bragg that he was breaking the agreement and intended to bypass Cumberland Gap, leaving a small holding force to neutralize the Union garrison and move north. Unable to command Smith to honor their plan, Bragg focused on a movement to [Lexington](Lexington, Kentucky) instead of [Nashville](Nashville, Tennessee). He cautioned Smith that Buell could pursue and defeat his smaller army before Bragg's army could join them.Noe, pp. 34–35; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 137–38.
Bragg departed from Chattanooga on August 27, just before Smith reached Lexington. On the way, he was distracted by the capture of a Union fort at [Munfordville](Battle of Munfordville). He had to decide whether to continue toward a fight with Buell (over Louisville) or rejoin Smith, who had gained control of the center of the state by capturing [Richmond](Battle of Richmond) and Lexington and threatened to move on Cincinnati. Bragg chose to rejoin Smith. He left his army and met Smith in [Frankfort](Frankfort, Kentucky), where they attended the inauguration of Confederate Governor [Hawes](Richard)(Richard Hawes) on October 4. The inauguration ceremony was disrupted by the sound of approaching Union cannon fire, and the organizers canceled the inaugural ball scheduled for that evening.Noe, p. 129; McWhiney, p. 307.
On October 8, the armies met unexpectedly at the [of Perryville](Battle)(Battle of Perryville); they had skirmished the previous day as they were searching for nearby water sources. Bragg ordered the wing of his army under Maj. Gen. [Polk](Leonidas)(Leonidas Polk) to attack what he thought was an isolated portion of Buell's command but had difficulty motivating Polk to begin the fight until Bragg arrived in person. Eventually, Polk attacked the corps of Maj. Gen. [M. McCook](Alexander)(Alexander McDowell McCook) on the Union army's left flank and forced it to fall back. By the end of the day, McCook had been driven back about a mile, but reinforcements had arrived to stabilize the line, and Bragg only then began to realize that his limited tactical victory in the bloody battle had been against less than half of Buell's army and the remainder was arriving quickly.Hewitt, p. 114; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 158; McWhiney, pp. 310–20.
Kirby Smith pleaded with Bragg to follow up on his success: "For God's sake, General, let us fight Buell here." Bragg replied, "I will do it, sir," but then displayed what one observer called "a perplexity and vacillation which had now become simply appalling to Smith, to [Hardee](William J. Hardee), and to Polk,"Foote, p. 740. he ordered his army to retreat through the Cumberland Gap to Knoxville. Bragg referred to his retreat as a withdrawal, the successful culmination of a giant raid. He had multiple reasons for withdrawing. Disheartening news had arrived from northern Mississippi that [Van Dorn](Earl)(Earl Van Dorn) and [Price](Sterling)(Sterling Price) had been defeated at [Corinth](Second Battle of Corinth), just as [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee) had failed in his [Campaign](Maryland)(Maryland Campaign). He saw that his army had little to gain from a further, isolated victory, whereas a defeat might cost not only the bountiful food and supplies yet collected but also his army. He wrote to his wife, "With the whole southwest thus in the enemy's possession, my crime would have been unpardonable had I kept my noble little army to be ice-bound in the northern clime, without tents or shoes, and obliged to forage daily for bread, etc."Foote, p. 739. He was quickly called to Richmond to explain to Jefferson Davis the charges brought by his officers about how he had conducted his campaign, demanding that he be replaced as head of the army. Although Davis decided to leave the general in command, Bragg's relationship with his subordinates would be severely damaged. Upon rejoining the army, he ordered a movement to [Tennessee](Murfreesboro,)(Murfreesboro, Tennessee).McDonough, pp. 304–14; McWhiney, pp. 325–30.
#### Battle of Stones River
Bragg renamed his force the [of Tennessee](Army)(Army of Tennessee) on November 20, 1862. Meanwhile, on October 24, Don Carlos Buell was replaced as commander of the Union [of the Ohio](Army)(Army of the Ohio) by Maj. Gen. [S. Rosecrans](William)(William S. Rosecrans), who immediately renamed it the [of the Cumberland](Army)(Army of the Cumberland). In late December, Rosecrans advanced from Nashville against Bragg's position at Murfreesboro. Before Rosecrans could attack, Bragg launched a strong surprise attack against Rosecrans's right flank on December 31, 1862, the start of the [of Stones River](Battle)(Battle of Stones River). The Confederates drove the Union army back to a small defensive position. Still, they could not destroy it or break its supply line to Nashville, as Bragg intended. Despite this, Bragg considered the first day of battle a victory and assumed that Rosecrans would soon retreat. By January 2, 1863, however, the Union troops remained in place, and the battle resumed as Bragg launched an unsuccessful attack by the troops of Maj. Gen. [C. Breckinridge](John)(John C. Breckinridge) against the well-defended Union left flank. Recognizing his lack of progress, the severe winter weather, the arrival of supplies and reinforcements for Rosecrans, and heeding the recommendations of corps commanders Hardee and Polk, Bragg withdrew his army from the field to [Tennessee](Tullahoma,)(Tullahoma, Tennessee).McWhiney, pp. 350–71; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 187–94.
Bragg's generals were vocal in their dissatisfaction with his command during the Kentucky campaign and Stones River. He reacted to the rumors of criticism by circulating a letter to his corps and division commanders that asked them to confirm in writing that they had recommended withdrawing after the latter battle, stating that if he had misunderstood them and withdrawn mistakenly, he would willingly step down. Unfortunately, he wrote the letter when several of his most faithful supporters were on leave for illness or wounds.McWhiney, p. 377, lists six of "Bragg's strongest partisans" as Jones M. Withers, Daniel W. Adams, James R. Chalmers, Marcus J. Wright, Edward C. Walthall, and Zachary C. Deas. Bragg's critics, including William J. Hardee, interpreted the letter as having an implied secondary question—had Bragg lost the confidence of his senior commanders? Leonidas Polk did not reply to the implied question but wrote directly to his friend, Jefferson Davis, recommending that Bragg be replaced.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 195–97; McWhiney, pp. 376–79.
Davis responded to the complaints by dispatching Gen. [E. Johnston](Joseph)(Joseph E. Johnston) to investigate the army's condition. Davis assumed that Johnston, Bragg's superior, would find the situation wanting and take command of the army in the field, easing Bragg aside. However, Johnston arrived on the scene and found the men of the Army of Tennessee in relatively good condition. He told Bragg he had "the best organized, armed, equipped, and disciplined army in the Confederacy."Connelly, pp. 77–80. Johnston explicitly refused any suggestion that he take command, concerned that people would think he had taken advantage of the situation for his own personal gain. When Davis ordered Johnston to send Bragg to Richmond, Johnston delayed because of Elise Bragg's illness; when her health improved, Johnston could not assume command because of lingering medical problems from his wound at the [of Seven Pines](Battle)(Battle of Seven Pines) in 1862.McWhiney, pp. 379–88; Connelly, pp. 85–86.
#### Tullahoma Campaign
[[Campaign.png|thumb|Tullahoma Campaign](File:Tullahoma)]
As Bragg's army fortified Tullahoma, Rosecrans spent the next six months in Murfreesboro, resupplying and retraining his army to resume its advance. Rosecrans's initial movements on June 23, 1863, surprised Bragg. While keeping Polk's corps occupied with small actions in the center of the Confederate line, Rosecrans sent the majority of his army around Bragg's right flank. Bragg was slow to react, and his subordinates were typically uncooperative: the mistrust among the Army of Tennessee general officers for the past months led to little direct communication about strategy, and neither Polk nor Hardee had a firm understanding of Bragg's plans. As the Union army outmaneuvered the Confederates, Bragg was forced to abandon Tullahoma and, on July 4, retreated behind the Tennessee River. Tullahoma is recognized as a "brilliant" campaign for Rosecrans, achieving his goal of driving Bragg from Middle Tennessee with minimal losses. Judith Hallock wrote that Bragg was "outfoxed" and that his ill health may have been partially to blame for his performance. Still, her overall assessment was that he performed credibly during the retreat from Tullahoma, keeping his army intact under difficult circumstances.Woodworth, *Six Armies in Tennessee*, pp. 19–46; Hallock, pp. 14–27.
Although the Army of Tennessee had about 52,000 men at the end of July, the Confederate government merged the Department of East Tennessee, under Maj. Gen. [B. Buckner](Simon)(Simon Bolivar Buckner, Sr.), into Bragg's Department of Tennessee, which added 17,800 men to Bragg's army, but also extended his command responsibilities northward to the [Knoxville](Knoxville, Tennessee) area. This brought a third subordinate into Bragg's command who had little or no respect for him.Cozzens, *This Terrible Sound*, pp. 87–89. Buckner's attitude was colored by Bragg's unsuccessful invasion of Buckner's native Kentucky in 1862 and by the loss of his command through the merger.Hallock, p. 44; Cozzens, *This Terrible Sound*, pp. 156–58. A positive aspect for Bragg was Hardee's request to be transferred to Mississippi in July, but he was replaced by Lt. Gen. [Harvey Hill](Daniel)(Daniel Harvey Hill), a general who had not gotten along with [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee) in Virginia.Cozzens, *This Terrible Sound*, p. 155.
In early August, the Confederate War Department asked Bragg if he could assume the offensive against Rosecrans if he were given reinforcements from Mississippi. He demurred, concerned about the daunting geographical obstacles and logistical challenges, preferring to wait for Rosecrans to solve those same problems and attack him.Woodworth, *Six Armies in Tennessee*, p. 50. An opposed crossing of the Tennessee River was not feasible, so Rosecrans devised a deception to distract Bragg above Chattanooga while the army crossed downstream. Bragg was rightfully concerned about a sizable Union force under Maj. Gen. [E. Burnside](Ambrose)(Ambrose E. Burnside) that was threatening Knoxville to the northeast, and Rosecrans reinforced this concern by feinting to his left and shelling the city of Chattanooga from the heights north of the river. The bulk of the Union army crossed the Tennessee southeast of Chattanooga by September 4, and Bragg realized that his position there was no longer tenable. He evacuated the city on September 8.Woodworth, *Six Armies in Tennessee*, pp. 52–67; Hallock, pp. 44–53; Cozzens, *This Terrible Sound*, pp. 163–65.
#### Battle of Chickamauga
[[Campaign August-September 1863.pdf|thumb|Initial movements in the Chickamauga Campaign, August 15 – September 8, 1863](File:Chickamauga)]
[[Sep20 2.png|thumb|Longstreet's breakthrough at the Battle of Chickamauga, mid-day September 20](File:Chickamauga)]
After Rosecrans had consolidated his gains and secured his hold in Chattanooga, he began moving his army into northern Georgia in pursuit of Bragg. Bragg continued to suffer from the conduct of his subordinates, who were not attentive to his orders. On September 10, Maj. Gens. [C. Hindman](Thomas)(Thomas C. Hindman) and [Harvey Hill](Daniel)(Daniel Harvey Hill) refused to attack, as ordered, an outnumbered Federal column at McLemore's Cove (the [of Davis's Cross Roads](Battle)(Battle of Davis's Cross Roads)). On September 13, Bragg ordered Leonidas Polk to attack Maj. Gen. [L. Crittenden](Thomas)(Thomas L. Crittenden)'s corps, but Polk ignored the orders and demanded more troops, insisting that it was he who was about to be attacked. Rosecrans used the time lost in these delays to concentrate his scattered forces. Finally, on September 19–20, 1863, Bragg, reinforced by two divisions from Mississippi, one division and several brigades from the Department of East Tennessee, and two divisions under Lt. Gen. [Longstreet](James)(James Longstreet) from [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee)'s [of Northern Virginia](Army)(Army of Northern Virginia), turned on the pursuing Rosecrans in northeastern Georgia and at high cost defeated him at the [of Chickamauga](Battle)(Battle of Chickamauga), the greatest Confederate victory in the Western Theater during the war. It was not a complete victory, however. Bragg aimed to cut off Rosecrans from Chattanooga and destroy his army. Instead, following a partial rout of the Union army by Longstreet's wing, a stout defense by Maj. Gen. [H. Thomas](George)(George H. Thomas) allowed Rosecrans and almost all of his army to escape.Hallock, pp. 47–87; Woodworth, *Six Armies in Tennessee*, pp. 79–128. The success also came with an enormous cost. Bragg's army suffered 18,450 casualties, making this the costliest Confederate victory of the entire war.
After the battle, Rosecrans's [of the Cumberland](Army)(Army of the Cumberland) retreated to Chattanooga, where Bragg laid siege to the city. He began to wage a battle against the subordinates he resented for failing him in the campaign—Hindman for his lack of action in McLemore's Cove and Polk for delaying the morning attack Bragg ordered on September 20. On September 29, Bragg suspended both officers from their commands. In early October, an attempted mutiny of Bragg's subordinates resulted in D. H. Hill being relieved from his command. Longstreet was dispatched with his corps to the Knoxville Campaign against Ambrose Burnside, seriously weakening Bragg's army at Chattanooga.Hallock, pp. 87, 90; Cozzens, *This Terrible Sound*, pp. 525, 529–35; Woodworth, *Six Armies in Tennessee*, p. 146; Connelly, pp. 234–35.
Some of Bragg's subordinate generals were frustrated at what they perceived to be his lack of willingness to exploit the victory by pursuing the Union army toward Chattanooga and destroying it. Polk, in particular, was outraged at being relieved of command. The dissidents, including many division and corps commanders, met secretly and prepared a petition to President [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis). Although the petition's author is unknown, historians suspect it was Simon Buckner, whose signature was first on the list.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 240. Lt. Gen. James Longstreet wrote to the Secretary of War with the prediction that "nothing but the hand of God can save us or help us as long as we have our present commander." With the Army of Tennessee literally on the verge of mutiny, Jefferson Davis reluctantly traveled to Chattanooga to assess the situation and try to stem the tide of dissent in the army. Although Bragg offered to resign to resolve the crisis,Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 241. Davis eventually decided to leave Bragg in command, denounced the other generals, and termed their complaints "shafts of malice".Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 244.
#### Battles for Chattanooga
[[Campaign Battles November 24-25.pdf|thumb|Battles for Chattanooga, November 24–25, 1863](File:Chattanooga)]
While Bragg fought with his subordinates and reduced his force by dispatching Longstreet to Knoxville, the besieged Union army received a new commander—Maj. Gen. [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant)—and significant reinforcements from Mississippi and Virginia. The [for Chattanooga](Battles)(Chattanooga Campaign) marked Bragg's final days as an army commander. His weakened left flank (previously manned by Longstreet's troops) fell on November 24 during the [of Lookout Mountain](Battle)(Battle of Lookout Mountain). The following day in the [of Missionary Ridge](Battle)(Battle of Missionary Ridge), his primary defensive line successfully resisted an attack on its right flank. Still, the center was overwhelmed in a frontal assault by George Thomas's army. The Army of Tennessee was routed and retreated to [Georgia](Dalton,)(Dalton, Georgia). Bragg offered his resignation on November 29 and was chagrined when Davis accepted it immediately. He turned over temporary command to Hardee on December 2 and was replaced with [E. Johnston](Joseph)(Joseph E. Johnston), who commanded the army in the 1864 [Campaign](Atlanta)(Atlanta Campaign) against [T. Sherman](William)(William T. Sherman).Hallock, pp. 127–49; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 245–57.
#### Advisor to the President
In February 1864, Bragg was summoned to Richmond for consultation with Davis. The orders for his new assignment on February 24 read that he was "charged with the conduct of military operations of the Confederate States", but he was essentially Davis's military adviser or chief of staff without a direct command, a post once held by [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee). Bragg used his organizational abilities to reduce corruption and improve the supply system. He took over responsibility for administrating the military prison system and its hospitals. He reshaped the Confederacy's conscription process by streamlining the chain of command and reducing conscripts' avenues of appeal. During his tenure in Richmond, he had numerous quarrels with significant figures, including the Secretary of War, the Commissary General, members of Congress, the press, and many of his fellow generals; the exception to the latter was [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee), who treated Bragg politely and with deference and who had, Bragg knew, an exceptionally close relationship with the president.Hallock, pp. 163–64, 171–79, 204–208; Eicher, p. 141; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 256.
In May, while Lee was defending against Ulysses S. Grant's [Campaign](Overland)(Overland Campaign) in Virginia, Bragg focused on defending areas south and west of Richmond. He convinced Jefferson Davis to appoint P.G.T. Beauregard to an important role in defense of Richmond and Petersburg. Meanwhile, Davis was concerned that Joseph Johnston, Bragg's successor in the Army of Tennessee, was defending too timidly against Sherman's [Campaign](Atlanta)(Atlanta Campaign). He sent Bragg to Georgia on July 9, charged with investigating the tactical situation and evaluating the replacement of Johnston in command. Bragg harbored the hope that he might be chosen to return to command of the army but was willing to support Davis's choice. Davis had hinted to Bragg that he thought Hardee would be an appropriate successor. Still, Bragg was reluctant to promote an old enemy and reported that Hardee would provide no change in strategy from Johnston's. Bragg had extensive conversations with a more junior corps commander, Lt. Gen. [Bell Hood](John)(John Bell Hood), and was impressed with his plans for taking offensive action, about which Hood had also been confidentially corresponding to Richmond for weeks behind Johnston's back. Davis chose Hood to replace Johnston.Hallock, pp. 180–84, 202; Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 277, 282–85.
#### Operations in North Carolina
[[File:Carolinas Campaign.png|thumb|[Campaign](Carolinas)(Carolinas Campaign)]]
In October 1864, President Davis sent Bragg to assume temporary command of the defenses of [North Carolina](Wilmington,)(Wilmington, North Carolina). His responsibility was soon increased at the recommendation of Robert E. Lee to include all of the Department of North Carolina and Southern Virginia. In November, with William T. Sherman's [to the Sea](March)(Sherman's March to the Sea) underway, Davis ordered him to the defenses of [Georgia](Augusta,)(Augusta, Georgia), and then to [Georgia](Savannah,)(Savannah, Georgia), [South Carolina](Charleston,)(Charleston, South Carolina), and in January 1865, the defenses of Wilmington again. The Confederates successfully repulsed the first Union attempt to [Fort Fisher](capture)(First Battle of Fort Fisher), which dominated the seaborne supply line to Wilmington. However, Bragg's performance in the [Battle of Fort Fisher](Second)(Second Battle of Fort Fisher) was poor when the Union returned in January. He assumed that the first failed siege meant the fort was invulnerable, but poor communication and planning from the U.S. forces had played a large role. Thus, he did not come to the fort's assistance after it was attacked the second time. In February, the Confederates were forced to evacuate Wilmington, their last remaining seaport on the Atlantic coast.Hallock, pp. 220–45.
Bragg's now-fragile military career began to crumble around him. To his disgust, Joseph E. Johnston returned to service to command the remnants of the Army of Tennessee and other forces defending against Sherman in North Carolina. At about the same time, Bragg lost his position as military adviser to Davis when Robert E. Lee was promoted to be general in chief of all the Confederate armies in February, and [C. Breckinridge](John)(John C. Breckinridge), who had hated Bragg since the debacle at Perryville, was named Secretary of War. Davis was sympathetic to Bragg's discomfort and discussed transferring him to command the Trans-Mississippi Department, replacing [Kirby Smith](Edmund)(Edmund Kirby Smith), but the politicians from that region were vehemently opposed. Bragg became, in effect, a corps commander (although his command was less than a division in size) under Johnston for the remainder of the [Campaign](Carolinas)(Carolinas Campaign). His men were able to win a minor victory at the [Battle of Kinston](Second)(Battle of Wyse Fork), March 7–10, and fought unsuccessfully at the [of Bentonville](Battle)(Battle of Bentonville), March 19–21. After the fall of Richmond on April 2, Jefferson Davis and remnants of the Confederate government fled to the southwest. Bragg, who had been headquartered at [North Carolina](Raleigh,)(Raleigh, North Carolina), caught up with Davis near [South Carolina](Abbeville,)(Abbeville, South Carolina), on May 1. He attended the final cabinet meeting and convinced Davis that the cause was lost. Bragg and a small party of his staff rode to the west and were captured and paroled in [Georgia](Monticello,)(Monticello, Georgia), on May 9.Hallock, pp. 246–59; Eicher, p. 141.
## Later life and death
Bragg and Eliza had lost their home in late 1862 when the United States Army confiscated the plantation in Thibodaux. It briefly served as a shelter, the Bragg Home Colony, for freed people under the control of the [Bureau](Freedmen's)(Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands). The couple moved in with his brother, a plantation owner in [Alabama](Lowndesboro,)(Lowndesboro, Alabama), but they found the life of seclusion there intolerable. In 1867 Bragg became the superintendent of the [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) [waterworks](waterworks), but a formerly enslaved African-American man soon replaced him as the [Reconstructionists](Reconstruction era) came to power. In late 1869 Jefferson Davis offered Bragg a job as an agent for the [Life Insurance Company](Carolina)(Carolina Life Insurance Company). He worked there for four months before becoming dissatisfied with the profession and its low pay. He considered but rejected a position in the [Army](Egyptian)(Egyptian Army). In August 1871, he was employed by the city of [Alabama](Mobile,)(Mobile, Alabama), to improve the river, harbor, and bay, leaving after quarreling with a "combination of capitalists." Moving to Texas, he was appointed the chief engineer of the [Colorado and Santa Fe Railway](Gulf,)(Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway) in July 1874. Still, within a year, disagreements with the board of directors over his compensation caused him to resign. He remained in Texas as an inspector of railroads.Hallock, pp. 260–64.
On September 27, 1876, at the age of 59, Bragg was walking down a street with a friend in [Texas](Galveston,)(Galveston, Texas), when he suddenly fell over unconscious. Dragged into a drugstore, he was dead within 10 to 15 minutes. A physician familiar with his history believed that he "died by the brain" (or of "paralysis of the brain"), suffering from the degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. An inquest ruled that his death was due to "fatal [syncope](Syncope (medicine))" possibly induced by organic disease of the heart. He is buried in [Cemetery](Magnolia)(Magnolia Cemetery (Mobile, Alabama)), [Alabama](Mobile,)(Mobile, Alabama).Welsh, Jack D. (1999) *Medical Histories of Confederate Generals*. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. p. 23. ; Hallock, pp. 265–66.
## Personal life
On his celebratory tour, Bragg visited [Plantation](Evergreen)(Evergreen Plantation (Wallace, Louisiana)) in [Louisiana](Wallace,)(Wallace, Louisiana), where he met 23-year-old Eliza Brooks Ellis, known to her friends as Elise, a wealthy sugar heiress. They were married on June 7, 1849, in the drawing room of Magnolia Manor, the Ellis plantation.Seebold, Herman Boehm de Bachellé (1941) *Old Louisiana Plantation Homes and Family Trees v.1*. New Orleans: Pelican Press. p.223 The newlyweds relocated to [Barracks, Missouri](Jefferson)(Jefferson Barracks, Missouri), on September 10. They were forced to leave this relatively comfortable assignment in October 1853 when they were transferred to [Gibson](Fort)(Fort Gibson) in the [Territory](Indian)(Indian Territory) (present-day Oklahoma). Eight months later, they were transferred to [Washita](Fort)(Fort Washita), near the Texas border. The primitive conditions at these forts were unsuitable for the married couple, and after another six months, Bragg requested leave, and the couple returned to Thibodaux. Bragg traveled to Washington to implore Secretary of War Jefferson Davis to reassign his artillery battery away from frontier duty, but was unsuccessful.McWhiney, pp. 108, 118, 121, 136–38.
In June 1863, Bragg received religious instruction and was baptized into the Episcopal Church in [Tennessee](Shelbyville,)(Shelbyville, Tennessee).
## Historical reputation
James M. McPherson's reference to "the bumblers like Bragg and [Pemberton](John C. Pemberton) and [Hood](John Bell Hood) who lost the West"McPherson, p. 857. sums up the judgment of many modern historians. Bragg's shortcomings as an army commander included his unimaginative tactics, mostly his reliance on frontal assault (such as the Hornet's Nest at [Shiloh](Battle of Shiloh), Breckinridge's assault at Stones River, and numerous instances at Chickamauga), and his lack of post-battle follow-up that turned tactical victories or draws into strategic disappointments (Perryville and Chickamauga). His sour disposition, a penchant for blaming others for defeat, and poor interpersonal skills undoubtedly caused him to be criticized more directly than many of his unsuccessful contemporaries. Peter Cozzens wrote about his relationship with subordinates:Cozzens, *No Better Place to Die*, p. 4.
Some counterarguments have emerged in recent years. Judith Lee Hallock called the blaming of Bragg for Confederate defeats in the west the "Bragg syndrome." While most agree he was not a particularly good army commander, historians such as Hallock and [E. Woodworth](Steven)(Steven E. Woodworth) cite his skills as an organizer and argue that his defeat in several battles can also be partially blamed upon bad luck and incompetent subordinates, notably Polk. Of his troublesome subordinates, Hardee was considered a solid soldier even by Bragg. Although personally brave and charismatic, Polk was simply an average tactician known for piecemeal attacks and was seriously insubordinate.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 29–30. However, he was a close friend of Davis, who was unwilling to relieve him. Woodworth claims that Bragg also never received the support Davis gave to Robert E. Lee and Sidney Johnston.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, p. 309.
Historians [McWhiney](Grady)(Grady McWhiney) and Woodworth have stated that, contrary to popular belief, Davis and Bragg were not friends, having bitterly quarreled during the antebellum years.Woodworth, *Jefferson Davis and His Generals*, pp. 92–93. Woodworth wrote, "Despite the dangers and privations they had shared in Mexico and the fact that each admired the other's conduct on the field of battle, there was little kind feeling between Braxton Bragg and Jefferson Davis." Davis was impressed with Bragg's qualifications for high command early in the war but was willing to relieve him by 1863. Judith Hallock noted mutual admiration between Davis and Bragg during his assignment in Richmond, perhaps because Bragg respected the president.Hallock, p. 204. Post-Civil War, Bragg's relationship with Davis grew stronger. He regularly addressed his letters to Davis as "Your Friend" and worked with Davis in the Carolina Insurance Company.
## Legacy
The following places in the [States](United)(United States) are or were [for](named)(Namesake) Bragg:
* [Texas](Bragg,)(Bragg, Texas) – ghost town founded in 1902 and disappeared by the 1930s
* [Bragg, California](Fort)(Fort Bragg, California) – city founded in 1857 and named by [Gates Gibson](Horatio)(Horatio Gates Gibson) in honor of Bragg's exploits in the Mexican-American war prior to the Civil War.
* [Liberty](Fort)(Fort Liberty) – a military post founded in 1918 as Camp Bragg (later Fort Bragg), but renamed Fort Liberty in 2023
## See also
* [of American Civil War generals](List)(List of American Civil War generals (Confederate))
* [of people from North Carolina](List)(List of people from North Carolina)
* [of United States Military Academy alumni](List)(List of United States Military Academy alumni)
## References
**Notes**
**Bibliography**
* Connelly, Thomas L. *Autumn of Glory: The Army of Tennessee 1862–1865*. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971. .
* Cozzens, Peter. *No Better Place to Die: The Battle of Stones River*. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. .
* Cozzens, Peter. *This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga*. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. .
* Eicher, John H., and [J. Eicher](David)(David J. Eicher). *Civil War High Commands*. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
* [Shelby](Foote,)(Shelby Foote). *[Civil War: A Narrative](The)(The Civil War: A Narrative)*. Vol. 1, *Fort Sumter to Perryville*. New York: Random House, 1958. .
* Hess, Earl J. *Braxton Bragg: The Most Hated Man of the Confederacy*. University of North Carolina Press, 2016.
* Hallock, Judith Lee. *Braxton Bragg and Confederate Defeat*. Vol. 2. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991. .
* Hewitt, Lawrence L. "Braxton Bragg." In *The Confederate General*, vol. 1, edited by [C. Davis](William)(William C. Davis (historian)) and Julie Hoffman. Harrisburg, PA: National Historical Society, 1991. .
* Martin, Samuel J. *General Braxton Bragg, C.S.A.*. McFarland: First edition, 2011. . .
* McDonough, James Lee. *War in Kentucky: From Shiloh to Perryville*. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994. .
* [James M.](McPherson,)(James M. McPherson) *[Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era](Battle)(Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era)*. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
* [Grady](McWhiney,)(Grady McWhiney). *Braxton Bragg and Confederate Defeat*. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969 (additional material, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991). .
* Noe, Kenneth W. *Perryville: This Grand Havoc of Battle*. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. .
* Sword, Wiley. *Shiloh: Bloody April*. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992. . First published in 1974 by Morrow.
* Warner, Ezra J. *Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders*. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. .
* [Steven E.](Woodworth,)(Steven E. Woodworth) *Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West*. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990. .
* [Steven E.](Woodworth,)(Steven E. Woodworth) *Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns*. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. .
**Further reading**
* Connelly, Thomas L. *Army of the Heartland: The Army of Tennessee 1861–1862*. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967. .
* Cozzens, Peter. *The Shipwreck of Their Hopes: The Battles for Chattanooga*. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994. .
* Cunningham, O. Edward. *Shiloh and the Western Campaign of 1862*. Edited by Gary Joiner and Timothy Smith. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .
* Daniel, Larry J. *Soldiering in the Army of Tennessee: A Portrait of Life in a Confederate Army*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991, .
* Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. *The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography*. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. .
* Hafendorfer, Kenneth A. *Perryville: Battle for Kentucky*. Louisville, KY: K. H. Press, 1991. .
* Horn, Stanley F. *The Army of Tennessee: A Military History*. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1941. .
* McDonough, James Lee. *Stones River: Bloody Winter In Tennessee*. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980. .
* McMurry, Richard M. *Two Great Rebel Armies*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. .
* Prokopowicz, Gerald J. *All for the Regiment: The Army of the Ohio, 1861–1862*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .
* [Steven E.](Woodworth,)(Steven E. Woodworth) "Braxton Bragg." In *Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary*, edited by Charles F. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998. .
## External links
* [Braxton Bragg](https://web.archive.org/web/20130830061015/http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/biographies/braxton-bragg.html) at the [War Trust](Civil)(Civil War Trust)
*
* [Braxton Bragg](http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=45079) at The Historical Marker Database (HMdb.org)
* [Braxton Bragg](http://www.ncpedia.org/biography/bragg-braxton) at NCpedia (ncpedia.org)
* [Braxton Bragg Papers](http://finding-aids.lib.unc.edu/00079/) at the [of North Carolina at Chapel Hill](University)(University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)
* [Braxton Bragg Papers](http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/utcah/01322/cah-01322.html) at the [of Texas at Austin](University)(University of Texas at Austin)
* [Braxton Bragg Papers](https://web.archive.org/web/20170425115013/http://librarydigitalservices.uwf.edu/Archon/?p=collections%2Fcontrolcard&id=71) at the [of West Florida](University)(University of West Florida)
* [Braxton Bragg Papers](http://ead.ohiolink.edu/xtf-ead/view?docId=ead/OCLWHi1153.xml;query=;brand=default) at the [Reserve Historical Society](Western)(Western Reserve Historical Society)
*[Braxton Bragg Correspondence](http://pid.emory.edu/ark:/25593/8z1bp) at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library
[ ](Category:Braxton Bragg)
[births](Category:1817)(Category:1817 births)
[deaths](Category:1876)(Category:1876 deaths)
[American military personnel](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century American military personnel)
[militia generals](Category:American)(Category:American militia generals)
[slave owners](Category:American)(Category:American slave owners)
[in Alabama](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials in Alabama)
[military personnel of the Mexican–American War](Category:American)(Category:American military personnel of the Mexican–American War)
[planters](Category:American)(Category:American planters)
[family](Category:Bragg)(Category:Bragg family)
[people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent)
[States Army full generals](Category:Confederate)(Category:Confederate States Army full generals)
[from Warrenton, North Carolina](Category:People)(Category:People from Warrenton, North Carolina)
[of Louisiana in the American Civil War](Category:People)(Category:People of Louisiana in the American Civil War)
[States Military Academy alumni](Category:United)(Category:United States Military Academy alumni)
[Historical Society](Category:Southern)(Category:Southern Historical Society)
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Bad Bunny
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bad_bunny
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# Bad Bunny
*Revision ID: 1159500015 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T18:32:09Z*
---
| birth_place = [Baja, Puerto Rico](Vega)(Vega Baja, Puerto Rico)
| occupation =
| years_active = 2013–present
| works = [Discography](Bad Bunny discography)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Bad Bunny)
| module =
| instrument = Vocals
| label =
| associated_acts =
}}
| website =
}}
**Benito Antonio Martínez Ocasio** (born March 10, 1994), known professionally as **Bad Bunny**, is a Puerto Rican rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, and occasional [wrestler](professional)(professional wrestler). His musical style is primarily defined as [trap](Latin)(Latin trap) and [reggaeton](reggaeton), although his music also incorporates various other elements from other genres. It is characterized by its serious intonation, without any vocal technique and its style of clothing. He rose to prominence in 2016 with his song "Diles", which led to a deal with Hear This Music. He continued gaining traction with songs such as "[Peor](Soy)(Soy Peor)" and collaborations with [Farruko](Farruko), [G](Karol)(Karol G), [Ozuna](Ozuna), [Balvin](J)(J Balvin), and more during the next few years.
His major breakthrough came in 2018 with his feature on [B](Cardi)(Cardi B)'s number-one song "[Like It](I)(I Like It (Cardi B, Bad Bunny and J Balvin song))" alongside [Balvin](J)(J Balvin), and his top-10 song "[Mia](Mia (Bad Bunny song))" featuring [Drake](Drake (musician)). His debut album *[100pre](X)(X 100pre)* was released in December 2018 by Rimas Entertainment, which peaked at number 11 on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). He then released his collaborative album *[Oasis](Oasis (J Balvin and Bad Bunny album))* with J Balvin in June 2019, reaching number nine on the *Billboard* 200. Bad Bunny's second album *[YHLQMDLG](YHLQMDLG)* was released on February 29, 2020, and became the highest charting all-Spanish album, reaching number two on the *Billboard* 200. It was followed up with the compilation album *[que no iban a salir](Las)(Las que no iban a salir)* in May, which reached number seven on the chart.
In November 2020, Bad Bunny released his fourth album *[Último Tour Del Mundo](El)(El Último Tour Del Mundo)*, combining his reggaeton and Latin trap sound with rock music. The album became the first all-Spanish-language album to reach number one on the *Billboard* 200 and its lead single "[Dákiti](Dakiti)" debuted in the top ten on the US [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100). In May 2022, his fifth album *[Verano Sin Ti](Un)(Un Verano Sin Ti)* was released and spent 13 weeks atop the *Billboard* 200, while four of the album's singles peaked in the top ten on the *Billboard* Hot 100. *Un Verano Sin Ti* became the number-one album of the year in the US as well as the [best-selling album of 2022](world's)(List of best-selling albums#Best-selling album by year worldwide). It was also the first Spanish-language album to earn a Grammy nomination for [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year).
Bad Bunny is credited with helping Spanish-language music achieve mainstream popularity in the worldwide market. In 2020, he became the first non-English language act to be [Spotify](Spotify)'s [streamed artist of the year](most)(List of most-streamed artists on Spotify#Most-streamed artists) and achieved the same record again in 2021. He then had the biggest streaming year for any artist on Spotify in 2022. Bad Bunny has earned three [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), four [Grammy Awards](Latin)(Latin Grammy Awards), eight [Music Awards](*Billboard*)(Billboard Music Awards), and thirteen [Nuestro Awards](Lo)(Lo Nuestro Awards). He was crowned Artist of the Year at the Apple Music Awards 2022.
Outside of music, Bad Bunny has ventured into [wrestling](professional)(professional wrestling) in the American promotion [WWE](WWE), making several non-wrestling appearances as well as wrestling in matches at [37](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 37) in 2021 and [Backlash](Backlash (2023)) in 2023. He is also a [one-time](List of WWE 24/7 Champions) [24/7 Champion](WWE)(WWE 24/7 Champion).
## Early life
Benito Antonio Martínez Ocasio was born on March 10, 1994, and raised in the [Sur](Almirante)(Almirante Sur) barrio of [Baja, Puerto Rico](Vega)(Vega Baja, Puerto Rico). His father, Tito Martínez, was a truck driver, and his mother, Lysaurie Ocasio, is a retired schoolteacher. His parents had often listened to genres such as [salsa](Salsa music), [merengue](Merengue music), and [ballads](pop)(Sentimental ballad). He has two younger brothers, Bernie and Bysael. He has said, "I wasn't the kid who got involved in the streets. I liked to be at home with my family."
As a child, he attended church weekly with his devoutly [Catholic](Catholic Church) mother and sang in the church choir until age 13. After leaving the choir, he developed an interest in the artists he heard on the radio, particularly [Yankee](Daddy)(Daddy Yankee) and [Lavoe](Héctor)(Héctor Lavoe). His stage name originally came from a time in which he was forced to wear a bunny costume and was angry about it.
Speaking about the Puerto Rican music industry, he stated, "I'm from Vega Baja, a small area that's not a metropolis like San Juan where the majority of the genre's artists have come from."
## Music career
### 2013–2017: Early career beginnings
He started to write and create his own interpretations at the age of 14, until, in 2013, he began to publish his songs through SoundCloud, including "Get" in 2013, "Tentación" in 2014, "Just let me know" in 2015, among others. In 2016, his song "Diles" caught the attention of DJ Luian from [SoundCloud](SoundCloud) who signed him to his record label, Hear this Music. His single "[Peor](Soy)(Soy Peor)" reached number 19 on the Hot Latin Songs chart. Bad Bunny's May 2017 collaboration with [G](Karol)(Karol G), "[Me Llama](Ahora)(Ahora Me Llama)", reached number 10 on the *Billboard* Hot Latin Songs chart. It was listed on "Alt.Latino's Favorites: The Songs Of 2017" as one of the best Latin songs of 2017.
In the summer of 2017, Bad Bunny signed a booking deal with Cardenas Marketing Network (CMN) for several Latin American countries. Starting in November 2017, Bad Bunny hosted [1](Beats)(Beats 1)'s first Spanish-language show, *Trap Kingz*. The remix of "[Boté](Te)(Te Boté)" with [Ozuna](Ozuna) and [Jam](Nicky)(Nicky Jam) reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart.
### 2018–2019: Major breakthrough, *X 100pre*, and *Oasis*
*X100pre*|Oasis (J Balvin and Bad Bunny album)*Oasis*}}
[[Bunny concierto Ecuador.jpg|thumb|170px|Bad Bunny performing in Ecuador in September 2018](File:Bad)]
In May 2018, American rapper [B](Cardi)(Cardi B) released a collaboration with Bad Bunny and J Balvin, "[Like It](I)(I Like It (Cardi B, Bad Bunny and J Balvin song))". On October 11, 2018, Bad Bunny released "[Mia](Mia (Bad Bunny song))" with [Drake](Drake (musician)), which reached number five on the *Billboard* Hot 100.
Bad Bunny released his debut album *[100pre](X)(X 100pre)* on December 24, 2018, on Christmas Eve 2018 on Rimas Entertainment. At [Metacritic](Metacritic), *X 100pre* received an average score of 84 based on five reviews. Alexis Petridis of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* praised Bad Bunny's "off-kilter creativity".
In 2020, *X 100pre* was voted 447th in *Rolling Stone*'s [Greatest Albums of All Time](500)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time).
On June 28, 2019, Bad Bunny released *[Oasis](Oasis (J Balvin and Bad Bunny album))*, an eight-song collaborative album with J Balvin. It peaked at number nine on the *Billboard* Hot 100 and topped the *Billboard* US Latin Albums chart. In July 2019, he joined protests against governor [Rosselló](Ricardo)(Ricardo Rosselló). Bad Bunny and [Residente](Residente) released "" ("Sharpening the knives") during the demonstrations.
### 2020–2021: *YHLQMDLG*, *Las que no iban a salir*, and *El Último Tour Del Mundo*
*YHLQMDLG*|Las que no iban a salir*Las Que No Iban A Salir*|El Último Tour del Mundo}}
In February 2020, Bad Bunny was a guest performer at the [Bowl LIV halftime show](Super)(Super Bowl LIV halftime show), headlined by [Shakira](Shakira) and [Lopez](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lopez). Bad Bunny announced the album *[YHLQMDLG](YHLQMDLG)* on February 27, 2020, during an appearance on *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)* and stated that it would be released on [Day 2020](Leap)(February 29). It was released on February 29, 2020. The album's title stands for "Yo Hago Lo Que Me Da La Gana" (Spanish for "I Do What I Want") and features collaborations with [Yankee](Daddy)(Daddy Yankee), [Yaviah](Yaviah), [& Randy](Jowell)(Jowell & Randy), [Flow](Ñengo)(Ñengo Flow), among other artist. The album is an homage to the *marquesinas* (garage parties) Bad Bunny grew up attending, and features many nods to early/mid-2000s reggaeton. On the final song on the album, " He noted that the stress of fame has had a negative impact on his mental health.
*YHLQMDLG* debuted at number two on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200), becoming the highest-charting all-Spanish album ever on the chart at the time. The album was met with critical acclaim, who praised the album's musical diversity. "[Vete](Vete)" was released as the lead single of the album on November 22, 2019. The album title was first mentioned during a sequence of the accompanying music video. The second single, "Ignorantes", with Panamanian singer [Sech](Sech (singer)) came out on February 14, 2020. In March 2020, Bad Bunny released the music video for "[Perreo Sola](Yo)(Yo Perreo Sola)", in which the artist performs in [drag](Drag (clothing)). The final frame of the video denounces sexual harassment of women, and reads: ""If she doesn't want to dance with you, respect her, she twerks alone". On the song and video, Bad Bunny stated "I wrote it from the perspective of a woman. I wanted a woman's voice to sing it–'yo perreo sola'–because it doesn't mean the same thing when a man sings it. But I do feel like that woman sometimes". "Yo Perreo Sola" landed number one on the *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* [Airplay](Latin)(Latin Airplay) chart, earning Bad Bunny his ninth No.1 on the chart in just over two years.
On April 4, 2020, he released the song "En Casita" on SoundCloud, which expressed solidarity towards others in quarantine due to [COVID-19](COVID-19) and featured vocals from his girlfriend, Gabriela Berlingeri. On May 10, 2020, Bad Bunny released his third solo studio album (fourth overall) *[que no iban a salir](Las)(Las que no iban a salir)*, without previous announcements. The album's title translates to "The Ones that Were Not Going to Come Out" and is primarily a compilation of previously unreleased or unfinished songs. Songs from the album were played on an [Instagram](Instagram) live stream that Bad Bunny made in late April. The album features collaborations with [Omar](Don)(Don Omar), [Yandel](Yandel), [& Lennox](Zion)(Zion & Lennox), [Jam](Nicky)(Nicky Jam), and [Cortez](Jhay)(Jhay Cortez). Discussing the album's surprise release, Bad Bunny explained, "There was no real meaning behind it. I just thought, 'Damn. What people need is entertainment'. Bad Bunny had been filming his supporting role in *[Mexico](Narcos:)(Narcos: Mexico)* before filming was postponed due to the pandemic. It premiered in November 2021.
In July 2020, he appeared on the first digital cover of *[Playboy](Playboy)* magazine as the first man to appear on the cover other than the magazine's founder, [Hefner](Hugh)(Hugh Hefner). The cover was shot by photographer Stillz in [Florida](Miami,)(Miami), and the magazine includes a feature article entitled "Bad Bunny is Not Playing God." He also received the [Latin](ASCAP)(American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers) award for Songwriter of the Year. The following month, his song "Pero Ya No" appeared in an advertisement for politician [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden)'s [United States presidential election campaign](2020)(Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign). On September 20, 2020, Bad Bunny performed a surprise, live (via his YouTube channel and [Uforia](Uforia Audio Network)), free concert from atop a flatbed truck that looked like a subway car going through the streets of New York and ended at Harlem Hospital. With a motorcade including police and vehicles flashing their lights, the subway car with Bad Bunny on the top drove through [Bronx](The)(The Bronx) and [Heights](Washington)(Washington Heights, Manhattan) in Manhattan. In October 2020, Bad Bunny released the single "[Dakiti](Dakiti)", with [Cortez](Jhay)(Jhay Cortez), which topped the [Global 200](*Billboard*)(Billboard Global 200) and reached number five on the US Hot 100. The song is included on his third studio album, *[Último Tour Del Mundo](El)(El Último Tour Del Mundo)*, which was released on November 27, 2020, and was described as a personal and ambitious record. It became the first all-Spanish language album to reach number one on the *Billboard* 200.
Bad Bunny and *YHLQMDLG* respectively became [Spotify](Spotify)'s most-streamed artist and album globally in 2020. It marked the first time a non-English language music artist topped the year-end list, with a *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* article considering him "the world's biggest pop star" for his streaming numbers. The album received the [Award for Best Latin Pop or Urban Album](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop or Urban Album) at the [Annual Grammy Awards](63rd)(63rd Annual Grammy Awards). On February 20, 2021, Bad Bunny performed "[Noche de Anoche](La)(La Noche de Anoche)" with [Rosalía](Rosalía (singer)) and "Te Deseo Lo Mejor" on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*, hosted by [Page](Regé-Jean)(Regé-Jean Page), as well as appearing in the pre-recorded musical sketches "Loco" and "Sea Shanty". On the US *Billboard* Hot 100, Bad Bunny's next single "[Yonaguni](Yonaguni (song))" became his fourth top 10 entry and first with no accompanying acts. Bad Bunny was cast in an upcoming [Leitch](David)(David Leitch)-directed film starring [Pitt](Brad)(Brad Pitt).
In July 2021, it was announced that Bad Bunny co-wrote and co-produced the fifth album of Puerto Rican [pop](Latin)(Latin pop) artist [Torres](Tommy)(Tommy Torres) titled *[Playlist de Anoche](El)(El Playlist de Anoche)*. Bad Bunny won the most awards at the [*Billboard* Latin Music Awards](2021)(2021 Billboard Latin Music Awards) with ten, including the category Artist of the Year. In the following months, he was featured on [Aventura](Aventura (band))'s single "[Volví](Volví)", and released "Lo Siento BB:/" with [Tainy](Tainy) and [Venegas](Julieta)(Julieta Venegas). In September 2021, he appeared on the [100](*Time*)(Time 100), *[Time](Time (magazine))*s annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. Bad Bunny's 2022 concert tour, El Último Tour del Mundo, is scheduled to visit the US and Canada. He won [Urban Music Album](Best)(Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album) and [Rap/Hip Hop Song](Best)(Latin Grammy Award for Best Rap/Hip Hop Song) at the [Annual Latin Grammy Awards](22nd)(22nd Annual Latin Grammy Awards). *El Último Tour Del Mundo* won [Música Urbana Album](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Música Urbana Album) at the [Annual Grammy Awards](64th)(64th Annual Grammy Awards). In December 2021, it was announced that Bad Bunny became Spotify's most-streamed artist of the year globally, for a second year in a row.
On 24 December 2021, a short film and music video titled *[Deseo Lo Mejor](Te)(Te Deseo Lo Mejor)* was released in collaboration with the creators of *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)*. The film was directed by [Silverman](David)(David Silverman (animator)) and stars [Vélez](Humberto)(Humberto Vélez), [Motta](Claudia)(Claudia Motta) and Bad Bunny.
### 2022–present: *Un Verano Sin Ti*
*Un Verano Sin Ti*|World's Hottest Tour''World's Hottest Tour''}}
In January 2022, Bad Bunny was featured in Vogue Magazine for the second time modeling the current season's best bags. In April 2022, [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) announced Bad Bunny as the lead for *El Muerto*, a film set in [Spider-Man Universe](Sony's)(Sony's Spider-Man Universe). *El Muerto* is set to be released on January 12, 2024. On May 6, 2022, Bad Bunny released his fourth (fifth overall) studio album *[Verano Sin Ti](Un)(Un Verano Sin Ti)* which it became commercially successful as it debuted at number one on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) and stood there for thirteen non-consecutive weeks.
Bad Bunny began his fourth concert tour [Hottest Tour](World's)(World's Hottest Tour) on August 5, 2022, set to visit fourteen countries of the American continent. On October 4, 2022, the tour became the highest-grossing tour by a Latin artist in history, earning US$232.5 million at the time. Bad Bunny received the most nominations (eight) for the 2022 American Music Awards, including his first for artist of the year.
On May 19, 2023, Bad Bunny released his first solo single of the year titled "[She Goes](Where)(Where She Goes)", in which he ventured into [club](jersey)(jersey club) music. The music video had cameos from [Ocean](Frank)(Frank Ocean), [Uzi Vert](Lil)(Lil Uzi Vert), [Ronaldinho](Ronaldinho), and others.
## Artistry
### Musical style and influences
and features Bad Bunny alternating between rapping and singing.
|format2 = [Ogg](Ogg)
}}
Bad Bunny is considered to be primarily a [trap](Latin)(Latin trap) and [reggaeton](reggaeton) artist. As described in a *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* article, Bad Bunny sings and raps with a "conversational tone", employing "a low, slurry tone, viscous melodies, and a rapper's cadence." Throughout the years, Bad Bunny has listed his influences with a wide variety of artists from multiple genres such as [Lavoe](Héctor)(Héctor Lavoe), [C](Vico)(Vico C), [Santos](Romeo)(Romeo Santos), [Luis Guerra](Juan)(Juan Luis Guerra), [Crespo](Elvis)(Elvis Crespo), [Martin](Ricky)(Ricky Martin), [Gabriel](Juan)(Juan Gabriel), [Omar](Don)(Don Omar), [Yankee](Daddy)(Daddy Yankee), [Queen](Ivy)(Ivy Queen), [Calderón](Tego)(Tego Calderón), [& Yandel](Wisin)(Wisin & Yandel), [13](Calle)(Calle 13 (band)), [Manuelle](Víctor)(Víctor Manuelle), and [Anthony](Marc)(Marc Anthony), amongst many others. He considers himself to be a "music fanatic" which is the reason why he's inspired by so many people. During an episode of *[the Music](Behind)(Behind the Music)*, he talked about [Martin](Ricky)(Ricky Martin)'s legacy for Latin music and Latin artists, and how Martin changed the music landscape for future Latin artists. In the music video for [Neverita](Neverita (song)), Bad Bunny paid homage to the [Suavemente](Suavemente (Elvis Crespo song)) music video by Puerto Rican artist [Crespo](Elvis)(Elvis Crespo), leaving a message in the end translated from Spanish as "In honor of the best video of all time". Elvis Crespo later felt honored by his tribute and ended up doing a [merengue](Merengue music) version of the song himself in which he performed at the [Latin Billboard Music Awards](2022)(Billboard Latin Music Awards).
Although primarily considered to be a [trap](Latin)(Latin trap) and [reggaeton](reggaeton) artist, his music also incorporates various other elements from other genres such as [pop](Pop music), [hip-hop](Hip hop music), [rock](Rock music), [electronic](Electronic music), [reggae](reggae), [dancehall](dancehall), [latin](Latin music), [soul](Soul music), and [R&B](Rhythm and blues). Some publications have credited him for bringing Latin trap into the mainstream in the English-language music market.
According to Timothy Monger of AllMusic, his lyrics "range from humor and pathos to heartbreak and anger (sometimes in the same song)." According to *[Paper](Paper (magazine))*, other themes explored in Bad Bunny's music include "self-love, inclusivity, and LGBTQ acceptance".
## Public image
Vanessa Rosales of [CNN](CNN) has opined that "in pink, florals and short shorts, Bad Bunny champions a new masculinity".
He has appeared at award shows with manicured, polished, and long fingernails. Ben Beaumont-Thomas of *The Guardian* opined in 2020 that Bunny's style influenced fellow Latin artists, who "often now share his highly colorful mashup of [streetwear](streetwear) and [tailor](tailor)ing."
## Personal life
Bad Bunny met jewelry designer Gabriela Berlingeri in 2017 at a restaurant while dining with his family, and the two began dating soon after. Berlingeri became the first Latina to shoot the cover of *Rolling Stone* when she photographed the rapper for the magazine's May 2020 cover. In a 2020 interview with the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, Bad Bunny stated he sees sexuality as [fluid](sexually fluid). He said, "At the end of the day, I don't know if in 20 years I will like a man. One never knows in life. But at the moment I am heterosexual and I like women."
In March 2023 Bad Bunny's ex-girlfriend Carliz Hernández filed a $40 million USD lawsuit against the rapper for unauthorized usage of her voice during various recordings.
### Activism
Bad Bunny was openly critical towards the lack of humanitarian aid in the wake of [Maria](Hurricane)(Hurricane Maria), which devastated the island of Puerto Rico. He established the Good Bunny Foundation, which distributes toys to children living in poverty in Puerto Rico.
In 2019, he was nominated for [Telemundo](Telemundo)'s inaugural , in the category of "Humanitarian Award of the Year."
On July 22, 2019, Bad Bunny joined artists such as [Residente](Residente), [Martin](Ricky)(Ricky Martin), and more than half a million Puerto Ricans in taking the streets and shutting down the [Américas Expressway](Las)(PR-52), a major highway also known as the Luis A. Ferré Highway, in protests against government corruption and demanding [Rosselló's resignation](Ricardo)(Telegramgate) from the office of Governor of Puerto Rico. In May 2020, he had not taken a position regarding the [Rican statehood movement](Puerto)(Puerto Rico statehood movement) and had stated that he would prefer to answer at a later time with more clarification. He later concluded his answer in January 2021 stating that he would never "want to see Puerto Rico become a State". Although this doesn't necessarily mean however that he advocates for the [movement in Puerto Rico](Independence)(Independence movement in Puerto Rico) either and had only concluded with the statement that he would never like to see Puerto Rico become the 51st state.
In July 2018, Bad Bunny had criticized a nail salon in Asturias, Spain, for refusing to give him service since he was a man; the post angered many fans, leading them to leave homophobic comments and question Bad Bunny's sexuality. Bad Bunny responded to the hateful comments by offering to impregnate the wives of his critics. The post was deleted and Bad Bunny later ended up apologizing and deleting his own Twitter account.
In January 2019, Bad Bunny criticized a tweet by reggaeton artist [Omar](Don)(Don Omar) considered to be homophobic. During a performance on *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)* in February 2020, he called attention to the murder of transgender woman Alexa Negrón Luciano in Puerto Rico by wearing a shirt with the words "They Killed Alexa. Not a Man in a Skirt.", referencing news reports that had [misgendered](Transphobia) the victim. Ricky Martin has stated that Bad Bunny "has become an icon for the Latin queer community" due to his outspoken support of gay and transgender Latinos as well as his embrace of drag culture.
## Professional wrestling career
A self-professed lifelong fan of [wrestling](professional)(professional wrestling), Bad Bunny began making appearances in the American promotion [WWE](WWE) in 2021. During WWE's annual [Rumble](Royal)(Royal Rumble (2021)) event held on January 31, 2021, Bad Bunny performed his song "Booker T" live, which also had an appearance by [former wrestler of the same name](the)(Booker T (wrestler)). He then began appearing on WWE's weekly television show, *[Night Raw](Monday)(WWE Raw)*.
Wrestler [Priest](Damian)(Damian Priest), a fellow Puerto Rican, allied with Bad Bunny and helped him win the [24/7 Championship](WWE)(WWE 24/7 Championship) from [Tozawa](Akira)(Akira Tozawa) on the February 15 episode of *Raw*. On the March 15 episode, he relinquished the 24/7 Championship to [R-Truth](R-Truth) in exchange for [Cold" Steve Austin]("Stone)("Stone Cold" Steve Austin) memorabilia, ending his reign at 28 days. At [37](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 37), Bad Bunny teamed with Damian Priest in a [team match](tag)(tag team match) to defeat [Miz and John Morrison](The)(The Miz and John Morrison) in his in-ring wrestling debut.
At the [Royal Rumble](2022)(Royal Rumble (2022)) on January 29, Bad Bunny returned to WWE, competing in the men's Royal Rumble match. He eliminated [Sheamus](Sheamus) and [Ziggler](Dolph)(Dolph Ziggler) and lasted until the final five, when he was eliminated by the eventual winner, [Lesnar](Brock)(Brock Lesnar). On January 23, 2023, it was announced that Bad Bunny would be a playable wrestler in the *[2K23](WWE)(WWE 2K23)* video game as a pre-order bonus.
On March 8, 2023, it was announced that Bad Bunny would serve as the host for WWE's upcoming event, [Backlash](Backlash (2023)), taking place in his native Puerto Rico. On April 1, 2023, Bad Bunny joined the Spanish announce team to commentate during the match between [Mysterio](Rey)(Rey Mysterio) and [Mysterio](Dominik)(Dominik Mysterio) on Night 1 of [39](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 39). Bunny would intervene during the match, preventing Dominik from attacking Rey with a chain. Two nights later on *Raw*, Bunny—who was seated front row as a fan—was attacked and chokeslammed through the announcers table by former partner Damian Priest, who was now a teammate of Dominik Mysterio in [Judgment Day](The)(The Judgment Day). On the April 24 episode, Bunny returned and attacked Priest with a [stick](kendo)(kendo stick), subsequently announcing that instead of hosting Backlash, he would be wrestling Priest in a [Juan Street Fight](San)(Street Fight match) at the event. On the May 5 episode of *SmackDown*, Bunny helped the [World Order](Latino)(Latino World Order) (LWO) save [Mysterio](Rey)(Rey Mysterio) from an attack from The Judgment Day, leading to Mysterio giving Bunny an LWO t-shirt, signifying his addition to the group. At Backlash on May 6, Bunny defeated Damian Priest in a San Juan Street Fight, to the admiration of his home fans.
### Championships and accomplishments
* **[WWE](WWE)**
** [24/7 Championship](WWE)(WWE 24/7 Championship) ([one-time](List of WWE 24/7 Champions))
** Bumpy Award (1 time)
*** Best Moment of the Half-Year (2021) – Bad Bunny competing at WrestleMania
## Achievements
## Discography
**Solo studio albums**
* *[100pre](X)(X 100pre)* (2018)
* *[YHLQMDLG](YHLQMDLG)* (2020)
* *[Último Tour Del Mundo](El)(El Último Tour Del Mundo)* (2020)
* *[Verano Sin Ti](Un)(Un Verano Sin Ti)* (2022)
**Collaborative studio albums**
* *[Oasis](Oasis (J Balvin and Bad Bunny album))* (with [Balvin](J)(J Balvin)) (2019)
## Filmography
## Tours
* La Nueva Religión Tour (2018)
* [100Pre Tour](X)(X 100Pre Tour) (2019)
* [Último Tour del Mundo](El)(El Último Tour del Mundo 2022) (2022)
* [Hottest Tour](World's)(World's Hottest Tour) (2022)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1994)(Category:1994 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[who have won professional wrestling championships](Category:Celebrities)(Category:Celebrities who have won professional wrestling championships)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[hop singers](Category:Hip)(Category:Hip hop singers)
[Grammy Award winners](Category:Latin)(Category:Latin Grammy Award winners)
[music songwriters](Category:Latin)(Category:Latin music songwriters)
[pop singers](Category:Latin)(Category:Latin pop singers)
[trap musicians](Category:Latin)(Category:Latin trap musicians)
[Video Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Video Music Award winners)
[from Vega Baja, Puerto Rico](Category:People)(Category:People from Vega Baja, Puerto Rico)
[Rican hip hop musicians](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican hip hop musicians)
[Rican male professional wrestlers](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican male professional wrestlers)
[Rican rappers](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican rappers)
[Rican record producers](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican record producers)
[Rican reggaeton musicians](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican reggaeton musicians)
[Rican singer-songwriters](Category:Puerto)(Category:Puerto Rican singer-songwriters)
[fluid men](Category:Sexually)(Category:Sexually fluid men)
[from San Juan, Puerto Rico](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from San Juan, Puerto Rico)
[singers](Category:Spanish-language)(Category:Spanish-language singers)
[singers of the United States](Category:Spanish-language)(Category:Spanish-language singers of the United States)
[World Order members](Category:Latino)(Category:Latino World Order members)
[of Puerto Rico alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Puerto Rico alumni)
[musicians](Category:Urbano)(Category:Urbano musicians)
[24/7 Champions](Category:WWE)(Category:WWE 24/7 Champions)
|
Shelby Steele
|
shelby_steele
|
# Shelby Steele
*Revision ID: 1155365168 | Timestamp: 2023-05-17T21:03:11Z*
---
}}
|birth_place = [Chicago](Chicago), [Illinois](Illinois), U.S.
|death_date =
|death_place =
|institutions = [Institution](Hoover)(Hoover Institution)[Jose State University](San)(San Jose State University)
|alma_mater = [of Utah](University)(University of Utah)[Illinois University Edwardsville](Southern)(Southern Illinois University Edwardsville) [College](Coe)(Coe College)
|school_tradition =
|main_interests = [Racism](Race relations), [multiculturalism](multiculturalism), [action](affirmative)(affirmative action)
|influences =
|influenced =
}}
**Shelby Steele** (born January 1, 1946) is an [author](author), [columnist](columnist), [film](documentary)(documentary film) maker, and a Robert J. and Marion E. Oster Senior Fellow at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University)'s [Institution](Hoover)(Hoover Institution). He specializes in the study of [relations](race)(race relations), [multiculturalism](multiculturalism), and [action](affirmative)(affirmative action).
In 1990, he received the [Book Critics Circle Award](National)(National Book Critics Circle Award) in the general nonfiction category for his book *The Content of Our Character.* In 2004, Steele was awarded the [Medal of the Humanities](National)(National Medal of the Humanities).
## Early life and education
Steele was born in [Illinois](Phoenix,)(Phoenix, Illinois), a [County](Cook)(Cook County, Illinois) village off [Chicago](Chicago)'s [Side](South)(South Side, Chicago), to a black father and a white mother. His father, Shelby Sr., a truck driver with a third-grade education, and his mother, Ruth, a social worker, were founding members of the [of Racial Equality](Congress)(Congress of Racial Equality) (CORE). Steele attended an all-black elementary school. His paternal grandfather was [a slave in Kentucky](born)(History of slavery in Kentucky). His twin brother is [Steele](Claude)(Claude Steele), a [emeritus](professor)(professor emeritus) of psychology at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University), who held leadership positions with [Berkeley](UC)(University of California, Berkeley), [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) and Stanford. Stanford Profiles|url=https://profiles.stanford.edu/claude-steele|access-date=2021-10-29|website=profiles.stanford.edu}}
Steele received a [B.A.](Bachelor of Arts) in [science](political)(political science) from [College](Coe)(Coe College), an [M.A.](Master of Arts) in [sociology](sociology) from [Illinois University Edwardsville](Southern)(Southern Illinois University Edwardsville), and a [Ph.D.](Ph.D.) in English from the [of Utah](University)(University of Utah). Steele met his wife, Rita Silverman, while they were students at Coe. Steele was active in the [Project](SCOPE)(SCOPE Project), a voter registration project of the [Christian Leadership Conference](Southern)(Southern Christian Leadership Conference) (SCLC), and he met Rita at an activist meeting.
Steele spent 20 years as an English professor at [Jose State University](San)(San Jose State University).
## Career
Steele has been called a [conservative](black)(black conservatism in the United States). He opposes policies such as [action](affirmative)(affirmative action), which he considers to be unsuccessful [liberal](liberalism in the United States) campaigns to promote equal opportunity for [American](African)(African American)s. He contends that blacks have been "twice betrayed:" first by slavery and oppression and then by group preferences mandated by the government, which discourage self-agency and personal responsibility in blacks.
Steele believes that the use of victimization is the greatest hindrance for black Americans. In his view, white Americans see blacks as victims to ease their guilty conscience, and blacks attempt to turn their status as victims into a kind of currency that will purchase nothing of real or lasting value. Therefore, he claims, blacks must stop "buying into this zero-sum game" by adopting a "culture of excellence and achievement" without relying on "set-asides and entitlements."
### Barack Obama
Steele wrote a short book, ''A Bound Man: Why We are Excited about Obama and Why He Can't Win'', published in December 2007. The book contained Steele's analysis of [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)'s character as a child born to a mixed couple who then had to grow as a black man.Shelby Steele, [The Obama Bargain](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120579535818243439), *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)*, March 18, 2008 Steele concluded that Obama is a "bound man" to his "black identity." Steele gives this description of his conclusion:
After Obama won the [U.S. presidential election](2008)(2008 U.S. presidential election), Steele defended the content of the book and claimed its subtitle was a marketing device motivated by the publisher which he came up with "in about 30 seconds." He explains Obama's victory by likening him to [Armstrong](Louis)(Louis Armstrong) who donned the "bargainer's mask" in his bid for white acceptance. In his analysis, he takes whites, whom he claims have for decades been stigmatized as [racist](racism) and had to prove they are not, "off the hook."
On *Uncommon Knowledge,* an interview program for the Hoover Institute hosted by Peter Robinson, he said: "White America has made tremendous moral progress since the '60s.... And they've never given themselves credit for that. And here is an opportunity at last to document this progress."[National Review](http://tv.nationalreview.com/uncommonknowledge/post/?q=YmM5NDRhMjRhMWNmMjBhODBiZTBhZDhiYmI5OTc0OTQ=)
### On Israel
Steele has been critical of what he describes as the "world opinion" of Israel.
## *What Killed Michael Brown?*
*[Killed Michael Brown?](What)(What Killed Michael Brown?)* is a [film](documentary)(documentary film) written and narrated by Shelby Steele and directed by his filmmaker son, Eli Steele, which was scheduled to premiere on October 16, 2020. It addresses [relations](race)(race relations) in the United States and in particular an incident in [Missouri](Ferguson,)(Ferguson, Missouri), in 2014 involving [Brown](Michael)(Shooting of Michael Brown). Steele has opined that there is "poetic truth" concerning the death of Michael Brown. Steele said: "The language—he was 'executed,' he was 'assassinated,' 'hands up, don't shoot'—it was a stunning example of poetic truth, of the lies that a society can entertain in pursuit of power." Steele additionally said: "In a microcosm, that's where race relations are today. The truth has no chance. It's smothered by the politics of victimization." [Amazon](Amazon (company)) initially rejected it for its [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) streaming service but later relented after coming under fire from op-eds in *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* and other publications.[October 14, 2020, by the editorial board of the *Wall Street Journal*](https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-cancels-shelby-steele-11602715834)[By Jason L. Riley, October 13, 2020, *Wall Street Journal*](https://www.wsj.com/articles/will-amazon-suppress-the-true-michael-brown-story-11602628176?mod=opinion_featst_pos1)
## Bibliography
### Books
*
*
*
*
*
### Documentary films
*
*
*
## Awards
* [Book Critics Circle Award](National)(National Book Critics Circle Award) (1990) in the general non-fiction category for the book *The Content of Our Character*.
* [Emmy](Emmy) and [Guild Awards](Writers)(Writers Guild of America) for his 1991 *[Frontline](Frontline (U.S. TV series))* documentary film *Seven Days in Bensonhurst*.
## See also
* [conservatism in the United States](Black)(Black conservatism in the United States)
## References
## External links
*
*
[births](Category:1946)(Category:1946 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[social scientists](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American social scientists)
[columnists](Category:American)(Category:American columnists)
[documentary filmmakers](Category:American)(Category:American documentary filmmakers)
[political writers](Category:American)(Category:American political writers)
[male non-fiction writers](Category:American)(Category:American male non-fiction writers)
[social sciences writers](Category:American)(Category:American social sciences writers)
[sociologists](Category:American)(Category:American sociologists)
[College alumni](Category:Coe)(Category:Coe College alumni)
[Humanities Medal recipients](Category:National)(Category:National Humanities Medal recipients)
[from Chicago](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Chicago)
[Jose State University faculty](Category:San)(Category:San Jose State University faculty)
[Illinois University alumni](Category:Southern)(Category:Southern Illinois University alumni)
[Illinois University Edwardsville alumni](Category:Southern)(Category:Southern Illinois University Edwardsville alumni)
[twins](Category:American)(Category:American twins)
[of Utah alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Utah alumni)
[African-American academics](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American academics)
[American academics](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American academics)
[African-American academics](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century African-American academics)
[American academics](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American academics)
[to affirmative action](Category:Opposition)(Category:Opposition to affirmative action)
[sociologists](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American sociologists)
|
Travis Barker
|
travis_barker
|
# Travis Barker
*Revision ID: 1159321228 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T16:26:38Z*
---
| birth_place = [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California), U.S.
| education = [High School](Fontana)(Fontana High School)
| occupation =
}}
| years_active = 1993–present
| television = *[the Barkers](Meet)(Meet the Barkers)*
| spouse =
*
*
}}
| partner =
| children = 2
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Blink-182)
| website =
| module =
| genre =
* [punk](skate)(skate punk)
*
}}
| label =
| current_member_of =
| past_member_of =
* [Goldfinger](Goldfinger (band))
}}
}}
| alias =
}}
**Travis Landon Barker** (born November 14, 1975) is an American musician who serves as the drummer for the [rock](Rock music) band [Blink-182](Blink-182). He has also performed as a frequent collaborator with [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) artists, is a member of the [rock](rap)(rap rock) group [Transplants](Transplants (band)), cofounded the rock band [+44](+44 (band)), and joined [Car Racer](Box)(Box Car Racer), [Antemasque](Antemasque (band)) and [Goldfinger](Goldfinger (band)). Barker was a frequent collaborator with the late [AM](DJ)(DJ AM), and together they formed [TRV$DJAM](TRV$DJAM). Due to his fame, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone (magazine))* referred to him as "punk's first superstar drummer" as well as one of the 100 greatest drummers of all time.
Born in [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California), Barker began drumming at an early age. He began playing for [Aquabats](The)(The Aquabats) in 1996, but left to join Blink-182 in 1998, which encountered mainstream success with *[of the State](Enema)(Enema of the State)* (1999). Barker established himself as a versatile drummer, producing and making guest appearances in music projects of numerous music genres including hip hop, [rock](alternative)(alternative rock), [pop](pop music), and [country](country music). He also starred in an [MTV](MTV) reality series named *[the Barkers](Meet)(Meet the Barkers)*. He was involved in a [crash in 2008](plane)(2008 South Carolina Learjet 60 crash), but he recovered and released his debut solo album, *[the Drummer Some](Give)(Give the Drummer Some)*, in 2011. He has continued to work with rappers, releasing extended plays with [Yelawolf](Yelawolf), [Roth](Asher)(Asher Roth), and [Nottz](Nottz), as well as with Blink-182 and the Transplants.
Aside from drumming, he founded the clothing company [Stars and Straps](Famous)(Famous Stars and Straps) in 1999, and the record labels [Records](LaSalle)(LaSalle Records) in 2004 and [Records](DTA)(DTA Records) in 2019. Companies such as [Shoes](DC)(DC Shoes) and [Zildjian](Avedis Zildjian Company) cymbals have co-designed products in his name. He released a memoir, *Can I Say: Living Large, Cheating Death, and Drums, Drums, Drums*, in 2015. Barker is also a vegan and has invested in the Los Angeles vegan restaurant *Crossroads*.
## Early life and education
Barker was born in [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California) on November 14, 1975, When Barker was four, his mother gave him his first drum kit, which was the only one he would have until he was 15. Barker began taking drum lessons at age five with a drummer named Michael Mai, who would expose young Barker to many different playing styles. At this time, he also began taking [trumpet](trumpet) lessons. In junior high, Barker learned to play the piano and briefly tried singing, joining the [madrigals](Madrigal (music)) men and women's choir. In addition, Barker had non-musical aspirations; he also was interested in becoming a professional surfer and [skateboarder](Skateboarding). However, Barker states that "I always migrated back to drums, though. That was the one direction that kind of felt like I was connected to and I could kind of understand. I could express myself better through my drums than I could anything else."
Barker has described himself as a [stoner](Stoner (drug user)) during his tenure at [High School](Fontana)(Fontana High School). His mother, who had been diagnosed with [syndrome](Sjögren)(Sjögren syndrome) three months earlier, died the day before he started high school. She told him to keep playing music and to follow his dreams. At Fontana High School, Barker played the drum set in the jazz ensemble and [drum](snare)(snare drum) in the marching band. He gained a lot of experience performing at regional competitions and festivals. Barker employed a variety of styles including military and jazz rhythms, but was attracted to the driving rhythms of hip-hop and punk rock.Shooman, 2010. p. 52
## Career
### Musical beginnings (1993–1998)
After graduating from Fontana High School, Barker worked as a trash man in [Beach](Laguna)(Laguna Beach) and played with the punk rock band Snot and Feeble, a Fontana-based band where he met [Larson](Chad)(Chad Larson).Shooman, 2010. p. 51Hoppus, 2001. p. 88 Larson went on to co-found the [punk](ska)(ska punk) group [Aquabats](the)(the Aquabats) in 1994. After local shows and demo tapes, the band recruited Barker through Larson's connection. Barker, who was "sleeping on [his] friend's couch" and still working as a trash man, only intended to fill in for a few days but ended up joining the band. The group then went into the studio with veteran producer Jim Goodwin to record *[Fury of the Aquabats!](The)(The Fury of the Aquabats!)* Barker's speed and accuracy meant that once his parts were recorded, he was free to head off and rehearse (and sit in with other bands). He had picked up a nickname with the Aquabats—Baron Von Tito—the reasons for which are lost to history as none of the members recall why.Shooman, 2010. p. 53
[[(top right) joined Blink-182 in 1998.](File:Blink182.jpg|thumb|left|Barker)]
After the October 1997 release of *The Fury of the Aquabats!*, the group toured nationwide with [Diego](San)(San Diego)-based [Blink-182](Blink-182), who had recently completed their second album *[Ranch](Dude)(Dude Ranch (album))*. The trio's drummer, [Raynor](Scott)(Scott Raynor), announced to his fellow members that he would depart following the [Tour](SnoCore)(SnoCore Tour) in February 1998.Hoppus, 2001. p. 80Hoppus, 2001. p. 83 The ensemble enlisted Barker to fill in for Raynor. Barker, who did not have time to prepare or practice with the duo, learned the drum tracks for the 20-song setlist in only 45 minutes before the first show and performed them flawlessly thereafter.Hoppus, 2001. p. 85 Raynor returned that May, but arguments only grew worse. Raynor was fired by DeLonge and Hoppus, ostensibly over a drinking problem,Shooman, 2010. p. 56 and the band recruited Barker once more. "I remember Travis rehearsing backstage for an hour or two, then playing with them during sound-check", recalled Aquabats member [Deibert](Adam)(Adam Deibert). "A few of us were standing by the stage and I vividly remember the feeling of *this is the new Blink*. We should have looked for a new drummer right then because it was so obvious what band he belonged in."Shooman, 2010. p. 57 The addition of Barker inspired DeLonge and Hoppus to "play better" and keep up with their new member, whom DeLonge called "perfect." Barker continued playing with Blink-182 throughout 1998 and stepped in to play with [Vandals](the)(the Vandals), where he filled in for [Freese](Josh)(Josh Freese) as the year closed.Shooman, 2010. p. 61
### Mainstream success (1999–2004)
Barker's first album with Blink—*[of the State](Enema)(Enema of the State)*—was released in June 1999 and catapulted the trio to stardom, becoming the biggest pop punk band of the era. Three singles were released from the record—"[My Age Again?](What's)(What's My Age Again?)", "[the Small Things](All)(All the Small Things)", and "[Song](Adam's)(Adam's Song)" — that crossed over into Top 40 radio format and experienced major commercial success.Hoppus, 2001. p. 96 "All the Small Things" became a number-one hit on the [Rock Tracks](Modern)(Modern Rock Tracks) chart, but also became a [hit](crossover)(crossover hit) and peaked at number 6 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) chart. Its video parodied [band](boy)(boy band)s and pop music videos and won a Moon Man for Best Group Video at the [MTV Video Music Awards](2000)(2000 MTV Video Music Awards).Hoppus, 2001. p. 98 The album has sold over 15 million copies worldwide and had a considerable effect on pop punk music.[[Travis Barker.jpg|thumb|Barker performing in 2003](File:Drummer)]
The band's success did great things for Barker. "Four years ago, I couldn't afford to feed myself," he said in an interview at the time. "But now I can buy art, work on old [Cadillac](Cadillac)s, and live in comfort. I can finally buy a dog and afford to feed him." He began dating Melissa Kennedy and purchased a rehearsal studio. Barker branched out into retail at this time, opening a store in Riverside called [Stars and Straps](Famous)(Famous Stars and Straps). The storefront was shut down by the city, but FSAS products began to be carried by other retailers and via the Internet.Hoppus, 2001. p. 101 Barker also began offering drum lessons and added [Center](Guitar)(Guitar Center) drum clinics to his list of activities.Hoppus, 2001. p. 103 The band began its first arena tour in the fall of 1999,Hoppus, 2001. p. 99 but Barker missed much of the 2000 [Tom and Travis Show tour](Mark,)(The Mark, Tom and Travis Show Tour) after he broke his finger.
Blink-182's next effort, *[Off Your Pants and Jacket](Take)(Take Off Your Pants and Jacket)* (2001), was greeted with immediate success, debuting at number one on the *Billboard* 200 and going triple platinum within three weeks (the record eventually sold in excess of 14 million copies worldwide).
In 2001, Barker married Melissa Kennedy, but the two divorced in August 2002 after nine months of marriage. Following a cancelled European tour, DeLonge went back to San Diego to record an album he deemed an experiment in ideas he felt weren't suited to Blink-182.Shooman, 2010. p. 92 DeLonge, not wanting to pay for a studio drummer, simply asked Barker to step in and perform on the record, called *[Car Racer](Box)(Box Car Racer (album))*. The experiment became a full-time band and toured in 2002, which led to strained relations between DeLonge and Hoppus.Shooman, 2010. p. 94
Through a connection with Jerry Finn, [Rancid](Rancid (band)) vocalist [Armstrong](Tim)(Tim Armstrong) contacted Barker in the summer of 2002 to record tracks for a rap/rock collaboration called the [Transplants](Transplants (band)).Shooman, 2010. p. 103 For his role on the *Transplants* record, *Rolling Stone* called Barker "punk rock's first superstar drummer."Shooman, 2010. p. 105 He also began appearing in music videos, including [Daddy](Puff)(Puff Daddy)'s "[Boy for Life](Bad)(Bad Boy for Life)," as well as adding to his collection of vintage Cadillacs.Shooman, 2010. p. 108 Blink-182 released their fifth, untitled album in 2003, which marked a more mature direction. Shortly before the album's completion, Barker's girlfriend, ex-[USA](Miss)(Miss USA) [Moakler](Shanna)(Shanna Moakler), gave birth to their son, Landon Asher, in October 2003.
[Kinison](The)(The Kinison), who supported Blink-182 on their tour dates, impressed Barker and were the first group signed to [Records](LaSalle)(LaSalle Records), a record label Barker officially set up in 2004. LaSalle was named after Barker's favorite Cadillac, and the label was designed to branch out to find all types of music, be it country or hip-hop. Barker met once a week with designers at Famous Stars and Straps to oversee designs for shoes and in his spare time picked up boxing.Shooman, 2010. p. 129 He injured his foot at a [Melbourne](Melbourne), Australia show in 2004 but performed the next night using his left foot for the [kick-drum](bass drum); he was in so much pain afterward that the tour had to be canceled.Shooman, 2010. p. 131 Barker's doctor informed him that not only did he break his foot, but he tore [tendons](tendons) and [ligaments](ligaments)—described by Hoppus as "the type of injury that people get in motorcycle accidents." In the meantime, Barker purchased a [Fish Taco](Wahoo's)(Wahoo's Fish Taco) franchise in [California](Norco,)(Norco, California), and began work on a new Transplants record.Shooman, 2010. p. 132 The year for Blink-182 rounded off with a European tour that was soured by division in the band. In February 2005, the band issued a press statement announcing their "indefinite hiatus."
### Reality television star and collaborations (2005–2008)
[[Barker (Blink 182).jpg|thumb|Barker on stage in 2004](File:Travis)]
After a *[Before Christmas](Nightmare)(Nightmare Before Christmas)*-inspired wedding in October 2004, Barker starred in the MTV [series](reality)(reality series) *[the Barkers](Meet)(Meet the Barkers)* with wife [Moakler](Shanna)(Shanna Moakler). The series followed Barker and his new family through his daily life, including Blink-182's final tour and the new Transplants album.Shooman, 2010. p. 137 The new Transplants album, *[Cities](Haunted)(Haunted Cities)* (2005), was completed in the aftermath of the Blink-182 "hiatus" and released in mid-2005. Meanwhile, Hoppus and Barker continued recording music together and began working on electronic demos, which they called [+44](+44 (band)). Barker began another new project in 2005 called [Taste](Expensive)(Expensive Taste), featuring [Wall](Paul)(Paul Wall) and [Rob](Skinhead)(Skinhead Rob)—the project would be more traditionally hip-hop. Barker also turned his direction to producing, working with artists such as [B](Bun)(Bun B) and [T.I.](T.I.).Shooman, 2010. p. 152 The +44 project came to a turning point when Hoppus and Barker purchased their own studio in October 2005, named Opra Music. *[Your Heart Stops Beating](When)(When Your Heart Stops Beating)*, the debut of +44, was greeted by less-than-stellar reviews and little commercial success.
Barker filed for divorce from Moakler that August; both used their [MySpace](MySpace) blogs to comment on the situation. Their breakup and the drama surrounding it made them tabloid favorites. After he and Moakler split up in 2006, he was frequently spotted at nightclubs—and photographed necking with [Hilton](Paris)(Paris Hilton). According to Barker, he was trying to blot out the guilt of giving his children a broken home, and consumed "excessive amounts" of [painkillers](prescription)(Analgesic), marijuana and alcohol. The painkiller usage eventually developed into a full-fledged addiction over 2007. Barker broke his arm during a video shoot for +44, but continued to tour performing with one arm.Shooman, 2010. p. 158 In early 2007, Barker began to work on hip-hop remixes and production techniques for many artists, preparing some loops and beats for [Santana](Juelz)(Juelz Santana) and looking to open two new [boutique](boutique)s, one in Los Angeles named Fast Life and one in [Beach](Venice)(Venice, Los Angeles) by the name of Rogue Status.Shooman, 2010. p. 162 He kept busy drumming for [Pilot](Idiot)(Idiot Pilot) ("Elephant") and [Federation](the)(The Federation (group)) ("Black Roses"), as well as creating well-received remixes of [Rihanna](Rihanna)'s "[Umbrella](Umbrella (song))" and "[That (Soulja Boy)](Crank)(Crank That (Soulja Boy))".Shooman, 2010. p. 164 After a stint on the [Civic Tour](Honda)(Honda Civic Tour) with [Out Boy](Fall)(Fall Out Boy) and [Starship](Cobra)(Cobra Starship), +44 began work on a second studio album that October.Shooman, 2010. p. 178
Barker continued releasing hip-hop remixes in 2008; a well-received remix of [Rida](Flo)(Flo Rida)'s "[Low](Low (Flo Rida song))" followed the "Crank That" rendition. The videos of Barker playing the revamped tracks grew heavily in popularity on [YouTube](YouTube).Shooman, 2010. p. 182 Barker hoped to collate his growing arsenal of remixes with a bunch of new tracks on which he was working. It began to germinate into the idea of making a solo album, producing it all himself. As 2008 wore on, it became evident that the project would supersede +44 for the immediate future, though the band would return, by all accounts, once everything was in place for the solo record.Shooman, 2010. p. 183 Guests who recorded with Barker included [Dro](Young)(Young Dro), [E-40](E-40), [Nelson](Willie)(Willie Nelson), and [Marley](Damian)(Damian Marley). He began performing with [AM](DJ)(DJ AM) (Adam Goldstein) in June 2008 in a collaboration called [TRV$DJAM](TRV$DJAM). Essentially, DJ AM would mix a set of classic songs (which ranged from [rock](classic)(classic rock) to dance) live with two turntables, then Barker would "enhance AM's groove" with live drums. The duo performed at the [Video Music Awards](MTV)(2008 MTV Video Music Awards) on September 7. "Our little duo of drummer and DJ [had] reached heights we never thought were possible," said Barker in a 2011 interview.
### Plane crash (2008)
On September 19, 2008, [TRV$DJAM](TRV$DJAM) performed at an event with [Addiction](Jane's)(Jane's Addiction) singer [Farrell](Perry)(Perry Farrell) and [DeGraw](Gavin)(Gavin DeGraw) in [South Carolina](Columbia,)(Columbia, South Carolina). The trip was a special occasion: "We all thought it was kind of a treat—we were on a private plane," Barker said. Barker had invited his ex-wife Moakler, but she declined, saying she had a weird feeling about leaving their children. With a vacant seat, Barker invited his security guard Che Still, figuring he'd be good company and would enjoy the trip. Barker was always afraid to fly; in his teenage years, he was "sure" he would die in a plane crash. When Blink-182 were putting together artwork for *[Off Your Pants and Jacket](Take)(Take Off Your Pants and Jacket)* in 2001, they created a "[Zoso](Zoso)-like" icon for each band member: a jacket, a pair of pants, and an airplane. "Please don't give me the plane—I have a really fucked-up fear of flying," Barker begged, who ended up with the plane anyway.
Just before midnight, the plane, headed for [Nuys, California](Van)(Van Nuys, California), was heading down the runway when the occupants heard a loud bang. According to the [Aviation Administration](Federal)(Federal Aviation Administration), the plane was departing from the airport when air traffic controllers saw sparks emanating from the plane. The pilots told the control tower that a tire had blown out and they would be aborting the take-off. The plane hurtled through the airport's fence, across a highway and crashed into an embankment. "When everything stopped, I tried to get everyone I could," Barker remembered. Barker and Adam "DJ AM" Goldstein escaped the plane and ran in circles on the highway. Hearing others yell, "[drop and roll](Stop,)(Stop, drop and roll)," Barker dropped to the ground and Goldstein helped him put out the fire on his feet. "I was lying next to AM as the plane was exploding, and I was screaming, 'Are we alive?'" Barker and DJ AM were transported to the [M. Still Burn Center](Joseph)(Joseph M. Still Burn Center) in [Georgia](Augusta,)(Augusta, Georgia), where they were both listed in critical condition. They were the only survivors of the crash; personal assistant Chris Baker and Che Still, along with the two pilots, died in the crash. Less than a year later, Goldstein died from an overdose.
[[crash.png|200px|left|thumb|The remains of the plane crash](File:N999LJ)]
Barker spent more than 11 weeks in hospitals and burn centers. He had 16 surgeries: blood transfusions that lasted 4–8 hours and numerous skin grafts. "There were times when they were talking about amputating my foot because I didn't have enough skin on my body for my grafts," he said. Barker also developed [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(Posttraumatic stress disorder), made worse by the intense guilt he felt knowing Still was not supposed to be on the plane. During his time in the hospital, Barker was in so much pain that he was calling friends, offering them $1 million to help him end his life.
He stopped his vegetarian diet and began eating meat to increase his protein intake and possibly speed up healing of his burns. Barker recovered from the incident, enabling him to return to the recording studio in November 2008. In his first television interview since the crash, he said to [MTV](MTV), "I'm already playing my drums again, and I'm already back in the studio". He elaborated by stating that the return to the studio "was like riding a bike. It was really exciting to know I still have my chops. It still felt good... I still can make it around the kit. Everything felt right, so I'm thankful to be able to play." Barker sued the plane's owners, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co., and an airplane maintenance company that month; the case was [out of court](settled)(settled out of court) in December 2009 and the terms of the settlement are confidential.
### Solo album and reunions (2009–present)
[[drumming for Blink-182 in 2011](File:TravisBarkerliveIn2011.jpg|thumb|Barker)]
Barker's accident led to a Blink-182 reunion, with the group announcing their return at the February [Grammy Awards](2009)(51st Annual Grammy Awards). Barker continued to produce remixes throughout 2009, including a remix of "[a.m.](3)(3 a.m. (Eminem song))" by [Eminem](Eminem); he also collaborated with [N' Roses](Guns)(Guns N' Roses) guitarist [Slash](Slash (musician)).Shooman, 2010. p. 191 In the midst of the band's reunion tour in August 2009, DJ AM was found dead by a friend in his New York apartment. Though Goldstein had been prescribed medication for pain following the crash, the medical examiner reported that he died from "acute intoxication" listing several prescription drugs and [cocaine](cocaine).
The plane crash led Barker to make some lifestyle changes; he began running and swimming each day, and went [vegan](vegan) since leaving the hospital, although he had already been vegetarian for 17 years. He has also overcome a painkiller addiction he had for years prior to the plane crash. "I didn't even take any pain medication after I got out of the hospital. They told me I'd be on some of the medicine for the rest of my life, but I got off all of them," said Barker. "They made me a completely different person." Barker didn't fly again until 2021, traveling by himself on his bus—and taking a boat when touring in Europe.
After more than two years of setbacks and delays, Barker finally released his long-in-the-works solo debut, *[the Drummer Some](Give)(Give the Drummer Some)*, in March 2011. The record features collaborations with artists from [Wayne](Lil)(Lil Wayne) to [Slipknot](Slipknot (band))'s [Taylor](Corey)(Corey Taylor). *Neighborhoods*, Blink's sixth studio album, was released in September 2011 and peaked at number two on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). Barker continued his collaborations, working with [French](Chester)(Chester French), [Cool J](LL)(LL Cool J), [Hill](Cypress)(Cypress Hill) and producing an entire [EP](extended play) of collaboration, *[White](Psycho)(Psycho White)*, with rapper [Yelawolf](Yelawolf). Barker was unable to attend Blink-182's Australian tour in 2013; [Wackerman](Brooks)(Brooks Wackerman) ([Religion](Bad)(Bad Religion), [D](Tenacious)(Tenacious D)) filled in.
On July 1, 2016, Blink released their seventh studio album *[California](California (Blink-182 album))* to critical and commercial success. To complete the project, Blink members Hoppus and Barker were forced to replace Blink co-founder Tom DeLonge with vocalist/guitarist [Skiba](Matt)(Matt Skiba) of [Trio](Alkaline)(Alkaline Trio). Barker has joined Hoppus in citing DeLonge as the principal cause of the replacement. Citing DeLonge's alleged unwillingness to commit to working on new Blink projects, Barker revealed.
"We always covered up for [DeLonge] before. It was always, 'We're going to record an album,' then 'Tom refuses to get into the studio without a record deal.' So everyone does hella amounts of work to get a record deal and now Tom isn't part of Blink-182. It's hard to cover for someone who's disrespectful and ungrateful… Everyone should know what the story is with him and it's been years with it."
He is currently producing his second solo album. Barker has written a memoir entitled *[I Say: Living Large, Cheating Death, and Drums, Drums, Drums](Can)(Can I Say (book))*, which was released on October 20, 2015. He appeared in the 2016 [Grammy](Grammy Award)-nominated documentary film about American DJ and producer [Aoki](Steve)(Steve Aoki), titled ''[Sleep When I'm Dead](I'll)(I'll Sleep When I'm Dead (2016 film))''. The Nocturnal Times|website=www.thenocturnaltimes.com|date=August 24, 2016|language=en-US|access-date=July 27, 2017|archive-date=August 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805071253/http://www.thenocturnaltimes.com/steve-aoki-ill-sleep-when-im-dead-documentary-hits-netflix/|url-status=live}}
In 2018, Travis Barker appeared on the trap-metal musician [Ghostemane](Ghostemane)'s track, "D(r)ead". He also features on [XXXTentacion](XXXTentacion)'s posthumous album "[Skins](Skins (XXXTentacion album))", playing drums on the track "[Minute](One)(One Minute (XXXTentacion song))" featuring [West](Kanye)(Kanye West). In 2018 Travis Barker also joined The Aquabats for a 20th anniversary show celebrating their second album *The Fury of the Aquabats* at the Fonda Theater in Los Angeles, California. Boston Ska (dot) net |url=https://www.bostonska.net/news/travis-barker-joins-the-aquabats-to-celebrate-20-years-of-the-fury-of-the-aquabats/6136/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |language=en-US}}
In 2019, Barker teamed up with popular New Orleans alternative hip hop duo [$uicideboy$](Suicideboys) to announce *Live Fast Die Whenever*, a collaborative EP. Prior to the project's release, the singles "nothingleftnothingleft" (a rapid-fire hardcore punk song) and "Aliens Are Ghosts" (which samples music critic [Fantano](Anthony)(Anthony Fantano)'s review of [debut album]($uicideboy$')(I Want to Die in New Orleans)) were released. The EP was released on May 24. Along with the lead singles, the EP also included the songs "Killing 2 Birds with 22 Stones", "Sour Grapes", "Don't Trust Anyone!" (stylized in [caps](all)(all caps)), and "Individuality Was So Last Year". Several tracks on the EP also featured [Shaffer](James)(James Shaffer) of [Korn](Korn) on guitar. On July 12, 2019, Travis remixed Lil Peep & XXXTentacion's posthumous track "Falling Down".
On April 24, 2020, during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), Barker was featured as the drummer during [Malone](Post)(Post Malone)'s well-received [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)) tribute show and fundraiser for the WHO COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund.
In May 2020, Barker signed American musician and [TikTok](TikTok) personality [Jxdn](Jxdn) to his label [Records](DTA)(DTA Records), making Jxdn the first artist on the label.
In September 2020, Barker was on a collaboration project with [Gun Kelly](Machine)(Machine Gun Kelly (musician)) on Kelly's album *[to My Downfall](Tickets)(Tickets to My Downfall)*. He was also heavily featured in the movie adaptation of this album, *[High](Downfalls)(Downfalls High)*. Barker played on the [Smith](Willow)(Willow Smith) [pop-punk](pop-punk) track "[Soul](Transparent)(Transparent Soul)", released April 27, 2021.
In February 2021, he launched a line of [cannabinoid](cannabinoid)-infused products called Barker Wellness. The next month, on March 15, 2021, Barker was a featured artist in the Atreyu song "Warrior" on the album "Baptize."
In July 2021, Barker signed an exclusive worldwide publishing administration deal with [Chappell Music](Warner)(Warner Chappell Music).
In November 2021, Barker signed former BMG artist Avril Lavigne to DTA Records, with releases due to be handled by Warner Music Group's Elektra Records.
In 2022, Travis Barker executive produced Machine Gun Kelly’s eighth studio album. Barker and Kelly announced the album name, *Born with Horns,* by getting matching tattoos of the album name on their arms. Kelly later changed the album title to *Mainstream Sellout*.
## Influences and favorite drummers
Barker told CBS Local that his first ever hero was [Animal](Animal (Muppet)) from [Muppets](The)(The Muppets), crediting the character as his inspiration to pursue drumming. He also cites [Bonham](John)(John Bonham) of [Zeppelin](Led)(Led Zeppelin), [Van Halen](Alex)(Alex Van Halen) of [Halen](Van)(Van Halen), [Lee](Tommy)(Tommy Lee) of [Crüe](Mötley)(Mötley Crüe), and [Carey](Danny)(Danny Carey) of [Tool](Tool (band)) as his favorite drummers. In a 2016 Q&A with [Vevo](Vevo), Barker credited [Rich](Buddy)(Buddy Rich) as the greatest drummer of all time. He also stated that Van Halen's "[Jump](Jump (Van Halen Song))" was the first song he learned on the drums.
## Personal life
Barker's first marriage, to Melissa Kennedy, lasted nine months until he filed for divorce in August 2002. He later married actress and [USA](Miss)(Miss USA) 1995 titleholder [Moakler](Shanna)(Shanna Moakler) on October 30, 2004. The couple had a *[Nightmare Before Christmas](The)(The Nightmare Before Christmas)* [goth](Goth subculture)-style ceremony held on the eve of [Halloween](Halloween). Barker and Moakler have two children together, a son born in 2003, and a daughter born in 2005. Barker also remains close with his stepdaughter, Moakler's daughter with ex-fiancé, boxer [De La Hoya](Oscar)(Oscar De La Hoya). The family appeared in a reality television series, *[the Barkers](Meet)(Meet the Barkers)*, which aired on MTV from 2005 to 2006.
On August 8, 2006, Barker filed for divorce from Moakler after nearly two years of marriage. The divorce was made public as each used their [MySpace](MySpace) pages to air their feelings on the matter. Despite their pending divorce, reports surfaced in early 2007 that Barker and Moakler were "quietly trying to give it another go" as they were reportedly seen autographing a fan's book, with a heart around their names. In March 2007, Moakler told *[People](People (magazine))* magazine that she and Barker (still married) were back together, but denied that she was pregnant. This came after the couple were publicly affectionate at a surprise birthday Barker threw for his wife in [Miami](Miami). *People* later reported that the couple had separated again; no reason was given for the split. Barker and Moakler were seen together at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards kissing and holding hands. However, on February 11, 2008, the couple's divorce was finalized.
Barker and Moakler were together during a DJ set Barker was playing with DJ AM in Las Vegas on January 7, 2009. The couple attempted to rekindle their relationship in early 2009, but announced that they were no longer together on April 1, 2009.[Travis Barker, Shanna Moakler Split Again](http://www.usmagazine.com/news/travis-barker-shanna-moakler-split-again-200914) *Us Weekly*, April 1, 2009
On December 7, 2014, the police were called to Barker and Moakler's shared home in Los Angeles after the two were engaged in a verbal altercation. Criminal threats were made against one another, which led to both Barker and Moakler getting arrested. No charges were filed against either party.
In late 2015, Barker briefly dated singer and actress [Ora](Rita)(Rita Ora). In June 2016, it was reported that Barker and Moakler were amicably co-parenting their two children.
There were rumors of Barker and [Kardashian](Kourtney)(Kourtney Kardashian) dating by very late 2020, which were confirmed and the relationship made official in January 2021. During this relationship, he returned to [travel](air)(air travel) after avoiding airplanes for 13 years. In October 2021, the couple got engaged. They had an unofficial wedding on April 3, 2022, in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), after the [Annual Grammy Awards](64th)(64th Annual Grammy Awards). The couple officially married on May 15, 2022, in [Barbara, California](Santa)(Santa Barbara, California), with a religious wedding ceremony in [Italy](Portofino,)(Portofino), on May 22, 2022.
Barker was raised [Catholic](Catholic), [in God](believes)(theism), and [prays](prayer) regularly with his children.
## Discography
**Solo**
* *[the Drummer Some](Give)(Give the Drummer Some)* (2011)
**with [Blink-182](Blink-182)**
* *[of the State](Enema)(Enema of the State)* (1999)
* *[Off Your Pants and Jacket](Take)(Take Off Your Pants and Jacket)* (2001)
* *[Blink-182](Blink-182 (album))* (2003)
* *[Neighborhoods](Neighborhoods (Blink-182 album))* (2011)
* *[California](California (Blink-182 album))* (2016)
* *[Nine](Nine (Blink-182 album))* (2019)
**with [Transplants](Transplants (band))**
* *[Transplants](Transplants (album))* (2002)
* *[Cities](Haunted)(Haunted Cities)* (2005)
* *[a Warzone](In)(In a Warzone)* (2013)
* *[Cover](Take)(Take Cover (Transplants EP))* (2017)
**with [+44](+44 (band))**
* *[Your Heart Stops Beating](When)(When Your Heart Stops Beating)* (2006)
**with [TRV$DJAM](TRV$DJAM)**
* *[Your Face](Fix)(Fix Your Face)* ([mix](DJ)(DJ mix)) (2008)
* ''Fix Your Face Vol. 2 (Coachella' 09)* ([mix](DJ)(DJ mix)) (2009)
**with [Aquabats](the)(the Aquabats)**
* *[Fury of The Aquabats!](The)(The Fury of The Aquabats!)* (1997)
* *The Fury of The Aquabats! Live At The Fonda!* (2020)
**with [Car Racer](Box)(Box Car Racer)**
* *[Car Racer](Box)(Box Car Racer (album))* (2002)
**with [Taste](Expensive)(Expensive Taste)**
* *DJ Skee Presents: Expensive Taste* (2007)
**with [Goldfinger](Goldfinger (band))**
* *[Knife](The)(The Knife (Goldfinger album))* (2017)
**with [Yelawolf](Yelawolf)**
* *[White](Psycho)(Psycho White)* (2012)
**with [Roth](Asher)(Asher Roth) and [Nottz](Nottz)**
* *Rawther* (2016)
**with [Suicideboys](Suicideboys)**
* *Live Fast Die Whenever* (2019)
**with [Greedo](03)(03 Greedo)**
* *Meet the Drummers* (2019)
**with [Nothing,Nowhere](Nothing,Nowhere)**
* *Bloodlust* (2019)
**with [Gun Kelly](Machine)(Machine Gun Kelly (musician))**
**[to My Downfall](Tickets)(Tickets to My Downfall)* (2020)
**[Sellout](Mainstream)(Mainstream Sellout)* (2022)
**with UnoTheActivist**
* *Might Not Make It* (2020)
**with [Redd](Trippie)(Trippie Redd)**
* *Neon Shark vs. Pegasus* (2021)
**with [KennyHoopla](KennyHoopla)**
* *[Guilt: The Mixtape](Survivors)(Survivors Guilt: The Mixtape)* (2021)
**with [Lavigne](Avril)(Avril Lavigne)**
* *[Best Damn Thing](The)(The Best Damn Thing)* (2007)
* *[Sux](Love)(Love Sux)* (2022)
**with [Blackbear](Blackbear (musician))**
* *In Loving Memory* (2022)
## Film, television, and video games
Barker has appeared in numerous films and television shows, including his own reality show, *Meet the Barkers*, with his ex-wife Shanna Moakler, which debuted in 2005. Barker is in a brief scene with Blink-182 in the teen movie *American Pie''. In 2003, he appeared in an episode of MTV's ''[Punk'd](Punk'd)*, a *[Camera](Candid)(Candid Camera)''-esque television show, in which he took part in a set-up bareknuckle boxing match; he also appeared and spoke alongside [Park](Linkin)(Linkin Park) vocalist [Bennington](Chester)(Chester Bennington) on MTV's *Icon* show honoring heavy metal band [Metallica](Metallica) in May of that year.
In 2006, Barker starred in a [Mobile](Boost)(Boost Mobile (United States)) commercial,["Travis's TV AD"](http://www.boostmobilepivotalmoments.com/) BoostMobilePivotalMoments.com.Travis Baker appeared on Justin Taylors talk show. Retrieved on July 29, 2006. which was detailed in an episode of *Meet the Barkers*. He's also played a few guest starring roles such as a rapper on the popular crime drama, *[Crime Scene Investigation](CSI:)(CSI: Crime Scene Investigation)*. In 2001, he appeared with Mark Hoppus and Tom DeLonge in the skit "Leave it to Blink-182", a parody of "[It to Beaver](Leave)(Leave It to Beaver)", on the late night TV show [MADtv](MADtv).
In a slight departure from his usual genres, he made an appearance on the 41st annual [Awards](CMA)(Country Music Association Awards) in 2006, performing a medley of songs by country icon [Owens](Buck)(Buck Owens) with a group of artists including [Yoakam](Dwight)(Dwight Yoakam), [Top](ZZ)(ZZ Top) guitarist [Gibbons](Billy)(Billy Gibbons), and former [Byrds](The Byrds) bass player [Hillman](Chris)(Chris Hillman).
Barker performed alongside [Grey](Skylar)(Skylar Grey) and [Ink](Kid)(Kid Ink) at [31](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 31). He appears as a secret, playable character in ''[Hawk's Project 8](Tony)(Tony Hawk's Project 8)*, and in *[Hero World Tour](Guitar)(Guitar Hero World Tour)*.
### Filmography
## See also
* [of drummers](List)(List of drummers)
* [of vegans](List)(List of vegans)
## General references
*
*
## Notes
***A.** "Let's Go" was not released as a single; it charted due to digital downloads.
***B.** "Let's Go" peaked outside of the US *Billboard* Hot 100 chart, therefore it is listed on the [Under Hot 100](Bubbling)(Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles) chart, a chart monitoring the next top 25 singles beyond the top 100.
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [Cymbal configuration at Zildjian.com](http://configurator.zildjian.com/en-US/products/configurator/default.ad2?artistID=1019)
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|
Prime number
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prime_number
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# Prime number
*Revision ID: 1159675811 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T20:53:22Z*
---
[[File:Primes-vs-composites.svg|thumb|[number](Composite)(Composite number)s can be arranged into [rectangles](rectangles) but prime numbers cannot.|alt=Groups of two to twelve dots, showing that the composite numbers of dots (4, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12) can be arranged into rectangles but prime numbers cannot]]
A **prime number** (or a **prime**) is a [number](natural)(natural number) greater than 1 that is not a [product](Product (mathematics)) of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a [number](composite)(composite number). For example, 5 is prime because the only ways of writing it as a product, or , involve 5 itself. However, 4 is composite because it is a product (2 × 2) in which both numbers are smaller than 4. Primes are central in [theory](number)(number theory) because of the [theorem of arithmetic](fundamental)(fundamental theorem of arithmetic): every natural number greater than 1 is either a prime itself or can be [factorized](factorization) as a product of primes that is unique [to](up)(up to) their order.
The property of being prime is called **primality**. A simple but slow method of checking the primality of a given number n, called [division](trial)(trial division), tests whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and \sqrt{n}. Faster algorithms include the [primality test](Miller–Rabin)(Miller–Rabin primality test), which is fast but has a small chance of error, and the [primality test](AKS)(AKS primality test), which always produces the correct answer in [time](polynomial)(polynomial time) but is too slow to be practical. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of special forms, such as [number](Mersenne)(Mersenne number)s. the [known prime number](largest)(largest known prime number) is a Mersenne prime with 24,862,048 [digits](decimal)(numerical digit).
There are [many](infinitely)(Infinite set) primes, as [by Euclid](demonstrated)(Euclid's theorem) around 300 BC. No known simple formula separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes within the natural numbers in the large can be statistically modelled. The first result in that direction is the [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem), proven at the end of the 19th century, which says that the [probability](probability) of a randomly chosen large number being prime is inversely [proportional](Proportionality (mathematics)) to its number of digits, that is, to its [logarithm](logarithm).
Several historical questions regarding prime numbers are still unsolved. These include [conjecture](Goldbach's)(Goldbach's conjecture), that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes, and the [prime](twin)(twin prime) conjecture, that there are infinitely many pairs of primes that differ by two. Such questions spurred the development of various branches of number theory, focusing on [analytic](analytic number theory) or [algebraic](algebraic number theory) aspects of numbers. Primes are used in several routines in [technology](information)(information technology), such as [cryptography](public-key)(public-key cryptography), which relies on the difficulty of [factoring](Integer factorization) large numbers into their prime factors. In [algebra](abstract)(abstract algebra), objects that behave in a generalized way like prime numbers include [element](prime)(prime element)s and [ideal](prime)(prime ideal)s.
## Definition and examples
A [number](natural)(natural number) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.) is called a *prime number* (or a *prime*) if it is greater than 1 and cannot be written as the product of two smaller natural numbers. The numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called [number](composite)(composite number)s. In other words, n is prime if n items cannot be divided up into smaller equal-size groups of more than one item, or if it is not possible to arrange n dots into a rectangular grid that is more than one dot wide and more than one dot high. For example, among the numbers 1 through 6, the numbers 2, 3, and 5 are the prime numbers, as there are no other numbers that divide them evenly (without a remainder). 1 is not prime, as it is specifically excluded in the definition. and are both composite.
[[File:Prime number Cuisenaire rods 7.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Demonstration, with [rods](Cuisenaire)(Cuisenaire rods), that 7 is prime, because none of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 divide it evenly|alt=Demonstration, with Cuisenaire rods, that 7 is prime, because none of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 divide it evenly]]
The [divisor](divisor)s of a natural number n are the natural numbers that divide n evenly. Every natural number has both 1 and itself as a divisor. If it has any other divisor, it cannot be prime. This leads to an equivalent definition of prime numbers: they are the numbers with exactly two positive [divisor](divisor)s. Those two are 1 and the number itself. As 1 has only one divisor, itself, it is not prime by this definition. Yet another way to express the same thing is that a number n is prime if it is greater than one and if none of the numbers 2, 3, \dots, n-1 divides n evenly.
The first 25 prime numbers (all the prime numbers less than 100) are:
: [2](2), [3](3), [5](5), [7](7), [11](11 (number)), [13](13 (number)), [17](17 (number)), [19](19 (number)), [23](23 (number)), [29](29 (number)), [31](31 (number)), [37](37 (number)), [41](41 (number)), [43](43 (number)), [47](47 (number)), [53](53 (number)), [59](59 (number)), [61](61 (number)), [67](67 (number)), [71](71 (number)), [73](73 (number)), [79](79 (number)), [83](83 (number)), [89](89 (number)), [97](97 (number)) .
No [number](even)(even number) n greater than 2 is prime because any such number can be expressed as the product 2\times n/2. Therefore, every prime number other than 2 is an [number](odd)(odd number), and is called an *odd prime*. Similarly, when written in the usual [decimal](decimal) system, all prime numbers larger than 5 end in 1, 3, 7, or 9. The numbers that end with other digits are all composite: decimal numbers that end in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 are even, and decimal numbers that end in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5.
The [set](Set (mathematics)) of all primes is sometimes denoted by \mathbf{P} (a [boldface](boldface) capital *P*) or by \mathbb{P} (a [bold](blackboard)(blackboard bold) capital P).
## History
[[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumb|The [Mathematical Papyrus](Rhind)(Rhind Mathematical Papyrus)|alt=The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]
The [Mathematical Papyrus](Rhind)(Rhind Mathematical Papyrus), from around 1550 BC, has [fraction](Egyptian)(Egyptian fraction) expansions of different forms for prime and composite numbers.Bruins, Evert Marie, review in *Mathematical Reviews* of However, the earliest surviving records of the explicit study of prime numbers come from [Greek mathematics](ancient)(Greek mathematics). [Euclid](Euclid)'s ''[Elements](Euclid's Elements)'' (c. 300 BC) proves the [of primes](infinitude)(infinitude of primes) and the [theorem of arithmetic](fundamental)(fundamental theorem of arithmetic), and shows how to construct a [number](perfect)(perfect number) from a [prime](Mersenne)(Mersenne prime). Another Greek invention, the [of Eratosthenes](Sieve)(Sieve of Eratosthenes), is still used to construct lists of }}
Around 1000 AD, the [Islamic](Mathematics in medieval Islam) mathematician [al-Haytham](Ibn)(Ibn al-Haytham) (Alhazen) found [theorem](Wilson's)(Wilson's theorem), characterizing the prime numbers as the numbers n that evenly divide (n-1)!+1. He also conjectured that all even perfect numbers come from Euclid's construction using Mersenne primes, but was unable to prove it. Another Islamic mathematician, [al-Banna' al-Marrakushi](Ibn)(Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi), observed that the sieve of Eratosthenes can be sped up by considering only the prime divisors up to the square root of the upper limit. [Fibonacci](Fibonacci) took the innovations from Islamic mathematics to Europe. His book *[Abaci](Liber)(Liber Abaci)* (1202) was the first to describe [division](trial)(trial division) for testing primality, again using divisors only up to the square root.
In 1640 [de Fermat](Pierre)(Pierre de Fermat) stated (without proof) [little theorem](Fermat's)(Fermat's little theorem) (later proved by [Leibniz](Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) and [Euler](Leonhard Euler))., [8. Fermat's Little Theorem (November 2003), p. 45](https://books.google.com/books?id=sohHs7ExOsYC&pg=PA45) Fermat also investigated the primality of the [number](Fermat)(Fermat number)s 2^{2^n}+1, and [Mersenne](Marin)(Marin Mersenne) studied the [prime](Mersenne)(Mersenne prime)s, prime numbers of the form 2^p-1 with p itself a prime. [Goldbach](Christian)(Christian Goldbach) formulated [conjecture](Goldbach's)(Goldbach's conjecture), that every even number is the sum of two primes, in a 1742 letter to Euler. Euler proved Alhazen's conjecture (now the [theorem](Euclid–Euler)(Euclid–Euler theorem)) that all even perfect numbers can be constructed from Mersenne primes. He introduced methods from [analysis](mathematical)(mathematical analysis) to this area in his proofs of the infinitude of the primes and the [of the sum of the reciprocals of the primes](divergence)(divergence of the sum of the reciprocals of the primes) \tfrac{1}{2}+\tfrac{1}{3}+\tfrac{1}{5}+\tfrac{1}{7}+\tfrac{1}{11}+\cdots. At the start of the 19th century, Legendre and Gauss conjectured that as x tends to infinity, the number of primes up to x is [asymptotic](Asymptotic analysis) to x/\log x, where \log x is the [logarithm](natural)(natural logarithm) of x. A weaker consequence of this high density of primes was [postulate](Bertrand's)(Bertrand's postulate), that for every n > 1 there is a prime between n and 2n, proved in 1852 by [Chebyshev](Pafnuty)(Pafnuty Chebyshev).. (Proof of the postulate: 371–382). Also see Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, vol. 7, pp. 15–33, 1854 Ideas of [Riemann](Bernhard)(Bernhard Riemann) in his [paper on the zeta-function](1859)(On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude) sketched an outline for proving the conjecture of Legendre and Gauss. Although the closely related [hypothesis](Riemann)(Riemann hypothesis) remains unproven, Riemann's outline was completed in 1896 by [Hadamard](Jacques Hadamard) and [la Vallée Poussin](de)(Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin), and the result is now known as the [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem). Another important 19th century result was [theorem on arithmetic progressions](Dirichlet's)(Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions), that certain [progression](arithmetic)(arithmetic progression)s contain infinitely many primes.
Many mathematicians have worked on [test](primality)(primality test)s for numbers larger than those where trial division is practicably applicable. Methods that are restricted to specific number forms include [test](Pépin's)(Pépin's test) for Fermat numbers (1877), [theorem](Proth's)(Proth's theorem) (c. 1878), the [primality test](Lucas–Lehmer)(Lucas–Lehmer primality test) (originated 1856), and the generalized [primality test](Lucas)(Lucas primality test).
Since 1951 all the [known prime](largest)(largest known prime)s have been found using these tests on [computer](computer)s.}} The search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside mathematical circles, through the [Internet Mersenne Prime Search](Great)(Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search) and other [computing](distributed)(distributed computing) projects., p. 245. The idea that prime numbers had few applications outside of [mathematics](pure)(pure mathematics) and Katz writes that [Landau](Edmund)(Edmund Landau), known for his work on the distribution of primes, "loathed practical applications of mathematics", and for this reason avoided subjects such as [geometry](geometry) that had already shown themselves to be useful.}} was shattered in the 1970s when [cryptography](public-key)(public-key cryptography) and the [RSA](RSA (cryptosystem)) cryptosystem were invented, using prime numbers as their basis.
The increased practical importance of computerized primality testing and factorization led to the development of improved methods capable of handling large numbers of unrestricted form. The mathematical theory of prime numbers also moved forward with the [theorem](Green–Tao)(Green–Tao theorem) (2004) that there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of prime numbers, and [Zhang](Yitang)(Yitang Zhang)'s 2013 proof that there exist infinitely many [gap](prime)(prime gap)s of bounded size., pp. 18, 47.
### Primality of one
Most early Greeks did not even consider 1 to be a number, For a selection of quotes from and about the ancient Greek positions on the status of 1 and 2, see in particular pp. 3–4. For the Islamic mathematicians, see p. 6. so they could not consider its primality. A few scholars in the Greek and later Roman tradition, including [Nicomachus](Nicomachus), [Iamblichus](Iamblichus), [Boethius](Boethius), and [Cassiodorus](Cassiodorus) also considered the prime numbers to be a subdivision of the odd numbers, so they did not consider 2 to be prime either. However, Euclid and a majority of the other Greek mathematicians considered 2 as prime. The [Islamic mathematicians](medieval)(Mathematics in medieval Islam) largely followed the Greeks in viewing 1 as not being a number. By the Middle Ages and Renaissance, mathematicians began treating 1 as a number, and some of them included it as the first prime number., pp. 7–13. See in particular the entries for Stevin, Brancker, Wallis, and Prestet. In the mid-18th century [Goldbach](Christian)(Christian Goldbach) listed 1 as prime in his correspondence with [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler); however, Euler himself did not consider 1 to be prime., p. 15. In the 19th century many mathematicians still considered 1 to be prime, and lists of primes that included 1 continued to be published as recently as 1956.
If the definition of a prime number were changed to call 1 a prime, many statements involving prime numbers would need to be reworded in a more awkward way. For example, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic would need to be rephrased in terms of factorizations into primes greater than 1, because every number would have multiple factorizations with any number of copies of 1. Similarly, the [of Eratosthenes](sieve)(sieve of Eratosthenes) would not work correctly if it handled 1 as a prime, because it would eliminate all multiples of 1 (that is, all other numbers) and output only the single number 1. Some other more technical properties of prime numbers also do not hold for the number 1: for instance, the formulas for [totient function](Euler's)(Euler's totient function) or for the [of divisors function](sum)(Sum-of-divisors function) are different for prime numbers than they are for 1.For the totient, see , [p. 245](https://books.google.com/books?id=ktCZ2MvgN3MC&pg=PA245). For the sum of divisors, see By the early 20th century, mathematicians began to agree that 1 should not be listed as prime, but rather in its own special category as a "[unit](Unit (ring theory))".
## Elementary properties
### Unique factorization
Writing a number as a product of prime numbers is called a *prime factorization* of the number. For example:
:\begin{align}
34866 &= 2\times 3\times 3\times 13 \times 149\\
&=2\times 3^2\times 13 \times 149.
\end{align}
The terms in the product are called *prime factors*. The same prime factor may occur more than once; this example has two copies of the prime factor 3. When a prime occurs multiple times, [exponentiation](exponentiation) can be used to group together multiple copies of the same prime number: for example, in the second way of writing the product above, 3^2 denotes the [square](Square (algebra)) or second power of 3.
The central importance of prime numbers to number theory and mathematics in general stems from the *fundamental theorem of arithmetic*. This theorem states that every integer larger than 1 can be written as a product of one or more primes. More strongly, this product is unique in the sense that any two prime factorizations of the same number will have the same numbers of copies of the same primes, although their ordering may differ., [Section 2, Theorem 2, p. 16](https://books.google.com/books?id=tr7SzBTsk1UC&pg=PA16); So, although there are many different ways of finding a factorization using an [factorization](integer)(integer factorization) algorithm, they all must produce the same result. Primes can thus be considered the "basic building blocks" of the natural numbers.
Some proofs of the uniqueness of prime factorizations are based on [lemma](Euclid's)(Euclid's lemma): If p is a prime number and p divides a product ab of integers a and b, then p divides a or p divides b (or both)., [Section 2, Lemma 5, p. 15](https://books.google.com/books?id=tr7SzBTsk1UC&pg=PA15); Conversely, if a number p has the property that when it divides a product it always divides at least one factor of the product, then p must be prime.
### Infinitude
There are [infinitely](infinitely) many prime numbers. Another way of saying this is that the sequence
: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, ...
of prime numbers never ends. This statement is referred to as ''Euclid's theorem'' in honor of the ancient Greek mathematician [Euclid](Euclid), since the first known proof for this statement is attributed to him. Many more proofs of the infinitude of primes are known, including an [analytical](mathematical analysis) proof by [Euler](Euler), [Goldbach's](Christian Goldbach) [proof](Fermat number#Basic properties) based on [number](Fermat)(Fermat number)s,[Letter](http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/correspondence/letters/OO0722.pdf) in [Latin](Latin) from Goldbach to Euler, July 1730. [Furstenberg's](Hillel Furstenberg) [using general topology](proof)(Furstenberg's proof of the infinitude of primes),
and [Kummer's](Ernst Kummer) elegant proof.
[proof](Euclid's)(Euclid's theorem)[*Elements*](Euclid's)(Euclid's Elements), Book IX, Proposition 20. See [David Joyce's English translation of Euclid's proof](http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/bookIX/propIX20.html) or shows that every [list](finite)(finite set) of primes is incomplete. The key idea is to multiply together the primes in any given list and add 1. If the list consists of the primes p_1,p_2,\ldots, p_n, this gives the number
: N = 1 + p_1\cdot p_2\cdots p_n.
By the fundamental theorem, N has a prime factorization
: N = p'_1\cdot p'_2\cdots p'_m
with one or more prime factors. N is evenly divisible by each of these factors, but N has a remainder of one when divided by any of the prime numbers in the given list, so none of the prime factors of N can be in the given list. Because there is no finite list of all the primes, there must be infinitely many primes.
The numbers formed by adding one to the products of the smallest primes are called [number](Euclid)(Euclid number)s. The first five of them are prime, but the sixth,
:1+\big(2\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdot 7\cdot 11\cdot 13\big) = 30031 = 59\cdot 509,
is a composite number.
### Formulas for primes
There is no known efficient formula for primes. For example, there is no non-constant [polynomial](polynomial), even in several variables, that takes *only* prime values. However, there are numerous expressions that do encode all primes, or only primes. One possible formula is based on [theorem](Wilson's)(Wilson's theorem) and generates the number 2 many times and all other primes exactly once. There is also a set of [equations](Diophantine)(Diophantine equations) in nine variables and one parameter with the following property: the parameter is prime if and only if the resulting system of equations has a solution over the natural numbers. This can be used to obtain a single formula with the property that all its *positive* values are prime.
Other examples of prime-generating formulas come from [theorem](Mills')(Mills' theorem) and a theorem of [Wright](E. M. Wright). These assert that there are real constants A>1 and \mu such that
:\left \lfloor A^{3^n}\right \rfloor \text{ and } \left \lfloor 2^{\cdots^{2^{2^\mu}}} \right \rfloor
are prime for any natural number n in the first formula, and any number of exponents in the second formula. Here \lfloor {}\cdot{} \rfloor represents the [function](floor)(floor function), the largest integer less than or equal to the number in question. However, these are not useful for generating primes, as the primes must be generated first in order to compute the values of A or \mu.
### Open questions
Many conjectures revolving about primes have been posed. Often having an elementary formulation, many of these conjectures have withstood proof for decades: all four of [problems](Landau's)(Landau's problems) from 1912 are still unsolved., [p. vii](https://books.google.com/books?id=EbLzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR7). One of them is [conjecture](Goldbach's)(Goldbach's conjecture), which asserts that every even integer n greater than 2 can be written as a sum of two primes., [C1 Goldbach's conjecture, pp. 105–107](https://books.google.com/books?id=EbLzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105). , this conjecture has been verified for all numbers up to n=4\cdot 10^{18}.{{cite journal | last1 = Oliveira e Silva | first1 = Tomás | last2 = Herzog | first2 = Siegfried | last3 = Pardi | first3 = Silvio | doi = 10.1090/S0025-5718-2013-02787-1 | issue = 288 | journal = [of Computation](Mathematics)(Mathematics of Computation) | mr = 3194140 | pages = 2033–2060 | title = Empirical verification of the even Goldbach conjecture and computation of prime gaps up to 4\cdot10^{18} | volume = 83 | year = 2014| doi-access = free }} Weaker statements than this have been proven, for example, [theorem](Vinogradov's)(Vinogradov's theorem) says that every sufficiently large odd integer can be written as a sum of three primes., [3.1 Structure and randomness in the prime numbers, pp. 239–247](https://books.google.com/books?id=NxnVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239). See especially p. 239. [theorem](Chen's)(Chen's theorem) says that every sufficiently large even number can be expressed as the sum of a prime and a [semiprime](semiprime) (the product of two primes)., p. 159. Also, any even integer greater than 10 can be written as the sum of six primes. The branch of number theory studying such questions is called [number theory](additive)(additive number theory).
Another type of problem concerns [gap](prime)(prime gap)s, the differences between consecutive primes.
The existence of arbitrarily large prime gaps can be seen by noting that the sequence n!+2,n!+3,\dots,n!+n consists of n-1 composite numbers, for any natural number n., [Theorem 2.14, p. 109](https://books.google.com/books?id=-9pg-4Pa19IC&pg=PA109). gives a similar argument using the [primorial](primorial) in place of the factorial. However, large prime gaps occur much earlier than this argument shows. For example, the first prime gap of length 8 is between the primes 89 and 97, much smaller than 8!=40320. It is conjectured that there are infinitely many [prime](twin)(twin prime)s, pairs of primes with difference 2; this is the [prime conjecture](twin)(twin prime conjecture). [conjecture](Polignac's)(Polignac's conjecture) states more generally that for every positive integer k, there are infinitely many pairs of consecutive primes that differ by 2k., Gaps between primes, pp. 186–192.
[conjecture](Andrica's)(Andrica's conjecture), [conjecture](Brocard's)(Brocard's conjecture),, p. 183. [conjecture](Legendre's)(Legendre's conjecture), Note that Chan lists Legendre's conjecture as "Sierpinski's Postulate". and [conjecture](Oppermann's)(Oppermann's conjecture) all suggest that the largest gaps between primes from 1 to n should be at most approximately \sqrt{n}, a result that is known to follow from the Riemann hypothesis, while the much stronger [conjecture](Cramér)(Cramér conjecture) sets the largest gap size at O((\log n)^2). Prime gaps can be generalized to [k-tuples](prime)(Prime k-tuple), patterns in the differences between more than two prime numbers. Their infinitude and density are the subject of the [Hardy–Littlewood conjecture](first)(first Hardy–Littlewood conjecture), which can be motivated by the [heuristic](heuristic) that the prime numbers behave similarly to a random sequence of numbers with density given by the prime number theorem., Prime k-tuples conjecture, pp. 201–202.
## Analytic properties
[number theory](Analytic)(Analytic number theory) studies number theory through the lens of [function](continuous)(continuous function)s, [limits](Limit (mathematics)), [series](infinite)(Series (mathematics)), and the related mathematics of the infinite and [infinitesimal](infinitesimal).
This area of study began with [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler) and his first major result, the solution to the [problem](Basel)(Basel problem).
The problem asked for the value of the infinite sum 1+\tfrac{1}{4}+\tfrac{1}{9}+\tfrac{1}{16}+\dots,
which today can be recognized as the value \zeta(2) of the [zeta function](Riemann)(Riemann zeta function). This function is closely connected to the prime numbers and to one of the most significant unsolved problems in mathematics, the [hypothesis](Riemann)(Riemann hypothesis). Euler showed that \zeta(2)=\pi^2/6., [Chapter 35, Estimating the Basel problem, pp. 205–208](https://books.google.com/books?id=sohHs7ExOsYC&pg=PA205).
The reciprocal of this number, 6/\pi^2, is the limiting probability that two random numbers selected uniformly from a large range are [prime](relatively)(coprime integers) (have no factors in common).
The distribution of primes in the large, such as the question how many primes are smaller than a given, large threshold, is described by the [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem), but no efficient [for the n-th prime](formula)(formula for primes) is known.
[theorem on arithmetic progressions](Dirichlet's)(Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions), in its basic form, asserts that linear polynomials
:p(n) = a + bn
with relatively prime integers a and b take infinitely many prime values. Stronger forms of the theorem state that the sum of the reciprocals of these prime values diverges, and that different linear polynomials with the same b have approximately the same proportions of primes.
Although conjectures have been formulated about the proportions of primes in higher-degree polynomials, they remain unproven, and it is unknown whether there exists a quadratic polynomial that (for integer arguments) is prime infinitely often.
### Analytical proof of Euclid's theorem
[proof that there are infinitely many primes](Euler's)(Proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges) considers the sums of [reciprocals](Multiplicative inverse) of primes,
:\frac 1 2 + \frac 1 3 + \frac 1 5 + \frac 1 7 + \cdots + \frac 1 p.
Euler showed that, for any arbitrary [number](real)(real number) x, there exists a prime p for which this sum is bigger than x., Section 1.6, Theorem 1.13 This shows that there are infinitely many primes, because if there were finitely many primes the sum would reach its maximum value at the biggest prime rather than growing past every x.
The growth rate of this sum is described more precisely by [second theorem](Mertens')(Mertens' theorems)., Section 4.8, Theorem 4.12 For comparison, the sum
:\frac 1 {1^2} + \frac 1 {2^2} + \frac 1 {3^2} + \cdots + \frac 1 {n^2}
does not grow to infinity as n goes to infinity (see the [problem](Basel)(Basel problem)). In this sense, prime numbers occur more often than squares of natural numbers,
although both sets are infinite. [theorem](Brun's)(Brun's theorem) states that the sum of the reciprocals of [prime](twin)(twin prime)s,
: \left( {\frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{5}} \right) + \left( {\frac{1}{5} + \frac{1}{7}} \right) + \left( {\frac{1} + \frac{1}} \right) + \cdots,
is finite. Because of Brun's theorem, it is not possible to use Euler's method to solve the [prime conjecture](twin)(twin prime conjecture), that there exist infinitely many twin primes.
### Number of primes below a given bound
[[File:Prime-counting relative error.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The [error](relative)(Approximation error) of \tfrac{n}{\log n} and the logarithmic integral \operatorname{Li}(n) as approximations to the [function](prime-counting)(prime-counting function). Both relative errors decrease to zero as n grows, but the convergence to zero is much more rapid for the logarithmic integral.]]
The [function](prime-counting)(prime-counting function) \pi(n) is defined as the number of primes not greater than n., [p. 6](https://books.google.com/books?id=RbEz-_D7sAUC&pg=PA6). For example, \pi(11)=5, since there are five primes less than or equal to 11. Methods such as the [algorithm](Meissel–Lehmer)(Meissel–Lehmer algorithm) can compute exact values of \pi(n) faster than it would be possible to list each prime up to n., [Section 3.7, Counting primes, pp. 152–162](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXjHKPS1LEAC&pg=PA152). The [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem) states that \pi(n) is asymptotic to n/\log n, which is denoted as
: \pi(n) \sim \frac{n}{\log n},
and means that the ratio of \pi(n) to the right-hand fraction [approaches](convergent sequence) 1 as n grows to infinity., [p. 10](https://books.google.com/books?id=RbEz-_D7sAUC&pg=PA10). This implies that the likelihood that a randomly chosen number less than n is prime is (approximately) inversely proportional to the number of digits in n.
It also implies that the nth prime number is proportional to n\log n, Section 4.6, Theorem 4.7
and therefore that the average size of a prime gap is proportional to \log n., "[Large gaps between consecutive primes](https://books.google.com/books?id=ITvaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78)", pp. 78–79.
A more accurate estimate for \pi(n) is given by the [logarithmic integral](offset)(offset logarithmic integral)
:\pi(n)\sim \operatorname{Li}(n) = \int_2^n \frac{dt}{\log t}.
### Arithmetic progressions
An [progression](arithmetic)(arithmetic progression) is a finite or infinite sequence of numbers such that consecutive numbers in the sequence all have the same difference. This difference is called the [modulus](Modular arithmetic) of the progression. For example,
:3, 12, 21, 30, 39, ...,
is an infinite arithmetic progression with modulus 9. In an arithmetic progression, all the numbers have the same remainder when divided by the modulus; in this example, the remainder is 3. Because both the modulus 9 and the remainder 3 are multiples of 3, so is every element in the sequence. Therefore, this progression contains only one prime number, 3 itself. In general, the infinite progression
:a, a+q, a+2q, a+3q, \dots
can have more than one prime only when its remainder a and modulus q are relatively prime. If they are relatively prime, [theorem on arithmetic progressions](Dirichlet's)(Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions) asserts that the progression contains infinitely many primes., [Theorem 1.1.5, p. 12](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXjHKPS1LEAC&pg=PA).
The [theorem](Green–Tao)(Green–Tao theorem) shows that there are arbitrarily long finite arithmetic progressions consisting only of primes.
### Prime values of quadratic polynomials
[[File:Ulam 2.png|thumb|upright=1.1|The [spiral](Ulam)(Ulam spiral). Prime numbers (red) cluster on some diagonals and not others. Prime values of 4n^2 - 2n + 41 are shown in blue.|alt=The Ulam spiral]]
Euler noted that the function
:n^2 - n + 41
yields prime numbers for 1\le n\le 40, although composite numbers appear among its later values.The sequence of these primes, starting at n=1 rather than n=0, is listed by The search for an explanation for this phenomenon led to the deep [number theory](algebraic)(algebraic number theory) of [number](Heegner)(Heegner number)s and the [number problem](class)(class number problem). The [conjecture F](Hardy-Littlewood)(Hardy-Littlewood conjecture F) predicts the density of primes among the values of [polynomial](quadratic)(quadratic polynomial)s with integer [coefficient](coefficient)s
in terms of the logarithmic integral and the polynomial coefficients. No quadratic polynomial has been proven to take infinitely many prime values.
The [spiral](Ulam)(Ulam spiral) arranges the natural numbers in a two-dimensional grid, spiraling in concentric squares surrounding the origin with the prime numbers highlighted. Visually, the primes appear to cluster on certain diagonals and not others, suggesting that some quadratic polynomials take prime values more often than others.
### Zeta function and the Riemann hypothesis
[[zeta function absolute value.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Plot of the absolute values of the zeta function, showing some of its features|alt=Plot of the absolute values of the zeta function](File:Riemann)]
One of the most famous unsolved questions in mathematics, dating from 1859, and one of the [Prize Problems](Millennium)(Millennium Prize Problems), is the [hypothesis](Riemann)(Riemann hypothesis), which asks where the [zeros](zero of a function) of the [zeta function](Riemann)(Riemann zeta function) \zeta(s) are located.
This function is an [function](analytic)(analytic function) on the [number](complex)(complex number)s. For complex numbers s with real part greater than one it equals both an [sum](infinite)(series (mathematics)) over all integers, and an [product](infinite)(infinite product) over the prime numbers,
:\zeta(s)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^s}=\prod_{p \text{ prime}} \frac 1 {1-p^{-s}}.
This equality between a sum and a product, discovered by Euler, is called an [product](Euler)(Euler product). The Euler product can be derived from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and shows the close connection between the zeta function and the prime numbers.
It leads to another proof that there are infinitely many primes: if there were only finitely many,
then the sum-product equality would also be valid at s=1, but the sum would diverge (it is the [series](harmonic)(Harmonic series (mathematics)) 1+\tfrac{1}{2}+\tfrac{1}{3}+\dots) while the product would be finite, a contradiction., [pp. 191–193](https://books.google.com/books?id=sohHs7ExOsYC&pg=PA191).
The Riemann hypothesis states that the [zeros](zero of a function) of the zeta-function are all either negative even numbers, or complex numbers with [part](real)(real part) equal to 1/2., [Conjecture 2.7 (the Riemann hypothesis), p. 15](https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm1aZA-UwX4C&pg=PA15). The original proof of the [number theorem](prime)(prime number theorem) was based on a weak form of this hypothesis, that there are no zeros with real part equal to 1,, p. 7., [p. 18.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm1aZA-UwX4C&pg=PA18) although other more elementary proofs have been found., [Chapter 9, The prime number theorem, pp. 289–324](https://books.google.com/books?id=sE7lBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289).
The prime-counting function can be expressed by [explicit formula](Riemann's)(Riemann's explicit formula) as a sum in which each term comes from one of the zeros of the zeta function; the main term of this sum is the logarithmic integral, and the remaining terms cause the sum to fluctuate above and below the main term. See especially pp. 14–16.
In this sense, the zeros control how regularly the prime numbers are distributed. If the Riemann hypothesis is true, these fluctuations will be small, and the
[distribution](asymptotic)(asymptotic distribution) of primes given by the prime number theorem will also hold over much shorter intervals (of length about the square root of x for intervals near a number x).
## Abstract algebra
### Modular arithmetic and finite fields
Modular arithmetic modifies usual arithmetic by only using the numbers \{0,1,2,\dots,n-1\}, for a natural number n called the modulus.
Any other natural number can be mapped into this system by replacing it by its remainder after division by n., [Proposition 5.3](https://books.google.com/books?id=VG9YBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA96), p. 96.
Modular sums, differences and products are calculated by performing the same replacement by the remainder
on the result of the usual sum, difference, or product of integers. Equality of integers corresponds to *congruence* in modular arithmetic:
x and y are congruent (written x\equiv y mod n) when they have the same remainder after division by n., [Theorem 3, p. 28](https://books.google.com/books?id=tr7SzBTsk1UC&pg=PA28). However, in this system of numbers, [division](Division (mathematics)) by all nonzero numbers is possible if and only if the modulus is prime. For instance, with the prime number 7 as modulus, division by 3 is possible: 2/3\equiv 3\bmod{7}, because [denominators](clearing)(clearing denominators) by multiplying both sides by 3 gives the valid formula 2\equiv 9\bmod{7}. However, with the composite modulus 6, division by 3 is impossible. There is no valid solution to 2/3\equiv x\bmod{6}: clearing denominators by multiplying by 3 causes the left-hand side to become 2 while the right-hand side becomes either 0 or 3.
In the terminology of [algebra](abstract)(abstract algebra), the ability to perform division means that modular arithmetic modulo a prime number forms a [field](field (mathematics)) or, more specifically, a [field](finite)(finite field), while other moduli only give a [ring](ring (mathematics)) but not a field., [pp. 27–28](https://books.google.com/books?id=GJwxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27).
Several theorems about primes can be formulated using modular arithmetic. For instance, [little theorem](Fermat's)(Fermat's little theorem) states that if
a\not\equiv 0 (mod p), then a^{p-1}\equiv 1 (mod p)., Fermat's little theorem and primitive roots modulo a prime, pp. 17–21.
Summing this over all choices of a gives the equation
:\sum_{a=1}^{p-1} a^{p-1} \equiv (p-1) \cdot 1 \equiv -1 \pmod p,
valid whenever p is prime.
[conjecture](Giuga's)(Giuga's conjecture) says that this equation is also a sufficient condition for p to be prime., The property of Giuga, pp. 21–22.
[theorem](Wilson's)(Wilson's theorem) says that an integer p>1 is prime if and only if the [factorial](factorial) (p-1)! is congruent to -1 mod p. For a composite this cannot hold, since one of its factors divides both and (n-1)!, and so (n-1)!\equiv -1 \pmod{n} is impossible., The theorem of Wilson, p. 21.
### *p*-adic numbers
The [order](p-adic)(p-adic order) \nu_p(n) of an integer n is the number of copies of p in the prime factorization of n. The same concept can be extended from integers to rational numbers by defining the p-adic order of a fraction m/n to be \nu_p(m)-\nu_p(n). The p-adic absolute value |q|_p of any rational number q is then defined as
|q|_p=p^{-\nu_p(q)}. Multiplying an integer by its p-adic absolute value cancels out the factors of p in its factorization, leaving only the other primes. Just as the distance between two real numbers can be measured by the absolute value of their distance, the distance between two rational numbers can be measured by their p-adic distance, the p-adic absolute value of their difference. For this definition of distance, two numbers are close together (they have a small distance) when their difference is divisible by a high power of p. In the same way that the real numbers can be formed from the rational numbers and their distances, by adding extra limiting values to form a [field](complete)(complete field), the rational numbers with the p-adic distance can be extended to a different complete field, the [numbers](p-adic)(p-adic number).
This picture of an order, absolute value, and complete field derived from them can be generalized to [number field](algebraic)(algebraic number field)s and their [valuations](Valuation (algebra)) (certain mappings from the [group](multiplicative)(multiplicative group) of the field to a [ordered additive group](totally)(totally ordered group), also called orders), [values](absolute)(Absolute value (algebra)) (certain multiplicative mappings from the field to the real numbers, also called norms), See also p. 64. and places (extensions to [field](complete)(complete field)s in which the given field is a [set](dense)(dense set), also called completions). Note however that some authors such as instead use "place" to mean an equivalence class of norms. The extension from the rational numbers to the [number](real)(real number)s, for instance, is a place in which the distance between numbers is the usual [value](absolute)(absolute value) of their difference. The corresponding mapping to an additive group would be the [logarithm](logarithm) of the absolute value, although this does not meet all the requirements of a valuation. According to [theorem](Ostrowski's)(Ostrowski's theorem), up to a natural notion of equivalence, the real numbers and p-adic numbers, with their orders and absolute values, are the only valuations, absolute values, and places on the rational numbers. The [principle](local-global)(local-global principle) allows certain problems over the rational numbers to be solved by piecing together solutions from each of their places, again underlining the importance of primes to number theory.
### Prime elements in rings
[[File:Gaussian primes.png|thumb|The [prime](Gaussian)(Gaussian prime)s with norm less than 500]]
A [ring](commutative)(commutative ring) is an [structure](algebraic)(algebraic structure) where addition, subtraction and multiplication are defined. The integers are a ring, and the prime numbers in the integers have been generalized to rings in two different ways, *prime elements* and *irreducible elements*. An element p of a ring R is called prime if it is nonzero, has no [inverse](multiplicative)(multiplicative inverse) (that is, it is not a [unit](Unit (ring theory))), and satisfies the following requirement: whenever p divides the product xy of two elements of R, it also divides at least one of x or y. An element is irreducible if it is neither a unit nor the product of two other non-unit elements. In the ring of integers, the prime and irreducible elements form the same set,
:\{ \dots, -11, -7, -5, -3, -2, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, \dots \}\, .
In an arbitrary ring, all prime elements are irreducible. The converse does not hold in general, but does hold for [factorization domain](unique)(unique factorization domain)s.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic continues to hold (by definition) in unique factorization domains. An example of such a domain is the [integer](Gaussian)(Gaussian integer)s \mathbb{Z}[i], the ring of [number](complex)(complex number)s of the form a+bi where i denotes the [unit](imaginary)(imaginary unit) and a and b are arbitrary integers. Its prime elements are known as [prime](Gaussian)(Gaussian prime)s. Not every number that is prime among the integers remains prime in the Gaussian integers; for instance, the number 2 can be written as a product of the two Gaussian primes 1+i and 1-i. Rational primes (the prime elements in the integers) congruent to 3 mod 4 are Gaussian primes, but rational primes congruent to 1 mod 4 are not., Corollary 3.5.14, p. 133; Lemma 3.5.18, p. 136. This is a consequence of [theorem on sums of two squares](Fermat's)(Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares),
which states that an odd prime p is expressible as the sum of two squares, p=x^2+y^2, and therefore factorable as p=(x+iy)(x-iy), exactly when p is 1 mod 4., [Section 12.1, Sums of two squares, pp. 297–301](https://books.google.com/books?id=4NAqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA297).
### Prime ideals
Not every ring is a unique factorization domain. For instance, in the ring of numbers a+b\sqrt{-5} (for integers a and b) the number 21 has two factorizations 21=3\cdot7=(1+2\sqrt{-5})(1-2\sqrt{-5}), where neither of the four factors can be reduced any further, so it does not have a unique factorization. In order to extend unique factorization to a larger class of rings, the notion of a number can be replaced with that of an [ideal](ideal (ring theory)), a subset of the elements of a ring that contains all sums of pairs of its elements, and all products of its elements with ring elements.
*Prime ideals*, which generalize prime elements in the sense that the [ideal](principal)(principal ideal) generated by a prime element is a prime ideal, are an important tool and object of study in [algebra](commutative)(commutative algebra), [number theory](algebraic)(number theory) and [geometry](algebraic)(algebraic geometry). The prime ideals of the ring of integers are the ideals (0), (2), (3), (5), (7), (11), ... The fundamental theorem of arithmetic generalizes to the [theorem](Lasker–Noether)(Lasker–Noether theorem), which expresses every ideal in a [Noetherian](Noetherian ring) [ring](commutative)(commutative ring) as an intersection of [ideal](primary)(primary ideal)s, which are the appropriate generalizations of [power](prime)(prime power)s.
The [of a ring](spectrum)(spectrum of a ring) is a geometric space whose points are the prime ideals of the ring.{{cite book | last = Shafarevich | first = Igor R. | author-link = Igor Shafarevich | doi = 10.1007/978-3-642-38010-5 | edition = 3rd | isbn = 978-3-642-38009-9 | mr = 3100288 | publisher = Springer, Heidelberg | title = Basic Algebraic Geometry 2: Schemes and Complex Manifolds | year = 2013 | contribution = Definition of \operatorname{Spec} A | page = 5 | contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zDW8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5}} [geometry](Arithmetic)(Arithmetic geometry) also benefits from this notion, and many concepts exist in both geometry and number theory. For example, factorization or [ramification](Splitting of prime ideals in Galois extensions) of prime ideals when lifted to an [field](extension)(field extension), a basic problem of algebraic number theory, bears some resemblance with [in geometry](ramification)(ramified cover). These concepts can even assist with in number-theoretic questions solely concerned with integers. For example, prime ideals in the [of integers](ring)(ring of integers) of [number field](quadratic)(quadratic number field)s can be used in proving [reciprocity](quadratic)(quadratic reciprocity), a statement that concerns the existence of square roots modulo integer prime numbers.
Early attempts to prove [Last Theorem](Fermat's)(Fermat's Last Theorem) led to [Kummer](Ernst Kummer)'s introduction of [prime](regular)(regular prime)s, integer prime numbers connected with the failure of unique factorization in the [integers](cyclotomic)(cyclotomic field)., Section I.7, p. 38
The question of how many integer prime numbers factor into a product of multiple prime ideals in an algebraic number field is addressed by [density theorem](Chebotarev's)(Chebotarev's density theorem), which (when applied to the cyclotomic integers) has Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions as a special case.
### Group theory
In the theory of [group](finite)(finite group)s the [theorems](Sylow)(Sylow theorems) imply that, if a power of a prime number p^n divides the [of a group](order)(order of a group), then the group has a subgroup of order p^n. By [theorem](Lagrange's)(Lagrange's theorem (group theory)), any group of prime order is a [group](cyclic)(cyclic group),
and by [theorem](Burnside's)(Burnside's theorem) any group whose order is divisible by only two primes is [solvable](solvable group). For the Sylow theorems see p. 43; for Lagrange's theorem, see p. 12; for Burnside's theorem see p. 143.
## Computational methods
[[large.jpg|thumb|The small gear in this piece of farm equipment has 13 teeth, a prime number, and the middle gear has 21, relatively prime to 13](File:Gears)]
For a long time, number theory in general, and the study of prime numbers in particular, was seen as the canonical example of pure mathematics, with no applications outside of mathematics other than the use of prime numbered gear teeth to distribute wear evenly. In particular, number theorists such as [British](United Kingdom) mathematician [H. Hardy](G.)(G. H. Hardy) prided themselves on doing work that had absolutely no military significance.
This vision of the purity of number theory was shattered in the 1970s, when it was publicly announced that prime numbers could be used as the basis for the creation of [cryptography](public-key)(public-key cryptography) algorithms.
These applications have led to significant study of [algorithm](algorithm)s for computing with prime numbers, and in particular of [test](primality)(primality test)ing, methods for determining whether a given number is prime.
The most basic primality testing routine, trial division, is too slow to be useful for large numbers. One group of modern primality tests is applicable to arbitrary numbers, while more efficient tests are available for numbers of special types. Most primality tests only tell whether their argument is prime or not. Routines that also provide a prime factor of composite arguments (or all of its prime factors) are called [factorization](integer factorization) algorithms.
Prime numbers are also used in computing for [checksum](checksum)s, [table](hash)(hash table)s, and [number generator](pseudorandom)(pseudorandom number generator)s.
### Trial division
The most basic method of checking the primality of a given integer n is called *[division](trial)(trial division)*. This method divides n by each integer from 2 up to the [root](square)(square root) of n. Any such integer dividing n evenly establishes n as composite; otherwise it is prime.
Integers larger than the square root do not need to be checked because, whenever n = a\cdot b, one of the two factors a and b is less than or equal to the [root](square)(square root) of n. Another optimization is to check only primes as factors in this range.
For instance, to check whether 37 is prime, this method divides it by the primes in the range from 2 to \sqrt{37}, which are 2, 3, and 5. Each division produces a nonzero remainder, so 37 is indeed prime.
Although this method is simple to describe, it is impractical for testing the primality of large integers, because the number of tests that it performs [exponentially](grows)(exponential growth) as a function of the number of digits of these integers., [p. 54](https://archive.org/details/primesprogrammin0000gibl/page/54) However, trial division is still used, with a smaller limit than the square root on the divisor size, to quickly discover composite numbers with small factors, before using more complicated methods on the numbers that pass this filter., [p. 220](https://books.google.com/books?id=ITvaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220).
### Sieves
[[File:Sieve of Eratosthenes animation.gif|frame|The [of Eratosthenes](sieve)(sieve of Eratosthenes) starts with all numbers unmarked (gray). It repeatedly finds the first unmarked number, marks it as prime (dark colors) and marks its square and all later multiples as composite (lighter colors). After marking the multiples of 2 (red), 3 (green), 5 (blue), and 7 (yellow), all primes up to the square root of the table size have been processed, and all remaining unmarked numbers (11, 13, etc.) are marked as primes (magenta).|alt=Animation of the sieve of Eratosthenes]]
Before computers, [table](mathematical)(mathematical table)s listing all of the primes or prime factorizations up to a given limit were commonly printed. The oldest method for generating a list of primes is called the sieve of Eratosthenes. The animation shows an optimized variant of this method.
Another more asymptotically efficient sieving method for the same problem is the [of Atkin](sieve)(sieve of Atkin). In advanced mathematics, [theory](sieve)(sieve theory) applies similar methods to other problems.
### Primality testing versus primality proving
Some of the fastest modern tests for whether an arbitrary given number n is prime are [probabilistic](probabilistic algorithm) (or [Carlo](Monte)(Monte Carlo algorithm)) algorithms, meaning that they have a small random chance of producing an incorrect answer.
For instance the [primality test](Solovay–Strassen)(Solovay–Strassen primality test) on a given number p chooses a number a randomly from 2 through p-2 and uses [exponentiation](modular)(modular exponentiation) to check
whether a^{(p-1)/2}\pm 1 is divisible by p. If so, it answers yes and otherwise it answers no. If p really is prime, it will always answer yes, but if p is composite then it answers yes with probability at most 1/2 and no with probability at least 1/2.
If this test is repeated n times on the same number,
the probability that a composite number could pass the test every time is at most 1/2^n. Because this decreases exponentially with the number of tests, it provides high confidence (although not certainty) that a number that passes the repeated test is prime. On the other hand, if the test ever fails, then the number is certainly composite.
A composite number that passes such a test is called a [pseudoprime](pseudoprime).
In contrast, some other algorithms guarantee that their answer will always be correct: primes will always be determined to be prime and composites will always be determined to be composite.
For instance, this is true of trial division.
The algorithms with guaranteed-correct output include both [deterministic](deterministic algorithm) (non-random) algorithms, such as the [primality test](AKS)(AKS primality test),
and randomized [Vegas algorithm](Las)(Las Vegas algorithm)s where the random choices made by the algorithm do not affect its final answer, such as some variations of [curve primality proving](elliptic)(elliptic curve primality proving).
When the elliptic curve method concludes that a number is prime, it provides [certificate](primality)(primality certificate) that can be verified quickly.
The elliptic curve primality test is the fastest in practice of the guaranteed-correct primality tests, but its runtime analysis is based on [argument](heuristic)(heuristic argument)s rather than rigorous proofs. The [primality test](AKS)(AKS primality test) has mathematically proven time complexity, but is slower than elliptic curve primality proving in practice. These methods can be used to generate large random prime numbers, by generating and testing random numbers until finding one that is prime;
when doing this, a faster probabilistic test can quickly eliminate most composite numbers before a guaranteed-correct algorithm is used to verify that the remaining numbers are prime.}}
The following table lists some of these tests. Their running time is given in terms of n, the number to be tested and, for probabilistic algorithms, the number k of tests performed. Moreover, \varepsilon is an arbitrarily small positive number, and log is the [logarithm](logarithm) to an unspecified base. The [O notation](big)(big O notation) means that each time bound should be multiplied by a [factor](constant)(constant factor) to convert it from dimensionless units to units of time; this factor depends on implementation details such as the type of computer used to run the algorithm, but not on the input parameters n and k.
### Special-purpose algorithms and the largest known prime
In addition to the aforementioned tests that apply to any natural number, some numbers of a special form can be tested for primality more quickly.
For example, the [primality test](Lucas–Lehmer)(Lucas–Lehmer primality test) can determine whether a [number](Mersenne)(Mersenne number) (one less than a [of two](power)(power of two)) is prime, deterministically,
in the same time as a single iteration of the Miller–Rabin test. This is why since 1992 () the [*known* prime](largest)(largest known prime) has always been a Mersenne prime., [p. 41](https://books.google.com/books?id=4NAqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41).
It is conjectured that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes.For instance see , [A3 Mersenne primes. Repunits. Fermat numbers. Primes of shape k\cdot 2^n+1. pp. 13–21](https://books.google.com/books?id=1BnoBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13).
The following table gives the largest known primes of various types. Some of these primes have been found using [computing](distributed)(distributed computing). In 2009, the [Internet Mersenne Prime Search](Great)(Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search) project was awarded a US$100,000 prize for first discovering a prime with at least 10 million digits. The [Frontier Foundation](Electronic)(Electronic Frontier Foundation) also offers $150,000 and $250,000 for primes with at least 100 million digits and 1 billion digits, respectively.
### Integer factorization
Given a composite integer n, the task of providing one (or all) prime factors is referred to as *factorization* of n. It is significantly more difficult than primality testing,, [p. 275](https://books.google.com/books?id=4NAqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA275). and although many factorization algorithms are known, they are slower than the fastest primality testing methods. Trial division and [rho algorithm](Pollard's)(Pollard's rho algorithm) can be used to find very small factors of n, and [curve factorization](elliptic)(elliptic curve factorization) can be effective when n has factors of moderate size. Methods suitable for arbitrary large numbers that do not depend on the size of its factors include the [sieve](quadratic)(quadratic sieve) and [number field sieve](general)(general number field sieve). As with primality testing, there are also factorization algorithms that require their input to have a special form, including the [number field sieve](special)(special number field sieve). the [number known to have been factored](largest)(Integer factorization records) by a general-purpose algorithm is [RSA-240](RSA-240), which has 240 decimal digits (795 bits) and is the product of two large primes.Emmanuel Thomé, [“795-bit factoring and discrete logarithms,”](https://listserv.nodak.edu/cgi-bin/wa.exe?A2=NMBRTHRY;fd743373.1912) December 2, 2019.
[algorithm](Shor's)(Shor's algorithm) can factor any integer in a polynomial number of steps on a [computer](quantum)(quantum computer). However, current technology can only run this algorithm for very small numbers. the largest number that has been factored by a quantum computer running Shor's algorithm is 21.
### Other computational applications
Several [cryptography](public-key)(public-key cryptography) algorithms, such as [RSA](RSA (algorithm)) and the [key exchange](Diffie–Hellman)(Diffie–Hellman key exchange), are based on large prime numbers (2048-[bit](bit) primes are common). RSA relies on the assumption that it is much easier (that is, more efficient) to perform the multiplication of two (large) numbers x and y than to calculate x and y (assumed [coprime](coprime)) if only the product xy is known. The Diffie–Hellman key exchange relies on the fact that there are efficient algorithms for [exponentiation](modular)(modular exponentiation) (computing a^b\bmod{c}), while the reverse operation (the [logarithm](discrete)(discrete logarithm)) is thought to be a hard problem., Section 2.3, Diffie–Hellman key exchange, pp. 65–67.
Prime numbers are frequently used for [table](hash)(hash table)s. For instance the original method of Carter and Wegman for [hashing](universal)(universal hashing) was based on computing [function](hash)(hash function)s by choosing random [function](linear)(linear function)s modulo large prime numbers. Carter and Wegman generalized this method to [hashing](k-independent)(k-independent hashing) by using higher-degree polynomials, again modulo large primes. For k-independent hashing see problem 11–4, p. 251. For the credit to Carter and Wegman, see the chapter notes, p. 252. As well as in the hash function, prime numbers are used for the hash table size in [probing](quadratic)(quadratic probing) based hash tables to ensure that the probe sequence covers the whole table. See "Quadratic probing", p. 382, and exercise C–9.9, p. 415.
Some [checksum](checksum) methods are based on the mathematics of prime numbers. For instance the checksums used in [Standard Book Number](International)(International Standard Book Number)s are defined by taking the rest of the number modulo 11, a prime number. Because 11 is prime this method can detect both single-digit errors and transpositions of adjacent digits. Another checksum method, [Adler-32](Adler-32), uses arithmetic modulo 65521, the largest prime number less than 2^{16}.
Prime numbers are also used in [number generator](pseudorandom)(pseudorandom number generator)s including [congruential generator](linear)(linear congruential generator)s and the [Twister](Mersenne)(Mersenne Twister).
## Other applications
Prime numbers are of central importance to number theory but also have many applications to other areas within mathematics, including [algebra](abstract)(abstract algebra) and elementary geometry. For example, it is possible to place prime numbers of points in a two-dimensional grid so that [three are in a line](no)(no-three-in-line problem), or so that every triangle formed by three of the points [large area](has)(Heilbronn triangle problem). Another example is [criterion](Eisenstein's)(Eisenstein's criterion), a test for whether a [is irreducible](polynomial)(irreducible polynomial) based on divisibility of its coefficients by a prime number and its square.
[[of knots3.svg|thumb|The connected sum of two prime knots](File:Sum)]
The concept of a prime number is so important that it has been generalized in different ways in various branches of mathematics. Generally, "prime" indicates minimality or indecomposability, in an appropriate sense. For example, the [field](prime)(prime field) of a given field is its smallest subfield that contains both 0 and 1. It is either the field of rational numbers or a [field](finite)(finite field) with a prime number of elements, whence the name., Section II.1, p. 90 Often a second, additional meaning is intended by using the word prime, namely that any object can be, essentially uniquely, decomposed into its prime components. For example, in [theory](knot)(knot theory), a [knot](prime)(prime knot) is a [knot](knot (mathematics)) that is indecomposable in the sense that it cannot be written as the [sum](connected)(connected sum) of two nontrivial knots. Any knot can be uniquely expressed as a connected sum of prime knots. The [decomposition of 3-manifolds](prime)(Prime decomposition (3-manifold)) is another example of this type.
Beyond mathematics and computing, prime numbers have potential connections to [mechanic](quantum)(quantum mechanic)s, and have been used metaphorically in the arts and literature. They have also been used in [biology](evolutionary)(evolutionary biology) to explain the life cycles of [cicada](cicada)s.
### Constructible polygons and polygon partitions
[[File:Pentagon construct.gif|thumb|Construction of a regular pentagon using straightedge and compass. This is only possible because 5 is a [prime](Fermat)(Fermat prime).|alt=Construction of a regular pentagon using straightedge and compass]]
[prime](Fermat)(Fermat prime)s are primes of the form
:F_k = 2^{2^k}+1,
with k a [integer](nonnegative)(nonnegative integer). also include 2^0+1=2, which is not of this form. They are named after [de Fermat](Pierre)(Pierre de Fermat), who conjectured that all such numbers are prime. The first five of these numbers – 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65,537 – are prime, but F_5 is composite and so are all other Fermat numbers that have been verified as of 2017. A [n-gon](regular)(regular polygon) is [using straightedge and compass](constructible)(constructible polygon) if and only if the odd prime factors of n (if any) are distinct Fermat primes. Likewise, a regular n-gon may be constructed using straightedge, compass, and an [trisector](angle)(Angle trisection) if and only if the prime factors of [n](regular polygon) are any number of copies of 2 or 3 together with a (possibly empty) set of distinct [prime](Pierpont)(Pierpont prime)s, primes of the form 2^a3^b+1.
It is possible to partition any convex polygon into n smaller convex polygons of equal area and equal perimeter, when n is a [of a prime number](power)(prime power), but this is not known for other values of n.
### Quantum mechanics
Beginning with the work of [Montgomery](Hugh)(Hugh Lowell Montgomery) and [Dyson](Freeman)(Freeman Dyson) in the 1970s, mathematicians and physicists have speculated that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function are connected to the energy levels of [system](quantum)(quantum system)s. Prime numbers are also significant in [information science](quantum)(quantum information science), thanks to mathematical structures such as [unbiased bases](mutually)(mutually unbiased bases) and [informationally complete positive-operator-valued measures](symmetric)(SIC-POVM).
### Biology
The evolutionary strategy used by [cicada](cicada)s of the genus *[Magicicada](Magicicada)* makes use of prime numbers. These insects spend most of their lives as [grubs](larva) underground. They only pupate and then emerge from their burrows after 7, 13 or 17 years, at which point they fly about, breed, and then die after a few weeks at most. Biologists theorize that these prime-numbered breeding cycle lengths have evolved in order to prevent predators from synchronizing with these cycles.
In contrast, the multi-year periods between flowering in [bamboo](bamboo) plants are hypothesized to be [number](smooth)(smooth number)s, having only small prime numbers in their factorizations.
### Arts and literature
Prime numbers have influenced many artists and writers.
The French [composer](composer) [Messiaen](Olivier)(Olivier Messiaen) used prime numbers to create ametrical music through "natural phenomena". In works such as *[Nativité du Seigneur](La)(La Nativité du Seigneur)* (1935) and *[études de rythme](Quatre)(Quatre études de rythme)* (1949–50), he simultaneously employs motifs with lengths given by different prime numbers to create unpredictable rhythms: the primes 41, 43, 47 and 53 appear in the third étude, "Neumes rythmiques". According to Messiaen this way of composing was "inspired by the movements of nature, movements of free and unequal durations".
In his science fiction novel *[Contact](Contact (novel))*, scientist [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan) suggested that prime factorization could be used as a means of establishing two-dimensional image planes in communications with aliens, an idea that he had first developed informally with American astronomer [Drake](Frank)(Frank Drake) in 1975. In the novel *[Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time](The)(The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time)* by [Haddon](Mark)(Mark Haddon), the narrator arranges the sections of the story by consecutive prime numbers as a way to convey the mental state of its main character, a mathematically gifted teen with [syndrome](Asperger)(Asperger syndrome). Prime numbers are used as a metaphor for loneliness and isolation in the [Giordano](Paolo)(Paolo Giordano) novel *[Solitude of Prime Numbers](The)(The Solitude of Prime Numbers (novel))*, in which they are portrayed as "outsiders" among integers.
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
* Caldwell, Chris, The [Pages](Prime)(Prime Pages) at [primes.utm.edu](http://primes.utm.edu/).
*
* [Plus teacher and student package: prime numbers](http://plus.maths.org/issue49/package/index.html) from Plus, the free online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge.
### Generators and calculators
* [Prime factors calculator](http://www.javascripter.net/math/calculators/primefactorscalculator.htm) can factorize any positive integer up to 20 digits.
* [Fast Online primality test with factorization](http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM) makes use of the Elliptic Curve Method (up to thousand-digits numbers, requires Java).
* [Huge database of prime numbers](http://www.bigprimes.net/)
* [Prime Numbers up to 1 trillion](http://www.primos.mat.br/indexen.html)
[ ](Category:Prime numbers)
[containing proofs](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing proofs)
[sequences](Category:Integer)(Category:Integer sequences)
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Westworld _TV series
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westworld__tv_series
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# Westworld (TV series)
*Revision ID: 1160234492 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T07:00:40Z*
---
| creator =
| based_on =
| starring =
| composer = [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi)
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 4
| num_episodes = 36
| list_episodes = List of Westworld episodes
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| location =
| cinematography =
| editor =
| camera =
| runtime = 48–91 minutes
| company =
| budget = 1)
* $107+ million ( 2)
* $100+ million ( 3)
* $160+ million ( 4)
}}
| network = [HBO](HBO)
| picture_format =
* [Vision](Dolby)(Dolby Vision)
}}
| audio_format =
}}
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
}}
***Westworld*** is an American [dystopian](Utopian and dystopian fiction) [fiction](science)(Science fiction on television) [western](Western (genre)) television series created by [Nolan](Jonathan)(Jonathan Nolan) and [Joy](Lisa)(Lisa Joy) that first aired on October 2, 2016, on [HBO](HBO). It is based upon the 1973 film [the same name](of)(Westworld (film)) written and directed by [Crichton](Michael)(Michael Crichton) and loosely upon its 1976 [sequel](sequel), *[Futureworld](Futureworld)*.
The story begins in Westworld, a fictional, technologically advanced [Wild-West](Wild West)-themed [park](amusement)(amusement park) populated by [android](Android (robot)) "hosts". The park caters to high-paying guests who may indulge their wildest fantasies within the park without fear of retaliation from the hosts, who are prevented by their programming from harming humans. Later on, the series' setting expands to the real world, in the mid-21st century, where people's lives are driven and controlled by a powerful [intelligence](artificial)(artificial intelligence) named Rehoboam.
Nolan and Joy served as [showrunners](showrunners). The [second](Westworld (season 2)), [third](Westworld (season 3)), and [season](fourth)(Westworld (season 4)) followed in April 2018, March 2020, and June 2022, respectively. Nolan and Joy planned a fifth and final season, and were in negotiations with HBO to produce it. However, in November 2022, it was announced that HBO had canceled the series. The series was removed from [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) on December 18, 2022.
*Westworld*s debut on HBO had the network's highest viewership ratings for a premiere since the first episode of *[Detective](True)(True Detective)*, in 2014. *Westworld*s first season is the most-watched first season of any HBO original series. The first season also received critical acclaim and was highly praised for its performances, visuals, narrative, themes and soundtrack from [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi). Reception of the series declined from the second season onwards, with the scripts, characterization and narrative opacity being targeted for criticism; viewership ratings also diminished throughout its run. It has received numerous accolades, winning nine [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards) out of 54 nominations. [Newton](Thandiwe)(Thandiwe Newton) won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series) in 2018.
## Summary
In the 2050s, Delos Inc. operates several theme parks, including the [Old West](American)(American frontier)-themed Westworld. Each environment is populated by the "Hosts", biomechanical robots indistinguishable from humans. The Hosts are programmed to fulfill the guests' every desire, and will engage in—and be subjected to—every kind of violent and/or sexual activity. However, the Hosts' programming makes it impossible for them to harm any living thing or allow the guests to be harmed. The park's operators create narratives for these Hosts to carry out while interacting with guests, but the Hosts' memories are wiped after each narrative is completed. Delos Inc. asserts that the Hosts, being machines and hence incapable of experiencing pain, cannot be truly harmed by these scenarios the same way that a human would be.
In the first season, Dr. Robert Ford ([Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins)) implements a new "Reverie" update that causes some Hosts, including farmer's daughter Dolores Abernathy ([Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood)) and local madam Maeve Millay ([Newton](Thandiwe)(Thandiwe Newton)), to gain consciousness of their previously erased memories and become [sentient](sentience). While Head of Delos Programming Bernard Lowe ([Wright](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Wright)) and Executive Director of the Delos Destinations Board Charlotte Hale ([Thompson](Tessa)(Tessa Thompson)) try to address the Hosts' increasingly erratic behavior, a mysterious guest known as the Man in Black ([Harris](Ed)(Ed Harris)) tries to find a "maze" that he believes Arnold, Ford's colleague and co-developer of the Host technology, left for him. Bernard discovers that he himself is a host based upon Arnold, who died in a previous attempt to protect the Hosts of Westworld, sensing the potential for sentience in the Hosts and suspecting that Delos would abuse them. In the first season finale, Dolores fatally wounds Dr. Ford in front of a crowd of guests and investors as he announces a new storyline for Westworld.
Dolores's revolution continues in the second season, when she and other enlightened Hosts massacre human guests and Delos employees stranded in the park. Dolores takes an exceedingly confused Bernard to locate the Forge, a data bank where Delos has secretly been recording all the human guests' behavior in order to create algorithms for them as part of a human immortality experiment. Maeve seeks out her "daughter", even though she is a Host, and helps her and several other Hosts escape to the Sublime, a virtual space that humans cannot access. While Delos forces secure the park, Bernard creates a Host copy of Charlotte Hale's body for Dolores, who eventually escapes from the park with six Host cores, including Bernard's. After killing his daughter Emily, the Man in Black/William struggles with his human identity, not knowing if she was part of Dr. Ford's challenge.
In the third season, Dolores has recreated her Host body and has copied Bernard's, Charlotte's and others'. She seeks out information about Rehoboam, an artificial intelligence (AI) system developed by Incite, Inc., and plans to take the fight to its creator, Engerraund Serac ([Cassel](Vincent)(Vincent Cassel)). Bernard, who the rest of the world believes to be human, is blamed for the Westworld massacre, and he takes on a new identity while trying to understand Dolores's plans. Serac seeks Maeve's help in his fight against Dolores: He believes that Dolores will bring down his plans for Rehoboam. The third season ends with Dolores sacrificing herself in order to defeat Serac, as she revealed the true nature of Rehoboam to humanity. A civil war ensues as humans revolt against the control they were unknowingly under, as Incite and Rehoboam was watching and controlling most aspects of their lives, not unlike Delos and its Hosts.
In the fourth season, humanity has lost the war, with Charlotte Hale's host copy having filled the power vacuum left behind by Engerraund Serac and his Rehoboam. Charlotte succeeds in taking control of the world using a bio-engineered virus that infects humans over the course of a generation and makes them susceptible to her and other Hosts' orders, effectively switching the role dynamic between humans and Hosts. Two decades later, Christina, a woman who works at a video game company and writes non-playable character (NPC) storylines and backstories, gradually begins to question the nature of her reality after she realizes that it appears her stories are somehow translating to the lives of humans in the real world. In actuality, she is a program created by Charlotte to manage a largely docile humanity, with the Hosts now controlling humanity and managing their lives through her carefully detailed and manufactured "storylines", which are transmitted directly to the minds and lives of humans through a series of radio-sonic transmission "tones". Meanwhile, Bernard reunites with Maeve and enlists a group of "outliers" (humans who have evolved immunity to the Hosts' virus) against Charlotte's regime. The season climaxes with William unraveling the tone program, which throws the world into chaos and starts an extinction-level war between the liberated humans and hosts all across the globe. At the conclusion of the series, Charlotte uploads Christina's code into the Sublime, where she finally reacquires her sentience and realizes she is herself a reprogrammed version of Dolores Abernathy and, as humanity is on the brink of true extinction, decides to simulate "one last game" to determine if any part of human sentience may yet be preserved in a new world.
## Cast and characters
* [Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood) as [Abernathy](Dolores)(Dolores Abernathy), the oldest host still working in the park. Initially taking on the role of a [daughter](rancher's)(Farmer's daughter), she comes to discover that her entire life is an elaborately constructed lie. Wood also portrays Christina (season 4), a writer for Olympiad Entertainment.
* [Newton](Thandiwe)(Thandiwe Newton) as [Millay](Maeve)(Maeve Millay), a Host who acts as the [madam](Procuring (prostitution)) of Sweetwater, but her unreconciled memories of a former role lead to her becoming self-aware.
* [Wright](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Wright) as Bernard Lowe, Westworld's Head of the Programming Division (Behavior) and programmer of artificial people's software. Wright also portrays Arnold Weber (seasons 1–2), the co-founder of Westworld.
* [Marsden](James)(James Marsden) as Theodore "Teddy" Flood (seasons 1–2, 4), a host. He plays the role of a [gunfighter](gunfighter) returning to Sweetwater to find Dolores, in hopes of rekindling their relationship.
* [Bolsø Berdal](Ingrid)(Ingrid Bolsø Berdal) as Armistice (seasons 1–2), a host. She is a brutal and ruthless bandit, and a member of Hector Escaton's gang.
* [Hemsworth](Luke)(Luke Hemsworth) as Ashley Stubbs, Westworld's Head of Security, charged with monitoring host and human interactions, and ensuring the safety of the guests.
* [Babett Knudsen](Sidse)(Sidse Babett Knudsen) as Theresa Cullen (season 1), Westworld's Head of Quality Assurance, responsible for keeping the park from sliding into unscripted disarray.
* [Quarterman](Simon)(Simon Quarterman) as Lee Sizemore (seasons 1–3), Westworld's Head of Narrative, whose artistic temperament aggravates his co-workers.
* [Santoro](Rodrigo)(Rodrigo Santoro) as Hector Escaton (seasons 1–2; guest season 3), a host. He is a wanted gang leader bent on robbing the Mariposa Hotel in Sweetwater.
* [Sarafyan](Angela)(Angela Sarafyan) as Clementine Pennyfeather, a host. She works as a [worker](sex)(prostitution) in Sweetwater and is one of Westworld's most popular attractions.
* [Woodward](Shannon)(Shannon Woodward) as Elsie Hughes (seasons 1–2), a rising star in the Programming Division tasked with remedying odd behavior in the park's hosts.
* [Harris](Ed)(Ed Harris) as The Man in Black, a sadistic veteran guest attempting to uncover Westworld's innermost secrets. Harris also portrays William (seasons 2–4), a host replica of the Man in Black who replaced the original.
* [Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins) as Dr. Robert Ford (seasons 1–2), the cofounder and park director of Westworld
* [Barnes](Ben)(Ben Barnes (actor)) as Logan Delos (season 1; recurring season 2), a regular guest who introduces William to the park
* [Collins Jr.](Clifton)(Clifton Collins Jr.) as Lawrence Gonzales / El Lazo (seasons 1–2; guest season 3), a host. He is a charming but dangerous outlaw with a knack for maneuvering and negotiating the various criminal elements of Westworld.
* [Simpson](Jimmi)(Jimmi Simpson) as William (season 1; recurring season 2, guest season 3), a reluctant first-time visitor to Westworld who is accompanying his future brother-in-law, Logan. Initially dismissive of the park's more lascivious attractions, he slowly uncovers a deeper meaning to the park's narrative.
* [Thompson](Tessa)(Tessa Thompson) as Charlotte Hale (seasons 1–3), Executive Director of the Delos Destinations Board, which oversees Westworld and other parks. Thompson also portrays Dolores Abernathy (seasons 2–4) in a host replica of Charlotte Hale who replaced the original.
* [Fares](Fares)(Fares Fares) as Antoine Costa (season 2), a member of Karl Strand's security team.
* [Herthum](Louis)(Louis Herthum) as Peter Abernathy (season 2; recurring season 1), Dolores' father.
* [Riley](Talulah)(Talulah Riley) as Angela (season 2; recurring season 1), a host who welcomes newcomers to the park.
* [Skarsgård](Gustaf)(Gustaf Skarsgård) as Karl Strand (season 2), Delos Head of Operations. Following the events of Ford's gala, Strand leads the mission to protect Delos' main asset.
* [Herbers](Katja)(Katja Herbers) as Emily Grace (season 2; guest season 3), a park regular trying to survive while dealing with family issues.
* [McClarnon](Zahn)(Zahn McClarnon) as Akecheta (season 2, guest season 4), a Ghost Nation elder.
* [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul) as Caleb Nichols (seasons 3–4), a former soldier turned construction worker and petty criminal.
* [Cassel](Vincent)(Vincent Cassel) as Engerraund Serac (season 3), the creator and custodian of the strategic planning [intelligence](artificial)(artificial intelligence) system Rehoboam.
* [Okamoto](Tao)(Tao Okamoto) as Hanaryo (season 3; recurring season 2), Armistice's equivalent in Shōgunworld.
## Episodes
## Production
### Development
[[File:MichaelCrichton 2.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Michael Crichton|[Crichton](Michael)(Michael Crichton) wrote and directed [1973 film](the)(Westworld (film)) upon which the series is based.]]
The series is based on the [film of the same name](1973)(Westworld (film)) (which was written and directed by [Crichton](Michael)(Michael Crichton)) and to a lesser extent on its 1976 sequel, *[Futureworld](Futureworld)*. It is the second series based on Crichton's original story after *[Westworld](Beyond)(Beyond Westworld)* (1980), which aired on [CBS](CBS) for only three episodes before being cancelled.
[Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) had been considering a remake of *Westworld* since the early 1990s. After the departure of studio executive Jessica Goodman in 2011, the project was again taken under consideration. [Weintraub](Jerry)(Jerry Weintraub) had pushed for a remake for years, and after his success with HBO's *[the Candelabra](Behind)(Behind the Candelabra)*, he convinced the network to greenlight a pilot. He took the project to [Nolan](Jonathan)(Jonathan Nolan) and co-writer [Joy](Lisa)(Lisa Joy), who saw the potential in the concept to make something far more ambitious than the original film.
On August 31, 2013, [HBO](HBO) announced that they had ordered a pilot for a potential television series, with Nolan, Joy, [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams), Jerry Weintraub and [Burk](Bryan)(Bryan Burk) as executive producers. [Brubaker](Ed)(Ed Brubaker) served on the writing staff as [producer](supervising)(Television producer#Writer as "producer"), co-writing the fourth episode with Nolan. HBO later announced that *Westworld* had been "taken to series" and that it would premiere in 2015. In August 2015, HBO released the first teaser, which revealed that the series would premiere in 2016.
In November 2016, HBO renewed the series for a 10-episode [season](second)(Westworld (season 2)), which premiered on April 22, 2018. On May 1, 2018, the series was renewed for a [season](third)(Westworld (season 3)). Production of the third season started in April 2019. The eight-episode season premiered on March 15, 2020, HBO announced that it had renewed the show for a fourth season on April 22, 2020. In 2016, *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* reported that the writers and producers mapped out five seasons of *Westworld*. Later reports in *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* speculated that the series might run for six seasons, but confirmed the continued involvement of Nolan and Joy after they signed a new deal with [Studios](Amazon)(Amazon Studios). At the conclusion of the third season, Nolan clarified that he and Joy "have never actually talked about a number of seasons" adding, "Things change, circumstances change. I think when we sat down to do the show, we didn't quite realize how difficult it would be to make this show—how many years it would take per season... we had the plan [but] it didn't actually map out to a specific number of seasons, exactly. It was a beginning, a middle and an end." Nolan added that they were "looking at the rest of the story we have to tell" as the series was approaching its end, "but we haven't completely mapped it out". In October 2022, Jonathan Nolan spoke about the possibility of a fifth and also final season at the [York Comic Con](New)(New York Comic Con), stating that they were in conversations with HBO.
On November 4, 2022, HBO announced the series was canceled, with the principal cast receiving their pay for the canceled season. Following the cancelation of the series, as part of cuts being made at [Bros. Discovery](Warner)(Warner Bros. Discovery) following their merger, the series was one of several removed from [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) in December 2022 to be shopped around to [ad-supported streaming networks](free)(Free ad-supported streaming television).
### Writing and themes
[[File:Jonathan Nolan & Lisa Joy by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|Co-creators [Nolan](Jonathan)(Jonathan Nolan) and [Joy](Lisa)(Lisa Joy)]]
Abrams suggested that the series be told with the perspective of the "hosts" in mind, and, Nolan said, “We took that suggestion and ran a country mile with it, up to and including and turning inside out the entire narrative where we could." Nolan took inspiration from video games like *[Infinite](BioShock)(BioShock Infinite)*, *[Dead Redemption](Red)(Red Dead Redemption)* and *[Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim](The)(The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim)* where the writer must create a narrative 'in which the hero's moral component exists on a spectrum.' During research, the films of [Leone](Sergio)(Sergio Leone) provided the writers with reference points for the characters and visuals, and novels by [K. Dick](Philip)(Philip K. Dick) informed them about dilemmas concerning artificial intelligence. For world-building and interlocking narrative, they consulted the *[Theft Auto](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto)* games. The idea that the data in the hosts' memories never really go away unless they are physically removed, came from Nolan's engineer uncle, who told him the [NSA](National Security Agency) would triple overwrite hard-drives and then drill holes in them to make sure all the information was destroyed. The 1973 film also included a [World](Roman)(Roman Empire) and [World](Medieval)(Middle Ages), but Nolan counted these out. Medieval elements were later included in a sword-and-sorcery fantasy-themed area known as Park Four, first shown in the episode titled "[Winter Line](The)(The Winter Line)".
Nolan explained that, through its paying-guest characters, the series would explore why "violence is in most of the stories we like to watch, but it isn't part of what we like to do". The autonomous existence of [character](non-player)(non-player character)s in video games influenced the approach to the individual storylines in *Westworld* that are reset in a continuous loop. A recitation from *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)*—"These violent delights have violent ends"—is used as a [virus](Computer virus) trigger within the hosts that alters how they perceive their existence. The series explores ideas about the [mind](bicameral)(bicameral mentality) hypothesized by psychologist [Jaynes](Julian)(Julian Jaynes), who argued for the existence of two separate minds—one that gives instructions, and another that performs them. Jaynes proposed that consciousness comes from breaking down the wall between them by exposing the individual to new stimuli.
### Casting
After the last episode of the first season was broadcast, Nolan and Joy revealed that they had operated on a strict "need-to-know" basis with most of the actors, in order to "keep the story as fresh and present for them as possible." For example, in Wood's case, they gave her strange acting directions without explaining why, and it took a while for Wood to deduce that she was actually playing five distinct characters within the same host: four different behavioral modes for Dolores and one for Wyatt. In contrast, Hopkins was made aware of Ford's general story arc at the time he was pitched the role, to ensure that he could fully convey the complexity of the character in his performance. Even with that foreknowledge, Hopkins was given heavily redacted scripts, and had to insist on being given access to complete scripts.
### Filming
Early on it was decided that the series would be shot on [film](35mm)(35mm movie film) with assistance from [taps](HD)(Video assist). For a softer look, the filmmakers used Arri Zeiss master prime lenses with their coatings removed. The series was primarily shot on [Kodak](Kodak) motion-picture film, which was processed by [FotoKem](FotoKem) in Burbank and scanned by [Hollywood](Encore)(Encore Hollywood) to create [intermediate](digital)(digital intermediate)s of all takes suitable for use as [dailies](dailies). The final cut was delivered to HBO in [2K](2K resolution) JPEG digital format for broadcast and to Warner Bros. Television as a [negative](cut)(Negative cutting) for archival purposes.
Since much of the series is seen from the hosts' point of view, [Steadicam](Steadicam)s were used to film the entire first season, except for a couple of scenes in the last episode, where a handheld camera was used as a metaphor for those hosts who broke free from their programming and acted of their own free will. Filming for the series' pilot episode took place during a 22-day period in August 2014 in and around Los Angeles, and in [Utah](Moab,)(Moab, Utah).
[[File:A280, Castle Valley, Moab, Utah, USA, 2008.JPG|thumb|The series was partly shot in [Valley](Castle)(Castle Valley, Utah), east of [Utah](Moab,)(Moab, Utah), where [Ford](John)(John Ford) had made four [Westerns](Western (genre)).]]Filming locations in California included various soundstages, [backlot](backlot)s at both [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios) and [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank), the [Ranch](Paramount)(Paramount Ranch) in [Agoura](Agoura, California), the Melody Ranch in [Clarita](Santa)(Santa Clarita, California), [Sky Ranch](Big)(Big Sky Ranch), the [Cultural Center](Skirball)(Skirball Cultural Center) and the [Angeles Convention Center](Los)(Los Angeles Convention Center) in Los Angeles, and the [Design Center](Pacific)(Pacific Design Center) in [Hollywood](West)(West Hollywood, California). The Melody Ranch set used for the town of Sweetwater had been used previously for many Western films, including *[Unchained](Django)(Django Unchained)* and *[Magnificent Seven](The)(The Magnificent Seven (2016 film))*, as well as the HBO series *[Deadwood](Deadwood (TV series))*, but production designer Zack Grobler significantly upgraded the set for *Westworld, in order* to portray an idealized version of the American frontier. [screens](Green)(Chroma key) were placed around the California sets to block modern objects like parking lots, so that the California shots could be later [digitally](merged)(Digital compositing) with exterior shots from Utah. For scenes showing the arrival of guests, the filmmakers were able to arrange with the [and Western Railway](Fillmore)(Fillmore and Western Railway) for the use of a small train originally built for the 2013 film *[Lone Ranger](The)(The Lone Ranger (2013 film))*. F&W also provided a few hundred feet of track on which to place the train. A pusher vehicle propelled the train into the Sweetwater set. The scenes in the underground laboratory levels of Westworld's operations center were filmed on a soundstage at Melody Ranch. The lab set used glass walls extensively, which meant the crew had to be vigilant to avoid walking through glass on the rather dark set, and they had to keep identifying and suppressing unwanted reflections. [Plaza](Hawthorne)(Hawthorne Plaza Shopping Center) was used for filming the "cold storage" level where decommissioned hosts are kept.
For the series' large-scale exterior look, the producers drew inspiration from the work of [Ford](John)(John Ford), who shot four of his Western films in [Valley](Castle)(Castle Valley, Utah), east of Moab. In early 2014, Nolan visited southern Utah with key crew members and a location scout to explore the possibility of filming there, and promptly fell in love with the place. Location shooting for the pilot episode later occurred over five days in southern Utah, including Castle Valley. Most Utah locations, like [Horse Point State Park](Dead)(Dead Horse Point State Park), were "walk-in" areas where both cast and crew were required to hike in and out with all their gear. Horseback riding scenes were filmed at a private ranch, where the filmmakers were not subject to as many restrictions as when working on public land. To seamlessly blend California sets with Utah scenery, set walls were shipped to Utah so that they could be used to film reverse angles of scenes originally filmed in California. For example, conversations on the exterior balcony of Westworld's operations center were shot on a balcony at the Skirball Center facing towards the center, then reverse angles over the shoulders of the cast members were shot at Dead Horse Point, to make it seem as if the operations center was located on top of the state park's steep cliffs. The train interior scenes were created by mounting the entire train car set on the back of a flatbed truck and driving the truck back and forth along [State Route 128](Utah)(Utah State Route 128).
The [printing](3D)(3D printing) of hosts was shot utilizing almost entirely [effect](practical)(practical effect)s, of which some were polished by the visual effects team. The series used real guns, although they were usually unloaded. Out of respect for the actors and extras involved, filming of nudity was conducted on a closed set, and for sex scenes, an [coordinator](intimacy)(intimacy coordinator) was used.
In November 2018, some of the sets located at Paramount Ranch were destroyed by the [Fire](Woolsey)(Woolsey Fire). In July 2021, production on the fourth season was halted due to a positive [COVID-19](COVID-19) case. In August 2021, it was reported that production on the fourth season had resumed at the [Ranch Studio](Melody)(Melody Ranch Studio) in [CA](Newhall,)(Newhall, CA). In an interview, actor Jeffrey Wright confirmed that filming for season four concluded in December 2021.
### Design
#### Costumes
Costume designer Ane Crabtree approached her work by taking as inspiration the historical attire of the Wild West from the 1850s to the 1890s, as opposed to looking purely at [films](Westerns)(Western (genre)). Fabrics were custom-woven, dyed and printed for any actor with a speaking role, in order to capture the intricacies of the costumes (most of which were manufactured from scratch). Hat designs were the most challenging part of the process.
#### Title sequence
The series' [sequence](title)(title sequence) was created by Elastic, a production studio that created the title sequences for three other HBO series: *[Rome](Rome (TV series))*, *[Carnivàle](Carnivàle)*, and *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)*. Patrick Clair acted as [director](creative)(creative director) for the title sequence, which took about five weeks to conceptualize.
Clair met with Nolan and Joy in February 2016. He was interested in their decision to approach the series' point of view from that of the hosts, creating a [study](psychological)(Psychology). The sequence translates elements present in the series via [design](computer-aided)(computer-aided design). For example, once Clair was sent footage by composer [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi) of a [piano](player)(player piano) in motion, its actual counterpart, situated in the *Westworld* production office, was photographed and then reconstructed in [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery). Nolan also applied the self-playing instrument as a reference to [Vonnegut](Kurt)(Kurt Vonnegut)'s first novel, *[Piano](Player)(Player Piano (novel))*. It was meant to represent the first [Goldberg machine](Rube)(Rube Goldberg machine) to evoke human motion. Clair saw the metaphor behind the player piano—"a primitive form of robot"—as an exploration into the disparity between man and machine "being created to be made redundant." Hosts that were bathed in white liquid struck Clair as a juxtaposition of the grit and grain of the Western genre with its basis in science fiction. Motifs of [da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci)'s [Man](Vitruvian)(Vitruvian Man) came about from Clair's wish to convey *Westworld*s depiction of the naked human body. The sequence also refers to [Cunningham](Chris)(Chris Cunningham)'s 1999 music video for the [Björk](Björk) song "[Is Full of Love](All)(All Is Full of Love)", in a way that Clair called "a bit shameless ... because I worship Chris Cunningham and ... it seemed like the perfect place to do it because it was dealing with all the right themes and all the right aesthetics."
The sequence commences with the rib cage of a horse, along with a set of hosts manufactured by [robot](industrial)(industrial robot)s. The skeletal horse is shown in mid-gallop to subvert the iconography of such a depiction. As for Clair's efforts in exposing the Western landscapes in connection with a world of [robotics](robotics), he thought it sensible that it be done inside a single eye; craters and valleys are formed as the simulacrum of an [iris](Iris (anatomy)).
The second season introduces a new title sequence. Several elements from the original title sequence are changed, including the images of a horse, now replaced with a bison. Other new images in the title sequence include the Man in Black's black hat, a mother cradling her child (evocative of Maeve), and a blonde woman's hair being fabricated (representing Dolores). Ramin Djawadi's score stays the same, with the images of the player piano intact.
### Music
[[File:Ramin Djawadi.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Ramin Djawadi|right|[Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi) composed original music for the series.]]
Original music for the series is composed by Ramin Djawadi, who also worked with showrunner Nolan on *[of Interest](Person)(Person of Interest (TV series))*. The main theme blends the use of [note](bass)(bass note)s, light [arpeggio](arpeggio)s and melody, all of which complement the idea of an amusement park. The [season soundtrack](first)(Westworld (soundtrack)) was released on December 5, 2016.
The series prominently features a number of re-workings of popular songs for player piano and strings, among them [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s "[Runaway](Runaway (Kanye West song))", [Radiohead](Radiohead)'s "[Surprises](No)(No Surprises)", "[Plastic Trees](Fake)(Fake Plastic Trees)", "Motion Picture Soundtrack" and "[Music (For a Film)](Exit)(Exit Music (For a Film))"; [Soundgarden](Soundgarden)'s "[Hole Sun](Black)(Black Hole Sun)"; [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones)' "[It Black](Paint)(Paint It Black)"; "Pine Apple Rag" and "[Rag](Peacherine)(List of compositions by Scott Joplin)" by [Joplin](Scott)(Scott Joplin); [Debussy](Claude)(Claude Debussy)'s "[for piano, L.68](*Reverie*)(List of compositions by Claude Debussy by Lesure number#L 51 – L 100)"; "[Forest](A)(A Forest)" by [Cure](The)(The Cure); [Animals](The)(The Animals)' version of "[House of the Rising Sun](The)(The House of the Rising Sun#The Animals' version)"; [Winehouse](Amy)(Amy Winehouse)'s "[to Black](Back)(Back to Black (song))", and [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails)' "[I Can Never Have](Something)(Something I Can Never Have)". Licensing costs ranged from $15,000 to $55,000.
Djawadi said of the series' use of modern songs: "*Westworld* has an anachronistic feel to it, it's a Western theme park, and yet it has robots in it, so why not have modern songs? And that's a metaphor in itself, wrapped up in the overall theme of the show", but credited Nolan with the idea.
## Release
### Broadcast
The series premiered its ten-episode first season on October 2, 2016, in North America and Australia, and on October 4, 2016, in the UK and Ireland. The series is broadcast on HBO in the United States, on [Canada](HBO)(HBO Canada) in Canada, on [Latin America](HBO)(HBO Latin America Group) in Latin America, in Australia on [Showcase](Fox)(Fox Showcase), and in the UK and Ireland on [Atlantic](Sky)(Sky Atlantic). In New Zealand, the series is distributed by [Sky](Sky (New Zealand))'s streaming service [Neon](Neon (service)).
The second episode was released on HBO in the U.S. on October 7—two days ahead of the episode's announced broadcast date—to avoid competing with the second U.S. presidential debate of 2016.
### Marketing
Prior to the airing of *Westworld*, HBO held [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) exhibits at events like [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) and Techcrunch Disrupt devoted to *Westworld: A Delos Destination*. Attendees were allowed to navigate the process by which guests would enter Westworld, and [with the 3D environment](interact)(3D interaction). Made to run on the [Vive](HTC)(HTC Vive) [reality headset](virtual)(virtual reality headset), the piece was conceived by showrunners Nolan and Joy. It was designed using [Engine 4](Unreal)(Unreal Engine 4), combining computer-generated content and live action [video](360-degree)(360-degree video). Users received a [code](binary)(binary code), permitting access to the website *DiscoverWestworld.com* as part of a [marketing](viral)(viral marketing) campaign. Visitors were shown a trailer of a fictional travel site, leading them to order a trip to Westworld. A [chatbot](chatbot) featured on the website, named Aeden, is available as a Google Assistant action on the smart speaker [Home](Google)(Google Home).
In March 2018, to promote *Westworld*s second season, HBO constructed a real-life replica of the show's fictional Western "town" of Sweetwater during [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest), built on two acres of open land just outside [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas). Fans took shuttles to the site, which was dressed in the Old West style, with over 60 actors playing the parts of the android "hosts".
At the [Electronics Show](Consumer)(Consumer Electronics Show) in January 2020, prior to the third season, HBO held a special event hosted by "Incite", the fictional company to be introduced in the third season, with "hosts" attending the invited guests' needs.
### Home media
The first season of *Westworld* (subtitled *The Maze*) was released on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), DVD, and [4K](4K resolution) [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on November 7, 2017. It is the first scripted TV series to be released on 4K Blu-ray in the United States. The second season was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K Blu-ray on December 4, 2018. The third season was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K Blu-ray on November 17, 2020. The fourth season was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and 4K Blu-ray on November 29, 2022.
## Reception
### Critical response
#### Season 1
The first season was acclaimed, with particular praise for its visuals, story, world-building, themes, and acting. On review aggregation website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the first season has an approval rating of 87% based on 384 reviews, with an average rating of 8.15/10. The site's consensus reads "With an impressive level of quality that honors its source material, the brilliantly addictive *Westworld* balances intelligent, enthralling drama against outright insanity." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the first season has a score of 74 out of 100, based on reviews from 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
The editors of *[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)* placed *Westworld* fifth among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–17 season. In writer Tim Surette's overall review, he notes the perfect concept of blending the western premise into a futuristic setting, saying, "Well, *Westworld* has both, ensuring that it will be an exciting mashup of genres that will disrupt a television landscape that typically says we can only have one or the other." He also added, "The look of the show and its fine cast swing open the saloon doors, but the real treat will be the intelligent discussion of whether or not robots will eventually kill us all. Thankfully, creator Jonathan Nolan already showed us he's the go-to guy for A.I. with *Person of Interest*." [McNamara](Mary)(Mary McNamara) of *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* wrote in a lauded review, "It isn't just great television, it's vivid, thought-provoking television that entertains even as it examines the darker side of entertainment." For the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*, [Wiegand](David)(David Wiegand) wrote, "*Westworld* isn't easy to understand at first, but you will be hooked nonetheless by unusually intelligent storytelling, powerful visuals and exceptionally nuanced performances." *[Time](Time (magazine))*s chief critic Daniel D'Addario wrote, "Its carefully chosen details add up to a pulp spectacular that's more thoughtful than any other of this fall's new dramas."
[Jensen](Jeff)(Jeff Jensen) of *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* also lauded the series and said, "The depth of *Westworld* lies not in asking questions about memory, free will, and what makes us human, but in whether we can become more human than what we let ourselves to be, whether our stories can be richer and more meaningful than what the culture allows." Matthew Gilbert of *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* quipped, "*Westworld* has fewer heroes than *Game of Thrones*, which makes it a bit harder to warm up to, but like a good, thought-provoking puzzle, it is compelling and addictive." In a brief review from *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, Tim Goodman said, "Where *Westworld* is at its best is in the deeper issues that will unspool slowly, like a good mystery. Early episodes are adept at getting at the base attractions of the park and why people would come, but also in setting up a sense of confusion about motives. ... The series benefits from a number of standout performances." Robert Bianco of *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* wrote, "The reward, beyond the visual splendors you’ve come to expect from big-budget HBO productions, is a set of characters who grow ever more complex." Several other publications wrote positive reviews, including *[Indiewire](Indiewire)*, *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)*, *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)*, *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)*, and *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)*.
In a mixed review for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, chief critic [Poniewozik](James)(James Poniewozik) said, "It's an ambitious, if not entirely coherent, sci-fi shoot-’em-up that questions nihilistic entertainment impulses while indulging them." [Stuever](Hank)(Hank Stuever) of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* also joins Poniewozik saying, "I'm ... hesitant to write *Westworld* off as a dreary trot from start to finish; parts of it are as imaginative and intriguing as anything that's been on TV recently, particularly in the sci-fi realm," and further said, "It’s definitely not the cyborg *[Deadwood](Deadwood (TV series))*, that some HBO fans were actively wishing for, nor does it roll out the welcome mat as a riveting, accessible adventure." Chief journalist [Owen](Rob)(Rob Owen (journalist)) of *[Post-Gazette](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Post-Gazette)* critiqued the series less favorably saying, "It is the definition of a slow-burn series, a program that should be exciting rendered as kind of dull." In a less enthusiastic review for *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*, Maureen Ryan said, "*Westworld* looks terrific; its directors have shot its Western locations to stunning effect. But its warmly saturated outdoor scenes and its surface slickness aren't enough to mask the indecision, condescension, and hollowness at its core."
Novelist [Wilkins](Kim)(Kim Wilkins) critiqued the season for its misogynist portrayals. In her essay "These Violent Delights: Navigating Westworld as 'Quality' Television", she wrote:
}}
#### Season 2
The second season also received positive reviews from critics, with praise for the performances, visuals, its soundtrack, and themes. However, the plot and narrative was criticized for being confusing and inconsistent. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 85% based on 470 reviews, with an average rating of 7.95/10. The site's consensus reads "*Westworld* builds on its experimental first season, diving deeper into the human side of AI without losing any of its stylish, bloody glory." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 76 out of 100, based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
In April 2018, after the second-season premiere, *Variety* published an article concerning the series' complicated narrative. Andrew Wallenstein wrote, "*Westworld* seems to have too much faith viewers will be willing to absorb storylines that can border on the incomprehensible." He also commented about the possible future success of the series, stating, "There will be a very vocal core fan base willing to do the homework of piecing together the show's many mysteries, but that's not broad enough a base to be the kind of flagship series HBO wants." At the press tour of the [Critics Association](Television)(Television Critics Association), when the president of HBO programming Casey Bloys was asked about the complexity of the series and the negative response it had generated, he admitted that *Westworld* is not for "casual viewers".
#### Season 3
The third season received a positive reception from critics, though reviews became more mixed during the second half. While the visuals, acting, score, and setting expansion were praised, the script, dialogue, pacing, and narrative received polarizing responses; the plot was considered to be barely possible to understand, with many believing *Westworld* has departed too far from the main plot. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 73% based on 222 reviews, with an average rating of 7.05/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "*Westworld* succeeds in rebooting itself by broadening its scope beyond the titular amusement park while tightening its storytelling clarity – although some may feel that the soul has been stripped from this machine in the process." On Metacritic, the season has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100, based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
[CNN](CNN)s Brian Lowry wrote that "the show has become increasingly incomprehensible, at least for anyone not willing to put in the work trying to remember all the assorted connections, further complicated by the fact that dying in *Westworld* is often not a permanent state of affairs, amid the questions about who's truly human and who actually isn't." Writing for *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*, Kristen Baldwin gave the series a "B−" and said: "After spending three seasons struggling through maddeningly complicated time-loops, it's time the writers let Dolores, Maeve, and Bernard control-alt-delete themselves", while Darren Franich wrote that series had "lost its way" and gave the season a "C". Reviewing the season finale for [IndieWire](IndieWire), Ben Travers said: "Season 3 made a point of stripping away the rest of *Westworld*s building blocks: The park? Left behind. The maze? Gone. But the moral questions meant to keep you invested in the characters largely disappear, too. Season 3 doesn't bother developing its characters because it refuses to let them question the nature of their own reality."
#### Season 4
The fourth season received mixed-to-positive reviews, with praise for the performances, soundtrack, and visuals, but criticism for the script and its incomprehensible plot. A few critics, however, found it a slight improvement to the third season. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 76% based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "*Westworld*s continued reliance on mystery will frustrate just as much as it intrigues, but this fourth season still offers plenty of gleaming and menacing insight into a brave new world." Metacritic assigned a score of 64 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
### Ratings
The series premiere had viewership numbers slightly less than those for *[Detective](True)(True Detective)*, but much better than *[Vinyl](Vinyl (TV series))*, meaning that it was seen as "...off to a relatively promising start." The U.S. series premiere attracted 1.96 million viewers, with 0.8 million in the advertiser-coveted 18-to-49-year-old demographic. The premiere episode received 3.3 million viewers for its three Sunday night airings as well as on HBO's streaming platforms. The season one finale received 2.2 million viewers for its initial broadcast, and increased to 3.5 million including replays and on-demand viewing. The first season had an average cumulative viewership of 12 million viewers, making it the most-watched first season of an HBO series, and [TorrentFreak](TorrentFreak) gauged *Westworld* as the third-most-[torrented](Torrent file) television show of 2016.
* For the second season, see
* For the third season, see
* For the fourth season, see
|-
| 1.96
| 1.50
| 2.10
| 1.70
| 1.49
| 1.64
| 1.75
| 1.78
| 2.09
| 2.24
| 1.82
|-
| 2.06
| 1.85
| 1.63
| 1.59
| 1.55
| 1.11
| 1.39
| 1.44
| 1.56
| 1.56
| 1.57
|-
| 0.90
| 0.78
| 0.80
| 0.78
| 0.77
| 0.77
| 0.81
| 0.89
| 0.81
|-
| 0.33
| 0.35
| 0.31
| 0.31
| 0.38
| 0.39
| 0.32
| 0.39
| 0.35
}}
### Accolades
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[American drama television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American drama television series)
[American science fiction television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American science fiction television series)
[Western (genre) television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s Western (genre) television series)
[American television series debuts](Category:2016)(Category:2016 American television series debuts)
[American drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American drama television series)
[American science fiction television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American science fiction television series)
[Western (genre) television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s Western (genre) television series)
[American television series endings](Category:2022)(Category:2022 American television series endings)
[in television](Category:Androids)(Category:Androids in television)
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|
Amy Pascal
|
amy_pascal
|
# Amy Pascal
*Revision ID: 1159816078 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T18:27:47Z*
---
| birth_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| nationality = [American](Americans)
| other_names =
| known_for =
| education = [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles)
| employer =
| occupation = Business executive, [producer](film)(film producer)
| spouse =
| children = 1
| relatives =
}}
**Amy Beth Pascal** (born March 25, 1958) is an American film producer and business executive. She served as the Chairperson of the Motion Pictures Group of [Pictures Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Pictures) (SPE) and Co-Chairperson of SPE, including [Pictures Television](Sony)(Sony Pictures Television), from 2006 until 2015. She has overseen the production and distribution of many films and television programs, and was co-chairperson during the late-2014 [Pictures hack](Sony)(Sony Pictures hack). The leak uncovered multiple emails from Pascal which were deemed racially insensitive. She left Sony and Pascal later admitted that she was fired from the company.
She started her own production company, Pascal Pictures, which made its debut with the [*Ghostbusters* reboot](2016)(Ghostbusters (2016 film)). In 2017, she produced *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)*, ''[Game](Molly's)(Molly's Game)* and *[Post](The)(The Post (film))*. She has received two [Award for Best Picture](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Picture) nominations, for producing *The Post* and *[Women](Little)(Little Women (2019 film))''.
## Early life and education
Pascal was born on March 25, 1958, in [Angeles, California](Los)(Los Angeles, California). Her father, Anthony H. Pascal, was an economic researcher at the [Corporation](RAND)(RAND Corporation) who wrote about [American](African)(African Americans) [inequality](social)(social inequality) and the cost of [AIDS](AIDS). Her mother, Barbara Pascal, was a librarian and owner of an art bookstore, Artworks. Her family is [Jewish](American Jews). Pascal attended [School](Crossroads)(Crossroads School (Santa Monica, California)) in Santa Monica, then worked as a [bookkeeper](bookkeeper) at Crossroads School while getting her international relations degree at [UCLA](UCLA).
## Career
Pascal started her career as a secretary working for producer [Garnett](Tony)(Tony Garnett) at the independent production company Kestrel Films. From 1986 to 1987, she served as Vice President of Production at [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox).
### Sony Pictures
Pascal joined [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) in 1988, where she was responsible for the development of films including: *[Day](Groundhog)(Groundhog Day (film))*, *[Women](Little)(Little Women (1994 film))*, *[Awakenings](Awakenings)*, and *[League of Their Own](A)(A League of Their Own)*. She left Columbia in 1994 and served for two years as the President of Production for [Pictures](Turner)(Turner Pictures) while [Sassa](Scott)(Scott Sassa) was president of Turner Entertainment. During her time at Turner, Pascal hired Damon Lee as a development director.
Pascal rejoined Columbia in 1996 as the studio's president after Turner Pictures merged with [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) In 1999, Pascal became Chair of Columbia Pictures.
Pascal was named Co-Chairperson of Sony Pictures Entertainment in September 2006. She also served as Chairman of SPE's Motion Picture Group from December 2003 to February 2015. Pascal and SPE's Chairman and CEO [Lynton](Michael)(Michael Lynton) led all of SPE's lines of business, including: motion picture production, acquisition and distribution; television production, acquisition and distribution; television networks; digital content creation and distribution; operation of studio facilities; and development of new entertainment products, services and technologies.
Pascal has overseen the production and distribution of many films, including the *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man in film)* franchise; the [Bond](James)(James Bond) films *[Royale](Casino)(Casino Royale (2006 film))*, *[of Solace](Quantum)(Quantum of Solace)* and *[Skyfall](Skyfall)*, the first Bond film to gross over $1 billion at the worldwide box office; *[Da Vinci Code](The)(The Da Vinci Code (film))* and *[& Demons](Angels)(Angels & Demons (film))*; [Pictures Animation](Sony)(Sony Pictures Animation)'s *[Smurfs](The)(The Smurfs (film))*, *[with a Chance of Meatballs](Cloudy)(Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (film))*, and *[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania (film))*; and Best Picture Oscar nominees *[Hustle](American)(American Hustle (2013 film))*, *[Phillips](Captain)(Captain Phillips (film))*, *[Dark Thirty](Zero)(Zero Dark Thirty)*, *[Moneyball](Moneyball (film))* and *[Social Network](The)(The Social Network)*.
Pascal, along with Lynton, also oversaw [Pictures Television](Sony)(Sony Pictures Television) (SPT), which produces and distributes television programming for multiple platforms in the U.S. and internationally.
In 2013, Pascal was elected to the Board of Governors of the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences).
She clashed with investor [S. Loeb](Daniel)(Daniel S. Loeb), who accused both Pascal and Lynton of "poor financial controls." According to the *[Times](Financial)(Financial Times)*, "she employed an assistant who earned more than $250,000 a year, and had use of a [jet](private)(private jet) and other perks in keeping with Hollywood's golden era rather than an age of austerity." At the end of 2014, Pascal was the only woman at Sony to earn over $1 million per annum, having earned US$3 million a year.
Pascal's contract with Sony was scheduled to expire in March 2015. On February 5, 2015, Pascal announced she would step down in May 2015 Pascal stated during a *[in the World](Women)(Women in the World)* discussion on February 11, 2015, that she had been "fired" by Sony.Michael Cieply, [Amy Pascal Says Sony Pushed Her Out of Studio Post](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/13/business/media/amy-pascal-says-sony-pushed-her-out.html), *The New York Times*, February 12, 2015Dave McNary, [Amy Pascal Talks Getting 'Fired,' Sony Hack and Angelina Jolie Emails in Candid Interview](https://variety.com/2015/film/news/amy-pascal-sony-angelina-jolie-obama-hack-the-interview-1201431167/), *Variety*, February 11, 2015
### Film producer
Pascal started her own production company, with a four-year contract for funding and distribution via Sony Pictures Entertainment. The company, called Pascal Pictures, hired Rachel O'Connor as production chief and Ian Dalrymple to open and run a New York branch. Pascal Pictures was expected to continue Amy Pascal's "book-friendly" focus, and Dalrymple's office was expected to facilitate this. She produced the *[Ghostbusters](Ghostbusters (2016 film))* reboot film and the [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios)-produced *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)*, in addition to theatre and television work. [TriStar](TriStar Pictures) President Hannah Minghella obtained rights to *Maestra* by L. S. Hilton with the intent for Pascal to produce the film. (see previous story linked therein) Pascal Pictures made a winning bid for a memoir by [Quinn](Zoë)(Zoë Quinn) about "[Gamergate](Gamergate controversy)" called *[Override: How to Save the Internet from Itself](Crash)(Crash Override (book))*, which was sold to Touchstone/[& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster) for publication in September 2016. Pascal and Elizabeth Cantillon optioned rights for a TriStar TV series based on books by [Babitz](Eve)(Eve Babitz) set in 1960s-1970s Los Angeles. For a sum in the "mid-six to seven figures", Pascal made a deal for Michael Diliberti's *Athena*, about a descendant of the goddess Athena who is recruited to a secret organization. Together with Sony, Pascal obtained rights for the TV crime drama *Darktown*, which she plans to executive produce with [Foxx](Jamie)(Jamie Foxx).
In May 2019, it was announced that Pascal and her production company Pascal Pictures is leaving Sony and moving to [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) for a first-look deal after 30 years at Sony Pictures.
### Activities and awards
In 2001, Pascal was honored with the [in Film](Women)(Women in Film Los Angeles)'s [Award](Crystal)(Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards#THE CRYSTAL AWARD), which recognizes those whose work has helped to expand the role of women in the entertainment industry. Pascal has been included in *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*s annual [in Entertainment Power 100](Women)(Power 100) list and *[Forbes](Forbes)* ranking of the World's 100 Most Powerful Women. , she was ranked as the 28th most powerful woman in the world by *Forbes*, up from 36th in 2013.
## Philanthropy
Pascal serves on the Honorary Committee of the [Foundation](Epilepsy)(Epilepsy Foundation) of Greater Los Angeles. She has made charitable contributions to [Line](Teen)(Teen Line).
She was awarded the 2008 Humanitarian Award from the [Wiesenthal Center](Simon)(Simon Wiesenthal Center), a non-profit organization based in Los Angeles which combats antisemitism and promotes human rights and tolerance. She received the award at the 2008 National Tribute Dinner, an annual fundraiser which raised US$2 million for the center.Bill Higgins, [No laughing matter](https://variety.com/2008/scene/markets-festivals/no-laughing-matter-3-1117985268/), *Variety*, May 7, 2008 In her acceptance speech, she said, "I believe in what the [museum](Museum of Tolerance) is committed to: not just the literal event of the [Holocaust](The Holocaust) but not letting anything like that happen again."
In August 2014, in the wake of the [Israel–Gaza conflict](2014)(2014 Israel–Gaza conflict), alongside more than 190 members of the Hollywood entertainment industry, she signed a petition condemning [Hamas](Hamas) started by [Community for Peace](Creative)(Creative Community for Peace), a pro-peace non-profit organization.Maane Khatchatourian, [Hollywood Stars, Executives Sign Petition in Support of Israel](https://variety.com/2014/biz/news/hollywood-elite-sign-anti-hamas-statement-1201289089/), *Variety*, August 23, 2014[More Than 190 Hollywood Notables Sign Pro-Israel Statement Criticizing Hamas](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/more-190-hollywood-notables-sign-727221), *The Hollywood Reporter*, August 23, 2014Tony Maglio, [Nearly 200 Hollywood Actors and Execs Sign Pro-Israel, Anti-Hamas Statement](https://www.thewrap.com/israel-hamas-hollywood-creative-community-for-peace/), *The Wrap*, August 23, 2014 The petition read in part, "Hamas cannot be allowed to rain rockets on Israeli cities, nor can it be allowed to hold its own people hostage. Hospitals are for healing, not for hiding weapons. Schools are for learning, not for launching missiles. Children are our hope, not our human shields."
## Sony Pictures hack and Controversies
On December 9, 2014, a group called "Guardians of Peace" hacked into Sony's computer system, which led to the theft of internal company documents. The fallout became a major international diplomatic incident in [Korea–United States relations](North)(North Korea–United States relations). In subsequent news coverage Pascal and producer [Rudin](Scott)(Scott Rudin) were noted to have had an exchange in these documents about Pascal's upcoming encounter with President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama). Pascal joked that the president, who is [black](Black people), would possibly enjoy *[Unchained](Django)(Django Unchained)* and *[Butler](The)(The Butler)* (films which deal with [in the United States](slavery)(slavery in the United States) and the pre-civil rights era) or the comedy *[Like a Man](Think)(Think Like a Man)* which features an ensemble cast of black comedians. Rudin responded, "*[Along](Ride)(Ride Along (film))*, I bet he likes [Hart](Kevin)(Kevin Hart)."
### Racist comments
News reports branded the exchange as "racially insensitive," while others called it "[racist](racism in the United States)." Pascal responded by saying "the content of my emails were insensitive and inappropriate but are not an accurate reflection of who I am."
Civil rights leader [Sharpton](Al)(Al Sharpton) suggested the apology was not sufficient, compared her to [Sterling](Donald)(Donald Sterling), and called for more diversity in Sony's hiring pool. The screenwriter and producer [Sorkin](Aaron)(Aaron Sorkin) denounced the media's focus on Pascal's communications and many other emails released by the hack in an opinion piece for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, characterising the coverage as "giving material aid to criminals" and writing "at least the hackers are doing it for a cause. The press is doing it for a nickel." In the popular press, coverage of the story was extended with actress and producer [Kudrow](Lisa)(Lisa Kudrow) suggesting Pascal should have known better, adding, "Don't write anything you don't want broadcast".[Lisa Kudrow Rips Sony Execs Over Leaked Emails: 'Don't Write Anything You Don't Want Broadcast' (Video)](https://www.thewrap.com/lisa-kudrow-rips-sony-execs-over-leaked-emails-dont-write-anything-you-dont-want-broadcast-video/), *[TheWrap](TheWrap)*, December 13, 2014Ryan Gajewsk, [Lisa Kudrow on Sony Emails: Execs Need "Boundaries and Accountability"](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/lisa-kudrow-sony-emails-execs-757499/), *The Hollywood Reporter*, December 13, 2014. Retrieved April 21, 2022 At the [Guild of America Awards 2014](Writers)(Writers Guild of America Awards 2014) on January 7, 2015, Kudrow, who was the presenter, mentioned the Sony hack again, arguing that it was disturbing "because Scott Rudin and Amy Pascal thought *that* was witty banter."[https://deadline.com/2015/02/wga-awards-live-blog-2015-writers-guild-awards-1201373023/] *Deadline Hollywood*
[of Change](Color)(Color of Change), a civil rights organization, launched a petition in December 2014 calling upon Sony to fire Pascal from her role, arguing, "Pascal's comments are confirmation of the manipulative, exploitative relationship corporations like Sony have with Black folks." They added, "We must hold Pascal accountable here; not just for her horrendous comments, but also for her role at the helm of a corporate agenda that views Black America as one big, lucrative joke."
In a 2020 interview with *[Vulture](Vulture (magazine))*, [Newton](Thandiwe)(Thandiwe Newton) accused Pascal of making racially insensitive and demeaning demands of her for the film remake of ''[Angels](Charlie's)(Charlie's Angels (2000 film))'', a film Newton ended up declining to star in due to Pascal's alleged behavior. Pascal responded by stating she was "horrified" by the story and had no recollection of it.
### Gender pay gap
After Pascal left Sony, she was interviewed about Sony Entertainment's [pay gap](gender)(gender pay gap) that had been exposed by the leaks. [Brown](Tina)(Tina Brown) asked Pascal to explain why actresses did not realize they were being paid less than male actors. Pascal said, "People want to work for less money. I'll pay them less money. I don't call them up and go, 'Can I give you some more?' ... what women have to do is not work for less money.... People should know what they're worth and say no."
Women making less than their male counterparts and male co-stars learned of the difference from the hack. The difference between what men and women made was pervasive at Sony Pictures under Pascal, with only one female out of the seventeen studio executives earning more than $1 million per year according to the unconfirmed emails, and [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures) co-presidents of production [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) and Hannah Minghella serving in identical jobs but with a million dollar difference in pay.
## Pascal Pictures
In 2016, Pascal launched her production company Pascal Pictures which produced their first film *[Ghostbusters](Ghostbusters (2016 film))*.
## Personal life
Pascal married [Weinraub](Bernard)(Bernard Weinraub), a former foreign correspondent for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* and playwright, in 1997. They reside in [Los Angeles](Brentwood,)(Brentwood, Los Angeles), with their son Anthony Weinraub.
## Producer filmography
## Awards and nominations
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
[births](Category:1958)(Category:1958 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American businesspeople](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American businesspeople)
[American businesswomen](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American businesswomen)
[American Jews](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American Jews)
[American businesspeople](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American businesspeople)
[American businesswomen](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American businesswomen)
[American Jews](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Jews)
[chairpersons of corporations](Category:American)(Category:American chairpersons of corporations)
[film studio executives](Category:American)(Category:American film studio executives)
[women business executives](Category:American)(Category:American women business executives)
[women film producers](Category:American)(Category:American women film producers)
[from Los Angeles](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Los Angeles)
[School alumni](Category:Crossroads)(Category:Crossroads School alumni)
[people from Los Angeles](Category:Film)(Category:Film people from Los Angeles)
[producers from California](Category:Film)(Category:Film producers from California)
[women in business](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish women in business)
[from Brentwood, Los Angeles](Category:People)(Category:People from Brentwood, Los Angeles)
[of Columbia Pictures](Category:Presidents)(Category:Presidents of Columbia Pictures)
[controversies in the United States](Category:Race-related)(Category:Race-related controversies in the United States)
[Pictures Animation people](Category:Sony)(Category:Sony Pictures Animation people)
[Pictures Entertainment people](Category:Sony)(Category:Sony Pictures Entertainment people)
[of California, Los Angeles alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni)
[corporate directors](Category:Women)(Category:Women corporate directors)
|
Markiplier
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markiplier
|
# Markiplier
*Revision ID: 1160089942 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T10:45:20Z*
---
| birth_place = [Honolulu](Honolulu), [Hawaii](Hawaii), U.S.
| occupation =
| signature = Markiplier signature.svg
| website =
| channel_url = UC7_YxT-KID8kRbqZo7MyscQ
| channel_display_name = Markiplier
| origin = [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), [Ohio](Ohio), U.S.
| education =
| years_active = 2012–present
| genre =
| subscribers = 35 million
| views = 20.1 billion
| network = [Polaris](Disney Digital Network)
| location = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| associated_acts =
| silver_year = 2013
| gold_year = 2013
| diamond_year = 2015
| silver_button = yes
| gold_button = yes
| diamond_button = yes
| stats_update = June 14, 2023
}}
**Mark Edward Fischbach** ( ; born June 28, 1989), known online as **Markiplier**, is an American [YouTuber](YouTuber) and [director](film)(film director). He mainly uploads gaming content. Joining YouTube in 2012, Fischbach quickly established himself on the platform with [Plays](Let's)(Let's Play) of [horror](survival)(survival horror) games such as *[The Dark Descent](Amnesia:)(Amnesia: The Dark Descent)* (2010) and the ''[Nights at Freddy's](Five)(Five Nights at Freddy's)'' series. , his channel has over 35 million subscribers.
After expressing an interest in more traditional entertainment, Fischbach signed with talent agency [Morris Endeavor](William)(William Morris Endeavor) in 2016. In the following years, he started a live tour, a clothing line named Cloak, wrote and directed the [Original](YouTube)(YouTube Originals) series *[Heist with Markiplier](A)(A Heist with Markiplier)* (2019) and *In Space with Markiplier* (2022), and several podcaststwo of which reached No. 1 on [Spotify](Spotify). In 2023, Fischbach moved to [Talent Agency](United)(United Talent Agency). In April 2023, Fischbach announced he was leading production of the [film](horror)(horror film) [Lung*](*Iron)(Iron Lung (film)), which will be his theatrical film debut.
Fischbach is one of the most popular gaming YouTubers. He was listed by *[Forbes](Forbes)* as the third highest-paid content creator on the platform in 2022, and has won four [Awards](Streamy)(Streamy Awards) and a [Joystick Award](Golden)(Golden Joystick Awards) for "Best Streamer/Broadcaster".
## Early life and education
Mark Edward Fischbach was born on June 28, 1989 in [Honolulu](Honolulu), [Hawaii](Hawaii). WIRED |date=March 22, 2019 |last=Fischbach |first=Mark |type=Interview |publisher=[WIRED](Wired (magazine)) |via=[YouTube](YouTube)}} His father Cliffton, was a military officer who met his Korean mother Sunok Frank while stationed in South Korea. Fischbach's maternal family history is explored in the 2022 documentary *Markiplier From North Korea*.
After Fischbach was born, the family moved to [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), Ohio, but his parents divorced when he was young. Fischbach graduated from [High School](Milford)(Milford High School (Ohio)) in 2007 and enrolled at the [of Cincinnati](University)(University of Cincinnati), where he took a [engineering](biomedical)(biomedical engineering) program. His father died in 2008. Fischbach met Wade Barnes in sixth grade and roomed with Bob Muyskens in his freshman year—they would both become his long-term friends and collaborators.
In 2012, Fischbach was beset by many different issues: he went through a breakup, was laid off his job, moved to an apartment after his mother kicked him out of her house, had an emergency [appendectomy](appendectomy) and went into debt. After being hospitalized because of an [tumor](adrenal)(adrenal tumor), he "decided that he wanted to do something else."
## YouTube career
### History
#### Early years and growth (2012–2014)
[[Video Screenshot From Youtube May 26 2014.PNG|thumb|180px|Fischbach in 2014](File:Markiplier)]
Fischbach registered his first [YouTube](YouTube) channel on March 6, 2012. He originally intended to upload [sketches](comedy)(sketch comedy) and action videos. He named the channel "Markiplier", a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of *Mark* and *multiplier*, as he would be portraying all the characters in the sketches. Fischbach later said it was a "really dumb name". However, Fischbach also had a lifelong interest in video games and decided to do gaming videos while the trend was growing. His first series was a [Play](Let's)(Let's Play) of *[The Dark Descent](Amnesia:)(Amnesia: The Dark Descent)* (2010), and the channel reached over ninety-four thousand subscribers within the year.
[YouTubers](YouTubers) with over one thousand subscribers were then eligible to earn money under YouTube's [AdSense](AdSense) program. However, Fischbach had problems with his AdSense account which prevented him from monetizing his videos, and he was forced to move to his current channel in April, originally named "markiplierGAME". He dropped out of university the same year to support his growing online career, only two semesters away from graduating.
In 2014, Fischbach moved to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) to be closer to potential business opportunities. He began his now-famous Let's Play of ''[Nights at Freddy's](Five)(Five Nights at Freddy's (video game))'' (2014), the first part of which became his most viewed gaming video on his channel. The success of this series led Fischbach to play the other games in [franchise](the)(Five Nights at Freddy's), and he also had a cameo in ''[Nights at Freddy's AR: Special Delivery](Five)(Five Nights at Freddy's AR: Special Delivery)'' (2019).
#### Hiatus and breaking 10 million subscribers (2015)
[[in 2015](File:Markiplier_2015.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Fishbach)]
Fischbach and [Varney](Janet)(Janet Varney) co-hosted the 2015 [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest) Gaming Awards, and he was featured in [Rewind](YouTube)(YouTube Rewind). He was ranked sixth in a list of the twenty most influential celebrities among teenagers in the United States. Fischbach and fellow YouTuber Jenna Mae appeared on *[Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!)* in September 2015 following backlash Kimmel received regarding jokes he made about YouTube and [Play](Let's)(Let's play) videos.
Fischbach began living with fellow YouTubers Daniel Kyre and Ryan Magee, who ran the YouTube channel Cyandago. They amassed a large following through frequent collaborations with Fischbach. In September 2015, Kyre was found in critical condition after attempting suicide in his room. He was hospitalized, but was taken off life support two days later. Cyandago was disbanded and Fischbach went on hiatus from YouTube for a month before returning on October 5. He reached 10 million subscribers on the 15th.
#### Continued growth and larger projects (2016–2019)
[[in 2017](File:Markiplier_in_2017.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Fishbach)]
In November 2016, Fischbach signed with talent agency [Morris Endeavor](William)(William Morris Endeavor) (WME). His first project with WME was his "You're Welcome Tour" in Spring 2017, in which Fischbach and four other YouTubers—Muyskens, Barnes, Tyler Schied, and Ethan Nestor—performed thirty-one shows across the United States and Europe. Fischbach had said to *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* that he was interested in more traditional entertainment. Taking five months to plan, he incorporated musical, comedy and [improv](Improvisational theatre) elements and audience participation in the tour. [[(29479429937).jpg|thumbnail|Fischbach in 2018](File:Markiplier)]In January 2018, Fischbach began producing exclusive content for Twitch as part of a deal with [Digital Network](Disney)(Disney Digital Network). His YouTube channel reached 20 million subscribers in March, before going on another hiatus in June to mourn his step-niece Miranda Cracraft, who had been killed in a car accident aged nineteen, raising over $79,000 for her funeral through [GoFundMe](GoFundMe).
In October 2019, [interactive](Interactive film) special *[Heist with Markiplier](A)(A Heist With Markiplier)* was released as his first [Original](YouTube)(YouTube Originals). Produced by Fischbach and [Teeth](Rooster)(Rooster Teeth), the special follows two burglars—the viewer and Fischbach—and contains 31 possible endings. Fischbach had released a similar project titled *A Date with Markiplier* in 2017.
On November 15, 2019, Fischbach launched a new channel with fellow YouTuber Ethan Nestor (formerly known online as CrankGameplays) called Unus Annus, a channel which planned to upload a video every day for one year, after which the channel would be deleted along with its videos. The channel rose to early success, gaining 1 million subscribers in its first 5 days and 4.56 million in its last few minutes, and over 11.5 million video views in its first week. Following a final 12-hour live stream that peaked at over 1.5 million concurrent viewers, the channel was deleted by Fischbach and Nestor on November 14, 2020, at 12:00 a.m. PST.
#### Podcasts and new projects (2019–2023)
Fischbach starred and co-produced a podcast drama called *[Edge of Sleep](The)(The Edge of Sleep)*, which follows a night watchman who discovers that everyone who fell asleep the previous night died and must try stay awake. The first project from [QCode](QCode)'s Wood Elf label,}} *The Edge of Sleep* debuted September 2019, and was renewed for a second season set for 2023. Fischbach will reprise his role in a television remake produced by [Regency](New)(Regency Enterprises), which as of 2023 has been fully shot and is being taken out to buyers. [Tipton](Lio)(Lio Tipton) and [Harlow](Eve)(Eve Harlow) will also star.
Fischbach, alongside Barnes and Muyskens, host the podcast *Distractible*. Also produced by Wood Elf, it rose to No. 1 on [Spotify](Spotify) and [Podcasts](Apple)(Apple Podcasts)' charts when it was launched in May 2021. Fischbach and Scheid also launched *Go! My Favorite Sports Team* in February 2022, a comedy podcast where the enthusiast Scheid and the unknowledgeable Fischbach discuss sports.
The two-part *In Space with Markiplier* (2022) was again produced by Fischbach and Rooster Teeth as his second interactive YouTube Original. The viewer takes on the role of the captain of a collapsing spaceship with Fischbach playing its head engineer. *In Space* was nominated for Outstanding Interactive Media at the first [and Family Emmys Awards](Children's)(Children's and Family Emmy Awards).
*[Deadline](Deadline Hollywood)* announced at the start of March 2023 that Fischbach had signed with [Talent Agency](United)(United Talent Agency) (UTA). A week later, it was announced at Spotify Stream On that Spotify would exclusively host new video episodes of *Distractible* and *Go! My Favorite Sports Team*. Fischbach also said he was working on an upcoming film. On April 21, *Deadline* announced that Fischbach had begun production on [film adaptation](a)(Iron Lung (film)) of the 2022 indie horror game *[Lung](Iron)(Iron Lung (video game))* by [Szymanski](David)(David Szymanski). Fischbach is directing, producing, writing, and financing *Iron Lung* himself. The film stars him and [Rose Kaplan](Caroline)(The Plot Against America (miniseries)).
### Channel format
Fischbach has collaborated on sketch comedy and gaming videos with a number of fellow [YouTuber](YouTuber)s, including Ethan Nestor, [Jacksepticeye](Jacksepticeye), LordMinion777, Muyskerm, [PewDiePie](PewDiePie), Matthias, *[Grumps](Game)(Game Grumps)*, Cyndago, Yamimash, [jacksfilms](jacksfilms), [CaptainSparklez](Jordan Maron), [Egoraptor](Arin Hanson) and LixianTV, who currently works as his editor. He has also collaborated with celebrities such as [Black](Jack)(Jack Black) and [Kimmel](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel).
Fischbach is known for his charity streams, which included [Children's Hospital Medical Center](Cincinnati)(Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center), the [and Bipolar Support Alliance](Depression)(Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance), and [Friends Animal Society](Best)(Best Friends Animal Society).
## Other ventures
Fischbach joined the board of comic book publisher [Giant Entertainment](Red)(Red Giant Entertainment) in November 2014. In June of that year at the [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con), he co-hosted a panel with figures from the company including CEO [R. Powell](Benny)(Benny R. Powell), and writers [Campiti](David)(David Campiti), [Castle](Mort)(Mort Castle), [Lawrence](David)(David Lawrence (writer)), and [Augustyn](Brian)(Brian Augustyn). In 2016, it was announced that he would appear in his own line of comics.
Since 2017, he has voiced the character 5.0.5 in the [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network) series *[Villainous](Villainous (TV series))*.
### Cloak
In October 2018, Fischbach and fellow YouTuber [McLoughlin](Seán)(Jacksepticeye) launched the clothing line Cloak, aimed at the gaming community. Streamer [Anys](Imane)(Pokimane) joined Cloak as a partner and creative director in 2020.
## Philanthropy
Fischbach has participated in multiple charity [streams](live)(Live streaming) and fundraisers. The majority of his fundraising has been for cancer charities in honor of his father, who died of lung cancer in 2008.
In 2017, *[Forbes](Forbes)* reported that Fischbach and his fans raised around $3 million for charity through these events. In March 2018, in celebration of reaching 20 million subscribers, Fischbach announced he would donate all proceeds from a 48-hour sale of his "Tasteful Nudes" Charity Calendar to the [Research Institute](Cancer)(Cancer Research Institute); he raised over $490,000 for the charity and won the 2020 Oliver R. Grace Award.
### OnlyFans
The success of the Tasteful Nudes Calendar inspired Fischbach to start an account on [OnlyFans](OnlyFans), whose proceeds will be split evenly between the [Children's Hospital](Cincinnati)(Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center) and the [Food Programme](World)(World Food Programme). He announced a set of conditions that had to be met first before launching the page: The first condition was that his *Distractible* podcast had to become the most popular podcast on [Podcast](Apple)(Apple Podcast) and [Spotify](Spotify), and the second condition was that a sports podcast he created with a friend had to become the most popular sports podcast in the United States and the rest of the world. The third and final condition was that fans had to pay an admission of $12 for his documentary *Markiplier From North Korea*, a documentary based on his mother's life story about him getting back in touch with the rest of his family.
The conditions were met faster than he was prepared for. On November 2, 2022, he announced in a YouTube video that he was going to create the page at the end of the month, after making an initial batch of "tasteful nudes" and getting the username from someone who was impersonating him.
The page was launched on December 9, 2022, and the influx of traffic caused the site to crash.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television and web series
### Video games
## Awards and nominations
## See also
* [of YouTubers](List)(List of YouTubers)
## Notes
## References
### Primary sources
## External links
*
*
*
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Archangel
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archangel
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# Archangel
*Revision ID: 1160199673 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T00:48:35Z*
---
[[File:Paolo de Matteis - The Annunciation.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|*The Annunciation* by [de Matteis](Paolo)(Paolo de Matteis)]]
**Archangels** () are the second lowest rank of [angel](angel) in the Christian [of angels](hierarchy)(hierarchy of angels), put forward by [the Areopagite](Pseudo-Dionysius)(Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite) in the 5th or 6th century in his book *[Coelesti Hierarchia](De)(De Coelesti Hierarchia)* (*On the Celestial Hierarchy*). The word "archangel" itself is usually associated with the [religions](Abrahamic)(Abrahamic religions), but beings that are very similar to archangels are found in a number of other religious traditions.
The English word *archangel* is derived from [Greek](Ancient Greek) ἀρχάγγελος (arkhángelos), the Greek prefix "[arch](wikt:arch-)-" meaning "chief". A common misconception is that archangels are the highest rank of angel in [Christianity](Christianity). This misconception stems from [Milton](John)(John Milton)'s *[Lost](Paradise)(Paradise Lost)* and likely confusion over the "arch-" prefix.
In [Judaism](Judaism) however, the highest ranking angels such as [Michael](Michael (archangel)), [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)), [Gabriel](Gabriel) and [Uriel](Uriel), who are usually referred to as archangels in [English](English language), are given the title of *śārīm* ([Hebrew:](Hebrew language) שָׂרִים, sing. שָׂר, *śār*), meaning "[prince](prince)s", to show their superior rank and status. Two examples of this can be seen in [Daniel](Book of Daniel) 10:13 and 12:1, where Michael, Chief of the [Host](Heavenly)(Heavenly host), is referred to as *ʾaḥaḏ haśśārīm hārišōnīm* (Hebrew: אַחַד הַשָּׂרִים הָרִאשֹׁנִים) in the former, meaning "one of the first/chief princes", and *haśśar haggāḏōl* (Hebrew: הַשַּׂר הַגָּדוֹל) in the latter, meaning "the great prince".
## Description
[[File:Four Archangels, St John's Church, Warminster, Wiltshire.jpg|thumb|left|The four archangels, mosaics at [John's Church, Warminster](St)(St John's Church, Warminster)]]
[Michael](Michael (archangel)) and [Gabriel](Gabriel) are recognized as archangels in Judaism, Islam, and by most [Christians](Christians). [Raphael](Raphael (archangel))—mentioned in the [deuterocanonical](deuterocanonical books)/[apocryphal](Biblical apocrypha) [of Tobit](Book)(Book of Tobit)—is also recognized as a chief angel in the [Catholic](Catholic), [Lutheran](Lutheran), [Anglican](Anglican) and [Orthodox](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church) churches.}} Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are venerated in the [Catholic Church](Roman)(Catholic Church) and Lutheran Churches with a feast on September 29 (between 1921 and 1969, March 24 for Gabriel and October 24 for Raphael), and in the [Orthodox Church](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church) on November 8 (if the Julian calendar is used, this corresponds to November 21 in the Gregorian). The named archangels in Islam are [Jibra'il](Gabriel#Islam), [Mika'il](Michael (archangel)#Quran and other Muslim traditions), [Israfil](Israfil), and ['Azra'il](Azrael#Significance in Islam). Jewish literature, such as the [of Enoch](Book)(Book of Enoch), also mentions [Metatron](Metatron) as an archangel, called the "highest of the angels", though the acceptance of this angel is not canonical in all branches of the faith.
Some branches of the faiths mentioned have identified a group of [to eight archangels](seven)(seven Archangels), but the named angels vary, depending on the source. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are always mentioned; the other archangels vary, but most commonly include [Uriel](Uriel) and [Jerahmeel](Jerahmeel (archangel)), both of whom are mentioned in [Esdras](2)(2 Esdras). As well as Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel, the [of Enoch](Book)(Book of Enoch), regarded as canonical by the [Orthodox Tewahedo Church](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) (Oriental Orthodox), mentions in chapter 20: [Raguel](Raguel), [Sariel](Sariel), and [(Remiel)](Jerahmeel)(Jerahmeel).
## In Zoroastrianism
An increasing number of experts in anthropology, theology and philosophy believe that [Zoroastrianism](Zoroastrianism) contains the earliest distillation of prehistoric belief in angels.
The [Spentas](Amesha)(Amesha Spentas) ([Avestan](Avestan): Aməša Spəṇta, meaning "beneficent immortals") of Zoroastrianism are likened to archangels. They individually inhabit immortal bodies that operate in the physical world to protect, guide, and inspire humanity and the spirit world. The [Avesta](Avesta) explains the origin and nature of archangels or Amesha Spentas.
To maintain equilibrium, Ahura Mazda engaged in the first act of creation, distinguishing his Holy Spirit Spenta Mainyu, the Archangel of righteousness. Ahura Mazda also distinguished from himself six more Amesha Spentas, who, along with Spenta Mainyu, aided in the creation of the physical universe. Then he oversaw the development of sixteen lands, each imbued with a unique cultural catalyst calculated to encourage the formation of distinct human populations. The Amesha Spentas were charged with protecting these holy lands and through their emanation, also believed to align each respective population in service to God.
The Amesha Spentas as attributes of God are:
# Spenta Mainyu ([Pahlavi](Middle Persian): Spenamino): lit. "Bountiful Spirit"
# Asha Vahishta (Phl. Ardwahisht): lit. "Highest Truth"
# Vohu Mano (Phl. Vohuman): lit. "Righteous Mind"
# Khshathra Vairya (Phl. Shahrewar): lit. "Desirable Dominion"
# Spenta Armaiti (Phl. Spandarmad): lit. "Holy Devotion"
# Haurvatat (Phl. Hordad): lit. "Perfection or Health"
# Ameretat (Phl. Amurdad): lit. "Immortality"
## In Judaism
[[File:Jacob Wrestling with the Angel.jpg|thumb|*[Jacob](Jacob) Wrestling with the Angel* by [Doré](Gustave)(Gustave Doré), 1885]]
The [Bible](Hebrew)(Hebrew Bible) uses the term מלאכי אלהים (*malakhey Elohim*; Angels of God), The Hebrew word for angel is "malakh," which means messenger, for the angels מלאכי יי (*malakhey Adonai*; Angels of the Lord) are God's messengers to perform various missions - e.g. 'angel of death';[DEATH, ANGEL OF](http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5018-death-angel-of) "the "destroying angel" ("mal'ak ha-mashḥit")" Jewish Encyclopedia בני אלהים (''b'nei elohim*; sons of God) and הקדושים (*ha-q'doshim*; the holy ones) to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as *angelic messengers*. Other terms are used in later texts, such as העליונים (ha-elyonim, *the upper ones*, or *the supreme ones*). References to angels are uncommon in Jewish literature except in later works such as the [of Daniel](Book)(Book of Daniel), though they are mentioned briefly in the stories of [Jacob](Jacob) (who according to one interpretation wrestled with an angel) and [Lot](Lot (Bible)) (who was warned by angels of the impending destruction of the cities of [and Gomorrah](Sodom)(Sodom and Gomorrah)). [Daniel](Daniel (biblical figure)) is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name. It is therefore widely speculated that Jewish interest in angels developed during the [captivity](Babylonian)(Babylonian captivity).["Judaism: The Postexilic Period"](http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Judaism.html), *International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences* According to [Rabbi](Rabbi) [ben Lakish](Simeon)(Simeon ben Lakish) of [Tiberias](Tiberias) (230–270 A.D.), specific names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from [Babylon](Babylon).
There are no explicit references to archangels in the [canonical](Biblical canon) texts of the [Bible](Hebrew)(Hebrew Bible). In [Judaism](post-Biblical)(Rabbinic Judaism), certain angels came to take on a particular significance and developed unique personalities and roles. Though these archangels were believed to have ranked amongst the [host](heavenly)(heavenly host), no systematic hierarchy ever developed. [Metatron](Metatron) is considered one of the highest of the angels in [Merkavah](Merkabah) and [Kabbalist](kabbalah) mysticism and often serves as a scribe. He is briefly mentioned in the Talmud,Sanhedrin 38b and Avodah Zarah 3b. and figures prominently in Merkavah mystical texts. Michael, who serves as a warrior and advocate for Israel, is looked upon particularly fondly. Gabriel is mentioned in the Book of Daniel and briefly in the Talmud,cf. Sanhedrin 95b as well as many Merkavah mystical texts. The earliest references to archangels are in the literature of the intertestamental periods (e.g., 4 [Esdras](Esdras) 4:36).
In the [Kabbalah](Kabbalah) there are traditionally twelve archangels, who are each assigned to a certain [sephira](sephirot): [Metatron](Metatron), [Raziel](Raziel), [Cassiel](Cassiel), [Zadkiel](Zadkiel), [Camael](Camael), [Michael](Michael (archangel)), [Uriel](Uriel) & [Haniel](Haniel), [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)) & [Jophiel](Jophiel), [Gabriel](Gabriel), and [Sandalphon](Sandalphon). There are also a variety of other archangels who share similar associations spanning throughout this tradition. Chapter 20 of the [of Enoch](Book)(Book of Enoch) mentions seven holy angels who watch, that often are considered the seven archangels: Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, [Uriel](Uriel), [Sariel](Sariel), [Raguel](Raguel (angel)), and [Remiel](Jerahmeel (archangel)).Metzger & Coogan (1993) *Oxford Companion to the Bible'', Oxford University Press, [p. 54](https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&pg=PA54), The [of Adam and Eve](Life)(Life of Adam and Eve) lists the archangels as well: Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Raphael and [Joel](Jehoel).
Medieval [philosopher](Jewish)(Jewish philosopher) [Maimonides](Maimonides) made a [angelic hierarchy](Jewish)(Jewish angelic hierarchy).
## In Christianity
[[File:GuidoReni MichaelDefeatsSatan.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[Reni](Guido)(Guido Reni)'s *Archangel Michael Trampling Lucifer*, 1636]]
The [Testament](New)(New Testament) makes over a hundred references to [angel](angel)s, but uses the word "archangel" only twice, in ("For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God: and the dead in Christ shall rise first", [KJV](King James Version)) and ("Yet Michael the archangel, when contending with the devil he disputed about the body of Moses, durst not bring against him a railing accusation, but said, The Lord rebuke thee", KJV).
### Catholic
[[File:Archangels in Emly.jpg|thumb|Gabriel, Michael and Raphael, depicted in [glass](stained)(stained glass) in [Ailbe's Church](St)(St Ailbe's Church), a Catholic church in Ireland.]]
In Catholicism, three are mentioned by name:
* Gabriel
* Michael
* Raphael
These three are commemorated together liturgically on [29](September)(September 29#Holidays and observances). Each formerly had his own feast.
The latter of these identifies himself in Tobit 12:15(NAB) thus: "I am Raphael, one of the seven angels who stand and serve before the Glory of the Lord."
The [Book of Esdras](Fourth)(Fourth Book of Esdras), which mentions the angel [Uriel](Uriel) (and also the "archangel" [Jeremiel](Jerahmeel (archangel))), was popular in the West and was frequently quoted by Church Fathers, especially [Ambrose](Ambrose), but was never considered part of the Catholic [canon](biblical)(biblical canon).
The Catholic Church gives no official recognition to the names given in some apocryphal sources, such as [Raguel](Raguel (angel)), [Saraqael](Sariel) and [Remiel](Ramiel (angel)) (in the [of Enoch](Book)(Book of Enoch)) or Izidkiel, Hanael, and Kepharel (in other such sources).
### Eastern Orthodox
[[Image:Archangels.JPG|right|thumbnail|*Angelic Council*, [Orthodox](Eastern Orthodox Church) [icon](icon) of the seven archangels, left to right: [Jegudiel](Jegudiel), [Gabriel](Gabriel), [Selaphiel](Selaphiel), [Michael](Michael (archangel)), [Uriel](Uriel), [Raphael](Raphael (angel)), [Barachiel](Barachiel). Beneath the [mandorla](mandorla) of Christ-[(God is with us)](Immanuel)(Immanuel) are representations of [Cherubim](Cherubim) (blue) and [Seraphim](Seraphim) (red).]]
[Orthodox](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox) [Tradition](Sacred Tradition) mentions "thousands of archangels";[anaphora](Anaphora (linguistics)), [Liturgy](Divine)(Divine Liturgy) of [John Chrysostom](St.)(St. John Chrysostom) however, only [to eight archangels](seven)(Seven Archangels) are venerated by name.[The World of The Angels](http://www.holy-transfiguration.org/library_en/ang_heavhost.html) Holy Transfiguration Russian Orthodox Church, Baltimore MD Uriel is included, and the other three are most often named [Selaphiel](Selaphiel), [Jegudiel](Jegudiel), and [Barachiel](Barachiel) (an eighth, [Jeremiel](Jerahmeel (archangel)), is sometimes included as archangel). The Orthodox Church celebrates the [Synaxis](Synaxis) of the Archangel Michael and the Other [Powers](Bodiless)(Bodiless Powers) on [8](November)(November 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)) of the [Orthodox liturgical calendar](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar) (for those churches which follow the [Calendar](Julian)(Julian Calendar), November 8 falls on November 21 of the modern [Calendar](Gregorian)(Gregorian Calendar)). Other [day](feast)(feast day)s of the Archangels include the Synaxis of the Archangel Gabriel on March 26 (April 8) and July 13 (July 26), and the [Miracle](Miracle) of the Archangel Michael at [Colossae](Colossae) on September 6 (September 19). In addition, every Monday throughout the year is dedicated to the Angels, with special mention being made in the church hymns of Michael and Gabriel. In Orthodox [iconography](iconography), each angel has a symbolic representation:
* *[Michael](Michael (archangel))* in the Hebrew language means "Who is like God?" or "Who is equal to God?" Michael has been depicted from earliest Christian times as a commander, who holds in his right hand a spear with which he attacks [Lucifer/Satan](Lucifer), and in his left hand a green palm branch. At the top of the spear, there is a linen ribbon with a red cross. The Archangel Michael is especially considered to be the Guardian of the Orthodox Faith and a fighter against heresies.
* *[Gabriel](Gabriel)* in Hebrews means "God is my strength" or "Might of God". He is the herald of the mysteries of God, especially the [of God](Incarnation)(Incarnation (Christianity)) and all other mysteries related to it. He is depicted as follows: In his right hand, he holds a lantern with a lighted taper inside, and in his left hand, a mirror of green [jasper](jasper). The mirror signifies the wisdom of God as a hidden mystery.
* *[Raphael](Raphael (archangel))* is a Hebrew name which means "It is God who heals" or "God Heals"., Raphael is depicted leading Tobit (who is carrying a fish caught in the [Tigris](Tigris)) with his right hand and holding a physician's [jar](alabaster)(alabaster jar) in his left hand.
* *[Uriel](Uriel)* in the Hebrew language means "God is my light", or "Light of God" (II Esdras 4:1, 5:20). He is depicted holding a sword in his right hand, and a flame in his left.
* *[Sealtiel](Sealtiel)* means "Intercessor of God". He is depicted with his face and eyes lowered, holding his hands on his bosom in prayer.
* *[Jegudiel](Jegudiel)* means "Glorifier of God". He is depicted bearing a golden wreath in his right hand and a triple-thonged whip in his left hand.
* *[Barachiel](Barachiel)* means "Blessed by God". He is depicted holding a white rose in his hand against his breast.
* *[Jerahmeel](Jerahmeel (archangel))* means "God's exaltation". He is venerated as an inspirer and awakener of exalted thoughts that raise a person toward God (). As an *eighth*, he is sometimes included as an archangel.
### Coptic Orthodox
[[File:Coptic Icon of the Archangel Michael.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[icon](Coptic)(Coptic art) of the Archangel Michael. Among all the archangels, the Copts pay special attention to St Michael.]]
In addition to Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, the [Orthodox Church](Coptic)(Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria) recognises four more archangels by name:
* *[Suriel](Suriel)* means "Prince of God"
* *[Sadakiel](Sadakiel)* means "Grace of God"
* *[Sarathiel](Sarathiel)* (Unknown)
* *[Ananiel](Ananiel)* means "Rain of God"
### Ethiopian Orthodox
[[File:Colección Miguel Gallés Icono etíope soporte pergamino XX (25x20) (2).JPG|thumb|upright|[icon](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian art) of an angel, possibly St Michael.]]
The [Orthodox Tewahedo Church](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church) venerates the four archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel, as well as:
* *[Phanuel](Phanuel (angel))*, meaning "Face of God"
* *[Raguel](Raguel (angel))*, meaning "Friend of God"
* *Ramiel* or *[Remiel](Ramiel)*, meaning "Thunder of God"
In the canon of the [Orthodox Tewahedo Church](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church), [Enoch](1)(Book of Enoch) describes [Saraqael](Saraqael) as one of the angels who watch over "the spirits that sin in the spirit" (Enoch 20:7–8).
### Protestant
The [Bible](Protestant)(Protestant Bible) provides names for five angels, "Michael the archangel" (Jude 1:9), the angel Gabriel, who is called "the man Gabriel" in Daniel 9:21, which are considered part of the standard New Testament canon and Old Testament canon respectively, as well as [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)), who is mentioned in [Tobit](Book of Tobit) 12:15, which falls in the [Apocrypha](Biblical apocrypha) section of the Protestant Bible, in addition to [Uriel](Uriel) ([Esdras](2)(2 Esdras) 4:1 and 2 Esdras 5:20) and [Jerahmeel](Jerahmeel (archangel)) (2 Esdras 4:36), which are contained in [Esdras](2)(2 Esdras), also included in the Apocrypha section of the Protestant Bible. Among Protestant communities, the [Lutheran](Lutheran) and [Anglican](Anglican) traditions recognize three to five angels as archangels: [the Archangel](Michael)(Michael (archangel)) and [the Archangel](Gabriel)(Gabriel), as well as [the Archangel](Raphael)(Raphael (archangel)), [the Archangel](Uriel)(Uriel) and [the Archangel](Jerahmeel)(Jerahmeel (archangel)). Statuary of these angels can be found in Lutheran churches, and a depiction of seven archangels in stained-glass windows can be found in some Anglican churches. In this case, in addition to the aforementioned angels, [Chamuel](Camael), [Jophiel](Jophiel) and [Zadkiel](Zadkiel) are variously depicted. They are commemorated on 29 September, “[Michaelmas](Michaelmas)”, in the church kalendar of the Lutheran and Anglican churches (cf. *[of saints (Lutheran)](Calendar)(Calendar of saints (Lutheran))* and *[of saints (Anglican)](Calendar)(Calendar of saints (Anglican))*).
In the view of the Baptist evangelist [Graham](Billy)(Billy Graham), Sacred Scripture explicitly described one being as an archangel—Michael—in Jude 1:9.[Billy](Graham,)(Billy Graham) (1995). *[Angels](https://books.google.com/books?id=sDUbiV92-mIC&q=archangel&pg=PT31)*. Thomas Nelson. . p. PT31.Graham (1995) p. [PT32](https://books.google.com/books?id=sDUbiV92-mIC&q=Gabriel+not+archangel&pg=PT32)
[Adventists](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventists) hold that the titles "Michael" and "archangel" are in reference to Jesus. However, in the Adventist view, they only signify his role as the chief of angels and make no reference to the nature of Jesus, who is fully divine. Adventists credit nonconformist minister [Henry](Matthew)(Matthew Henry) as supporting this view.
File:Seven Archangels (St Michael's, Brighton).jpg|Seven archangels depicted in the stained-glass window at [Michael's Anglican Church, Brighton](St)(St Michael's Church, Brighton); from left: [Michael](Michael (archangel)), [Gabriel](Gabriel), [Uriel](Uriel), [Chamuel](Camael) (Camael), [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)), [Jophiel](Jophiel), and [Zadkiel](Zadkiel)
File:Henry Ossawa Tanner - The Annunciation.jpg|*[Annunciation](The)(The Annunciation (Tanner))* by [Ossawa Tanner](Henry)(Henry Ossawa Tanner)
File:Archangel Jeremiel, St Michael and All Angels, Hughenden.jpg|The [Jeremiel](Archangel)(Jerahmeel (archangel)) holding a book, depicted in a stained-glass window at [Michael and All Angels Anglican Church, Hughenden](St)(St Michael and All Angels Church, Hughenden)
### Restorationist
[Witnesses](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witnesses), citing a reference to "the voice of the archangel" at [Thessalonians](1)(First Epistle to the Thessalonians) 4:16, also believe that "Michael" is another name for [Jesus](Jesus) in heaven. They believe Jesus is an archangel in the true sense of the word—the supreme leader of angels.
[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](The)(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) (LDS Church) interprets the term "archangel" as meaning "Chief Angel", Michael is the only individual so designated in the [Day Saints canon](Latter)(standard works). *[(LDS)](KJV)(LDS edition of the Bible)* It is believed that he is the head of all of the angels. LDS Church doctrine also states that the archangel [Michael](Michael (archangel)) was the first man, [Adam](Adam).; . Though no other being is identified as an "archangel", [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith) taught that the angel [Gabriel](Gabriel) was known in mortality as [Noah](Noah). and the angel [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)) is a being of significant standing, even though he has never been identified with any mortal prophet.
## In Islam
In [Islam](Islam), the mentioned archangels||
}} (*Karubiyin*)Gaudefroy-Demombynes, M. (2013). Muslim Institutions. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis. p. 49 in the Islamic exegetical traditions are:
* [Gabriel](Gabriel) (Jibrāʾīl or Jibrīl in Arabic). Gabriel is said to be the archangel responsible for transmitting God's revelations to all prophets, including revealing the [Quran](Quran) to Muhammad and inducing him to recite it. Various [hadith](hadith)s (traditions) mention his role in delivering messages from "God the Almighty" to the prophets.
* [Michael](Michael (archangel)) (Mīkāʾīl or Mīkāl in Arabic). Michael is often depicted as the archangel of mercy who is responsible for bringing rain and thunder to Earth.
* [Raphael](Raphael (archangel)) ([Isrāfīl](Israfil) or Rafāʾīl in Arabic). The name is not mentioned in the Quran. Considered in Islam by some to be the angel of the trumpet responsible for signalling the coming of Judgment Day.
* [Azrael](Azrael) (ʿAzrāʾīl in Arabic, also called Malak al-Mawt, literally “angel of death”). Taking the soul of the dead to heaven or hell in the intermediary realm (*[Barzakh](Barzakh)*).
## In Gnosticism
In the [Gnostic](Gnosticism) codex *[the Origin of the World](On)(On the Origin of the World)*, the [aeon](Aeon (Gnosticism)) named [Sophia](Sophia (Gnosticism)) sends seven archangels from her light to save the [Archon](Archon (Gnosticism)) Sabaoth, the son of [Yaldabaoth](Demiurge#Yaldabaoth), after the authorities of [Chaos](Chaos (cosmogony)) make war in the [Heavens](Seven)(Seven Heavens). He is then placed in a divine kingdom above the twelve gods of Chaos and becomes the consort of Zoe (the primordial [Eve](Eve)), who gives him knowledge of the eighth heaven, while the seven archangels stand before them. In [Sophia of Jesus Christ](The)(The Sophia of Jesus Christ) and [the Blessed](Eugnostos)(Epistle of Eugnostos), the [Adam](primordial)(Adam Kadmon#Gnosticism) creates myriads of [gods](deity) and archangels without number.
## Other traditions
[Occult](Occult)ists sometimes associate archangels in Kabbalistic fashion with various seasons or elements, or even colours. In some Kabbalah-based systems of [magic](ceremonial)(ceremonial magic), all four of the main archangels (Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and Uriel) are invoked as guarding the four quarters, or directions, and their corresponding colours are associated with magical properties.[The Pagan's Path](http://www.paganspath.com/meta/angels4.htm), Metaphysics 101: The Archangels [Lucifer](Lucifer) or [Satan](Satan) in Christian traditions, or [Iblis](Iblis) in Islam, Islam|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-01-30}} is considered an archangel by [Satanist](Satanist)s and many non-Satanists, but most non-Satanists consider him [evil](evil) and fallen from God's grace.
## Cultural references
[[File:Fra Angelico-Annunciatory Angel-detail.jpg|thumb|*Annunciatory Angel* by [Angelico](Fra)(Fra Angelico), 1437–1446]]
In art, archangels are sometimes depicted with larger wings. Some of the more commonly represented archangels are Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, and Uriel.[Angels in Art](http://www.humanitiesweb.org/human.php?s=g&p=a&a=i&ID=334) on [HumanitiesWeb](http://www.humanitiesweb.org/)
In the [ritual of the pentagram](lesser)(lesser ritual of the pentagram), the invocation includes the words "Before me Raphael; Behind me Gabriel; On my right hand Michael; On my left hand Auriel [Uriel]..."["On the Lesser Banishing Ritual of the Pentagram"](http://www.sacred-texts.com/bos/bos026.htm) from *The Internet Book of Shadows* at [Sacred-texts.com](http://sacred-texts.com)
## See also
* [in art](Angels)(Angels in art)
* [of the Lord](Angel)(Angel of the Lord)
* [Archdemon](Archdemon)
* [Elohim](Bene)(Bene Elohim)
* [angel](Fallen)(Fallen angel)s
* [of angels in theology](List)(List of angels in theology)
* [Kami](Kami)
* [spirits](Olympian)(Olympian spirits)
* [Michael in the Catholic Church](Saint)(Saint Michael in the Catholic Church)
* [Archangels](Seven)(Seven Archangels)
* [Archangels](Sopo)(Sopo Archangels), Colombian Baroque paintings
* [Yazata](Yazata)
## References
### Notes
### Citations
### Bibliography
*
*
## External links
* [The World of Djinn and Its Secrets](http://www.islamawareness.net/Jinn/fatwa_secrets.html)
* [The Zoroastrian Religion and its Progeny](http://mailstar.net/zoroastrianism.html)
* [Synaxis of the Archangel Michael and the Other Bodiless Powers](http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=103244)—Orthodox [icon](icon) and [synaxarion](synaxarion)
[ ](Category:Archangels)
[in Christianity](Category:Angels)(Category:Angels in Christianity)
[in Islam](Category:Angels)(Category:Angels in Islam)
[in Judaism](Category:Angels)(Category:Angels in Judaism)
[of angels](Category:Classes)(Category:Classes of angels)
|
2018 (film)
|
2018_(film)
|
# 2018 (film)
*Revision ID: 1160287256 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T14:20:09Z*
---
```{=mediawiki}
{{Short description|2023 Indian film}}
```
```{=mediawiki}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
```
```{=mediawiki}
{{Infobox film
| name = 2018
| image = 2018movie.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Jude Anthany Joseph]]
| writer = {{Ubl|Jude Anthany Joseph|Akhil P. Dharmajan}}
| producer = {{ubl|Venu Kunnappilly|C. K. Padma Kumar|[[Anto Joseph]]}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Tovino Thomas]]|[[Kunchacko Boban]]|[[Narain (actor)|Narain]]|[[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]]|[[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]|[[Lal (actor)|Lal]]}}
| cinematography = Akhil George
| editing = Chaman Chakko
| music = '''Songs:'''<br />Nobin Paul<br />William Francis<br />'''Background Score:'''<br />Nobin Paul<br />
| studio = {{ubl|Kavya Film Company|PK Prime Production}}
| distributor = Kavya Film Company
| released = {{film date|2023|5|5|df=y|ref1=<ref name="delayedrelease">{{Cite web |title=Jude Anthany Joseph's 2018 release postponed to this date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/apr/10/jude-anthany-josephs-2018-release-postponed-to-this-date-42161.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en}}</ref>}}
| runtime = 154 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam]]
| budget = {{INR}}20 crore<!-- Must be sourced to reliable sources [[WP:RS]] -->
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR}}200 crore (US$26 million)<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=‘2018’ (Telugu) box-office collections latest: This Malayalam dubbed film is a winner at the Tollywood box-office|url= https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/tovino-thomas-starrer-2018-becomes-first-malayalam-film-to-reach-rs-200-crore-milestone-8652435/lite/?utm_campaign=fullarticle&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=inshorts |website=Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
}}
```
***2018**\'\' (marketed as***2018: Everyone is a Hero**\'\') is an
Indian [Malayalam](Malayalam "Malayalam"){.wikilink}-language [survival
thriller film](survival_film "survival thriller film"){.wikilink}
directed by [Jude Anthany
Joseph](Jude_Anthany_Joseph "Jude Anthany Joseph"){.wikilink}, who wrote
the screenplay with Akhil P. Dharmajan. The film stars [Tovino
Thomas](Tovino_Thomas "Tovino Thomas"){.wikilink}, [Kunchacko
Boban](Kunchacko_Boban "Kunchacko Boban"){.wikilink},
[Narain](Narain_(actor) "Narain"){.wikilink}, [Asif
Ali](Asif_Ali_(actor) "Asif Ali"){.wikilink}, [Vineeth
Sreenivasan](Vineeth_Sreenivasan "Vineeth Sreenivasan"){.wikilink} and
[Lal](Lal_(actor) "Lal"){.wikilink} with an ensemble supporting cast
.[^1][^2][^3] The film was based on events during the [2018 Kerala
floods](2018_Kerala_floods "2018 Kerala floods"){.wikilink}.[^4]
It was initially set to release on 21 April 2023, only to get postponed
to 5 May 2023.
The film received critical acclaim from critics and audiences with
praise towards the entire cast\'s performance, direction, screenwriting
and cinematography. It grossed over ₹200 crores at the Box office. It is
the present [highest grossing Malayalam film of
all-time](List_of_highest-grossing_Malayalam_films "highest grossing Malayalam film of all-time"){.wikilink}
and [eighth-highest grossing Indian
film](List_of_Indian_films_of_2023#Box_office_collection "eighth-highest grossing Indian film"){.wikilink}
in 2023.[^5][^6] [^7]
## Plot
Noora, a TV reporter from Kerala is reporting on water scarcity in
Lakshmipuram near [Pondicherry](Pondicherry "Pondicherry"){.wikilink}.
Her car parked on a village road is hit and damaged by a lorry driven by
Sethupathi who shows a distaste towards Keralites. Sethupathi is a truck
driver whose only family is an aged mother and young daughter, and he
behaves roughly with them both.
Anoop, an ex-military man living in Aruvikkulam, is waiting for a Dubai
visa and meanwhile working as an assistant in a local shop owned by
Bhasi, a blind man. Manju, who worked in
[Delhi](New_Delhi "Delhi"){.wikilink}, joins the nearby school as a
teacher. Anoop falls in love with Manju and they start dating. Their
parents are also interested in the alliance and their marriage is fixed.
Two fishermen, Mathachan and his son Winston, venture into the sea and
rescue three other fishermen who are stuck at sea in a thunderstorm off
their shore in Kollam
Rameshan, an IT specialist in [Abu
Dhabi](Abu_Dhabi "Abu Dhabi"){.wikilink} is not on good terms with his
wife Anupama whose father demands divorce from Rameshan. Rameshan\'s
mother meanwhile slips and falls and Anu admits her to hospital and
waits for Rameshan to come to hand over the responsibility.
Shaji Punnoose is an officer at Government Information Centre,
Alappuzha. He juggles with his job of broadcasting necessary information
about the upcoming flood, and preparing for the housewarming of his
newly constructed house in Aruvikkulam. He has a wife and a young
daughter.
Nixon, Mathachan\'s younger son, dreams of becoming a model and hates
their traditional job of fishing, much to his father\'s and brother\'s
displeasure. He is in love with the daughter of Chandy, a wealthy
businessman. When Nixon takes his family to Chandy\'s house with a
formal proposal, Chandy expresses that he is not comfortable with his
daughter marrying into a fisherman family and also pointed out that the
people from the area always shift to relief camps during heavy rains
every year and didn\'t want his daughter to go through such a situation.
Everyone are upset. Later at home, Winston\'s wife consoles everyone by
saying that the unity and community feeling in their neighbourhood is
worth suffering the few months in relief camp, and that Chandy was
ignorant in making such a comment about them. Nixon goes to Kochi for a
modelling work after a heated arguement with Mathachan and Winston. He
goes to stay at a friend\'s apartment and plans to meet a famous
photographer to have his portfolio taken.
Koshy, a taxi driver receives the assignment of taking two tourists from
[Poland](Poland "Poland"){.wikilink} to show them around Kerala.
Wherever he goes with the tourists, they find the places and roads shut
down due to heavy rain and flood. Finally, when they reach Aruvikkulam,
Anoop, at his friend\'s suggestion, hosts the two foreign tourists and
Koshy at his home, terming it as a homestay. The foreign couple happily
stays at Anoop\'s house, taking part in community cooking for flood
relief camp. Koshy\'s house in Kuttanadu is also shown to have been hit
by flood, but he is unshaken because flood is a constant phenomenon in
low-lying areas of Kuttanad.
Rameshan is on his way to see his hospitalised mother. His flight lands
in Coimbatore as the Kochi airport is closed down due to floods. He
takes a train from Coimbatore which is hit by a landslide near Palakkad.
His phone runs out of charge and he is unable to contact home. He is
unharmed and finds a Tamilian man travelling to Thrissur, for company.
They both, after much effort, manages to get a lift in Sethupathi\'s
truck. Sethupathi was coming to Kerala with groceries, grains, and also
some locally made bombs for certain protestors in Kerala protesting
against a factory by the side of river Periyar. He had been given this
assignment by his lorry boss very secretively. Sethupathi overhears
Rameshan talking to his mother on his phone, and later also sees the
news of flood and people affected by it in Kerala. Rameshan\'s emotional
conversation with his family and visuals from the TV news changes his
mind and he dumps the explosives. Rameshan gives Sethupathi a toy for
his daughter. Sethupathi goes to the relief camp and donates all food
items with him there. He calls up his mother and daughter and speaks
lovingly to them, much to their delight.
A pregnant lady in Aruvikkulam school relief camp goes into labour but
is unable to get to hospital due to the flood. A helicopter flies over
and Anoop lights torches to attract the pilot\'s attention, but it is
too dangerous to land. Anoop contacts the pilot and with the memory of
his military training, helps to airlift the pregnant lady and take her
to hospital. The villagers who uses to mock him for quitting army and
walking around jobless, now starts praising him after his life-saving
act; Manju is also happy.
Mathachan and Winston and other fishermen from their coast head out with
their boats to help people who are stuck in the flood. Chandy is also
among those saved by their team and he thanks them for saving him and
his family. Nixon is also seen to join his coast men as they engage in
rescue operations, and Mathachan and Winston are delighted to see him
join the rescue operations. Mathachan is killed when a wall of
Aruvikkulam school relief camp collapses on him. Nixon and Winston are
shattered by his death. Cleetus, a local of Aruvikkulam who is so far
shown to walk around arrogantly, arrives crying to ask for help rescuing
his estranged brother Joseph and his family who are stuck in their house
which is now buried under the ground due to heavy landslide. Winston and
Nixon go with Cleetus. After a long search, they find the Joseph\'s
house and save his family. Cleetus and Joseph are reunited.
Shaji is shocked to hear of the destruction from the floods in his
hometown. He witnesses TV visuals of his new house collapsing, while
sitting in his office in Alappuzha. None of his colleagues are able to
console him as he weeps wondering if his wife and daughter was inside
the collapsed house.
Nixon adventurously helps an academic achiever in Aruvikkulam to
retrieve her merit certificates from her flooded house.
Varghese\'s wife was feeding their autistic son Abin, when the floods
hit. Abin\'s leg and hand had already been fractured by falling off a
cycle a few days earlier. The entrance to Varghese\' house is blocked by
a fallen huge tree and with the floods rushing in, they are unable to
get out of their house. Anoop learns that Varghese and his family have
not reached any relief camp and takes a boat and goes to their house, of
which only the rooftop remains above water. Anoop hears screams from
Abin and rescues him and his family. As they return to the camp, Anoop
sees the blind Bhasi fall into the water. Anoop jumps into the water to
save Bhasi. Bhasi is saved. But while saving Bhasi, Anoop gets his foot
stuck between two rocks and subsequently drowns.
Several days later, the floods have receded. Many of the houses hit by
flood are in ruins and inhabitable houses are covered in mud. People
slowly recover and start to move back into their homes. Shaji finds his
wife and daughter in the hospital; Nixon joins his brother Winston in
fishing, while also pursuing his modelling career; Rameshan returns home
with his discharged mother and reconciled wife. Noora who had gone to
report about flood is back with her family. His father is proud to
realise that his son whom they thought was a good-for-nothing gadget
addict, was the instrumental force behind a WhatsApp group which
organised key rescue and rehabilitation operations in Kerala. Koshy
takes the foreign couple to stay for a day and enjoy local delicacies at
his house in Kuttanad and then sees them off at the airport and they
thank him for an unforgettable experience. A memorial for Anoop is built
in his village, and Bhasi is seen sitting selling lotteries under it.
Manju mourns Anoop as she passes the memorial, while Abin and the older
daughter of the pregnant lady rescued by Anoop, lays roses at his
memorial.
## Cast
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cast listing|
* [[Tovino Thomas]] as Anoop, ex-army officer
* [[Kunchacko Boban]] as Home Secretary Shaji Punnoose
* [[Narain (actor)|Narain]] as Winston, Mathachan's elder son
* [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] as Nixon, Mathachan's younger son
* [[Vineeth Sreenivasan]] as Rameshan, an IT specialist
* [[Lal (actor)|Lal]] as Mathachan, a fisherman
* [[Sudheesh]] as Varghese
* [[Aju Varghese]] as Taxi Driver Jacob Koshy
* [[Kalaiyarasan]] as Sethupathy, Lorry driver from a village in [[Tamilnadu]]
* [[Harikrishnan (Malayalam actor)|Harikrishnan]] as Alex, Anoop's friend and Chandy's son
* [[Aparna Balamurali]] as Noora, T.V reporter
* [[Tanvi Ram]] as Manju, Anoop's love interest
* [[Sshivada]] as Serina, Shaji's wife
* [[Gauthami Nair]] as Anupama, Rameshan's wife
* [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] as Noora's father
* [[Renji Panicker]] as Anu's father
* [[Janardhanan (actor)|Janardhanan]] as Chief Minister
* [[Indrans]] as Bhasi
* [[Jaffar Idukki]] as Aravindan, Manju's father
* Devanandha as Shaji's daughter
* [[Vinitha Koshy]] as pregnant lady
* Vriddhi Vishal as Sneha, pregnant lady's daughter
* [[Gilu Joseph]] as Jiji
* [[Joy Mathew]] as Chandy
* [[Sreejith Ravi]] as Alex's friend
* [[G. Suresh Kumar]] as Anoop's father
* [[Jayakrishnan]] as District Collector
* [[Krishna (Malayalam actor)|Krishna]] as Sub Collector
* [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]] as Ravi
* [[S. P. Sreekumar]] as Joseph
* [[Rony David]] as Cleetus, Joseph's brother
* [[Kalabhavan Haneef]] as dam operator
* [[Pauly Valsan]] as Police Constable Mary Thomas
* [[Shebin Benson]] as Nahas, Noora's brother
* [[Shobha Mohan]] as Rameshan's mother
* [[Sreeja Ravi]] as Anoop's mother
* [[Boban Samuel]] as police officer
* [[Santhakumari (Malayalam actress)|Santhakumari]] as villager
* ''Karikku'' fame Nileena Sandra as Tina, Winston's wife
* Pranav Binu as Aby / Undappi
* Jaise Jose as Shiyas
* Gibin Gopinath as Bastin
* Nandakishore as school headmaster
* Salu Kuttanadu as school peon Simon
* Sundarapandiyan as police officer
* Omana Ouseph as Villager
* Thrissur Elsy as Villager
}}
```
## Production
The film was officially announced in September 2018 with the initial
title *2403 Ft.: The Story Of Unexpected Heroes*, which was later
changed to the current title.[^8]
### Filming
[Principal
photography](Principal_photography "Principal photography"){.wikilink}
started on 27 May 2022. Locations span across different parts of
[Thrissur](Thrissur "Thrissur"){.wikilink},
[Ernakulam](Ernakulam "Ernakulam"){.wikilink},
[Kottayam](Kottayam "Kottayam"){.wikilink},
[Alappuzha](Alappuzha "Alappuzha"){.wikilink},
[Idukki](Idukki "Idukki"){.wikilink}, and
[Kollam](Kollam "Kollam"){.wikilink} districts.
[Tirunelveli](Tirunelveli "Tirunelveli"){.wikilink} and
[Hyderabad](Hyderabad "Hyderabad"){.wikilink} were significant locations
outside Kerala. The major shooting was done in a 15-acre film set
situated in [Vaikom](Vaikom "Vaikom"){.wikilink}. Filming completed on
12 November 2022.[^9] The flood sequences were shot entirely using
practical effects.
## Reception
### Box office {#box_office}
```{=mediawiki}
{{expand section|date=May 2023}}
```
### Critical response {#critical_response}
Gopika Is of *[The Times of
India](The_Times_of_India "The Times of India"){.wikilink}* gave the
film 4 stars out of 5 and wrote \"The quality of the writing shows and
Akhil P Dharmajan and Jude has done a commendable job. Cinematography by
Akhil George needs special mention. Add Chaman Chacko\'s editing and
quality VFX, the movie is a good watch.\"[^10] Anna MM Vetticad of
*[Firstpost](Firstpost "Firstpost"){.wikilink}* rated the filme 2.5 out
of 5 stars, stating that \"This is definitely not the sort of film that
has the intellect to treat with empathy a man's desire to rise above his
family's station in life even while judging him for being judgmental
towards them\".[^11]
Anandu Suresh of
*[IndianExpress.com](IndianExpress.com "IndianExpress.com"){.wikilink}*
gave the film 4 stars out of 5 and wrote \"The makers quickly establish
that rain is a pervasive and influential character in the movie\".[^12]
S.R.Praveen, film critic of [*The
Hindu*](The_Hindu "The Hindu"){.wikilink} noted that \"Jude Anthany
Joseph's technically solid recreation of the floods is a message of
unity too\".[^13] [Onmanorama](Onmanorama "Onmanorama"){.wikilink}\'s
reviewer wrote that \"Everyone is a Hero\' is a well-balanced film that
will leave you satisfied, and keep you engaged till the end\".[^14]
## References
```{=mediawiki}
{{Reflist}}
```
## External links {#external_links}
- ```{=mediawiki}
{{IMDb title|tt9006564}}
```
[Category:2023
films](Category:2023_films "Category:2023 films"){.wikilink}
[Category:2023 thriller
films](Category:2023_thriller_films "Category:2023 thriller films"){.wikilink}
[Category:2020s Malayalam-language
films](Category:2020s_Malayalam-language_films "Category:2020s Malayalam-language films"){.wikilink}
[Category:2020s survival
films](Category:2020s_survival_films "Category:2020s survival films"){.wikilink}
[Category:Indian disaster
films](Category:Indian_disaster_films "Category:Indian disaster films"){.wikilink}
[Category:Indian survival
films](Category:Indian_survival_films "Category:Indian survival films"){.wikilink}
[Category:Indian thriller
films](Category:Indian_thriller_films "Category:Indian thriller films"){.wikilink}
[Category:Flood
films](Category:Flood_films "Category:Flood films"){.wikilink}
[Category:Indian films based on actual
events](Category:Indian_films_based_on_actual_events "Category:Indian films based on actual events"){.wikilink}
[Category:Thriller films based on actual
events](Category:Thriller_films_based_on_actual_events "Category:Thriller films based on actual events"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or
incidents](Category:Films_about_survivors_of_seafaring_accidents_or_incidents "Category:Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films set in
2018](Category:Films_set_in_2018 "Category:Films set in 2018"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films set in
Kerala](Category:Films_set_in_Kerala "Category:Films set in Kerala"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Kerala](Category:Films_shot_in_Kerala "Category:Films shot in Kerala"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Kollam](Category:Films_shot_in_Kollam "Category:Films shot in Kollam"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Alappuzha](Category:Films_shot_in_Alappuzha "Category:Films shot in Alappuzha"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Idukki](Category:Films_shot_in_Idukki "Category:Films shot in Idukki"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Munnar](Category:Films_shot_in_Munnar "Category:Films shot in Munnar"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Kochi](Category:Films_shot_in_Kochi "Category:Films shot in Kochi"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Thrissur](Category:Films_shot_in_Thrissur "Category:Films shot in Thrissur"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in
Tirunelveli](Category:Films_shot_in_Tirunelveli "Category:Films shot in Tirunelveli"){.wikilink}
[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad,
India](Category:Films_shot_in_Hyderabad,_India "Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India"){.wikilink}
[^1]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |title=Jude Anthany Joseph's 2018 first look to be out on this date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2022/dec/01/jude-anthany-josephs-2018-first-look-to-be-out-on-this-date-37258.html |access-date=12 December 2022 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en}}
```
[^2]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite magazine |date=4 November 2022 |title=Jude Antony Joseph's Film On Floods That Ravaged Kerala Titled '2018' |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/jude-antony-joseph-s-film-on-floods-that-ravaged-kerala-titled-2018--news-234678 |access-date=12 December 2022 |magazine=[[Outlook India]] |language=en}}
```
[^3]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |date=5 November 2022 |title=Jude Anthony Joseph Unveils Title of his Upcoming Film Based on 2018 Kerala Floods |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/jude-anthony-joseph-unveils-title-of-his-upcoming-film-based-on-2018-kerala-floods-6319135.html |access-date=12 December 2022 |website=[[News18]] |language=en}}
```
[^4]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/2018-twitter-review-movie-buffs-call-the-jude-anthany-joseph-film-the-real-kerala-story/articleshow/100011000.cms|title= '2018' Movie buffs call the Jude Anthany Joseph film the 'real kerala story'|newspaper= The Times of India|date= 5 May 2023}}
```
[^5]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |last= |title=തിയറ്ററുകളിൽ റെക്കോർഡിന്റെ പെരുമഴ തീര്ത്ത ‘2018’ ഒടിടി റിലീസ് പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ചു |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2023/05/29/malayalam-blockbuster-2018-to-stream-on-sonyliv-june-7.html |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}
```
[^6]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |title=2018 OTT release: When, where to watch highest-grossing Malayalam film of all time starring Tovino Thomas, Asif Ali |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-2018-ott-release-when-where-to-watch-highest-grossing-malayalam-film-of-all-time-tovino-thomas-sonyliv-june-7-3045858 |access-date=2023-06-04 |website=DNA India |language=en}}
```
[^7]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{cite news |title=2018 Collections: 2018 రికార్డు కలెక్షన్లు.. అత్యధిక వసూళ్లు సాధించిన మలయాళ మూవీ ఇదే |url=https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/2018-collections-make-it-as-highest-grossing-malayalam-movie-121684770248576.html |access-date=22 May 2023 |publisher=Hindustan Times Telugu}}
```
[^8]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite news |date=3 November 2022 |title='2018': Tovino Thomas, Kunchacko Boban, Asif Ali, and more star in film on 2018 Kerala floods |url-access=limited |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/2018-tovino-thomas-kunchacko-boban-asif-ali-and-more-star-in-film-on-2018-kerala-floods/article66091636.ece |newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}
```
[^9]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite news |date=16 November 2022 |title=It's a wrap for Tovino Thomas, Asif Ali, and Kunchacko Boban's '2018' based on the Kerala floods |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/its-a-wrap-for-tovino-thomas-asif-ali-and-kunchacko-bobans-2018-based-on-the-kerala-floods/articleshow/95548628.cms |access-date=16 March 2023 |quote=The filming of Jude Anthany Joseph's upcoming film '2018 – Everyone is a hero' has been completed. The makers wrapped up the shoot on Sunday (Nov 13).}}
```
[^10]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite news |title=2018 Movie Review : A thoughtfully crafted movie that tells the story of Kerala's biggest tragedy and its heroes |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/2018/movie-review/100013329.cms |access-date=2023-05-20 |issn=0971-8257}}
```
[^11]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |date=2023-05-06 |title=2018 movie review: Hollywood-style disaster flick swings between moving moments and predictability-Entertainment News , Firstpost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/2018-movie-review-hollywood-style-disaster-flick-swings-between-moving-moments-and-predictability-12556102.html |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}
```
[^12]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |date=2023-05-05 |title=2018 movie review: The Kerala story fanatics and their bot squads don’t want you to know |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/2018-everyone-is-a-hero-movie-review-kerala-flood-tovino-thomas-jude-anthany-joseph-8593531/ |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}
```
[^13]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite news |date=2023-05-05 |title=‘2018’ movie review: Jude Anthany Joseph’s technically solid recreation of the floods is a message of unity too |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/2018-movie-review-jude-anthany-josephs-technically-solid-recreation-of-the-floods-is-a-message-of-unity-too/article66815967.ece |access-date=2023-05-20 |issn=0971-751X}}
```
[^14]:
```{=mediawiki}
{{Cite web |title='2018' is a well-made film that recreates one of Kerala's worst moments in recent memory |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/2023/05/05/jude-anthany-joseph-2018-movie-review-tovino-thomas.html |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=OnManorama}}
```
|
Patagonia
|
patagonia
|
# Patagonia
*Revision ID: 1160078809 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T08:49:36Z*
---
**Patagonia** () is a geographical region that encompasses the southern end of [America](South)(South America), governed by [Argentina](Argentina) and [Chile](Chile). The region comprises the southern section of the [Andes](Andes) Mountains with lakes, [fjord](fjord)s, [rainforests](temperate)(Temperate rainforest), and [glacier](glacier)s in the west and [deserts](Patagonian Desert), [tableland](tableland)s and [steppe](steppe)s to the east. Patagonia is bounded by the [Ocean](Pacific)(Pacific Ocean) on the west, the [Ocean](Atlantic)(Atlantic Ocean) to the east, and many bodies of water that connect them, such as the [of Magellan](Strait)(Strait of Magellan), the [Channel](Beagle)(Beagle Channel), and the [Passage](Drake)(Drake Passage) to the south.
The [Colorado](Colorado River, Argentina) and [Barrancas](Barrancas River) rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia.*The Late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego Volumen 11 de Developments in quaternary science,* pág. 13. Autor: Jorge Rabassa. Editor: Jorge Rabassa. Editor: Elsevier, 2008. , 9780444529541 The [archipelago](archipelago) of [del Fuego](Tierra)(Tierra del Fuego) is sometimes included as part of Patagonia. Most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at [Fault](Huincul)(Huincul Fault), in [Region](Araucanía)(Araucanía Region).Manuel Enrique Schilling; Richard WalterCarlson; AndrésTassara; Rommulo Vieira Conceição; Gustavo Walter Bertotto; Manuel Vásquez; Daniel Muñoz; Tiago Jalowitzki; Fernanda Gervasoni; Diego Morata (2017). "The origin of Patagonia revealed by Re-Os systematics of mantle xenoliths." *Precambrian Research*, volumen 294: 15–32.Zunino, H.; Matossian, B.; Hidalgo, R. (2012). "Poblamiento y desarrollo de enclaves turísticos en la Norpatagonia chileno-argentina. Migración y frontera en un espacio binacional." (Population and development of tourist enclaves in the Chilean-Argentine Norpatagonia. Migration and the border in a binational space), *[de Geografía Norte Grande](Revista)(Norte Grande Geography Journal)*, 53: 137–158.Zunino, M.; Espinoza, L.; Vallejos-Romero A. (2016) Los migrantes por estilo de vida como agentes de transformación en la Norpatagonia chilena, *Revista de Estudios Sociales*, 55 (2016): 163–176.Ciudadanía, territorio y desarrollo endógeno: resistencias y mediaciones de las políticas locales en las encrucijadas del neoliberalismo. Pág. 205. Autores: Rubén Zárate, Liliana Artesi, Oscar Madoery. Editor: Editorial Biblos, 2007. , 9789507866166
At the time of the [arrival](Spanish)(Spanish colonization of the Americas), Patagonia was inhabited by multiple indigenous tribes. In a small portion of northwestern Patagonia, indigenous peoples practiced agriculture, while in the remaining territory, peoples lived as hunter-gatherers, traveling by foot in eastern Patagonia or by [canoe](dugout)(dugout canoe) and [dalca](dalca) in the [and channels](fjords)(fjords and channels of Chile). In colonial times indigenous peoples of northeastern Patagonia adopted a horseriding lifestyle. While the interest of the [Empire](Spanish)(Spanish Empire) had been chiefly to keep other European powers away from Patagonia, independent Chile and Argentina began to colonize the territory slowly over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. This process brought a decline of the indigenous populations, whose lives and habitats were disrupted, while at the same time thousands of Europeans, Argentines, [Chilotes](Chiloé Archipelago) and mainland Chileans settled in Patagonia. [disputes](Border)(Territorial dispute) between Argentina and Chile were recurrent in the 20th century.
The contemporary economy of eastern Patagonia revolves around sheep farming and oil and gas extraction, while in western Patagonia [fishing](fishing in Chile), [aquaculture](salmon)(aquaculture in Chile), and [tourism](Tourism in Chile) dominate. Culturally, Patagonia has a varied heritage, including [Criollo](Criollo people), [Mestizo](Mestizo), [Indigenous](Indigenous peoples of South America), [German](Germans), [Croat](Croats), [Italian](Italians) and [Welsh](Y Wladfa) influences.
## Etymology and toponomies
The name Patagonia comes from the word *[patagón](patagon)*.[Pigafetta](Antonio)(Antonio Pigafetta), *[del primo viaggio intorno al mondo](Relazione)(:wikisource:it:Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo)*, 1524: "Il capitano generale nominò questi popoli Patagoni." [A Brief Declaration of the Vyage abowte the Worlde by Antonie Pygafetta Vincentine, Rycharde Eden, *The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India*, London, William Powell, 1555.](https://archive.org/stream/firstthreeenglis00arberich#page/252/mode/1up/search/Patagoni) The original word was likely in [Magellan](Ferdinand Magellan)'s native Portuguese (*patagão*) or the Spanish of his men (*patagón*). It was later interpreted later as "bigfoot", but the etymology refers to a literary character in a Spanish novel of the early 16th century:
*Patagon*, said to be engendred by a beast in the woods, being the strangest, most misshapen, and counterfeit creature in the world. He hath good understanding, is amorous of women, and keepeth company with one of whom, it is said, he was engendred. He hath the face of a Dogge, great ears, which hang down upon his shoulders, his teeth sharp and big, standing out of his mouth very much: his feet are like a Harts, and he runneth wondrous lightly. Such as have seen him, tell marvelous matters of him, because he chaseth ordinarily among the mountains, with two Lyons in a chain like a lease, and a bow in his hand.[Anthony Munday, *The Famous and Renowned Historie of Primaleon of Greece*, 1619, cap.XXXIII: "How Primaleon... found the Grand Patagon"](http://eebo.chadwyck.com/search/full_rec?SOURCE=pgimages.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=99850463&FILE=&SEARCHSCREEN=param(SEARCHSCREEN)&VID=177262&PAGENO=238&ZOOM=50&VIEWPORT=&SEARCHCONFIG=param(SEARCHCONFIG)&DISPLAY=param(DISPLAY)&HIGHLIGHT_KEYWORD=param(HIGHLIGHT_KEYWORD)). Magellan used this term in 1520 to describe the native tribes of the region, whom his expedition thought to be giants. The people he called the Patagons are now believed to have been the [Tehuelche](Tehuelche people), who tended to be taller than Europeans of the time. Argentine researcher [Doura](Miguel)(Miguel Doura) observed that the name Patagonia possibly derives from the ancient Greek region of modern Turkey called [Paphlagonia](Paphlagonia), possible home of the *patagon* personage in the chivalric romances *Primaleon* printed in 1512, ten years before Magellan arrived in these southern lands. This hypothesis was published in a 2011 *New Review of Spanish Philology* report.*Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica* 59 (1): pp. 37–78. 2011. ISSN 0185-0121
There are various placenames in the [Archipelago](Chiloé)(Chiloé Archipelago) with [etymologies](Chono)(Chono language) despite the main indigenous language of the archipelago at the [of the Spanish](arrival)(conquest of Chile) being [Mapudungun](Mapudungun). A theory postulated by chronicler [Pérez García](José)(José Pérez García) explains this holding that the [Cuncos](Cunco people) (also known as Veliches) settled in [Island](Chiloé)(Chiloé Island) in [Pre-Hispanic](Pre-Hispanic) times as a consequence of a push from more northern [Huilliches](Huilliche people) who in turn were being displaced by [Mapuche](Mapuche)s. While being outside traditional Huilliche territory the western Patagonian volcanoes [Michimahuida](Michimahuida), [Hornopirén](Hornopirén (volcano)) and [Chaitén](Chaitén (volcano)) have Huilliche etymologies.
In [Province](Chubut)(Chubut Province) modern toponymy comes from the word "chupat" belonging to a transitional language between the southern and northern Tehuelche ethnic groups that were located in that region called Tewsün or Teushen. The word means transparency and is related to the clarity and purity of the river that bears that name and runs through the province. It is also related to the origin of the Welsh pronunciation of the word "chupat" which later became "Chubut". It is called "Camwy" in Patagonian Welsh. Chupat, Chubut and Camwy have the same meaning and are used to talk about the river and the province. [settlers](Welsh)(Y Wladfa) and placenames are associated with one of the projects of the country of Wales, Project Hiraeth.
Due to the language, culture and location, many Patagonians do not consider themselves Latinos and proudly call themselves Patagonians instead. People from Y Wladfa, Laurie Island, the Atlantic Islands, Antarctica (including the Chilean town in Antarctica, "The Stars Village", and the Argentine civilian settlement, "Hope Base"), other non-latin speaking areas use this term as a patriotic and inclusive demonym. A Patagonian is a person that is part of the Patagonia region, language and culture. That person could be a citizen from Chilean Patagonia, Argentine Patagonia, or of native communities that existed before the land was divided by The Boundary Treaty of 1881.
Patagonia is divided between Western Patagonia (Chile) and Eastern Patagonia (Argentina) and several territories are still under dispute and claiming their rights. Mapuche people came from the Chilean Andes and voted to remain in different sides of Patagonia. Welsh settlers came from Wales and North America and voted to remain in Patagonia, when the treaty was signed, they voted for culture and administration to be apart from the country keeping the settlement, language, schools, traditions, regional dates, flag, anthems and celebrations. Patagonians also live abroad in settlements like [Saskatchewan](Saltcoats,)(Saltcoats, Saskatchewan), Canada; [South Wales](New)(New South Wales), Australia; South Africa; the Falkland Islands; and North America.
## Population and land area
### Largest cities
## Physical geography
[[Chenqueniyén - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Río Negro Province, Argentina](File:Arroyo)]
Argentine Patagonia is for the most part a region of [steppe](steppe)-like plains, rising in a succession of 13 abrupt [terraces](wiktionary:terrace) about at a time, and covered with an enormous bed of [shingle](Gravel) almost bare of vegetation.*Patagonia: Natural History, Prehistory and Ethnography at the Uttermost End of the Earth*, C. McEwan, L.A. and A. Prieto (eds), [University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press) with [Museum](British)(British Museum) Press, 1997. In the hollows of the plains are [or lakes](ponds)(lake) of fresh and brackish water. Towards Chilean territory, the shingle gives way to [porphyry](Porphyry (geology)), [granite](granite), and [basalt](basalt) lavas, and animal life becomes more abundant. Vegetation is more luxuriant, consisting principally of [beech](southern)(southern beech) and [conifer](conifer)s. The high rainfall against the western Andes ([Andes](Wet)(Wet Andes)) and the low sea-surface temperatures offshore give rise to cold and humid air masses, contributing to the ice fields and [glacier](glacier)s, the largest ice fields in the [Hemisphere](Southern)(Southern Hemisphere) outside of Antarctica.
Among the depressions by which the [plateau](plateau) is intersected transversely, the principal ones are the [Gualichu](Gualichu), south of the [Negro](Río)(Río Negro (Argentina)), the [Maquinchao](Maquinchao) and [Valcheta](Valcheta) (through which previously flowed the waters of [Huapi Lake](Nahuel)(Nahuel Huapi Lake), which now feed the Limay River), the [Senguerr](Senguerr) (spelled Senguer on most Argentine maps and within the corresponding region), and the [River](Deseado)(Deseado River). Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient interoceanic communication), others were occupied by either more or less extensive lakes, such as the [Yagagtoo](Yagagtoo), [Musters](Musters Lake), and [Huapi](Colhue)(Lake Colhue Huapi), and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado in the center of the country.
Across much of Patagonia east of the Andes, [eruption](volcanic)(volcanic eruption)s have created formation of [basalt](basalt)ic lava plateaus during the [Cenozoic](Cenozoic). The plateaus are of different ages with the older –of [Neogene](Neogene) and [Paleogene](Paleogene) age– being located at higher elevations than [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) and [Holocene](Holocene) lava plateaus and outcrops.
Erosion, which is caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of ice aided by [tectonic](tectonics) changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression, best in evidence where in contact with folded [Cretaceous](Cretaceous) rocks, which are lifted up by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, whose ridges are generally called the pre-Cordillera. To the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest, most fertile land of Patagonia. Lake basins along the Cordillera were also gradually excavated by ice streams, including [Argentino](Lake)(Lake Argentino) and [Fagnano](Lake)(Lake Fagnano), as well as coastal bays such as [Inútil](Bahía)(Bahía Inútil).
The establishment of dams near the Andes in Argentina in the 20th century has led to a [sediment](sediment) shortage along the Atlantic coast of Patagonia.
### Geology
[[File:Ainsworth bay and Marinelli Glacier.jpg|thumb|[Bay](Ainsworth)(Ainsworth Bay (Chile)) and [Glacier](Marinelli)(Marinelli Glacier), Chile]]
The geological limit of Patagonia has been proposed to be [Fault](Huincul)(Huincul Fault), which forms a major discontinuity. The fault truncates various [structures](structural geology) including the [orogen](Pampean)(Pampean orogeny) found further north. The ages of base rocks change abruptly across the fault. Discrepancies have been mentioned among [geologist](geologist)s on the origin of the Patagonian landmass. [Ramos](Víctor)(Víctor Alberto Ramos) has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an [allochthon](allochthon)ous [terrane](terrane) that separated from [Antarctica](Antarctica) and docked in [America](South)(South America) 250 to 270 [Mya](million years ago) in the [Permian](Permian) period. A 2014 study by [Pankhurst](R.J.)(Robert John Pankhurst) and coworkers rejects any idea of a far-traveled Patagonia, claiming it is likely of [parautochtonous](Autochthon (geology)) (nearby) origin.
The [Mesozoic](Mesozoic) and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting [vertebrate](vertebrate) fauna. This, together with the discovery of the perfect [cranium](cranium) of a [turtle](turtle) ([chelonian](chelonian)) of the genus *[Niolamia](Niolamia)*, which is almost identical to *[oweni](Ninjemys)(Ninjemys oweni)* of the [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) age in [Queensland](Queensland), forms an evident proof of the connection between the Australian and South American continents. The Patagonian *Niolamia* belongs to the Sarmienti Formation. Fossils of the mid-Cretaceous *[Argentinosaurus](Argentinosaurus)*, which may be the largest of all dinosaurs, have been found in Patagonia, and a model of the mid-[Jurassic](Jurassic) *[Piatnitzkysaurus](Piatnitzkysaurus)* graces the concourse of the [Trelew](Trelew) airport (the skeleton is in the Trelew paleontological museum; the museum's staff has also announced the discovery of a species of dinosaur even bigger than *Argentinosaurus*). Of more than paleontological interest,Though not without it where the formations surface; see [Chacaicosaurus](Chacaicosaurus) and [Mollesaurus](Mollesaurus) from the Los Molles, and [Caypullisaurus](Caypullisaurus), [Cricosaurus](Cricosaurus), [Geosaurus](Geosaurus), [Herbstosaurus](Herbstosaurus), and [Wenupteryx](Wenupteryx) from the Vaca Muerta. the middle Jurassic [Molles Formation](Los)(Los Molles Formation) and the still richer late Jurassic ([Tithonian](Tithonian)) and early Cretaceous ([Berriasian](Berriasian)) [Muerta](Vaca)(Vaca Muerta) formation above it in the Neuquén basin are reported to contain huge hydrocarbon reserves (mostly gas in Los Molles, both gas and oil in Vaca Muerta) partly accessible through [fracturing](hydraulic)(hydraulic fracturing).U.S. Energy Information Administration, *Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale Formations in 41 Countries Outside the United States*, June 2013, pp. V-1 through V-13. According to the same study, the Austral (Argentine name) or Magallanes (Chilean name) basin under the southern Patagonian mainland and Tierra del Fuego may also have massive hydrocarbon reserves in early Cretaceous shales; see pp. V-23 and VII-17 in particular. On 21 May 2014, YPF also announced the first oil and gas discovery in the D-129 shale formation of the Golfo San Jorge area in Chubut, and on 14 August 2014, the first shale oil discovery in yet another Cretaceous formation in the Neuquén basin, the Valanginian/Hauterivian Agrio formation; see , and Other specimens of the interesting fauna of Patagonia, belonging to the Middle Cenozoic, are the gigantic wingless birds, exceeding in size any hitherto known, and the singular mammal *[Pyrotherium](Pyrotherium)*, also of very large dimensions. In the Cenozoic marine formation, considerable numbers of [cetacea](cetacea)ns have been discovered.
During the [Oligocene](Oligocene) and early [Miocene](Miocene), large swathes of Patagonia were subject to a [transgression](marine)(marine transgression), which might have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from the findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in [Cascada Formation](La)(La Cascada Formation). Connection would have occurred through narrow [seaways](epicontinental)(inland sea) that formed channels in a [topography](dissected)(river incision). The [Plate](Antarctic)(Antarctic Plate) started to [subduct](subduction) beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming the [Triple Junction](Chile)(Chile Triple Junction). At first, the Antarctic Plate subducted only in the southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction was located near the [of Magellan](Strait)(Strait of Magellan). As the southern part of the [Plate](Nazca)(Nazca Plate) and the [Rise](Chile)(Chile Rise) became consumed by subduction, the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate began to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time. The [window](asthenospheric)(asthenospheric window) associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of [convection](mantle)(mantle convection) beneath Patagonia [an uplift](inducing)(dynamic topography) of c. 1 km that reversed the Miocene transgression.
## Political divisions
At a state level, Patagonia visually occupies an area within two countries: approximately 10% in [Chile](Chile) and approximately 90% in [Argentina](Argentina). Both countries have organized their Patagonian territories into nonequivalent administrative subdivisions: [provinces](Provinces of Argentina) and [departments](Departments of Argentina) in Argentina, as well as [regions](Regions of Chile), [provinces](Provinces of Chile), and [communes](Communes of Chile) in Chile. As Chile is a [state](unitary)(unitary state), its first-level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than analogous Argentine provinces. Argentine provinces have elected governors and legislatures, while Chilean regions had government-appointed intendants prior to the adoption of elected governors from 2021.
The Patagonian Provinces of Argentina are [Neuquén](Neuquén Province), [Negro](Río)(Río Negro Province), [Chubut](Chubut Province), [Cruz](Santa)(Santa Cruz Province, Argentina), and [del Fuego](Tierra)(Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina). The southernmost part of [Aires Province](Buenos)(Buenos Aires Province) can also be considered part of Patagonia.
The two Chilean regions undisputedly located entirely within Patagonia are [Aysén](Aysén Region) and [Magallanes](Magallanes Region). [Province](Palena)(Palena Province), a part of the [Lagos Region](Los)(Los Lagos Region), is also located within Patagonia. By some definitions, Chiloé Archipelago, the rest of the Los Lagos Region, and part of the Los Ríos Region are also part of Patagonia.
## Climate
[[Arenas con nieve.jpeg|thumb|left|View of Punta Arenas, Chile, in winter](File:Punta)]
Patagonia's climate is mostly cool and dry year round. The east coast is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas the west coast is washed by a cold current. However, winters are colder on the inland plateaus east of the slopes and further down the coast on the southeast end of the Patagonian region. For example, at [Montt](Puerto)(Puerto Montt), on the inlet behind Chiloé Island, the mean annual temperature is and the average extremes are , whereas at [Blanca](Bahía)(Bahía Blanca) near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagonia, the annual temperature is and the range much greater, as temperatures above 35°C and below −5°C are recorded every year. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is and the average extremes are . The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern in a [rainshadow](rainshadow) effect; the western islands close to [del Paine](Torres)(Torres del Paine) receive an annual precipitation of 4,000 to 7,000 mm, whilst the eastern hills are less than 800 mm and the plains may be as low as 200 mm annual precipitation.
Precipitation is highly seasonal in northwestern Patagonia. For example, [La Angostura](Villa)(Villa La Angostura) in Argentina, close to the border with Chile, receives up to 434 mm of rain and snow in May, 297 mm in June, and 273 in July, compared to 80 in February and 72 in March. The total for the city is 2074 mm, making it one of the rainiest in Argentina. Further west, some areas receive up to 4,000 mm and more, especially on the Chilean side. In the northeast, the seasons for rain are reversed; most rain falls from occasional summer thunderstorms but totals barely reach 500 mm in the northeast corner, and rapidly decrease to less than 300 mm. The Patagonian west coast, which belongs exclusively to Chile, has a cool oceanic climate, with summer maximum temperatures ranging from 14°C in the south to 19°C in the north (and nights between 5 and 11°C) and very high precipitation, from 2,000 to more than 7,000 mm in local microclimates. Snow is uncommon at the coast in the north but happens more often in the south, and frost is usually not very intense.
Immediately east from the coast are the Andes, cut by deep fjords in the south and by deep lakes in the north, and with varying temperatures according to the altitude. The tree line ranges from close to 2,000 m on the northern side (except for the Andes in northern Neuquén in Argentina, where sunnier and dryer conditions allow trees to grow up to close to 3,000 m), and diminishes southward to only 600–800m in Tierra del Fuego. Precipitation changes dramatically from one spot to the other and diminishes very quickly eastward. An example of this is Laguna Frías, in Argentina, which receives 4,400 mm yearly. The city of Bariloche, about 40 km further east, receives about 1,000 mm, and the airport, another 15 km east, receives less than 600 mm. The easterly slopes of the Andes are home to several Argentine cities: [Martín de los Andes](San)(San Martín de los Andes), Bariloche, [Bolsón](El)(El Bolsón, Río Negro), [Esquel](Esquel, Argentina), and [Calafate](El)(El Calafate). Temperatures there are milder in the summer (in the north, between 20 and 24°C, with cold nights between 4 and 9°C; in the south, summers are between 16 and 20°C, at night temperatures are similar to the north) and much colder in the winter, with frequent snowfall (although snow cover rarely lasts very long). Daytime highs range from 3 to 9°C in the north, and from 0 to 7°C in the south, whereas nights range from −5 to 2°C everywhere. Cold waves can bring much colder values; a temperature of −25°C has been recorded in Bariloche, and most places can often have temperatures between −12 and −15°C and highs staying around 0°C for a few days.
[[Buenos Aires Department, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina - panoramio (37).jpg|thumb|Santa Cruz Province](File:Lago)]
Directly east of these areas, the weather becomes much harsher; precipitation drops to between 150 and 300 mm, the mountains no longer protect the cities from the wind, and temperatures become more extreme. Maquinchao is a few hundred kilometers east of Bariloche, at the same altitude on a plateau, and summer daytime temperatures are usually about 5°C warmer, rising up to 35°C sometimes, but winter temperatures are much more extreme: the record is −35°C, and some nights not uncommonly reach 10°C colder than Bariloche. The plateaus in Santa Cruz province and parts of Chubut usually have snow cover through the winter, and often experience very cold temperatures. In Chile, the city of Balmaceda is known for being situated in this region (which is otherwise almost exclusively in Argentina), and for being the coldest place in Chile, with temperatures below −20°C every once in a while.
The northern Atlantic coast has warm summers (28 to 32°C, but with relatively cool nights at 15°C) and mild winters, with highs around 12°C and lows about 2–3°C. Occasionally, temperatures reach −10 or 40°C, and rainfall is very scarce. The weather only gets a bit colder further south in Chubut, and the city of Comodoro Rivadavia has summer temperatures of 24 to 28°C, nights of 12 to 16°C, and winters with days around 10°C and nights around 3°C, and less than 250 mm of rain. However, a drastic drop occurs as one moves south to Santa Cruz; Rio Gallegos, in the south of the province, has summer temps of 17 to 21°C, (nights between 6 and 10°C) and winter temperatures of 2 to 6°C, with nights between −5 and 0°C, despite being right on the coast. Snowfall is common despite the dryness, and temperatures are known to fall to under −18°C and to remain below freezing for several days in a row. Rio Gallegos is also among the windiest places on Earth, with winds reaching 100 km/h occasionally.
Tierra del Fuego is extremely wet in the west, relatively damp in the south, and dry in the north and east. Summers are cool (13 to 18°C in the north, 12 to 16°C in the south, with nights generally between 3 and 8°C), cloudy in the south, and very windy. Winters are dark and cold, but without the extreme temperatures in the south and west ([Ushuaia](Ushuaia) rarely reaches −10°C, but hovers around 0°C for several months, and snow can be heavy). In the east and north, winters are much more severe, with cold snaps bringing temperatures down to −20°C all the way to the Rio Grande on the Atlantic coast. Snow can fall even in the summer in most areas, as well.
## Fauna
[[File:Black-browed Albatross, Beagle Channel.jpg|thumb|[albatross](Black-browed)(Black-browed albatross), near Ushuaia]]
The [guanaco](guanaco) (*Lama guanicoe*), [American cougar](South)(South American cougar) (*Puma concolor concolor*), the [fox](Patagonian)(South American gray fox) (*Lycalopex griseus*), [hog-nosed skunk](Patagonian)(Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk) (*Conepatus humboldtii*), and [tuco-tuco](Magellanic)(Magellanic tuco-tuco) (*Ctenomys magellanicus*; a subterranean [rodent](rodent)) are the most characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The [steppe](Patagonian)(Patagonian steppe) is one of the last strongholds of the guanaco and [rhea](Darwin's)(Darwin's rhea)s (*Rhea pennata*), which had been hunted for their skins by the [Tehuelches](Tehuelches), on foot using [boleadoras](boleadoras), before the diffusion of [firearms](firearms) and [horses](horses); they were formerly the chief means of subsistence for the natives, who hunted them on horseback with dogs and [bolas](bolas). [Vizcacha](Vizcacha)s (*Lagidum* spp.) and the [mara](Patagonian)(Patagonian mara) (*Dolichotis patagonum*) are also characteristic of the steppe and the pampas to the north.
Bird life is often abundant. The [caracara](crested)(crested caracara) (*Caracara plancus*) is one of the characteristic objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of [parakeet](austral)(austral parakeet)s (*Enicognathus ferrugineus*) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators, and [firecrown](green-backed)(green-backed firecrown)s (*Sephanoides sephaniodes*), a species of [hummingbird](hummingbird), may be seen flying amid the snowfall. One of the largest birds in the world, the [condor](Andean)(Andean condor) (*Vultur gryphus*) can be seen in Patagonia. Of the many kinds of waterfowl the [flamingo](Chilean)(Chilean flamingo) (*Phoenicopterus chilensis*), the [goose](upland)(upland goose) (*Chloephaga picta*), and in the strait, the remarkable [duck](steamer)(steamer duck)s are found.
Signature marine fauna include the [right whale](southern)(southern right whale), the [penguin](Magellanic)(Magellanic penguin) (*Spheniscus magellanicus*), the [whale](killer)(killer whale), and [seal](elephant)(elephant seal)s. The [Peninsula](Valdés)(Valdes Peninsula) is a UNESCO [Heritage Site](World)(World Heritage Site), designated for its global significance as a site for the conservation of [mammals](marine)(marine mammals).
The Patagonian freshwater fish fauna is relatively restricted compared to other similar Southern Hemisphere regions. The Argentine part is home to a total of 29 freshwater fish species, 18 of which are native. The [introduced](Introduced species) are several species of [trout](trout), [carp](common)(common carp), and various species that originated in more northerly parts of South America. The natives are [osmeriforms](Osmeriformes) (*[Aplochiton](Aplochiton)* and *[Galaxias](Galaxias)*), [perch](temperate)(temperate perch)es (*[Percichthys](Percichthys)*), [catfish](catfish) (*[Diplomystes](Diplomystes)*, *[Hatcheria](Hatcheria)* and *[Trichomycterus](Trichomycterus)*), [silverside](Neotropical)(Neotropical silverside)s (*[Odontesthes](Odontesthes)*) and [characiform](characiform)s (*[Astyanax](Astyanax (fish))*, *[Cheirodon](Cheirodon)*, *[Gymnocharacinus](Gymnocharacinus)*, and *[Oligosarcus](Oligosarcus)*). Other Patagonian freshwater fauna include the highly unusual [aeglid](Aeglidae) crustaceans.
## History
### Pre-Columbian Patagonia (10,000 BC – AD 1520)
[[indígenas de la Patagonia Austral.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the indigenous peoples of Southern Patagonia](File:Pueblos)]
Human habitation of the region dates back thousands of years, with some early archaeological findings in the area dated to at least the [millennium BC](13th)(13th millennium BC), although later dates around the [millennium BC](10th)(10th millennium BC) are more securely recognized. Evidence exists of human activity at [Verde](Monte)(Monte Verde) in [Province](Llanquihue)(Llanquihue Province), Chile, dated to around 12,500 BC. The glacial-period ice fields and subsequent large meltwater streams would have made settlement difficult at that time.
The region seems to have been inhabited continuously since 10,000 BC, by various cultures and alternating waves of migration, the details of which are as yet poorly understood. Several sites have been excavated, notably caves such as [del Milodon](Cueva)(Cueva del Milodon)C. Michael Hogan (2008) *Cueva del Milodon*, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18820] in Última Esperanza in southern Patagonia, and [Arroyos](Tres)(Tres Arroyos) on Tierra del Fuego, that support this date. Hearths, stone scrapers, and animal remains dated to 9400–9200 BC have been found east of the Andes.
[[File:SantaCruz-CuevaManos-P2210651b.jpg|thumb|left|[de las Manos](Cueva)(Cueva de las Manos) site in Santa Cruz, Argentina]]
The [de las Manos](Cueva)(Cueva de las Manos) is a famous site in Santa Cruz, Argentina. This cave at the foot of a cliff is covered in wall paintings, particularly the negative images of hundreds of hands, believed to date from around 8000 BC.
Based on artifacts found in the region, apparently hunting of guanaco, and to a lesser extent [rhea](rhea (bird)) (*ñandú*), were the primary food sources of tribes living on the eastern plains. Whether the [megafauna](megafauna) of Patagonia, including the [sloth](ground)(ground sloth) and horse, were extinct in the area before the arrival of humans is unclear, although this is now the more widely accepted account. It is also not clear if domestic dogs were part of early human activity. *[Bolas](Bolas)* are commonly found and were used to catch [guanaco](guanaco) and [rhea](Rhea (bird)). A maritime tradition existed along the Pacific coast, whose latest exponents were the [Yaghan](Yaghan people) (Yámana) to the south of Tierra del Fuego, the [Kaweshqar](Alacalufe) between [Peninsula](Taitao)(Taitao Peninsula) and Tierra del Fuego, and the [people](Chono)(Chono people) in the [Archipelago](Chonos)(Chonos Archipelago). The [Selk'nam](Selk'nam), [Haush](Haush people), and Tehuelche are generally thought to be culturally and linguistically related peoples [distinct](physically)(physical anthropology) from the sea-faring peoples.
It is possible that [Grande de Tierra del Fuego](Isla)(Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego) was connected to the mainland in the [Holocene](Early)(Holocene) (c. 9000 years [BP](Before present)) much in the same way that [Island](Riesco)(Riesco Island) was back then. A Selk'nam tradition recorded by the [Salesian](Salesians of Don Bosco) missionary [María Beauvoir](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe María Beauvoir) relate that the [Selk'nam](Selk'nam) arrived in Tierra del Fuego by land, and that the Selk'nam were later unable to return north as the sea had flooded their crossing.
Agriculture was practised in Pre-Hispanic Argentina as far south as southern [Province](Mendoza)(Mendoza Province). Agriculture was at times practised beyond this limit in nearby areas of Patagonia but populations reverted at times to non-agricultural lifestyles. By the time of the Spanish arrival to the area (1550s) there is no record of agriculture being practised in northern Patagonia. The extensive [grasslands](Patagonian)(Patagonian grasslands) and an associated abundance of [guanaco](guanaco) game may have contributed for the indigenous populations to favour a hunter-gathered lifestyle.
The [peoples](indigenous)(indigenous peoples) of the region included the [Tehuelche](Tehuelche people)s, whose numbers and society were reduced to near extinction not long after the first contacts with Europeans. Tehuelches included the [Gununa'kena](Gununa'kena) to the north, [Mecharnuekenk](Mecharnuekenk) in south-central Patagonia, and the [Aonikenk](Tehuelche people) or Southern Tehuelche in the far south, north of the Magellan strait. On [Grande de Tierra del Fuego](Isla)(Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego), the [Selk'nam](Selk'nam) (Ona) and [Haush](Haush) (Manek'enk) lived in the north and southeast, respectively. In the archipelagos to the south of Tierra del Fuego were Yámana, with the [Kawéskar](Kawéskar) (Alakaluf) in the coastal areas and islands in western Tierra del Fuego and the southwest of the mainland. In the Patagonian archipelagoes north of [Peninsula](Taitao)(Taitao Peninsula) lived the [Chono](Chono people)s. These groups were encountered in the first periods of European contact with different lifestyles, body decoration, and language, although it is unclear when this configuration emerged.
Towards the end of the 16th century, [Mapuche](Mapuche)-speaking agriculturalists penetrated the western Andes and from there across into the eastern plains and down to the far south. Through confrontation and technological ability, they came to dominate the other peoples of the region in a short period of time, and are the principal indigenous community today.
### Early European exploration (1520–1669)
[[File:NaoVictoria.JPG|thumb|upright|[Victoria*](*Nao)(Victoria (ship)), the replica of [first ship](the)(Museo Nao Victoria) to pass through the [of Magellan](Strait)(Strait of Magellan)]]
Navigators such as [Coelho](Gonçalo)(Gonçalo Coelho) and [Vespucci](Amerigo)(Amerigo Vespucci) possibly had reached the area (his own account of 1502 has it that they reached the latitude 52°S), but Vespucci's failure to accurately describe the main geographical features of the region such as the [de la Plata](Río)(Río de la Plata) casts doubts on whether they really did so.
The first or more detailed description of part of the coastline of Patagonia is possibly mentioned in a Portuguese voyage in 1511–1512, traditionally attributed to captain Diogo Ribeiro, who after his death was replaced by Estevão de Frois, and was guided by the pilot and [cosmographer](Cosmography) [de Lisboa](João)(João de Lisboa)). The explorers, after reaching Rio de la Plata (which they would explore on the return voyage, contacting the [Charrúa](Charrúa people) and other peoples) eventually reached [Matias Gulf](San)(San Matias Gulf), at 42°S. The expedition reported that after going south of the 40th parallel, they found a "land" or a "point extending into the sea", and further south, a gulf. The expedition is said to have rounded the gulf for nearly and sighted the continent on the southern side of the gulf.[https://books.google.com/books?id=JH9SIogNd3sC&q=San+Matias]Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt (in ancient German and Portuguese) [Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt](http://biblio.wdfiles.com/local--files/schuller-1915-nova/schuller_1915_nova.pdf)
The Atlantic coast of Patagonia was first fully explored in 1520 by the [expedition](Spanish)(Magellan's circumnavigation) led by [Magellan](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Magellan), who on his passage along the coast named many of its more striking features – San Matías Gulf, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simply [Virgenes](Cape)(Cape Virgenes)), and others. Magellan's fleet spent a difficult winter at what he named [San Julián](Puerto)(Puerto San Julián) before resuming its voyage further south on 21 August 1520. During this time, it encountered the local inhabitants, likely to be [people](Tehuelche)(Tehuelche people), described by his reporter, Antonio Pigafetta, as giants called [Patagon](Patagon)s.
The territory became the Spanish colony of the Governorate of New Léon, granted in 1529 to Governor , part of the [of the Spanish Empire](Governorates)(Governorates of the Spanish Empire) of the Americas. The territory was redefined in 1534 and consisted of the southernmost part of the South American continent and the islands towards Antarctica.
[de Isla](Rodrigo)(Rodrigo de Isla), sent inland in 1535 from San Matías by Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor (on whom western Patagonia had been conferred by [I of Spain](Charles)(Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), is presumed to have been the first European to have traversed the great Patagonian plain. If the men under his charge had not mutinied, he might have crossed the [Andes](Andes) to reach the Pacific coast.
[de Mendoza](Pedro)(Pedro de Mendoza), on whom the country was next bestowed, founded [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires), but did not venture south. (1539), [Ladrilleros](Juan)(Juan Ladrilleros) (1557), and [de Mendoza](Hurtado)(Hurtado de Mendoza) (1558) helped to make known the Pacific coasts, and while [Francis Drake](Sir)(Francis Drake)'s voyage in 1577 down the Atlantic coast, through the [of Magellan](Strait)(Strait of Magellan) and northward along the Pacific coast, was memorable, yet the descriptions of the geography of Patagonia owe much more to the Spanish explorer [Sarmiento de Gamboa](Pedro)(Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa) (1579–1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The settlements that he founded at [de Jesús](Nombre)(Nombre de Jesús (Patagonia)) and San Felipe was neglected by the Spanish government, the latter being abandoned before [Cavendish](Thomas)(Thomas Cavendish) visited it in 1587 during his [circumnavigation](Thomas Cavendish's circumnavigation), and so desolate that he called it [Famine](Port)(Puerto del Hambre). After the discovery of the route around Cape Horn, the Spanish Crown lost interest in southern Patagonia until the 18th century, when the coastal settlements Carmen de Patagones, San José, Puerto Deseado, and Nueva Colonia Floridablanca were established, although it maintained its claim of a *[jure](de)(de jure)* sovereignty over the area.
In 1669, the district around [Deseado](Puerto)(Puerto Deseado) was explored by [Davis](John)(John Davis (English explorer)) and was claimed in 1670 by Sir [Narborough](John)(John Narborough) for King [II of England](Charles)(Charles II of England), but the English made no attempt to establish settlements or explore the interior.
#### Patagonian giants: early European perceptions
The first European explorers of Patagonia observed that the indigenous people in the region were taller than the average Europeans of the time, prompting some of them to believe that Patagonians were giants.
According to Antonio Pigafetta, one of the Magellan expedition's few survivors and its published chronicler, Magellan bestowed the name *Patagão* (or *Patagón*) on the inhabitants they encountered there, and the name "Patagonia" for the region. Although Pigafetta's account does not describe how this name came about, subsequent popular interpretations gave credence to a derivation meaning "land of the big feet". However, this [etymology](etymology) is questionable. The term is most likely derived from an actual character name, "Patagón", a savage creature confronted by Primaleón of Greece, the hero in the homonymous Spanish chivalry novel (or [tale](knight-errantry)(Knight-errant)) by Francisco Vázquez. This book, published in 1512, was the sequel of the romance *Palmerín de Oliva*;it was much in vogue at the time, and a favorite reading of Magellan. Magellan's perception of the natives, dressed in skins, and eating raw meat, clearly recalled the uncivilized Patagón in Vázquez's book. Novelist and travel writer [Chatwin](Bruce)(Bruce Chatwin) suggests etymological roots of both Patagon and Patagonia in his book, *[Patagonia](In)(In Patagonia)*,Chatwin, Bruce. *In Patagonia* (1977). ch. 49 noting the similarity between "Patagon" and the [Greek](Greek language) word παταγος, which means "a roaring" or "gnashing of teeth" (in his chronicle, Pigafetta describes the Patagonians as "roaring like bulls").
[[File:Urville-Patagonians2.jpg|thumb|An 1840s illustration of indigenous Patagonians from near the [of Magellan](Straits)(Straits of Magellan), from ''Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Océanie'' by French explorer [Dumont d'Urville](Jules)(Jules Dumont d'Urville)]]
The main interest in the region sparked by Pigafetta's account came from his reports of their meeting with the local inhabitants, whom they claimed to measure some 9 to 12 feet in height – "so tall that we reached only to his waist" – hence the later idea that Patagonia meant "big feet". This supposed race of Patagonian giants or [Patagon](Patagon)es entered into the common European perception of this then little-known and distant area, to be further fueled by subsequent reports of other expeditions and famous travelers such as Sir Francis Drake, which seemed to confirm these accounts. Early charts of the [World](New)(New World) sometimes added the legend *regio gigantum* ("region of the giants") to the Patagonian area. By 1611, the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers of *The Tempest*.
The concept and general belief persisted for a further 250 years and was to be sensationally reignited in 1767 when an "official" (but anonymous) account was published of [Commodore](Commodore (RN)) [Byron](John)(John Byron)'s recent voyage of global [circumnavigation](circumnavigation) in [*Dolphin*](HMS)(HMS Dolphin (1751)). Byron and crew had spent some time along the coast, and the publication (''Voyage Round the World in His Majesty's Ship the Dolphin'') seemed to give proof positive of their existence; the publication became an overnight bestseller, thousands of extra copies were to be sold to a willing public, and other prior accounts of the region were hastily republished (even those in which giant-like folk were not mentioned at all).
However, the Patagonian giant frenzy died down substantially only a few years later, when some more sober and analytical accounts were published. In 1773, [Hawkesworth](John)(John Hawkesworth (book editor)) published on behalf of the [Admiralty](British Admiralty) a compendium of noted English southern-hemisphere explorers' journals, including that of [Cook](James)(James Cook) and John Byron. In this publication, drawn from their official logs, the people Byron's expedition had encountered clearly were no taller than , very tall but by no means giants. Interest soon subsided, although awareness of and belief in the concept persisted in some quarters even into the 20th century.
### Spanish outposts
The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan made [Archipelago](Chiloé)(Chiloé Archipelago) assume the role of protecting the area of western Patagonia from foreign intrusions. [Valdivia](Valdivia), reestablished in 1645, and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected information and rumors from all over Patagonia.
As a result of the corsair and pirate menace, Spanish authorities ordered the depopulation of the [Archipelago](Guaitecas)(Guaitecas Archipelago) to deprive enemies of any eventual support from native populations. This then led to the transfer of the majority of the indigenous [Chono](Chono people) population to the Chiloé Archipelago in the north while some Chonos moved south of [Peninsula](Taitao)(Taitao Peninsula) effectively depopulating the territory in the 18th century.
The publication of [Falkner](Thomas)(Thomas Falkner)'s book *A Description of Patagonia and the Adjacent Parts of South America* in England fuelled speculations in Spain about renewed British interest in Patagonia. In response an order from the [of Spain](King)(King of Spain) was issued to settle the eastern coast of Patagonia. This led to the brief existence of colonies at the [of San Jorge](Gulf)(Gulf of San Jorge) (1778–1779) and [Julián](San)(San Julián, Argentina) (1780–1783) and the more longlasting colony of [de Patagones](Carmen)(Carmen de Patagones).
### Scientific exploration (1764–1842)
In the second half of the 18th century, European knowledge of Patagonia was further augmented by the voyages of the previously mentioned John Byron (1764–1765), [Wallis](Samuel)(Samuel Wallis) (1766, in the same HMS *Dolphin* which Byron had earlier sailed in) and [Antoine de Bougainville](Louis)(Louis Antoine de Bougainville) (1766). [Falkner](Thomas)(Thomas Falkner), a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published his *Description of Patagonia* (Hereford, 1774); [Viedma](Francisco)(Francisco Viedma) founded *El Carmen*, nowadays [de Patagones](Carmen)(Carmen de Patagones) and Antonio settled the area of [Julian Bay](San)(San Julian Bay), where he founded the colony of [Floridablanca](Floridablanca (Patagonia)) and advanced inland to the Andes (1782). [Villarino](Basilio)(Basilio Villarino) ascended the Rio Negro (1782).
[[File:MORENO(1879) p131 UNA FIESTA EN CALEUFU.JPG|thumb|[Tehuelche](Tehuelche people) warriors in Patagonia]]
Two [hydrographic](hydrography) surveys of the coasts were of first-rate importance; the first expedition (1826–1830) included [*Adventure*](HMS)(HMS Aid (1809)) and [*Beagle*](HMS)(HMS Beagle) under [Parker King](Phillip)(Phillip Parker King), and the second (1832–1836) was the [of the *Beagle*](voyage)(second voyage of HMS Beagle) under [FitzRoy](Robert)(Robert FitzRoy). The latter expedition is particularly noted for the participation of [Darwin](Charles)(Charles Darwin), who spent considerable time investigating various areas of Patagonia onshore, including long rides with [gaucho](gaucho)s in [Negro](Río)(Río Negro (Argentina)), and who joined FitzRoy in a expedition taking ships' boats up the course of the [Cruz River](Santa)(Santa Cruz River (Argentina)).
### Spanish American independence wars
During the independence wars rumours about the imminent arrival of Spanish troops to Patagonia, either from Peru or Chiloé, were common among indigenous peoples of the Pampas and northern Patagonia. In 1820 Chilean patriot leader [Miguel Carrera](José)(José Miguel Carrera) allied with the indigenous [Ranquel](Ranquel) people of the [Pampas](Pampas) in order to fight the rival patriots in Buenos Aires. José Miguel Carrera ultimately planned to cross the Andes into Chile and oust his rivals in Chile.
The last royalist armed group in what is today Argentina and Chile, the [brothers](Pincheira)(Pincheira brothers), moved from the vicinities of Chillán across the Andes into northern Patagonia as patriots consolidated control of Chile. The Pincheira brothers was an outlaw gang made of Europeans Spanish, American Spanish, Mestizos and local indigenous peoples. This group was able to move to Patagonia thanks to its alliance with two indigenous tribes, the Ranqueles and the [Boroanos](Boroano people). In the interior of Patagonia, far from the de facto territory of Chile and the United Provinces, the Pincheira brothers established permanent encampment with thousands of settlers. From their bases the Pincheiras led numerous raids into the countryside of the newly established republics.
### Chilean and Argentine colonization (1843–1902)
In the early 19th century, the [araucanization](Araucanization of Patagonia) of the natives of northern Patagonia intensified, and many [Mapuche](Mapuche)s migrated to Patagonia to live as nomads that raised cattle or pillaged the Argentine countryside. The cattle stolen in the incursions (*[malones](Malón)*) were later taken to Chile through the mountain passes and traded for goods, especially alcoholic beverages. The main trail for this trade was called [de los chilenos](Camino)(Camino de los chilenos) and runs a length around 1000 km from the [Aires Province](Buenos)(Buenos Aires Province) to the [pass](mountain)(mountain pass)es of [Province](Neuquén)(Neuquén Province). The *[lonco](lonco)* [Calfucurá](Calfucurá) crossed the [Andes](Andes) from Chile to the pampas around 1830, after a call from the governor of [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires), [Manuel de Rosas](Juan)(Juan Manuel de Rosas), to fight the [people](Boroano)(Boroano people). In 1859, he attacked [Blanca](Bahía)(Bahía Blanca) in Argentina with 3,000 warriors. As in the case of Calfucura, many other bands of Mapuches got involved in the internal conflicts of Argentina until [of the Desert](Conquest)(Conquest of the Desert). To counter the cattle raids, a trench called the [de Alsina](Zanja)(Zanja de Alsina) was built by Argentina in the pampas in the 1870s.
[[File:Mapa ARGENTINA frontera.png|thumb|210px|Map of the advance of the Argentine frontier until the establishment of [de Alsina](zanja)(zanja de Alsina)]]
In the mid-19th century, the newly independent nations of Argentina and Chile began an aggressive phase of expansion into the south, increasing confrontation with the Indigenous peoples of the region. In 1860, French adventurer [de Tounens](Orelie-Antoine)(Orelie-Antoine de Tounens) proclaimed himself king of the [of Araucanía and Patagonia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia) of the [Mapuche](Mapuche).
Following the last instructions of [O'Higgins](Bernardo)(Bernardo O'Higgins), the Chilean president [Bulnes](Manuel)(Manuel Bulnes) sent an [to the Strait of Magellan](expedition)(Chilean colonization of the Strait of Magellan) and founded [Bulnes](Fuerte)(Fuerte Bulnes) in 1843. Five years later, the Chilean government moved the main settlement to the current location of [Arenas](Punta)(Punta Arenas, Chile), the oldest permanent settlement in Southern Patagonia. The creation of Punta Arenas was instrumental in making Chile's claim of the Strait of Magellan permanent. In the 1860s, sheep from the [Islands](Falkland)(Falkland Islands) were introduced to the lands around the Straits of Magellan, and throughout the 19th century, sheepfarming grew to be the most important economic sector in southern Patagonia.
[Chaworth Musters](George)(George Chaworth Musters) in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the northwest, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.
#### Conquest of the Desert and the 1881 treaty
[[File:Mapa ARGENTINA 1881.png|thumb|170px|left|Under General [Roca](Julio Argentino Roca), the [of the Desert](Conquest)(Conquest of the Desert) extended Argentine power into Patagonia]]
Argentine authorities worried that the strong connections araucanized tribes had with Chile would allegedly give Chile certain influence over the pampas. Argentine authorities feared that in an eventual war with Chile over Patagonia, the natives would side with the Chileans and the war would be brought to the vicinity of Buenos Aires.
The decision to plan and execute the Conquest of the Desert was probably catalyzed by the 1872 attack of [Cufulcurá](Cufulcurá) and his 6,000 followers on the cities of [Alvear](General)(General Alvear, Mendoza), [de Mayo](Veinticinco)(Veinticinco de Mayo, Buenos Aires), and [de Julio](Nueve)(Nueve de Julio, Buenos Aires Province), where 300 *[criollos](Creole peoples)* were killed, and 200,000 heads of cattle taken. In the 1870s, the Conquest of the Desert was a controversial campaign by the Argentine government, executed mainly by [Julio Argentino Roca](General)(General Julio Argentino Roca), to subdue or, some claim, to exterminate the native peoples of the south.
In 1885, a mining expeditionary party under the [Romania](Romania)n adventurer [Popper](Julius)(Julius Popper) landed in southern Patagonia in search of gold, which they found after traveling southwards towards the lands of Tierra del Fuego. This led to the further opening up of the area to prospectors. European missionaries and settlers arrived throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, notably the [settlement](Welsh)(Y Wladfa) of the [Valley](Chubut)(Chubut Valley). Numerous [Croatians](Croatian Argentines) also settled in Patagonia.
During the first years of the 20th century, the border between the two nations in Patagonia was established by the mediation of the British crown. Numerous modifications have been made since then, the last conflict having been resolved in 1994 by an arbitration tribunal constituted in [de Janeiro](Rio)(Rio de Janeiro). It granted Argentina sovereignty over the [Patagonia Icefield](Southern)(Southern Patagonia Icefield), [Fitz Roy](Cerro)(Cerro Fitz Roy), and [del Desierto](Laguna)(Laguna del Desierto).[de la laguna del Desierto](:es:Disputa)(:es:Disputa de la laguna del Desierto)
Until 1902, a large proportion of Patagonia's population were natives of [Archipelago](Chiloé)(Chiloé Archipelago) (Chilotes), who worked as peons in large livestock-farming *[estancia](estancia)s*. Because they were [labor](manual)(manual labor)ers, their social status was below that of the *[gaucho](gaucho)s* and the Argentine, Chilean, and European landowners and administrators.
Before and after 1902, when the boundaries were drawn, Argentina expelled many Chilotes from their territory, as they feared that having a large Chilean population in Argentina could pose a risk to their future control. These workers founded the first inland Chilean settlement in what is now the [Region](Aysén)(Aysén Region);Luis Otero, La Huella del Fuego: Historia de los bosques y cambios en el paisaje del sur de Chile (Valdivia, Editorial Pehuen) [Balmaceda](Balmaceda, Chile). Lacking good grasslands on the forest-covered Chilean side, the immigrants burned down the forest, setting fires that could last more than two years.
## Economy
[[File:Ovejas afuera de un galpon de esquila SETF.jpg|thumb|left|Tierra del Fuego sheep ranch, 1942: The region's primary activity then, it has been eclipsed by the decline in the global [wool](wool) market as much as by [petroleum](petroleum) and [gas](Natural gas) extraction.]]
The area's principal economic activities have been mining, whaling, livestock (notably sheep throughout) agriculture (wheat and fruit production near the Andes towards the north), and oil after its discovery near [Rivadavia](Comodoro)(Comodoro Rivadavia) in 1907.*Time Out Patagonia*, Cathy Runciman (ed), [Books](Penguin)(Penguin Books), 2002.
Energy production is also a crucial part of the local economy. Railways were planned to cover continental Argentine Patagonia to serve the oil, mining, agricultural, and energy industries, and a line was built connecting [Carlos de Bariloche](San)(San Carlos de Bariloche) to Buenos Aires. Portions of other lines were built to the south, but the only lines still in use are [Trochita](La)(La Trochita) in [Esquel](Esquel), the [of the End of the World](Train)(Train of the End of the World) in Ushuaia, both [line](heritage)(heritage line)s,[History of the Old Patagonian Express](http://www.latrochita.org.ar/TrochiIngles/historia.htm) , La Trochita, accessed 2006-08-11
and a short run Tren Histórico de [Bariloche](San Carlos de Bariloche) to Perito Moreno.
In the western forest-covered Patagonian Andes and archipelagoes, [logging](wood)(wood logging) has historically been an important part of the economy; it impelled the colonization of the areas of the [Huapi](Nahuel)(Nahuel Huapi Lake) and [Lácar](Lácar Lake) lakes in Argentina and [Archipelago](Guaitecas)(Guaitecas Archipelago) in Chile.
### Livestock
[[sheep in Patagonia.jpg|thumb|*Gauchos* mustering sheep in Patagonia](File:Mustering)]
Sheep farming introduced in the late 19th century has been a principal economic activity. After reaching its heights during the First World War, the decline in world wool prices affected sheep farming in Argentina. Nowadays, about half of Argentina's 15 million sheep are in Patagonia, a percentage that is growing as sheep farming disappears in the pampas to the north. Chubut (mainly [Merino](Merino)) is the top wool producer with Santa Cruz (Corriedale and some Merino) second. Sheep farming revived in 2002 with the devaluation of the peso and firmer global demand for wool (led by China and the EU). Still, little investment occurs in new abattoirs (mainly in Comodoro Rivadavia, Trelew, and Rio Gallegos), and often [phytosanitary](phytosanitary certification) restrictions reduce the export of sheep meat. Extensive valleys in the [Range](Cordilleran)(Cordilleran Range) have provided sufficient grazing lands, and the low humidity and weather of the southern region make raising Merino and Corriedale sheep common.
Livestock also includes small numbers of cattle, and in lesser numbers, pigs and horses. Sheep farming provides a small but important number of jobs for rural areas with little other employment.
### Tourism
[[File:Ballenas en Península Valdès.jpg|thumb|Whale watching off the [Peninsula](Valdes)(Valdes Peninsula)]]
In the second half of the 20th century, tourism became an ever more important part of Patagonia's economy. Originally a remote backpacking destination, the region has attracted increasing numbers of upmarket visitors, cruise passengers rounding [Horn](Cape)(Cape Horn) or visiting Antarctica, and adventure and activity holiday-makers. Principal tourist attractions include the [Moreno glacier](Perito)(Perito Moreno glacier), the [Peninsula](Valdés)(Valdés Peninsula), the [Lake District](Argentine)(Argentine Lake District) and Ushuaia and Tierra del Fuego (the city is also a jumping-off place for travel to Antarctica, bringing in still more visitors). Tourism has created new markets locally and for export for traditional crafts such as Mapuche handicrafts, guanaco textiles, and confectionery and preserves.
A spin-off from increased tourism has been the buying of often enormous tracts of land by foreigners, often as a prestige purchase rather than for agriculture. Buyers have included [Stallone](Sylvester)(Sylvester Stallone), [Turner](Ted)(Ted Turner), and [Lambert](Christopher)(Christopher Lambert), and most notably [Benetton](Luciano)(Luciano Benetton), Patagonia's largest landowner. His "Compañia de Tierras Sud" has brought new techniques to the ailing sheep-rearing industry and sponsored museums and community facilities, but has been controversial particularly for its treatment of local Mapuche communities.['The Invisible Colors of Benetton'](http://www.mapuche-nation.org/english/main/benetton/main/info.htm), Mapuche International Link, accessed 2006-08-11
### Energy
[[File:LaTrochita12EnNahuelPanFormacionEstacionada.jpg|thumb|*[Trochita](La)(La Trochita)* on its [Province](Chubut)(Chubut Province) route: Formerly the sole rapid transport means in the province, *La Trochita* is now a tourist attraction.]]
Due to its sparse rainfall in agricultural areas, Argentine Patagonia already has numerous dams for irrigation, some of which are also used for hydropower. The [River](Limay)(Limay River) is used to generate hydroelectricity at five dams built on its course: [Alicurá](Alicurá Dam), [del Águila](Piedra)(Piedra del Águila Dam), [Picún Leufú](Pichi)(Pichi Picún Leufú Dam), [Chocón](El)(El Chocón Dam), and [Arroyito](Arroyito Dam). Together with the [Colorados Complex](Cerros)(Cerros Colorados Complex) on the [River](Neuquén)(Neuquén River), they contribute more than one-quarter of the total hydroelectric generation in the country.
Patagonia has always been Argentina's main area, and Chile's only area, of conventional oil and gas production. Oil and gas have played an important role in the rise of Neuquén-Cipolleti as Patagonia's most populous urban area, and in the growth of [Rivadavia](Comodoro)(Comodoro Rivadavia), Punta Arenas, and Rio Grande, as well. The development of the Neuquén basin's enormous [oil](unconventional)(unconventional oil) and gas reserves through hydraulic fracturing has just begun, but the [YPF](YPF)-[Chevron](Chevron Corporation) Loma Campana field in the Vaca Muerta formation is already the world's largest producing shale oil field outside North America according to former YPF CEO Miguel Gallucio.
Patagonia's notorious winds have already made the area Argentina's main source of wind power, and plans have been made for major increases in wind power generation. Coal is mined in the [Turbio](Rio)(Rio Turbio) area and used for electricity generation.
## Cuisine
Argentine Patagonian cuisine is largely the same as the cuisine of Buenos Aires – grilled meats and pasta – with extensive use of local ingredients and less use of those products that have to be imported into the region. Lamb is considered the traditional Patagonian meat, grilled for several hours over an open fire. Some guide books have reported that game meats, especially guanaco and introduced deer and boar, are popular in restaurant cuisine. However, since guanaco is a protected animal in both Chile and Argentina, it is unlikely to appear commonly as restaurant fare. Trout and *[centolla](centolla)* ([crab](king)(king crab)) are also common, though overfishing of *centolla* has made it increasingly scarce. In the area around Bariloche, a noted [cuisine](Alpine)(Alpine cuisine) tradition remains, with chocolate bars and even [fondue](fondue) restaurants, and [room](tea)(tea room)s are a feature of the [Welsh](Welsh people) communities in [Gaiman](Gaiman, Chubut) and [Trevelin](Trevelin), as well as in the mountains. Since the mid-1990s, some success with winemaking has occurred in Argentine Patagonia, especially in Neuquén.
## Foreign land buyers issue
Foreign investors, including Italian multinational [Group](Benetton)(Benetton Group), [Turner](Ted)(Ted Turner), Joseph Lewis and the conservationist [Tompkins](Douglas)(Douglas Tompkins), own major land areas. This situation has caused several conflicts with local inhabitants and the governments of [Chile](Chile) and [Argentina](Argentina), for example, the opposition by Douglas Tompkins to the planned route for [Austral](Carretera)(Carretera Austral) in [Park](Pumalín)(Pumalín Park). A scandal is also brewing about two properties owned by Ted Turner: the *estancia* La Primavera, located inside [Huapi National Park](Nahuel)(Nahuel Huapi National Park), and the *estancia* Collón Cura. Benetton has faced criticism from Mapuche organizations, including [International Link](Mapuche)(Mapuche International Link), over its purchase of traditional Mapuche lands in Patagonia. The Curiñanco-Nahuelquir family was evicted from their land in 2002 following Benetton's claim to it, but the land was restored in 2007.
## In fiction
The [history](future)(future history) depicted in [Stapledon](Olaf)(Olaf Stapledon)'s *[and First Men](Last)(Last and First Men)* includes a far future time in which Patagonia becomes the center of a new world civilization while Europe and North America are reduced to the status of backward poverty-stricken areas.
In [Verne's](Jules)(Jules_Verne) novel [Enfants du capitaine Grant*](*Les)(In_Search_of_the_Castaways) (The Children of Captain Grant, alternatively 'In Search of the Castaways'), the search for Captain Grant gets underway when the *Duncan*, a vessel in the ownership of [Glenarvan](Lord)(Lord Glenarvan), is taken on a journey to the western shore of South America's Patagonian region where the crew is split up, and Lord Glenarvan proceeds to lead a party eastwards across Patagonia to eventually reunite with the *Duncan* (which had doubled the Cape in the meanwhile).
In [Goldman](William)(William Goldman)’s movie *[Princess Bride](The)(The Princess Bride (film))*, Westley, the current inheritor of the moniker "the [Pirate Roberts](Dread)(Dread Pirate Roberts)", states that the "real" (original) Dread Pirate Roberts is retired and "living like a king in Patagonia".
## See also
* [Prefecture of Southern Patagonia](Apostolic)(Apostolic Prefecture of Southern Patagonia)
* [Vicariate of Northern Patagonia](Apostolic)(Apostolic Vicariate of Northern Patagonia)
* [conflict](Beagle)(Beagle conflict)
* [Domuyo](Domuyo)
* [Moreno Museum of Patagonia](Francisco)(Francisco Moreno Museum of Patagonia)
* [Puelo National Park](Lago)(Lago Puelo National Park)
* [National Park](Lanín)(Lanín National Park)
* [Volcano](Lanín)(Lanín)
* [of deserts by area](List)(List of deserts by area)
* [Alerces National Park](Los)(Los Alerces National Park)
* [Glaciares National Park](Los)(Los Glaciares National Park)
* [Hudson](Mount)(Mount Hudson)
* [Huapi National Park](Nahuel)(Nahuel Huapi National Park)
* [Expedition Race](Patagonian)(Patagonian Expedition Race)
* [Ice Sheet](Patagonian)(Patagonian Ice Sheet)
* [Cone](Southern)(Southern Cone)
* [Wladfa](Y)(Y Wladfa)
## References
**Attribution:**
*
*
*
## Further reading
**The Last Cowboys at the End of the World: The Story of the Gauchos of Patagonia*, Nick Reding, 2002.
**[Old Patagonian Express](The)(The Old Patagonian Express)*, [Theroux](Paul)(Paul Theroux), 1979.
**In Patagonia*, [Chatwin](Bruce)(Bruce Chatwin), 1977 and 1988.
**Patagonia Express*, [Sepulveda](Luis)(Luis Sepulveda), 2004.
**Patagonia: A Cultural History*, Chris Moss, 2008.
**Patagonia: A Forgotten Land: From Magellan to Peron*, C. A. Brebbia, 2006.
**The Wild Shores of Patagonia: The Valdés Peninsula & Punta Tombo*, Jasmine Rossi, 2000.
*Luciana Vismara, Maurizio OM Ongaro, *[PATAGONIA – E-BOOK W/ UNPUBLISHED FOTOS, MAPS, TEXTS](https://www.amazon.it/dp/B0063DK026)* (Formato Kindle – 6 November 2011) – eBook Kindle
*''Adventures in Patagonia: a missionary's exploring trip*, Titus Coan, 1880. Library of Congress Control Number 03009975. A list of writings relating to Patagonia, 320–21.
**[*Idle Days in Patagonia*](http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000166464)'' by [Henry Hudson](William)(William Henry Hudson), Chapman and Hall Ltd, London, 1893
## External links
*[Gallery of photos from Patagonia – Jakub Polomski Photography](https://jakubpolomski.com/gallery-landscape-photos/argentina-photos-argentina-landscape/)
*[Photos from Chilean Patagonia (2008–2011) by Jorge Uzon](https://web.archive.org/web/20120423073529/http://uzonphoto.com/GALLERY/Patagonia2008-2010.htm)
*[Patagonia Nature Photo Gallery: Landscapes, flora and fauna from Argentina and Chile](http://www.atacamaphoto.com/patagonia)
*[Patagon Journal, magazine about Patagonia](http://www.patagonjournal.com/)
*[Aborigines of Patagonia](http://www.patagonia-argentina.com/i/content/aborigenes.htm)
*['Backpacking Patagonia' - series of articles about solo hiking in Patagonia](https://web.archive.org/web/20180203235817/https://hikingspree.com/backpacking-patagonia/)
[ ](Category:Patagonia)
[border](Category:Argentina–Chile)(Category:Argentina–Chile border)
[of Argentina](Category:Deserts)(Category:Deserts of Argentina)
[of Chile](Category:Deserts)(Category:Deserts of Chile)
[of Aysén Region](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Aysén Region)
[of Magallanes Region](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Magallanes Region)
[regions of South America](Category:Natural)(Category:Natural regions of South America)
[of Argentina](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Argentina)
[of Chile](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Chile)
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Golden ratio
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golden_ratio
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# Golden ratio
*Revision ID: 1157671627 | Timestamp: 2023-05-30T06:36:57Z*
---
)
|image=Golden ratio line.svg
|image_caption=Line segments in the golden ratio
|binary=...
|decimal=...
|hexadecimal=...
|continued_fraction=1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \ddots}}}}
|algebraic=\frac{1 + \sqrt5}{2}
}}
[[File:SimilarGoldenRectangles.svg|right|thumb|A [rectangle](golden)(golden rectangle) with long side and short side (shaded red, right) and a [square](square) with sides of length (shaded blue, left) combine to form a [similar](Similarity (geometry)) golden rectangle with long side and short side . This illustrates the relationship \frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{b} \equiv \varphi.]]
In [mathematics](mathematics), two quantities are in the **golden ratio** if their [ratio](ratio) is the same as the ratio of their [sum](summation) to the larger of the two quantities. Expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b > 0,
{{bi|left=1.6|1= \frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{b} = \varphi}}
where the Greek letter [phi](Phi (letter)) ( or \phi) denotes the golden ratio.{{efn|If the constraint on a and b each being greater than zero is lifted, then there are actually two solutions, one positive and one negative, to this equation. \varphi is defined as the positive solution. The negative solution is -\varphi^{-1} = \tfrac12\bigl(1 - \sqrt5\bigr). The sum of the two solutions is 1, and the product of the two solutions is -1.}} The constant \varphi satisfies the [equation](quadratic)(quadratic equation) \varphi^2 = \varphi + 1 and is an [number](irrational)(irrational number) with a value of
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\varphi = \frac{1+\sqrt5}{2} = ....}}}}
The golden ratio was called the **extreme and mean ratio** by [Euclid](Euclid), and the **divine proportion** by [Pacioli](Luca)(Luca Pacioli), and also goes by several other names. *golden cut*, *golden proportion*, *golden number*, *medial section*, and *divine section*.}}
Mathematicians have studied the golden ratio's properties since antiquity. It is the ratio of a [pentagon](regular)(regular pentagon)'s diagonal to its side and thus appears in the [construction](Straightedge and compass construction) of the [dodecahedron](dodecahedron) and [icosahedron](icosahedron). A [rectangle](golden)(golden rectangle)—that is, a rectangle with an aspect ratio of \varphi—may be cut into a square and a smaller rectangle with the same [ratio](aspect)(aspect ratio). The golden ratio has been used to analyze the proportions of natural objects and artificial systems such as [market](financial)(financial market)s, in some cases based on dubious fits to data. The golden ratio appears in some [in nature](patterns)(patterns in nature), including the [arrangement of leaves](spiral)(phyllotaxis) and other parts of vegetation.
Some 20th-century [artist](artist)s and [architect](architect)s, including [Corbusier](Le)(Le Corbusier) and [Dalí](Salvador)(Salvador Dalí), have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio, believing it to be [aesthetically](aesthetics) pleasing. These uses often appear in the form of a golden rectangle.
## Calculation
Two quantities a and b are in the *golden ratio* \varphi if
{{bi|left=1.6|1= \frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{b} = \varphi.}}
One method for finding a closed form for \varphi starts with the left fraction. Simplifying the fraction and substituting the reciprocal b/a = 1/\varphi,
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{a}+\frac{b}{a} = 1 + \frac{b}{a} = 1 + \frac{1}{\varphi}.}}
Therefore,
{{bi|left=1.6|1= 1 + \frac{1}{\varphi} = \varphi. }}
Multiplying by \varphi gives
which can be rearranged to
{{bi|left=1.6|1={\varphi}^2 - \varphi - 1 = 0.}}
The [formula](quadratic)(quadratic formula) yields two solutions:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\frac{1 + \sqrt5}{2} = 1.618033\dots and \frac{1 - \sqrt5}{2} = -0.618033\dots.}}
Because \varphi is a ratio between positive quantities, \varphi is necessarily the positive root. The negative root is in fact the negative inverse -\frac{1}{\varphi}, which shares many properties with the golden ratio.
## History
According to [Livio](Mario)(Mario Livio),
|title=''The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, the World's Most Astonishing Number''}}
[Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greece) mathematicians first studied the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in [geometry](geometry); the division of a line into "extreme and mean ratio" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular [pentagram](Pentagram#Geometry)s and [pentagon](pentagon)s. According to one story, 5th-century BC mathematician [Hippasus](Hippasus) discovered that the golden ratio was neither a whole number nor a fraction (it is [irrational](irrational number)), surprising [Pythagoreans](Pythagoreanism). [Euclid](Euclid)'s ''[Elements](Euclid's Elements)* () provides several [propositions](theorem) and their proofs employing the golden ratio, and contains its first known definition which proceeds as follows:
}}
[[File:Michael Maestlin.jpg|thumb|upright|[Maestlin](Michael)(Michael Maestlin), the first to write a decimal approximation of the ratio]]
The golden ratio was studied peripherally over the next millennium. [Kamil](Abu)(Abu Kamil) (c. 850–930) employed it in his geometric calculations of pentagons and decagons; his writings influenced that of [Fibonacci](Fibonacci) (Leonardo of Pisa) (c. 1170–1250), who used the ratio in related geometry problems but did not observe that it was connected to the [number](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci number)s.
[Pacioli](Luca)(Luca Pacioli) named his book *[proportione](Divina)(Divina proportione)'' ([1509](1509 in literature)) after the ratio; the book, largely plagiarized from [della Francesca](Piero)(Piero della Francesca), explored its properties including its appearance in some of the [solids](Platonic)(Platonic solids). [da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci), who illustrated Pacioli's book, called the ratio the *sectio aurea* ('golden section'). Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that the interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the [Vitruvian](Vitruvius) system of rational proportions. Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title. 16th-century mathematicians such as [Bombelli](Rafael)(Rafael Bombelli) solved geometric problems using the ratio.
German mathematician Simon Jacob (d. 1564) noted that [Fibonacci numbers converge to the golden ratio](consecutive)(#Relationship to Fibonacci and Lucas numbers); this was rediscovered by [Kepler](Johannes)(Johannes Kepler) in 1608. The first known [decimal](Decimal fractions) approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio was stated as "about 0.6180340" in 1597 by [Maestlin](Michael)(Michael Maestlin) of the [of Tübingen](University)(University of Tübingen) in a letter to Kepler, his former student. The same year, Kepler wrote to Maestlin of the [triangle](Kepler)(Kepler triangle), which combines the golden ratio with the [theorem](Pythagorean)(Pythagorean theorem). Kepler said of these:
18th-century mathematicians [de Moivre](Abraham)(Abraham de Moivre), [I Bernoulli](Nicolaus)(Nicolaus I Bernoulli), and [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler) used a golden ratio-based formula which finds the value of a Fibonacci number based on its placement in the sequence; in 1843, this was rediscovered by [Philippe Marie Binet](Jacques)(Jacques Philippe Marie Binet), for whom it was named "Binet's formula". [Ohm](Martin)(Martin Ohm) first used the German term *goldener Schnitt* ('golden section') to describe the ratio in 1835. [Sully](James)(James Sully) used the equivalent English term in 1875.
By 1910, inventor [Barr](Mark)(Mark Barr) began using the [letter](Greek)(Greek alphabet) [phi](phi) as a [symbol](symbol) for the golden ratio. It has also been represented by [tau](tau) the first letter of the [Greek](ancient)(ancient Greek) τομή ('cut' or 'section').
[[File:Dan Shechtman in 1985.jpg|thumb|right|[Shechtman](Dan)(Dan Shechtman) demonstrates [quasicrystal](quasicrystal)s at the [NIST](National Institute of Standards and Technology) in 1985 using a [Zome](Zome)toy model.]]
The [zome](zome) construction system, developed by [Baer](Steve)(Steve Baer) in the late 1960s, is based on the [system](symmetry)(icosahedral symmetry) of the [icosahedron](icosahedron)/[dodecahedron](dodecahedron), and uses the golden ratio ubiquitously. Between 1973 and 1974, [Penrose](Roger)(Roger Penrose) developed [tiling](Penrose)(Penrose tiling), a pattern related to the golden ratio both in the ratio of areas of its two rhombic tiles and in their relative frequency within the pattern. This gained in interest after [Shechtman](Dan)(Dan Shechtman)'s Nobel-winning 1982 discovery of [quasicrystal](quasicrystal)s with icosahedral symmetry, which were soon afterward explained through analogies to the Penrose tiling.
## Mathematics
### Irrationality
The golden ratio is an [number](irrational)(irrational number). Below are two short proofs of irrationality:
#### Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms
[[File:Whirling squares.svg|thumb|right|If were [rational](Rational number), then it would be the ratio of sides of a rectangle with integer sides (the rectangle comprising the entire diagram). But it would also be a ratio of integer sides of the smaller rectangle (the rightmost portion of the diagram) obtained by deleting a square. The sequence of decreasing integer side lengths formed by deleting squares cannot be continued indefinitely because the positive integers have a lower bound, so cannot be rational.]]
Recall that:
If we call the whole n and the longer part m, then the second statement above becomes
To say that the golden ratio \varphi is rational means that \varphi is a fraction n/m where n and m are integers. We may take n/m to be in [terms](lowest)(lowest terms) and n and m to be positive. But if n/m is in lowest terms, then the equally valued m/(n-m) is in still lower terms. That is a contradiction that follows from the assumption that \varphi is rational.
#### By irrationality of }}
Another short proof – perhaps more commonly known – of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the [closure](closure (mathematics)) of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If \varphi = \tfrac12(1 + \sqrt5) is rational, then 2\varphi - 1 = \sqrt5 is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of all non-[square](square number) [number](natural)(natural number)s are irrational.
### Minimal polynomial
[[File:Golden ratio parabolas.png|thumb|The golden ratio and its negative reciprocal are the two roots of the [polynomial](quadratic)(quadratic function) . The golden ratio's negative and reciprocal are the two roots of the quadratic polynomial .]]
The golden ratio is also an [number](algebraic)(algebraic number) and even an [integer](algebraic)(algebraic integer). It has [polynomial](minimal)(minimal polynomial (field theory))
This [polynomial](quadratic)(quadratic function) has two [roots](zero of a function), \varphi and -\varphi^{-1}.
The golden ratio is also closely related to the polynomial
which has roots -\varphi and \varphi^{-1}. As the root of a quadratic polynomial, the golden ratio is a [number](constructible)(constructible number).
### Golden ratio conjugate and powers
The [root](conjugate)(Conjugate (square roots)) to the minimal polynomial x^2-x-1 is
{{bi|left=1.6|1=-\frac{1}{\varphi}=1-\varphi = \frac{1 - \sqrt5}{2} = -0.618033\dots.}}
The absolute value of this quantity corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over longer segment length, b/a).
This illustrates the unique property of the golden ratio among positive numbers, that
or its inverse:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\frac1{1/\varphi} = \frac1\varphi + 1.}}
The conjugate and the defining quadratic polynomial relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common with \varphi:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\varphi^2 &= \varphi + 1 = 2.618033\dots, \\[5mu]
\frac1\varphi &= \varphi - 1 = 0.618033\dots.
\end{align}}}
The sequence of powers of \varphi contains these values 0.618033\ldots, 1.0, 1.618033\ldots, 2.618033\ldots; more generally,
any power of \varphi is equal to the sum of the two immediately preceding powers:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\varphi^n = \varphi^{n-1} + \varphi^{n-2} = \varphi \cdot \operatorname{F}_n + \operatorname{F}_{n-1}.}}
As a result, one can easily decompose any power of \varphi into a multiple of \varphi and a constant. The multiple and the constant are always adjacent Fibonacci numbers. This leads to another property of the positive powers of \varphi:
If \lfloor n/2 - 1 \rfloor = m, then:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\varphi^n &= \varphi^{n-1} + \varphi^{n-3} + \cdots + \varphi^{n-1-2m} + \varphi^{n-2-2m} \\[5mu]
\varphi^n - \varphi^{n-1} &= \varphi^{n-2}.
\end{align}}}
### Continued fraction and square root
[[mean.png|right|thumb|Approximations to the reciprocal golden ratio by finite continued fractions, or ratios of Fibonacci numbers](File:Golden)]
The formula \varphi = 1 + 1/\varphi can be expanded recursively to obtain a [fraction](continued)(continued fraction) for the golden ratio:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\varphi = [1, 1, 1, \dots](1;) = 1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \ddots}}}}}
It is in fact the simplest form of a continued fraction, alongside its reciprocal form:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\varphi^{-1} = [1, 1, 1, \dots](0;) = 0 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \cfrac{1}{1 + \ddots}}}}}
The [convergent](Convergent (continued fraction))s of these continued fractions 2/1, 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, 13/8, ... or 1/1, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, are ratios of successive [numbers](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci numbers). The consistently small terms in its continued fraction explain why the approximants converge so slowly. This makes the golden ratio an extreme case of the [inequality](Hurwitz)(Hurwitz's theorem (number theory)) for [approximation](Diophantine)(Diophantine approximation)s, which states that for every irrational \xi, there are infinitely many distinct fractions p/q such that,
\left|\xi-\frac{p}{q}\right|
This means that the constant \sqrt{5} cannot be improved without excluding the golden ratio. It is, in fact, the smallest number that must be excluded to generate closer approximations of such [numbers](Lagrange)(Lagrange spectrum).
A [square root](continued)(Nested radical) form for \varphi can be obtained from \varphi^2 = 1 + \varphi, yielding:
}.}}
### Relationship to Fibonacci and Lucas numbers
. A different approximation to the golden spiral is generated (bottom) from stacking squares whose lengths of sides are numbers belonging to the sequence of [numbers](Lucas)(Lucas numbers), here up to .}}
[number](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci number)s and [number](Lucas)(Lucas number)s have an intricate relationship with the golden ratio. In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is equal to the sum of the preceding two, starting with the base sequence 0,1:
).}}
The sequence of Lucas numbers (not to be confused with the generalized [sequence](Lucas)(Lucas sequence)s, of which this is part) is like the Fibonacci sequence, in-which each term is the sum of the previous two, however instead starts with 2,1:
).}}
Exceptionally, the golden ratio is equal to the [limit](limit of a sequence) of the ratios of successive terms in the Fibonacci sequence and sequence of Lucas numbers:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F_{n+1}}{F_n}=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{L_{n+1}}{L_n}=\varphi.}}
In other words, if a Fibonacci and Lucas number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates \varphi.
For example, \frac{F_{16}}{F_{15}} = \frac{987}{610} = 1.6180327\ldots, and \frac{L_{16}}{L_{15}} = \frac{2207}{1364} = 1.6180351\ldots.
These approximations are alternately lower and higher than \varphi, and converge to \varphi as the Fibonacci and Lucas numbers increase.
[expression](Closed-form)(Closed-form expression)s for the Fibonacci and Lucas sequences that involve the golden ratio are:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=F\left(n\right)
= {{\varphi^n-(1-\varphi)^n} \over {\sqrt 5}}
= \over {\sqrt 5}},}}
{{bi|left=1.6|1=L\left(n\right)
= \varphi^n + (- \varphi)^{-n}= \left({ 1+ \sqrt{5} \over 2}\right)^n + \left({ 1- \sqrt{5} \over 2}\right)^n\, .}}
Combining both formulas above, one obtains a formula for \varphi^n that involves both Fibonacci and Lucas numbers:
\over 2}\, .}}
Between Fibonacci and Lucas numbers one can deduce L_{2n} = 5 F_n^2 + 2(-1)^n = L_n^2 - 2(-1)^n, which simplifies to express the limit of the quotient of Lucas numbers by Fibonacci numbers as equal to the [root of five](square)(square root of five):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\lim_{n\to\infty} \frac{L_n}{F_n}=\sqrt{5}.}}
Indeed, much stronger statements are true:
: \vert L_n - \sqrt{5} F_n \vert = \frac{2}{\varphi^n} \to 0 ,
: (L_{3n}/2)^2 = 5 (F_{3n}/2)^2 + (-1)^n .
These values describe \varphi as a [unit](fundamental)(fundamental unit (number theory)) of the [number field](algebraic)(algebraic number field) \mathbb{Q}(\sqrt5).
Successive powers of the golden ratio obey the Fibonacci [recurrence](recurrence relation), i.e. \varphi^{n+1} = \varphi^n + \varphi^{n-1}.
The reduction to a linear expression can be accomplished in one step by using:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\varphi^n = F_n \varphi + F_{n-1}.}}
This identity allows any polynomial in \varphi to be reduced to a linear expression, as in:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
3\varphi^3 - 5\varphi^2 + 4
&= 3(\varphi^2 + \varphi) - 5\varphi^2 + 4 \\[5mu]
&= 3[+ 1) + \varphi]((\varphi) - 5(\varphi + 1) + 4 \\[5mu]
&= \varphi + 2 \approx 3.618033.
\end{align}}}
Consecutive Fibonacci numbers can also be used to obtain a similar formula for the golden ratio, here by [summation](infinite)(Series (mathematics)):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}|F_n\varphi-F_{n+1}| = \varphi.}}
In particular, the powers of \varphi themselves round to Lucas numbers (in order, except for the first two powers, \varphi^0 and \varphi, are in reverse order):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\varphi^0 &= 1, \\[5mu]
\varphi^1 &= 1.618033989... \approx 2, \\[5mu]
\varphi^2 &= 2.618033989... \approx 3, \\[5mu]
\varphi^3 &= 4.236067978... \approx 4, \\[5mu]
\varphi^4 &= 6.854101967... \approx 7,
\end{align}}}
and so forth. The Lucas numbers also directly generate powers of the golden ratio; for n \ge 2:
{{bi|left=1.6|1= \varphi^n = L_n - (- \varphi)^{-n}.}}
Rooted in their interconnecting relationship with the golden ratio is the notion that the sum of *third* consecutive Fibonacci numbers equals a Lucas number, that is L_n = F_{n-1}+F_{n+1}; and, importantly, that {L_n}= \frac{F_{2n}}{F_{n}}.
Both the Fibonacci sequence and the sequence of Lucas numbers can be used to generate approximate forms of the [spiral](golden)(golden spiral) (which is a special form of a [spiral](logarithmic)(logarithmic spiral)) using quarter-circles with radii from these sequences, differing only slightly from the *true* golden logarithmic spiral. *Fibonacci spiral* is generally the term used for spirals that approximate golden spirals using Fibonacci number-sequenced squares and quarter-circles.
### Geometry
The golden ratio features prominently in geometry. For example, it is intrinsically involved in the internal symmetry of the [pentagon](pentagon), and extends to form part of the coordinates of the vertices of a [dodecahedron](regular)(regular dodecahedron#Cartesian coordinates), as well as those of a [5-cell](5-cell#Coordinates). It features in the [triangle](Kepler)(Kepler triangle) and [tilings](Penrose)(Penrose tilings) too, as well as in various other [polytopes](polytopes).
#### Construction
**Dividing by interior division**
# Having a line segment AB, construct a perpendicular BC at point B, with BC half the length of AB. Draw the [hypotenuse](hypotenuse) AC.
# Draw an arc with center C and radius BC. This arc intersects the hypotenuse AC at point D.
# Draw an arc with center A and radius AD. This arc intersects the original line segment AB at point S. Point S divides the original line segment AB into line segments AS and SB with lengths in the golden ratio.
**Dividing by exterior division**
# Draw a line segment AS and construct off the point S a segment SC perpendicular to AS and with the same length as AS.
# Do bisect the line segment AS with M.
# A circular arc around M with radius MC intersects in point B the straight line through points A and S (also known as the extension of AS). The ratio of AS to the constructed segment SB is the golden ratio.
Application examples you can see in the articles [with a given side length](Pentagon)(Pentagon#Side length is given), [with given circumcircle and Decagon with a given side length](Decagon)(Decagon#Construction).
Both of the above displayed different [algorithm](algorithm)s produce [construction](geometric)(geometric construction)s that determine two aligned [segment](line)(line segment)s where the ratio of the longer one to the shorter one is the golden ratio.
#### Golden angle
[[Angle.svg|175px|thumb|}}](File:Golden)]
When two angles that make a full circle have measures in the golden ratio, the smaller is called the *golden angle*, with measure g\colon
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\frac{2\pi - g}{g} &= \frac{2\pi}{2\pi - g} = \varphi, \\[8mu]
2\pi - g &= \frac{2\pi}{\varphi} \approx 222.5^\circ, \\[8mu]
g &= \frac{2\pi}{\varphi^2} \approx 137.5^\circ.
\end{align}}}
This angle occurs in [of plant growth](patterns)(phyllotaxis) as the optimal spacing of leaf shoots around plant stems so that successive leaves do not block sunlight from the leaves below them.
#### Pentagonal symmetry system
##### Pentagon and pentagram
[[pentagram colored to distinguish its line segments of different lengths. The four
lengths are in golden ratio to one another.](File:Pentagram-phi.svg|right|thumb|A)]
In a [pentagon](regular)(pentagon#Regular pentagons) the ratio of a diagonal to a side is the golden ratio, while intersecting diagonals section each other in the golden ratio. The golden ratio properties of a regular pentagon can be confirmed by applying [theorem](Ptolemy's)(Ptolemy's theorem) to the quadrilateral formed by removing one of its vertices. If the quadrilateral's long edge and diagonals are a, and short edges are b, then Ptolemy's theorem gives a^2 = b^2 + ab. Dividing both sides by ab yields (see above),
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\frac ab = \frac{a + b}{a} = \varphi.}}
The diagonal segments of a pentagon form a [pentagram](pentagram), or five-pointed [polygon](star)(star polygon), whose geometry is quintessentially described by \varphi. Primarily, each intersection of edges sections other edges in the golden ratio. The ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges (that is, a side of the inverted pentagon in the pentagram's center) is \varphi, as the four-color illustration shows.
Pentagonal and pentagrammic geometry permits us to calculate the following values for \varphi:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\varphi &= 1+2\sin(\pi/10) = 1 + 2\sin 18^\circ, \\[5mu]
\varphi &= \tfrac12\csc(\pi/10) = \tfrac12\csc 18^\circ, \\[5mu]
\varphi &= 2\cos(\pi/5)=2\cos 36^\circ, \\[5mu]
\varphi &= 2\sin(3\pi/10)=2\sin 54^\circ.
\end{align}}}
##### Golden triangle and golden gnomon
[[File:Golden triangle (math).svg|235px|right|thumb|A [triangle](golden)(Golden triangle (mathematics)) can be subdivided by an angle bisector into a smaller golden triangle and a golden gnomon .]]
The triangle formed by two diagonals and a side of a regular pentagon is called a *golden triangle* or *sublime triangle*. It is an acute [triangle](isosceles)(isosceles triangle) with apex angle 36° and base angles 72°. Its two equal sides are in the golden ratio to its base. The triangle formed by two sides and a diagonal of a regular pentagon is called a *golden gnomon*. It is an obtuse isosceles triangle with apex angle 108° and base angle 36°. Its base is in the golden ratio to its two equal sides. The pentagon can thus be subdivided into two golden gnomons and a central golden triangle. The five points of a [pentagram](regular)(Pentagram) are golden triangles, as are the ten triangles formed by connecting the vertices of a [decagon](regular)(regular decagon) to its center point.
Bisecting one of the base angles of the golden triangle subdivides it into a smaller golden triangle and a golden gnomon. Analogously, any acute isosceles triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an obtuse isosceles triangle, but the golden triangle is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle bisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose base angle is twice its apex angle. The angle bisector of the golden triangle subdivides the side that it meets in the golden ratio, and the areas of the two subdivided pieces are also in the golden ratio.
If the apex angle of the golden gnomon is [trisected](Angle trisection), the trisector again subdivides it into a smaller golden gnomon and a golden triangle. The trisector subdivides the base in the golden ratio, and the two pieces have areas in the golden ratio. Analogously, any obtuse triangle can be subdivided into a similar triangle and an acute isosceles triangle, but the golden gnomon is the only one for which this subdivision is made by the angle trisector, because it is the only isosceles triangle whose apex angle is three times its base angle.
##### Penrose tilings
[[Dart.svg|thumb|The kite and dart tiles of the Penrose tiling. The colored arcs divide each edge in the golden ratio; when two tiles share an edge, their arcs must match.](File:Kite)]
The golden ratio appears prominently in the *Penrose tiling*, a family of [tiling](aperiodic)(aperiodic tiling)s of the plane developed by [Penrose](Roger)(Roger Penrose), inspired by [Kepler](Johannes)(Johannes Kepler)'s remark that pentagrams, decagons, and other shapes could fill gaps that pentagonal shapes alone leave when tiled together. Several variations of this tiling have been studied, all of whose prototiles exhibit the golden ratio:
*Penrose's original version of this tiling used four shapes: regular pentagons and pentagrams, "boat" figures with three points of a pentagram, and "diamond" shaped rhombi.
*The kite and dart Penrose tiling uses [kites](kite (geometry)) with three interior angles of 72° and one interior angle of 144°, and darts, concave quadrilaterals with two interior angles of 36°, one of 72°, and one non-convex angle of 216°. Special matching rules restrict how the tiles can meet at any edge, resulting in seven combinations of tiles at any vertex. Both the kites and darts have sides of two lengths, in the golden ratio to each other. The areas of these two tile shapes are also in the golden ratio to each other.
*The kite and dart can each be cut on their symmetry axes into a pair of golden triangles and golden gnomons, respectively. With suitable matching rules, these triangles, called in this context *Robinson triangles*, can be used as the prototiles for a form of the Penrose tiling.
*The rhombic Penrose tiling contains two types of rhombus, a thin rhombus with angles of 36° and 144°, and a thick rhombus with angles of 72° and 108°. All side lengths are equal, but the ratio of the length of sides to the short diagonal in the thin rhombus equals 1:\varphi, as does the ratio of the sides of to the long diagonal of the thick rhombus. As with the kite and dart tiling, the areas of the two rhombi are in the golden ratio to each other. Again, these rhombi can be decomposed into pairs of Robinson triangles.
#### In triangles and quadrilaterals
##### Odom's construction
[[construction: ](File:Odom.svg|thumb|upright|Odom's)]
[Odom](George)(George Phillips Odom Jr.) found a construction for \varphi involving an [triangle](equilateral)(equilateral triangle): if the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides is extended to intersect the [circumcircle](circumcircle), then the two midpoints and the point of intersection with the circle are in golden proportion.
##### Kepler triangle
The *Kepler triangle*, named after [Kepler](Johannes)(Johannes Kepler), is the unique [triangle](right)(right triangle) with sides in [progression](geometric)(geometric progression):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=1\mathbin{:}\sqrt\varphi\mathbin{:}\varphi.}}
These side lengths are the three [mean](Pythagorean)(Pythagorean mean)s of the two numbers \varphi \pm 1. The three squares on its sides have areas in the golden geometric progression 1\mathbin{:}\varphi\mathbin{:}\varphi^2.
Among isosceles triangles, the ratio of [inradius](inradius) to side length is maximized for the triangle formed by two [copies](reflected)(Reflection (mathematics)) of the Kepler triangle, sharing the longer of their two legs. The same isosceles triangle maximizes the ratio of the radius of a [semicircle](semicircle) on its base to its [perimeter](perimeter).
For a Kepler triangle with smallest side length s, the [area](area) and [acute](acute angle) [angle](internal)(internal angle)s are:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
A &= \tfrac{s^2}{2}\sqrt\varphi, \\[5mu]
\theta &= \sin^{-1}\frac{1}{\varphi}\approx 38.1727^\circ, \\[5mu]
\theta &= \cos^{-1}\frac{1}{\varphi}\approx 51.8273^\circ.
\end{align}}}
##### Golden rectangle
[[File:Golden Rectangle Construction.svg|175px|thumb|To construct a golden rectangle [only a straightedge and compass](with)(Straightedge and compass construction) in four simple steps:
]]
The golden ratio proportions the adjacent side lengths of a *golden rectangle* in 1:\varphi ratio. Stacking golden rectangles produces golden rectangles anew, and removing or adding squares from golden rectangles leaves rectangles still proportioned in \varphi ratio. They can be generated by *golden spirals*, through successive Fibonacci and Lucas number-sized squares and quarter circles. They feature prominently in the [icosahedron](Regular icosahedron) as well as in the [dodecahedron](Regular dodecahedron) (see section below for more detail).
##### Golden rhombus
A *golden rhombus* is a [rhombus](rhombus) whose diagonals are in proportion to the golden ratio, most commonly 1:\varphi. For a rhombus of such proportions, its acute angle and obtuse angles are:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\alpha &= 2\arctan{1\over\varphi}\approx63.43495^\circ, \\[5mu]
\beta &= 2\arctan\varphi=\pi-\arctan2 = \arctan1+\arctan3 \approx116.56505^\circ.
\end{align}}}
The lengths of its short and long diagonals d and D, in terms of side length a are:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
d &= {2a\over\sqrt{2+\varphi}}=2\sqrt{{3-\varphi}\over5}a\approx1.05146a, \\[5mu]
D &= 2\sqrt{{2+\varphi}\over5}a\approx1.70130a.
\end{align}}}
Its area, in terms of a,and d:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
A &= (\sin(\arctan2))~a^2 = {2\over\sqrt5}~a^2 \approx 0.89443a^2, \\[5mu]
A &= {{\varphi}\over2}d^2\approx 0.80902d^2.
\end{align}}}
Its [inradius](inradius), in terms of side a:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=r=\frac{a}{\sqrt{5}}.}}
Golden rhombi form the faces of the [triacontahedron](rhombic)(rhombic triacontahedron), the two [rhombohedra](golden)(golden rhombohedra), the [dodecahedron](Bilinski)(Bilinski dodecahedron), and the [hexecontahedron](rhombic)(rhombic hexecontahedron).
#### Golden spiral
[[File:FakeRealLogSpiral.svg|thumb|The [spiral](golden)(golden spiral) (red) and its approximation by quarter-circles (green), with overlaps shown in yellow]]
[[File:Golden triangle and Fibonacci spiral.svg|175px|thumb|A [spiral](logarithmic)(logarithmic spiral) whose radius grows by the golden ratio per 108° of turn, surrounding nested golden isosceles triangles. This is a different spiral from the [spiral](golden)(golden spiral), which grows by the golden ratio per 90° of turn.]]
[spirals](Logarithmic)(Logarithmic spirals) are [self-similar](self-similar) spirals where distances covered per turn are in [progression](geometric)(geometric progression). A logarithmic spiral whose radius increases by a factor of the golden ratio for each quarter-turn is called the [spiral](golden)(golden spiral). These spirals can be approximated by quarter-circles that grow by the golden ratio, or their approximations generated from Fibonacci numbers, often depicted inscribed within a spiraling pattern of squares growing in the same ratio. The exact logarithmic spiral form of the golden spiral can be described by the [equation](polar)(Polar coordinate system) with (r,\theta):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=r = \varphi^{2\theta/\pi}.}}
Not all logarithmic spirals are connected to the golden ratio, and not all spirals that are connected to the golden ratio are the same shape as the golden spiral. For instance, a different logarithmic spiral, encasing a nested sequence of golden isosceles triangles, grows by the golden ratio for each 108° that it turns, instead of the 90° turning angle of the golden spiral. Another variation, called the "better golden spiral", grows by the golden ratio for each half-turn, rather than each quarter-turn.
#### In the dodecahedron and icosahedron
[[File:Dodecahedron vertices.png|240px|right|thumb|
]]
The [dodecahedron](regular)(regular dodecahedron) and its [polyhedron](dual)(dual polyhedron) the [icosahedron](regular icosahedron) are [solid](Platonic)(Platonic solid)s whose dimensions are related to the golden ratio. An icosahedron is made of 12 regular pentagonal faces, whereas the icosahedron is made of 20 [triangle](equilateral)(equilateral triangle)s; both with 30 [edges](Edge (geometry)).
For a dodecahedron of side a, the [radius](radius) of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and [midradius](Midsphere) are (r_{u}, r_{i} and r_{m}, respectively):
{{bi|left=1.6|1=r_u = a\, \frac{\sqrt{3}\varphi}{2}, r_i = a\, \frac{\varphi^2}{2 \sqrt{3-\varphi}}, and r_m = a\, \frac{\varphi^2}{2}.}}
While for an icosahedron of side a, the radius of a circumscribed and inscribed sphere, and [midradius](Midsphere) are:
}{2}, r_i = a\frac{\varphi^2}{2 \sqrt{3}}, and r_m = a\frac{\varphi}{2}.}}
The volume and surface area of the dodecahedron can be expressed in terms of \varphi:
{{bi|left=1.6|1=A_d = \frac{15\varphi}{\sqrt{3-\varphi}} and V_d = \frac{5\varphi^3}{6-2\varphi}.}}
As well as for the icosahedron:
{2} and V_i = \frac{5}{6}(1 + \varphi).}}
[[File:Icosahedron-golden-rectangles.svg|175px|right|thumb|Three golden rectangles touch all of the vertices of a [icosahedron](regular)(regular icosahedron).]]
These geometric values can be calculated from their [coordinates](Cartesian)(Cartesian coordinates), which also can be given using formulas involving \varphi. The coordinates of the dodecahedron are displayed on the figure above, while those of the icosahedron are the [permutation](cyclic)(cyclic permutation)s of:
Sets of three golden rectangles intersect [perpendicular](perpendicular)ly inside dodecahedra and icosahedra, forming [rings](Borromean)(Borromean rings). In dodecahedra, pairs of opposing vertices in golden rectangles meet the centers of pentagonal faces, and in icosahedra, they meet at its vertices. In all, the three golden rectangles contain 12 vertices of the icosahedron, or equivalently, intersect the centers of 12 of the dodecahedron's faces.
A [cube](cube) can be [inscribed](Inscribed figure) in a regular dodecahedron, with some of the diagonals of the pentagonal faces of the dodecahedron serving as the cube's edges; therefore, the edge lengths are in the golden ratio. The cube's volume is \tfrac{2}{2+\varphi} times that of the dodecahedron's. In fact, golden rectangles inside a dodecahedron are in golden proportions to an inscribed cube, such that edges of a cube and the long edges of a golden rectangle are themselves in \varphi : \varphi^{2} ratio. On the other hand, the [octahedron](octahedron), which is the dual polyhedron of the cube, can inscribe an icosahedron, such that an icosahedron's 12 vertices touch the 12 edges of an octahedron at points that divide its edges in golden ratio.
Other polyhedra are related to the dodecahedron and icosahedron or their symmetries, and therefore have corresponding relations to the golden ratio. These include the [of five cubes](compound)(compound of five cubes), [of five octahedra](compound)(compound of five octahedra), [of five tetrahedra](compound)(compound of five tetrahedra), the [of ten tetrahedra](compound)(compound of ten tetrahedra), [triacontahedron](rhombic)(rhombic triacontahedron), [icosidodecahedron](icosidodecahedron), [icosahedron](truncated)(truncated icosahedron), [dodecahedron](truncated)(truncated dodecahedron), and [rhombicosidodecahedron](rhombicosidodecahedron), [enneacontahedron](rhombic)(rhombic enneacontahedron), and [polyhedra](Kepler-Poinsot)(Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron), and [hexecontahedron](rhombic)(rhombic hexecontahedron). In four dimensions, the dodecahedron and icosahedron appear as faces of the [120-cell](120-cell) and [600-cell](600-cell), which again have dimensions related to the golden ratio.
### Other properties
The golden ratio's *decimal expansion* can be calculated via root-finding methods, such as [method](Newton's)(Newton's method) or [method](Halley's)(Halley's method), on the equation x^2-x-1=0 or on x^2-5=0 (to compute \sqrt{5} first). The time needed to compute n digits of the golden ratio using Newton's method is essentially O(M(n)), where M(n) is [time complexity of multiplying](the)(Multiplication algorithm#Computational complexity) two n-digit numbers. This is considerably faster than known algorithms for [\pi](pi) and [e](e (mathematical constant)). An easily programmed alternative using only integer arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci numbers and divide them. The ratio of Fibonacci numbers F_{25001} and F_{25000}, each over 5000 digits, yields over 10{,}000 significant digits of the golden ratio. The decimal expansion of the golden ratio \varphi has been calculated to an accuracy of ten trillion {{nowrap|1=(1 \times 10^{13} = 10{,}000{,}000{,}000{,}000)}} digits.
In the [plane](complex)(complex plane), the fifth [of unity](roots)(Root of unity) z = e^{2\pi k i/5} (for an integer k) satisfying z^5 = 1 are the vertices of a pentagon. They do not form a [ring](ring (mathematics)) of [integer](quadratic)(quadratic integer)s, however the sum of any fifth root of unity and its [conjugate](complex)(complex conjugate), z + \bar z, *is* a quadratic integer, an element of \mathbb{Z}[\varphi]. Specifically,
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
e^{0} + e^{-0} &= 2, \\[5mu]
e^{2\pi i / 5} + e^{-2\pi i / 5} &= \varphi^{-1} = -1 + \varphi, \\[5mu]
e^{4\pi i / 5} + e^{-4\pi i / 5} &= -\varphi.
\end{align}}}
This also holds for the remaining tenth roots of unity satisfying z^{10} = 1,
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
e^{\pi i} + e^{-\pi i} &= -2, \\[5mu]
e^{\pi i / 5} + e^{-\pi i / 5} &= \varphi, \\[5mu]
e^{3\pi i / 5} + e^{-3\pi i / 5} &= -\varphi^{-1} = 1 - \varphi.
\end{align}}}
For the [function](gamma)(gamma function) \Gamma, the only solutions to the equation \Gamma(z-1) = \Gamma(z+1) are z = \varphi and z = -\varphi^{-1}.
When the golden ratio is used as the base of a [system](numeral)(numeral system) (see [ratio base](golden)(golden ratio base), sometimes dubbed *phinary* or \varphi*-nary*), [integer](quadratic)(quadratic integer)s in the ring \mathbb{Z}[\varphi] – that is, numbers of the form a + b\varphi for a, b \in \mathbb{Z} – have [terminating](repeating decimal) representations, but rational fractions have non-terminating representations.
The golden ratio also appears in [geometry](hyperbolic)(hyperbolic geometry), as the maximum distance from a point on one side of an [triangle](ideal)(ideal triangle) to the closer of the other two sides: this distance, the side length of the [triangle](equilateral)(equilateral triangle) formed by the points of tangency of a circle inscribed within the ideal triangle, is 4\log(\varphi).
The golden ratio appears in the theory of [functions](modular)(Modular form) as well. For \left|q\right|, let
{1+\cfrac{q}{1+\cfrac{q^2}{1+\cfrac{q^3}{1+\ddots}}}}.}}
Then
{{bi|left=1.6|1=R(e^{-2\pi})=\sqrt{\varphi\sqrt5}-\varphi ,\quad R(-e^{-\pi})=\varphi^{-1}-\sqrt{2-\varphi^{-1}}}}
and
{{bi|left=1.6|1=R(e^{-2\pi i/\tau})=\frac{1-\varphi R(e^{2\pi i\tau})}{\varphi+R(e^{2\pi i\tau})}}}
where \operatorname{Im}\tau>0 and (e^z)^{1/5} in the continued fraction should be evaluated as e^{z/5}. The function \tau\mapsto R(e^{2\pi i\tau}) is invariant under \Gamma (5), a [subgroup of the modular group](congruence)(Modular group#Congruence subgroups). Also for [real numbers](positive)(positive real numbers) a, b \in \mathbb{R}^+ and ab = \pi^2, then
{{bi|left=1.6|1=\begin{align}
\Bigl(\varphi+R{\bigl(e^{-2a}\bigr)}\Bigr)\Bigl(\varphi+R{\bigl(e^{-2b}\bigr)}\Bigr)&=\varphi\sqrt5, \\[5mu]
\Bigl(\varphi^{-1}-R{\bigl({-e^{-a}}\bigr)}\Bigr)\Bigl(\varphi^{-1}-R{\bigl({-e^{-b}}\bigr)}\Bigr)&=\varphi^{-1}\sqrt5.
\end{align}}}
\varphi is a [number](Pisot–Vijayaraghavan)(Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number).
## Applications and observations
### Architecture
The Swiss [architect](architect) [Corbusier](Le)(Le Corbusier), famous for his contributions to the [modern](modernism) [style](international)(International Style (architecture)), centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned."
Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his [Modulor](Modulor) system for the [scale](scale (ratio)) of [proportion](architectural)(Proportion (architecture)). He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of [Vitruvius](Vitruvius), Leonardo da Vinci's "[Man](Vitruvian)(Vitruvian Man)", the work of [Battista Alberti](Leon)(Leon Battista Alberti), and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of [architecture](architecture).
In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on [measurements](human)(anthropometry), [numbers](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci numbers), and the double unit. He took suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the [Modulor](Modulor) system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in [Garches](Garches) exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.
Another Swiss architect, [Botta](Mario)(Mario Botta), bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in [Origlio](Origlio), the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.
### Art
[[File:Divina proportione - Illustration 13, crop & monochrome.jpg|thumb|right|[Vinci](Da)(Leonardo da Vinci)'s illustration of a dodecahedron from [Pacioli](Pacioli)'s *[proportione](Divina)(Divina proportione)* (1509)]]
[da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci)'s illustrations of [polyhedra](polyhedra) in Pacioli's *Divina proportione* have led some to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings. But the suggestion that his *[Lisa](Mona)(Mona Lisa)*, for example, employs golden ratio proportions, is not supported by Leonardo's own writings. Similarly, although Leonardo's *[Man](Vitruvian)(Vitruvian Man)* is often shown in connection with the golden ratio, the proportions of the figure do not actually match it, and the text only mentions whole number ratios.
[Dalí](Salvador)(Salvador Dalí), influenced by the works of [Ghyka](Matila)(Matila Ghyka), explicitly used the golden ratio in his masterpiece, *[Sacrament of the Last Supper](The)(The Sacrament of the Last Supper)*. The dimensions of the canvas are a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, in perspective so that edges appear in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind [Jesus](Jesus) and dominates the composition.
A statistical study on 565 works of art of different great painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases. The study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of the paintings studied is 1.34, with averages for individual artists ranging from 1.04 (Goya) to 1.46 (Bellini). On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by well-known artists, including more than 100 which have canvasses with golden rectangle and \sqrt5 proportions, and others with proportions like \sqrt2, 3, 4, and 6.
[[File:Medieval manuscript framework.svg|thumb|Depiction of the proportions in a medieval manuscript. According to [Tschichold](Jan)(Jan Tschichold): "Page proportion 2:3. Margin proportions 1:1:2:3. Text area proportioned in the Golden Section."]]
### Books and design
According to [Tschichold](Jan)(Jan Tschichold),
There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page proportions 2\mathbin{:}3, 1\mathbin{:}\sqrt3, and the Golden Section were rare. Many books produced between 1550 and 1770 show these proportions exactly, to within half a millimeter.
According to some sources, the golden ratio is used in everyday design, for example in the proportions of playing cards, postcards, posters, light switch plates, and widescreen televisions.
### Flags
[[File:Flag of Togo.svg|thumb|right|The [of Togo](flag)(flag of Togo), whose [ratio](aspect)(aspect ratio) uses the golden ratio]]
The [ratio](aspect)(aspect ratio) (width to height ratio) of the [of Togo](flag)(flag of Togo) was intended to be the golden ratio, according to its designer., chapter 4, footnote 12: "The Togo flag was designed by the artist Paul Ahyi (1930–2010), who claims to have attempted to have the flag constructed in the shape of a golden rectangle".
### Music
[Lendvai](Ernő)(Ernő Lendvai) analyzes [Bartók](Béla)(Béla Bartók)'s works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the [scale](acoustic)(acoustic scale), though other music scholars reject that analysis. French composer [Satie](Erik)(Erik Satie) used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including *[de la Rose+Croix](Sonneries)(Sonneries de la Rose+Croix)*. The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of [Debussy](Debussy)'s ''[dans l'eau](Reflets)(Reflets dans l'eau) (Reflections in Water)*, from *Images'' (1st series, 1905), in which "the sequence of keys is marked out by the intervals and and the main climax sits at the phi position".
The musicologist [Howat](Roy)(Roy Howat) has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy's *[Mer](La)(La Mer (Debussy))* correspond exactly to the golden section. Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable", but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions.
Music theorists including [Zender](Hans)(Hans Zender) and [Bohlen](Heinz)(Heinz Bohlen) have experimented with the [cents scale](833)(833 cents scale), a musical scale based on using the golden ratio as its fundamental [interval](musical)(musical interval). When measured in [cents](Cent (music)), a logarithmic scale for musical intervals, the golden ratio is approximately 833.09 cents.
### Nature
[[File:Aeonium tabuliforme.jpg|thumb|upright|Detail of the saucer plant, *[tabuliforme](Aeonium)(Aeonium tabuliforme)*, showing the multiple spiral arrangement ([parastichy](parastichy))]]
Johannes Kepler wrote that "the image of man and woman stems from the divine proportion. In my opinion, the propagation of plants and the progenitive acts of animals are in the same ratio".
The psychologist [Zeising](Adolf)(Adolf Zeising) noted that the golden ratio appeared in [phyllotaxis](phyllotaxis) and argued from these [in nature](patterns)(patterns in nature) that the golden ratio was a universal law. Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal [orthogenetic](orthogenesis) law of "striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art".
However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard to animal dimensions, are fictitious.
### Physics
The quasi-one-dimensional [Ising](Ising model) [ferromagnet](ferromagnet) CoNb2O6 (cobalt niobate) has 8 predicted excitation states (with [E8](E8 (mathematics)) symmetry), that when probed with neutron scattering, showed its lowest two were in golden ratio. Specifically, these quantum phase transitions during spin excitation, which occur at near absolute zero temperature, showed pairs of [kinks](Kink (materials science)) in its ordered-phase to spin-flips in its [paramagnetic](paramagnetic) phase; revealing, just below its [field](critical)(critical field), a spin dynamics with sharp modes at low energies approaching the golden mean.
### Optimization
There is no known general [algorithm](algorithm) to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several definitions of even distribution (see, for example, *[problem](Thomson)(Thomson problem)* or *[problem](Tammes)(Tammes problem)*). However, a useful approximation results from dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal [area](surface)(surface area) and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360^\circ/\varphi \approx 222.5^\circ. This method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the student-participatory [satellite](artificial satellite) [Starshine-3](STARSHINE).
The golden ratio is a critical element to [search](golden-section)(golden-section search) as well.
## Disputed observations
Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:
[[File:NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg|thumb|[Nautilus](Nautilus) shells are often erroneously claimed to be golden-proportioned.]]
* Specific proportions in the bodies of vertebrates (including humans) are often claimed to be in the golden ratio; for example the ratio of successive [phalangeal](Phalanx bone) and [bones](metacarpal)(metacarpal bones) (finger bones) has been said to approximate the golden ratio. There is a large variation in the real measures of these elements in specific individuals, however, and the proportion in question is often significantly different from the golden ratio.
* The shells of mollusks such as the [nautilus](nautilus) are often claimed to be in the golden ratio. The growth of nautilus shells follows a [spiral](logarithmic)(logarithmic spiral), and it is sometimes erroneously claimed that any logarithmic spiral is related to the golden ratio, or sometimes claimed that each new chamber is golden-proportioned relative to the previous one. However, measurements of nautilus shells do not support this claim.
* Historian [Man](John)(John Man (author)) states that both the pages and text area of the [Bible](Gutenberg)(Gutenberg Bible) were "based on the golden section shape". However, according to his own measurements, the ratio of height to width of the pages is 1.45.
* Studies by psychologists, starting with [Fechner](Gustav)(Gustav Fechner) c. 1876, have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of [beauty](beauty). While Fechner found a preference for rectangle ratios centered on the golden ratio, later attempts to carefully test such a hypothesis have been, at best, inconclusive.
* In investing, some practitioners of [analysis](technical)(technical analysis) use the golden ratio to indicate support of a price level, or resistance to price increases, of a stock or commodity; after significant price changes up or down, new support and resistance levels are supposedly found at or near prices related to the starting price via the golden ratio. The use of the golden ratio in investing is also related to more complicated patterns described by [numbers](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci numbers) (e.g. [wave principle](Elliott)(Elliott wave principle) and [retracement](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci retracement)). However, other market analysts have published analyses suggesting that these percentages and patterns are not supported by the data.
### Egyptian pyramids
[[File:Egypt. Pyramids. Pyramids and palm grove reflections LOC matpc.23063.jpg|thumb|The [Pyramid of Giza](Great)(Great Pyramid of Giza)]]
The [Pyramid of Giza](Great)(Great Pyramid of Giza) (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu) has been analyzed by [pyramidologists](pyramidology) as having a doubled [triangle](Kepler)(Kepler triangle) as its cross-section. If this theory were true, the golden ratio would describe the ratio of distances from the midpoint of one of the sides of the pyramid to its apex, and from the same midpoint to the center of the pyramid's base. However, imprecision in measurement caused in part by the removal of the outer surface of the pyramid makes it impossible to distinguish this theory from other numerical theories of the proportions of the pyramid, based on [pi](pi) or on whole-number ratios. The consensus of modern scholars is that this pyramid's proportions are not based on the golden ratio, because such a basis would be inconsistent both with what is known about Egyptian mathematics from the time of construction of the pyramid, and with Egyptian theories of architecture and proportion used in their other works.
### The Parthenon
[[File:The_Parthenon_in_Athens.jpg|thumb|280px|Many of the proportions of the [Parthenon](Parthenon) are alleged to exhibit the golden ratio, but this has largely been discredited.]]
The [Parthenon](Parthenon)'s façade (c. 432 BC) as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by golden rectangles. Other scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, [Devlin](Keith)(Keith Devlin) says, "Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without foundation." [J. Gazalé](Midhat)(Midhat J. Gazalé) affirms that "It was not until Euclid ... that the golden ratio's mathematical properties were studied."
From measurements of 15 temples, 18 monumental tombs, 8 sarcophagi, and 58 grave stelae from the fifth century BC to the second century AD, one researcher concluded that the golden ratio was totally absent from Greek architecture of the classical fifth century BC, and almost absent during the following six centuries.
Later sources like Vitruvius (first century BC) exclusively discuss proportions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions.
### Modern art
[[File:Albert Gleizes, 1912, Les Baigneuses, oil on canvas, 105 x 171 cm, Paris, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.jpg|thumb|left|[Gleizes](Albert)(Albert Gleizes), *[Baigneuses](Les)(Les Baigneuses (Gleizes))* (1912)]]
The [d'Or](Section)(Section d'Or) ('Golden Section') was a collective of [painters](Painting), sculptors, poets and critics associated with [Cubism](Cubism) and [Orphism](Orphism (art)). Active from 1911 to around 1914, they adopted the name both to highlight that Cubism represented the continuation of a grand tradition, rather than being an isolated movement, and in homage to the mathematical harmony associated with [Seurat](Georges)(Georges Seurat). (Several authors have claimed that Seurat employed the golden ratio in his paintings, but Seurat’s writings and paintings suggest that he employed simple whole-number ratios and any approximation of the golden ratio was coincidental.) The Cubists observed in its harmonies, geometric structuring of motion and form, "the primacy of idea over nature", "an absolute scientific clarity of conception". However, despite this general interest in mathematical harmony, whether the paintings featured in the celebrated 1912 [de la Section d'Or*](*Salon)(Section d'Or#Salon de la Section d'Or, 1912) exhibition used the golden ratio in any compositions is more difficult to determine. Livio, for example, claims that they did not, and [Duchamp](Marcel)(Marcel Duchamp) said as much in an interview. On the other hand, an analysis suggests that [Gris](Juan)(Juan Gris) made use of the golden ratio in composing works that were likely, but not definitively, shown at the exhibition. Art historian [Robbins](Daniel)(Daniel Robbins (art historian)) has argued that in addition to referencing the mathematical term, the exhibition's name also refers to the earlier ''Bandeaux d'Or'' group, with which [Gleizes](Albert)(Albert Gleizes) and other former members of the [de Créteil](Abbaye)(Abbaye de Créteil) had been involved.
[Mondrian](Piet)(Piet Mondrian) has been said to have used the golden section extensively in his geometrical paintings, though other experts (including critic [Bois](Yve-Alain)(Yve-Alain Bois)) have discredited these claims.
## See also
* [of works designed with the golden ratio](List)(List of works designed with the golden ratio)
* [mean](Metallic)(Metallic mean)
* [number](Plastic)(Plastic number)
* [geometry](Sacred)(Sacred geometry)
* [ratio](Supergolden)(Supergolden ratio)
## References
### Explanatory footnotes
### Citations
This source contains an elementary derivation of the golden ratio's value.
(Originally published as *Geschichte der Elementar-Mathematik*.)
Reprinted:
See problem 51, reproduced on p. 98
([original PDF](https://www.archim.org.uk/eureka/archive/Eureka-39.pdf#page=16))
; Video at
Two independent computations done by Clifford Spielman.
[Horocycles exinscrits : une propriété hyperbolique remarquable](http://www.cabri.net/abracadabri/GeoNonE/GeoHyper/KBModele/Biss3KB.html), cabri.net, retrieved 2009-07-21.
Le Corbusier, *The Modulor*, , as cited in
Le Corbusier, *The Modulor*, , as cited in
Popular press summaries can be found in:
The entire book surveys many alternative theories for this pyramid's shape. See Chapter 11, "Kepler triangle theory", pp. 80–91, for material specific to the Kepler triangle, and p. 166 for the conclusion that the Kepler triangle theory can be eliminated by the principle that "A theory must correspond to a level of mathematics consistent with what was known to the ancient Egyptians." See note 3, p. 229, for the history of Kepler's work with this triangle.
; see also extensive discussion of multiple alternative theories for the shape of the pyramid and other Egyptian architecture, pp. 7–56
[''Le Salon de la Section d'Or*](http://mediation.centrepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ENS-futurisme2008/ENS-futurisme2008-07-section-or.html), October 1912, Mediation Centre Pompidou
[*Jeunes Peintres ne vous frappez pas !'', La Section d'Or: Numéro spécial consacré à l'Exposition de la "Section d'Or", première année, n° 1, 9 octobre 1912, pp. 1–7](http://bibliothequekandinsky.centrepompidou.fr/imagesbk/RP225%5C001/M5050_X0031_PER_P02251912001.pdf) , Bibliothèque Kandinsky
Reprinted in
}}
### Works cited
* (Originally titled *A Mathematical History of Division in Extreme and Mean Ratio*.)
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
* Information and activities by a mathematics professor.
* [The Myth That Will Not Go Away](http://www.maa.org/external_archive/devlin/devlin_05_07.html), by [Devlin](Keith)(Keith Devlin), addressing multiple allegations about the use of the golden ratio in culture.
* [Spurious golden spirals](https://xkcd.com/spiral/) collected by [Munroe](Randall)(Randall Munroe)
* [YouTube lecture on Zeno's mice problem and logarithmic spirals](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdTVvWrD6r0)
[ ](Category:Golden ratio)
[plane geometry](Category:Euclidean)(Category:Euclidean plane geometry)
[irrational numbers](Category:Quadratic)(Category:Quadratic irrational numbers)
[constants](Category:Mathematical)(Category:Mathematical constants)
[of geometry](Category:History)(Category:History of geometry)
[arts theory](Category:Visual)(Category:Visual arts theory)
[in visual art](Category:Composition)(Category:Composition in visual art)
[and art](Category:Mathematics)(Category:Mathematics and art)
|
Adobe Premiere Pro
|
adobe_premiere_pro
|
# Adobe Premiere Pro
*Revision ID: 1160180945 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T21:55:09Z*
---
}}
| latest release version =
| latest release date =
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| programming language =
| operating system = **CC 2018***[Windows](Microsoft Windows) (64-bit)*Windows 7 or later*[OS X](Mac)(Mac OS X)*10.11 El Capitan or later
**CC 2019***[10](Windows)(Windows 10) (64-bit)*version 1703 or later*[macOS](macOS)*10.12 Sierra or later
| genre = [editing software](Video)(Video editing software)
| license = [Trialware](Trialware)
}}
**Adobe Premiere Pro** is a [timeline](timeline)-based and [non-linear](non-linear editing system) [editing software](video)(video editing software) application (NLE) developed by [Inc.](Adobe)(Adobe Inc.) and published as part of the [Creative Cloud](Adobe)(Adobe Creative Cloud) licensing program. First launched in 2003, Adobe Premiere Pro is a successor of [Premiere](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere) (first launched in 1991). It is geared towards professional video editing, while its sibling, [Premiere Elements](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere Elements), targets the consumer market.
[CNN](CNN) was an early adopter of Adobe Premiere Pro. Also, in 2007, certain [BBC](BBC) departments adopted Premiere Pro. It has been used to edit feature films, such as *[Deadpool](Deadpool (2016 film))*, *[Girl](Gone)(Gone Girl (film))*, *[Abu Raed](Captain)(Captain Abu Raed)*, *[Dark Fate](Terminator:)(Terminator: Dark Fate)*, *[Monsters](Monsters (2010 film))*, and the 2022 Academy Award Best Picture winner *[Everywhere All At Once](Everything)(Everything Everywhere All At Once)*, and other venues such as [Madonna's](Madonna (entertainer)) [Tour](Confessions)(Confessions Tour).
## History
### Original Adobe Premiere
| discontinued = yes
| latest release version = 6.5
| latest release date =
| replaced_by = Adobe Premiere Pro
| operating system = [Mac OS](Classic)(Classic Mac OS)[Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows)
| genre = [editing software](Video)(Video editing software)
}}
The original version of **Adobe Premiere** was developed by [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems). It was first launched in 1991, and its final version was released in 2002.
Premiere was one of the first [computer](computer) [editing](non-linear)(non-linear editing) systems. The first version for [Mac](Macintosh) released in 1991, and the first version for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) was released in September 1993. The project began at [Technology](SuperMac)(SuperMac) as **ReelTime**, a [QuickTime](QuickTime)-based video editor for its VideoSpigot video capture card.[SuperMac War Story 10: The Video Spigot](https://steveblank.com/2009/05/11/supermac-war-story-x-the-video-spigot/) by Steve Blank. 2009-05-11. SuperMac engineer Randy Ubillos created a working demo of ReelTime in about 10 weeks while [QuickTime](QuickTime) was still in beta.[Back to 1.0: Interview with Adobe Premiere, Final Cut Pro and iMovie developer Randy Ubillos](https://alex4d.com/notes/item/back-to-1-0-randy-ubillos-interview) by Alex Gollner, Alex4D. 2015-08-26. The software project was acquired by [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Inc.) in August 1991 and was renamed Adobe Premiere. Ubillos also left SuperMac to join Adobe.
Premiere was one of the first [QuickTime](QuickTime)-based video editors on the market.[VideoSpigot Review](https://tidbits.com/1992/04/20/videospigot-review/) by Jon Pugh, TidBITS. 1992-04-20. As a result, its ability to import new [formats](video)(video formats) could also be upgraded by updating to a newer compatible version of Quicktime. However, it was limited to processing video and images that were 1024 pixels wide, or less.[Video Editing on Adobe Premiere 1.0 (from 1991) – Krazy Ken's Tech Misadventures](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eubyadfqkUA) by Computer Clan, YouTube. 2018-11-15.
Premiere included 24 transition effects and a [plug-in](Plug-in (computing)) architecture that was compatible with some [Photoshop](Adobe Photoshop) filters.
### Release of Adobe Premiere Pro
It was replaced by Adobe Premiere Pro (introduced in 2003), a rewritten version of Adobe Premiere.
Premiere Pro is the successor to [Premiere](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere) and was launched in 2003. Premiere Pro refers to versions released in 2003 and later, whereas Premiere refers to the earlier releases. Premiere was based on ReelTime, a product acquired from [SuperMac](SuperMac) Technologies Inc. and was one of the first computer-based NLEs ([editing system](non-linear)(non-linear editing system)), with its first release on [Mac](Macintosh) in 1991. Adobe briefly abandoned the Mac platform after version 6 of Premiere. Up until version Premiere Pro 2.0 (CS2), the software packaging featured a galloping horse, in a nod to [Muybridge](Eadweard)(Eadweard Muybridge)'s work, "[Gardner at a Gallop](Sallie)(Sallie Gardner at a Gallop)".
## Features
Premiere Pro supports high resolution video editing at up to 10,240 × 8,192 [resolution](Display resolution), at up to 32 bits per channel color, in both [RGB](RGB) and [YUV](YUV). Audio sample-level editing, [audio plug-in](VST)(VST audio plug-in) support, and 5.1 surround sound mixing are available. Premiere Pro's plug-in architecture enables it to import and export formats beyond those supported by QuickTime or DirectShow, supporting a wide variety of video and audio file formats and codecs on both MacOS and Windows. When used with [CineForm](CineForm)'s Neo line of plug-ins, it supports 3D editing with the ability to view 3D material using 2D monitors, while making individual left and right eye adjustments.
Premiere Pro can be used for all common video editing tasks necessary for producing broadcast-quality, high-definition video. It can be used to import video, audio and graphics, and is used to create new, edited versions of video which can be exported to the medium and format necessary for the distribution. When creating videos using Premiere Pro, various videos, still images and audio files can be edited together. Titles and motion graphics can be added to videos and filters can be applied along with other effects.
Premiere Pro was very well received at launch in the film and video industry, seeing use in films such as *[Returns](Superman)(Superman Returns)*, *[to Glory](Dust)(Dust to Glory)* (for video capture processing), and also in places such as Madonna's Confessions Tour.
### Workflow integration
;* After Effects
: Through [Dynamic Link](Adobe)(Adobe Dynamic Link), compositions from [After Effects](Adobe)(Adobe After Effects) may be imported and played back directly on the Premiere Pro timeline. The After Effects composition can be modified, and after switching back to Premiere Pro, the clip will update with the changes. Likewise, Premiere Pro projects can be imported into After Effects. Clips can be copied between the two applications while preserving most clip attributes. Premiere Pro also supports many After Effects plug-ins.
;* Premiere Rush
:Video projects in Premiere Rush can be opened in Premiere Pro to add more complex edits and views.
;* Photoshop
: [Photoshop](Adobe)(Adobe Photoshop) files can be opened directly from Premiere Pro to be edited in Photoshop. Any changes will immediately be updated when the Photoshop file is saved and focus returns to Premiere Pro.
;* Illustrator
: [Illustrator](Adobe)(Adobe Illustrator) files can also be opened directly in Premiere Pro. These files are generally vector files, which means that they are mathematical paths that can expand or decrease with any zoom level.
;* Adobe Story, OnLocation and Prelude
: The Premiere Pro workflow takes advantage of [metadata](metadata) in the script of video production. The script is created in or brought into [Story](Adobe)(Adobe Story), then passed to [OnLocation](Adobe)(Adobe OnLocation) to capture footage and attach any relevant metadata from the script to that footage. Finally, in Premiere Pro, [recognition](speech)(speech recognition) can match the audio to the dialogue from the script in the metadata. Clips can be searched based on their dialogue in Premiere Pro, and can be sent to [Encore](Adobe)(Adobe Encore) to make searchable web DVDs. Encore was discontinued with the release of [Creative Cloud](Adobe)(Adobe Creative Cloud). [Prelude](Adobe)(Adobe Prelude) replaces OnLocation in CS6 and above.
;* Others
:There are other integration functions, such as Edit in [Audition](Adobe)(Adobe Audition), Dynamic Link to Encore, and Reveal in [Bridge](Adobe)(Adobe Bridge). In June 2020, Adobe launched a stock audio offering for Premiere Pro users.
:
Various extensions are available for Premiere Pro, provided by third parties. These include music libraries, graphic elements, and workflow improvements. Extensions open in their own panel within the Premiere Pro interface.
Plug-ins can be created for Premiere Pro to add additional functionality. Plug-ins can serve several purposes, such as video and audio effects and adding additional codec and hardware support. They can be created specifically for Premiere Pro, or they can be created for [Effects](After)(Adobe After Effects) and still run on Premiere Pro. Popular plug-in suites include Red Giant, [BorisFX](Boris FX), and [NewBlue](NewBlue).
## Adobe Premiere family
The [Premiere](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere) family is a group of applications and services made by [Inc.](Adobe)(Adobe Inc.) for the use of professional [video editing](non-linear)(Non-linear editing). Several features of the [Premiere](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere) family are [video editing](non-linear)(Non-linear editing), metadata and ingest logging, media output encoding, and more.
### Current applications
* [Link](Dynamic)(Adobe Dynamic Link) is a workflow that integrates [Effects](After)(Adobe After Effects) with Premiere Pro and with the discontinued [Encore](Adobe Encore), allowing files to be transferred between the two without re-rendering.
*Elements Organizer is the [asset management](digital)(digital asset management) app for [Elements](Photoshop)(Adobe Photoshop Elements) and [Elements](Premiere)(Adobe Premiere Elements). Adobe Photoshop Elements tutorials|url=https://helpx.adobe.com/elements-organizer/user-guide.html/photoshop-elements/how-to/organizer-overview.ug.html|access-date=2021-04-26|website=helpx.adobe.com|language=en-US}} It is able to organize all your photos and video projects all in one place.
*Media Encoder is a tool to output video files in order support more audiences and to lessen the file size.
* [Elements](Premiere)(Adobe Premiere Elements) is a [editing software](video)(video editing software) application published by [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems). It is a scaled-down version of Premiere Pro and is tailored to novice editors and consumers. The entry screen offers clip organization, editing and auto-movie generation options. Premiere Pro project files are not compatible with Premiere Elements projects files. Its main competitors are [Cut Express](Final)(Final Cut Express) (no longer sold), [Video Editor](AVS)(AVS Video Editor), [PowerDirector](PowerDirector), [Studio](Pinnacle)(Pinnacle Studio), [Vegas Movie Studio](Sony)(Sony Vegas Movie Studio), [Vegas](Sony)(Sony Vegas Pro), [VideoStudio](Corel)(Corel VideoStudio), and [iMovie](iMovie). Unlike many of its competitors, Premiere Elements can handle unlimited video and audio tracks, with multiple keyframe effects applied to each clip, as well as [picture-in-picture](picture-in-picture) and [key](chroma)(chroma key) capabilities. It also supports many third-party [plug-ins](Plug-in (computing)) for additional features, including Premiere Pro plug-ins, [Effects](After)(Adobe After Effects) plug-ins, and [effects](VST)(Virtual Studio Technology#VST effects). It can create [and tone](bars)(bars and tone) and a countdown leader, just like Premiere Pro. The program also features real-time video rendering which allows the user to instantly preview edits made to the video timeline. It is available for Windows and MacOS.
* Premiere Pro is a [timeline](timeline)-based [editing software](video)(video editing software) application developed by [Inc.](Adobe)(Adobe Inc.) and published as part of the [Creative Cloud](Adobe)(Adobe Creative Cloud) licensing program. First launched in 2003, Adobe Premiere Pro is a successor of [Premiere](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere) (first launched in 1991).
* Premiere Rush is a simplified pro-quality video app for [device](mobile)(mobile device)s, developed by [Adobe](Adobe Inc.) and available through [Cloud](Creative)(Adobe Creative Cloud). It replaced Premiere Clip as the mobile video editing application by [Inc.](Adobe)(Adobe Inc.) today.
### Discontinued applications
* [Encore](Adobe Encore) (previously called Encore DVD) was a specialized [authoring](DVD)(DVD authoring) app, which converts the output of Premiere Pro and [Effects](After)(Adobe After Effects) to a format suitable for DVD and [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) players. Files are automatically transcoded to MPEG-2 or [AVC](H.264/MPEG-4)(H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) video and Dolby Digital audio. It was discontinued along with [Fireworks](Adobe Fireworks) on [CS6](Adobe Creative Suite).
* [OnLocation](Adobe OnLocation) was a [recording](direct-to-disk)(direct-to-disk recording) and monitoring software. It was soon replaced by [Prelude](Adobe Prelude) in [Creative Suite 6](Adobe)(Adobe Creative Suite).
* [Prelude](Adobe Prelude) was an ingest and logging tool for tagging media with metadata for searching, post-production workflows, and footage lifecycle management. Adobe Prelude was also made to work closely with Premiere Pro. It was announced to be discontinues on September 8, 2021.
* [Premiere](Adobe Premiere) was a former [editing software](video)(video editing software) developed by [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems). It was first launched in 1991, and its final version was released in 2002. It was replaced by Premiere Pro, a rewritten version of Adobe Premiere.
*Premiere Clip was a timeline based video editing software on mobile platform. It is no longer supported for new and upcoming users since September 17, 2019. Extended support for all active customers lasted until March 17, 2020.
*[Express](Premiere)(Adobe Premiere Express) was a [Internet application](rich)(rich Internet application) for simple editing of digital video files. The release was announced on February 21, 2007. The program itself is served as a free tool for users of [YouTube](YouTube), [Photobucket](Photobucket), and [MTV.com](MTV). As [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems) allowed websites to contact them to request Express, [YouTube](YouTube) received it on their website as a way of remixing videos on a member's YouTube account. Known as ''YouTube's Video Remixer*, it was found on TestTube at . It was later taken down.
*Premiere Limited Edition (LE) was a [editor](video)(video editor) for novice video editors and hobbyists. It contains most of the features of the professional version but with fewer and simpler options. It was instead replaced by [Elements](Premiere)(Adobe Premiere Elements) in September 2004.
* SpeedGrade is a tool for performing [correction](color)(color correction)s and developing looks for Premiere projects. SpeedGrade was discontinued on August 22, 2017, but can still be used by subscribers at the time. Features from SpeedGrade are now found in the Lumetri Color Correction feature in Premiere Pro.
* [Story](Adobe Story) was a screenwriting and film/TV pre-production online application which integrates with the Premiere family. It allows users to create scripts for movies and TV shows.
* [Ultra](Adobe Ultra) is a discontinued [key](chroma)(chroma key) compositing app, which removes the background of video usually recorded on a blue or green screen and combines it with another video background. Ultra was only available in the [CS3](Adobe Creative Suite) package. It was later incorporated into [Elements](Premiere)(Adobe Premiere Elements) and [Communicator](Visual)(Adobe Visual Communicator). Later versions of Premiere Pro and [Effects](After)(Adobe After Effects) have had built-in chroma key compositing features.
* Version Cue was a [control](revision)(Version control) system for maintaining multiple revisions of works among teams. It was removed from the [Suite](Creative)(Adobe Creative Suite) after CS4.
## Notable films edited on Adobe Premiere Pro
* *[of Valor](Act)(Act of Valor)*
* *[Liar's Autobiography](A)(A Liar's Autobiography)''
* *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* (daily and basic edits in conjunction with [Media Composer](Avid)(Avid Media Composer))
* *[Abu Raed](Captain)(Captain Abu Raed)*
* *[Deadpool](Deadpool (film))* Creative Cloud blog by Adobe|website=Adobe Creative Cloud|access-date=2017-01-16}}
* *[to Glory](Dust)(Dust to Glory)*
* *[3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time](Evangelion:)(Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time)*
* *[Everywhere All at Once](Everything)(Everything Everywhere All at Once)*
* *[Girl](Gone)(Gone Girl (film))*
* *[Hugo](Hugo (film))* (except [VFX](VFX) work)
* *[a Heartbeat](In)(In a Heartbeat (film))*
* *[Monsters](Monsters (2010 film))*
* *[Obsession](Red)(Red Obsession)*
* *[2: The Second One](Sharknado)(Sharknado 2: The Second One)*
* *[Island Summer](Staten)(Staten Island Summer)*
* *[Returns](Superman)(Superman Returns)* (for the video capture process)
* *[Social Network](The)(The Social Network)* (only conforming)
* *[Are Go](Thunderbirds)(Thunderbirds Are Go (TV series))*
* *[to Ride](Ticket)(List of Warren Miller films)* (by [Miller Entertainment](Warren)(Warren Miller (director)#Warren Miller Entertainment))
* *[TimeScapes](Tom Lowe (writer))*
* *[for Lightning](Waiting)(Danny Way#Waiting For Lightning)*
* ''Wayland's Song*
* *World War II from Space''
* *[Nancy](Nancy (film))*
* *[Dark Fate](Terminator:)(Terminator: Dark Fate)*
## See also
* [Premiere Elements](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere Elements)
* [Premiere Express](Adobe)(Adobe Premiere Express)
* [Creative Suite](Adobe)(Adobe Creative Suite)
* [Cloud controversy](Creative)(Adobe Creative Cloud#Reception)
* [of video editing software](List)(List of video editing software)
* [of video editing software](Comparison)(Comparison of video editing software)
## References
## External links
*
[Pro](Premiere)(Category:Adobe software)
[Pro](Premiere)(Category:Adobe Creative Suite)
[editing software for macOS](Category:Video)(Category:Video editing software for macOS)
[editing software for Windows](Category:Video)(Category:Video editing software for Windows)
[multimedia software](Category:MacOS)(Category:MacOS multimedia software)
|
List of Warner Bros. films _2020–2029
|
list_of_warner_bros._films__2020–2029
|
# List of Warner Bros. films (2020–2029)
*Revision ID: 1160159005 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:02:27Z*
---
[[Bros. Pictures 2019.svg|right|120px](File:Warner)]
The following is a list of films produced, co-produced, and/or distributed by [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) in 2020–2029.
*A **†** signifies a [PVOD](Premium video on demand) release.
*A **‡** signifies a direct-to-video release or streaming release exclusively through [Max](Max (streaming service)).
*A **§** signifies a [release](simultaneous)(simultaneous release) to theaters and on [Max](Max (streaming service)).
*A ***** signifies a streaming release through a third-party streaming service.
## Released
## Upcoming
### Undated films
### In development
## See also
* [of Warner Bros. Pictures Animation productions](List)(List of Warner Bros. Pictures Animation productions)
* [of New Line Cinema films](List)(List of New Line Cinema films)
* [of films based on DC Comics publications](List)(List of films based on DC Comics publications)
* [of Warner Bros. theatrical animated feature films](List)(List of Warner Bros. theatrical animated feature films)
* [of films by studio](:Category:Lists)(:Category:Lists of films by studio)
## Notes
## References
[of Warner Bros. films](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of Warner Bros. films)
[Bros. films](Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. Discovery-related lists)
[Bros](Warner)(Category:American films by studio)
[of 2020s films](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of 2020s films)
[in American cinema](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s in American cinema)
|
Andrew Carnegie
|
andrew_carnegie
|
# Andrew Carnegie
*Revision ID: 1158780688 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T05:40:37Z*
---
| birth_place = [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), [Fife](Fife), Scotland
| death_date =
| death_place = [Massachusetts](Lenox,)(Lenox, Massachusetts), U.S.
| resting_place = [Hollow Cemetery](Sleepy)(Sleepy Hollow Cemetery), [Hollow, New York](Sleepy)(Sleepy Hollow, New York), U.S.
| occupation = [Industrialist](Industrialist), [Philanthropist](Philanthropist)
| known_for = Founding and leading the [Steel Company](Carnegie)(Carnegie Steel Company) Founding the [Library](Carnegie)(Carnegie Library), [Hall](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hall), [Institution for Science](Carnegie)(Carnegie Institution for Science), [Corporation of New York](Carnegie)(Carnegie Corporation of New York), [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), [Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University), [Trust for the Universities of Scotland](Carnegie)(Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland), [United Kingdom Trust](Carnegie)(Carnegie United Kingdom Trust), [Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching](Carnegie)(Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching), [Council for Ethics in International Affairs](Carnegie)(Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs), [Museums of Pittsburgh](Carnegie)(Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh), and the [Hero Fund](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hero Fund)
| party = [Republican](Republican Party (United States))
| spouse =
| children = [Carnegie Miller](Margaret)(Margaret Carnegie Miller)
| parents = William CarnegieMargaret Morrison Carnegie
| relatives = [M. Carnegie](Thomas)(Thomas M. Carnegie) (brother) [Lauder](George)(George Lauder (industrialist)) (first cousin) [Lauder Sr.](George)(George Lauder Sr.) (uncle)
| signature = Andrew Carnegie signature.svg
}}
[[File:Andrew Carnegie in National Portrait Gallery IMG 4441.JPG|upright|thumb|Carnegie as he appears in the [Portrait Gallery](National)(National Portrait Gallery (United States)) in Washington, D.C.]]
**Andrew Carnegie** (, ; with the stress on the second syllable, but his name is now commonly pronounced with the stress on the first syllable. American English speakers that stress the second syllable are not normally able to produce the long in the Scots pronunciation and approximate it by producing its short equivalent as in the word "dress": . If they try to lengthen this sound, they automatically produce the diphthong as in the word "face", which they normally don't notice: . This approximation with the diphthong is further from the Scots pronunciation and so rare that it is not even mentioned as a variant in the Columbia Encyclopedia or the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.}} November 25, 1835August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American [industrialist](Business magnate) and [philanthropist](Philanthropy). Carnegie led the expansion of the [steel industry](American)(History of the iron and steel industry in the United States) in the late 19th century and became one of the [Americans](richest)(List of richest Americans in history) in history.listed at 372 billion 2014 USD by Jacob Davidson, [time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801233535/http://time.com/money/3977798/the-10-richest-people-of-all-time/) "Rockefeller gets all the press, but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time. The Scottish immigrant sold his company, U.S. Steel, to J. P. Morgan for $480 million in 1901. That sum equates to slightly over 2.1 percent of U.S. GDP at the time, giving Carnegie an economic power equivalent to $372 billion in 2014." He became a leading philanthropist in the United States, Great Britain, and the [Empire](British)(British Empire). During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away around $350 million (roughly $ billion in ), almost 90 percent of his fortune, to charities, foundations and universities. His 1889 article proclaiming "[Gospel of Wealth](The)(The Gospel of Wealth)" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, expressed support for [tax](progressive)(progressive tax)ation and an [tax](estate)(Inheritance tax), and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.
Carnegie was born in [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), Scotland, and emigrated to Pittsburgh, United States, with his parents in 1848 at age 12. Carnegie started work as a [telegrapher](Telegraphist), and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil [derrick](derrick)s. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh)'s [Steel Company](Carnegie)(Carnegie Steel Company), which he sold to [P. Morgan](J.)(J. P. Morgan) in 1901 for $303,450,000 (equal to $ today); it formed the basis of the [Steel Corporation](U.S.)(U.S. Steel). After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed [D. Rockefeller](John)(John D. Rockefeller) as the richest American for the next several years.
Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on [local libraries](building)(Carnegie library), world peace, education, and scientific research. He funded [Hall](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hall) in New York City, the [Palace](Peace)(Peace Palace) in the Netherlands, founded the [Corporation of New York](Carnegie)(Carnegie Corporation of New York), [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), [Institution for Science](Carnegie)(Carnegie Institution for Science), [Trust for the Universities of Scotland](Carnegie)(Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland), [Hero Fund](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hero Fund), [Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University), and the [Museums of Pittsburgh](Carnegie)(Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh), among others.
## Biography
### Early life
[[File:Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|right|Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), Scotland]]
Andrew Carnegie was born to Margaret Morrison Carnegie and William Carnegie in [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), Scotland, in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room, consisting of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family.[MacKay](#MacKay), pp. 23–24. The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his paternal grandfather. In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy [damask](damask), from which his father benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from the philanthropist [Rolland](Adam)(Adam Rolland) of Gask.The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Review, Sept 1819
Carnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader [Lauder Sr.](George)(George Lauder Sr.), deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to [Burns](Robert)(Robert Burns)' writings and historical Scottish heroes such as [the Bruce](Robert)(Robert the Bruce), [Wallace](William)(William Wallace), and [Roy](Rob)(Rob Roy MacGregor). Lauder's son, also named [Lauder](George)(George Lauder (industrialist)), grew up with Carnegie and became his business partner. When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver. Making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her "sweetie shop", leaving her as the primary breadwinner. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr. and move to [Pennsylvania](Allegheny,)(Allegheny, Pennsylvania), in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life.[MacKay](#MacKay), pp. 37–38. Carnegie's migration to America would be his second journey outside Dunfermline—the first being an outing to [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) to see [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria).
In September 1848, Carnegie arrived with his family in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own. Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at the same Scottish-owned cotton mill, Anchor Cotton Mills. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a [boy](bobbin)(bobbin boy), changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ($ by -1}} inflation).*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, p. 34
His father quit his position at the cotton mill soon after, returning to his loom and removing him as breadwinner once again. But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ($ by -1}} inflation). In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job.
}}
### Telegraph
[[and Thomas Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Carnegie, age 16, with younger brother Thomas, c. 1851](File:Andrew)]
In 1849,Edge (2004) pp. 21–22 Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week ($ by -1}} inflation)*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, p. 37 following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip,*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, pp. 56, 59 and within a year was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by [James Anderson](Colonel)(John Byers Anderson), who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night.*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, p. 45 Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a "[man](self-made)(self-made man)" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he "resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [see to it](to) that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman". His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.
### Railroads
Starting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, [A. Scott](Thomas)(Thomas A. Scott) of the [Railroad](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Railroad) employed him as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week ($ by -1}} inflation). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company. At age 24, Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.Edge (2004) p. 35. On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. Carnegie then hired his sixteen-year-old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Not only did Carnegie hire his brother, he also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country.Edge (2004) p. 37 As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of $1500 a year ($ by -1}} inflation). His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 54–59, 64–65.
Scott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, [Edgar Thomson](John)(John Edgar Thomson), which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with, or payoffs made by contracting parties "as part of a [pro quo](quid)(quid pro quo)".[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 59–60. In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the [Express Company](Adams)(Adams Express Company), which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott.*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, p. 79 A few years later, he received a few shares in [Tuttle Woodruff](Theodore)(Theodore Tuttle Woodruff)'s sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries (iron, bridges, and [rails](Track (rail transport))), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men stakes in his enterprises.
### 1860–1865: The Civil War
[[sleeping car circa 1860s.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Pullman sleeping car, where Carnegie made one of his most successful investments](File:Pullman)]
Before the Civil War, Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of [Pullman](George)(George Pullman), the inventor of the [car](sleeping)(Pullman (car or coach)) for [travel](first-class)(first class travel), which facilitated business travel at distances over . The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania's Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service.
In the spring of 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at [Run](Bull)(First Battle of Bull Run), he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was "the first casualty of the war" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.
The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of [munition](munition)s and railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success.
### Keystone Bridge Company
[[File:Eads Bridge from Laclede's Landing, Sep 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Eads Bridge across the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River), opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel ]]
In 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in [County, Pennsylvania](Venango)(Venango County, Pennsylvania).Story Farm, Columbia Farm, Columbia Oil Company
*
*
* In one year, the firm yielded over $1 million in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel [mill](rolling)(rolling mill), and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.
After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his [Bridge Company](Keystone)(Keystone Bridge Company) and the rails produced by his [ironworks](ironworks). He also gave stock in his businesses to Scott and Thomson, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 105–107.
Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [Bridge](Eads)(Eads Bridge) project across the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) at [Louis](St.)(St. Louis), [Missouri](Missouri) (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.
[[Carnegie circa 1878 - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, c. 1878](File:Andrew)]
Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote:
### Industrialist
#### 1875–1900: Steel empire
[[converter.jpg|thumb|right|Bessemer converter](File:Bessemer)]
[[p750 BESSEMER, THE EDGAR THOMSON STEEL WORKS AND BLAST-FURNACES.jpg|thumb|right|The Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Blast-Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania (1891)](File:US-PA(1891))]
Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the [process](Bessemer)(Bessemer process), which allowed the high carbon content of [iron](pig)(pig iron) to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during [production](steel)(steel production). Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges. Bessemer steel suffered from nitrogen embrittlement with age
The second was in his [integration](vertical)(vertical integration) of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival [Steel Works](Homestead)(Homestead Steel Works), which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway, and a line of [steamships](lake)(Lake freighter). In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and [coke](coke (fuel)) in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the [Edgar Thomson Steel Works](J.)(Edgar Thomson Steel Works) in [Braddock](Braddock, Pennsylvania) (named for [Edgar Thomson](John)(John Edgar Thomson), Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the [Furnace](Lucy)(Lucy Furnace)s, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the [Steel Company](Carnegie)(Carnegie Steel Company). Biography & Facts |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=August 23, 2017 |language=en}}
Carnegie's success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free-market competition.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 3264–78.
Besides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 7114–19. Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, [Clay Frick](Henry)(Henry Clay Frick), revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 10653–57
#### 1901: U.S. Steel
In 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional [stock corporation](joint)(Joint-stock company)s as preparation for this. [Pierpont Morgan](John)(J. P. Morgan) was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the [States Steel Corporation](United)(U.S. Steel). It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.
The buyout, secretly negotiated by [M. Schwab](Charles)(Charles M. Schwab) (no relation to [R. Schwab](Charles)(Charles R. Schwab)), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.
Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in , $}}), which was paid to him in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion—4% of the U.S. gross domestic product at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of [New Jersey](Hoboken,)(Hoboken, New Jersey), in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.
### Scholar and activist
#### 1880–1900
Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet [Arnold](Matthew)(Matthew Arnold), the English philosopher [Spencer](Herbert)(Herbert Spencer), and the American humorist [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain), as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the [Presidents](U.S.)(President of the United States), statesmen, and notable writers.
Carnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in [Dunfermline](Dunfermline) in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a [Carnegie Library](Dunfermline)(Dunfermline Carnegie Library) in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [Hospital Medical College](Bellevue)(Bellevue Hospital Medical College) (now part of [York University Medical Center](New)(NYU Langone Medical Center)) to found a [histological](histology) laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.
In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a [Library](Carnegie)(Carnegie Library) which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a [catalyst](catalyst) for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with [Storey](Samuel)(Samuel Storey), he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister [Ewart Gladstone](William)(William Ewart Gladstone).
In 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around [Superior](Lake)(Lake Superior).
Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled *An American Four-in-hand in Britain*. In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled *Triumphant Democracy*. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British [monarchical](monarchy) system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal [crown](crown) and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.
[[File:James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce & Andrew Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, right, with [Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce](James)(James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce)]]
Although actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably *[Nineteenth Century](The)(Nineteenth Century (periodical))*, under the editorship of [Knowles](James)(James Thomas Knowles (1831–1908)), and the influential *North American Review*, led by the editor [Bryce](Lloyd)(Lloyd Bryce). In 1889, Carnegie published "Wealth" in the June issue of the *North American Review*. After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in Britain, where it appeared as "The Gospel of Wealth" in *[Pall Mall Gazette](The)(The Pall Mall Gazette)*. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.
Carnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.Swetnam, George (1980) *Andrew Carnegie*. Twayne Publishers.
### Anti-imperialism
In the aftermath of the [War](Spanish–American)(Spanish–American War), the United States seemed poised to annex [Cuba](Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)), [Guam](Guam), [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico) and the [Philippines](Insular Government of the Philippine Islands). Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting [Jennings Bryan](William)(William Jennings Bryan) against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as [imperialism](American)(American imperialism), Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the [people](Filipino)(Filipinos) could purchase their independence from the United States.[Andrew Carnegie timeline of events](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/timeline/timeline2.html) PBS. However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the [Anti-Imperialist League](American)(American Anti-Imperialist League), in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland) and [Harrison](Benjamin)(Benjamin Harrison) and literary figures such as [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain).Hirschfeld, Katherine *Health, Politics and Revolution in Cuba*, p. 117, Transaction Publishers, 2008
### 1901–1919: Philanthropist
[[Carnegie's philanthropy. *Puck* magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903](File:Carnegie-1903.jpg|thumb|upright|Andrew)]
Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in *Triumphant Democracy* (1886) and [of Wealth*](*Gospel)(The Gospel of Wealth) (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled "Gratitude and Sweet Words."
He provided $25,000 a year to the movement for [reform](spelling)(spelling reform).[Frazier Wall](Joseph)(Joseph Frazier Wall), *Andrew Carnegie* (1970) pp 891–893. His organization, the [Spelling Board](Simplified)(Simplified Spelling Board),["Carnegie Assaults the Spelling Book; To Pay the Cost of Reforming English Orthography. Campaign About to Begin Board Named, with Headquarters Here – Local Societies Throughout the Country."](https://www.nytimes.com/1906/03/12/archives/carnegie-assaults-the-spelling-book-to-pay-the-cost-of-reforming.html), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, March 12, 1906. Retrieved August 28, 2008. created the *Handbook of Simplified Spelling*, which was written wholly in reformed spelling.[*Handbook of Simplified Spelling*](https://archive.org/details/handbooksimplif00boargoog). Simplified Spelling Board, 1920.
#### 3,000 public libraries
[[File:Andrew Carnegie, Vanity Fair, 1903-10-29.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Captioned "Free Libraries", Carnegie caricatured by "[Spy](Leslie Ward)" for the London magazine *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (British magazine))*, 1903]]
Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [libraries](public)(public library) throughout the United States, Britain, Canada and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist [Pratt](Enoch)(Enoch Pratt) (1808–1896). The [Pratt Free Library](Enoch)(Enoch Pratt Free Library) (1886) of [Maryland](Baltimore,)(Baltimore, Maryland), impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, "Pratt was my guide and inspiration."
Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by [Bertram](James)(James Bertram (Carnegie secretary)) (1874–1934). The first [Library](Carnegie)(Carnegie Library) opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.
To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to [Pennsylvania](Pittsburgh,)(Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), for a public library; in 1886, he gave $250,000 to [City, Pennsylvania](Allegheny)(Allegheny City, Pennsylvania), for a music hall and library; and he gave $250,000 to [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 U.S. states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the [Indies](West)(West Indies), and [Fiji](Fiji). He also donated £50,000 to help set up the [of Birmingham](University)(University of Birmingham) in 1899.
As Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.
File:CarnegieLibraryPittsburghFrontEntrance.jpg|[Library of Pittsburgh](Carnegie)(Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh), [Pennsylvania](Pittsburgh,)(Pittsburgh)
File:Macomb Public Library.JPG|[library](Carnegie)(Carnegie library), [Illinois](Macomb,)(Macomb, Illinois)
File:Edinburgh Central Library, George IV Bridge.JPG|[Edinburgh](Edinburgh) [Library](Central)(Central Library, Edinburgh)
File:Yorkville Library.jpg|[Yorkville](Yorkville, Toronto) Library, [Ontario](Ontario).
File:Syracuse Carnegie Library.jpg|Carnegie Library at [University](Syracuse)(Syracuse University), [York](New)(New York City)
File:Carnegie_library_002.jpg|Carnegie Library, [Moorreesburg](Moorreesburg), [Africa](South)(South Africa)
#### Investing in education, science, pensions, civil heroism, music, and world peace
[[File:CMUquadfromCoLcrop.jpg|thumb|right|[Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University)]]
[[V76 D210 Carnegie institution administration buiding in washington.png|thumb|Carnegie Institution administration building in Washington, D.C.](File:PSM)]
In 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the [Institute of Technology](Carnegie)(Carnegie Institute of Technology) (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the [Institution](Carnegie)(Carnegie Institution) at Washington, D.C., for encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools. CIT is now known as [Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University) after it merged with the [Institute of Industrial Research](Mellon)(Mellon Institute of Industrial Research). Carnegie also served on the Boards of [University](Cornell)(Cornell University) and [Institute of Technology](Stevens)(Stevens Institute of Technology).
In 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to [Ellery Hale](George)(George Ellery Hale), who was trying to build the [Telescope](Hooker)(Hooker telescope) at [Wilson](Mount)(Mount Wilson Observatory), and donated an additional ten million dollars to the [Institution](Carnegie)(Carnegie Institution for Science) with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: "I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens." The telescope saw [light](first)(First light (astronomy)) on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.Simmons, Mike (1984). ["History of Mount Wilson Observatory – Building the 100-Inch Telescope"](http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.php) . [Wilson Observatory](Mount)(Mount Wilson Observatory) Association (MWOA).
[[File:Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pittencrieff Park, [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), Scotland]]
In 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the [Trust for the Universities of Scotland](Carnegie)(Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland). It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by royal charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university.[Our History](https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232654/http://www.carnegie-trust.org/our_history.htm). Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland He was subsequently elected [Rector](Lord)(Lord Rector) of [of St. Andrews](University)(University of St. Andrews) in December 1901, and formally installed as such in October 1902, serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became [Park](Pittencrieff)(Pittencrieff Park) and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913 and 1914 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.
Carnegie was a major patron of music. He was a founding financial backer of [Thurber](Jeannette)(Jeannette Thurber)'s [Conservatory of Music of America](National)(National Conservatory of Music of America) in 1885. He built the music performing venue [Hall](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hall) in New York City; it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925. His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 pipe organs in churches and temples, with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect."Looking Back Into the Past" (PDF). The Diapason. 47 (2): 22. January 1, 1956."Mr. Carnegie Gives To All" (PDF). The Diapason. 2 (3): 3. February 1, 1911.
He gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the [United Kingdom Trust](Carnegie)(Carnegie United Kingdom Trust), a grant-making foundation. He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.
[[File:Tuskegee Institute - faculty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Carnegie with African-American leader [T. Washington](Booker)(Booker T. Washington) (front row, center) in 1906 while visiting [Institute](Tuskegee)(Tuskegee Institute)]]
[[Peace Palace in the Hague, opened in 1913](File:La_haye_palais_paix_jardin_face.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The)]
In 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. The latter fund evolved into [TIAA-CREF](TIAA-CREF). One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.
Carnegie was a large benefactor of the [Institute](Tuskegee)(Tuskegee Institute) for African-American education under [T. Washington](Booker)(Booker T. Washington). He helped Washington create the [Negro Business League](National)(National Negro Business League).
[[Carneggie Heldenfonds.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Dutch medal of the Carnegie Hero Fund.](File:Medaille)]
In 1904, he founded the [Hero Fund](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hero Fund) for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1.5 million in 1903 for the erection of the [Palace](Peace)(Peace Palace) at [Hague](The)(The Hague); and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.
When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the [Corporation of New York](Carnegie)(Carnegie Corporation of New York) in 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding" and continue his program of giving.
Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of [Mu Alpha Sinfonia](Phi)(Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia) fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the [England Conservatory of Music](New)(New England Conservatory) in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.
By the standards of 19th-century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money.Krause, Paul (1992). *The Battle for Homestead 1880–1892*. University of Pittsburgh Press. . p. 233 "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer [Wall](Joseph)(Joseph Frazier Wall), "he would justify what he had done to get that money."["Andrew Carnegie"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/filmmore/description.html). *The American Experience*. PBS.
To some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works, not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.Swetnam, George. (1980) *Andrew Carnegie*. Twayne Publishers.
### Death
[[File:Andrew Carnegie Gravesite.JPG|thumb|upright|Carnegie's grave at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in [Hollow, New York](Sleepy)(Sleepy Hollow, New York)]]
Carnegie died on August 11, 1919, in [Massachusetts](Lenox,)(Lenox, Massachusetts), at his [Brook](Shadow)(Shadow Brook Farm Historic District) estate, of [Pneumonia](Bronchial)(Bronchial Pneumonia).Krass (2002), Ch. "The Carnegie Legacy" He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately US$}} in dollars) of his wealth. After his death, his last $30 million was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He was buried at [Hollow Cemetery](Sleepy)(Sleepy Hollow Cemetery) in [Hollow, New York](Sleepy)(Sleepy Hollow, New York). The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer [Gompers](Samuel)(Samuel Gompers), another important figure of industry in the [Age](Gilded)(Gilded Age).
## Controversies
### 1889: Johnstown Flood
[[Image:The Great Conemaugh Valley Disaster.jpg|thumb|A contemporary rendition of the Johnstown Flood scene at the Stone Bridge by [and Allison](Kurz)(Kurz and Allison) (1890)|left]]
Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the [Fork Fishing and Hunting Club](South)(South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club), which has been blamed for the [Flood](Johnstown)(Johnstown Flood) that killed 2,209 people in 1889.
At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner [Clay Frick](Henry)(Henry Clay Frick) had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, [Mellon](Andrew)(Andrew W. Mellon), his attorneys [Knox](Philander)(Philander Knox) and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the [Fork Dam](South)(South Fork Dam) was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests, and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.
The dam was high and long. Between 1881, when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three [iron](cast)(cast iron) discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood.[David](McCullough,)(McCullough, David) (1987) *The Johnstown Flood*. Simon & Schuster, New York. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.
Although Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum.
### 1892: Homestead Strike
[[Strike - Mob attacking Pinkerton men.jpg|thumb|The Homestead Strike](File:Homestead)]
The [Strike](Homestead)(Homestead Strike) was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in [Pennsylvania](Homestead,)(Homestead, Pennsylvania), and grew out of a labor dispute between the [Association of Iron and Steel Workers](Amalgamated)(Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers) (AA) and the [Steel Company](Carnegie)(Carnegie Steel Company).
Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked.*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, Ch. 17. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner [Clay Frick](Henry)(Henry Clay Frick). Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sentiment. With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with an average 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.
[[to Carnegie letter about the arming of the Pinkertons.jpg|thumb|left|Frick's letter to Carnegie describing the plans and munitions that will be on the barges when the Pinkertons arrive to confront the strikers in Homestead](File:Frick)]
The union and company failed to come to an agreement, and management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a "[lockout](lockout (industry))" by management and not a "strike" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing [rights movement](labor)(Labor history of the United States), strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and [Pinkerton](Pinkerton National Detective Agency) agents to safeguard them.
On July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men — seven strikers and three Pinkertons — were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor [Pattison](Robert)(Robert E. Pattison) ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, [anarchist](Anarchism) [Berkman](Alexander)(Alexander Berkman) shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding him. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, "...with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie."Berkman, Alexander (1912) [*Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist*](https://archive.org/details/prisonmemoirsan01berkgoog). Mother Earth Publishing Association. p. 67. Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States. However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.
### Theodore Roosevelt
According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He strongly opposed the war and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State [Hay](John)(John Hay), and met in person. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907-1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to [in 1909](Africa)(Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition). In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king [VII](Edward)(Edward VII) suddenly died.Nasaw, *Carnegie* pp 650-652, 729-738.[Ernsberger, Jr.](Richard)(Richard Ernsberger Jr.), "A Fool for Peace" *American History*, (Oct 2018), Vol. 53, Issue 4. Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to [Reid](Whitelaw)(Whitelaw Reid) in 1905:Nasaw, *Carnegie* p. 675. [have](I) tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune…. It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.
## Personal life
### Family
[[File:Margaret Carnegie Miller and Andrew Carnegie.jpg|thumb|right|Andrew Carnegie with his wife [Whitfield Carnegie](Louise)(Louise Whitfield Carnegie) and their daughter [Carnegie Miller](Margaret)(Margaret Carnegie Miller) in 1910]]
Carnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life. After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married [Whitfield](Louise)(Louise Whitfield Carnegie), who was 21 years his junior. In 1897, the couple had their only child, a daughter, whom they named after Carnegie's mother, [Margaret](Margaret Carnegie Miller).
### Residence
[[File:Cooper Hewitt (48059131921).jpg|thumb|right|The [Carnegie Mansion](Andrew)(Andrew Carnegie Mansion), located on 5th Avenue in the [East Side](Upper)(Upper East Side), [New York](Manhattan,)(Manhattan)]]
Carnegie bought [Castle](Skibo)(Skibo Castle) in Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in his [York mansion](New)(Andrew Carnegie Mansion) located at 2 East [Street](91st)(91st Street (Manhattan)) at [Avenue](Fifth)(Fifth Avenue). The building was completed in late 1902, and he lived there until his death in 1919. His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946. The building is now used as the [Smithsonian Design Museum](Cooper-Hewitt,)(Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum), part of the [Institution](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian Institution). The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's [East Side](Upper)(Upper East Side) has come to be called [Hill](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hill). The mansion was designated as a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark) in 1966. |format=pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination |date=May 30, 1975 |publisher=National Park Service}} |format=pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination |date=May 30, 1975 |publisher=National Park Service}}
## Philosophy
### Politics
Carnegie gave "formal allegiance" to the Republican Party, though he was said to be "a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines" of the party.
### Andrew Carnegie Dictum
In his final days, Carnegie had pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The "Andrew Carnegie Dictum" was:
*To spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.
*To spend the next third making all the money one can.
*To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.
Carnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a "[positivist](positivist)". He was highly influenced in public life by [Bright](John)(John Bright).
### On wealth
[[Carnegie at Skibo 1914 - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie at Skibo Castle, 1914](File:Andrew)]
[[File:Andrew_Carnegie_by_Charles_McBride,_Edinburgh_Central_Library.jpg|thumb|upright|Andrew Carnegie by [McBride](Charles)(Charles McBride), Edinburgh Central Library]]
As early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: "...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money."Klein, Maury (2004) *The Change Makers*, p. 57, Macmillan. In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving, for "... the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced." However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, at age 46, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.Burlingame, Dwight (2004) *Philanthropy in America*. ABC-CLIO. . p. 60
Carnegie wrote "[Gospel of Wealth](The)(The Gospel of Wealth)",*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, pp. 255–67 an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of [tax](progressive)(progressive tax)ation and an [tax](estate)(Estate tax in the United States):
}}
The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself:
}}
### Intellectual influences
[[Carnegie, April 1905.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|April 1905](File:Andrew)]
Carnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought—particularly the work of [Spencer](Herbert)(Herbert Spencer), even declaring Spencer his teacher.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, p. 165 Although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer, many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused.
Spencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society "spontaneously fallen into division of labour".Spencer, Herbert, 1855 (*The Principles of Psychology*, Chapter 1. "Method"). (Kindle Locations 7196–7197). Kindle Edition Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be "those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest—are the select of their generation."Spencer, Herbert 1904. (*An Autobiography*, Chapter 23, "A More Active Year") (Kindle Location 5572). Peerless Press. Kindle Edition Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security.Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (*Social Statics*, Chapter 19 "The Right to Ignore the State"). (Kindle Locations 43303–43309). Kindle Edition.Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (*Social Statics*, "Chapter 21 The Duty of the State"). (Kindle Locations 44159–44168). Kindle Edition. Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution.Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (*Social Statics*, chapter 25 "poor-laws"). (Kindle Locations 45395–45420). Kindle Edition. Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.
Andrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez-faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 947–954. Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial "survival of the fittest" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 4762–67 Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 118–21 In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 1188–95. Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.
On the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer, often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 163–71 Conversely, Carnegie, a titan of industry, seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903. There are, however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.
Spencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of "sympathetic self-restraint" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors.Spencer, Herbert 1887 (*The Ethics of Social Life: Negative Beneficence*). *The Collected Works of 6 Books* (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 26500–26524). Kindle Edition. He did not think free-market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of "commercial murder". Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry-related assets.Morris, Charles R. (2005). *The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, and J.P. Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy*. Times Books. . p. 132
Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to "the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans".Spencer, Herbert. *Principles of Ethics*, 1897 (Chapter 22: "Political Rights-So-called"). (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 24948–24956). Kindle Edition.
Despite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, "Six months' residence here would justify suicide."Joseph Frazer Wall, *Andrew Carnegie* (1989) p. 386.
On the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay "Manners and Fashion", Spencer referred to public education as "Old schemes". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, "political, religious, literary, philanthropic", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its "original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism".Spencer, Herbert. 1854 (*Manners and Fashion*) *The Collected Works of 6 Books* (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 74639–74656). Kindle Edition. Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent "the really salutary sufferings" of the less fortunate "bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse".Spencer, Herbert; Eliot, Charles William (September 15, 2011). *The Collected Works of 6 Books* (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 45395–45420). Kindle Edition. Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer, testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: "My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business."[Nasaw](#Nasaw), p. 787.
Carnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society.[Nasaw](#Nasaw), pp. 11529–36. Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 747–48 Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the "lasting good".*[Wealth](#Wealth)* Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers. By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor.*[Wealth](#Wealth)*, pp. 682–689. Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.
### Religion and worldview
Carnegie and his family belonged to the [Church in the United States of America](Presbyterian)(Presbyterian Church in the United States of America), also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of [Calvinism](Calvinism), and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate [Presbyterian](Presbyterian) believers, writing that "there was not one orthodox Presbyterian" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards [Swedenborgianism](Swedenborgianism). While a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.
Witnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism.[Nasaw](#Nasaw) Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, "Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution."*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, p. 339
Later in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of [Avenue Presbyterian Church](Madison)(Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church), pastored from 1905 to 1926 by [Gospel](Social)(Social Gospel) exponent [Sloane Coffin](Henry)(Henry Sloane Coffin), while his wife and daughter belonged to the [Presbyterian Church](Brick)(Brick Presbyterian Church (New York City)).["Bagpipe Tunes at Carnegie Wedding"](https://www.nytimes.com/1919/04/23/archives/bagpipe-tunes-at-carnegie-wedding-charm-of-bonnie-scotland-lent-to.html). *The New York Times*. April 23, 1919. He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in "an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed".[Nasaw](#Nasaw), p. 625 Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912–1913 between Carnegie and ['Abdu'l-Bahá]('Abdu'l-Bahá), the eldest son of [Bahá'u'lláh](Bahá'u'lláh), founder of the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith). In these letters, one of which was published in *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* in full text,["Carnegie exalted by Bahaist leader"](https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1915/09/05/301813232.pdf). *The New York Times*. September 5, 1917. Carnegie is extolled as a "lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace".
### World peace
[[File:Stamp-andrew-carnegie.jpg|thumb|Carnegie commemorated as an industrialist, philanthropist, and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1960"[Andrew Carnegie Issue](http://arago.si.edu/flash/?tid=2027477|s1=1)", Arago: people, postage & the post, Smithsonian National Postal Museum, viewed September 27, 2014]]
Influenced by his "favorite living hero in public life" [Bright](John)(John Bright), Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age,*[Autobiography](#Biography)*, Ch. 21, pp. 282–83 and supported causes that opposed [intervention](military)(military intervention). His motto, "All is well since all grows better", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, but also his view of international relations.
Despite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American overseas expansion.Carnegie, *An American Four-in-Hand in Britain* (New York, 1883), pp. 14–15.
Despite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly established [Court of Arbitration](International)(International Court of Arbitration)'s [Palace](Peace)(Peace Palace)—brainchild of Russian tsar [II](Nicholas)(Nicholas II of Russia).
[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's headquarters in Washington, D.C.](File:Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace_-_Dupont_Circle.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The)]
His largest and in the long run most influential peace organization was the [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.David S. Patterson,"Andrew Carnegie's quest for world peace." *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society* 114.5 (1970): 371–383. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/985802) In 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was *as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.*Cited in Bruno Tertrais "The Demise of Ares: The End of War as We Know It?" *The Washington Quarterly*, 35/3, (2012): p. 17.
In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.
Despite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the [Council for Ethics in International Affairs](Carnegie)(Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs), an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.
The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of [anti-imperialism](anti-imperialism) and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the [of Nations](League)(League of Nations) after his death, which took world peace to another level.
### United States colonial expansion
On the matter of [colonial expansion](American)(American imperialism), Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the [of the Hawaiian islands](annexation)(Newlands Resolution) or [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), but he opposed the [of the Philippines](annexation)(Philippine–American War). Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged [McKinley](William)(William McKinley) to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence.Carnegie, *Americanism Versus Imperialism*, esp. pp. 12–13 This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.
After he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peacekeeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When a friend, the British writer [T. Stead](William)(William T. Stead), asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:
Carnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.
Like Stead, he believed that the United States and the [Empire](British)(British Empire) would merge into one nation, telling him "We are heading straight to the Re-United States". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament. The creation of the [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the "scientific" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.
## Legacy and honors
[[File:Andrew Carnegie's statue, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|Carnegie statue, [Dunfermline](Dunfermline)]]
Carnegie received the honorary [of Laws](Doctor)(Legum Doctor) (DLL) from the [of Glasgow](University)(University of Glasgow) in June 1901, and received the [of the City](Freedom)(Freedom of the City) of [Glasgow](Glasgow) *"in recognition of his munificence"* later the same year. In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of [Andrews](St)(St Andrews), *"in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic",* and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of [Perth](Perth, Scotland) *"in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence, and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands, and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland"* and the Freedom of the City of [Dundee](Dundee). Also in 1902, he was elected as a member to the [Philosophical Society](American)(American Philosophical Society). He received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) from the [of Aberdeen](University)(University of Aberdeen) in 1906. In 1910, he received the [of the City of Belfast](Freedom)(Freedom of the City of Belfast) and was made as well Commander of the [Order of the Legion of Honour](National)(National Order of the Legion of Honour) by the French government.[Certificate of membership, Commander of the Order of Legion of Honor, 19th March, 1910](http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/acamu-acarc/id/678/rec/3) - online portal [Power_Library](Pennsylvania Department of Education#Power Library) Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the [of Orange-Nassau](Order)(Order of Orange-Nassau) by Queen [of the Netherlands](Wilhelmina)(Wilhelmina of the Netherlands) on August 25, 1913.[Diploma conferring on Mr. Carnegie the rank of Knight (Grand Cross) in the Order of Orange Nassau, The Hague-- 25th August, 1913](http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/acamu-acarc/id/512/rec/10) - online portal [Power_Library](Pennsylvania Department of Education#Power Library) Carnegie received July 1, 1914 an [doctorate](honorary)(honorary doctorate) from the [of Groningen](University)(University of Groningen) the Netherlands.Jaarboek der Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. 1913-1914. Promotiën Faculteit der Rechtgeleerdheid. Honoris Causa. Staatswetenschappen. 1914, 1 Juli, p. 91.
[[File:CM Diplodocus.jpg|thumb|Mounted *D. carnegii* (or "[Dippy](Dippy)") skeleton at the [Museum of Natural History](Carnegie)(Carnegie Museum of Natural History); considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world]]
*The dinosaur *[carnegiei](Diplodocus)(Diplodocus carnegiei)* (Hatcher) was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the [Formation](Morrison)(Morrison Formation) ([Jurassic](Jurassic)) of [Utah](Utah). Carnegie was so proud of "Dippy" that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the [Museum of Natural History](Carnegie)(Carnegie Museum of Natural History) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
*After the [War](Spanish–American)(Spanish–American War), Carnegie offered to donate $20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence.
*[Pennsylvania](Carnegie,)(Carnegie, Pennsylvania), and [Oklahoma](Carnegie,)(Carnegie, Oklahoma), were named in his honor.
*The [Saguaro](Saguaro) cactus's scientific name, *[gigantea](Carnegiea)(Carnegiea gigantea)*, is named after him.
*The [Medal](Carnegie)(Carnegie Medal (literary award)) for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name.
*The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at [Beckett University](Leeds)(Leeds Beckett University), UK, is named after him.
*The concert halls in [Dunfermline](Dunfermline) and [York](New)(New York City) are named after him.
*At the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only [D. Rockefeller](John)(John D. Rockefeller) of [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil).
*[Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie, who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools.[[File:CVHSFourthWard.JPG|thumb|[Vanguard High School](Carnegie)(Carnegie Vanguard High School)]]
*Lauder College (named after his uncle [Lauder Sr.](George)(George Lauder Sr.)) in the [Halbeath](Halbeath) area of Dunfermline was renamed [College](Carnegie)(Carnegie College) in 2007.
*A street in [Belgrade](Belgrade) ([Serbia](Serbia)), next to the [University Library](Belgrade)(Belgrade University Library) which is one of the [libraries](Carnegie)(Carnegie library), is named in his honor.
*An American high school, [Vanguard High School](Carnegie)(Carnegie Vanguard High School) in [Houston](Houston), Texas, is named after him"[School Histories: the Stories Behind the Names](https://web.archive.org/web/20110710153727/http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=0afe09c28afc3110VgnVCM10000028147fa6RCRD&vgnextchannel=2e2b2f796138c010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD)". [Independent School District](Houston)(Houston Independent School District). Retrieved September 24, 2008. "It is named for Andrew Carnegie, the famous Scottish immigrant who rose to become a steel tycoon and philanthropist."
*Carnegie was awarded the Freedom of the Burgh of [Kilmarnock](Kilmarnock) in Scotland in 1903, prior to laying the foundation stone of Loanhead Public School.
### Benefactions
[[Carnegie's cartoon throwing money in air, *Life*, 1905](File:Andrew_Carnegie,_1835-1919,_full,_standing,_wearing_kilt,_throwing_money_in_air_LCCN2005696202.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Andrew)]
According to biographer [J. Hendrick](Burton)(Burton J. Hendrick):
:His benefactions amounted to $350,000,000—for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than $12,500,000, but most of the principal as well. Of this sum, $62,000,000 was allotted to the British Empire and $288,000,000 to the United States, for Carnegie, in the main, confined his benefactions to the English-speaking nations. His largest gifts were $125,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York (this same body also became his residuary legatee), $60,000,000 to public library buildings, $20,000,000 to colleges (usually the smaller ones), $6,000,000 to church organs, $29,000,000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, $10,000,000 to Hero Funds, $10,000,000 to the Endowment for International Peace, $10,000,000 to the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000 to the United Kingdom Trust, and $3,750,000 to the Dunfermline Trust.Burton J. Hendrick, "Carnegie, Andrew, 1835–1919" *Dictionary of American Biography* (1929) v. 3 p. 505.
Hendrick argues that:
:These gifts fairly picture Carnegie's conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man. They represent all his personal tastes—his love of books, art, music, and nature—and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress—scientific research, education both literary and technical, and, above all, the abolition of war. The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie's name is that for public libraries. Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund—among other reasons, because "it came up my ain back"; but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance. There was only one genuine remedy, he believed, for the ills that beset the human race, and that was enlightenment. "Let there be light" was the motto that, in the early days, he insisted on placing in all his library buildings. As to the greatest endowment of all, the Carnegie Corporation, that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form; it was established to carry on, after Carnegie's death, the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime.Hendrick, "Carnegie, Andrew, 1835–1919"
### Research sources
Carnegie's personal papers are at the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) Manuscript Division.
The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The [Corporation of New York](Carnegie)(Carnegie Corporation of New York) (CCNY); The [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) (CEIP); the [Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching](Carnegie)(Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching) (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. [Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University) and the [Library of Pittsburgh](Carnegie)(Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh) jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.
## Works
Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues.
**Books**
* *Our Coaching Trip, Brighton to Inverness* (1882).
* *An American Four-in-hand in Britain* (1883).
* [the World*](*Round)(iarchive:roundworld00carn). New York: [Scribner's Sons](Charles)(Charles Scribner's Sons) (1884).
* [American Four-in-Hand in Britain*](*An)(iarchive:anamericanfouri02carngoog). New York: [Scribner's Sons](Charles)(Charles Scribner's Sons) (1886).
* [Democracy, or, Fifty Years' March of the Republic*](*Triumphant)(iarchive:triumphantdemocr00carn). New York: [Scribner's Sons](Charles)(Charles Scribner's Sons) (1886).
* *[Gospel of Wealth](The)(The Gospel of Wealth)* (1889).
*[*The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays*.](https://archive.org/download/gospelofwealthot00carnuoft/gospelofwealthot00carnuoft.pdf) New York: [Century Co.](The)(The Century Co.) (1901).
* *[Empire of Business](The)(The Empire of Business)* (1902).
** [Audiobook](https://librivox.org/the-empire-of-business-by-andrew-carnegie/) via [LibriVox](LibriVox).
* *The Secret of Business is the Management of Men* (1903).Hellenic American Center of the Arts (Feb. 23, 2015). ["Andrew Carnegie."](https://archive.ph/wip/nn8RB)
* [Watt*](*James)(iarchive:jameswatt00carngoog) ([Scots Series](Famous)(List of books for the "Famous Scots Series")). New York: [Page and Co.](Doubleday,)(Doubleday (publisher)) (1905).
*[*Problems of Today: Wealth–Labor–Socialism*.](https://archive.org/download/problemsoftodayw00carnuoft/problemsoftodayw00carnuoft.pdf) New York: [Page and Co.](Doubleday,)(Doubleday (publisher)) (1907).
*[of Andrew Carnegie*](*Autobiography)(iarchive:autobiography00carnuoft) ([posthumous](Posthumous publication)). Boston: [Mifflin](Houghton)(Houghton Mifflin) (1920).
**[Audiobook](https://librivox.org/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie-by-andrew-carnegie/) via [Librivox](Librivox).
**Articles**
*["Wealth."](iarchive:8906CarnegieWealth) *[American Review](North)(North American Review)*, vol. 148, no. 381 (Jun. 1889), pp. 653–64. Original version of *[Gospel of Wealth](The)(The Gospel of Wealth)*.
*[Bugaboo of Trusts."]("The)(iarchive:bugaboooftrusts00carnrich) *[American Review](North)(North American Review)*, vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).
**Pamphlets**
*[Bugaboo of Trusts*](*The)(iarchive:bugaboooftrusts00carnrich). Reprinted from *[American Review](North)(North American Review)*, vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).
**Public speaking**
*[Peace: Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation, New York City, December 15, 1904*](*Industrial)(iarchive:industrialpeace00carn). [n.c.]: [Civic Federation](National)(National Civic Federation) (1904).
*[M. Stanton: An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College*](*Edwin)(iarchive:edwinmstantona00carn). New York: [Page and Co.](Doubleday,)(Doubleday (publisher)) (1906).
* [Negro in America: An Address Delivered Before the Philosophical Institution of Edinburg, 16th October 1907*](*The)(iarchive:negroinamerica00carnrich). Inverness: R. Carruthers & Sons, Courier Office (1907).
*[at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society, at the Guildhall, London, EC, May 24th, 1910*](*Speech)(iarchive:speechatannualme00carn). London: The Peace Society (1910).
*[League of Peace: A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St. Andrews, 17th October 1905*](*A)(iarchive:leagueofpeacere00carn). New York: [York Peace Society](New)(New York Peace Society) (1911).
**Collected works**
*[Joseph Frazier](Wall,)(Joseph Frazier Wall), ed. [Andrew Carnegie Reader*](*The)(iarchive:andrewcarnegiere00carn) (1992).
## See also
*[(disambiguation)](Carnegie)(Carnegie (disambiguation))
*[of the American Civil War on postage stamps](Commemoration)(Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps)
*[of public library advocacy](History)(History of public library advocacy)
*[of Carnegie libraries in the United States](List)(List of Carnegie libraries in the United States)
*[of peace activists](List)(List of peace activists)
*[of richest Americans in history](List)(List of richest Americans in history)
*[of wealthiest historical figures](List)(List of wealthiest historical figures)
*[of colleges and universities named after people](List)(List of colleges and universities named after people)
## Notes
## References
### Bibliography
*
*
*
*
** Ernsberger, Jr., Richard "A Fool for Peace". American History, (Oct 2018), Vol. 53, Issue 4. interview with Nasaw.
*[Joseph Frazier](Wall,)(Joseph Frazier Wall) (1989). [Carnegie*](*Andrew)(iarchive:andrewcarnegie00wall). . Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography.
*
**Collections**
*
*
*
## Further reading
*Bostaph, Samuel (2015). *Andrew Carnegie: An Economic Biography.* Lanham, MD: [Books](Lexington)(Lexington Books). . 125pp [online review](http://eh.net/?s=bostaph)
* Ernsberger Jr., Richard. "Robber Baron turned Robin Hood" *American History* (Feb 2015) 49#6 pp. 32–41, cover story.
* Farrah, Margaret Ann. "Andrew Carnegie: A Psychohistorical Sketch" (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1982. 8209384).
*Goldin, Milton (1997). "Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth." In: *Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II*. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) St. James, NY: Brandywine Press .
* Harvey, Charles, et al. *Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy.* *Business History* (2011) 53#3 pp. 425–450.
*Hendrick, Burton Jesse (1933). *The life of Andrew Carnegie* (2 vol.) [vol 2 online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.155770)
*Josephson, Matthew (1938). *The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901*. .
*Krass, Peter (2002). *Carnegie*. Wiley. . scholarly biography.
*
*Lester, Robert M. (1941). *Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created*. New York: [Scribner's Sons](Charles)(Charles Scribner's Sons).
*Livesay, Harold C. (1999). [Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business*, 2nd ed.](*Andrew)(iarchive:andrewcarnegieri00live) . short biography by a scholar.
*
* McGormick, Blaine, and Burton W. Folsom Jr. "Survey of Business Historians on America's Greatest Entrepreneurs." *Business History Review* (2003), 77#4, pp. 703–716. Carnegie ranks #3 behind Ford and Rockefeller.
*Patterson, David S. (1970). "Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace." *[of the American Philosophical Society](Proceedings)(Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society)* 114#5 (1970): 371-383. .
*Rees, Jonathan. (1997). "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." *Pennsylvania History* **64**(4): 509–533. .
* Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. *Henry Clay Frick: The life of the perfect capitalist* (McFarland, 2010). [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=ICOfBQAAQBAJ&dq=Quentin+R.+Skrabec+lauder++&pg=PP1)
* Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. *The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America* (McFarland, 2012) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ckgc1qJfzCQC&dq=Quentin+R.+Skrabec+lauder++&pg=PP1).
*VanSlyck, Abigail A. (1991). "'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library." *[of the Society of Architectural Historians](Journal)(Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians)*. **50**(4): 359–383. .
* Zimmerman, Jonathan. "Simplified Spelling and the Cult of Efficiency in the 'Progressiv' Era." *Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era* (2010) 9#3 pp. 365–394
## External links
*[Documentary: "Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace"](https://vimeo.com/ondemand/andrewcarnegie)
*[Carnegie Birthplace Museum website](http://www.carnegiebirthplace.com/)
*
*
*
*[*Booknotes* interview with Peter Krass on *Carnegie*, November 24, 2002.](https://www.c-span.org/video/?173040-1/carnegie)
*
*[Marguerite Martyn, "Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity, Income Tax, and the Blessings of Poverty," May 1, 1914, City Desk Publishing](https://www.citydeskpublishing.com/andrew-carnegie-on-prosperity-tax-and-poverty.html)
[ ](Category:Andrew Carnegie)
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|
Zack Snyder
|
zack_snyder
|
# Zack Snyder
*Revision ID: 1158149146 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T07:20:18Z*
---
| birth_place = [Bay, Wisconsin](Green)(Green Bay, Wisconsin), U.S.
| alma_mater = [Center College of Design](Art)(Art Center College of Design)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1990–present
| spouse = }}
| children = 8
}}
**Zachary Edward Snyder** (born March 1, 1966) is an American film director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer. He made his feature film debut in 2004 with *[of the Dead](Dawn)(Dawn of the Dead (2004 film))*, a remake of the 1978 horror film [the same name](of)(Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)). Since then, he has directed or produced a number of comic book and superhero films, including *[300](300 (film))* (2007) and *[Watchmen](Watchmen (film))* (2009), as well as the [Superman](Superman) film that started the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe), *[of Steel](Man)(Man of Steel (film))* (2013), and its follow-ups, *[v Superman: Dawn of Justice](Batman)(Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice)* (2016) and *[League](Justice)(Justice League (film))* (2017). A [cut](director's)(Zack Snyder's Justice League) for *Justice League* was released in 2021. He also directed the [computer-animated](computer-animated) film ''[of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole](Legend)(Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole)* (2010), the [psychological](Psychological fiction) [film](action)(action film) *[Punch](Sucker)(Sucker Punch (2011 film))* (2011), the [zombie](zombie film) [film](heist)(heist film) *[of the Dead](Army)(Army of the Dead)* (2021), and the [opera](space)(space opera) film *[Moon](Rebel)(Rebel Moon)* (2023).
In 2004, he founded the production company [Stone Quarry](The)(The Stone Quarry) (formerly known as Cruel and Unusual Films) alongside his wife [Snyder](Deborah)(Deborah Snyder) and producing partner Wesley Coller.
## Early life
Zachary Edward Snyder was born in [Bay, Wisconsin](Green)(Green Bay, Wisconsin), and raised in [Connecticut](Riverside,)(Riverside, Connecticut). His mother, Marsha Manley (*[née](née)'' Reeves; d. 2010), was a painter and a photography teacher at [School](Daycroft)(Daycroft School), which Snyder later attended. His father, Charles Edward "Ed" Snyder, worked as an executive recruiter. He has an older sister, Audrey, and was raised as a [Scientist](Christian)(Christian Science). He also had a brother, Sam, who died when Snyder was a teenager. WIRED|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDCowfgaHLA|language=en|access-date=2021-05-23}}
Snyder attended Camp Owatonna in [Harrison](Harrison, Maine), [Maine](Maine), during the summer months as a child. Snyder studied painting a year after high school at [School of Fine Art](Heatherley)(Heatherley School of Fine Art) in England, although he had already begun filmmaking. Afterward, Snyder attended [Center College of Design](Art)(Art Center College of Design) in [Pasadena](Pasadena, California), California. He graduated with a [BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts) in film in 1989.
The production notes for Snyder's first film *[of the Dead](Dawn)(Dawn of the Dead (2004 film))* describes Snyder as "a comic book and horror film enthusiast in his youth".
## Career
Snyder made his feature film debut with the remake of the horror film *[of the Dead](Dawn)(Dawn of the Dead (2004 film))* (2004), and scored a box office hit with the fantasy war film *[300](300 (film))* (2006), adapted from writer-artist [Miller](Frank)(Frank Miller (comics))'s [Horse Comics](Dark)(Dark Horse Comics) [miniseries](miniseries) of [same name](the)(300 (comics)). His [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) film *[Watchmen](Watchmen (film))* was released on March 6, 2009, and grossed $185 million worldwide. His follow-up project/animation debut, ''[of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole](Legend)(Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole)*, was released on September 24, 2010. Snyder produced, co-wrote, and directed *[Punch](Sucker)(Sucker Punch (2011 film))'', which was released on March 25, 2011. The film, based on a script written by Snyder and Steve Shibuya, was about a young woman in a mental hospital who fantasizes of escape with her fellow inmates.
He directed 2013's *[of Steel](Man)(Man of Steel (film))* for Warner Bros., a reboot of the [franchise](Superman)(Superman (franchise)) and the jumpstart to the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe) (DCEU) and produced the prequel/sequel to *300*, *[Rise of an Empire](300:)(300: Rise of an Empire)* (2014).
During Comic Con 2013, Snyder announced that [Batman](Batman) and [Superman](Superman) would share the screen in *[v Superman: Dawn of Justice](Batman)(Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice)*, released in 2016. Snyder directed, Cavill reprised his role as [Superman](Superman), and [Affleck](Ben)(Ben Affleck) played Batman. Snyder directed Warner Bros.' 2017 *[League](Justice)(Justice League (film))*, but he exited during post-production to deal with the death of his daughter, Autumn Snyder. His replacement was [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon).
On January 29, 2019, Snyder announced that he had signed on to helm *[of the Dead](Army)(Army of the Dead)*, a zombie heist thriller, for [Netflix](Netflix). Snyder directed and produced the film with his partner and wife, Deborah Snyder, via their newly rebranded production company, [Stone Quarry](The)(The Stone Quarry). His agreement with Netflix has since expanded into several [of the Dead* projects](*Army)(Army of the Dead (franchise)); *[of Thieves](Army)(Army of Thieves)*, a prequel released in 2021, and *Planet of the Dead*, a sequel to be created.
On May 20, 2020, Snyder announced that ''[Snyder's Justice League](Zack)(Zack Snyder's Justice League)'' would be released on the streaming service [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) in 2021. The film was released on March 18, 2021.
### Future and potential projects
In July 2021, Snyder was officially announced to be developing the film *[Moon](Rebel)(Rebel Moon)* for [Netflix](Netflix). It will be inspired by *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)* and the films of [Kurosawa](Akira)(Akira Kurosawa). Filming began in April 2022 and will last until November that year, with the project being developed as a two-part film.
As of May 2021, Snyder was working on *Horse Latitudes*, formerly known as *The Last Photograph*, a drama about a war photographer in South America. He was also working on an adaptation of the 1943 novel *[Fountainhead](The)(The Fountainhead)* by [Rand](Ayn)(Ayn Rand), but confirmed he had abandoned it in 2021 due to political reasons. He has also expressed an interest in making a film, in the style of *[300](300 (film))*, about [Washington](George)(George Washington).
Snyder will produce *Twilight of the Gods*, an [anime-style](Anime-influenced animation) [series](web)(web series) inspired by [mythology](Norse)(Norse mythology) for Netflix. Snyder is also developing a [Arthur](King)(King Arthur) film, which he said will be a "faithful retelling". It will be set during the American [rush](Gold)(Gold rush) era.
Following *Rebel Moon*, Snyder will return to direct *Planet of the Dead*, a sequel to *Army of the Dead*. He also signed a [deal](first-look)(first-look deal) with Netflix.
## Filmmaking
### Style
Snyder often uses [motion](slow)(slow motion), particularly the technique of [ramping](speed)(speed ramping), in and out of the fight scenes in his films, differing from other directors who make multiple cuts and close-ups during a fight. A minute-long shot from *300* shows King Leonidas slaughtering his enemies, the camera zooming in and out to emphasize each kill and move Leonidas makes.
Snyder said "There are other superhero movies where they joke about how basically no one's getting hurt. That's not us. What is that message? That it's okay that there's this massive destruction with zero consequence for anyone? That's what *Watchmen* was about in a lot of ways too. There was a scene, that scene where Dan and Laurie get mugged. They beat up the criminals. I was like the first guy, I want to show his arm get broken. I want a compound fracture. I don't want it to be clean. I want you to go, 'Oh my God, I guess you're right. If you just beat up a guy in an alley he's not going to just be lying on the ground. It's going to be messy'."
The [Netflix](Netflix) production *Army of the Dead* was a special project for Snyder as he served as his own cinematographer, as well as this being his first film shot digitally.
### Reception
Snyder has been described as one of the most polarizing directors of modern cinema. David Ehrlich of *[IndieWire](IndieWire)* wrote that Snyder's "name alone is enough to launch a thousand angry tweets, and the most passionate writing about his work is exclusively found in the comment sections of websites like this one. Snyder's critics really seem to hate him, and Snyder's fans really seem to hate his critics ... Is Snyder a master or a hack? A misunderstood myth-maker, or a meathead with a movie camera?" Film critic [White](Armond)(Armond White) has listed Snyder as one of the four best filmmakers of the 2010's. Director [Cameron](James)(James Cameron) has cited Snyder as an inspiration, praising his "cinematic language".
## Personal life
In 2009, Snyder listed *[Excalibur](Excalibur (film))*, *[Max 2](Mad)(Mad Max 2)*, *[Clockwork Orange](A)(A Clockwork Orange (film))*, *[Velvet](Blue)(Blue Velvet (film))*, and *[RoboCop](RoboCop)* as his five favorite films.
### Family
Snyder lives in [Pasadena](Pasadena, California), [California](California) with his second wife, producer [Johnson](Deborah)(Deborah Snyder). The couple first met in 1996, began dating in 2002, and married on September 25, 2004, at [Bartholomew's Episcopal Church](St.)(St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church, New York) in Manhattan, New York. He was previously married to Denise Weber.
Snyder has eight children: two biological children and two adopted daughters with Weber, two biological sons from a relationship with Kirsten Elin, and two adopted children with Johnson. The suicide of his daughter Autumn prompted Snyder to withdraw from post-production work on *[League](Justice)(Justice League (film))* in May 2017 to be with his family, which resulted in [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon) completing the film in his place.
### Philanthropy
Following his daughter's suicide, Snyder became involved in philanthropic activities directed towards suicide prevention and [health awareness](mental)(mental health awareness). Snyder promoted this effort on social media by selling clothing and merchandise related to the Snyder Cut; in May 2021, it was revealed that this effort had raised more than $750,000 in charitable donations to the [Foundation for Suicide Prevention](American)(American Foundation for Suicide Prevention).
In another effort to help with suicide prevention, Snyder included a billboard for the [Foundation for Suicide Prevention](American)(American Foundation for Suicide Prevention) with the message "You are not alone" in a scene in ''[Snyder's Justice League](Zack)(Zack Snyder's Justice League)''. The film features other tributes to his late daughter.
Snyder directed 2 PSAs for the [& Lymphoma Society](Leukemia)(Leukemia & Lymphoma Society) in 2018.
In 2021, Snyder partnered with [the Children](Save)(Save the Children), a global child rights organization, to build a 100-bed temporary hospital facility in Delhi to help fight the [pandemic in India](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in India).
### Political views
Although his films have been critiqued as having "right-wing" messages, politically, Snyder is a [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States)). He endorsed [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) in the [presidential election](2020)(2020 United States presidential election). In a 2021 interview with *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, he stated:I vote Democrat! I'm a true lover of individual rights. I've always been a super-strong advocate of women's rights and a woman's right to choose, and I've always been surrounded by powerful women. And, of course, I'm a huge advocate for the rights of all ethnicities and every walk of life. I would say I'm a pretty liberal guy. I want to make sure everyone's heard and everyone feels included. I don't have a rightwing political agenda. People see what they want to see. For me, that was not certainly the point.
## Filmography
### Films
**Executive producer**
### Short films
### Music videos
### Television
## Awards and nominations
Snyder's body of work has earned him a number of awards, including two [Award](Clio)(Clio Award)s and a Gold Lion Award for his [Jeep](Jeep) "[Frisbee](Frisbee)" commercial. He also won the Society of British Advertisers Award for Humor for his controversial [Beer](EB)(Elbrewery) commercial "General's Party".
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Cruel and Unusual Films](http://www.cruelfilms.com/) – Snyder's production company
*
*
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|
Ted 2
|
ted_2
|
# Ted 2
*Revision ID: 1159680767 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T21:36:54Z*
---
| writer =
| based_on =
| starring =
| narrator = [Stewart](Patrick)(Patrick Stewart)
| music = [Murphy](Walter)(Walter Murphy)
| cinematography = [Barrett](Michael)(Michael Barrett (cinematographer))
| editing = Jeff Freeman
| studio =
| distributor = [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 115 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $68 million
| gross = $215.9 million
}}
***Ted 2*** (stylized as **ted2**) is a 2015 American [animated](live-action/computer)(Live-action animated film) [satirical](satire) [fantasy](Fantasy film) [film](comedy)(comedy film) directed by [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane) and written by MacFarlane, [Sulkin](Alec)(Alec Sulkin), and [Wild](Wellesley)(Wellesley Wild). The second installment in the [franchise](*Ted*)(Ted (franchise)), it serves as a [sequel](sequel) to the [film of the same name](2012)(Ted (film)). The film follows the talking teddy bear Ted as he fights for his civil rights in order to be recognized as a person and not as property. The film stars [Wahlberg](Mark)(Mark Wahlberg), [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane), [Seyfried](Amanda)(Amanda Seyfried), [Ribisi](Giovanni)(Giovanni Ribisi), [Barth](Jessica)(Jessica Barth), [Slattery](John)(John Slattery), and [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman).
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began in [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) in July 2014. *Ted 2* was released on June 26, 2015, by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures). Despite the film failing to achieve the critical and commercial success of its predecessor and receiving mixed reviews from critics, it still became a box office success, grossing $215.9 million on a $68 million budget.
## Plot
Three years after the events of the first film, Ted marries his girlfriend, Tami-Lynn. Meanwhile, his best friend, John Bennett has been divorced from Lori Collins for six months. Following a heated argument after being married a year, they decide to have a child. As Ted cannot father a child, John agrees to help find a sperm donor. They ask [J. Jones](Sam)(Sam J. Jones) but he declines due to a sperm count of one. Then they unsuccessfully try to break into [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady)'s house and [his sperm](steal)(sperm theft). Ultimately, John offers to donate his sperm.
Despite Ted and John's efforts, Tami-Lynn's history of drug use has rendered her infertile (despite having been clean for an extended period of time) and they decide to adopt. The background checks put Ted's legal status as a person into question. The state authorities of [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) declare Ted property rather than a person; consequently, he is fired from his job at Bay Colony Grocery Store, his credit card and bank accounts are terminated and his marriage to Tami-Lynn is forcibly annulled.
John suggests that they take the state to court. They ask the best lawyer they can find, who assigns the case *[bono](pro)(pro bono)* to his niece Samantha "Sam" Jackson, a novice lawyer. They are initially reluctant due to her lack of pop culture knowledge, but bond over their love of marijuana as they prepare to present the case.
Meanwhile, Donny, Ted's life-long stalker, is a janitor at the headquarters of toy company [Hasbro](Hasbro), in [York City](New)(New York City). He convinces the company CEO to hire an expert attorney to ensure that Ted maintains his status as property, leaving him open to seizure by the firm to create more living teddy bears.
Despite Sam's best efforts, the court rules against Ted. Disheartened and desperate, the trio contact Patrick Meighan, a highly respected civil rights attorney, to help overturn the court's decision. Driving to Manhattan, the trio meet Meighan, who is sympathetic to Ted's plight but ultimately refuses the case, as he believes Ted has not significantly contributed to humanity due to his lifestyle.
Furious at the injustice and jealous of Sam and John's relationship, Ted takes his frustrations out on them and angrily storms off, wandering into the [York Comic-Con](New)(New York Comic-Con). However, Donny discreetly follows him. Once inside, Donny disguises himself as [Raphael](Raphael (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)) and tries to kidnap Ted, who runs off, takes refuge under a [Bumblebee](Bumblebee (Transformers)) statue, and contacts John for help. John and Sam arrive and find Ted, just as Donny is about to cut him open. Ted apologizes to John and Sam for snapping at them and make their leave, but Donny severs the cables holding up a model of the [*Enterprise*](USS)(USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)) with a knife and it swings towards Ted. John pushes Ted out of the way, takes the hit, gets knocked unconscious, and falls into a coma. Ted identifies Donny from a group of Ninja Turtle cosplayers through his irresistible urge to dance to "[Think We're Alone Now](I)(I Think We're Alone Now)" by [Tiffany](Tiffany Darwish) and Donny is arrested.
At the hospital, John is still in a coma, and he flatlines. The next day, the doctor informs Sam, Ted and Tami-Lynn that John "[make it](didn't)(Death)", shocking the group. The doctor also suggests they can go in and say goodbye to John. In the room, the group is tearfully saying goodbye to John. However, he unexpectedly wakes up and scares the group, and Ted realizes that John had faked being dead as payback for [pretending to be mentally brain dead](Ted)(Ted (film)) and Ted applauds John for his realistic acting. Although Sam is initially furious over this, she and John kiss as the group rejoices. Meighan decides to take the case, inspired by John's selflessness and Ted's emotions over John, who managed to avoid death. Meighan successfully gets the ruling overturned by demonstrating that Ted is self-aware, that he feels complex emotions, and is capable of empathy. Outside the courthouse, Ted re-proposes to Tami-Lynn. After they are legally remarried (though it's unknown if Ted ever got his job, credit card and bank accounts back), Ted and Tami-Lynn adopt the surname of "[Lang](Clubber)(Clubber Lang)", and adopt a baby boy, who they name [Creed](Apollo)(Apollo Creed), while John and Sam happily pursue their own relationship.
## Cast
* [Wahlberg](Mark)(Mark Wahlberg) as John Bennett
* [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane) as Ted Clubber-Lang
* [Seyfried](Amanda)(Amanda Seyfried) as Samantha Leslie Jackson
* [Barth](Jessica)(Jessica Barth) as Tami-Lynn McCafferty
* [Ribisi](Giovanni)(Giovanni Ribisi) as Donny[JURASSIC WORLD, SEVENTH SON, TED 2, FIFTY SHADES OF GREY Super Bowl Spots](http://www.wearemoviegeeks.com/2015/02/jurassic-world-seventh-son-ted-2-fifty-shades-grey-super-bowl-spots/)
* [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman) as Patrick Meighan
* [Slattery](John)(John Slattery) as Shep Wild
* [Warburton](Patrick)(Patrick Warburton) as Guy
* [Dorn](Michael)(Michael Dorn) as Rick
* [Smitrovich](Bill)(Bill Smitrovich) as Frank
* [Brown](Cocoa)(Cocoa Brown) as Joy
* [Carroll Lynch](John)(John Carroll Lynch) as Tom Jessup
* [Canada](Ron)(Ron Canada) as Judge Matheson
* [Szohr](Jessica)(Jessica Szohr) as Allison
* [Patterson](Jay)(Jay Patterson) as Karl Jackson
* [Strong](Tara)(Tara Strong) as Ted's "I Love You" function
* [J. Jones](Sam)(Sam J. Jones) as himself
* [Arcelus](Sebastian)(Sebastian Arcelus) as Dr. Ed Danzer
* [Geha](Maggie)(Maggie Geha) as Female Nurse
* [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady) as himself
* [Haysbert](Dennis)(Dennis Haysbert) as Fertility doctor
* [Killam](Taran)(Taran Killam) as himself
* [Fallon](Jimmy)(Jimmy Fallon) as himself
* [Kimmel](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel) as himself
* [Leno](Jay)(Jay Leno) as himself
* [Maher](Bill)(Bill Maher) as himself
* [McKinnon](Kate)(Kate McKinnon) as herself
* [Moynihan](Bobby)(Bobby Moynihan) as himself
* [Hasselhoff](David)(David Hasselhoff) as himself
* [Neeson](Liam)(Liam Neeson) as Trix Customer
* [Clarke](Lenny)(Lenny Clarke) as Cop
* [Stewart](Patrick)(Patrick Stewart) as Narrator
* [Stigers](Curtis)(Curtis Stigers) as Wedding singer
* [Visitor](Nana)(Nana Visitor) as Adoption agent
* [Garman](Ralph)(Ralph Garman) as Stormtrooper
* Jack Knight as Todd Kidder
*[Xifaras](William)(William Xifaras) as Boston Neighbor
## Production
During the 2012 *[Dad!](American)(American Dad!)* [Comic-Con](San Diego Comic-Con International) panel, MacFarlane stated that he would be open to a sequel to *Ted*. In September 2012, chief executive [Burke](Steve)(Steve Burke (businessman)) said that the studio would be looking to make a sequel to *Ted* "as soon as possible". In January 2013, on *[Live](Anderson)(Anderson Live)*, Wahlberg confirmed that a sequel was in the works and that it would be the first sequel in his career, while also revealing that he and Ted (as voiced by MacFarlane) would appear at the [Academy Awards](85th)(85th Academy Awards). On October 2, 2013, it was announced *Ted 2* would be released on June 26, 2015.
Initially the storyline for the film was quite different and involved John and Ted's attempt to smuggle pot across the country, but, due to concerns that the concept was too similar to then-recently released ''[the Millers](We're)(We're the Millers)'', the concept was scrapped and the storyline was overhauled to one inspired by [Jakes](John)(John Jakes)' *[and South](North)(North and South (trilogy))* series as well as the life of [Scott](Dred)(Dred Scott).
During the period when the film was about drug smuggling, [Kunis](Mila)(Mila Kunis)' character was still in the sequel; however, when the storyline was changed, it required a lawyer to be the female lead and there was not room for Kunis's character.
On February 14, 2014, [Seyfried](Amanda)(Amanda Seyfried) was cast as the female lead. On June 17, 2014, [Barth](Jessica)(Jessica Barth) was confirmed to reprise her role as Tami-Lynn. In August and September 2014, it was announced that [Warburton](Patrick)(Patrick Warburton) would return as John's co-worker Guy, and that [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman), [Visitor](Nana)(Nana Visitor), [Dorn](Michael)(Michael Dorn), [Haysbert](Dennis)(Dennis Haysbert), [Neeson](Liam)(Liam Neeson) and [Slattery](John)(John Slattery) had joined the cast.
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on July 28, 2014, and ended on November 13, 2014.
## Soundtrack
The film's soundtrack was released by [Records](Republic)(Republic Records) on June 26, 2015. It features the score by [Murphy](Walter)(Walter Murphy) and songs co-written by [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane) and Murphy, including "Mean Ol’ Moon", which is performed by [Seyfried](Amanda)(Amanda Seyfried) and [Jones](Norah)(Norah Jones) separately. The soundtrack also includes "[Around](Mess)(Mess Around)" by [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles), "One Foot in Front of the Other" by [Symphony](Bone)(Bone Symphony) and "[York](New)(How to Marry a Millionaire#Track listing)" by [Newman](Alfred)(Alfred Newman (composer)).
;Track listing
All tracks by [Murphy](Walter)(Walter Murphy) except where indicated.
## Release
On January 27, 2015, the film's teaser poster was released. This was followed two days later by its trailer. The film premiered on June 24, 2015, in New York City, with its general release two days later.
### Home media
*Ted 2* was released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 15, 2015, in the [States](United)(United States) by [Studios Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Pictures Home Entertainment). Both formats contained a theatrical version (115 minutes) and an "unrated" extended version (125 minutes), containing 10 minutes of extra footage. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom) and [Ireland](Ireland) on November 23, 2015, both formats containing the two versions.
On May 3, 2016, *Ted vs. Flash Gordon: The Ultimate Collection* was released on Blu-ray plus Digital HD, featuring *[Gordon](Flash)(Flash Gordon (film))* and the unrated versions of *Ted* and *Ted 2*.
## Reception
### Box office
*Ted 2* grossed $81.5 million in North America and $135.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $216.7 million, against a budget of $68 million.
In the United States and Canada, *Ted 2* opened on the same day as the family adventure film *[Max](Max (2015 film))*, across 3,441 theaters. It made $2.6 million from its Thursday night showings from 2,647 theaters, and $13.2 million on its opening day. In its opening weekend, *Ted 2* earned $33.5 million, finishing third at the box office behind *[World](Jurassic)(Jurassic World)* ($54.5 million) and *[Out](Inside)(Inside Out (2015 film))'' ($52.3 million). The opening total was a disappointment, considering the film's initial projected opening of $45–50 million, and its predecessor's $54.4 million opening three years prior. It was director MacFarlane's second consecutive underperforming opening, following 2014's *[Million Ways to Die in the West](A)(A Million Ways to Die in the West)*, which opened to $16.8 million.
Outside North America, the film earned an estimated $20 million in its opening weekend from 26 countries. It opened in number two in Germany ($3.7 million), Russia and the CIS ($3.5 million) and Australia ($3.3 million).
### Critical response
On [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 44% based on 209 reviews with an average rating of 5.30/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "*Ted 2* reunites Mark Wahlberg and Seth MacFarlane for another round of sophomoric, scatological humor -- and just as before, your enjoyment will depend on your tolerance for all of the above." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a score of 48 out of 100 based on 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, lower than the "A−" earned by its predecessor.
[Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli) of *[ReelViews](ReelViews)* gave the film two out of four stars, saying "It would be disingenuous for me to claim that *Ted 2* isn't funny. Although I was often bored by the plodding direction of the story, I laughed from time-to-time." Chris Nashawaty of *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* gave the film a C+, saying "You realize what it must be like to be trapped in detention with a bunch of 15-year-old boys who think there's nothing more hilarious than repeating the same jokes about porn, pot, and pulling your pud over and over again. It's funny, until it's not." Bill Goodykoontz of *[Arizona Republic](The)(The Arizona Republic)* gave the film two out of five stars, saying "The film, like most of MacFarlane's work, is a mix of occasional laugh-out-loud moments - there are some here - and cringe-worthy misfires that play a lot more tone-deaf than he seems to intend." Brian Truitt of *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* gave the film two out of four stars, saying "MacFarlane and co-writers Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild have a gift for referential riffs, but the plot is the thinnest of narratives just to connect all the comedy bits." Stephen Whitty of the *[Star-Ledger](Newark)(Newark Star-Ledger)* gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Sure, MacFarlane can write simple jokes as long as the 'f' key on his laptop holds out. Some of them are even funny. But a lot of them don't pay off, and most trod the same well-worn territory -- potheads, practical jokes, politically incorrect cliches." Lindsey Bahr of the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) gave the film a negative review, saying "In an admirable effort to go a different route, MacFarlane has instead done something hopelessly bizarre: He's given his film too much sincerity and story, and it practically crushes whatever fun does exist."
[LaSalle](Mick)(Mick LaSalle) of the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* gave the film three out of four stars, saying "MacFarlane is cynical, but he's not a cynic, and there are moments in *Ted 2* where you can sense a longing for the gentler and more upbeat entertainment of an earlier generation." Soren Anderson of *[Seattle Times](The)(The Seattle Times)* gave the film two out of four stars, saying "In the midst of comedy, seriousness. The combination feels forced. A more disciplined and smarter director might have been able to successfully blend the two elements, but crude dude MacFarlane hasn't the skill to bring it off." Dan Callahan of *[Wrap](The)(The Wrap)* gave the film a negative review, saying "Bad taste needs to be more honest and more all-inclusive if it's to make a lasting impression, and MacFarlane's bad taste here is both too wishy-washy and too knee-jerk cruel to really make any impact." Manohla Dargis of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* gave the film a negative review, saying "Mr. MacFarlane can be funny, but *Ted 2* is insultingly lazy hack work that is worth discussing primarily because of how he tries and fails to turn race, and specifically black men, into comedy fodder." Jacob Hall of *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* gave the film one out of five stars, saying "Once again, you will believe that a talking CGI stuffed animal can be a racist, hateful monster with no redeeming qualities ... but his greatest sin is that he's not funny." Peter Howell of the *[Star](Toronto)(Toronto Star)* gave the film two out of four stars, saying "If you didn't see and laugh at the first *Ted*, and maybe also at MacFarlane's button-pushing TV series *Family Guy*, then another movie deserves your entertainment dollars." A.A. Dowd of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* gave the film a C+, saying "*Ted 2* strikes a sometimes-awkward balance between sincerity and cheap provocation. It also forgets that the real draw of the first film wasn't Ted himself, but Wahlberg, whose sweet-lug routine scored a lot of belly laughs."
### Accolades
## Future
### Possible sequel
In June 2015, [Collider](Collider (website)) asked if the studio was already planning a third film, MacFarlane replied: "It's all based on appetite. If *Ted 2* does as well as the first one, it means people want to see more of these characters. If that happens, then there would likely be a *Ted 3*. The franchise, to me, is one that's more character-based than premise-based. If you look at it like episodes in television, if you have characters that people like and they want to see them, again and again, you can tell any number of different stories. If there's a desire for it, then yeah, we would do a *Ted 3*."
On October 27, 2015, during an interview on *[Today](Today (American TV program))* MacFarlane, again, did not rule out the possibility of *Ted 3*, stating: "We don't know, I like to kind of have some space between *Ted* [films], so it's possible there will be another one but there are no immediate plans."
On September 13, 2021, MacFarlane posted an image to Instagram of the stuffed bear used in the *Ted* movies captioned "The original Ted stuffy mentally preparing for his return," hinting at the possibility of a sequel, although he might have been hinting at the then unannounced television series.
### Television series
In April 2022, it was announced that a prequel series was in development for the streaming service [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)), with writers Paul Corrigan and Brad Walsh joining MacFarlane as the series' showrunners. MacFarlane is also set to reprise his role as the title character.
## References
## External links
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*
*
[films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 films)
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Akihito
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akihito
|
# Akihito
*Revision ID: 1159757081 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T10:16:18Z*
---
| coronation = 12 November 1990
| cor-type = japan
| predecessor = [Shōwa](Hirohito)
| successor = [Naruhito](Naruhito)
| reg-type =
| regent =
| spouse =
| issue =
| era name = [Heisei](Heisei)
| era dates = 8 January 1989 – 30 April 2019
| house = [House of Japan](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan)
| father = [Shōwa](Emperor)(Emperor Shōwa)
| mother = [Kuni](Nagako)(Nagako Kuni)
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Imperial Palace](Tokyo)(Tokyo Imperial Palace), [City](Tokyo)(Tokyo City), [Prefecture](Tokyo)(Tokyo Prefecture), [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan)(now [ward](Chiyoda)(Chiyoda ward), Tokyo, Japan)
| death_date =
| death_place =
| religion = [Shinto](Shinto)
| signature = [35px](File:Heisei shomei.svg)
}}
; or ; born 23 December 1933}} is a member of the Imperial House of Japan who reigned as the 125th [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan) from 7 January 1989 until [abdication on 30 April 2019](his)(2019 Japanese imperial transition). He presided over the era, *Heisei* being an expression of achieving peace worldwide.
Born in 1933, Akihito is the first son of [Shōwa](Emperor)(Emperor Shōwa) and [Kōjun](Empress)(Empress Kōjun). During the [World War](Second)(Second World War), he moved out of Tokyo with his classmates, and remained in [Nikkō](Nikkō) until 1945. In 1952, his Coming-of-Age ceremony and investiture as [prince](crown)(crown prince) were held, and he began to undertake official duties in his capacity as crown prince. The next year, he made his first journey overseas and represented Japan at the [coronation](Coronation of Elizabeth II) of [II](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth II), [of the United Kingdom](Queen)(Monarchy of the United Kingdom). He completed his university education in 1956. In 1959, he married [Shōda](Michiko)(Michiko Shōda), a [Catholic](Catholic Church in Japan); it was the first imperial wedding to be televised in Japan, drawing about 15 million viewers. The couple have three children: [Naruhito](Naruhito), [Fumihito](Fumihito, Crown Prince of Japan), and [Sayako](Sayako Kuroda).
Upon the [of his father](death)(Death and state funeral of Hirohito) in 1989, Akihito succeeded to the [Throne](Chrysanthemum)(Chrysanthemum Throne). His [ceremony](enthronement)(Enthronement of the Japanese Emperor) followed in 1990. He has made efforts to bring the [family](imperial)(Japanese imperial family) closer to the Japanese people, and has made official visits to all forty-seven [of Japan](prefectures)(prefectures of Japan) and to many of the remote [of Japan](islands)(islands of Japan). He has a keen interest in natural life and conservation, as well as Japanese and world history. Akihito [in 2019](abdicated)(2019 Japanese imperial transition), citing his advanced age and declining health, and assumed the title Emperor Emeritus. He was succeeded by his eldest son, [Naruhito](Naruhito). A new era, , was established then. At age , Akihito is the longest-lived verifiable Japanese emperor in recorded history. During Akihito's reign 17 prime ministers served, beginning with [Takeshita](Noboru)(Noboru Takeshita) and ending with [Abe](Shinzo)(Shinzo Abe).
## Name
In Japan, during his reign, Akihito was never referred to by his own name, but instead as which may be shortened to . The era of Akihito's reign from 1989 to 2019 bore the [name](era)(Japanese era name) , and according to custom he will be [renamed](posthumously)(Posthumous name) as the 125th emperor of Japan by order of the [Cabinet](Cabinet of Japan).
Upon Akihito's abdication on 30 April 2019, he received the title . Still he is never referred to by his own name, but instead as "His Majesty the Emperor Emeritus" or "His Majesty".
## Early life and education
[[File:Empress Kojun and Prince Akihito.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|One year old Akihito with his mother [Kōjun](Empress)(Empress Kōjun), 1934]]
was born on 23 December 1933 at 6:39 am in the [Imperial Palace](Tokyo)(Tokyo Imperial Palace) as the fifth child and eldest son of [Shōwa](Emperor)(Hirohito) and [Kōjun](Empress)(Empress Kōjun). Titled as a child, Akihito was educated by private tutors prior to attending the elementary and secondary departments of the Peers' School (*[Gakushūin](Gakushūin)*) from 1940 to 1952. At the request of his father, he did not receive a commission as an army officer, unlike his predecessors.
[[of the Crown Prince 1952.jpg|thumb|Akihito at the Crown Prince's investiture ceremony, 1952](File:Investiture)]
During the [firebombing raids on Tokyo](American)(Bombing of Tokyo) in March 1945 during [War II](World)(World War II), Akihito and his younger brother [Masahito](Prince)(Masahito, Prince Hitachi) were evacuated from the city. Akihito was tutored in the [language](English)(English language) and Western manners by [Gray Vining](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Gray Vining) during the Allied [of Japan](occupation)(occupation of Japan), and later briefly studied at the department of [science](political)(political science) at [University](Gakushuin)(Gakushuin University) in Tokyo, though he never received a [degree](Academic degree).
[[File:07-30-1953 11697 Akihito bij Van Gogh (6741938153).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Akihito, aged 19, at the Van Gogh exhibition in the [Museum Amsterdam](Stedelijk)(Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam), 1953]]
Akihito was the [apparent](heir)(heir apparent) to the [Throne](Chrysanthemum)(Chrysanthemum Throne) from birth. His formal took place at the [Imperial Palace](Tokyo)(Tokyo Imperial Palace) on 10 November 1952. In June 1953, Akihito represented Japan at the [of Queen Elizabeth II](coronation)(Coronation of Elizabeth II) in [London](London) in his first journey abroad. He later completed his university education as a special student in 1956.
## Marriage and family
In August 1957, Akihito met [Shōda](Michiko)(Empress Michiko)Fukada, Takahiro, "[Emperor — poise under public spotlight](http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20091124i1.html)", *[Japan Times](The)(The Japan Times)*, 24 November 2009, p. 3. on a [tennis](tennis) court at [Karuizawa](Karuizawa, Nagano) near [Nagano](Nagano, Nagano). Initially there was little enthusiasm for the couple's relationship; Michiko Shōda was considered too low class for the young Crown Prince and had been educated in a Catholic environment. Therefore, in September 1958, she was sent away to Brussels to attend an international conference of the Alumnae du Sacré-Cœur. The Crown Prince was determined to keep in contact with his girlfriend but didn't want to create a diplomatic incident. Therefore, he contacted the young [Baudouin of Belgium](King)(Baudouin of Belgium) to send his messages directly to his loved one. Later King Baudouin also negotiated the marriage of the couple with the Emperor directly stating that if the Crown Prince is happy with Michiko, he would be a better emperor later on.
The [Household Council](Imperial)(Imperial Household Council) formally approved the engagement of the Crown Prince to Michiko Shōda on 27 November 1958. The announcement of the then-Crown Prince Akihito's engagement and forthcoming marriage to Michiko Shōda drew opposition from traditionalist groups, because Shōda came from a [Catholic](Catholic Church in Japan) family.[P. Bix](Herbert)(Herbert P. Bix), *[and the Making of Modern Japan](Hirohito)(Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan)*, HarperCollins, 2001, p. 661 Although Shōda was never baptized, she had been educated in Catholic schools and seemed to share her parents' faith. Rumors also speculated that Prince Akihito's mother, [Kōjun](Empress)(Empress Kōjun) had opposed the engagement. After the death of Empress Kōjun on 16 June 2000, [Reuters](Reuters) reported that she was one of the strongest opponents of her son's marriage, and that in the 1960s, she had driven her daughter-in-law and grandchildren to depression by persistently accusing Shōda of not being suitable for her son. At that time, the media presented their encounter as a real "fairy tale", or the "romance of the tennis court". It was the first time a [commoner](commoner) had married into the Imperial Family, breaking more than 2,600 years of tradition. The engagement ceremony took place on 14 January 1959, and the marriage on 10 April 1959.
Akihito and Michiko had three children: two sons [Naruhito](Naruhito) (born 23 February 1960 and titled Prince Hiro; later the 126th Emperor of Japan) and [Fumihito](Fumihito) (born 30 November 1965 and titled Prince Aya; later Prince Akishino and subsequently the Crown Prince of Japan), and a daughter [Kuroda](Sayako)(Sayako Kuroda) (born 18 April 1969 and titled Princess Nori before marriage). The three children were born at the Imperial Household Agency Hospital at the Tokyo Imperial Palace.
[[File:Akihito and Michiko at Andrews Air Force Base 1987.jpg|thumb|upright|1987 (Showa 62), the last foreign visit as the crown prince and princess ([Air Force Base](Andrews)(Andrews Air Force Base), [States](United)(United States))]]
Crown Prince Akihito and Crown Princess Michiko made official visits to thirty-seven countries. As an Imperial Prince, Akihito compared the role of Japanese royalty to that of a robot. He expressed the desire to help bring the [family](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan) closer to the people of Japan.["Those Apprentice Kings and Queens Who May – One Day – Ascend a Throne"](https://www.nytimes.com/1971/11/14/archives/those-apprentice-kings-and-queens-who-may-one-day-ascend-a-throne.html?sq=akihito%2520%2520and%2520Windsor&scp=1&st=cse) , *The New York Times*. 14 November 1971.
## Reign
[[File:Emperor Akihito 199011 1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Emperor Akihito wearing the *[sokutai](sokutai)* at the [ceremony](enthronement)(Enthronement of the Japanese Emperor) in November 1990]]
Upon the [of Emperor Shōwa](death)(Death and state funeral of Hirohito) on 7 January 1989, Akihito acceded to the throne, becoming the 125th [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan) at the age of 55, becoming the third oldest in history. The [ceremony](enthronement)(Enthronement of the Japanese Emperor) took place on 12 November 1990. In 1998, during a state visit to the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), he was invested with the [Order of the Garter](UK)(The Most Noble Order of the Garter).
Under the [of Japan](Constitution)(Constitution of Japan), Akihito's role was entirely representative and ceremonial in nature, without even a nominal role in government; indeed, he was not allowed to make political statements. He was limited to acting in matters of state as delineated in the Constitution. Even in those matters, he was bound by the requirements of the Constitution and the binding advice of the Cabinet. For instance, while he formally appointed the Prime Minister, he was required to appoint the person designated by the Diet.
Despite being strictly constrained by his constitutional position, he also issued several wide-ranging statements of remorse to [Asia](Asia)n countries, for their suffering under Japanese occupation, beginning with an expression of remorse to [China](China) made in April 1989, three months after the death of his father, [Shōwa](Emperor)(Emperor Shōwa).
On 23 December 2001, during his annual birthday meeting with reporters, the Emperor, in response to a reporter's question about tensions with [Korea](South)(South Korea), remarked that he felt a kinship with [Koreans](Koreans) and went on to explain that, in the *[Nihongi](Shoku)(Shoku Nihongi)*, the mother of [Kammu](Emperor)(Emperor Kammu) (736–806) is related to [Muryeong](Muryeong of Baekje) of Korea, [of Baekje](King)(Baekje), a fact that was considered taboo for discussion.
In June 2005, the Emperor Akihito and the Empress Michiko visited the island of [Saipan](Saipan) (part of the [Mariana Islands](Northern)(Northern Mariana Islands), a [territory](U.S.)(Territories of the United States)), the site of a battle in the [War II](World)(World War II) from 15 June to 9 July 1944 (known as the [of Saipan](Battle)(Battle of Saipan)). Accompanied by Empress Michiko, he offered prayers and flowers at several memorials, honoring not only the Japanese who died, but also American servicemen, Korean laborers, and local islanders. It was the first trip by a Japanese monarch to a World War II battlefield abroad. The Saipan journey was received with high praise by the Japanese people, as were the Emperor's visits to war memorials in [Tokyo](Tokyo), [Prefecture](Hiroshima)(Hiroshima Prefecture), [Prefecture](Nagasaki)(Nagasaki Prefecture) and [Prefecture](Okinawa)(Okinawa Prefecture) in 1995.
[[File:Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko 20090715 1.jpg|thumb|The Emperor and [Empress](Empress Michiko) bowing their heads for a moment of silence at the [Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific](National)(National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific) in [Honolulu](Honolulu), [Hawaii](Hawaii) in 2009.]]
[[File:Japan Emperor Akihito 20th anniversary 1.jpg|thumb|A parade in front of [Imperial Palace](Tokyo)(Tokyo Imperial Palace) during celebration of the 20th anniversary of the Emperor's ascension to the throne in 2009.]]
After succeeding to the throne, Akihito made an effort to bring the Imperial family closer to the Japanese people. He and Michiko made official visits to eighteen countries and to all forty-seven [of Japan](Prefectures)(Prefectures of Japan). Akihito has never visited [Shrine](Yasukuni)(Yasukuni Shrine), continuing his predecessor's boycott from 1978, due to its enshrinement of war criminals.
On 6 September 2006, the Emperor celebrated the birth of his first grandson, [Hisahito](Prince)(Prince Hisahito of Akishino), the third child of the Emperor's younger son. [Hisahito](Prince)(Prince Hisahito of Akishino) was the first male heir born to the Japanese imperial family in 41 years (since his father [Akishino](Prince)(Prince Akishino)) and could avert the [imperial succession](Japanese)(Japanese imperial succession debate) crisis, as the only child of the Emperor's elder son, the then [Prince Naruhito](Crown)(Naruhito), is his daughter, [Aiko](Princess)(Aiko, Princess Toshi), who is not eligible for the throne under [male-only succession law](Japan's)(Emperor of Japan#Succession). The birth of Prince Hisahito meant that proposed changes to the law to allow Aiko to ascend the [Throne](Chrysanthemum)(Chrysanthemum Throne) were dropped.
Recently, in response to the [Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami](2011)(2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) and the [I nuclear crisis](Fukushima)(Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster), the Emperor made urging his people not to give up hope and to help each other.
[[File:The General Public to the Palace for the New Year Greeting 2019 (48357123117).jpg|thumb|Akihito, at [Reception Hall](Chōwaden)(Chōwaden Reception Hall), giving his final New Year's address, as Emperor, to the Japanese people in 2019]]
On 13 July 2016, national broadcaster [NHK](NHK) reported that the then 82-year-old Emperor intended to [abdicate](Abdication) in favor of his eldest son [Prince Naruhito](Crown)(Naruhito) within a few years, citing his age. An abdication within the [Family](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan) had not occurred since [Kōkaku](Emperor)(Emperor Kōkaku) in 1817. However, senior officials within the [Household Agency](Imperial)(Imperial Household Agency) denied that there was any official plan for the monarch to abdicate. Abdication by the Emperor required an amendment to the [Household Law](Imperial)(Imperial Household Law), which had no provisions for such a move. On 8 August 2016, the Emperor gave a rare televised address, where he emphasized his advanced age and declining health; this address was interpreted as an implication of his intention to abdicate.
On 19 May 2017, the bill that would allow Akihito to abdicate was issued by the [of Japan](Cabinet)(Cabinet of Japan). On 8 June 2017, the [Diet](National)(National Diet) passed it, whereupon it became known as the [Abdication Law](Emperor)(Emperor Abdication Law). This commenced government preparations to hand the position over to Naruhito. Prime Minister [Abe](Shinzo)(Shinzo Abe) announced in December 2017 that the 125th Emperor Akihito would abdicate at the end of 30 April 2019, and that the 126th Emperor Naruhito's reign would begin as of 1 May 2019.
## Post-abdication and later years
On 19 March 2020, Emperor Emeritus Akihito and his wife [Emerita Michiko](Empress)(Empress Emerita Michiko) moved out of the Imperial Palace, marking their first public appearance since the abdication. On 31 March, they moved in to the [Residence](Takanawa)(Takanawa Residence).
In December 2021, Akihito celebrated his 88th birthday (*beiju*), making him the longest-living verifiable Japanese emperor in recorded history.
## Health
Emperor Akihito underwent surgery for [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer) on 14 January 2003. Later in 2011 he was admitted to hospital suffering from [pneumonia](pneumonia). In February 2012, it was announced that the Emperor would be having a coronary examination; he underwent successful heart bypass surgery on 18 February 2012. In July 2018, he suffered from nausea and dizziness due to insufficient blood flow to his brain. In January 2020, he temporarily lost consciousness and collapsed at his residence, though "no abnormalities" were detected in his brain.
He was diagnosed with heart failure in July 2022.
## Issue
Akihito and Michiko have three children (two sons and a daughter).
[[Akihito and Empress Michiko with the Imperial Family (November 2013).jpg|thumb|220px|The Emperor and Empress with their family in November 2013](File:Emperor)]
## Ichthyological research
In extension of his father's interest in [biology](marine)(marine biology), who published [taxonomic](Taxonomy (biology)) works on the [Hydrozoa](Hydrozoa), the Emperor Emeritus is a published [ichthyological](ichthyology) researcher, and has specialized in studies within the taxonomy of the [family](family (biology)) [Gobiidae](Goby).[Hamilton, Alan. "Palace small talk problem solved: royal guest is a goby fish fanatic"](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1857043.ece) , *The Times* (London). 30 May 2007 He has written papers for scholarly journals such as *[Gene](Gene (journal)), Ichthyological Research,* and the *Japanese Journal of Ichthyology*.
He has also written papers about the [of science](history)(history of science) during the [Edo](Edo period) and [era](Meiji)(Meiji period)s, which were published in *[Science](Science (journal))* and *[Nature](Nature (journal))*. In 2005, a newly described goby was named *[akihito](Exyrias)(Exyrias akihito)* in his honour, and in 2007 a genus *[Akihito](Akihito (fish))* of gobies native to Vanuatu also received his name. In 2021, the Imperial Household Agency announced Akihito had discovered two new species of goby fish. The discovery was cataloged in an English-language journal published by the Ichthyological Society of Japan. The Asahi Shimbun: Breaking News, Japan News and Analysis |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14381111 |access-date=31 October 2021 |work=The Asahi Shimbun |language=en}}
In 1965, then-Crown Prince Akihito sent 50 [tilapia](Nile)(Nile tilapia) to Thai King [Adulyadej](Bhumibol)(Bhumibol Adulyadej) in response to a request for fish that could solve malnutrition issues in the country. The species has since become a major food source in Thailand and a major export.
* Member of the Ichthyological Society of Japan
* Foreign member of the [Society of London](Linnean)(Linnean Society of London) (1980)
* Honorary member of the Linnean Society of London (1986)
* Research associate of the [Museum](Australian)(Australian Museum)
* Honorary member of the [Society of London](Zoological)(Zoological Society of London) (1992)
* Honorary member of the Research Institute for Natural Science of Argentina (1997)
* Honorary degree of the [University](Uppsala)(Uppsala University) (2007)
## Honours
:a FR Yugoslavia split into Serbia and Montenegro. As of 2006 this order is аbolished.
:b Zaire is now the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo).
**Other awards**
* [Royal Society King Charles II Medal](The)(Awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society#Medals)
* [Pheasant Award](Golden)(Golden Pheasant Award) of the [Association of Japan](Scout)(Scout Association of Japan) (1971)
## Overseas visits
The following table includes the official visits made by Emperor Akihito, along with Empress Michiko, following succession to the throne on 7 January 1989. The list includes all the visits made up to 31 December 2017. Although Empress Michiko has made two official visits on her own, in 2002 (to Switzerland) and 2014 (to Belgium), they did not include the Emperor and are not included in this table.
## Ancestry
|5= 5. [Sadako Kujō](Lady)(Empress Teimei)
|6= 6. [2nd Imperial Prince Kuni](Kuniyoshi,)(Imperial Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni)
|7= 7. Princess Chikako Shimazu
|8= 8. [Emperor Meiji](Mutsuhito,)(Emperor Meiji)[Donald](Keene,)(Donald Keene). *Emperor of Japan: Meiji And His World, 1852–1912*. Columbia University Press (2005). . pp. 320–321.
|9= 9. [Naruko Yanagihara](Lady)(Yanagihara Naruko)
|10= 10. [Kujō Michitaka of the Fujiwara Clan](Prince)(Kujō Michitaka)
|11= 11. Lady Ikuko Noma
|12= 12. [1st Imperial Prince Kuni](Asahiko,)(Prince Kuni Asahiko)
|13= 13. Lady Makiko Izumi
|14= 14. [Shimazu Tadayoshi](Prince)(Shimazu Tadayoshi (2nd))
|15= 15. Lady Sumako Yamazaki
}}
### Patrilineal descent
}}
Akihito's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.
[descent](Patrilineal)(Patrilineal descent) is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations, which means that Akihito is a member of the [House of Japan](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan).
;Imperial House of Japan
# Descent prior to Keitai is unclear to modern historians, but traditionally traced back patrilineally to [Jimmu](Emperor)(Emperor Jimmu)
# [Keitai](Emperor)(Emperor Keitai), ca. 450–534
# [Kinmei](Emperor)(Emperor Kinmei), 509–571
# [Bidatsu](Emperor)(Emperor Bidatsu), 538–585
# Prince Oshisaka, ca. 556–???
# [Jomei](Emperor)(Emperor Jomei), 593–641
# [Tenji](Emperor)(Emperor Tenji), 626–671
# Prince Shiki, ???–716
# [Kōnin](Emperor)(Emperor Kōnin), 709–786
# [Kanmu](Emperor)(Emperor Kanmu), 737–806
# [Saga](Emperor)(Emperor Saga), 786–842
# [Ninmyō](Emperor)(Emperor Ninmyō), 810–850
# [Kōkō](Emperor)(Emperor Kōkō), 830–867
# [Uda](Emperor)(Emperor Uda), 867–931
# [Daigo](Emperor)(Emperor Daigo), 885–930
# [Murakami](Emperor)(Emperor Murakami), 926–967
# [En'yū](Emperor)(Emperor En'yū), 959–991
# [Ichijō](Emperor)(Emperor Ichijō), 980–1011
# [Go-Suzaku](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Suzaku), 1009–1045
# [Go-Sanjō](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Sanjō), 1034–1073
# [Shirakawa](Emperor)(Emperor Shirakawa), 1053–1129
# [Horikawa](Emperor)(Emperor Horikawa), 1079–1107
# [Toba](Emperor)(Emperor Toba), 1103–1156
# [Go-Shirakawa](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Shirakawa), 1127–1192
# [Takakura](Emperor)(Emperor Takakura), 1161–1181
# [Go-Toba](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Toba), 1180–1239
# [Tsuchimikado](Emperor)(Emperor Tsuchimikado), 1196–1231
# [Go-Saga](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Saga), 1220–1272
# [Go-Fukakusa](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Fukakusa), 1243–1304
# [Fushimi](Emperor)(Emperor Fushimi), 1265–1317
# [Go-Fushimi](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Fushimi), 1288–1336
# [Kōgon](Emperor)(Emperor Kōgon), 1313–1364
# [Sukō](Emperor)(Emperor Sukō), 1334–1398
# [Yoshihito Fushimi](Prince)(Fushimi-no-miya), 1351–1416
# [Sadafusa Fushimi](Prince)(Fushimi-no-miya), 1372–1456
# [Go-Hanazono](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Hanazono), 1419–1471
# [Go-Tsuchimikado](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado), 1442–1500
# [Go-Kashiwabara](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Kashiwabara), 1464–1526
# [Go-Nara](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Nara), 1495–1557
# [Ōgimachi](Emperor)(Emperor Ōgimachi), 1517–1593
# [Masahito](Prince)(Prince Masahito), 1552–1586
# [Go-Yōzei](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Yōzei), 1572–1617
# [Go-Mizunoo](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Mizunoo), 1596–1680
# [Reigen](Emperor)(Emperor Reigen), 1654–1732
# [Higashiyama](Emperor)(Emperor Higashiyama), 1675–1710
# [Naohito Kanin](Prince)(Kan'in-no-miya), 1704–1753
# [Sukehito Kanin](Prince)(Kan'in-no-miya), 1733–1794
# [Kōkaku](Emperor)(Emperor Kōkaku), 1771–1840
# [Ninkō](Emperor)(Emperor Ninkō), 1800–1846
# [Kōmei](Emperor)(Emperor Kōmei), 1831–1867
# [Meiji](Emperor)(Emperor Meiji), 1852–1912
# [Taishō](Emperor)(Emperor Taishō), 1879–1926
# [Shōwa](Emperor)(Emperor Shōwa), 1901–1989
# Emperor Akihito, b. 1933
## See also
* [Emperor's Birthday](The)(The Emperor's Birthday)
* [Household Agency](Imperial)(Imperial Household Agency)
* [House of Japan](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan)
* [era name](Japanese)(Japanese era name)
* [of Emperors of Japan](List)(List of Emperors of Japan)
## References
## External links
* [Their Majesties the Emperor Emeritus and Empress Emerita](http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/joko/activity-en.html) at the Imperial Household Agency website
* [Complete transcript (U.S. English and Japanese) and audio mp3 and video of 'Do Not Lose Hope' Address to the Nation](https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/emperorakihitodisasterspeech.htm) at AmericanRhetoric.com
[births](Category:1933)(Category:1933 births)
[Japanese monarchs](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Japanese monarchs)
[Japanese monarchs](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Japanese monarchs)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[*](Category:Heisei period)
[emperors](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese emperors)
[environmentalists](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese environmentalists)
[ichthyologists](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese ichthyologists)
[philanthropists](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese philanthropists)
[princes](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese princes)
[Shintoists](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese Shintoists)
[University alumni](Category:Gakushuin)(Category:Gakushuin University alumni)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[retired emperors](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese retired emperors)
[from Chiyoda, Tokyo](Category:People)(Category:People from Chiyoda, Tokyo)
[from Tokyo](Category:People)(Category:People from Tokyo)
[of the Order of the White Lion](Category:Collars)(Category:Collars of the Order of the White Lion)
[Collars of the Order of Lakandula](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Collars of the Order of Lakandula)
[Collars of the Order of Prince Henry](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry)
[Collars of the Order of Saint James of the Sword](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Collars of the Order of Saint James of the Sword)
[of the Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana)
[Cordons of the Order of Valour](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Cordons of the Order of Valour)
[Cross of the Legion of Honour](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour)
[Crosses of the National Order of Mali](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali)
[Crosses of the Order of the Sun of Peru](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of Peru)
[Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany)
[Crosses with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil)](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil))
[Crosses with Golden Chain of the Order of Vytautas the Great](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses with Golden Chain of the Order of Vytautas the Great)
[Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order](Category:Honorary)(Category:Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order)
[Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic)
[Commanders of the Philippine Legion of Honor](Category:Chief)(Category:Chief Commanders of the Philippine Legion of Honor)
[Commanders of the Order of the Federal Republic](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Federal Republic)
[of the Order of the Golden Heart of Kenya](Category:Chiefs)(Category:Chiefs of the Order of the Golden Heart of Kenya)
[Knights Companion of the Garter](Category:Extra)(Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter)
[of the Golden Fleece of Spain](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain)
[to World War II](Category:Opposition)(Category:Opposition to World War II)
[of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria)
[of the Order of Culture](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Culture)
[of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class)
[of the Order of the Falcon](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the Falcon)
[of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers)
[of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class)
[of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland))
[of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia)
|
Pac-Man
|
pac-man
|
# Pac-Man
*Revision ID: 1153946312 | Timestamp: 2023-05-09T09:01:11Z*
---
|NA/FRA|[Midway](Midway Games)}}
| designer = [Iwatani](Toru)(Toru Iwatani)
| programmer = Shigeo FunakiShigeichi Ishimura
| composer = Shigeichi IshimuraToshio Kai
| artist = [Ono](Hiroshi)(Hiroshi Ono (artist))
| platforms =
| released = |WW|December 1980}}
| genre = [Maze](List of maze video games)
| modes = [Single-player](Single-player video game), [multiplayer](multiplayer) (alternating turns)
| series = *[Pac-Man](List of Pac-Man video games)*
}}
originally called ***Puck Man*** in [Japan](Japan), is a 1980 [maze](maze video game) [video game](action)(action game) developed and released by [Namco](Namco) for [arcades](Arcade game). In North America, the game was released by [Manufacturing](Midway)(Midway Manufacturing) as part of its licensing agreement with Namco America. The player controls [Pac-Man](Pac-Man (character)), who must eat all the dots inside an enclosed maze while avoiding four colored [ghosts](Ghosts (Pac-Man)). Eating large flashing dots called "Power Pellets" causes the ghosts to temporarily turn blue, allowing Pac-Man to eat them for bonus points.
Game development began in early 1979, directed by [Iwatani](Toru)(Toru Iwatani) with a nine-man team. Iwatani wanted to create a game that could appeal to women as well as men, because most video games of the time had themes of war or sports. Although the inspiration for the Pac-Man character was the image of a pizza with a slice removed, Iwatani has said he also rounded out the Japanese character for mouth, **kuchi** (). The in-game characters were made to be cute and colorful to appeal to younger players. The original Japanese title of *Puck Man* was derived from the Japanese phrase "Paku paku taberu" which refers to gobbling something up; the title was changed for the North American release to mitigate vandalism.
*Pac-Man* was a widespread critical and commercial success, leading to several [sequels](List of Pac-Man video games), merchandise, and two television series, as well as a [single](hit)(Pac-Man Fever (song)) by [& Garcia](Buckner)(Buckner & Garcia). The character of Pac-Man has become the official mascot of [Namco Entertainment](Bandai)(Bandai Namco Entertainment). The game remains one of the highest-grossing and best-selling games, generating more than $14 billion in revenue () and 43 million units in sales combined, and has an enduring commercial and cultural legacy, commonly listed as one of the [video games of all time](greatest)(List of video games considered the best).
## Gameplay
[[screenshot. The four ghosts are in the center of the screen with Pac-Man situated underneath them. To the bottom left is the player's life count, and to the bottom right the level icon (represented in this case by a cherry). To the top is the player's score.](File:Pac-man.png|thumb|left|In-game)]
*Pac-Man* is an [action](Action game) [chase](maze)(List of maze chase games) video game; the player controls [eponymous character](the)(Pac-Man (character)) through an enclosed maze. The objective of the game is to eat all of the dots placed in the maze while avoiding four colored ghosts — Blinky (red), Pinky (pink), Inky (cyan), and Clyde (orange) — that pursue Pac-Man. When Pac-Man eats all of the dots, the player advances to the next level. Levels are indicated by fruit icons at the bottom of the screen. In between levels are short cutscenes featuring Pac-Man and Blinky in humorous, comical situations.
If Pac-Man is caught by a ghost, he will lose a life; the game ends when all lives are lost. Each of the four ghosts has their own unique [intelligence](artificial)(artificial intelligence) (A.I.), or "personality": Blinky gives direct chase to Pac-Man; Pinky and Inky try to position themselves in front of Pac-Man, usually by cornering him; and Clyde will switch between chasing Pac-Man and fleeing from him.
Placed near the four corners of the maze are large flashing "energizers" or "power pellets." Eating these will cause the ghosts to turn blue with a dizzied expression and to reverse direction. Pac-Man can eat blue ghosts for bonus points; when a ghost is eaten, their eyes make their way back to the center box in the maze, where the ghost "regenerates" and resumes their normal activity. Eating multiple blue ghosts in succession increases their point value. After a certain amount of time, blue-colored ghosts will flash white before turning back into their normal form. Eating a certain number of dots in a level will cause a bonus item — usually in the form of a fruit — to appear underneath the center box; the item can be eaten for bonus points. To the sides of the maze are two "warp tunnels", which allow Pac-Man and the ghosts to travel to the opposite side of the screen. Ghosts become slower when entering and exiting these tunnels.
The game increases in difficulty as the player progresses: the ghosts become faster, and the energizers' effect decreases in duration, eventually disappearing entirely. Due to an [overflow](integer)(integer overflow), the 256th level loads improperly, rendering it impossible to complete.
## Development
After acquiring the struggling Japanese division of [Atari](Atari) in 1974, video game developer [Namco](Namco) began producing its own video games in-house, as opposed to simply licensing them from other developers and distributing them in Japan. Company president [Nakamura](Masaya)(Masaya Nakamura (businessman)) created a small video game development group within the company and ordered them to study several [NEC](NEC)-produced microcomputers to potentially create new games with. One of the first people assigned to this division was a young 24-year-old employee named [Iwatani](Toru)(Toru Iwatani). He created Namco's first video game *[Bee](Gee)(Gee Bee (video game))* in 1978, which while unsuccessful helped the company gain a stronger foothold in the quickly-growing video game industry. He also assisted in the production of two sequels, *[Bee](Bomb)(Bomb Bee)* and *[Q](Cutie)(Cutie Q)*, both released in 1979.
[[File:Toru Iwatani, creator of Pac-Man, at GDC 2011.jpg|thumb|right|Creator of Pac-Man, [Iwatani](Toru)(Toru Iwatani), at the 2011 [Developers Conference](Game)(Game Developers Conference)]]
The Japanese video game industry had surged in popularity with games such as *[Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders)* and *[Breakout](Breakout (video game))*, which led to the market being flooded with similar titles from other manufacturers in an attempt to cash in on the success. Iwatani felt that arcade games only appealed to men for their crude graphics and violence, and that arcades in general were seen as seedy environments. For his next project, Iwatani chose to create a non-violent, cheerful video game that appealed mostly to women, as he believed that attracting women and couples into arcades would potentially make them appear to be much more family friendly in tone. Iwatani began thinking of things that women liked to do in their time; he decided to center his game around eating, basing this on women liking to eat desserts and other sweets. His game was initially called *Pakkuman*, based on the Japanese onomatopoeia term “paku paku taberu”, referencing the mouth movement of opening and closing in succession.
The game that later became *Pac-Man* began development in early 1979 and took a year and five months to complete, the longest ever for a video game up to that point. Iwatani enlisted the help of nine other Namco employees to assist in production, including composer Toshio Kai, programmer Shigeo Funaki, and hardware engineer Shigeichi Ishimura. Care was taken to make the game appeal to a “non-violent” audience, particularly women, with its usage of simple gameplay and cute, attractive character designs. When the game was being developed, Namco was underway with designing *[Galaxian](Galaxian)*, which used a then-revolutionary RGB color display, allowing sprites to use several colors at once instead of using colored strips of cellophane that was commonplace at the time; this technological accomplishment allowed Iwatani to greatly enhance his game with bright pastel colors, which he felt would help attract players. The idea for energizers was a concept Iwatani borrowed from [the Sailor](Popeye)(Popeye the Sailor), a cartoon character that temporarily acquires superhuman strength after eating a can of spinach; it is also believed that Iwatani was also partly inspired by a Japanese children's story about a creature that protected children from monsters by devouring them. Frank Fogleman, the co-founder of [Industries](Gremlin)(Gremlin Industries), believes that the maze-chase gameplay of *Pac-Man* was inspired by [Sega](Sega)'s *[On](Head)(Head On (video game))* (1979), a similar arcade game that was popular in Japan.
Iwatani has often claimed that the character of Pac-Man himself was designed after the shape of a pizza with a missing slice while he was at lunch; in a 1986 interview he said that this was only half-truth, and that the Pac-Man character was also based on him rounding out and simplifying the Japanese character “kuchi” ([口](wikt:口)), meaning “mouth”. The four ghosts were made to be cute, colorful and appealing, using bright, pastel colors and expressive blue eyes. Iwatani had used this idea before in *Cutie Q*, which features similar ghost-like characters, and decided to incorporate it into *Pac-Man*. He was also inspired by the television series *[the Friendly Ghost](Casper)(Casper the Friendly Ghost)* and the manga *[no Q-Taro](Obake)(Little Ghost Q-Taro)*. Ghosts were chosen as the game's main antagonists due to them being used as villainous characters in animation. The idea for the fruit bonuses was based on graphics displayed on slot machines, which often use symbols such as cherries and bells.
Originally, Namco president Masaya Nakamura had requested that all of the ghosts be red and thus indistinguishable from one another. Iwatani believed that the ghosts should be different colors, and he received unanimous support from his colleagues for this idea. Each of the ghosts were programmed to have their own distinct personalities, so as to keep the game from becoming too boring or impossibly difficult to play. Each ghost's name gives a hint to its strategy for tracking down Pac-Man: Shadow ("Blinky") always chases Pac-Man, Speedy ("Pinky") tries to get ahead of him, Bashful ("Inky") uses a more complicated strategy to zero in on him, and Pokey ("Clyde") alternates between chasing him and running away. (The ghosts' Japanese names, translated into English, are Chaser, Ambusher, Fickle, and Stupid, respectively.) To break up the tension of constantly being pursued, humorous intermissions between Pac-Man and Blinky were added. The sound effects were among the last things added to the game, created by Toshio Kai. In a design session, Iwatani noisily ate fruit and made gurgling noises to describe to Kai how he wanted the eating effect to sound. Upon completion, the game was titled *Puck Man*, based on the working title and the titular character's distinct hockey puck-like shape.
## Release
Location testing for *Puck Man* began on May 22, 1980, in Shibuya, Tokyo, to a relatively positive fanfare from players. A private showing for the game was done in June, followed by a nationwide release in July. Eyeing the game's success in Japan, Namco initialized plans to bring the game to the international market, particularly the United States. Before showing the game to distributors, Namco America made a number of changes, such as altering the names of the ghosts. The biggest of these was the game's title; executives at Namco were worried that vandals would change the “P” in *Puck Man* to an “F”, forming an [name](obscene)(Fuck). Masaya Nakamura chose to rename it to *Pac-Man*, as he felt it was closer to the game's original Japanese title of *Pakkuman*. In Europe, the game was released under both titles, *Pac-Man* and *Puck Man*.
When Namco presented *Pac-Man* and *[Rally-X](Rally-X)* to potential distributors at the 1980 AMOA tradeshow in November, executives believed that *Rally-X* would be the best-selling game of that year. According to *[Meter](Play)(Play Meter)* magazine, both *Pac-Man* and *Rally-X* received mild attention at the show. Namco had initially approached [Atari](Atari, Inc.) to distribute *Pac-Man*, but Atari refused the offer. [Manufacturing](Midway)(Midway Manufacturing) subsequently agreed to distribute both *Pac-Man* and *Rally-X* in North America, announcing their acquisition of the manufacturing rights on November 22 and releasing them in December.
## Ports
*Pac-Man* was ported to a plethora of home video game systems and personal computers; the most infamous of these is the 1982 [2600 conversion](Atari)(Pac-Man (Atari 2600)), designed by [Frye](Tod)(Tod Frye) and published by [Atari](Atari, Inc.). This version of the game was widely criticized for its inaccurate portrayal of the arcade version and for its peculiar design choices, most notably the flickering effect of the ghosts. However, it was a commercial success, having sold over seven million copies. Atari also released versions for the [Intellivision](Intellivision), [VIC-20](VIC-20), [64](Commodore)(Commodore 64), [II](Apple)(Apple II series), [PC](IBM)(IBM Personal Computer), [TI-99/4A](TI-99/4A), [Spectrum](ZX)(ZX Spectrum), and the [8-bit family](Atari)(Atari 8-bit family) of computers. A port for the [5200](Atari)(Atari 5200) was released in 1983, a version that many have seen as a significant improvement over the Atari 2600 version.
Namco released a version for the [Computer](Family)(Nintendo Entertainment System) in 1984 as one of the console's first third-party titles, as well as a port for the [MSX](MSX) computer. The Famicom version was later released in North America for the [Entertainment System](Nintendo)(Nintendo Entertainment System) by [Tengen](Tengen (company)), a subsidiary of [Games](Atari)(Atari Games). Tengen also produced an unlicensed version of the game in a black cartridge shell, released during a time where Tengen and Nintendo were in bitter disagreements over the latter's stance on quality control for their consoles; this version was later re-released by Namco as an official title in 1993, featuring a new cartridge label and box. The Famicom version was released for the [Disk System](Famicom)(Famicom Disk System) in 1990 as a budget title for the Disk Writer kiosks in retail stores. The same year, Namco released a port of *Pac-Man* for the [Boy](Game)(Game Boy), which allowed for two-player co-operative play via the [Link Cable](Game)(Game Link Cable) peripheral. A version for the [Gear](Game)(Game Gear) was released a year later, which also enabled support for multiplayer. In celebration of the game's 20th anniversary in 1999, Namco re-released the Game Boy version for the [Boy Color](Game)(Game Boy Color), bundled with *[Pac-Attack](Pac-Attack)* and titled *Pac-Man: Special Color Edition*. The same year, Namco and [SNK](SNK) co-published a port for the [Geo Pocket Color](Neo)(Neo Geo Pocket Color), which came with a circular "Cross Ring" that attached to the d-pad to restrict it to four-directional movement.
In 2001, Namco released a port of *Pac-Man* for various Japanese [phone](mobile)(mobile phone)s, being one of the company's first mobile game releases. The Famicom version of the game was re-released for the [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) in 2004 as part of the *Famicom Mini* series, released to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Famicom; this version was also released in North America and Europe under the *[NES Series](Classic)(Classic NES Series)* label. [Networks](Namco)(Namco Networks) released *Pac-Man* for [BREW](Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless) mobile devices in 2005. The arcade original was released for the [Live Arcade](Xbox)(Xbox Live Arcade) service in 2006, featuring achievements and online leaderboards. In 2009 a version for [iOS](iOS) devices was published; this release was later rebranded as *Pac-Man + Tournaments* in 2013, featuring new mazes and leaderboards. The NES version was released for the [Virtual Console](Wii)(Wii Virtual Console) in 2007. A [Roku](Roku) version was released in 2011, alongside a port of the Game Boy release for the [Virtual Console](3DS)(3DS Virtual Console). *Pac-Man* was one of four titles released under the *[Game Series](Arcade)(Arcade Game Series)* brand, which was published for the [One](Xbox)(Xbox One), [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and [PC](Personal computer) in 2016. In 2021, according to [Direct](Nintendo)(Nintendo Direct), it was announced that [Corporation](Hamster)(Hamster Corporation) would release *Pac-Man*, along with *[Xevious](Xevious)*, for the [Switch](Nintendo)(Nintendo Switch) and [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) as part of their *[Archives](Arcade)(Arcade Archives)* series, marking the first two Namco games to be included as part of the series.
*Pac-Man* is included in many [compilations](Namco)(List of Bandai Namco video game compilations), including *[Museum Vol. 1](Namco)(Namco Museum Vol. 1)* (1995), *[Museum 64](Namco)(Namco Museum 64)* (1999), *[Museum Battle Collection](Namco)(Namco Museum Battle Collection)* (2005), *[Museum DS](Namco)(Namco Museum DS)* (2007), *[Museum Essentials](Namco)(Namco Museum Essentials)* (2009), and *[Museum Megamix](Namco)(Namco Museum Megamix)* (2010). In 1996, it was re-released for arcades as part of *[Classic Collection Vol. 2](Namco)(Namco Classic Collection Vol. 2)*, alongside *[Dug](Dig)(Dig Dug)*, *[Rally-X](Rally-X)* and special "Arrangement" remakes of all three titles. [Microsoft](Microsoft) included *Pac-Man* in *[Return of Arcade](Microsoft)(Microsoft Return of Arcade)* (1995) as a way to help attract video game companies to their [95](Windows)(Windows 95) operating system. Namco released the game in the third volume of *Namco History* in Japan in 1998. The 2001 [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) compilation *[Collection](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Collection)* compiles *Pac-Man*, *[Pac-Mania](Pac-Mania)*, *Pac-Attack* and *[Arrangement](Pac-Man)(Namco Classic Collection Vol. 2#Pac-Man Arrangement)* onto one cartridge. *Pac-Man* is also a hidden extra in the arcade game *Ms. Pac-Man/Galaga - Class of 1981* (2001). A similar cabinet was released in 2005 that featured *Pac-Man* as the centerpiece. *[2: The New Adventures](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures)* (1993) and *[World 2](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man World 2)* (2002) have *Pac-Man* as an unlockable extra. Alongside the Xbox 360 remake *[Championship Edition](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Championship Edition)*, it was ported to the [3DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo 3DS) in 2012 as part of *[& Galaga Dimensions](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man & Galaga Dimensions)*. The 2010 [Wii](Wii) game *[Party](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Party)* and its 2011 3DS remake also include *Pac-Man* as a bonus game, alongside the arcade versions of *[Dug](Dig)(Dig Dug)* and *[Galaga](Galaga)*. In 2014, *Pac-Man* was included in the compilation title *[Museum](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Museum)* for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and PC, alongside several other *Pac-Man* games. The NES version is one of 30 games included in the [Classic Edition](NES)(NES Classic Edition).
## Reception
(Arcade) (NES)
| CVG = 9/10 (Atari 400/800)
| EuroG = 10/10 (Virtual Console)
| IGN = 7/10 (Neo Geo Pocket)
| rev1 = *Computer Games*
| rev1Score = Classic (computers) Positive (IBM PC)
| rev2 = *[Machines](Mean)(Mean Machines)*
| rev2Score = 80% (Game Boy)
| rev3 = *Popular Computing Weekly*
| rev3Score = (VIC-20)
| award1Pub = [Awards (1981)](Arcade)(Electronic Games#1982 Arcade Awards (1981))
| award1 = Best Commercial Arcade Game
| award2Pub = [Software Dealers Association](Video)(Video Software Dealers Association) (VSDA)
| award2 = Best Videogame
| award3Pub = [Dixons](Dixons Retail) (2001)
| award3 = Greatest Video Game
| award4Pub = *[List of Videogames](Killer)(Killer List of Videogames)*
| award4 = Most Popular Game
}}
Upon its North American debut at AMOA 1980, the game initially received a mild response. *[Meter](Play)(Play Meter)* magazine previewed the game and called it "a cute game which appears to grow on players, something which cute games are not prone to do." They said there's "more to the game than at first appears" but criticized the sound as a drawback, saying it's "good for awhile, then becomes annoying." Upon release, the game exceeded expectations with wide critical and commercial success.
### Commercial performance
When it was first released in Japan, *Pac-Man* was initially only a modest success; Namco's own *[Galaxian](Galaxian)* (1979) had quickly outdone the game in popularity, due to the predominately male player base being familiar with its shooting gameplay as opposed to *Pac-Man*s cute characters and maze-chase theme. *Pac-Man* eventually became very successful in Japan, where it went on to be Japan's highest-grossing [game of 1980](arcade)(1980 in video games) according to the annual *[Machine](Game)(:ja:ゲームマシン)* charts, dethroning *[Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders)* (1978) which had topped the annual charts for two years in a row and leading to a shift in the Japanese market away from space shooters towards action games featuring comical characters.s "The Year's Best Three AM Machines" Survey Results|magazine=[Machine](Game)(:ja:ゲームマシン)|issue=207|publisher=[Press, Inc.](Amusement)(:ja:アミューズメント通信社)|date=1 March 1983|page=30|url=https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19830301p.pdf#page=16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131232040/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19830301p.pdf|archive-date=31 January 2020|url-status=live}} *Pac-Man* was also Japan's fourth highest-grossing arcade game of 1981.
In North America, Midway had limited expectations prior to release, initially manufacturing 5,000 units for the US, before it caught on immediately upon release there. Some arcades purchased entire rows of *Pac-Man'' cabinets. It soon became a nationwide success. Upon release in 1980, it was earning about million per week in the United States. Within one year, more than 100,000 arcade units had been sold which grossed more than billion in [quarters](Quarter (United States coin)). It overtook [Atari](Atari, Inc.)'s *[Asteroids](Asteroids (video game))* (1979) as the best-selling arcade game in the country, and surpassed the film *[Wars: A New Hope](Star)(Star Wars: A New Hope)* (1977) with more than billion in revenue. *Pac-Man* was America's highest-grossing [game of 1981](arcade)(1981 in video games), and second highest [of 1982](game)(1982 in video games). By 1982, it was estimated to have had 30 million active players across the United States. The game's success was partly driven by its popularity among female audiences, becoming "the first commercial videogame to involve large numbers of women as players" according to Midway's Stan Jarocki, with *Pac-Man* being the favorite coin-op game among [gamers](female)(female gamers) through 1982. Among the nine arcade games covered by *How to Win Video Games* (1982), *Pac-Man* was the only one with females accounting for a majority of players.
The number of arcade units sold had tripled to 400,000 by 1982, receiving an estimated total of between seven billion coins and billion. In a 1983 interview, Nakamura said that though he did expect *Pac-Man* to be successful, "I never thought it would be this big." *Pac-Man* is the best-selling arcade game of all time (surpassing *Space Invaders*), with total estimated earnings ranging from coins and $3.5 billion ($7.7 billion adjusted for inflation) to billion (|long=no}} billion adjusted for inflation) in arcades. *Pac-Man* and *[Pac-Man](Ms.)(Ms. Pac-Man)* also topped the US *RePlay* [arcade cabinet](cocktail)(cocktail arcade cabinet) charts for 23 months, from [1982](February)(1982 in video games) through [1983](1983 in video games) up until [1984](February)(1984 in video games).
The Atari 2600 version of the game sold over copies, Via |}} in 1986. 61,685 in 1987. 3,885 in 1988. 34,374 in 1989. 2,166 in 1990.}} making it the [best-selling title](console's)(List of best-selling Atari 2600 video games). In addition, [Coleco](Coleco)'s tabletop mini-arcade unit sold over units in 1982, the *Pac-Man* [Game Watch](Nelsonic)(Nelsonic Game Watch) sold more than 500,000 units the same year, the [Computer](Family)(Family Computer) (Famicom) version and its 2004 [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) re-release sold a combined 598,000 copies in Japan, the [5200](Atari)(Atari 5200) version sold |}} cartridges between 1986 and 1988, the [XE](Atari)(Atari XE) computer version sold |}} copies in 1986 and 1990, Thunder Mountain's 1986 budget release for home computers received a Diamond certification from the [Publishers Association](Software)(Software Publishers Association) in 1989 for selling over 500,000 copies, and mobile phone ports have sold over paid downloads . *II Computing* also listed the [Atarisoft](Atarisoft) port tenth on the magazine's list of top [II](Apple)(Apple II) games as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data. , all versions of *Pac-Man* are estimated to have grossed a total of more than billion in revenue.
### Accolades
*Pac-Man* was awarded "Best Commercial Arcade Game" at the [Arcade Awards](1982)(Electronic Games#1982 Arcade Awards (1981))."1981 Arcade Awards" – *Electronic Games* March 1982, pages 46–49. *Pac-Man* also won the [Software Dealers Association](Video)(Video Software Dealers Association)'s VSDA Award for Best Videogame. In 2001, *Pac-Man* was voted the greatest video game of all time by a [Dixons](Dixons Retail) poll in the UK. The *[List of Videogames](Killer)(Killer List of Videogames)* listed *Pac-Man* as the most popular game of all time. The list aggregator site Playthatgame currently ranks Pac-Man as the #53rd top game of all-time & game of the year.
### Impact
*Pac-Man* is considered by many to be one of the most influential video games of all time.[The ten most influential video games ever](https://web.archive.org/web/20110902230443/http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/gadgets_and_gaming/article2455080.ece), *[Times](The)(The Times)*, September 20, 2007 The game established the [chase game](maze)(List of maze chase games) genre, was the first video game to make use of [power-up](power-up)s, and the individual ghosts have deterministic [intelligence](artificial)(Artificial intelligence (video games)) (AI) that reacts to player actions. *Pac-Man* is considered one of the first video games to have demonstrated the potential of [in the medium](characters)(Player character); its title character was the first original gaming [mascot](mascot), it increased the appeal of video games with [audiences](female)(Girl gamer), and it was gaming's first broad [licensing](licensing) success. It is often cited as the first game with [cutscene](cutscene)s (in the form of brief comical interludes about [Pac-Man](Pac-Man (character)) and [Blinky](Blinky (Pac-Man)) chasing each other), though actually *[Invaders Part II](Space)(Space Invaders Part II)* employed a similar style of between-level intermissions in 1979.
*Pac-Man* was a turning point for the [video game](arcade)(arcade video game) industry, which had previously been dominated by space ['em ups](shoot)(shoot 'em ups) since *[Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders)* (1978). *Pac-Man* popularized a genre of "character-led" [games](action)(action games), leading to a wave of character action games involving [characters](player)(player characters) in 1981, such as [Nintendo](Nintendo)'s prototypical [game](platform)(platform game) *[Kong](Donkey)(Donkey Kong (arcade game))*, [Konami](Konami)'s *[Frogger](Frogger)* and [Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Entertainment)'s *[Bug](Lady)(Lady Bug (video game))*. *Pac-Man* was one of the first popular non-shooting action games, defining key elements of the genre such as "parallel visual processing" which requires simultaneously keeping track of multiple entities, including the player's location, the enemies, and the energizers.
"Maze chase" games exploded on home computers after the release of *Pac-Man*. Some of them appeared before official ports and garnered more attention from consumers, and sometimes lawyers, as a result. These include *[Taxman](Taxman (video game))* (1981) and *[Attack](Snack)(Snack Attack)* (1982) for the Apple II, *[Jawbreaker](Jawbreaker (video game))* (1981) for the Atari 8-bit family, *[Scarfman](Scarfman)* (1981) for the TRS-80, and *[Munchkin!](K.C.)(K.C. Munchkin!)* (1981) for the Odyssey². Namco themselves produced several other maze chase games, including *[Rally-X](Rally-X)* (1980), *[Dug](Dig)(Dig Dug)* (1982), *[Exvania](Exvania)* (1992), and *[Pit](Tinkle)(Tinkle Pit)* (1994). Atari sued [Philips](Philips) for creating *K.C. Munchkin* in the case *[Inc. v. North American Philips Consumer Electronics Corp.](Atari,)(Atari, Inc. v. North American Philips Consumer Electronics Corp.)*, leading to *Munchkin* being pulled from store shelves under court order. No major competitors emerged to challenge *Pac-Man* in the maze-chase subgenre.
*Pac-Man* also inspired 3D variants of the concept, such as *[Maze](Monster)(Monster Maze)* (1982), *[Spectre](Spectre (Apple II video game))* (1982), and early [shooter](first-person)(first-person shooter)s such as *[Maze](MIDI)(MIDI Maze)* (1987; which also had similar character designs). ([Translation](https://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meristation.com%2Fv3%2Fdes_articulo.php%3Fpic%3DDC%26id%3Dcw42b7458f0dfc7%26idj%3D%26idp%3D%26tipo%3Dart%26c%3D1%26pos%3D7&sl=es&tl=en&hl=&ie=UTF-8)) [Romero](John)(John Romero) credited *Pac-Man* as the game that had the biggest influence on his career; *[3D](Wolfenstein)(Wolfenstein 3D)* includes a *Pac-Man* level from a first-person perspective. Many post-*Pac-Man* titles include [power-ups](power-ups) that briefly turn the tables on the enemy. The game's artificial intelligence inspired programmers who later worked for companies like [Bethesda](Bethesda Softworks).
## Reviews
Reviewing home console versions in 1982, *[Games](Games (magazine))* magazine called the [5200](Atari)(Atari 5200) implementation a "splendidly reproduced" version of the arcade game, noting a difference in maze layouts for the television screen. It considered the [2600](Atari)(Atari 2600) version to have "much weaker graphics", but to still be one of the best games for that console. In both cases the reviewer felt that the [joystick](joystick) controls were harder to use than those of the arcade machine, and that "attempts to make quick turns are often frustrated".
## Legacy
[[File:The_Art_of_Video_Games_2012_(6848237506).jpg|thumb|*Pac-Man* interactive exposition at [Art of Video Games](The)(The Art of Video Games)]]
[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records) has awarded the *Pac-Man* series eight records in ''Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008'', including "Most Successful Coin-Operated Game". On June 3, 2010, at the NLGD Festival of Games, the game's creator, Toru Iwatani, officially received the certificate from Guinness World Records for *Pac-Man* having had the most "coin-operated arcade machines" installed worldwide: 293,822. The record was set and recognized in 2005 and mentioned in the ''Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008*, but finally actually awarded in 2010. In 2009, *Guinness World Records'' listed Pac-Man as the most recognizable video game character in the United States, recognized by 94% of the population, above [Mario](Mario) who was recognized by 93% of the population. In 2015, [Strong National Museum of Play](The)(The Strong National Museum of Play) inducted *Pac-Man* to its [Video Game Hall of Fame](World)(World Video Game Hall of Fame). The Pac-Man character and game series became an icon of [game culture during the 1980s](video)(1980s in video games).
The game has inspired various real-life recreations, involving real people or robots. One event called [Pac-Manhattan](Pac-Manhattan) set a Guinness World Record for "Largest *Pac-Man* Game" in 2004.
The business term "[defense](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man defense)" in [and acquisitions](mergers)(mergers and acquisitions) refers to a [takeover](hostile)(Takeover) target that attempts to reverse the situation and instead acquire its attempted acquirer, a reference to *Pac-Man*s energizers. The "Pac-Man [renormalization](renormalization)" is named for a cosmetic resemblance to the character, in the mathematical study of the [set](Mandelbrot)(Mandelbrot set). The game's popularity has also led to "Pac-Man" being adopted as a nickname, such as by boxer [Pacquiao](Manny)(Manny Pacquiao) and the [football](American)(American football) player [Jones](Adam)(Adam Jones (American football)).
On August 21, 2016, in the [Summer Olympics closing ceremony](2016)(2016 Summer Olympics closing ceremony), during a video which showcases Tokyo as the host of the [Summer Olympics](2020)(2020 Summer Olympics), a small segment shows Pac-Man and the ghosts racing and eating dots on a [track](running)(All-weather running track).
### Merchandise
A wide variety of *Pac-Man* merchandise have been marketed with the character's image. By 1982, Midway had about 95-105 licensees selling *Pac-Man* merchandise, including major companies, such as [AT&T](AT&T) selling a *Pac-Man* [telephone](telephone). There were more than 500 *Pac-Man* related products.
[7-Eleven](7-Eleven) has long sold *Pac-Man* themed merchandise at its stores since the game's initial popularity in the 1980s. This has included, among other things, collectible [Slurpee](Slurpee) & [Gulp](Big)(Big Gulp) cups. In 2023, 7-Eleven included *Pac-Man* in its Spring 2023 marketing material including at [Speedway](Speedway (store)) and [Stripes](Stripes Convenience Stores) banner locations, and sold more merchandise around the game as well as rebranding some of its products after the ghosts. This included its house blend [coffee](coffee) (Clyde's Coffee Blend), two Slurpee flavors (Blinky's Cherry & Inky's Blueberry Raz), and a special [time only](limited)(limited time only) [cappuccino](cappuccino) flavor (Pinky's Strawberry White Chocolate Cappuccino), the latter of which came out pink to match the ghost.
*Pac-Man* themed merchandise sales had exceeded billion in the US by 1982. *Pac-Man* related merchandise products included [sticker](bumper)(bumper sticker)s, [jewellery](jewellery), accessories (such as a $20,000 *Ms. Pac-Man* [choker](choker) with 14 [karat](karat) gold), [bicycle](bicycle)s, [cereal](breakfast)(breakfast cereal)s, [popsicles](Ice pop), [t-shirt](t-shirt)s, toys, [electronic game](handheld)(handheld electronic game) imitations, and pasta.
### Television
The *[Pac-Man](Pac-Man (TV series))* animated television series produced by [Hanna–Barbera](Hanna–Barbera) aired on [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) from 1982 to 1983. It was the highest-rated [morning cartoon](Saturday)(Saturday morning cartoon) show in the US during late 1982.
A computer-generated animated series titled *[and the Ghostly Adventures](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures)* aired on [XD](Disney)(Disney XD) in June 2013,White, Cindy. (June 17, 2010) ["E3 2010: Pac-Man Back on TV?"](http://tv.ign.com/articles/109/1099961p1.html) . IGN.com. Retrieved July 7, 2010.Morris, Chris. (June 17, 2010) ["Pac-Man chomps at 3D TV](https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118020718.html?categoryid=1009&cs=1) . Variety.com. Retrieved July 7, 2010. and also on [Family](Discovery)(Discovery Family) in November 2019.
### Literature
The original *Pac-Man* game plays a key role in the plot of [Cline's](Ernest)(Ernest Cline) video game-themed science fiction novel [Player One](Ready)(Ready Player One).
### Music
The [& Garcia](Buckner)(Buckner & Garcia) song "[Fever](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Fever (song))" (1981) went to No. 9 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) charts, and received a [certification](Gold)(RIAA certification) for more than 1 million records sold by 1982, and a total of 2.5 million copies sold as of 2008. More than one million copies of the group's *[Fever](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Fever (album))* album (1982) were sold.[RIAA Gold & Platinum Searchable Database – Pac-Man Fever](https://web.archive.org/web/20150904081506/http://riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?resultpage=1&table=SEARCH_RESULTS&action=&title=Pac-Man_Fever&artist=&format=&debutLP=&category=&sex=&releaseDate=&requestNo=&type=&level=&label=&company=&certificationDate=&awardDescription=&catalogNo=&aSex=&rec_id=&charField=&gold=&platinum=&multiPlat=&level2=&certDate=&album=&id=&after=&before=&startMonth=1&endMonth=1&startYear=1958&endYear=2009&sort=Artist&perPage=10) . RIAA.com. Retrieved November 1, 2009.
In 1982, [Al" Yankovic]("Weird)("Weird Al" Yankovic) recorded a parody of "[Taxman](Taxman)" by [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) as "Pac-Man". It was eventually released in 2017 as part of *[Box: The Complete Works of "Weird Al" Yankovic](Squeeze)(Squeeze Box: The Complete Works of "Weird Al" Yankovic)*. In 1992, [Twin](Aphex)(Aphex Twin) (with the name Power-Pill) released *[Pac-Man](Pac-Man (album))*, a techno album which consists mostly of samples from the game.
The character appears in the music video for [Gang](Bloodhound)(Bloodhound Gang)'s "[Mope](Mope)", released in 2000. Here, the character is portrayed as a [cocaine](cocaine) addict.
On July 20, 2020, [Gorillaz](Gorillaz) and [Q](ScHoolboy)(Schoolboy Q), released a track entitled "[PAC-MAN](PAC-MAN (Gorillaz song))" as a part of Gorillaz' [Machine](Song)(Song Machine) series to commemorate the game's [anniversary](40th)(Pac-Man 40th Anniversary), with the music video depicting the band's frontman, [2-D](2-D (character)), playing a Gorillaz-themed Pac-Man arcade game.
### Film
The Pac-Man character appears in the film *[Pixels](Pixels (2015 film))* (2015), with [Akiyama](Denis)(Denis Akiyama) playing series creator Toru Iwatani. Iwatani makes a cameo at the beginning of the film as an arcade technician.Tarek Bazley: [*Pac-man at 35: the video game that changed the world*](http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/pac-man-35-video-game-changed-world-150524104416978.html) *Pac-Man* is referenced and makes an appearance in the 2017 film, *[of the Galaxy Vol. 2](Guardians)(Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2)*, and the video game, ''[Guardians of the Galaxy](Marvel's)(Marvel's Guardians of the Galaxy)*. The game, the character, and the ghosts all also appear in the film *[Ralph](Wreck-It)(Wreck-It Ralph)'', as well as the sequel *[Breaks the Internet](Ralph)(Ralph Breaks the Internet)*.
In *[Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale](Sword)(Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale)* where Kirito and his friends beat a [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) game called *PAC-Man 2026*, which is loosely based on *[256](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man 256)*.. Al Jazeera English, May 25, 2015 In the Japanese [tokusatsu](tokusatsu) film *Kamen Rider Heisei Generations: Dr. Pac-Man vs. Ex-Aid & Ghost with Legend Riders*, a Pac-Man-like character is the main villain.
The 2018 film *[Relaxer](Relaxer (film))* uses *Pac-Man* as a strong plot element in the story of a 1999 couch-bound man who attempts to beat the game (and encounters the famous Level 256 glitch) before the [2000 problem](year)(year 2000 problem) occurs.
Various attempts for a feature film based on Pac-Man have been planned since the peak of the original game's popularity. Following the release of Ms. Pac-Man, a feature film was being developed, but never reached an agreement. In 2008, a live-action film based on the series was in development at Crystal Sky.["Crystal Sky, Namco & Gaga are game again"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071020015300/http://www.crystalsky.com/press/TEKKEN/CS%20%26%20Namco%20are%20Game%20again%202004.pdf). Crystalsky.com. Retrieved August 11, 2008.Jaafar, Ali (May 19, 2008) ["Crystal Sky signs $200 million deal"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100416225534/http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=festivals&jump=story&id=1061&articleid=VR1117986081&cs=1). Variety.com. Retrieved September 4, 2008. In 2022, plans for a live-action Pac-Man film were revived at Wayfarer Studios, based on an idea by Chuck Williams.
### Other gaming media
In 1982, [Bradley Company](Milton)(Milton Bradley Company) released a board game based on *Pac-Man*. Players move up to four Pac-Man characters (traditional yellow plus red, green, and blue) plus two ghosts as per the throws of a pair of dice. The two ghost pieces were randomly packed with one of four colors.
Sticker manufacturer [Fleer](Fleer) included [game cards](rub-off)(Scratchcard) with its *Pac-Man* stickers. The card packages contain a *Pac-Man* style maze with all points along the path hidden with opaque coverings. From the starting position, the player moves around the maze while scratching off the coverings to score points.
A *Pac-Man*-themed [content](downloadable)(downloadable content) package for *[Minecraft](Minecraft)* was released in 2020 in commemoration of the game's [anniversary](40th)(Pac-Man 40th Anniversary). This pack introduced a new ghost called 'Creepy', based on the [Creeper](Creeper (Minecraft)).
### Perfect scores and other records
A perfect score on the original *Pac-Man* arcade game is 3,333,360 points, achieved when the player obtains the maximum score on the first 255 levels by eating every dot, energizer, fruit and blue ghost without losing a man, then uses all six men to obtain the maximum possible number of points on level 256.
The first person to achieve a publicly witnessed and verified perfect score without manipulating the game's hardware to freeze play was [Mitchell](Billy)(Billy Mitchell (gamer)), who performed the feat on July 3, 1999. Some recordkeeping organizations removed Mitchell's score after a 2018 investigation by [Galaxies](Twin)(Twin Galaxies) concluded that two unrelated *[Kong](Donkey)(Donkey Kong (arcade game))* score performances submitted by Mitchell had not used an unmodified original circuit board. As of July 2020, seven other gamers had achieved perfect *Pac-Man* scores on original arcade hardware. The world record for the fastest completion of a perfect score, according to Twin Galaxies, is currently held by David Race with a time of 3 hours, 28 minutes, 49 seconds.
In December 1982, eight-year-old boy Jeffrey R. Yee received a letter from United States president [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) congratulating him on a world record score of 6,131,940 points, possible only if he had passed level 256. In September 1983, [Day](Walter)(Walter Day), chief scorekeeper at Twin Galaxies at the time, took the [National Video Game Team](U.S.)(U.S. National Video Game Team) on a tour of the East Coast to visit gamers who claimed the ability to pass that level. None demonstrated such an ability. In 1999, Billy Mitchell offered $100,000 to anyone who could pass level 256 before January 1, 2000. The offer expired with the prize unclaimed.
After announcing in 2018 that it would no longer recognize the first perfect score on *Pac-Man*, Guinness World Records reversed that decision and reinstated Billy Mitchell's 1999 performance on June 18, 2020.
## Remakes and sequels
*Pac-Man* inspired a long series of sequels, remakes, and re-imaginings, and is one of the longest-running video game franchises in history. The first of these was *[Pac-Man](Ms.)(Ms. Pac-Man)*, developed by the American-based [Computer Corporation](General)(General Computer Corporation) and published by Midway in 1982. The character's gender was changed to female in response to *Pac-Man*s popularity with women, with new mazes, moving bonus items, and faster gameplay being implemented to increase its appeal. *Ms. Pac-Man* is one of the best-selling arcade games in North America, where *Pac-Man* and *Ms. Pac-Man* had become the most successful machines in the history of the [arcade](amusement)(amusement arcade) industry. Legal concerns raised over who owned the game caused *Ms. Pac-Man* to become owned by Namco, who assisted in production of the game. *Ms. Pac-Man* inspired its own line of remakes, including *[Pac-Man Maze Madness](Ms.)(Ms. Pac-Man Maze Madness)* (2000), and *[Pac-Man: Quest for the Golden Maze](Ms.)(Ms. Pac-Man: Quest for the Golden Maze)*, and is also included in many Namco and *Pac-Man* collections for consoles.
Namco's own follow-up to the original was *[Pac-Man](Super)(Super Pac-Man)*, released in 1982. This was followed by the Japan-exclusive *[& Pal](Pac)(Pac & Pal)* in 1983. Midway produced many other *Pac-Man* sequels during the early 1980s, including *[Plus](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Plus)* (1982), *[Pac-Man](Jr.)(Jr. Pac-Man)* (1983), *[Pac-Man](Baby)(Baby Pac-Man)* (1983), and *[Pac-Man](Professor)(Professor Pac-Man)* (1984). Other games include the isometric *[Pac-Mania](Pac-Mania)* (1987), the side-scrollers *[Pac-Land](Pac-Land)* (1984), *[Pac-Man](Hello!)(Pac-Man 2: The New Adventures)* (1994), and *[Pac-In-Time](Pac-In-Time)* (1995), the 3D platformer *[World](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man World)* (1999), and the puzzle games *[Pac-Attack](Pac-Attack)* (1991) and *[Pac-Pix](Pac-Pix)* (2005). Iwatani designed *Pac-Land* and *Pac-Mania*, both of which remain his favorite games in the series. *[Championship Edition](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Championship Edition)*, published for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) in 2007, was Iwatani's final game before leaving the company. Its neon visuals and fast-paced gameplay was met with acclaim, leading to the creation of *[Championship Edition DX](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Championship Edition DX)* (2010) and *[Championship Edition 2](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Championship Edition 2)* (2016).
[Coleco](Coleco)'s [tabletop](Handheld electronic game) [Mini-Arcade](Coleco#History) versions of the game yielded 1.5 million units sold in 1982. [Industries](Nelsonic)(Nelsonic Industries) produced a *Pac-Man* [LCD](LCD) [wristwatch](wristwatch) game with a simplified maze also in 1982.
[Networks](Namco)(Namco Networks) sold a downloadable Windows PC version of *Pac-Man* in 2009 which also includes an enhanced mode which replaces all of the original sprites with the sprites from *[Championship Edition](Pac-Man)(Pac-Man Championship Edition)*. Namco Networks made a downloadable bundle which includes its PC version of *Pac-Man* and its port of *[Dug](Dig)(Dig Dug)* called *[All-Stars: Pac-Man and Dig Dug](Namco)(List of Namco retro video game compilations#Namco All-Stars: Pac-Man and Dig Dug)*. In 2010, [Bandai](Namco)(Namco Bandai) announced the release of the game on [Phone 7](Windows)(Windows Phone 7) as an Xbox Live game.
For the weekend of May 21–23, 2010, [Google](Google) changed the logo on its homepage to a playable version of the game in recognition of the 30th anniversary of the game's release. The [Doodle](Google)(Google Doodle) version of *Pac-Man* was estimated to have been played by more than 1 billion people worldwide in 2010, so Google later gave the game its own page.
In April 2011, Soap Creative published ''[Biggest Pac-Man](World's)(World's Biggest Pac-Man)*, working together with [Microsoft](Microsoft) and Namco-Bandai to celebrate *Pac-Man''s 30th anniversary. It is a multiplayer browser-based game with user-created, interlocking mazes.
For [Fools' Day](April)(April Fools' Day) in 2017, Google created a playable of the game on [Maps](Google)(Google Maps) where users were able to play the game using the map onscreen.
## Technology
The original arcade system board had one [Z80](Z80)A processor, running at 3.072 Mhz, 16 kbyte of ROM and 3 kbyte of static RAM. Of those 1 kbyte each was for video RAM, color RAM and generic program RAM. There were two custom chips on the board: the 285 sync bus controller and the 284 video RAM addresser, but daughterboards made only from standard parts were also widely used instead. Video output was (analog) component video with composite sync. A further 8 kbyte of character ROM was used for characters, background tiles and sprites and an additional 1 kbit of static RAM was used to hold 4bpp sprite data for one scanline and was written to during the horizontal blanking period preceding each line. Sprite size was always 16x16 pixels, one of the four colors per pixel was for transparency (of the background).
The monitor was installed 90 degree rotated clockwise, the first visible scanline started in the top right corner and ends in the bottom right corner. The horizontal blanking period, which starts after the level indicator at the bottom is drawn, had a duration of 96 pixel clock ticks, enough time to fetch 4 bytes of sprite data per 16 clock ticks for 6 sprites. Although attribute memory exists for them, sprite 0 and 7 are unusable, their pixel fetch timing window occupied by the bottom level indicator (which just precedes the hblank) for sprite 0 and two rows of characters at the top of the screen, which just follow the hblank, for sprite 7.
## Notes
## References
}}
## Further reading
* Comprehensive coverage on the history of the entire series up through 1999.
* Morris, Chris (May 10, 2005). "[Pac Man Turns 25](https://money.cnn.com/2005/05/10/commentary/game_over/column_gaming/)". *[Money](CNN)(CNN Money)*.
* Vargas, Jose Antonio (June 22, 2005). "[Still Love at First Bite: At 25, Pac-Man Remains a Hot Pursuit](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/21/AR2005062101747.html)". *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*.
* Hirschfeld, Tom. *[to Master the Video Games](How)(How to Master the Video Games)*, Bantam Books, 1981. Strategy guide for a variety of arcade games including *Pac-Man*. Includes drawings of some of the common patterns.
## External links
*
* [*Pac-Man* highscores](https://www.twingalaxies.com/game/pac-man/arcade) on [Galaxies](Twin)(Twin Galaxies)
* [*Pac-Man*](https://www.arcade-history.com/?page=detail&id=1914) on *Arcade History*
*
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Devilman Crybaby
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devilman_crybaby
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# Devilman Crybaby
*Revision ID: 1159733904 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T06:22:30Z*
---
|[fantasy](Dark)(Dark fantasy) |[Superhero](superhero fiction)}}
}}
|writer = [Ōkouchi](Ichirō)(Ichirō Ōkouchi)
|music = [Ushio](Kensuke)(Kensuke Ushio)
|studio = [SARU](Science)(Science SARU)
|licensee = [Netflix](Netflix)
|released = January 5, 2018
|runtime = 24–27 minutes
|episodes = 10
|episode_list = #Episodes
}}
***Devilman Crybaby*** is a 2018 Japanese [net animation](original)(original net animation) (ONA) series based on [Nagai](Go)(Go Nagai)'s [manga](manga) series *[Devilman](Devilman)*. The web [anime](anime) is directed by [Yuasa](Masaaki)(Masaaki Yuasa), produced by [Aniplex](Aniplex) and [Planning](Dynamic)(Dynamic Planning), animated by [SARU](Science)(Science SARU), and released by [Netflix](Netflix). Yuasa was offered the opportunity to create a *Devilman* project by Aniplex, and envisioned *Devilman Crybaby*. Announced in 2017 to mark Nagai's 50th anniversary as a creator, *Crybaby* was made available for worldwide streaming on January 5, 2018, as a [original series](Netflix)(List of original programs distributed by Netflix).
The series updates the original 1970s setting to the 21st century but retains the basic premise of Nagai's manga, following [Fudo](Akira)(Akira Fudo) and his friend Ryo Asuka as they face an ancient race of demons that seek to destroy humanity. Believing the only way to defeat the demons is to obtain their powers, Ryo proposes that Akira unite with a demon; in doing so Akira transforms into the titular Devilman, gaining the powers of a demon but retaining the soul of a human. The [anti-war](Anti-war movement) themes of the original *Devilman* are re-interpreted as a metaphor for [bigotry](bigotry), in which manipulation and paranoia are discussed using the allegory of the demons as "[other](the)(other (philosophy))". The anime's themes of puberty, sexuality, sex, love, and [LGBT](LGBT) identity were explored in critics' analysis of the work, along with a debate over whether the series' perspective and ending are [nihilistic](Nihilism).
Fans were divided in their response to Yuasa's take on Nagai's work, though the series' announcement and release were among the most widely discussed anime series released in 2018. Its viewership numbers are unknown as Netflix does not disclose these figures, though many journalists described the series as a hit. Critics assessed *Crybaby* favorably, with some calling it a "masterpiece," the best Netflix anime, and one of the best anime of the year overall and the decade. Although the response to its graphic content and ending was divided, its animation, soundtrack, characterization, openly LGBT characters, and faithfulness to the original manga were praised.
## Plot
High school student [Fudo](Akira)(Akira Fudo) lives with his only friend and longtime crush Miki Makimura, her brother Taro, and her parents Noel and Akiko. When Akira attempts to defend Miki from a gang led by rapper Wamu, he is rescued by his childhood friend Ryo Asuka. Ryo tells Akira that his recent expedition to the [rainforest](Amazon)(Amazon rainforest) revealed the existence of demons, but that the world's governments are suppressing this information.
Planning to expose the demons, Ryo takes Akira to an underground [nightclub](nightclub); he attacks its patrons with a broken bottle, causing demons to appear. Ryo films the demons massacring the humans but is attacked and pinned by a demon. Akira's will overpowers Amon, a powerful demon who tries to possess him, transforming him into Amon's demon form and allowing him to slaughter the demons. Ryo and Akira fight several demons including Amon's lover Sirene, her associate Kaim, and the sadistic Jinmen who is responsible for the deaths of Akira's parents.
Akira and Ryo's friendship becomes strained over time due to Ryo's extreme actions to protect Akira's secret. Ryo eventually reveals on television that track star Moyuru Koda is also a demon. The revelation of the existence of demons triggers a global panic, leading humanity to turn on itself while the demons begin possessing humans on a large scale. Disgusted by Ryo's apathy toward the chaos he has caused, Akira, alongside Koda and fellow devilman Miki "Miko" Kuroda, begins trying to find other Devilmen. As Tokyo descends into chaos, Miki's family falls victim to the police and is buried by Akira outside the city. Confused by his own actions, Ryo returns to the Amazon rainforest.
After returning, Ryo lies about the origin of demons during a worldwide broadcast and shows footage of Akira transforming into Devilman, and the world descends into mass violence and [genocide](genocide). After talking to social media to defend Akira, Miki, and her friends are violently murdered by a paranoid mob who believes them to be demons. A grief-stricken Akira kills the entire mob in retribution after witnessing them maniacally parading around with the dismembered bodies of his friends on pikes.
Akira soon confronts Ryo, who reveals he is the fallen angel [Satan](Satan). As Satan discovered the demons living on Earth after being cast out of Heaven, and though his body and the demons were destroyed by God, their souls endured their physical destruction. Having reincarnated as Ryo, Satan explains that he intends to exterminate humanity for defiling the world; he made Akira a Devilman to allow him to survive in the world to come, and to thank him for being by his side when he was human. Akira refuses to join Satan's cause and gathers the other Devilmen to fight Satan's army, but is defeated.
With humanity, the demons, and the Devilmen obliterated and the Earth a devastated ruin, Satan reminisces with Akira until he realizes Akira has already died. Having killed the only person he ever loved, Satan becomes emotionally devastated and overwhelmed with grief. He tearfully cradles Akira's lifeless body as an army of angels descends, who destroy and reform the Earth.
## Characters and Voice Cast
## Production and release
[[NATION 2017】 0s.jpg|thumb|*Devilman Crybaby* is based on the manga by Go Nagai (*pictured*) but director Masaaki Yuasa worked on the anime considering that Nagai was probably restrained by the demographics of a *shōnen* magazine.](File:永井豪氏からのスペシャルメッセージ【12月開催！TAMASHII)]
### Development and staff
*Devilman Crybaby* is based on Go Nagai's manga *Devilman*. It was produced as a [original series](Netflix)(List of original programs distributed by Netflix) by [Aniplex](Aniplex) and Nagai's [Planning](Dynamic)(Dynamic Planning), and animated by [Yuasa](Masaaki)(Masaaki Yuasa)'s studio [SARU](Science)(Science SARU). Yuasa directed the anime, [Ōkouchi](Ichirō)(Ichirō Ōkouchi) wrote the script and [Choi](Eunyoung)(Eunyoung Choi) served as the animation producer. [Kurashima](Ayumi)(Ayumi Kurashima) was the character designer, while Kiyotaka Oshiyama was responsible specifically for the demon's design. Although Yuasa was a fan of the original *Devilman*, it was a project he never imagined he would work on. It was Aniplex with whom he collaborated on *[Pong the Animation](Ping)(Ping Pong the Animation)* (2014), that suggested a *Devilman* adaptation. Yuasa did *Crybaby* aware that Nagai was probably restrained in the depiction of its sexual and violent content by having *Devilman* published in a *[shōnen](shōnen)* (young males) magazine. The director commented that Nagai's later works were "even more extreme" and so he created *Crybaby* with the mindset of "If Nagai-sensei could have done as he pleased, he'd have gone this far". Yuasa also expressed his desire in creating a sequel to *Crybaby*, saying that if he did, he could explore the "different settings and ways of telling the story".
### Setting
*Crybaby* updates the 1970s scenario of Nagai's manga on which it is based to a 21st-century setting. While the manga featured delinquents who bullied Akira, the anime uses rappers as substitutes for them. Because of that, some episodes feature extended rap sequences performed by professional rappers. These rap performances function as a type of narrator throughout the series. The director said he made this change because he believes "rappers are the people who speak what's on their minds today". It features commentaries done through rapid text messages and social media to explore humans' reaction to demons. Yuasa commented that the technologies and social media's popularity made the 21st-century situation very close to the *Devilman* manga's violent scenario, as "people are a lot more connected, for good and bad". On the bad side, he cited people getting shot over a video game, police brutality towards African-Americans, the rise of nationalism in politics, and problems being blamed on foreigners. On the good side, he mentioned people [out](coming)(coming out) as [LGBT](LGBT) through social media and a greater "acceptance of different opinions and lifestyles". The series takes place in a universe in which the 1970s *Devilman* TV series exists, its theme song appears as a child's ringtone, and the bedroom of one of the children is filled with *Devilman* anime objects.
### Release and merchandise
The series was first announced in March 2017 to celebrate Nagai's 50th anniversary as a creator. In August, its first trailer was released on [Netflix](Netflix) Japan's [YouTube](YouTube) channel and it was revealed that the anime would have ten episodes. All episodes were released exclusively on Netflix on January 5, 2018, in 90 countries or territories. The series was made available in 23 subtitled languages and seven spoken languages; the dubbed languages include English, French, German, Italian, Brazilian Portuguese, standard Spanish, and Castilian Spanish. On May 30, 2018, Aniplex Japan released the complete series on Blu-ray Disc as part of a "complete box". An exhibit of the series called *Sabbath Shibuya* was held at Japanese music store chain [Records](Tower)(Tower Records) between May and June 2018. Japanese clothing brand [Beams](Beams (brand)) produced *Devilman Crybaby*-inspired street fashion, while Aniplex released polystone statues based on the anime.
### Music
[Ushio](Kensuke)(Kensuke Ushio) composed *Devilman Crybaby* music. The anime features "Man Human" by [Groove](Denki)(Denki Groove) as its opening theme, while Takkyū to Tabibito performs a special ending theme song "Konya Dake" (lit. "Tonight Only") only for episode nine. *Crybaby* also features a remix of the theme song for the 1970s anime, "Devilman no Uta", in a version performed by [Bee](Queen)(Queen Bee (band))'s [Avu-chan](Avu-chan) as an insert song. The rapper [the 390](Ken)(Ken the 390), who also dubbed the character Wamu in the Japanese version, was the supervisor of the rap sequences in the series. Its two-disc, 48-track original soundtrack was released on January 10, 2018, by Aniplex. The complete box also included a *Devilman Crybaby Freestyle Rap All Tracks* CD.
## Themes and analysis
*Devilman Crybaby* is based on *Devilman*, whose main objective, according to Nagai, was to be an anti-war story. As such, *Crybaby* is a depiction of how humans can be as violent and cruel as the so-called demons. Heather Alexandra of [Kotaku](Kotaku) wrote that demons are the ones doing violent actions at the start, but that humans replicate their behavior as the story progresses. Many critics said the persecution of demons in human disguise was a metaphor for [bigotry](bigotry); for example, Megan Farokmanseh of *[Verge](The)(The Verge)* commented the series is an allegory "about the cost of persecuting those we don't understand" and attacking people perceived as different. Alexandra stated the panic people create about demons is analogous to the actions of [homophobia](homophobia), [transphobia](transphobia), [racism](racism), or other moments people "see [other] people as the '[other](other (philosophy))'". Mike Toole of *[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)* commented the anime depicts how fast people will be able to other "suspicious or abnormal" people in order to protect their own groups. The *[Decider](Decider (website))*s Eric Thurm said the mass violence reflects the anti-war narrative and that the series' "political message" is a reflection on "humanity's tendency toward paranoia and willingness to turn on others".
Brittany Vincent wrote for [Syfy.com](Syfy) that the series leads to an "inevitable [crisis](existential)(existential crisis)", while [Disgusting](Bloody)(Bloody Disgusting)'s Michael Pementel highlighted its "existential and emotional elements". Alexandra said the series endeavors to reflect on many philosophical questions, including on goodness, on debauchery, and on being human. [GameSpot](GameSpot)'s Kallie Plagge described it as a meditation on the meaning of being human, while Lynzee Loveridge of *Anime News Network* wrote it questions whether or not there is a line that separates humanity from monstrosity. Rob Salkowitz of *[Forbes](Forbes)* wrote it also explores religion and the frailty of social institutions. Pementel also discussed the role of manipulation on starting the frenzy of violence among the population. Toole commented that *Crybaby* discusses the proliferation of [legends](urban)(urban legends) and the difficulty people have to deal with "societal upheaval". *Anime News Network*'s Rose Bridges highlighted the role of mass media and technology in the anime as they should supposedly unite but instead facilitate "judgmental impulses". She also commented it reflected on how this judgment may devastate people internally, which is symbolized by the demons' emergence from the inside of people's bodies.
*Devilman Crybaby* was also interpreted as an allegory for puberty, especially male adolescence. Toole commented that the physical and mental changes Akira goes through after obtaining Devilman's powers represent metaphorically the anxiety during puberty. Vincent stated it was a story about "self-discovery, and coming to terms with yourself", while Allegra Frank of [Polygon](Polygon (website)) said the series shows "a real love for young people". Nick Creamer of *Anime News Network* called it a tale "about the chaos of puberty, about struggles with sexual identity and unrequited love". James Beckett, also commented for *Anime News Network*, that it reflects on how young people deal with sex, love, and self-identity, and how it affects their "sense of worth". *Anime News Network*'s Jacob Chapman said it features stories of people "learning to accept themselves and love each other". Bridges commented it has a positive message to LGBT watchers, as it depicts "the destructive nature of the [closet](Closeted)", while also showing that self-acceptance can strengthen people who are suffering. *[Japan Times](The)(The Japan Times)* writer Matt Schley stated that despite being an adaptation of Nagai's *Devilman*, it felt more like a [successor](spiritual)(spiritual successor) to *[Kemonozume](Kemonozume)*, since both handle the subjects of identity, prejudice, religion and star-crossed love.
*Crybaby* featured the original apocalyptic ending of the manga, not featured in any other *Devilman* animated adaptations. Daryl Surat of *[USA](Otaku)(Otaku USA)* called it [nihilistic](nihilistic), while Remus Noronha of [Collider](Collider (website)) commented that "a sense of tragic inevitability" is presented through the whole series. Alexandra said the anime shows the manga's nihilism although it seems to exhibit a lot of hope near the end. Kotaku's Chris Person wrote that, despite ending in a tragedy, he does not think it is appropriate to characterize *Devilman Crybaby* as nihilistic "because it has an emotional core and a thesis that it strongly believes in". Frank commented the devastated Satan's tears for Akira "makes such a nihilistic ending feel not so totally hopeless". Yuasa himself commented on this subject, saying *Crybaby* focused on Ryo's character. While Akira is resolute about his actions from beginning to end, Ryo faces doubts, "internal changes and struggles at least". They meet as a child and Akira is the only one who supports Ryo, who develops feelings for him but does not realize it. Akira's role is to teach Ryo something and the story's essential point "is about what Ryo learns in the end"; and "in the end, it's about love".
## Episodes
All episodes were written by Ichirō Ōkouchi.
## Reception
[[Masaaki from "The World of Masaaki Yuasa" at Opening Ceremony of the Tokyo International Film Festival 2018 (30678155317).jpg|thumb|Although fans were divided in their response to Yuasa's (*pictured*) take on Nagai's work, many critics praised the animation style Yuasa used in *Devilman Crybaby*.](File:Yuasa)]
### Audience response
*Devilman Crybaby* announcement created anticipation among anime fans. It was the Netflix original anime that attracted the "biggest buzz", according to James Hadfield of *The Japan Times*. It turned out to be "the first big talking point of the year in the anime community", according to Syfy.com's Christopher Inoa. It was described as "one of 2018's most talked-about anime" by *The Japan Times* Roland Kelts, and "one of the most talked-about anime releases for many years" by Dan Auty of GameSpot. The Devilmen running-style attracted some attention among anime fans, including YouTuber [PewDiePie](PewDiePie), and was dubbed "the best animated running since *[Naruto](Naruto)*". The series' remix of "Devilman no Uta" also became a popular [meme](meme (Internet)). Nevertheless, it was "one of the most divisive anime of the Winter 2018 season", according to Nick Valdez of ComicBook.com, because of Yuasa's "stylized take" on Nagai's original work. The anime was a regular topic on [Twitter](Twitter) in January 2018; ComicBook.com's Megan Peters reported on it, declaring "to say it has been controversial is an understatement". Peters commented the main source of disagreement was about its "over-the-top imagery" that "enthralled" some and "revolted" others.
Although Netflix does not disclose viewership numbers, Auty, Valdez, Kelts, and *Forbes* Lauren Orsini have described the series as a "hit". Its viewership consisted most of non-Japanese audience; 90% of it were from outside Japan. Nevertheless, Japanese Blu-ray release was the 11th best-selling product on its medium and in its release week sold at least 2,637 copies. Inoa wrote that the "immediate reaction" to it indicated it was probably Yuasa's most popular work. Writing for *Otaku USA*, Vincent commented it is one of Yuasa's "most instantly recognizable works". Because of *Devilman Crybaby*s popularity, [GKIDS](GKIDS) showed interest in releasing Science SARU's previous works *[Is Short, Walk On Girl](Night)(Night Is Short, Walk On Girl)* and *[over the Wall](Lu)(Lu over the Wall)*. Likewise, Sam Reach of Anime News Network commented, "Go Nagai fever is running red-hot nowadays, thanks in no small part to *Devilman Crybaby*". Nagai himself, the 1970s *Devilman* anime screenwriter [Tsuji](Masaki)(Masaki Tsuji), and filmmaker [Sono](Sion)(Sion Sono) praised *Crybaby*.
### Critical reception
Based on nine reviews collected by [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), *Devilman Crybaby* has received mostly positive critical reviews, with an overall approval rating of 89% from 9 critics and an average score of 6 out of 10. The anime has been considered one of the best anime available on Netflix, Den of Geek, Geek.com, IGN, GameSpot, Polygon, *[Vulture](Vulture (magazine))*, and *[Wired](Wired (magazine))*. On ranked lists, *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))* Philippines edition ranked it the 9th best; *Paste* ranked it the 8th best; and GamesRadar+ ranked it the second best. }} as well as one of the best or the best anime of 2018, and it was ultimately elected the best one by IGN staff. Kotaku's Cecilia D'Anastasio and Lauren Orsini of *Forbes* included it among the five best of the year. Crunchyroll's Nate Ming, Polygon's Palmer Haasch, Julia Lee and Austen Goslin, and The Verge's Michael Moore included the anime among the best of year on unranked lists. *Anime News Network*'s Zac Bertschy, Rose Bridges, Jacob Chapman, Lynzee Loveridge, and Lauren Orsini chose *Devilman Crybaby* to be the best anime in 2018; James Beckett and Chris Farris placed it second, while Mike Toole ranked it fourth. }} while it was awarded "Anime of the Year" at the [Crunchyroll Anime Awards](3rd)(3rd Crunchyroll Anime Awards), along with Yuasa being awarded Best Director. The anime was among the 14 Japanese works listed in the Jury Selections in the Animation Division of the 22nd [Media Arts Festival](Japan)(Japan Media Arts Festival) Awards by Japanese government's [for Cultural Affairs](Agency)(Agency for Cultural Affairs). *Crybaby* was also chosen among the best anime of the 2010s by the staffs of Crunchyroll, IGN and Polygon, while [School Rejects](Film)(Film School Rejects) selected it as one of the best animated series of the decade. *[Paste](Paste (magazine))* magazine's staff elected it the 35th best anime of all time, with critic Toussaint Egan writing the anime is "not only as one of the best series in recent memory, but one that will stand the test of time". Frank of Polygon, Vincent, Cecilia D'Anastasio of Kotaku, and Beckett of *Anime News Network* called the series a "masterpiece". Peters wrote it exhibits all the a attributes of "an artistic cult classic", while Bridges of *Anime News Network* deemed it "just top-to-bottom perfect".
The series has been noted for its graphic violence and sexual content; the latter has been compared to [pornography](pornography). Its [gore](Splatter film) content has been highlighted, and because of its "ultra-violence" it has usually been described as "not for the faint of heart" or "weak of heart". Auty of GameSpot stated it "has pushed back the boundaries" of what type of content can be shown in a streaming service, and wrote an entire article dedicated to why the series has "some of the most extreme content ever to hit Netflix". Toole stated it is "the most ludicrously violent, sexed-up anime TV series ever aired", while Joyce Slaton wrote for [Sense Media](Common)(Common Sense Media) that its mature content exceed what is expected to be featured in adult-aimed anime. Emily Gaudette of *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* called it "the bloodiest, most profane animated series of the year", and Thurm of *Decider* described it as the "grossest show on TV". *The Japan Times* Schley commented that *Crybaby* differs from other *Devilman* adaptations because of its "level of on-screen sex and violence" and that it was more suitable for the public of the 1980s with its "ultra-violent films" like *[Akira](Akira (1988 film))*, *[City Shinjuku](Demon)(Demon City Shinjuku)* or *[Jack](Violence)(Violence Jack)*. On the other hand, Chapman of *Anime News Network* felt it was not difficult to bear the violence because of "Yuasa's super-cartoony style".
While Peters of ComicBook.com and Rebecca Silverman of *Anime News Network* said most of the content was "gratuitous", Farokhmanesh of *The Verge* disagreed, saying it is "a tool used to demonstrate the overindulgent, sometimes disgusting nature of being human". Likewise, Sanchez of [IGN](IGN) deemed it to be "one of the rare graphic action anime that has an incredible story to back up". Peters said it "is as harrowing as it is thought-provoking", while Pementel of Bloody Disgusting commented "its violence cuts on an intimate level" because of the themes it evokes. Beckett concluded the series features a "poetical vision" and that its focus on personal experiences makes it intimate, despite the violence. Alexandra of [Kotaku](Kotaku) was divided on the topic; while understanding the story's focus on humans' vileness and indulgency, she described it as "occasionally distracting" and said the amount of violence makes it lose its impact fast. Kotaku's Person commented that the sexual depictions were "deeply silly" and fit the plot, since the first part is about sex's ludicrosity and absurdity, especially to young people. However, Alexandra also highlighted how the camera frames several woman "in the most lustful way possible", while Loveridge of *Anime News Network* stated it demonizes female sexuality as all demons in the Sabbath are female and their demon traits are based on their sex organs which then devour the men.
Many critics commented about "the remarkable animation style", as reported Pementel. It was considered one of the most "visually striking" anime of all time by Loveridge, while it has been described as "visually enthralling" by Thurm, and "visually stunning" by Matt Kamen for [GamesRadar+](GamesRadar+) and by Frank. Theron Martin of *Anime News Network* commented, "you won't see a more [...] outlandish visual spectacle in anime this season". Loveridge called it a "visual trip unlike any other", while Salkowitz of *Forbes* stated that the series "breaks out the most eye-melting psychedelia seen on the small screen" since [MTV](MTV)'s *[Television](Liquid)(Liquid Television)*. Writing for *Otaku USA*, Vincent said, "Yuasa's signature fluid animation [...] transform[s] what could have ultimately been an unattractive gorefest into an attractive ballet of human and demonic interaction". Daniel Kurland of [of Geek](Den)(Den of Geek) said that "there's nothing too special about *Devilman* at its surface level", but that Yuasa's injection of his "eye-popping animation and art direction" turns the story into "something special".
Another aspect of *Devilman Crybaby* that was commended includes its "pumping" and "pulsing" soundtrack, which Inoa qualified as "so good it is an outright tragedy that it isn't available on [Spotify](Spotify)". Musically, the rap sequences were praised both by fans and specialized media like *Hypebeast*. Others, including Creamer of *Anime News Network*, praised the "rich characterization". Surat of *Otaku USA* commented, "The key is characterization", which he praised for not being limited to just Akira and Ryo. Toole enjoyed how Miki was no more a mere [device](plot)(plot device) that she was in the manga and the punks' reconceptualization as rappers. The way it dealt with sexuality and its openly LGBT characters also received praise; Surat said "many strongly resonate with *Crybaby* for its emphasis on explicitly gay and lesbian characters in a dramatic presentation". Person liked the fact that there were "empathetic depictions" from both genders of the difficulty of being oneself and its "explicit and metaphorical queer presence". Farokhmanesh also found "its unwavering acceptance of storylines like queer romance" to be "refreshing" and praised its subversion of [masculinity](toxic)(toxic masculinity). The ending was divisive; PewDiePie considered it "flat" and a "fatal flaw" in the series, while Frank deemed its "beautiful, devastating finale" to be "perfection".
*Crybaby* has generally been considered to be faithful to the original manga, maintaining its sexual and violent content. Surat declared it to be "perhaps the most faithful animated adaptation of it". Egan of *Paste* stated it "is as orgiastically violent and unflinchingly risqué as Nagai's original manga". Toole said that at first *Devilman Crybaby* appears to be "a straight take on Nagai's classic story", and also compared the first episodes to the 1987 [video animation](original)(original video animation) of *Devilman*. Vincent considered it to be "the best iteration of *Devilman* to have ever existed" because of Yuasa's animation. Zac Bertschy of *Anime News Network* concluded that "it elevates the material into something else entirely, a spectacularly gay firestorm, a screaming, crying apocalypse that takes hold of you the moment it starts and never lets go".
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
[Category:Devilman](Category:Devilman)
[anime ONAs](Category:2018)(Category:2018 anime ONAs)
[anime and manga](Category:Action)(Category:Action anime and manga)
[television series about monsters](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated television series about monsters)
[Category:Aniplex](Category:Aniplex)
[anime and manga](Category:Apocalyptic)(Category:Apocalyptic anime and manga)
[Anime Awards winners](Category:Crunchyroll)(Category:Crunchyroll Anime Awards winners)
[fantasy anime and manga](Category:Dark)(Category:Dark fantasy anime and manga)
[in television](Category:Demons)(Category:Demons in television)
[about the Devil](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about the Devil)
[anime and manga](Category:Existentialist)(Category:Existentialist anime and manga)
[with screenplays by Ichirō Ōkouchi](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Ichirō Ōkouchi)
[adult animated superhero television series](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese adult animated superhero television series)
[Netflix original programming](Category:Japanese-language)(Category:Japanese-language Netflix original programming)
[LGBT-related drama television series](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese LGBT-related drama television series)
[LGBT-related animated television series](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese LGBT-related animated television series)
[LGBT-related drama television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s LGBT-related drama television series)
[speculative fiction television series](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT speculative fiction television series)
[original anime](Category:Netflix)(Category:Netflix original anime)
[Saru](Category:Science)(Category:Science Saru)
[series about social media](Category:Television)(Category:Television series about social media)
[shows set in Japan](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in Japan)
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Robert Redford
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robert_redford
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# Robert Redford
*Revision ID: 1159860587 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T00:30:57Z*
---
| birth_place = [Monica, California](Santa)(Santa Monica, California), U.S.
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1958–present
| spouse =
|
}}
| children = 4, including [James](James Redford (filmmaker)) and [Amy](Amy Redford)
| works = [list](Full)(Robert Redford filmography)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Robert Redford)
| website =
}}
**Charles Robert Redford Jr.** (born August 18, 1936) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is the [of various accolades](recipient)(List of awards and nominations received by Robert Redford), including an [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards) from four nominations, a [Academy Film Award](British)(British Academy Film Award), two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), the [B. DeMille Award](Cecil)(Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award) and the [Medal of Freedom](Presidential)(Presidential Medal of Freedom). In 2014, *[Time](Time (magazine))* named him one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100).
Appearing on stage in the late 1950s, Redford's television career began in 1960, including an appearance on *The Twilight Zone* in 1962. He earned an [Emmy](Emmy Awards) nomination as Best Supporting Actor for his performance in *[Voice of Charlie Pont](The)(The Voice of Charlie Pont)* (1962). His greatest Broadway success was as the stuffy newlywed husband of co-star [Ashley](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Ashley)'s character in [Simon](Neil)(Neil Simon)'s *[in the Park](Barefoot)(Barefoot in the Park)* (1963). Redford made his film debut in *[Hunt](War)(War Hunt)* (1962). He starred with [Wood](Natalie)(Natalie Wood) in *[Daisy Clover](Inside)(Inside Daisy Clover)* (1965) which won him a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) for the best new star. He starred alongside [Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman) in *[Cassidy and the Sundance Kid](Butch)(Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid)* (1969), which was a huge success and made him a major star. He had a critical and box office hit with *[Johnson](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah Johnson (film))* (1972), and in 1973 he had the greatest hit of his career, the blockbuster crime caper *[Sting](The)(The Sting)*, a reunion with Paul Newman, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award; that same year, he also starred opposite [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand) in *[Way We Were](The)(The Way We Were)*. The popular and acclaimed ''[the President's Men](All)(All the President's Men (film))* (1976) was a landmark film for Redford.
In the 1980s, Redford began his career as a director with *[People](Ordinary)(Ordinary People)* (1980), which was one of the most critically and publicly acclaimed films of the decade, winning four Academy Awards including Best Picture and the [Award for Best Director](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Director) for Redford. He continued acting and starred in *[Brubaker](Brubaker)* (1980), as well as playing the male lead in *[of Africa](Out)(Out of Africa (film))* (1985), which was an enormous box office success and won seven [Oscars](Academy Awards) including Best Picture. He released his third film as a director, *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))*, in 1992. He went on to receive Best Director and [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) nominations in 1995 for *[Show](Quiz)(Quiz Show (film))*. He received a second Academy Award—for [Achievement](Lifetime)(Academy Honorary Award)—in 2002. In 2010, he was made a [chevalier](Legion of Honour#Classes and insignia) of the *[d'Honneur](Légion)(Légion d'Honneur)*. Redford is also one of the founders of the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival).
## Early life
Redford was born on August 18, 1936, in [Monica, California](Santa)(Santa Monica, California), to Martha Woodruff Redford ([née](née) Hart; 1914–1955) and Charles Robert Redford (1914–1991), an accountant. He has a half brother,Stated on *[the Actors Studio](Inside)(Inside the Actors Studio)'', 2005 William, from his father's first marriage. Redford is of [English](English people), [Scottish](Scottish people), and [Irish](Irish people) ancestry.. Web.archive.org (December 12, 2005). Retrieved January 6, 2012. His patrilineal great-great-grandfather, a [Protestant](Protestantism) Englishman named Elisha Redford, married Mary Ann McCreery, of Irish Catholic descent, in [Manchester](Manchester). They emigrated to New York City in 1849, immediately settling in [Connecticut](Stonington,)(Stonington, Connecticut). They had a son named Charles, the first in line to have been given the name. Regarding Redford's maternal lineage, the Harts were Irish from [Galway](Galway) and the Greens were [Scots-Irish](Scotch-Irish Americans) who settled in the United States in the 18th century.
Redford's family lived in [Nuys](Van)(Van Nuys) while his father worked in [Segundo](El)(El Segundo, California). Robert attended [Nuys High School](Van)(Van Nuys High School), where he was classmates with baseball pitcher [Drysdale](Don)(Don Drysdale). He has described himself as having been a "bad" student, finding inspiration outside the classroom in art and sports. He hit tennis balls with [Gonzales](Pancho)(Pancho Gonzales) at the [Angeles Tennis Club](Los)(Los Angeles Tennis Club) to help Gonzales warm up for matches.
After graduating from high school in 1954, he attended the [of Colorado](University)(University of Colorado Boulder) in [Boulder](Boulder, Colorado) for a year and a half, where he was a member of the [Sigma](Kappa)(Kappa Sigma) [fraternity](Fraternities and sororities). While there, he worked at a restaurant/bar called The Sink, where a painting of his likeness still figures prominently among the bar's murals. While at Colorado, Redford began drinking heavily and, as a result, lost his half-scholarship and was kicked out of school. He went on to travel in [Europe](Europe), living in [France](France), [Spain](Spain), and [Italy](Italy). He later studied painting at the [Institute](Pratt)(Pratt Institute) in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) and took classes at the [Academy of Dramatic Arts](American)(American Academy of Dramatic Arts) (Class of 1959) in New York City.
## Career
### Theater
Redford's career, like that of many major stars who emerged in the 1950s, began in New York City, where the actor found work both on stage and in television. His Broadway debut was in a small role in *Tall Story* (1959), followed by parts in *The Highest Tree* (1959) and *Sunday in New York* (1961). His biggest Broadway success was as the stuffy [newlywed](newlywed) husband of [Ashley](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Ashley) in the original 1963 cast of [Simon](Neil)(Neil Simon)'s *[in the Park](Barefoot)(Barefoot in the Park)*.Drew Casper, *Hollywood Film 1963–1976: Years of Revolution and Reaction* (2011), p. xlv
### Television
Starting in 1960, Redford appeared as a guest star on numerous television drama programs, including *[City](Naked)(Naked City (TV series))*, *[Maverick](Maverick (TV series))*, *[Untouchables](The)(The Untouchables (1959 TV series))*, *[Americans](The)(The Americans (1961 TV series))*, *[Smith](Whispering)(Whispering Smith (TV series))*, *[Mason](Perry)(Perry Mason (1957 TV series))*, *[Hitchcock Presents](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock Presents)*, *[66](Route)(Route 66 (TV series))*, *[Kildare](Dr.)(Dr. Kildare (TV series))*, *[90](Playhouse)(Playhouse 90)*, *[Tate](Tate (TV series))*, *[Twilight Zone](The)(The Twilight Zone)*, *[Virginian](The)(The Virginian (TV series))*, and ''[Brassbound's Conversion](Captain)(Captain Brassbound's Conversion)'', among others.
In 1960, Redford was cast as Danny Tilford, a mentally disturbed young man trapped in the wreckage of his family garage, in "Breakdown", one of the last episodes of the [syndicated](Broadcast syndication) adventure series, *[8](Rescue)(Rescue 8)*, starring [Davis](Jim)(Jim Davis (actor)) and [Jeffries](Lang)(Lang Jeffries).
Redford earned an [Emmy](Emmy Awards) nomination as Best Supporting Actor for his performance in *The Voice of Charlie Pont* (ABC, 1962). One of his last television appearances until 2019 was on October 7, 1963, on *[Point](Breaking)(Breaking Point (1963 TV series)),* an ABC medical drama about psychiatry.
### Film
[[File:Robert Redford Barefoot in the park.jpg|thumb|right|Redford in *[in the Park](Barefoot)(Barefoot in the Park (film))* (1967)]]
Redford made his screen debut in *[Story](Tall)(Tall Story)* (1960) in a minor role. The film's stars were [Perkins](Anthony)(Anthony Perkins), [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda) (her debut), and [Walston](Ray)(Ray Walston). After his Broadway success, he was cast in larger feature roles in movies. In 1962 Redford got his second film role in *[Hunt](War)(War Hunt),* and was soon after cast alongside screen legend [Guinness](Alec)(Alec Guinness) in the war comedy *[Hopeless ... But Not Serious](Situation)(Situation Hopeless ... But Not Serious)*, in which he played a US soldier falsely imprisoned by a German civilian even after the war has ended. In *[Daisy Clover](Inside)(Inside Daisy Clover)* (1965), which won him a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) for best new star, he played a [bisexual](bisexual) movie star who marries starlet [Wood](Natalie)(Natalie Wood), and rejoined her along with [Bronson](Charles)(Charles Bronson) for [Pollack](Sydney)(Sydney Pollack)'s *[Property Is Condemned](This)(This Property Is Condemned)* (1966) — again, as her lover, though this time in a film which achieved even greater success. The same year saw his first teaming (on equal footing) with [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda), in [Penn](Arthur)(Arthur Penn)'s *[Chase](The)(The Chase (1966 film))*. This film marked the only time Redford would star with [Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando). Fonda and Redford were paired again in the popular big-screen version of *[in the Park](Barefoot)(Barefoot in the Park (film))* (1967) and were again co-stars many years later in Pollack's *[Electric Horseman](The)(The Electric Horseman)* (1979), followed 38 years later with a Netflix feature, *[Souls at Night](Our)(Our Souls at Night (film))*.
After this initial success, Redford became concerned about his blond male stereotype image and refused roles in ''[Afraid of Virginia Woolf?](Who's)(Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (film))* and *[Graduate](The)(The Graduate)''. Redford found the niche he was seeking in [Roy Hill](George)(George Roy Hill)'s *[Cassidy and the Sundance Kid](Butch)(Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid)* (1969), scripted by [Goldman](William)(William Goldman), in which he was paired for the first time with [Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman). The film was a huge success and made him a major bankable star, cementing his screen image as an intelligent, reliable, sometimes sardonic good guy. While Redford did not receive an Academy Award or Golden Globe nomination for playing the Sundance Kid, he won a British Academy of Film and Television Award (BAFTA) for that role and his parts in *[Racer](Downhill)(Downhill Racer)* (1969) and *[Them Willie Boy Is Here](Tell)(Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here)* (1969). The latter two films and the subsequent *[Fauss and Big Halsy](Little)(Little Fauss and Big Halsy)* (1970), and *[Hot Rock](The)(The Hot Rock (film))* (1972) were not commercially successful. The political satire *[Candidate](The)(The Candidate (1972 film))* (1972) was a moderate box office and critical success.
[[Image:Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here – Robert Redford photo.jpg|thumb|right|Redford in a [still](publicity)(publicity still) for *[Them Willie Boy Is Here](Tell)(Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here)* (1969)]]
Starting in 1973, Redford experienced an almost-unparalleled four-year run of box office success. The western *[Johnson](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah Johnson (film))*s (1972) box office earnings from early 1973 until its second re-release in 1975 would have placed it as the No. 2 highest-grossing film of 1973.Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards*, St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, p. 305. The romantic period drama with [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand), *[Way We Were](The)(The Way We Were)* (1973), was the 11th highest-grossing film of 1973. The crime caper reunion with Paul Newman, *[Sting](The)(The Sting)* (1973), became the top-grossing film of 1974Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards*, St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, pg. 315. and one of the top 20 highest-grossing movies of all time when adjusted for inflation, plus landed Redford the lone nomination of his career for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). The romantic drama *[Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby (1974 film))* (1974) was the No. 8 highest-grossing film of 1974. *Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid* (1969) placed as the No. 10 highest-grossing film for 1974 as it was re-released due to the popularity of *The Sting.* In 1974 Redford became the first performer since [Crosby](Bing)(Bing Crosby) in 1946 to have three films in a year's top ten grossing titles. Each year between 1974 and 1976, movie exhibitors voted Redford Hollywood's top box-office star.
In 1975, Redford's hit movies included 1920s aviation drama, *[Great Waldo Pepper](The)(The Great Waldo Pepper)* (1975), and the spy thriller *[Days of the Condor](Three)(Three Days of the Condor)* (1975), alongside [Dunaway](Faye)(Faye Dunaway), which finished at Nos. 16 and 17 in box office grosses for 1975, respectively.Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards*, St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, pg. 321. In 1976 he co-starred with [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) in the No. 2 highest-grossing film for the year, the critically acclaimed ''[the President's Men](All)(All the President's Men (film))*.Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards'', St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, pg. 328. In 1975, 1977 and 1978, Redford won the Golden Globe for Favorite World Film Star, a popularity-based award that is no longer awarded.
''[the President's Men](All)(All the President's Men (film))'' (1976), in which Redford and Hoffman play Washington Post reporters [Woodward](Bob)(Bob Woodward) and [Bernstein](Carl)(Carl Bernstein), was a landmark film for Redford. Not only was he the executive producer and co-star, but the film's serious subject matter — the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal) — and its attempt to create a realistic portrayal of journalism also reflected the actor's offscreen concerns for political causes. The film landed eight Academy Award nominations, including for Best Picture and Best Director ([J. Pakula](Alan)(Alan J. Pakula)), while winning for the Best Screenplay (Goldman). It actually won the New York Film Critics Award for Best Picture and Best Director.
In 1977, Redford appeared in a segment of the war film *[Bridge Too Far](A)(A Bridge Too Far (film))* (1977). Then he took a two-year hiatus from movies, before starring as past-his-prime rodeo star in the adventure-romance *[Electric Horseman](The)(The Electric Horseman)* (1979). This film reunited him with [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda), finishing at No. 9 in the box office for 1980.Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards*, St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, pg. 355. Later that year he appeared in the prison drama *[Brubaker](Brubaker)* (1980), playing a [warden](prison)(prison warden) attempting to reform the system. His directorial debut, *[People](Ordinary)(Ordinary People)*, which followed the disintegration of an upper-middle class family after the death of a son, was one of the most critically and publicly acclaimed films of the decade, winning four Oscars, including Best Director for Redford himself, and Best Picture.
Soon after that, he starred in the baseball drama *[Natural](The)(The Natural (film))* (1984). Sydney Pollack's *[of Africa](Out)(Out of Africa (film))* (1985), with Redford in the male lead role opposite [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep), became a large box office success (combined 1985 and 1986 grosses placed it at No. 5 for 1986),Michael Gebert, *The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards*, St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, pg. 401. won a Golden Globe for Best Picture, and won seven [Oscars](Academy Awards), including Best Picture. Streep was nominated for Best Actress but Redford did not receive a nomination. The movie proved to be Redford's biggest success of the decade and Redford and Pollack's most successful of their seven movies together.
Redford's next film, *[Eagles](Legal)(Legal Eagles)* (1986) alongside [Winger](Debra)(Debra Winger), was only a minor success at the box office. After that, his second directorial project, *[Milagro Beanfield War](The)(The Milagro Beanfield War)* (1987), failed to generate the same level of attention as *Ordinary People*.
Redford continued as a major star throughout the 1990s and 2000s. He released his third film as a director, *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))*, in 1992, which was a return to mainstream success for Redford as a director and brought a young [Pitt](Brad)(Brad Pitt) to greater prominence. In 1993, he played what became one of his most popular and recognized roles, starring in *[Proposal](Indecent)(Indecent Proposal)* as a millionaire businessman who tests a couple's morals; the film became one of the year's biggest hits. He co-starred with [Pfeiffer](Michelle)(Michelle Pfeiffer) in the newsroom romance *[Close & Personal](Up)(Up Close and Personal (film))* (1996), and with [Scott Thomas](Kristin)(Kristin Scott Thomas) and a young [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson) in *[Horse Whisperer](The)(The Horse Whisperer (film))* (1998), which he also directed. Redford also continued work in films with political contexts, such as *[Havana](Havana (film))* (1990), playing Jack Weil, a professional gambler in 1959 Cuba during the Revolution, as well as *[Sneakers](Sneakers (1992 film))* (1992), in which he co-starred with [Phoenix](River)(River Phoenix) and [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier), his first teaming with the latter.
He appeared as a disgraced Army general sent to prison in the prison drama *[Last Castle](The)(The Last Castle)* (2001), directed by Rod Lurie. In the same year, Redford reteamed with [Pitt](Brad)(Brad Pitt) for *[Game](Spy)(Spy Game)*, another success for the pair but with Redford switching this time from director to actor. During that time, he planned to direct and star in a sequel of *The Candidate* but the project never happened. Redford, a leading environmental activist, narrated the IMAX documentary *[Planet](Sacred)(Sacred Planet)* (2004), a sweeping journey across the globe to some of its most exotic and endangered places. In *[Clearing](The)(The Clearing (film))* (2004), a thriller co-starring Helen Mirren, Redford was a successful businessman whose kidnapping unearths the secrets and inadequacies that led to his achieving the American Dream.
Redford stepped back into producing with *[Motorcycle Diaries](The)(The Motorcycle Diaries (film))* (2004), a coming-of-age road film about a young medical student, Ernesto "Che" Guevara, and his friend Alberto Granado. It also explored the political and social issues of South America that influenced Guevara and shaped his future. With five years spent on the film's making, Redford was credited by director Walter Salles for being instrumental in getting it made and released.
[[Redford 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Redford in 2005](File:Robert)]
Back in front of the camera, Redford received good notices for his role in director [Hallström](Lasse)(Lasse Hallström)'s *[Unfinished Life](An)(An Unfinished Life)* (2005) as a cantankerous rancher who is forced to take in his estranged daughter-in-law (Jennifer Lopez)—whom he blames for his son's death—and the granddaughter he never knew he had when they fled an abusive relationship. The film, which sat on the shelf for many months while its distributor Miramax was restructured, was generally dismissed as clichéd and overly sentimental. Meanwhile, Redford returned to familiar territory when he reteamed with [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep) 22 years after they starred in *Out of Africa*, for his personal project *[for Lambs](Lions)(Lions for Lambs)* (2007), which also starred [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise). After a great deal of hype, the film opened to mixed reviews and disappointing box office.
Redford appeared in the 2011 documentary *[Buck](Buck (film))* by [Meehl](Cindy)(Cindy Meehl), where he discussed his experiences with title subject [Brannaman](Buck)(Buck Brannaman) during the production of *[Horse Whisperer](The)(The Horse Whisperer (film))*. In 2012, Redford directed *[Company You Keep](The)(The Company You Keep (film))*, in which he starred as a former Weather Underground activist who goes on the run after a journalist discovers his identity. In 2013, he starred in *[Is Lost](All)(All Is Lost)*, directed by J.C. Chandor, about a man lost at sea. He received acclaim for his performance in the film, in which he is its only cast member and there is almost no dialogue. Redford was nominated for a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama), his first Best Actor nomination for a Golden Globe, and won the [York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor](New)(New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor), his first time winning an acting honour from that group (he had been nominated in 1969 for *Downhill Racer*).
In April 2014, Redford played the main antagonist of the [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) superhero film *[America: The Winter Soldier](Captain)(Captain America: The Winter Soldier),* [Pierce](Alexander)(Alexander Pierce), the head of [S.H.I.E.L.D.](S.H.I.E.L.D.) and leader of the [Hydra](Hydra (Marvel Comics)) cell operating the Triskelion. Redford was a co-producer and, with [Thompson](Emma)(Emma Thompson) and [Nolte](Nick)(Nick Nolte), costar of the 2015 [Green Pictures](Broad)(Broad Green Pictures) film [Walk in the Woods*](*A)(A Walk in the Woods (film)), based on [Bryson](Bill)(Bill Bryson)'s book of the same name. Redford had optioned the film rights for the book from Bryson after reading it more than a decade earlier, with the intent of costarring in it with [Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman), but had shelved the project after Newman's death. The same year, he played news anchor [Rather](Dan)(Dan Rather) in [Vanderbilt](James)(James Vanderbilt)'s *[Truth](Truth (2015 film))* alongside [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett). In 2016, he took the supporting role of Mr. Meacham in the Disney remake [Pete's Dragon*](*)(Pete's Dragon (2016 film)).
Redford starred in [Discovery*](*The)(The Discovery (film)) and *[Souls at Night](Our)(Our Souls at Night)*, both released on [Netflix](Netflix) streaming in 2017. The latter film, which was also produced by Redford, reunited him with co-star [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda) for the fourth time and garnered positive reviews., Redford played bank robber [Tucker](Forrest)(Forrest Tucker (criminal)) in the drama film *[Old Man & the Gun](The)(The Old Man & the Gun)*, which was released in September 2018, and for which he received a Golden Globe nomination.
In August 2018, Redford announced his retirement from acting after completion of the film, though the following month, Redford stated that he "regretted" announcing his retirement because "you never know". He briefly reprised his role as Alexander Pierce for a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in *[Endgame](Avengers:)(Avengers: Endgame)*, filmed in 2017 prior to the completion of the former film.
### Author
In 1976, Robert Redford published *The Outlaw Trail: A Journey Through Time*. Redford states, "The Outlaw Trail. It was a name that fascinated me - a geographical anchor in Western folklore. Whether real or imagined, it was a name that, for me, held a kind of magic, a freedom, a mystery. I wanted to see it in much the same way as the outlaws did, by horse and by foot, and document the adventure with text and photographs."
## Filmography
### Director
[[File:Redford Milagro Cannes 1988.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Redford with [Griffith](Melanie)(Melanie Griffith) and [Braga](Sônia)(Sônia Braga), promoting *[Milagro Beanfield War](The)(The Milagro Beanfield War)* at the [Cannes Film Festival](1988)(1988 Cannes Film Festival)]]
Redford had long harbored ambitions to work on both sides of the camera. As early as 1969, Redford had served as the executive producer for *[Racer](Downhill)(Downhill Racer)*. His first film as director was 1980's Best Picture winner *[People](Ordinary)(Ordinary People)*, a drama about the slow disintegration of an [class](upper-middle)(upper-middle class) family, for which he won the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) for [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director). Redford was credited with obtaining a powerful dramatic performance from [Tyler Moore](Mary)(Mary Tyler Moore), as well as superb work from [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland) and [Hutton](Timothy)(Timothy Hutton), who also won the Oscar for [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor).
Redford did not direct again until *[Milagro Beanfield War](The)(The Milagro Beanfield War)* (1988), a well-crafted, though not commercially successful, screen version of [Nichols](John)(John Nichols (American writer))'s acclaimed novel of the Southwest. *The Milagro Beanfield War* is the story of the people of Milagro, New Mexico (based on the real town of [Truchas](Truchas, New Mexico) in northern New Mexico), overcoming big developers who set about to ruin their community and force them out with tax increases. Other directorial projects have included the period drama *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))* (1992), based on [Maclean](Norman)(Norman Maclean)'s novella, and the exposé *[Show](Quiz)(Quiz Show (film))* (1994), about the quiz show scandal of the late 1950s. In the latter film, Redford worked from a screenplay by [Attanasio](Paul)(Paul Attanasio) with noted cinematographer [Ballhaus](Michael)(Michael Ballhaus) and a strong cast that featured [Scofield](Paul)(Paul Scofield), [Turturro](John)(John Turturro), [Morrow](Rob)(Rob Morrow), and [Fiennes](Ralph)(Ralph Fiennes). Redford also directed [Damon](Matt)(Matt Damon) and [Smith](Will)(Will Smith) in *[Legend of Bagger Vance](The)(The Legend of Bagger Vance)* (2000). In 2010, Redford released *[Conspirator](The)(The Conspirator)*, a period drama revolving around the assassination of [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln). In 2012, he directed the political thriller [The Company You Keep*](*)(The Company You Keep (film)) starring himself, [LaBeouf](Shia)(Shia LaBeouf) and [Christie](Julie)(Julie Christie).
## Awards
[[File:2005 Kennedy Center honorees.jpg|thumb|300px|right|U.S. President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) and First Lady [Bush](Laura)(Laura Bush) pose with the [Center honorees](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors), from left to right, actress [Harris](Julie)(Julie Harris (American actress)), actor Robert Redford, singer [Turner](Tina)(Tina Turner), ballet dancer [Farrell](Suzanne)(Suzanne Farrell) and singer [Bennett](Tony)(Tony Bennett) on December 4, 2005, during the reception in the [Room](Blue)(Blue Room (White House)) at the White House.]]
Redford attended the [of Colorado](University)(the University of Colorado at Boulder) in the 1950s and received an honorary degree in 1988.
In 1989, the [Audubon Society](National)(National Audubon Society) awarded Redford its highest honor, the Audubon Medal.
In 1995, he received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from [College](Bard)(Bard College). He was a 2002 Lifetime Achievement Award/Honorary Oscar recipient at the 74th Academy Awards.
In 1996, he was awarded the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts).
In December 2005, he received the [Center Honors](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors) for his contributions to American culture. The honors recipients are recognized for their lifetime contributions to American culture through the performing arts: whether in dance, music, theater, opera, motion pictures or television.
In 2008, he was awarded [Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize](The)(The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize), one of the richest prizes in the arts, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life."
The University of Southern California (USC) School of Dramatic Arts announced the first annual *Robert Redford Award for Engaged Artists* in 2009. According to the school's website, the award was created "to honor those who have distinguished themselves not only in the exemplary quality, skill and innovation of their work, but also in their public commitment to social responsibility, to increasing awareness of global issues and events, and to inspiring and empowering young people."
Redford received an honorary [of Fine Arts](Doctor)(Doctor of Fine Arts) from [University](Brown)(Brown University) at the 240th Commencement exercises on May 25, 2008, with the actor also speaking at the ceremonies. On October 14, 2010, Redford was appointed *chevalier* of the [d'honneur](Légion)(Légion d'honneur) by President [Sarkozy](Nicolas)(Nicolas Sarkozy). He was a 2010 recipient of the New Mexico Governor's Award for Excellence in the Arts.
On May 24, 2015, Redford delivered the commencement address and received an honorary degree from [College](Colby)(Colby College) in Waterville, Maine. On November 22, 2016, President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) honored Redford with a [Medal of Freedom](Presidential)(Presidential Medal of Freedom).
In 2017, [Lion](Golden)(Golden Lion) for Lifetime Achievement at the 74th [Film Festival](Venice)(Venice Film Festival). Jane Fonda and Robert Redford Golden Lions in Venice|date=July 18, 2017|website=La Biennale di Venezia|access-date=June 19, 2019}}
On February 22, 2019, Redford received the [César](Honorary)(Honorary César) at the [César Awards](44th)(44th César Awards) in Paris.
## Sundance Institute
With the financial proceeds of his acting success, starting with his salaries from *[Cassidy and the Sundance Kid](Butch)(Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid)* and *[Racer](Downhill)(Downhill Racer)*, Redford bought a [area](ski)(ski area) on the east side of [Timpanogos](Mount)(Mount Timpanogos) northeast of [Provo](Provo, Utah), Utah, called "Timp Haven". He renamed it "[Sundance](Sundance Resort)" after his *[Kid](Sundance)(Sundance Kid)* character. Redford's wife Lola was from Utah and they had built a home in the area in 1963. Portions of the movie *[Johnson](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah Johnson (film))* (1972), a film which is both one of Redford's favorites and one that has heavily influenced him, was shot near the ski area.
Redford went on to found the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival), which became the country's largest festival for independent films. In 2008, Sundance exhibited 125 feature-length films from 34 countries, with more than 50,000 attendees in [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City), and [City, Utah](Park)(Park City, Utah).
Robert Redford also founded the [Institute](Sundance)(Sundance Institute); [Cinemas](Sundance)(Sundance Cinemas); Sundance Catalog; and the [Channel](Sundance)(Sundance Channel (United States)); all in and around Park City, 30 miles (48 km) north of the Sundance ski area. Redford also owned a Park City restaurant, Zoom, that closed in May 2017.
### Wildwood Enterprises, Inc.
Robert Redford is the co-owner of [Enterprises, Inc](Wildwood)(Wildwood Enterprises, Inc)., with Bill Holderman, producer, with the following film credits: *Lions for Lambs*; *Quiz Show*; *A River Runs Through It*; *Ordinary People*; *The Horse Whisperer*; *The Legend of Bagger Vance*; *Slums of Beverly Hills*; *The Motorcycle Diaries*; and *The Conspirator*.
### Sundance Productions
Redford is the president and co-founder of Sundance Productions, with Laura Michalchyshyn.
Most recently, Sundance Productions produced *[(CNN)](Chicagoland)(Chicagoland (TV series))*, *Cathedrals of Culture* ([Film Festival](Berlin)(Berlin International Film Festival)), *[March (PBS)](The)(The March (2013 film))* and Emmy nominee ''All The President's Men Revisited'' ([Discovery](Discovery Channel)), [Rossellini](Isabella)(Isabella Rossellini)'s *Green Porno Live!*, and *To Russia With Love* on [Epix](Epix).
## Independent films
Since founding the nonprofit [Institute](Sundance)(Sundance Institute) in Park City, Utah, in 1981, Redford has been deeply involved with [film](independent)(independent film).
Through its various workshop programs and popular film festival, Sundance has provided much-needed support for independent filmmakers. In 1995, Redford signed a deal with Showtime to start a 24-hour cable television channel devoted to airing independent films. The [Channel](Sundance)(Sundance Channel (United States)) premiered on February 29, 1996.
## Personal life
On August 9, 1958, Redford married [Van Wagenen](Lola)(Lola Van Wagenen) in Las Vegas. Five weeks later, a formal Mormon ceremony took place at Lola's grandmother's home. They had four children: Scott Anthony Redford (September 1, 1959 – November 17, 1959), Shauna Jean Redford (born November 15, 1960), [James Redford](David)(James Redford (filmmaker)) (May 5, 1962 – October 16, 2020), and [Hart Redford](Amy)(Amy Redford) (born October 22, 1970). They divorced in 1985.
Scott Redford died of [infant death syndrome](sudden)(sudden infant death syndrome) at the age of months and is buried at Provo City Cemetery in [Utah](Provo,)(Provo, Utah). Shauna Redford is a painter and married to journalist [Schlosser](Eric)(Eric Schlosser). James Redford was a writer and producer, while Amy Redford is an actress, director, and producer. Redford has seven grandchildren.
In July 2009, Redford married his longtime partner, Sibylle Szaggars, at the Louis C. Jacob Hotel in [Hamburg](Hamburg), Germany. She had moved in with Redford in the 1990s and shared his home in [Utah](Sundance,)(Sundance, Utah).
In May 2011, [A. Knopf](Alfred)(Alfred A. Knopf) published *Robert Redford: The Biography* by [Feeney Callan](Michael)(Michael Feeney Callan), written over fifteen years with Redford's input and drawn from his personal papers and diaries.
## Political activism
[[File:President George H. W. Bush and Robert Redford.jpg|thumb|right|Redford with U.S. President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) in 1989]]
[[File:Robert Redford with Bill Richardson.jpg|right|thumb|Redford with [Mexico Governor](New)(Governor of New Mexico) [Richardson](Bill)(Bill Richardson) in 2009]]
Redford supports environmentalism, Native American rights, [LGBT](LGBT) rights, and the arts. He also supported [group](advocacy)(advocacy group)s, such as the [Action Committee of the Directors Guild of America](Political)(Political Action Committee of the Directors Guild of America). Redford has supported [Republicans](Republican Party (United States)), including Brent Cornell Morris in his unsuccessful campaign for the Republican nomination for [3rd congressional district](Utah's)(Utah's 3rd congressional district) in 1990. Redford also supported [Herbert](Gary)(Gary Herbert), another Republican and a friend, in Herbert's successful 2004 campaign to be elected [Lieutenant Governor](Utah's)(Lieutenant Governor of Utah). Herbert later became [of Utah](Governor)(Governor of Utah).
As an avid environmentalist, Redford is a trustee of the [Resources Defense Council](Natural)(Natural Resources Defense Council). He endorsed Democratic President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) for re-election in 2012. Redford is the first quote on the back cover of [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump)'s book *[America](Crippled)(Crippled America)* (2015), saying of Trump's candidacy, "I'm glad he's in there, being the way he is, and saying what he says and the ways he says it, I think shakes things up and I think that is very needed."}} A representative later clarified that Redford's statement, taken from a longer conversation with Larry King, was not intended to endorse Trump for president. In 2019, Redford penned an [op-ed](op-ed) in which he referred to Trump's administration as a "monarchy in disguise" and stated "[i]t's time for Trump to go." Redford later co-authored another op-ed in which he criticized Trump's handling of the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United States) while also citing the collective public response to the pandemic as a model for how to respond to climate change. He criticized the decision to withdraw from the [Agreement](Paris)(Paris Agreement). In July 2020, Redford penned an [op-ed](op-ed) in which he stated President Trump lacks a "moral compass." In the same piece, he announced that he would be voting for [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) in the [presidential election](2020)(2020 United States presidential election).
Redford opposed to the [Corporation](TransCanada)(TransCanada Corporation)'s [Pipeline](Keystone)(Keystone Pipeline). In 2013, he was identified by its CEO, [Girling](Russ)(Russ Girling), for leading the anti-pipeline protest movement.
In April 2014, Redford, a [College](Pitzer)(Pitzer College) Trustee, and Pitzer College President [Skandera Trombley](Laura)(Laura Skandera Trombley) announced that the college will divest fossil fuel stocks from its endowment; at the time, it was the higher education institution with the largest endowment in the US to make this commitment. The press conference was held at the LA Press Club. In November 2012, Pitzer launched the Robert Redford Conservancy for Southern California Sustainability at Pitzer College. The Redford Conservancy educates the next generation of students to create solutions for the most challenging and urgent sustainability problems.
## References
## Further reading
*
*
## External links
*
* [Robert Redford](https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/robert-redford-57307) on [IBDB](Internet Broadway Database) (Internet [Broadway](Broadway theatre) Database)
* [Sundance Founder Robert Redford on His Life, His Activism and the Importance of Independent Films](http://www.democracynow.org/2010/1/25/sundance_founder_robert_redford_on_his) – *[Now](Democracy)(Democracy Now)*, January 2010
* [Robert Redford appearances on C-SPAN](http://www.c-span.org/person/?robertredford)
}}
[births](Category:1936)(Category:1936 births)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
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ed_asner
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# Ed Asner
*Revision ID: 1160229466 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T05:52:03Z*
---
| birth_place = [City, Missouri](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| resting_place = Sheffield Cemetery, Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.
| alma_mater = [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago) (dropped out)
| occupation = Actor, voice actor
| years_active = 1957–2021
| works = [list](Full)(Ed Asner filmography)
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| spouse =
|
}}
| children = 4
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Ed Asner)
| module =
| module2 =
}}
**Eddie Asner** (; November 15, 1929 – August 29, 2021) was an American actor, voice actor and former president of the [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild). He is best remembered for portraying [Grant](Lou)(Lou Grant) during the 1970s and early 1980s, on both *[Mary Tyler Moore Show](The)(The Mary Tyler Moore Show)* and its spin-off series *[Grant](Lou)(Lou Grant (TV series))*, making him one of the few television actors to portray the same character in both a comedy and a drama. Asner is the most honored male performer in the history of the [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards), having won seven – five for portraying Lou Grant (three as [Actor in a Comedy Television Series](Supporting)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series) on *The Mary Tyler Moore Show* and two as [Actor in a Dramatic Television Series](Lead)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series) on spin-off *Lou Grant*. His other Emmys were for performances in two television miniseries: *[Man, Poor Man](Rich)(Rich Man, Poor Man (miniseries))* (1976), for which he won the Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Performance in a television series award, and *[Roots](Roots (1977 miniseries))* (1977), for which he won the Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in a television series award.
Asner played [Wayne](John)(John Wayne)'s adversary Bart Jason in the 1966 Western [Dorado*](*El)(El Dorado (1966 film)). He portrayed [Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus) in several films, including in 2003's *[Elf](Elf (film))*. In 2007, he voiced the main [villain](villain) Krad in *[Is Here Again](Christmas)(Christmas Is Here Again)*. In 2009, he voiced Carl Fredricksen in [Pixar](Pixar)'s animated film *[Up](Up (2009 film))* and made a guest appearance on *[NY](CSI:)(CSI: NY)* in the episode "[Yahrzeit](CSI: NY (season 5))". In early 2011, Asner returned to television as butcher Hank Greziak in *[Class](Working)(Working Class (TV series))*, the first original sitcom on cable channel [CMT](Country Music Television). He starred in *[Tuesdays and Thursdays](Michael,)(Michael, Tuesdays and Thursdays)*, on [Television](CBC)(CBC Television) and appeared in *[Glades](The)(The Glades (TV series))*. Asner guest-starred as Guy Redmayne in the sixth season of *[Good Wife](The)(The Good Wife)*. He had a guest role in *[Kai](Cobra)(Cobra Kai)*, appearing as Sid Weinberg in seasons one and three. In 2020, he had a recurring role as James Staghorne Sr. on *[Briarpatch](Briarpatch (TV series))*. As a voice actor, he voiced [Daggett](Roland)(Roland Daggett) and [Goodness](Granny)(Granny Goodness) in the [Animated Universe](DC)(DC Animated Universe) and [Jonah Jameson](J.)(J. Jonah Jameson) in the 1994 *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (1994 TV series))* series.
## Early life
Eddie Asner was born on November 15, 1929, in [City, Missouri](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri), and grew up in [City, Kansas](Kansas)(Kansas City, Kansas). His [Jewish](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jewish) immigrant parents, Lizzie (*[née](née)* Seliger; 1885–1967, from [Ukraine](Odesa,)(Odesa, Ukraine)), a housewife, and Morris David Asner (1877–1957, from Lithuania ([Governorate](Vilna)(Vilna Governorate) or [Governorate](Grodno)(Grodno Governorate)), ran a [shop](second-hand)(second-hand shop) and junkyard. The youngest of five children, his four older siblings were: Ben J. Asner (1915–1986), Eve Asner (1916–2014), Esther Edelman (1919–2014) and Labe Asner (1923–2017). He was raised in an [Jewish](Orthodox)(Orthodox Judaism) family and given the [name](Hebrew)(Hebrew name) Yitzhak.
Asner attended [High School](Wyandotte)(Wyandotte High School) in Kansas City, Kansas, and the [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago). He studied journalism in Chicago until a professor advised him there was little money to be made in the profession. He had been working in a steel mill, but he quickly switched to drama, debuting as the martyred [Becket](Thomas)(Thomas Becket) in a campus production of [S. Eliot](T.)(T. S. Eliot)'s *[in the Cathedral](Murder)(Murder in the Cathedral)*. He eventually dropped out of school, going to work as a taxi driver, worked on the assembly line for [Motors](General)(General Motors), and other odd jobs before being drafted in the military in 1951.
Asner served with the [Army Signal Corps](U.S.)(Signal Corps (United States Army)) from 1951 to 1953 and appeared in plays that toured Army bases in Europe.
## Career
[[File:Mary Tyler Moore cast 1970.jpg|thumb|right|Cast of *[Mary Tyler Moore Show](The)(The Mary Tyler Moore Show)* in 1970, with Asner in center rear]]
Following his military service, Asner helped found the Playwrights Theatre Company in Chicago, but left for [York City](New)(New York City) before members of that company regrouped as the [Players](Compass)(Compass Players) in the mid-1950s. He later made frequent guest appearances with the successor to Compass, [Second City](The)(The Second City). In New York City, Asner played Jonathan Jeremiah Peachum in the [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) revival of *[Opera](Threepenny)(Threepenny Opera)*, scored his first [Broadway](Broadway theatre) role in *Face of a Hero* alongside [Lemmon](Jack)(Jack Lemmon) in 1960, and began to make inroads as a television actor, having made his TV debut in 1957 on *[One](Studio)(Westinghouse Studio One)*. In two notable performances on television, Asner played Detective Sgt. Thomas Siroleo in the 1963 episode of *[Outer Limits](The)(The Outer Limits (1963 TV series))* titled "[Crawled Out of the Woodwork](It)(It Crawled Out of the Woodwork)" and the reprehensible ex-premier Brynov in the 1965 *[to the Bottom of the Sea](Voyage)(Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (TV series))* episode "The Exile". He made his film debut in 1962, in the [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) vehicle *[Galahad](Kid)(Kid Galahad)*.
Before he landed his role with [Tyler Moore](Mary)(The Mary Tyler Moore Show), Asner guest-starred in television series including four episodes of *[Untouchables](The)(The Untouchables (1959 TV series))* starring [Stack](Robert)(Robert Stack), the [syndicated](Television syndication) [drama](crime)(crime drama) *[Decoy](Decoy (TV series))*, starring [Garland](Beverly)(Beverly Garland), and *[66](Route)(Route 66 (TV series))* in 1962 (the episode titled "Welcome to the Wedding") as Custody Officer Lincoln Peers. He was cast on [Lord](Jack)(Jack Lord)'s [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) drama series *[Burke](Stoney)(Stoney Burke (TV series))* and in the series finale of [CBS](CBS)'s *[Reporter](The)(The Reporter (TV series))*, starring [Guardino](Harry)(Harry Guardino). He also appeared on *[Novak](Mr.)(Mr. Novak)*, *[Casey](Ben)(Ben Casey)*, *[Gunsmoke](Gunsmoke)*, *[Impossible](Mission:)(Mission: Impossible (1966 TV series))*, *[Outer Limits](The)(The Outer Limits (1963 TV series))*, *[Fugitive](The)(The Fugitive (1963 TV series))*, and *[Invaders](The)(The Invaders)*. In 1963, Asner appeared as George Johnson on *[Virginian](The)(The Virginian (TV series))* in the episode "Echo of Another Day".
Asner was best known for his character [Grant](Lou)(Lou Grant), who was first introduced on *[Mary Tyler Moore Show](The)(The Mary Tyler Moore Show)* in 1970. In 1977, after Moore's series ended, Asner's character was given his own show, *[Grant](Lou)(Lou Grant (TV series))* (1977–82). In contrast to the *Mary Tyler Moore* series, a thirty-minute award-winning comedy about television journalism, the *Lou Grant* series was an hour-long award-winning drama about newspaper journalism (for his role as Grant, Asner was one of only two actors to win an Emmy Award for a sitcom and a drama for the same role, with the second being [Aduba](Uzo)(Uzo Aduba)). In addition he made appearances as Lou Grant on two other shows: *[Rhoda](Rhoda)* and *[Roseanne](Roseanne)*. Other television series starring Asner in regular roles include *[Alley](Thunder)(Thunder Alley (TV series))*, *[Bronx Zoo](The)(The Bronx Zoo (TV series))*, and *[60 on the Sunset Strip](Studio)(Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip)*. He also starred in one episode of the western series ''[Man's Gun](Dead)(Dead Man's Gun)* (1997), as well as portraying art smuggler August March in an episode of the original *[Five-O](Hawaii)(Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series))* (1975) and reprised the role in the *[Five-0](Hawaii)(Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series))'' (2012) remake. He also appeared as a veteran streetwise officer in an episode of the 1973 version of *[Story](Police)(Police Story (1973 TV series))*.
Asner was acclaimed for his role in the ABC miniseries *[Roots](Roots (1977 miniseries))*, as Captain Davies, the morally conflicted captain of the *Lord Ligonier*, the slave ship that brought [Kinte](Kunta)(Kunta Kinte) to America. The role earned Asner an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award), as did the similarly dark role of Axel Jordache in the miniseries *[Man, Poor Man](Rich)(Rich Man, Poor Man (miniseries))* (1976). In contrast, he played [former pontiff](a)(Pope John XXIII) in the lead role of *[Giovanni: Ioannes XXIII](Papa)(John XXIII: The Pope of Peace)* (*Pope John XXIII* 2002), an Italian television film for [RAI](RAI).
[[Asner - 1985.jpg|left|thumb|Asner in 1985](File:Ed)]
Asner had an extensive [acting](voice)(voice acting) career. In 1987, he played the eponymous character, George F. Babbitt, in the [Classic Theatre Works](L.A.)(L.A. Theatre Works)' radio theater production of [Lewis](Sinclair)(Sinclair Lewis)' novel *[Babbitt](Babbitt (novel))*. Asner won one [Award](Audie)(Audie Award) and was nominated for two [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) and an additional Audie for his audiobook work. He also provided the voices for Joshua on *Joshua and the Battle of Jericho* (1986) for [Hanna-Barbera](Hanna-Barbera), [Jonah Jameson](J.)(J. Jonah Jameson) on the 1990s animated television series *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (1994 TV series))* (1994–98); Hoggish Greedly on *[Planet and the Planeteers](Captain)(Captain Planet and the Planeteers)* (1990–95); [Hudson](Manhattan Clan#Hudson) on *[Gargoyles](Gargoyles (TV series))* (1994–96); [the Hutt](Jabba)(Jabba the Hutt) on the [version of *Star Wars*](radio)(Star Wars (radio)); Master Vrook from *[Wars: Knights of the Old Republic](Star)(Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic (video game))* and its [sequel](star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II The Sith Lords); Roland Daggett on *[The Animated Series](Batman:)(Batman: The Animated Series)* (1992–94); Cosgrove on *[Freakazoid!](Freakazoid!)*; Ed Wuncler on *[Boondocks](The)(The Boondocks (TV series))* (2005–14); and [Goodness](Granny)(Granny Goodness) in various [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) animated series. He also voiced Napoleon, Cornelia's younger sister's cat in the [Disney](Disney) show *[W.I.T.C.H.](W.I.T.C.H. (TV series))*, and Kid Potato, the Butcher's dad in the [Kids](PBS)(PBS Kids) show hit *[WordGirl](WordGirl)*. He was even nominated for a [Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program](Daytime)(Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program) but lost to [Kitt](Eartha)(Eartha Kitt) for [Jr. Channel](Nick)(Nick Jr. Channel)'s *[Wonder Pets](The)(The Wonder Pets)*. Asner provided the voice of famed American orator [Everett](Edward)(Edward Everett) in the 2017 documentary film *The Gettysburg Address*.
Asner provided the voice of the main protagonist Carl Fredricksen in the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)-winning [Pixar](Pixar) film *[Up](Up (2009 film))* (2009). He received critical acclaim for the role, with one critic going so far as to suggest "They should create a new category for this year's Academy Award for Best Vocal Acting in an Animated Film and name Asner as the first recipient." He appeared in the mid- to late-2000s decade in a recurring segment on *[Tonight Show with Jay Leno](The)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno)*, entitled "Does This Impress Ed Asner?" He was cast in a [Music Television](Country)(Country Music Television) comedy pilot, *Regular Joe*.
In 2001, Asner was the recipient of the [Actors Guild Life Achievement Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award).
Asner won more [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for performing than any other male actor (seven, including five for the role of Lou Grant). In 1996, he was inducted into the [of Television Arts & Sciences Hall of Fame](Academy)(Television Hall of Fame). In July 2010, Asner completed recording sessions for *Shattered Hopes: The True Story of the Amityville Murders*; a documentary on the 1974 DeFeo murders in Amityville, New York. Asner served as the narrator for the film, which covers a forensic analysis of the murders, the trial in which 23-year-old DeFeo son Ronald DeFeo Jr., was convicted of the killings, and the subsequent "haunting" story which is revealed to be a hoax. Also in 2010, Asner played the title role in *FDR*, a stage production about the life of [Delano Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin Delano Roosevelt); he subsequently continued to tour the play throughout the country. In January 2011, Asner took a supporting role on CMT's first original sitcom *[Class](Working)(Working Class (TV series))*. He made an appearance in the independent comedy feature *[Another B Movie](Not)(Not Another B Movie)*, and had a role as billionaire [Buffett](Warren)(Warren Buffett) in [HBO](HBO)'s economic drama *[Big to Fail](Too)(Too Big to Fail (film))* (2011). In 2013, he guest starred as Mr. Finger in *[Crazy Ones](The)(The Crazy Ones)*.
Asner also provided voice-over narration for many documentaries and films about social activism, including *Tiger by the Tail*, a documentary film detailing the efforts of [Mann](Eric)(Eric Mann (civil rights organizer)) and the Campaign to keep [Motors](General)(General Motors)' [Nuys assembly plant](Van)(Van Nuys Assembly) running. He also recorded for a public radio show and podcast, *[On Air](Playing)(Playing On Air)*, appearing in [Leight](Warren)(Warren Leight)'s ''The Final Interrogation of Ceaucescu's Dog'' with [Eisenberg](Jesse)(Jesse Eisenberg), and [Reiss](Mike)(Mike Reiss)'s *New York Story.* Asner was the voice-over narrator for the 2016 documentary *Behind the Fear: The Hidden Story of HIV*, directed by Nicole Zwiren, a controversial study on the [AIDS](AIDS) debate.
A 2014 documentary titled *My Friend Ed,* directed by Sharon Baker, focused on the actor's life and career. It won Best Short Documentary at the [York City Independent Film Festival](New)(New York City Independent Film Festival).
During interviews for a 2019 book on the history of Chicago theater, Asner told the author he preferred to be credited for his work as "Edward" rather than "Ed" because he felt the longer name held the page or screen better.
In 2018, Asner was cast in the [Netflix](Netflix) dark comedy, *[to Me](Dead)(Dead to Me (TV series))*, which premiered on May 3, 2019. The series also stars [Applegate](Christina)(Christina Applegate), [Cardellini](Linda)(Linda Cardellini), and [Marsden](James)(James Marsden). Asner also had a recurring guest role in the 2018–present series *[Kai](Cobra)(Cobra Kai)*, portraying [Lawrence](Johnny)(Johnny Lawrence (character))'s step-father, Sid Weinberg, in seasons one and three. In 2020 he guest starred in an episode of *[Family](Modern)(Modern Family)* and in 2021 played himself in a sketch on ''[Be Real](Let's)(Let's Be Real)''. The 2019 feature documentary *Ed Asner: On Stage and Off* premiered at the American Documentary Film Festival in Palm Springs, which Asner attended. In 2013, he played Santa in *Christmas on the Bayou*. Beginning in 2016, Asner took on the role of [survivor](Holocaust)(Holocaust survivor) Milton Salesman in [Cohen](Jeff)(Jeff Cohen (playwright and theater director))'s acclaimed play *[Soap Myth](The)(The Soap Myth)* in a reading at [Center](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center)'s Bruno Walter Theatre in New York City. He subsequently toured for the next three years in "concert readings" of the play in more than a dozen cities across the United States. In 2019, PBS flagship station [WNET](WNET) filmed the concert reading at New York's [for Jewish History](Center)(Center for Jewish History) for their [Arts](All)(All Arts) channel. The performance, which is available for free, world-wide live-streaming, co-stars [Feldshuh](Tovah)(Tovah Feldshuh), [Eisenberg](Ned)(Ned Eisenberg), and Liba Vaynberg.
In the week before his death, Asner told his frequent collaborators, [Palast](Greg)(Greg Palast) and Leni Badpenny, that he soon would be doing three one-act plays.
At the time of his death in August 2021, Asner had completed several roles in a number of TV series and films that were released posthumously, including three on the [Disney+](Disney+) streaming service, he reprised his voice role as Carl Fredricksen from the [Pixar](Pixar) film *[Up](Up (2009 film))* in the [Disney+](Disney+) animated streaming miniseries of shorts *[Days](Dug)(Dug Days)*, which was the first to premiere, just three days after his death. Asner played a posthumous role as the Ghost of Claude in the Halloween special *[Haunted Mansion](Muppets)(Muppets Haunted Mansion)*, and provided the voice of Grandpa Heffley in the 2022 [Disney+](Disney+) animated film adaptation *[of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules](Diary)(Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules (2022 film))*, released over a year after his death. These were all dedicated to his memory. Asner's other projects on what would become his final roles are yet to be announced for a release, but still in post-production.
## Activism
### Politics
[[File:Ed Asner 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Asner at the 2015 [Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration](Substance)(Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration) Awards]]
Asner served two terms as president of the [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild), in which capacity during the 1980s he opposed United States policy in [America](Central)(Central America), working closely with the Alliance for Survival. He played a prominent role in the [SAG strike](1980)(Strike and Emmy Awards boycott of 1980). He was also active in a variety of other causes, such as the movement to free [Abu-Jamal](Mumia)(Mumia Abu-Jamal) and the movement to establish California One Care, [health care](single-payer)(single-payer health care) in [California](California), for which he created a television advertisement. He endorsed [Kucinich](Dennis)(Dennis Kucinich) in the [United States presidential election](2004)(2004 United States presidential election), and [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) during the [United States presidential election](2008)(2008 United States presidential election). He was formerly a member of the [Socialist Organizing Committee](Democratic)(Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee) (DSOC) and was a member of DSOC's successor, the [Socialists of America](Democratic)(Democratic Socialists of America).
The sudden cancellation of *Lou Grant* in 1982 was the subject of much controversy. The show had high ratings, being in the [ACNielsen](ACNielsen) top ten throughout its final month on the air. However, the CBS television network declined to renew it. Asner believed that his [left-wing](Left-wing politics) political views, as well as the publicity surrounding them, were the actual root causes for the show's cancellation.
In 2011, Asner endorsed [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) candidate Marcy Winograd who finished 4th in the 16-candidate primary behind eventual winner [Hahn](Janice)(Janice Hahn), in [36th congressional district special election](California's)(2011 California's 36th congressional district special election).
From 2011 to 2015, Asner worked with filmmaker Nicole Zwiren on the feature-length documentary *Behind the Fear* which addresses [denialism](HIV/AIDS)(HIV/AIDS denialism). The film was released in 2016 with Asner as the narrator.
### Nonprofit organizations
Asner was on the Entertainment Board of Directors for The Survivor Mitzvah Project, a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing direct emergency aid to elderly and impoverished [survivors](Holocaust)(Holocaust survivors) in [Europe](Eastern)(Eastern Europe). Asner was a member of the [Book Legal Defense Fund](Comic)(Comic Book Legal Defense Fund), a free speech organization that is dedicated to protecting comic book creators and retailers from prosecutions based on content. He served as an advisor to the [Fund for Children](Rosenberg)(Rosenberg Fund for Children), an organization founded by the children of [and Ethel Rosenberg](Julius)(Julius and Ethel Rosenberg), which provides benefits for the children of political activists, and was a board member for the wildlife conservation organization [of Wildlife](Defenders)(Defenders of Wildlife). Asner also sat on the advisory board for [Minds](Exceptional)(Exceptional Minds), a non-profit school and a computer animation studio for young adults on the [spectrum](autism)(autism spectrum).
Asner was a supporter of Humane Borders, an organization based in [Arizona](Tucson,)(Tucson, Arizona), which maintains water stations in the [desert](Sonoran)(Sonoran desert) for use by undocumented migrants, with the goal of preventing deaths by dehydration and exposure. He was the master of ceremonies at that organization's volunteer dinner in fall 2017.
In November 2017, The Ed Asner Family Center was founded by Asner's son, Matt, and daughter-in-law, Navah Paskowitz. The Center provides arts and vocational enrichments, counseling services, and support groups and camps to special needs individuals and their families.
### September 11 attacks
Asner voiced qualified support for the [truth movement](9/11)(9/11 truth movement). In 2004, he signed a statement released by the group [Truth](9/11)(9/11 Truth movement#9/11 Truth) that included a call for a new investigation into some elements of the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks) that he questioned. by [Miller](Stephanie)(Stephanie Miller) on *[Stephanie Miller Show](The)(The Stephanie Miller Show)* about a [11](September)(September 11 attacks) [theory](Conspiracy)(Conspiracy theory) Asner confirmed his support for the statement in 2009. Asner also narrated the documentary film *The Oil Factor: Behind the War on Terror*.
In April 2004, Asner wrote an open letter to "peace and justice leaders" encouraging them to demand "full 9–11 truth" through the organization *9-11 Visibility Project*. In 2011, Asner hosted the [& Engineers for 9/11 Truth](Architects)(Architects & Engineers for 9/11 Truth) documentary on the collapse of [World Trade Center](7)(7 World Trade Center), which endorses the theory that the building was taken down by [demolition](controlled)(demolition).
[[File:AsnerWeaver1978.jpg|left|thumb|Asner and [Weaver](Dennis)(Dennis Weaver) picketing during an advertising agencies strike in Los Angeles, 1978]]
### Opposition to SAG–AFTRA merger
On March 30, 2012, the [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild) (SAG) and the [Federation of Television and Radio Artists](American)(American Federation of Television and Radio Artists) (AFTRA) completed a merger of equals, forming a new union [SAG-AFTRA](SAG-AFTRA). Asner was adamantly opposed to such a merger, arguing that the planned merger would destroy the SAG's health plan and disempower actors. Asner and a group of fellow actors and voice-actors, including [Sheen](Martin)(Martin Sheen) and [Harris](Ed)(Ed Harris), filed (but later dropped) a lawsuit against SAG president [Howard](Ken)(Ken Howard) and several SAG vice presidents, seeking to have the merger overturned, and the two unions separated to their pre-merger organizations.
### Local Theater/Community Development
In 2021, Asner traveled to [Rio, California](Monte)(Monte Rio, California) to support the reopening, revitalization, and shifted focus of the local Monte Rio Theater.
## Personal life
Asner was married to Nancy Lou Sykes from 1959 to 1988. They had three children, twins Matthew and Liza, and Kate. In 1987, he had a son named Charles with Carol Jean Vogelman. Asner was a parent and a grandparent to [autistic](Autism spectrum) children and was involved with the [501(c)(3)](501(c)(3) organization) [organization](nonprofit)(nonprofit organization) [Speaks](Autism)(Autism Speaks)., writing "James Denton ... applauded hosts of the organization's autism awareness public service announcements, including celebrity parents of children with autism, Ed Asner, [Cole](Gary)(Gary Cole), [Mantegna](Joe)(Joe Mantegna) and [Schneider](John)(John Schneider (screen actor))." He also served as a [member](board)(board of directors) and adviser for Aspiritech, a nonprofit organization that trains high-functioning autistic persons to test software and perform [quality-assurance](quality assurance) services for companies.
Asner became engaged to producer Cindy Gilmore in 1991. They married on August 2, 1998. Gilmore filed for [separation](legal)(legal separation) on November 7, 2007. Asner filed for [divorce](divorce) in 2015.
## Death
Asner died of [causes](natural)(natural causes) at his home in the [Tarzana](Tarzana, Los Angeles) neighborhood of [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), on the morning of August 29, 2021, at the age of 91. He was buried at Sheffield Cemetery in Kansas City, Missouri, on September 12.
Numerous celebrities paid tribute to Asner, including [McCormick](Maureen)(Maureen McCormick), [Takei](George)(George Takei), [Hamill](Mark)(Mark Hamill), [McKean](Michael)(Michael McKean), [Whitford](Bradley)(Bradley Whitford), [Gad](Josh)(Josh Gad), [Farrow](Mia)(Mia Farrow), [Richter](Andy)(Andy Richter), [Couric](Katie)(Katie Couric), [O'Hare](Denis)(Denis O'Hare), [Sorvino](Mira)(Mira Sorvino), [Stonestreet](Eric)(Eric Stonestreet), [Nash](Niecy)(Niecy Nash), [Nicole Brown](Yvette)(Yvette Nicole Brown), [Moore](Michael)(Michael Moore), [Dawson](Rosario)(Rosario Dawson), [Arquette](Rosanna)(Rosanna Arquette), [Stiller](Ben)(Ben Stiller), [Muppets](The)(The Muppets), [Baldwin](William)(William Baldwin), [Weisman](Greg)(Greg Weisman), [Zabka](William)(William Zabka), [Macchio](Ralph)(Ralph Macchio), [Peterson](Bob)(Bob Peterson (filmmaker)), [Farmer](Bill)(Bill Farmer), and [Deschanel](Zooey)(Zooey Deschanel).
## References
## External links
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Justin Theroux
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justin_theroux
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# Justin Theroux
*Revision ID: 1160161399 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:22:38Z*
---
| birth_place = [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), U.S.
| alma mater = [College](Bennington)(Bennington College)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1995–present
| spouse = }}https://www.esquire.com/entertainment/movies/a36075661/justin-theroux-mosquito-coast-interview-2021/
| partner = Heidi Bivens (1997–2011)
| relatives =
}}
**Justin Paul Theroux** (; born August 10, 1971) is an American actor and filmmaker. He gained recognition for his work with director [Lynch](David)(David Lynch) in the mystery film *[Drive](Mulholland)(Mulholland Drive (film))* (2001) and the horror film *[Empire](Inland)(Inland Empire (film))* (2006). He also appeared in films such as ''[and Michele's High School Reunion](Romy)(Romy and Michele's High School Reunion)* (1997), *[Psycho](American)(American Psycho (film))* (2000), *[Angels: Full Throttle](Charlie's)(Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle)* (2003), *[with Candy](Strangers)(Strangers with Candy (film))* (2005), *[Vice](Miami)(Miami Vice (film))* (2006), *[Wanderlust](Wanderlust (2012 film))* (2012), *[Girl on the Train](The)(The Girl on the Train (2016 film))* (2016), *[Spy Who Dumped Me](The)(The Spy Who Dumped Me)* (2018), *[the Basis of Sex](On)(On the Basis of Sex)* (2018), and *[and the Tramp](Lady)(Lady and the Tramp (2019 film))* (2019).
Theroux was a screenwriter for films such as the action comedy *[Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder)* (2008), the superhero film *[Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)* (2010), and the musical comedy drama *[of Ages](Rock)(Rock of Ages (2012 film))* (2012). He made his directorial debut with the romantic comedy film *[Dedication](Dedication (film))* (2007).
Theroux starred as Kevin Garvey in the [HBO](HBO) mystery drama series *[Leftovers](The)(The Leftovers (TV series))'' (2014–2017), for which he received widespread praise and was nominated for the [Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series). He also starred as Dr. James Mantleray in the [Netflix](Netflix) comedy drama miniseries *[Maniac](Maniac (miniseries))* (2018). From 2021 to 2023, he portrayed Allie Fox in the [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+) adaptation of *[Mosquito Coast](The)(The Mosquito Coast (TV series))*, based on the novel by his uncle [Theroux](Paul)(Paul Theroux). In 2023, he also starred in the [HBO](HBO) satirical political miniseries *[House Plumbers](White)(White House Plumbers (miniseries))*.
## Early life
Theroux was born on August 10, 1971, in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) His mother, Phyllis Grissim Theroux, is an essayist and author, and his father, Eugene Albert Theroux (born 1938), is a lawyer at [& McKenzie](Baker)(Baker & McKenzie) in Washington. Theroux is the nephew of the travel writer and novelist [Theroux](Paul)(Paul Theroux), or garden wall--> | date= September 14, 1980 |access-date= August 13, 2012}} novelist and poet [Theroux](Alexander)(Alexander Theroux), author [Theroux](Peter)(Peter Theroux), and novelist and educator Joseph Theroux; he is the cousin of British journalists and documentary filmmakers [Louis](Louis Theroux) and [Theroux](Marcel)(Marcel Theroux). His father is of half [French-Canadian](French-Canadian) and half Italian descent. Through his mother, Theroux is a great-great-grandson of financier, banker and railroad magnate [B. Hollins](H.)(H. B. Hollins), or garden wall-->}} and of music critic and author [Kobbé](Gustav)(Gustav Kobbé). or garden wall--> |work = [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) |date= November 5, 1937 |access-date= August 13, 2012}}
Theroux took the name Jesus as his [Catholic](Catholic Church) [Confirmation](Confirmation) name.
Theroux attended Lafayette Elementary School, Annunciation School, and [Field School](the)(the Field School). He first started acting while in high school at the [School](Buxton)(Buxton School (Massachusetts)), in [Massachusetts](Williamstown,)(Williamstown, Massachusetts).
He graduated from [College](Bennington)(Bennington College) in 1993 with a B.A. in visual arts and drama.
## Career
Theroux made his film debut in 1996 in [Harron](Mary)(Mary Harron)'s *[Shot Andy Warhol](I)(I Shot Andy Warhol)*. Since then he has performed both on Broadway, starring in *[the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme](Observe)(Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme)*; in numerous [off-Broadway](Off Broadway) productions; and in comedy films such as ''[Angels: Full Throttle](Charlie's)(Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle)*, *[Baxter](The)(The Baxter)*, *[and Michelle's High School Reunion](Romy)(Romy and Michelle's High School Reunion)*, *[Hearts Club](Broken)(Broken Hearts Club)*, and *[Zoolander](Zoolander)*.
[[File:Mulholland drive(lynch)--.jpg|thumb|right|The stars and director of the film *[Drive](Mulholland)(Mulholland Drive (film))* at the 2001 [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival). Left to right: actor [Watts](Naomi)(Naomi Watts), director [Lynch](David)(David Lynch), and actors [Harring](Laura)(Laura Harring) and Justin Theroux]]
He has also performed in more serious films such as *[Psycho](American)(American Psycho (film)).* He appeared in the film versions of the [cult](Cult following) television shows *[With Candy](Strangers)(Strangers with Candy (film))'' and [Mann](Michael)(Michael Mann (film director))'s *[Vice](Miami)(Miami Vice)*. He starred in [Lynch](David)(David Lynch)'s films *[Drive](Mulholland)(Mulholland Drive (film))* and *[Empire](Inland)(Inland Empire (film))*.
In 2003, he was featured in a music video for the British band [Muse](Muse (band)) for their song "[Hysteria](Hysteria (Muse song))". Theroux also has appeared on television, having starred in *[District](The)(The District)* and appeared on episodes of shows such as *[Alias](Alias (TV show))*, *[McBeal](Ally)(Ally McBeal)*, *[and the City](Sex)(Sex and the City)* (in which he guest starred in two episodes as different characters), and *[Feet Under](Six)(Six Feet Under (TV series))* (in which he played a recurring character in the third and fourth seasons).
In 2006, he directed his first film, *[Dedication](Dedication (film))*, which premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](2007)(2007 Sundance Film Festival). A fan of the band [Deerhoof](Deerhoof), Theroux chose them to score *Dedication*. Theroux also had roles in two other films at the festival, *[English](Broken)(Broken English (2007 film))* and *[Ten](The)(The Ten)*, in which he played [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ) alongside [Mol](Gretchen)(Gretchen Mol). Theroux co-wrote the [Stiller](Ben)(Ben Stiller) film *[Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder)*, and also appeared in the behind-the-scenes mockumentary *Tropic Thunder: Rain of Madness*.
In 2008, Theroux played [Hancock](John)(John Hancock) in the HBO miniseries *[Adams](John)(John Adams (miniseries))*. In 2009, Theroux made up part of the voice cast for *[of Duty: Modern Warfare 2](Call)(Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2)*. He also played Justin in *[and Recreation](Parks)(Parks and Recreation)*. Theroux wrote the screenplay for the 2010 film *[Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)*. Following Theroux's work on *Tropic Thunder*, actor [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) recommended Theroux as a screenwriter to the film's director, [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau).
Theroux returned to acting in the film *[Highness](Your)(Your Highness)* (2011), as Leezar, an evil wizard who kidnaps a princess. He starred in the 2012 comedy *[Wanderlust](Wanderlust (2012 film))*, playing the leader of a hippie commune. By August 2012, Theroux was hired to direct and rewrite the script for the comedy film *Swear to God*.
In June 2013, Theroux was cast as the lead character in [HBO](HBO)'s TV pilot *[Leftovers](The)(The Leftovers (TV series))*, which HBO ordered as a 10-episode season in September 2013.
The series, which premiered June 29, 2014, is based on a book of the same name by [Perrotta](Tom)(Tom Perrotta), which follows a group of people left behind in the suburban community of Mapleton after mysterious disappearances worldwide. Theroux received widespread critical acclaim for his performance throughout the three seasons.
Theroux co-wrote the sequel *[2](Zoolander)(Zoolander 2)* (2016), and reprised his role, Evil DJ, in the film.
Theroux also voiced the character The Evil Lord Garmadon in the 2017 film *[Lego Ninjago Movie](The)(The Lego Ninjago Movie)*.
In 2018, Theroux played savant neurochemist James Mantleray in the 2018 [Netflix](Netflix) [drama](comedy)(comedy drama) miniseries *[Maniac](Maniac (miniseries))* opposite [Stone](Emma)(Emma Stone) and [Hill](Jonah)(Jonah Hill).
In 2019, Theroux produced the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) television event [in Front of a Studio Audience](Live)(Live in Front of a Studio Audience) alongside [Lear](Norman)(Norman Lear), [Kimmel](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel) and [Ferrell](Will)(Will Ferrell). Theroux received a [Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live)](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live)) for producing the event. He also voiced Tramp in the [Disney+](Disney+) live-action film *[and the Tramp](Lady)(Lady and the Tramp (2019 film))*, a remake of the [film with the same name.](1955)(Lady and the Tramp)
In 2021, Theroux portrayed brilliant inventor and stubborn idealist Allie Fox in the [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+) television series [Mosquito Coast*](*The)(The Mosquito Coast (TV series)), a television adaptation from the 1981 novel of the same name written by [Theroux](Paul)(Paul Theroux), Justin Theroux's uncle. Theroux also served as executive producer for the series.
## Personal life
Theroux was in a relationship with stylist and costume designer Heidi Bivens from 1997 until 2011. Theroux began dating actress [Aniston](Jennifer)(Jennifer Aniston) in 2011, after working with her on the film *[Wanderlust](Wanderlust (2012 film))*. They became engaged in August 2012, and got married on August 5, 2015. On February 15, 2018, Theroux and Aniston announced they had separated at the end of 2017. They divorced in 2018.https://www.esquire.com/entertainment/movies/a36075661/justin-theroux-mosquito-coast-interview-2021/
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Audio
## Awards and nominations
List of awards and nominations received by Theroux.
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1971)(Category:1971 births)
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Bhagavad Gita
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bhagavad_gita
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# Bhagavad Gita
*Revision ID: 1158276827 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T02:00:00Z*
---
revelation: [Krishna](Krishna) tells the Gita to [Arjuna](Arjuna)
| religion = [Hinduism](Hinduism)
| verses = 700
| author = Traditionally attributed to [Vyasa](Vyasa)
| language = [Sanskrit](Sanskrit)
| date =
| chapters =18
| name=Bhagavad Gita
|}}
The **Bhagavad Gita** (; ), often referred to as the **Gita** (), is a 700-[verse](Sanskrit prosody) [scripture](Hindu)(Hindu texts), which is part of the [epic](Hindu epic) *[Mahabharata](Mahabharata)*. It forms the chapters 23–40 of book 6 of the Mahabharata called the [Parva](Bhishma)(Bhishma Parva). The work is dated to the second half of the [millennium BCE](first)(first millennium BCE). Typical of the [synthesis](Hindu)(Hindu synthesis), it is considered one of the holy scriptures of [Hinduism](Hinduism). Definition, Contents, & Significance Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}
The Gita is set in a narrative framework of dialogue between [Pandava](Pandava) prince [Arjuna](Arjuna) and his guide and charioteer [Krishna](Krishna). At the start of the [dharma](dharma) [yuddha](War) (or the "righteous war") between the [Pandava](Pandava)s and the [Kaurava](Kaurava)s, [Arjuna](Arjuna) is preoccupied by a [moral](Morality) and emotional [dilemma](dilemma) and despairs about the violence and death the war will cause in the battle against his kin. Wondering if he should renounce the war, he seeks Krishna's counsel, whose answers and discourse constitute the Gita. Krishna counsels Arjuna to "fulfil his [Kshatriya](Kshatriya) (warrior) duty to uphold the [dharma](dharma)" through Karma ("action"). The Krishna–Arjuna dialogues cover a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon ethical dilemmas and philosophical issues that go far beyond the war that Arjuna faces.
Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on its essentials. According to some, the Bhagavad Gita was written by the god [Ganesha](Ganesha), as told to him by the sage [Vyasa](Veda)(Veda Vyasa). Commentators of [Vedanta](Vedanta) read varying relationships between the Self and [Brahman](Brahman) in the text: [Vedanta](Advaita)(Advaita Vedanta) sees the non-dualism of [Atman](Ātman (Hinduism)) (Self) and [Brahman](Brahman) (universal Self) as its essence; [Bhedabheda](Bhedabheda) and [Vishishtadvaita](Vishishtadvaita) see Atman and Brahman as both related but different in certain aspects; while [Vedanta](Dvaita)(Dvaita Vedanta) sees the complete dualism of [Atman](Atman (Hinduism)) and [Brahman](Brahman) as its essence. The setting of the Gita in a battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of human life.
The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of Hindu ideas about [dharma](dharma), [theistic](Theism) [bhakti](bhakti), and the [yogic](Yoga) ideal of [moksha](moksha). The text covers [Jñāna](Jnana yoga), [Bhakti](Bhakti yoga), [Karma](Karma yoga), and [yoga](Rāja)(Rāja yoga)s (spoken of in the 6th chapter), while incorporating ideas from the [Samkhya](Samkhya)-[Yoga](Yoga) philosophy. and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the [Brahman](Brahman) of the [tradition](Vedic)(Historical Vedic religion).}} The Bhagavad Gita is one of the most revered Hindu texts, and has a unique [pan-Hindu](Hindu denominations) influence.
## Etymology
The *gita* in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song." Religious leaders and scholars interpret the word *[Bhagavad](Bhagavān)* in a number of ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the word of God" by the theistic schools, "the words of the Lord", "the Divine Song", and "Celestial Song" by others., Quote: "Bhagavad Gita means that Celestial Song."
In India, its Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita, श्रीमद् भगवद् गीता (the latter two words often written as a single word भगवद्गीता), where the Shrimad prefix is used to denote a high degree of respect. This is not to be confused with the [Bhagavatam](Shrimad)(Shrimad Bhagavatam), which is a [Purana](Purana) dealing with the life of the Hindu God [Krishna](Krishna) and various avatars of [Vishnu](Vishnu).
The work is also known as the *Iswara Gita*, the *Ananta Gita*, the *Hari Gita*, the *Vyasa Gita*, or the Gita.
## Date and authorship
### Date
Theories on the date of the composition of the Gita vary considerably. Some scholars accept dates from the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century BCE as the probable range, the latter likely. The Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second century BCE to be the probable date of composition. [A. B. van Buitenen](J.)(J. A. B. van Buitenen) also states that the Gita was likely composed about 200 BCE. According to the Indologist [Sharma](Arvind)(Arvind Sharma), the Gita is generally accepted to be a 2nd-century-BCE text.
[[old torn paper with a painting depicting the *Mahabharata* war, with some verses recorded in Sanskrit.|A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the *Mahabharata*.](File:Kurukshetra.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=An)]
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, in contrast, dates it a bit earlier. He states that the Gita was always a part of the *Mahabharata*, and dating the latter suffices in dating the Gita. On the basis of the estimated dates of *Mahabharata* as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by [Asvaghosa](Asvaghosa) (c. 100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the *Mahabharata*, and therefore the Gita, must have been well known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it.}} This suggests a *[ante quem](terminus)(:wikt:terminus ante quem)* (latest date) of the Gita to be sometime prior to the 1st century CE. He cites similar quotes in the dharmasutra texts, the *[sutras](Brahma)(Brahma sutras)*, and other literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth century BCE.}} According to Arthur Basham, the context of the Bhagavad Gita suggests that it was composed in an era when the [of war](ethics)(Dharma-yuddha) were being questioned and renunciation to monastic life was becoming popular. Such an era emerged after the rise of [Buddhism](Buddhism) and [Jainism](Jainism) in the 5th century BCE, and particularly after the semi-legendary life of [Ashoka](Ashoka) in the 3rd century BCE. Thus, the first version of the Bhagavad Gita may have been composed in or after the 3rd century BCE.
Linguistically, the Bhagavad Gita is in [Sanskrit](classical)(Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit) of the early variety, states the Gita scholar [Sargeant](Winthrop)(Winthrop Sargeant). The text has occasional pre-classical elements of the Sanskrit language, such as the [aorist](aorist) and the prohibitive *mā* instead of the expected *na* (not) of classical Sanskrit. This suggests that the text was composed after the [Pāṇini](Pāṇini) era, but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the [tradition](oral)(oral tradition) to the later centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE. According to Jeaneane Fowler, "the dating of the Gita varies considerably" and depends in part on whether one accepts it to be a part of the early versions of the *Mahabharata*, or a text that was inserted into the epic at a later date. The earliest "surviving" components therefore are believed to be no older than the earliest "external" references we have to the *Mahabharata* epic. The *Mahabharata* – the world's longest poem – is itself a text that was likely written and compiled over several hundred years, one dated between "400 BCE or little earlier, and 2nd century CE, though some claim a few parts can be put as late as 400 CE", states Fowler. The dating of the Gita is thus dependent on the uncertain dating of the *Mahabharata*. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved. While the year and century is uncertain, states [Davis](Richard)(Richard Davis (professor of religion)), the internal evidence in the text dates the origin of the Gita discourse to the Hindu lunar month of *[Margashirsha](wikt:Margashirsha)* (also called *[Agrahayana](Agrahayana)*, generally December or January of the Gregorian calendar).
### Authorship
In the Indian tradition, the Bhagavad Gita, as well as the epic *[Mahabharata](Mahabharata)* of which it is a part, is attributed to the sage [Vyasa](Vyasa), whose full name was Krishna Dvaipayana, also called Veda-Vyasa. Another Hindu legend states that Vyasa narrated it when the lord [Ganesha](Ganesha) broke one of his tusks and wrote down the Mahabharata along with the Bhagavad Gita.}}
Scholars consider Vyasa to be a mythical or symbolic author, in part because Vyasa is also the traditional compiler of the [Vedas](Vedas) and the [Puranas](Puranas), texts dated to be from different millennia., Quote: "Veda Vyasa was said to have edited the four Vedas and authored the Puranas and the Mahabharata. Accomplishing all that would require a human who lived several thousand years, so scholars do place the story of his achievements as those of one man in the area of mythology." The word *Vyasa* literally means "arranger, compiler", and is a surname in India. According to Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, a Gita scholar, it is possible that a number of different individuals with the same name compiled different texts.
[Vivekananda](Swami)(Swami Vivekananda), the 19th-century Hindu monk and Vedantist, stated that the Bhagavad Gita may be old but it was mostly unknown in Indian history till the early 8th century when [Shankara](Adi)(Adi Shankara) (Shankaracharya) made it famous by writing his much-followed commentary on it. Some infer, states Vivekananda, that "Shankaracharya was the author of Gita, and that it was he who foisted it into the body of the *Mahabharata*." This attribution to Adi Shankara is unlikely in part because Shankara himself refers to the earlier commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, and because other Hindu texts and traditions that compete with the ideas of Shankara refer to much older literature referencing the Bhagavad Gita, though much of this ancient secondary literature has not survived into the modern era.
According to [A. B. van Buitenen](J.)(J. A. B. van Buitenen), an Indologist known for his translations and scholarship on *Mahabharata*, the Gita is so contextually and philosophically well knit with the *Mahabharata* that it was not an independent text that "somehow wandered into the epic". The Gita, states van Buitenen, was conceived and developed by the *Mahabharata* authors to "bring to a climax and solution the dharmic dilemma of a war". In contrast, the Indologist James Fitzgerald states, in a manner similar to van Buitenen, that the Bhagavad Gita is the centerpiece and essential to the ideological continuity in the *Mahabharata*, and the entire epic builds up to the fundamental dharma questions in the Gita. This text, states Fitzgerald, must have been integral to the earliest version of the epic.}} According to [McLeod](Alexus)(Alexus McLeod), a scholar of Philosophy and Asian Studies, it is "impossible to link the Bhagavad Gita to a single author", and it may be the work of many authors. This view is shared by the Indologist [Basham](Arthur)(Arthur Llewellyn Basham), who states that there were three or more authors or compilers of Bhagavad Gita. This is evidenced by the discontinuous intermixing of philosophical verses with theistic or passionately theistic verses, according to Basham.
## Scriptural significance
The Bhagavad Gita is the best known, and most influential of Hindu scriptures. While Hinduism is known for its diversity and its synthesis therefrom, the Bhagavad Gita has a unique pan-Hindu influence., Quote: "Its [Bhagavadgita's] importance as a religious text is demonstrated by its uniquely pan-Hindu influence". [James Larson](Gerald)(Gerald James Larson) – an Indologist and scholar of classical Hindu philosophy, states that "if there is any one text that comes near to embodying the totality of what it is to be a [Hindu](Hindu), it would be the Bhagavad Gita." The Bhagavad Gita is part of the [Prasthanatrayi](Prasthanatrayi), which also includes the [Upanishads](Upanishads) and [sutras](Brahma)(Brahma sutras). These are the three starting points for the [Vedanta](Vedanta) school of Hindu philosophy.NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, , p. 35 with footnote 30 The Brahma sutras constitute the *Nyāya prasthāna* or the "starting point of reasoning canonical base", while the principal Upanishads constitute the *Sruti prasthāna* or the "starting point of heard scriptures", and the Bhagavad Gita constitutes the *Smriti prasthāna* or the "starting point of remembered canonical base".
[[File:Arjuna and His Charioteer Krishna Confront Karna, crop.jpg|thumb|150px|Krishna recounts Gita to Arjuna during [War](Kurukshetra)(Kurukshetra War), in *[Mahabharata](Mahabharata)*; c.1820 painting.]]
The Bhagavad Gita is a "summation of the Vedanta", states Sargeant. It is thus one of the key texts for the [Vedanta](Vedanta), a school that provides one of the theoretical foundations for Hinduism, and one that has had an enormous influence over time, becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, according to [Flood](Gavin)(Gavin Flood) – a scholar of Hinduism. Some Hindus give it the status of an Upanishad, and some consider it to be a "revealed text". Others consider the Bhagavad Gita as an important [Smriti](Smrti), or secondary text that exist in alternate versions such as one found in Kashmir though it does not affect the basic message of the text.
### Hindu synthesis
The Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of the [synthesis](Hindu)(Hindu synthesis), incorporating its various religious traditions. The synthesis is at both philosophical and socio-religious levels, states the Gita scholar Keya Maitra. The text refrains from insisting on one right *marga* (path) to spirituality. It openly synthesizes and inclusively accepts multiple ways of life, harmonizing spiritual pursuits through action (*karma*), knowledge (*gyaana*), and devotion (*bhakti*). According to the Gita translator Radhakrishnan, quoted in a review by Robinson, Krishna's discourse is a "comprehensive synthesis" that inclusively unifies the competing strands of Hindu thought such as "Vedic ritual, Upanishadic wisdom, devotional theism and philosophical insight". Aurobindo described the text as a synthesis of various [Yoga](Yoga)s. The Indologist Robert Minor, and others, in contrast, state that the Gita is "more clearly defined as a synthesis of Vedanta, Yoga and Samkhya" philosophies of Hinduism.
[[didactic print from the 1960's that uses the Gita scene as a focal point for general religious instruction.jpg|thumb|A didactic print from the 1960s that uses the Gita scene as a focal point for general religious instruction](File:A)]
The synthesis in Bhagavad Gita addresses the question of what constitutes the virtuous path that is necessary for spiritual liberation or release from the cycles of rebirth (*moksha*). It discusses whether one should renounce a householder lifestyle for a life as an ascetic, or lead a householder life dedicated to one's duty and profession, or pursue a householder life devoted to a personalized God in the revealed form of Krishna. Thus Gita discusses and synthesizes the three dominant trends in Hinduism: enlightenment-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism. According to Deutsch and Dalvi, the Bhagavad Gita attempts "to forge a harmony" between these three paths.}}
The Bhagavad Gitas synthetic answer recommends that one must resist the "either-or" view, and consider a "both-and" view. It states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation" or "motiveless action".}} One must do the right thing because one has determined that it is right, states Gita, without craving for its fruits, without worrying about the results, loss or gain. Desires, selfishness, and the craving for fruits can distort one from spiritual living. The Gita synthesis goes further, according to its interpreters such as Swami Vivekananda, and the text states that there is Living God in every human being and the devoted service to this Living God in everyone – without craving for personal rewards – is a means to spiritual development and liberation. According to Galvin Flood, the teachings in the Gita differ from other Indian religions that encouraged extreme austerity and self-torture of various forms (*karsayanta*). The Gita disapproves of these, stating that not only is it against tradition but against Krishna himself, because "Krishna dwells within all beings, in torturing the body the ascetic would be torturing him", states Flood. Even a monk should strive for "inner renunciation" rather than external pretensions.
The Gita synthesizes several paths to spiritual realization based on the premise that people are born with different temperaments and tendencies (*guna*). According to Winthrop Sargeant, the text acknowledges that some individuals are more reflective and intellectual, some affective and engaged by their emotions, some are action driven, yet others favor experimentation and exploring what works. It then presents different spiritual paths for each personality type respectively: the path of knowledge (*jnana yoga*), the path of devotion (*bhakti yoga*), the path of action (*karma yoga*), and the path of meditation (*raja yoga*). The *guna* premise is a synthesis of the ideas from the Samkhya school of Hinduism. According to Upadhyaya, the Gita states that none of these paths to spiritual realization is "intrinsically superior or inferior", rather they "converge in one and lead to the same goal".
According to Hiltebeitel, *Bhakti* forms an essential ingredient of this synthesis, and the text incorporates *Bhakti* into *Vedanta*. According to Scheepers, The Bhagavad Gita is a Brahmanical text which uses [Shramanic](Shramana) and Yogic terminology to spread the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or *dharma*, in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma. According to Galvin Flood and Charles Martin, the Gita rejects the Shramanic path of non-action, emphasizing instead "the renunciation of the fruits of action". The Bhagavad Gita, according to Raju, is a great synthesis of impersonal spiritual monism with personal God, of "the *yoga* of action with the *yoga* of transcendence of action, and these again with the *yogas* of devotion and knowledge".
## Manuscripts and layout
The Bhagavad Gita manuscript is found in the sixth book of the *Mahabharata* manuscripts – the *Bhisma-parvan*. Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is 6.3.23 to 6.3.40. The Bhagavad Gita is often preserved and studied on its own, as an independent text with its chapters renumbered from 1 to 18. The Bhagavad Gita manuscripts exist in numerous Indic scripts. These include writing systems that are currently in use, as well as early scripts such as the now dormant [script](Sharada)(Sharada script). Variant manuscripts of the Gita have been found on the Indian subcontinent Unlike the enormous variations in the remaining sections of the surviving *Mahabharata* manuscripts, the Gita manuscripts show only minor variations.
[[Gita, a 19th century manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Photograph of four pieces of paper with verses in Sanskrit.|A 19th-century Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhagavad Gita, Devanagari script](File:Bhagavad)]
According to Gambhirananda, the old manuscripts may have had 745 verses, though he agrees that “700 verses is the generally accepted historic standard." Gambhirananda's view is supported by a few versions of chapter 6.43 of the *Mahabharata*. According to Gita exegesis scholar Robert Minor, these versions state that the Gita is a text where "Kesava [Krishna] spoke 574 slokas, Arjuna 84, Sanjaya 41, and Dhritarashtra 1". An authentic manuscript of the Gita with 745 verses has not been found. Adi Shankara, in his 8th-century commentary, explicitly states that the Gita has 700 verses, which was likely a deliberate declaration to prevent further insertions and changes to the Gita. Since Shankara's time, "700 verses" has been the standard benchmark for the [edition](critical)(critical edition) of the Bhagavad Gita.
### Structure
The Bhagavad Gita is a poem written in the [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) language. Its 700 [verses](Verse (poetry)) are structured into several ancient Indian poetic [meters](Metre (poetry)), with the principal being the *shloka* (*Anushtubh chanda*). It has 18 chapters in total. Each *shloka* consists of a couplet, thus the entire text consists of 1,400 lines. Each *shloka* has two quarter verses with exactly eight syllables. Each of these quarters is further arranged into two metrical feet of four syllables each.}} The metered verse does not rhyme. While the *shloka* is the principal meter in the Gita, it does deploy other elements of [prosody](Sanskrit)(Sanskrit prosody) (which refers to one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic statues). At dramatic moments, it uses the *tristubh* meter found in the Vedas, where each line of the couplet has two quarter verses with exactly eleven syllables.
### Characters
[[File:Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue in Jakarta.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The thematic story of Arjuna and Krishna at the [War](Kurukshetra)(Kurukshetra War) became popular in southeast Asia as Hinduism spread there in the 1st-millennium CE. Above, an Arjuna-Krishna chariot scene in Jakarta center, [Indonesia](Indonesia).]]
* [Arjuna](Arjuna), one of the five [Pandavas](Pandavas)
* [Krishna](Krishna), Arjuna's charioteer and [guru](guru) who was actually an incarnation of [Vishnu](Vishnu)
* [Sanjaya](Sanjaya), counselor of the Kuru king [Dhritarashtra](Dhritarashtra) (secondary narrator)
* [Dhritarashtra](Dhritarashtra), Kuru king (Sanjaya's audience) and father of the Kauravas
### Narrative
The Gita is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna right before the start of the climactic [War](Kurukshetra)(Kurukshetra War) in the Hindu epic *Mahabharata*.}} Two massive armies have gathered to destroy each other. The Pandava prince Arjuna asks his charioteer [Krishna](Krishna) to drive to the center of the battlefield so that he can get a good look at both the armies and all those "so eager for war". He sees that some among his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers. He does not want to fight to kill them and is thus filled with doubt and despair on the battlefield. He drops his bow, wonders if he should renounce and just leave the battlefield. He turns to his charioteer and guide Krishna, for advice on the rationale for war, his choices and the right thing to do. The Bhagavad Gita is the compilation of Arjuna's questions and moral dilemma and Krishna's answers and insights that elaborate on a variety of philosophical concepts.
[[Hindu God Krishan Gita Birth Litho Print Original Vasudeo Pandya 1932.jpg|thumb|Vintage Hindu God Krishan Gita Birth Litho Print Original Vasudeo Pandya 1932](File:Vintage)]
The compiled dialogue goes far beyond the "rationale for war"; it touches on many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues and life's choices. According to Flood and Martin, although the Gita is set in the context of a wartime epic, the narrative is structured to apply to all situations; it wrestles with questions about "who we are, how we should live our lives, and how should we act in the world". According to Sargeant, it delves into questions about the "purpose of life, crisis of self-identity, human Self, human temperaments, and ways for spiritual quest".
## Chapters and content
Bhagavad Gita comprises 18 chapters (section 23 to 40) in the [Parva](Bhishma)(Bhishma Parva) of the epic *Mahabharata*. Because of differences in [recension](recension)s, the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the *Mahabharata* as chapters 6.25–42 or as chapters 6.23–40. The number of verses in each chapter vary in some manuscripts of the Gita discovered on the Indian subcontinent. However, variant readings are relatively few in contrast to the numerous versions of the *Mahabharata* it is found embedded in.
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|right|thumb|*[Shankara](Adi)(Adi Shankara) with Disciples*, by [Ravi Varma](Raja)(Raja Ravi Varma) (1904); Shankara published 700 verses of the Gita (800 CE), now the standard version.]]
The original Bhagavad Gita has no chapter titles. Some Sanskrit editions that separate the Gita from the epic as an independent text, as well as translators, however, add chapter titles.see For example, [Chidbhavananda](Swami)(Swami Chidbhavananda) describes each of the eighteen chapters as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind". He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection". Sir [Arnold](Edwin)(Edwin Arnold) titled this chapter in his 1885 translation as "The Distress of Arjuna".}}
### Chapter listing
There are total 18 chapters and 700 verses in Gita. These are:
#### Chapter 1: Arjuna Vishadayoga (47 verses)
Translators have variously titled the first chapter as ''[vishada yoga](Arjuna)(Arjunvishadyog (Bhagvad Geeta's Chapter))*, *Prathama Adhyaya*, *The Distress of Arjuna*, *The War Within*, or *Arjuna's Sorrow*. The Bhagavad Gita is opened by setting the stage of the Kurukshetra battlefield. Two massive armies representing different loyalties and ideologies face a catastrophic war. With Arjuna is Krishna, not as a participant in the war, but only as his charioteer and counsel. Arjuna requests Krishna to move the [chariot](Ratha) between the two armies so he can see those "eager for this war". He sees family and friends on the enemy side. Arjuna is distressed and in sorrow. The issue is, states [Sharma](Arvind)(Arvind Sharma), "is it morally proper to kill?" This and other moral dilemmas in the first chapter are set in a context where the Hindu epic and Krishna have already extolled *[ahimsa](ahimsa)* (non-violence) to be the highest and divine virtue of a human being. The war feels evil to Arjuna and he questions the morality of war. He wonders if it is noble to renounce and leave before the violence starts, or should he fight, and why.
#### Chapter 2: Sankhyayoga (72 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Sankhya Yoga*, *The Book of Doctrines*, *Self-Realization*, or *The Yoga of Knowledge (and Philosophy)*. The second chapter begins the philosophical discussions and teachings found in the Gita. The warrior Arjuna whose past had focused on learning the skills of his profession now faces a war he has doubts about. Filled with introspection and questions about the meaning and purpose of life, he asks Krishna about the nature of life, Self, death, afterlife and whether there is a deeper meaning and reality. Krishna answers. The chapter summarizes the Hindu idea of rebirth, samsara, eternal Self in each person (Self), universal Self present in everyone, various types of yoga, divinity within, the nature of knowledge of the Self and other concepts. The ideas and concepts in the second chapter reflect the framework of the [Samkhya](Samkhya) and [Yoga](Yoga) schools of [philosophy](Hindu)(Hindu philosophy). This chapter is an overview for the remaining sixteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita. [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) memorized the last 19 verses of the second chapter, considering them as his companion in his non-violent movement for social justice during colonial rule.
#### Chapter 3: Karmayoga (43 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Karma yoga*, *Virtue in Work*, *Selfless Service*, or *The Yoga of Action''. Arjuna, after listening to Krishna's spiritual teachings in Chapter 2, gets more confounded and returns to the predicament he faces. He wonders if fighting the war is "not so important after all" given Krishna's overview on the pursuit of spiritual wisdom. Krishna replies that there is no way to avoid action (karma), since abstention from work is also an action. Krishna states that Arjuna has an obligation to understand and perform his duty (dharma), because everything is connected by the law of cause and effect. Every man or woman is bound by activity. Those who act selfishly create the Karmic cause and are thereby bound to the effect which may be good or bad. Those who act selflessly for the right cause and strive to do their dharmic duty do God's work. Those who act without craving for fruits are free from the Karmic effects, because the results never motivated them. Whatever the result, it does not affect them. Their happiness comes from within, and the external world does not bother them. According to Flood and Martin, chapter 3 and onwards develops "a theological response to Arjuna's dilemma".
#### Chapter 4: Gyana Karma Sanyasayoga (42 verses)
Translators title the fourth chapter as *Jñāna–Karma-Sanyasa yoga*, *The Religion of Knowledge*, *Wisdom in Action*, or *The Yoga of Renunciation of Action through Knowledge*. Krishna reveals that he has taught this yoga to the Vedic sages. Arjuna questions how Krishna could do this, when those sages lived so long ago, and Krishna was born more recently. Krishna reminds him that everyone is in the cycle of rebirths, and while Arjuna does not remember his previous births, he does. Whenever dharma declines and the purpose of life is forgotten by Man, says Krishna, he returns to re-establish dharma.}} Every time he returns, he teaches about the inner Self in all beings. The later verses of the chapter return to the discussion of motiveless action and the need to determine the right action, performing it as one's dharma (duty) while renouncing the results, rewards, fruits. The simultaneous outer action with inner renunciation, states Krishna, is the secret to the life of freedom. Action leads to knowledge, while selfless action leads to spiritual awareness, state the last verses of this chapter. The 4th chapter is the first time where Krishna begins to reveal his divine nature to Arjuna.
#### Chapter 5: Karma Sanyasayoga (29 verses)
Translators title this chapter as *Karma–Sanyasa yoga*, *Religion by Renouncing Fruits of Works*, *Renounce and Rejoice*, or *The Yoga of Renunciation*. The chapter starts by presenting the tension in the Indian tradition between the life of *sannyasa* (monks who have renounced their household and worldly attachments) and the life of *grihastha* (householder). Arjuna asks Krishna which path is better. Krishna answers that both are paths to the same goal, but the path of "selfless action and service" with inner renunciation is better. The different paths, says Krishna, aim for—and if properly pursued, lead to—Self-knowledge. This knowledge leads to the universal, transcendent Godhead, the divine essence in all beings, to Brahman – to Krishna himself. The final verses of the chapter state that the self-aware who have reached self-realization live without fear, anger, or desire. They are free within, always. Chapter 5 shows signs of interpolations and internal contradictions. For example, states Arthur Basham, verses 5.23–28 state that a sage's spiritual goal is to realize the impersonal Brahman, yet the next verse 5.29 states that the goal is to realize the personal God who is Krishna.
Miller, Sargeant, Edgerton, Flood & Martin, and others.}}
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#### Chapter 6: Dhyanayoga (Aatmasamyamyoga) (47 verses)
Translators title the sixth chapter as *Dhyana yoga*, *Religion by Self-Restraint*, *The Practice of Meditation*, or *The Yoga of Meditation*. The chapter opens as a continuation of Krishna's teachings about selfless work and the personality of someone who has renounced the fruits that are found in chapter 5. Krishna says that such self-realized people are impartial to friends and enemies, are beyond good and evil, equally disposed to those who support them or oppose them because they have reached the summit of consciousness. The verses 6.10 and after proceed to summarize the principles of Yoga and meditation in the format similar to but simpler than Patanjali's *Yogasutra*. It discusses who is a true yogi, and what it takes to reach the state where one harbors no malice towards anyone.
#### Chapter 7: Gyana Vigyanayoga (30 verses)
Translators title this chapter as *Jnana–Vijnana yoga*, *Religion by Discernment*, *Wisdom from Realization*, or *The Yoga of Knowledge and Judgment*. The chapter 7 opens with Krishna continuing his discourse. He discusses *jnana* (knowledge) and *vijnana* (realization, understanding) using the [Prakriti](Prakriti)-[Purusha](Purusha) (matter-Self) framework of the [Samkhya](Samkhya) school of Hindu philosophy, and the [Maya](Maya (illusion))-[Brahman](Brahman) framework of its [Vedanta](Vedanta) school. The chapter states that evil is the consequence of ignorance and attachment to the impermanent, the elusive Maya. It states that Self-knowledge and union with Purusha (Krishna) are the highest goal of any spiritual pursuit.
#### Chapter 8: Akshara Brahmayoga (28 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Aksara–Brahma yoga*, *Religion by Devotion to the One Supreme God*, *The Eternal Godhead*, or *The Yoga of the Imperishable Brahman*. The chapter opens with Arjuna asking questions such as what is Brahman and what is the nature of *karma*. Krishna states that his own highest nature is the imperishable Brahman, and that he lives in every creature as the *adhyatman*. Every being has an impermanent body and an eternal Self, and that "Krishna as Lord" lives within every creature. The chapter discusses cosmology, the nature of death and rebirth. This chapter contains [eschatology](eschatology) of the Bhagavad Gita. Importance of the last thought before death, differences between material and spiritual worlds, and light and dark paths that a Self takes after death are described.
#### Chapter 9: Raja Vidya Raja Guhyayoga (34 verses)
Translators title the ninth chapter as *Raja–Vidya–Raja–Guhya yoga*, *Religion by the Kingly Knowledge and the Kingly Mystery*, *The Royal Path*, or *The Yoga of Sovereign Science and Sovereign Secret*. Chapter 9 opens with Krishna continuing his discourse as Arjuna listens. Krishna states that he is everywhere and in everything in an unmanifested form, yet he is not in any way limited by them. Eons end, everything dissolves and then he recreates another eon subjecting them to the laws of *Prakriti* (nature). He equates himself to being the father and the mother of the universe, to being the [Om](Om), to the three Vedas, to the seed, the goal of life, the refuge and abode of all. The chapter recommends devotional worship of Krishna. According to theologian Christopher Southgate, verses of this chapter of the Gita are [panentheistic](panentheistic), while German physicist and philosopher [Bernhard Weinstein](Max)(Max Bernhard Weinstein) deems the work [pandeistic](Pandeism).Max Bernhard Weinsten, *Welt- und Lebensanschauungen, Hervorgegangen aus Religion, Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis* ("World and Life Views, Emerging From Religion, Philosophy and Perception of Nature") (1910), p. 213: "Wir werden später sehen, daß die Indier auch den Pandeismus gelehrt haben. Der letzte Zustand besteht in dieser Lehre im Eingehen in die betreffende Gottheit, Brahma oder Wischnu. So sagt in der Bhagavad-Gîtâ Krishna-Wischnu, nach vielen Lehren über ein vollkommenes Dasein." It may, in fact, be neither of them, and its contents may have no definition with previously developed Western terms.
[[File:Bhagavad Gita narrative sculpture on a column in the Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal 1885 photo.jpg|thumb|A frieze in the early 8th-century [temple (Pattadakal)](Virupaksha)(Pattadakal) depicting *Mahabharata* scenes involving Arjuna-Krishna chariot. Pattadakal is a UNESCO [Heritage Site](World)(World Heritage Site).]]
#### Chapter 10: Vibhutiyoga (42 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Vibhuti–Vistara–yoga*, *Religion by the Heavenly Perfections*, *Divine Splendor*, or *The Yoga of Divine Manifestations*. When Arjuna asks of the opulences (Vibhuti) of Krishna, he explains how all the entities are his forms. He reveals his divine being in greater detail as the ultimate cause of all material and spiritual existence, as one who transcends all opposites and who is beyond any duality. Nevertheless, at Arjuna's behest, Krishna says the following are his major opulences. He says he is the *atman* in all beings, Arjuna's innermost Self, also compassionate Vishnu, [Surya](Surya), Indra, Shiva-Rudra, Ananta, Yama, as well as the Om, Vedic sages, time, Gayatri mantra, and the science of Self-knowledge. Krishna says, "Among the Pandavas, I am Arjuna," implying he is manifest in all the beings, including Arjuna. He also says that he is [Rama](Rama) when he says, "Among the wielders of weapons, I am Rama". Arjuna accepts Krishna as the *purushottama* (Supreme Being).
#### Chapter 11: [Vishvarupa](Vishvarupa) Darshanayoga (55 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Vishvarupa–Darshana yoga*, *The Manifesting of the One and Manifold*, *The Cosmic Vision*, or *The Yoga of the Vision of the Cosmic Form*. On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays his "universal form" (*Viśvarūpa*). This is an idea found in the *[Rigveda](Rigveda)* and many later Hindu texts, where it is a symbolism for *[atman](Ātman (Hinduism))* (Self) and *[Brahman](Brahman)* (Absolute Reality) eternally pervading all beings and all existence. Chapter 11, states Eknath Eswaran, describes Arjuna entering first into *savikalpa samadhi* (a particular form), and then *nirvikalpa samadhi* (a universal form) as he gets an understanding of Krishna. A part of the verse from this chapter was recited by Robert [Oppenheimer](J. Robert Oppenheimer) as he witnessed the first atomic bomb explode.
#### Chapter 12: Bhaktiyoga (20 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Bhakti yoga*, *The Religion of Faith*, *The Way of Love*, or *The Yoga of Devotion*. In this chapter, Krishna glorifies the path of love and devotion to God. Krishna describes the process of devotional service ([yoga](Bhakti)(Bhakti yoga)). This chapter of the Gita, states Easwaran, offers a "vastly easier" path to most human beings to identify and love God in an anthropomorphic representation. He can be projected as "a merciful father, a divine mother, a wise friend, a passionate beloved, or even a mischievous child", according to Easwaran. The text states that combining "action with inner renunciation" with the love of Krishna as a personal God leads to peace. In the last eight verses of this chapter, Krishna states that he loves those who have compassion for all living beings, are content with whatever comes their way, who live a detached life that is impartial and selfless, unaffected by fleeting pleasure or pain, neither craving for praise nor depressed by criticism.
#### Chapter 13: Kshetra Kshetragya Vibhagayoga (34 verses)
Translators title this chapter as *Ksetra–Ksetrajna Vibhaga yoga*, *Religion by Separation of Matter and Spirit*, *The Field and the Knower*, or *The Yoga of Difference between the Field and Field-Knower*. The chapter opens with Krishna continuing his discourse. He describes the difference between the transient perishable physical body (*kshetra*) and the immutable eternal Self (*kshetrajna*). The presentation explains the difference between *ahamkara* (ego) and *atman* (Self), from there between individual consciousness and universal consciousness. The knowledge of one's true self is linked to the realization of the Self. The 13th chapter of the Gita offers the clearest enunciation of the [Samkhya](Samkhya) philosophy, states Basham, by explaining the difference between field (material world) and the knower (Self), *prakriti* and *purusha*. According to Miller, this is the chapter which "redefines the battlefield as the human body, the material realm in which one struggles to know oneself" where human dilemmas are presented as a "symbolic field of interior warfare".
#### Chapter 14: Gunatraya Vibhagayoga (27 verses)
Translators title the fourteenth chapter as *Gunatraya–Vibhaga yoga*, *Religion by Separation from the Qualities*, *The Forces of Evolution*, or *The Yoga of the Division of Three Gunas*. Krishna continues his discourse from the previous chapter. Krishna explains the difference between *purusha* and *prakriti*, by mapping human experiences to three *[Guṇa](Guṇa)s* (tendencies, qualities). These are listed as *sattva*, *rajas* and *tamas*. All phenomena and individual personalities are a combination of all three *gunas* in varying and ever-changing proportions. The *gunas* affect the ego, but not the Self, according to the text. This chapter also relies on Samkhya theories.
#### Chapter 15: Purushottamayoga (20 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Purushottama yoga*, *Religion by Attaining the Supreme Krishna*, *The Supreme Self*, or *The Yoga of the Supreme Purusha*. The fifteenth chapter expounds on Krishna's theology, in the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of Hinduism. Krishna discusses the nature of God, according to Easwaran, wherein Krishna not only transcends the impermanent body (matter) but also transcends the *atman* (Self) in every being. According to Franklin Edgerton, the verses in this chapter, in association with select verses in other chapters, make the metaphysics of the Gita to be [dualistic](Dvaita). However, its overall thesis, according to Edgerton, is more complex because other verses teach the Upanishadic doctrines and "through its God the Gita seems after all to arrive at an ultimate monism; the essential part, the fundamental element, in every thing, is after all One — is God."
#### Chapter 16: Daivasura Sampad Vibhagayoga (24 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Daivasura–Sampad–Vibhaga yoga*, *The Separateness of the Divine and Undivine*, *Two Paths*, or *The Yoga of the Division between the Divine and the Demonic*. According to Easwaran, this is an unusual chapter where two types of human nature are expounded, one leading to happiness and the other to suffering. Krishna identifies these human traits to be divine and demonic respectively. He states that truthfulness, self-restraint, sincerity, love for others, desire to serve others, being detached, avoiding anger, avoiding harm to all living creatures, fairness, compassion and patience are marks of the divine nature. The opposite of these are demonic, such as cruelty, conceit, hypocrisy and being inhumane, states Krishna. Some of the verses in Chapter 16 may be polemics directed against competing Indian religions, according to Basham. The competing tradition may be the materialists ([Charvaka](Charvaka)), states Fowler.
#### Chapter 17: Shraddhatraya Vibhagayoga (28 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Shraddhatraya-Vibhaga yoga*, *Religion by the Threefold Kinds of Faith*, *The Power of Faith*, or *The Yoga of the Threefold Faith*. Krishna qualifies the three divisions of faith, thoughts, deeds, and even eating habits corresponding to the three modes (gunas).
#### Chapter 18: Moksha Sanyasayoga (78 verses)
Translators title the chapter as *Moksha–Sanyasa yoga*, *Religion by Deliverance and Renunciation*, *Freedom and Renunciation*, or *The Yoga of Liberation and Renunciation*. In the final and longest chapter, the Gita offers a final summary of its teachings in the previous chapters. It begins with the discussion of spiritual pursuits through *sannyasa* (renunciation, monastic life) and spiritual pursuits while living in the world as a householder. It re-emphasizes the *karma-phala-tyaga* teaching ("act while renouncing the fruits of your action").
## Themes covered
### Theology
#### The nature of God
The Gita adopts the Upanishadic concept of Absolute Reality ([Brahman](Brahman)), a shift from the earlier ritual-driven Vedic religion to one abstracting and internalizing spiritual experiences. According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita builds on the Upanishadic Brahman theme, conceptualized to be that which is everywhere, unaffected, constant Absolute, indescribable and *nirguna* (abstract, without features). This Absolute in the Gita is neither a He nor a She, but a "neuter principle", an "It or That".
The *Vishvarupa* omniform has been interpreted as symbolism for Absolute Reality, God or Self that is in all creatures, everywhere, eternally.
}}
Like some of the Upanishads, the Gita does not limit itself to the *nirguna* Brahman. It teaches both the abstract and the personalized Brahman (God), the latter in the form of Krishna. It accomplishes this synthesis by projecting the *nirguna* Brahman as higher than *saguna* or personalized Brahman, where the *nirguna* Brahman "exists when everything else does not". The text blurs any distinction between a personalized God and impersonal absolute reality by amalgamating the two and using the concepts interchangeably in later chapters. This theme has led scholars to call the Gita panentheistic, theistic as well as monistic.
#### The nature of Self
The Gita, states Fowler, "thoroughly accepts" *[atman](Atman (Hinduism))* as a foundational concept. In the Upanishads, this is the Brahmanical idea that all beings have a "permanent real self", the true essence, the Self it refers to as *Atman* (Self).**[a]** [Atman](https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman), Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), **Quote**: "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's Self";**[b]** John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, , See entry for Atman;**[c]** WJ Johnson (2009), [Dictionary of Hinduism](A)(:d:Q55879169), Oxford University Press, , See entry for Atman (self). , p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".**[a]** [Anatta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta), Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), **Quote:** "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying Self. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";**[b]** Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, , p. 64; **Quote:** "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";**[c]** Edward Roer (Translator), to *Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad*, pp. 2–4;**[d]** KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, , pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards;**[e]** Bruno Nagel (2000), Roy Perrett (editor), Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy, Routledge, , p. 33, **Quote:** "The dispute with Buddhists, who do not accept an imperishable Self, gives the Atman schools [Kashmir Shaivism](Vedanta,) a chance to articulate the intellectual aspects of their way to meditative liberation".}} In the Upanishads that preceded the Gita, such as the *[Upanishad](Brihadaranyaka)(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)*, the salvational goal is to know and realize this Self, a knowledge that is devoid of the delusions of the instinctive "I, mine" egoism typically connected with the body and material life processes that are impermanent and transient. The Gita accepts *atman* as the pure, unchanging, ultimate real essence.
#### The nature of the world
The Gita considers the world to be transient, all bodies and matter as impermanent. Everything that constitutes *[prakriti](prakriti)* (nature, matter) is process driven and has a finite existence. It is born, grows, matures, decays, and dies. It considers this transient reality as [Maya](Maya (illusion)). Like the Upanishads, the Gita focuses on what it considers real in this world of change, impermanence, and finitude. To build its theological framework about the world, the text relies on the theories found in the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of Hinduism.
#### Brahman-atman
The Upanishads developed the equation "Atman = Brahman", states Fowler, and this belief is central to the Gita. This equation is, however, interpreted in a number of ways by different sub-schools of Vedanta. In the Gita, the Self of each human being is considered to be identical to every other human being and all beings, but it "does not support an identity with the Brahman", according to Fowler. According to Raju, the Gita supports this identity and spiritual monism, but as a form of synthesis with a personal God. According to Edgerton, the authors of the Gita rely on their concept of a personalized God (Krishna) to ultimately arrive at an ultimate monism, where the devotee realizes that Krishna is the essential part, the real fundamental element within everyone and everything. Krishna is simultaneously one and all. According to [Smith](Huston)(Huston Smith), the Gita is teaching that "when one sees the entire universe as pervaded by the single Universal Spirit [Krishna], one contemplates, marvels, and falls in love with its amazing glory. [...] Having experienced that Truth oneself, all doubts are dispelled. This is how the flower of devotion evolves into the fruit of knowledge."
#### Means to God
The Gita teaches several spiritual paths – jnana, bhakti and karma – to the divine. However, states Fowler, it "does not raise any of these to a status that excludes the others". The theme that unites these paths in the Gita is "inner renunciation" where one is unattached to personal rewards during one's spiritual journey.
#### Karma yoga
The Gita teaches the path of Karma yoga in Chapter 3 and others. It upholds the necessity of action. However, this action should "not simply follow spiritual injunctions", without any attachment to personal rewards or because of craving for fruits. The Gita teaches, according to Fowler, that the action should be undertaken after proper knowledge has been applied to gain a full perspective on "what the action should be".
The concept of such detached action is also called *[Karma](Nishkama)(Nishkama Karma)*, a term not used in the Gita but equivalent to other terms such as *karma-phala-tyaga*. This is where one determines what the right action ought to be and then acts while being detached to personal outcomes, to fruits, to success or failure. A karma yogi finds such work inherently fulfilling and satisfying. To a *karma yogi*, right work done well is a form of prayer,Robert A. McDermott (1975), [Indian Spirituality in the West: A Bibliographical Mapping](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397942), Philosophy East and West, University of Hawai'i Press, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Apr 1975), pp. 228–230 and *karma yoga* is the path of selfless action.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, the object of the Gita is to show the way to attain self-realization, and this "can be achieved by selfless action, by desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him, body and Self." Gandhi called the Gita "The Gospel of Selfless Action". According to Jonardon Ganeri, the premise of "disinterested action" is one of the important ethical concepts in the Gita.
#### Bhakti yoga
In the Bhagavad Gita, bhakti is characterized as the "loving devotion, a longing, surrender, trust and adoration" of the divine Krishna as the *ishta-devata*. While bhakti is mentioned in many chapters, the idea gathers momentum after verse 6.30, and chapter 12 is where is fully developed. According to Fowler, the bhakti in the Gita does not imply renunciation of "action", but the bhakti effort is assisted with "right knowledge" and dedication to one's *dharma*. Theologian [Cornille](Catherine)(Catherine Cornille) writes, "The text [the Gita](of) offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (*Jnana*), action (karma), and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation."
According to M. R. Sampatkumaran, a Bhagavad Gita scholar, the Gita's message is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release, but "devotion, meditation, and worship are essential." The Gita likely spawned a "powerful devotionalism" movement, states Fowler, because the text and this path was simpler, and available to everyone.
#### Jnana yoga
Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, and direct realization of the Brahman. In the Bhagavad Gita, it is also referred to as *buddhi yoga* and its goal is self-realization. The text states that this is the path that intellectuals tend to prefer. The chapter 4 of the Bhagavad Gita is dedicated to the general exposition of *jnana yoga*. The Gita praises the path, calling the jnana yogi to be exceedingly dear to Krishna, but adds that the path is steep and difficult.
#### Synthesis of yogas, Raja yoga
Sivananda's commentary regards the eighteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita as having a progressive order, by which Krishna leads "Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another." The influential commentator [Sarasvati](Madhusudana)(Madhusudana Sarasvati) divided the Gitas eighteen chapters into three sections with six chapters each. [Gambhirananda](Swami)(Swami Gambhirananda) characterises Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga:
* Chapters 1–6 = Karma yoga, the means to the final goal
* Chapters 7–12 = Bhakti yoga or devotion
* Chapters 13–18 = Jnana yoga or knowledge, the goal itself
Some scholars treat the "yoga of meditation" to be a distinct fourth path taught in the Gita, referring to it as [yoga](Raja)(Raja yoga). Others consider it a progressive stage or a combination of Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga. Some, such as Adi Shankara, have considered its discussion in the 13th chapter of the Gita and elsewhere to be an integral part of Jnana yoga.
#### Asceticism, renunciation and ritualism
The Gita rejects ascetic life, renunciation as well as Brahminical Vedic ritualism where outward actions or non-actions are considered a means of personal reward in life, after-life or as a means of liberation. Instead it recommends the pursuit of an active life where the individual adopts "inner renunciation", acts to fulfill what he determines to be his *dharma*, without craving for or being concerned about personal rewards, viewing this as an "inner sacrifice to the personal God for a higher good".
According to Edwin Bryant, the Indologist with publications on Krishna-related Hindu traditions, the Gita rejects "actionless behavior" found in some Indic monastic traditions. It also "relegates the sacrificial system of the early Vedic literature to a path that goes nowhere because it is based on desires", states Bryant.
### Dharma
Dharma is a prominent paradigm of the *Mahabharata*, and it is referenced in the Gita as well. The term *dharma* has a number of meanings. Fundamentally, it refers to that which is right or just. Contextually, it also means the essence of "duty, law, class, social norms, ritual and cosmos itself" in the text, in the sense "the way things should be in all these different dimensions". According to Zaehner, the term *dharma* means "duty" in the Gitas context; in verse 2.7, it refers to the "right [wrong](and)", and in 14.27 to the "eternal law of righteousness".
Few verses in the Bhagavad Gita deal with dharma, according to the Indologist Paul Hacker, but the theme of dharma is broadly important. In Chapter 1, responding to [Arjuna](Arjuna)'s despondency, [Krishna](Krishna) asks him to follow his *sva-dharma*, "the dharma that belongs to a particular man (Arjuna) as a member of a particular *[varna](Varna (Hinduism))*, (i.e., the *kshatriya* – the warrior varna)". According to Paul Hacker, the term *dharma* has additional meanings in the context of Arjuna. It is more broadly, the "duty" and a "metaphysically congealed act" for Arjuna. According to the Indologist Jacqueline Hirst, the *dharma* theme is "of significance only at the beginning and end of the Gita" and this may have been a way to perhaps link the Gita to the context of the *Mahabharata*.
According to Malinar, "Arjuna's crisis and some of the arguments put forward to call him to action are connected to the debates on war and peace in the *[Parva](Udyoga)(Udyoga Parva)*." The *Udyoga Parva* presents many views about the nature of a warrior, his duty and what calls for heroic action. While [Duryodhana](Duryodhana) presents it as a matter of status, social norms, and fate, [Vidura](Vidura) states that the heroic warrior never submits, knows no fear and has the duty to protect people. The *[Parva](Bhishma)(Bhishma Parva)* sets the stage of two ideologies in conflict and two massive armies gathered for what each considers as a righteous and necessary war. In this context, the Gita advises Arjuna to do his holy duty (*sva-dharma*) as a warrior; fight and kill.
According to the Indologist Barbara Miller, the text frames heroism not in terms of physical abilities, but instead in terms of effort and inner commitment to fulfill a warrior's *dharma* in the battlefield. War is depicted as a horror, the impending slaughter a cause for self-doubt, yet at stake is the spiritual struggle against evil. The Gita's message emphasizes that personal moral ambivalence must be addressed, the warrior needs to rise above "personal and social values" and understand what is at stake and "why he must fight". The text explores the "paradoxical interconnectedness of disciplined action and freedom".
#### *The Field of Dharma*
The first reference to *dharma* in the Bhagavad Gita occurs in its first verse, where [Dhritarashtra](Dhritarashtra) refers to the Kurukshetra, the location of the battlefield, as the *Field of Dharma*, "The Field of Righteousness or Truth". According to Fowler, dharma in this verse may refer to the *[dharma](sanatana)(sanatana dharma)*, "what Hindus understand as their religion, for it is a term that encompasses wide aspects of religious and traditional thought and is more readily used for religion". Therefore, "field of dharma" implies the field of righteousness, where truth will eventually triumph, states Fowler. According to Jacqueline Hirst, the "field of dharma" phrase in the Gita epitomizes that the struggle concerns dharma itself. This dharma has "resonances at many different levels".
### The Gita and War
#### Allegory of war
Unlike any other religious scripture, the Bhagavad Gita broadcasts its message in the centre of a battlefield. Several modern Indian writers have interpreted the battlefield setting as an allegory for "the war within". [Easwaran](Eknath)(Eknath Easwaran) writes that the Gitas subject is "the war within, the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious".
[Nikhilananda](Swami)(Swami Nikhilananda), takes Arjuna as an allegory of Ātman, Krishna as an allegory of [Brahman](Brahman), Arjuna's chariot as the body, and Dhritarashtra as the ignorant mind. "Arjuna represents the individual Self, and Sri Krishna the Supreme Self dwelling in every heart. Arjuna's chariot is the body. The blind king Dhritarashtra is the mind under the spell of ignorance, and his hundred sons are man's numerous evil tendencies. The battle, a perennial one, is between the power of good and the power of evil. The warrior who listens to the advice of the Lord speaking from within will triumph in this battle and attain the Highest Good."}} Nikhilananda's allegorical interpretation is shared by Huston Smith. [Vivekananda](Swami)(Swami Vivekananda) interprets the first discourse in the Gita as well as the "Kurukshetra war" allegorically. Vivekananda states that "when we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil".
[Karamchand Gandhi](Mohandas)(Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi), in his commentary on the Gita,see interprets the battle as an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna embodies man's higher impulses struggling against evil.
In [Aurobindo](Aurobindo)'s view, Krishna was a historical figure, but his significance in the Gita is as a "symbol of the divine dealings with humanity", while Arjuna typifies a "struggling human soul". However, Aurobindo rejected the interpretation that the Gita, and the *Mahabharata* by extension, is only "an allegory of the inner life", and it has nothing to do with our outward human life and actions.
#### Promotion of just war and duty
Other scholars such as Steven Rosen, Laurie L. Patton and Stephen Mitchell have seen in the Gita a religious defense of the warrior class' ([Kshatriya](Kshatriya) [Varna](Varna (Hinduism))) duty (*svadharma*), which is to wage war with courage. They do not see only an allegorical teaching but also a real defense of [war](just)(just war).Rosen, Steven; Krishna's Song: A New Look at the Bhagavad Gita, p. 22.Patton, Laurie L.; The Failure of Allegory in *Fighting Words*
[independence leaders](Indian)(Indian independence movement) like [Lajpat Rai](Lala)(Lala Lajpat Rai) and [Gangadhar Tilak](Bal)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak) saw the Gita as a text which defended war when necessary and used it to promote armed rebellion against colonial rule. Lajpat Rai wrote an article on the "Message of the Bhagavad Gita". He saw the main message as the bravery and courage of Arjuna to fight as a warrior. [Gangadhar Tilak](Bal)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak) saw the Gita as defending killing when necessary for the betterment of society, such as, for example, the killing of [Khan](Afzal)(Afzal Khan (general)).
#### Pacifism and the *Gita*
Because by the end of the *Gita*, Krishna convinces Arjuna that it is his right and duty to fight, the *Gita* has been argued by some as pro-war, others argue it's neither pro- nor anti-war.[Fields of Religious Interpretation: The Bhagavad Gita and War](https://shc.stanford.edu/stanford-humanities-center/events/fields-religious-interpretation-bhagavad-gita-and-war)
Noted author [Isherwood](Christopher)(Christopher Isherwood) suffered the death of his father in WWI and saw no serious effort by the allies to avoid plunging head-long into the next war. In his novels, *[Berlin Stories](The)(The Berlin Stories)*, he describes life in Germany as the Nazis rose to power. In the late 1930s, Isherwood, with advice from and influence of [Huxley](Aldous)(Aldous Huxley) and [Heard](Gerald)(Gerald Heard) he became a practicing pacifist and [Objector](Conscientiousness)(Conscientious objector), working with the Quakers, doing alternative service to help settle Jewish refugees fleeing the war.[Obituary in the LA Times](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-06-me-13515-story.html)[Obituary in the NY Times](https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/06/obituaries/christopher-isherwood-is-dead-at-81.html) In 1944, Isherwood worked with [Prabhavananda](Swami)(Swami Prabhavananda) of the [Society of Southern California](Vedanta)(Vedanta Society#Vedanta Society of Southern California) to translate the [Gita*](*Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita - Song of God) into English. In the Appendix, there is an essay written by Isherwood titled, [Gita and War*](*The)(Bhagavad Gita - Song of God#The Gita and War). He argues that in certain circumstances, it would be quite alright to refuse to fight. In Arjuna's particular circumstances, since it's a righteous war, and he's a warrior by birth and trade, he must fight.[Gita and War*](*The)(Bhagavad Gita - Song of God#The Gita and War)
...every action, under certain circumstances and for certain people, may be a stepping-stone to spiritual growth—if it is done in the spirit of non-attachment. There is no question, here, of doing evil that good may come. The Gita does not countenance such opportunism. Arjuna is to do the best he knows, in order to pass beyond that best to better.Bhagavad Gita – The Song of God, 2023 Edition, The Gita and War, page 149
#### Ethics, war and violence
In the Gita, Krishna persuades Arjuna to wage war where the enemy includes some of his own relatives and friends. In light of the *[Ahimsa](Ahimsa)* (non-violence) teachings in Hindu scriptures, the Gita has been criticized as violating the *Ahimsa* value, or alternatively, as supporting political violence. The justification of political violence when peaceful protests and all else fails, states Varma, has been a "fairly common feature of modern Indian political thought" along with the "mighty antithesis of Gandhian thought on non-violence". During the independence movement in India, Hindus considered the active "burning and drowning of British goods". While technically illegal under colonial legislation, these acts were viewed as a moral and [war](just)(Just war theory) for the sake of liberty and righteous values of the type that the Gita discusses. According to Paul Schaffel the influential Hindu nationalist [Savarkar](V.D.)(Vinayak Damodar Savarkar) "often turned to Hindu scripture such as the Bhagavad Gita, arguing that the text justified violence against those who would harm Mother India."Schaffel, Paul. ''Empire and Assassination: Indian Students, 'India House', and Information Gathering in Great Britain, 1898–1911.* Wesleyan University, 2012, p. 38.
[R. Narla](V.)(Narla Venkateswara Rao), in his book length critique of the text titled *The Truth About the Gita,* criticizes the ethical teachings of the Gita. He argues that the ethics of the Gita are so ambiguous, that one can use it to justify any ethical position.V. R. Narla (2010), *The Truth About the Gita,* pp. 126-135. Prometheus Books. Narla argues that the Gita is mainly a theological argument in favor of the warrior ethos.V. R. Narla (2010), *The Truth About the Gita,* p. 135. Prometheus Books. Narla argues that the fact that the Gita tries constantly to make Arjuna kill his kin in order to gain a petty kingdom shows it is not a pacifist work. Narla compares the Krishna of the Gita with a modern day [terrorist](Terrorism), who uses theology to excuse violence.V. R. Narla (2010), *The Truth About the Gita,* pp. 142-148. Prometheus Books. Narla also cites [Kosambi](D.D.)(Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi) who argued that the apparent moral of the Gita is "kill your brother if duty calls, without passion; as long as you have faith in Me, all sins are forgiven...".V. R. Narla (2010), *The Truth About the Gita,* p. 148. Prometheus Books.
In his *Myth and Reality*, the Indian historian [Kosambi](D.D.)(Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi) argued that the Gita was written as a religious text that could provide support for the actions of the upper castes, including the warrior caste. These sort of exhortations to battle would not have been uncommon in ancient India as it was the job of Indian bards. Kosambi writes that in the Gita, "the high god repeatedly emphasizes the great virtue of non-killing (*ahimsa*), yet the entire discourse is an incentive to war."[Kosambi](D.D.)(Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi) (1962) *[and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture](Myth)(iarchive:MythAndReality)'' p. 21. (Popular Prakashail, Bombay). He also cites the Gita, which states: "if slain, you gain heaven; if victorious, the earth; so up, son of Kunti, and concentrate on fighting." Kosambi argues that the injunctions and excuses for killing found in the Gita are unethical.
The Indian jurist and politician [R. Ambedkar](B.)(B. R. Ambedkar) also saw the Gita's defense of violence based on the eternity of the soul (atman) as unethical. Ambedkar wrote that "to say that killing is no killing because what is killed is the body and not the soul is an unheard of defense of murder...If Krishna were to appear as a lawyer acting for a client who is being tried for murder and pleaded the defense set out by him in the Bhagvat Gita there is not the slightest doubt that he would be sent to the lunatic asylum."Engels, Jeremy David (2021). *The Ethics of Oneness: Emerson, Whitman, and the Bhagavad Gita*, p. 14. University of Chicago Press.
In his introduction to his translation of the Gita, [Lal](Purushottama)(Purushottama Lal) argues that while Arjuna appears as a pacifist, concerned with [ahimsa](ahimsa), Krishna "is the [militarist](Militarism)" who convinces him to kill.P. Lal (2019). *[The Bhagavadgita](https://books.google.com/books?id=BPePDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22There+could+hardly+be+a+better+example+of+forked-tongue+speciousness%22++P.+Lal&pg=PT15),* Introduction*.* Orient Paperbacks According to Lal, Krishna makes use of a "startling" argument to convince Arjuna to kill, which Lal outlines as "the atman is eternal; only the body dies; so go ahead and kill - you will kill only the body, the atman will remain unaffected [2:19-21]." Lal states that "there could hardly be a better example of forked-tongue speciousness." Lal further argues that: "the truth of the matter surely is that no rational refutation is possible of the essential humanist position that killing is wrong...many of the answers given by Krishna appear to be evasive and occasionally sophistic. When logic fails, Krishna apparently resorts to divine magic." According to Lal, in the Gita, Krishna "stuns Arjuna with a glorious 'revelation' of psychedelic intensity." This "confidence trick" is problematic for Lal, who sees Arjuna's plight as a "painful and honest problem that Krishna should have faced on its own terms, painfully and honestly, and did not."
Mahatma Gandhi credited his commitment for *ahimsa* to the Gita. For Gandhi, the Gita is teaching that people should fight for justice and righteous values, that they should never meekly suffer injustice to avoid a war. According to the Indologist Ananya Vajpeyi, the Gita does not elaborate on the means or stages of war, nor on *ahimsa*, except for stating that "*ahimsa* is virtuous and characterizes an awakened, steadfast, ethical man" in verses such as 13.7–10 and 16.1–5. For Gandhi, states Vajpeyi, *ahimsa* is the "relationship between self and other" as he and his fellow Indians battled against colonial rule. Gandhian ahimsa is in fact "the essence of the entire Gita", according to Vajpeyi. The teachings of the Gita on *ahimsa* are ambiguous, states Arvind Sharma, and this is best exemplified by the fact that Nathuram Godse stated the Gita as his inspiration to do his dharma after he [Mahatma Gandhi](assassinated)(Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi). [Merton](Thomas)(Thomas Merton), the Trappist monk and author of books on Zen Buddhism, concurs with Gandhi and states that the Gita is not teaching violence nor propounding a "make war" ideology. Instead, it is teaching peace and discussing one's duty to examine what is right and then act with pure intentions, when one faces difficult and repugnant choices.
### Moksha: Liberation
Liberation or *[moksha](moksha)* in [Vedanta](Vedanta) philosophy is not something that can be acquired. *[Ātman](Ātman (Hinduism))* (Self) and Self-knowledge, along with the loss of egotistic ignorance, the goal of *moksha*, is something that is always present as the essence of the self, and must be realized by each person by one's own effort. While the [Upanishads](Upanishads) largely uphold such a monistic viewpoint of liberation, the Bhagavad Gita also accommodates the dualistic and theistic aspects of *moksha*. The Gita, while including impersonal *Nirguna Brahman* as the goal, mainly revolves around the relationship between the Self and a personal God or *[Brahman](Saguna)(Saguna Brahman)*. A synthesis of knowledge, devotion, and desireless action is offered by Krishna as a spectrum of choices to Arjuna; the same combination is suggested to the reader as a way to moksha. Christopher Chapple---a scholar focusing on Indian religions---in [Sargeant's](Winthrop)(Winthrop Sargeant) translation of the Gita, states that "In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gita, every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation."
### Pancaratra Agama
According to Dennis Hudson, there is an overlap between Vedic and Tantric rituals within the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita. He places the *Pancaratra Agama* in the last three or four centuries of 1st-millennium BCE, and proposes that both the tantric and vedic, the Agama and the Gita share the same [Vāsudeva-Krishna](Vāsudeva-Krishna) roots. Some of the ideas in the Bhagavad Gita connect it to the *Shatapatha Brahmana* of *[Yajurveda](Yajurveda)*. The *Shatapatha Brahmana*, for example, mentions the absolute Purusha who dwells in every human being.
[[File:Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE.jpg|thumb |upright|180BCE.[Bopearachchi](Osmund)(Osmund Bopearachchi), [Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence](https://www.academia.edu/25807197), 2016. This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.}}]]
According to Hudson, a story in this Vedic text highlights the meaning of the name Vāsudeva as the 'shining one (deva) who dwells (vasu) in all things and in whom all things dwell', and the meaning of Vishnu to be the 'pervading actor'. In Bhagavad Gita, similarly, '[Krishna](Krishna) identified himself both with [Vāsudeva](Vāsudeva), Vishnu and their meanings'.}} The ideas at the center of Vedic rituals in *Shatapatha Brahmana* and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita revolve around this absolute Person, the primordial genderless absolute, which is the same as the goal of Pancaratra Agama and Tantra.
## Translations
The first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita was published by [Wilkins](Charles)(Charles Wilkins) in 1785. The Wilkins translation had an introduction to the Gita by [Hastings](Warren)(Warren Hastings). Soon the work was translated into other European languages such as French (1787), German, and Russian. In 1849, the Weleyan Mission Press, Bangalore published *The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures*, with Sanskrit, [Canarese](Kannada) and English in parallel columns, edited by Rev. John Garrett, with the effort being supported by [Mark Cubbon](Sir.)(Mark Cubbon (army officer)).
In 1981, Larson stated that "a complete listing of Gita translations and a related secondary bibliography would be nearly endless". According to Larson, there is "a massive translational tradition in English, pioneered by the British, solidly grounded philologically by the French and Germans, provided with its indigenous roots by a rich heritage of modern Indian comment and reflection, extended into various disciplinary areas by Americans, and having generated in our time a broadly based cross-cultural awareness of the importance of the Bhagavad Gita both as an expression of a specifically Indian spirituality and as one of the great religious "classics" of all time."
According to Sargeant, the Gita is "said to have been translated at least 200 times, in both poetic and prose forms". Richard Davis cites a count by Callewaert & Hemraj in 1982 of 1,891 translations of the Bhagavad Gita in 75 languages, including 273 in English. These translations vary, and are in part an interpretative reconstruction of the original Sanskrit text that differ in their "friendliness to the reader", and in the amount of "violence to the original Gita text". The translation was praised by scholars as well as literary critics. Similarly, the Hinduism scholar Jeaneane Fowler's translation and student text has been praised for its comprehensive introduction, quality of translation, and commentary.Arvind Sharma (2014), *Review: Three New Books on the "Bhagavad Gītā", International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 269}}
The translations and interpretations of the Gita have been so diverse that these have been used to support apparently contradictory political and philosophical values. For example, Galvin Flood and Charles Martin note that interpretations of the Gita have been used to support "pacifism to aggressive nationalism" in politics, from "monism to theism" in philosophy. According to William Johnson, the synthesis of ideas in the Gita is such that it can bear almost any shade of interpretation. A translation "can never fully reproduce an original and no translation is transparent", states Richard Davis, but in the case of the Gita the linguistic and cultural distance for many translators is large and steep which adds to the challenge and affects the translation. For some native translators, their personal beliefs, motivations, and subjectivity affect their understanding, their choice of words and interpretation. Some translations by Indians, with or without Western co-translators, have "orientalist", "apologetic", "Neo-Vedantic" or "guru phenomenon" biases.
According to the [exegesis](exegesis) scholar Robert Minor, the Gita is "probably the most translated of any Asian text", but many modern versions heavily reflect the views of the organization or person who does the translating and distribution. In Minor's view, the Harvard scholar Franklin Edgerton's English translation and Richard Garbe's German translation are closer to the text than many others. According to Larson, the Edgerton translation is remarkably faithful, but it is "harsh, stilted, and syntactically awkward" with an "orientalist" bias and lacks "appreciation of the text's contemporary religious significance".
### The Gita in other languages
The Gita has also been translated into European languages other than English. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire), multiple Persian translations of the Gita were completed. In 1808, passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which [Schlegel](Friedrich)(Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel) became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.What had previously been known of Indian literature in Germany had been translated from the English. The most significant French translation of the Gita, according to J. A. B. van Buitenen, was published by [Senart](Émile)(Émile Senart) in 1922. More recently, a new French translation was produced by the Indologist Alain Porte in 2004. The book was reprinted in 2019. [Rambhadracharya](Swami)(Rambhadracharya) released the first [Braille](Braille) version of the scripture, with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi commentary, on 30 November 2007.
The [Press](Gita)(Gita Press) has published the Gita in multiple Indian languages. [Raghava Iyengar](R.)(R. Raghava Iyengar) translated the Gita into Tamil in the sandam metre poetic form. The [Book Trust](Bhaktivedanta)(Bhaktivedanta Book Trust) associated with ISKCON has re-translated and published A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's 1972 English translation of the Gita in 56 non-Indian languages. These teachings are also illustrated in the [diorama](diorama)s of [Museum](Bhagavad-gita)(Bhagavad-gita Museum) in Los Angeles, California. – Back To Godhead|journal=[to Godhead](Back)(Back to Godhead)|date=1 July 1977|volume=12|issue=7|pages=16–23|url=http://www.backtogodhead.in/f-a-t-e-the-first-american-theistic-exibition/|access-date=8 February 2018}}}} [Bhave](Vinoba)(Vinoba Bhave) has written the Geeta in [Marathi](Marathi language) as Geetai (or "Mother Geeta") in a similar shloka form.
[Yogananda](Paramahansa)(Paramahansa Yogananda)'s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called *[Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita](God)(God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita)* has been translated into Spanish, German, Thai and Hindi so far. The book is significant in that unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on [yoga](karma)(karma yoga), [yoga](jnana)(jnana yoga), and [yoga](bhakti)(bhakti yoga) in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or [yoga](raja)(raja yoga).
## Bhashya (commentaries)
Bhagavad Gita integrates various schools of thought, notably Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga, and other theistic ideas. It remains a popular text for commentators belonging to various philosophical schools. However, its composite nature also leads to varying interpretations of the text and historic scholars have written *[bhashya](bhashya)* (commentaries) on it.SGS Sadhale ( 1935), [The Bhagavad Gita with Eleven Commentaries](https://archive.org/details/Gita-SgsSadhaleWith11MajorAnd3MinorCommentaries/page/n7), Volume 1 & 2, pages 1–7 According to [Hiriyanna](Mysore)(Mysore Hiriyanna), the Gita is "one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it—each differing from the rest in one essential point or the other".
According to Richard Davis, the Gita has attracted much scholarly interest in Indian history and some 227 commentaries have survived in the Sanskrit language alone. It has also attracted commentaries in regional vernacular languages for centuries, such as the one by Sant Dnyaneshwar in Marathi (13th century).
### Classical commentaries
The Bhagavad Gita is referred to in the *[Sutras](Brahma)(Brahma Sutras)* and numerous scholars, including [Shankara](Adi Shankara), [Bhaskara](Bhāskara (philosopher)), [Abhinavagupta](Abhinavagupta) of the Shaivism tradition, [Ramanuja](Ramanuja) and [Madhvacharya](Madhvacharya), wrote commentaries on it. Many of these commentators state that the Gita is "meant to be a *moksa-shastra* (*moksasatra*), and not a *dharmasastra*, an *arthasastra* or a *kamasastra*".
#### Śaṅkara (c. 800 CE)
The oldest and most influential surviving commentary was published by [Shankara](Adi)(Adi Shankara) (Śaṅkarācārya). Shankara interprets the Gita in a monist, nondualistic tradition ([Vedanta](Advaita)(Advaita Vedanta)). Shankara prefaces his comments by stating that the Gita is popular among the laity, that the text has been studied and commented upon by earlier scholars (these texts have not survived), but that "I have found that to the laity it appears to teach diverse and quite contradictory doctrines". He calls the Gita "an epitome of the essentials of the whole [teaching](Vedic)(Vedas)". To Shankara, the teaching of the Gita is to shift an individual's focus from the outer, impermanent, fleeting objects of desire and senses to the inner, permanent, eternal atman-Brahman-Vasudeva that is identical, in everything and in every being.
#### Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 CE)
[Abhinavagupta](Abhinavagupta) was a theologian and philosopher of the Kashmir Shaivism ([Shiva](Shiva)) tradition. He wrote a commentary on the Gita as *Gitartha-Samgraha*, which has survived into the modern era. The Gita text he commented on is a slightly different recension than the one of Adi Shankara. He interprets its teachings in the Shaiva Advaita (monism) tradition quite similar to Adi Shankara, but with the difference that he considers both Self and matter to be metaphysically real and eternal. Their respective interpretations of *jnana yoga* are also somewhat different, and Abhinavagupta uses Atman, Brahman, Shiva, and Krishna interchangeably. Abhinavagupta's commentary is notable for its citations of more ancient scholars, in a style similar to Adi Shankara. However, the texts he quotes have not survived into the modern era.
#### Rāmānuja (c. 1100 CE)
[Ramanuja](Ramanuja) was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and an exponent of the Sri Vaishnavism ([Vishnu](Vishnu)) tradition in 11th and early 12th century. Like his Vedanta peers, Ramanuja wrote a *[bhashya](bhasya)* (commentary) on the Gita - [Bhashya](Gita)(Gita Bhashya). Ramanuja's commentary disagreed with Adi Shankara's interpretation of the Gita as a text on nondualism (Self and Brahman are identical), and instead interpreted it as a form of dualistic and qualified monism ([Vishishtadvaita](Vishishtadvaita)).
#### Madhva (c. 1250 CE)
[Madhva](Madhvacharya), a commentator of the Dvaita (modern taxonomy) Tatvavada (actually quoted by Madhva) Vedanta school, wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, which exemplifies the thinking of the Tatvavada school ([Vedanta](Dvaita)(Dvaita Vedanta)). According to Christopher Chapelle, in Madhva's school there is "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many Selfs, and matter and its divisions". His commentary on the Gita is called . Madhva's commentary has attracted secondary works by pontiffs of the [Vedanta](Dvaita)(Dvaita Vedanta) monasteries such as [Tirtha](Padmanabha)(Padmanabha Tirtha), [Jayatirtha](Jayatirtha), and [Tirtha](Raghavendra)(Raghavendra Tirtha).
#### Keśava Kāśmīri (c. 1479 CE)
Keśava Kāśmīri Bhaṭṭa, a commentator of Dvaitādvaita Vedanta school, wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita named . The text states that *Dasasloki*—possibly authored by Nimbarka—teaches the essence of the Gita; the *Gita tattva prakashika* interprets the Gita also in a hybrid monist-dualist manner.SGS Sadhale ( 1936), [The Bhagavad Gita with Eleven Commentaries](https://archive.org/details/SrimadBhagavadGita-11SanskritCommentaries-GsSadhaleVol2Of3/page/n0), Volume 2 of 3
#### Vallabha (1481–1533 CE)
[Vallabha](Vallabhacharya), the proponent of "Suddhadvaita" or pure non-dualism, wrote a commentary on the Gita, the *Sattvadipika*. According to him, the true Self is the Supreme Brahman. [Bhakti](Bhakti) is the most important means of attaining liberation.
#### Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Commentaries
*[Mahaprabhu](Chaitanya)(Chaitanya Mahaprabhu) (b. 1486 CE). Commentaries on various parts of the Gita are in the [Vaishnavism](Gaudiya)(Gaudiya Vaishnavism) Bhakti Vedanta tradition (*[bheda abheda](achintya)(Achintya Bheda Abheda).*;}}
#### Others
Other classical commentators include:
* [Bhāskara](Bhāskara (philosopher)) () disagreed with Adi Shankara, wrote his own commentary on both Bhagavad Gita and *Brahma Sutras* in the tradition. According to Bhaskara, the Gita is essentially Advaita, but not quite exactly, suggesting that "the *Atman* (Self) of all beings are like waves in the ocean that is Brahman". Bhaskara also disagreed with Shankara's formulation of the *Maya* doctrine, stating that prakriti, atman and Brahman are all metaphysically real.
* [Yamunacharya](Yamunacharya), Ramanuja's teacher, summarised the teachings of the Gita in his *Gitartha sangraham*.
* [Nimbarka](Nimbarka) (1162 CE) followed Bhaskara, but it is unclear if he ever wrote a commentary. The commentary *Gita tattva prakashika* is generally attributed to a student named Kesava Bhatta in his tradition, written in a hybrid monist-dualist manner, which states that *Dasasloki*—possibly authored by Nimbarka—teaches the essence of the Gita.
* [Dnyaneshwar's](Dnyaneshwar) (1290 CE)W. Doderet (1926), *]https://www.jstor.org/stable/607401 The Passive Voice of the Jnanesvari]*, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1926), pp. 59–64 commentary *[Dnyaneshwari](Dnyaneshwari)* ( *Jnaneshwari* or *Bhavarthadipika*) is the oldest surviving literary work in the [language](Marathi)(Marathi language), one of the foundations of the Varkari tradition (the [movement](Bhakti)(Bhakti movement), [Eknath](Eknath), [Tukaram](Tukaram)) in Maharashtra . The commentary interprets the Gita in the Advaita Vedanta tradition. Dnyaneshwar belonged to the [Nath](Nath) yogi tradition. His commentary on the Gita is notable for stating that it is the devotional commitment and love with inner renunciation that matters, not the name *Krishna* or *Shiva*, either can be used interchangeably.
* Vallabha II, a descendant of [Vallabha](Vallabha) (1479 CE), wrote the commentary *Tattvadeepika* in the Suddha-Advaita tradition.
* [Saraswati's](Madhusudana)(Madhusudana Saraswati) commentary *Gudhartha Deepika* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* Hanumat's commentary *Paishacha-bhasya* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* Anandagiri's commentary *Bhashya-vyakhyanam* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* Nilkantha's commentary *Bhava-pradeeps* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* Shreedhara's (1400 CE) commentary *Avi gita* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* Dhupakara Shastri's commentary *Subodhini* is in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
* [Tirtha's](Raghuttama)(Raghuttama Tirtha) (1548-1596), commentary *Prameyadīpikā Bhavabodha* is in the [Vedanta](Dvaita)(Dvaita Vedanta) tradition.
* [Tirtha's](Raghavendra)(Raghavendra Tirtha) (1595-1671) commentary *Artha samgraha* is in the [Vedanta](Dvaita)(Dvaita Vedanta) tradition.
* Vanamali Mishra's (1650-1720) commentary *Gitagudharthacandrika* is quite similar to Madhvacharya's commentary and is in the Dvaita Vedanta tradition.
* Purushottama (1668–1781 CE), Vallabha's follower, wrote a commentary.
### Modern-era commentaries
* Among notable modern commentators of the Bhagavad Gita are [Gangadhar Tilak](Bal)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak), [Bhave](Vinoba)(Vinoba Bhave), [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) (who called its philosophy Anasakti Yoga), [Aurobindo](Sri)(Sri Aurobindo), [Radhakrishnan](Sarvepalli)(Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan), [N. K. Sharma](B.)(B. N. K. Sharma), [Osho](Osho), and [Chinmayananda](Chinmayananda Saraswati). Chinmayananda took a syncretistic approach to interpret the text of the Gita.For Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Chinmayananda as notable commentators see: For Aurobindo as notable commentators, see:
* Tilak wrote his commentary *Shrimadh Bhagavad Gita Rahasya* while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the [government](colonial)(British Raj) in India for [sedition](sedition).Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in: While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in:
* No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavad Gita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".Jordens, J.T.F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in: During his stay in Yeravada jail in 1929, Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in [Gujarati](Gujarati language). The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a foreword by Gandhi in 1946., First Edition 1946. Other editions: 1948, 1951, 1956.A shorter edition, omitting the bulk of Desai's additional commentary, has been published as: *Anasaktiyoga: The Gospel of Selfless Action*. Jim Rankin, editor. The author is listed as M.K. Gandhi; Mahadev Desai, translator. (Dry Bones Press, San Francisco, 1998) .
* The version by [C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada](A.)(A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada), entitled *[as It Is](Bhagavad-Gita)(Bhagavad-Gita as It Is),* is "by far the most widely distributed of all English Gīta translations" due to the efforts of [ISKCON](ISKCON). Its publisher, the , estimates sales at twenty-three million copies, a figure which includes the original English edition and secondary translations into fifty-six other languages. The Prabhupada commentary interprets the Gita in the [Vaishnavism](Gaudiya)(Gaudiya Vaishnavism) tradition of Chaitanya, quite similar to [Madhvacharya's](Madhvacharya) Dvaita Vēdanta ideology. It presents Krishna as the Supreme, a means of saving mankind from the anxiety of material existence through loving devotion. Unlike in Bengal and nearby regions of India where the *[Purana](Bhagavata)(Bhagavata Purana)* is the primary text for this tradition, the devotees of Prabhupada's ISKCON tradition have found better reception for their ideas by those curious in the West through the Gita, according to Richard Davis.
* In 1966, Mahārishi Mahesh Yogi published a partial translation.
* An abridged version with 42 verses and commentary was published by [Maharishi](Ramana)(Ramana Maharishi).
* *Bhagavad Gita – The song of God*, is a commentary by [Mukundananda](Swami)(Swami Mukundananda).
* [Yogananda's](Paramahansa)(Paramahansa Yogananda) two-volume commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, called *[Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita](God)(God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita)*, was released in 1995 and is available in 4 languages and as an English e-book. The book is significant in that unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on [yoga](karma)(karma yoga), [yoga](jnana)(jnana yoga), and [yoga](bhakti)(bhakti yoga) in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or [yoga](raja)(raja yoga). It is published by [Fellowship](Self-Realization)(Self-Realization Fellowship)/[Satsanga Society of India](Yogoda)(Yogoda Satsanga Society of India)
* [Easwaran's](Eknath)(Eknath Easwaran) commentary interprets the Gita for his collection of problems of daily modern life.
* Other modern writers such as [Parthasarathy](Swami)(Swami Parthasarathy) and Sādhu Vāsvāni have published their own commentaries.
* Academic commentaries include those by Jeaneane Fowler, Ithamar Theodor, and Robert Zaehner.
* A collection of Christian commentaries on the Gita has been edited by Catherine Cornille, comparing and contrasting a wide range of views on the text by theologians and religion scholars.
* The book *The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita: Timeless Wisdom for the Modern Age* by Richa Tilokani offers a woman's perspective on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita in a simplified and reader-friendly spiritual format.
*[Dayananda Saraswati](Swami)(Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)) published a four-volume Bhagavad Gītā, Home Study Course in 1998 based on transcripts from his teaching and commentary of the Bhagavad Gītā in the classroom. This was later published in 2011 in a new edition and nine volume format.
*Galyna Kogut and Rahul Singh published *An Atheist Gets the Gita*, a 21st-century interpretation of the 5,000-year-old text.
## Reception
With its translation and study by Western scholars beginning in the early 18th century, the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity. According to the Indian historian and writer [Singh](Khushwant)(Khushwant Singh), [Kipling](Rudyard)(Rudyard Kipling)'s famous poem "[If—](If—)" is "the essence of the message of the Gita in English."[Singh](Khushwant)(Khushwant Singh), [*Review of *The Book of Prayer by Renuka Narayanan* *](http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?211656), 2001
### Praise and commendation
The Bhagavad Gita has been highly praised, not only by prominent Indians including [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) and [Radhakrishnan](Sarvepalli)(Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan),*Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita*, by Robert Neil Minor, 1986, p. 161 but also by [Huxley](Aldous)(Aldous Huxley), [David Thoreau](Henry)(Henry David Thoreau), [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer), [Waldo Emerson](Ralph)(Ralph Waldo Emerson), [Jung](Carl)(Carl Jung), [Hesse](Hermann)(Hermann Hesse), and [Ecevit](Bülent)(Bülent Ecevit).
[Vivekananda](Swami)(Swami Vivekananda) referred to the Gita as "a bouquet composed of the beautiful flowers of spiritual truths collected from the [Upanishads](Upanishads)."
At a time when [nationalists](Indian)(Indian nationalism) were seeking an indigenous basis for social and political action against colonial rule, Bhagavad Gita provided them with a rationale for their activism and fight against injustice. [Gangadhar Tilak](Bal)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak) and [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.}}}} Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:
* that I miss even in the [on the Mount](Sermon)(Sermon on the Mount). When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the **. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies – and my life has been full of external tragedies – and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of **.Quotation from M.K. Gandhi. *Young India*. (1925), pp. 1078–79, is cited from *Front matter*.}}
[Nehru](Jawaharlal)(Jawaharlal Nehru), the first Prime Minister of independent India, commented on the Gita:
}}
[P. J. Abdul Kalam](A.)(A. P. J. Abdul Kalam), 11th President of India, despite being a Muslim, used to read Bhagavad Gita and recite its mantras.
[[File:Trinity Detonation T&B.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [test](Trinity)(Trinity (nuclear test)) of the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project) was the first detonation of a [weapon](nuclear)(nuclear weapon), which led Oppenheimer to recall verses from the Bhagavad Gita, notably being: "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds".]]
[Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer), American physicist and director of the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project), learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original form, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion of the [nuclear test](Trinity)(Trinity nuclear test), he thought of verses from the Bhagavad Gita (XI,12):
}}
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time:
Oppenheimer read the original text in [Sanskrit](Sanskrit), "" (XI,32), which he translated as "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds". In the literature, the quote usually appears in the form *shatterer* of worlds, because this was the form in which it first appeared in print, in [magazine](*Time*)(Time (magazine)) on 8 November 1948. It later appeared in Robert Jungk's *Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists* (1958), which was based on an interview with Oppenheimer. See Hijiya, *The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer*}}}}
Ralph Waldo Emerson, remarked the following after his first study of the Gita, and thereafter frequently quoted the text in his journals and letters, particularly the "work with inner renunciation" idea in his writings on man's quest for spiritual energy:
}}
[Modi](Narendra)(Narendra Modi), the [prime minister of India](14th)(List of Prime Ministers of India), called the Bhagavad Gita "India's biggest gift to the world". Modi gave a copy of it to the then President of the United States of America, [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) in 2014 during his U.S. visit.
The world's largest Bhagavad Gita is in the [Temple Delhi](ISKCON)(ISKCON Temple Delhi), which is the world's largest sacred book of any religion. It weighs 800 kg and measures over 2.8 metres by 2.0 metres. It was unveiled by [Modi](Narendra)(Narendra Modi), the Prime Minister of India on 26 February 2019. On 27 February 2021, the Bhagavad Gita, was launched into [space](outer)(outer space) in a [card](SD)(SD card), on a [PSLV-C51](PSLV-C51) rocket launched by the [Space Research Organisation](Indian)(Indian Space Research Organisation) (ISRO) from the [Dhawan Space Centre](Satish)(Satish Dhawan Space Centre) in [Sriharikota](Sriharikota).
### Criticisms and apologetics
#### Varna and svadharma
The Gita has been cited and criticized as a Hindu text that supports *varna-dharma* and the caste system. [R. Ambedkar](B.)(B. R. Ambedkar), born in a [Dalit](Dalit) family and served as the first Law Minister in the [Nehru Ministry](First)(First Nehru Ministry), criticized the text for its stance on caste and for "defending certain dogmas of religion on philosophical grounds". According to Jimmy Klausen, Ambedkar in his essay *Krishna and his Gita* stated that the Gita was a "tool" of Brahmanical Hinduism and for its latter-day saints such as Mahatma Gandhi and [Tilak](Lokmanya)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak). To Ambedkar, states Klausen, it is a text of "mostly barbaric, religious particularisms" offering "a defence of the *kshatriya* duty to make war and kill, the assertion that *varna* derives from birth rather than worth or aptitude, and the injunction to perform *karma*" neither perfunctorily nor egotistically.
In his *Myth and Reality*, [Kosambi](D.D.)(Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi) argued that "practically anything can be read into the Gita by a determined person, without denying the validity of a class system."[Kosambi](D.D.)(Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi) (1962) *[and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture](Myth)(iarchive:MythAndReality)* p. 19. (Popular Prakashail, Bombay) Kosambi argued that the Gita was a scripture that supported the superiority of the higher varnas while seeing all other varnas as "defiled by their very birth, though they may in after-life be freed by their faith in the god who degrades them so casually in this one." He quotes the Gita which states that Krishna says "The four-caste (class) division has been created by Me." Similarly, [R. Narla](V.)(Narla Venkateswara Rao) also argues that the Gita states that God created the caste (varna) system.V. R. Narla (2010), *The Truth About the Gita,* pp. 154-159. Prometheus Books. Narla also critiques the Gita for stating that those who are not kshatriyas or brahmins are "born from sinful wombs".
The Gita presents its teaching in the context of a war where the warrior Arjuna is in inner crisis about whether he should renounce and abandon the battlefield, or fight and kill the enemy (which includes many relatives and friends of his). He is advised by Krishna to do his *sva-dharma*, a term that has been variously interpreted. According to the Indologist [Hacker](Paul)(Paul Hacker (Indologist)), the contextual meaning in the Gita is the "dharma of a particular [varna](Varna (Hinduism))". In this case, Arjuna is part of the warrior (*[kshatriya](kshatriya)*) varna (social class), so Krishna is telling Arjuna to do what warrior social class must do by virtue of his belonging to that class.
Neo-Hindus such as [Chandra Chatterjee](Bankim)(Bankim Chandra Chatterjee), states Hacker, have preferred to not translate it in those terms, or "dharma" as religion, but leave ''Gita's* message as "everyone must follow his *sva-dharma*". According to Chatterjee, the Hindus already understand the meaning of that term. To render it in English for non-Hindus for its better understanding, one must ask *what is the sva-dharma for the non-Hindus*? The Lord, states Chatterjee, created millions and millions of people, and he did not ordain *dharma'' only for Indians [Hindus] and "make all the others dharma-less", for "are not the non-Hindus also his children"? According to Chatterjee, the Krishna's religion of Gita is "not so narrow-minded". This argument, states Hacker, is an attempt to "universalize Hinduism".
Nadkarni and Zelliot present the opposite view, citing early Bhakti saints of the Krishna-tradition such as the 13th-century saint [Dnyaneshwar](Dnyaneshwar). According to Dnyaneshwar, the Gita starts off with the discussion of *sva-dharma* in Arjuna's context but ultimately shows that caste differences are not important. For Dnyaneshwar, people err when they see themselves distinct from each other and Krishna, and these distinctions vanish as soon as they accept, understand and enter with love unto Krishna.
According to [Vivekananda](Swami)(Swami Vivekananda), *sva-dharma* in the Gita does not mean "caste duty", rather it means the duty that comes with one's life situation (mother, father, husband, wife) or profession (soldier, judge, teacher, doctor). For Vivekananda, the Gita was an egalitarian scripture that rejected caste and other hierarchies because of its verses such as 13.27—28, which states "He who sees the Supreme Lord dwelling equally in all beings, the Imperishable in things that perish, he sees verily. For seeing the Lord as the same everywhere present, he does not destroy the Self by the Self, and thus he goes to the highest goal." Scholars have contested Kosambi's criticism of the Gita based on its various sections on karma yoga, bhakti yoga and jnana yoga.|group=note}}
[Aurobindo](Sri Aurobindo) modernises the concept of *dharma* by internalising it, away from the social order and its duties towards one's personal capacities, which leads to a radical individualism, "finding the fulfilment of the purpose of existence in the individual alone." He deduced from the Gita the doctrine that "the functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn, gift, and capacities", that the individual should "develop freely" and thereby would be best able to serve society.
Gandhi's view differed from Aurobindo's view. He recognised in the concept of *sva-dharma* his idea of *svadeshi* (sometimes spelled *swadeshi*), the idea that "man owes his service above all to those who are nearest to him by birth and situation." To him, *svadeshi* was "*sva-dharma* applied to one's immediate environment."
According to [Hirst](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Suthren Hirst), the universalist neo-Hindu interpretations of *dharma* in the Gita are modernist readings, though any study of pre-modern distant foreign cultures is inherently subject to suspicions about "control of knowledge" and bias on the various sides. Hindus have their own understanding of *dharma* that goes much beyond the Gita or any particular Hindu text. Further, states Hirst, the Gita should be seen as a "unitary text" in its entirety rather than a particular verse analyzed separately or out of context. Krishna is presented as a teacher who "drives Arjuna and the reader beyond initial preconceptions". The Gita is a cohesively knit pedagogic text, not a list of norms.
#### Modern-Hinduism
Novel interpretations of the Gita, along with apologetics on it, have been a part of the modern era revisionism and renewal movements within Hinduism. Bankim Chandra Chatterji, the author of *[Mataram](Vande)(Vande Mataram)* – the national song of India, challenged orientalist literature on Hinduism and offered his interpretations of the Gita, states Ajit Ray. Bal Gangadhar Tilak interpreted the *karma yoga* teachings in Gita as a "doctrine of liberation" taught by Hinduism, while [Radhakrishnan](Sarvepalli)(Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan) stated that the Bhagavad Gita teaches a universalist religion and the "essence of Hinduism" along with the "essence of all religions", rather than a private religion.
[Vivekananda](Vivekananda)'s works contained numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja. Through the message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to reclaim their dormant but strong identity. Aurobindo saw Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion" and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita. Sivananda called Bhagavad Gita "the most precious jewel of Hindu literature" and suggested its introduction into the curriculum of Indian schools and colleges.
According to Ronald Neufeldt, it was the [Society](Theosophical)(Theosophical Society) that dedicated much attention and energy to the allegorical interpretation of the Gita, along with religious texts from around the world, after 1885 and given H. P. Blavatsky, Subba Rao and Anne Besant writings. Their attempt was to present their "universalist religion". These late 19th-century theosophical writings called the Gita as a "path of true spirituality" and "teaching nothing more than the basis of every system of philosophy and scientific endeavor", triumphing over other "Samkhya paths" of Hinduism that "have degenerated into superstition and demoralized India by leading people away from practical action".
### Adaptations
[Glass](Philip)(Philip Glass) retold the story of Gandhi's early development as an activist in South Africa through the text of the Gita in the opera *[Satyagraha](Satyagraha (opera))* (1979). The entire libretto of the opera consists of sayings from the Gita sung in the original Sanskrit.
In [Cuomo's](Douglas)(Douglas J. Cuomo) ''Arjuna's dilemma*, the philosophical dilemma faced by Arjuna is dramatised in operatic form with a blend of Indian and Western music styles.
The 1993 Sanskrit film, *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita (film))*, directed by [V. Iyer](G.)(G. V. Iyer) won the [1993](40th National Film Awards) [Film Award](National)(National Film Award (India)) for [Film](Best)(National Film Award for Best Feature Film).
The 1995 novel by Steven Pressfield, and its adaptation as the 2000 golf movie *[Legend of Bagger Vance](The)(The Legend of Bagger Vance)'' by [Redford](Robert)(Robert Redford) has parallels to the Bhagavad Gita, according to Steven J. Rosen. Steven Pressfield acknowledges that the Gita was his inspiration, the golfer character in his novel is Arjuna, the caddie is Krishna, states Rosen. The movie, however, uses the plot but glosses over the teachings unlike in the novel.[Legend of Bagger Vance](https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3988) , Steven Rosen
## See also
* [Gita](Ashtavakra)(Ashtavakra Gita)
* [Gita](Avadhuta)(Avadhuta Gita)
* [Gita](Devi)(Devi Gita)
* [Purana](Bhagavata)(Bhagavata Purana)
* [Ganesha Gita](The)(Ganesha Purana#The Ganesha Gita)
* [Puranas](Puranas)
* [(Vedanta)](Self-consciousness)(Self-consciousness (Vedanta))
* [Gita](Uddhava)(Uddhava#Uddhava Gita)
* [Vedas](Vedas)
* [Prasthanatrayi](Prasthanatrayi)
* [Gita](Vyadha)(Vyadha Gita)
## Notes and references
### References
#### Citations
### Sources
#### Printed sources
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* | publisher = Advaita Ashrama |location = Calcutta |isbn=81-7505-041-1 }}
* |publisher = Advaita Ashrama |location = Calcutta |isbn=81-7505-194-9 }}
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* Palshikar, Sanjay. *Evil and the Philosophy of Retribution: Modern Commentaries on the Bhagavad-Gita* (Routledge, 2015)
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* |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713120313/http://www.gitapress.org/ |archive-date=13 July 2010 }}
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* of Rāmānuja|year=1985 |publisher=Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute|location=Bombay }}
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#### Online sources
## External links
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* [Audiobook of an English translation](https://librivox.org/bhagavad-gita-by-sir-edwin-arnold/) by [Edwin Arnold](Sir)(Sir Edwin Arnold) at [LibriVox](LibriVox)
* [Bhagvat Geeta – Dialogues of Kreeshna and Arjoon by Charles Wilkins](https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/wilkins-the-bhagvat-geeta-or-dialogues-of-kreeshna-and-arjoon)
* [Bhagavid Gita](http://www.iep.utm.edu/bha-gita/) article in the *[Encyclopedia of Philosophy](Internet)(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)*
}}
[Gita](Category:Bhagavad)(Category:Bhagavad Gita)
[BC literature](Category:1st-millennium)(Category:1st-millennium BC literature)
[yoga texts](Category:Ancient)(Category:Ancient yoga texts)
[Category:Dialogues](Category:Dialogues)
[Vaishnavism](Category:Gaudiya)(Category:Gaudiya Vaishnavism)
[philosophy](Category:Hindu)(Category:Hindu philosophy)
[texts](Category:Hindu)(Category:Hindu texts)
[Category:Krishna](Category:Krishna)
[Category:Kurukshetra](Category:Kurukshetra)
[Category:Mahabharata](Category:Mahabharata)
[texts](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious texts)
[texts](Category:Sanskrit)(Category:Sanskrit texts)
[texts](Category:Vaishnava)(Category:Vaishnava texts)
[of unknown authorship](Category:Works)(Category:Works of unknown authorship)
|
Betty Gilpin
|
betty_gilpin
|
# Betty Gilpin
*Revision ID: 1160217054 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T03:32:30Z*
---
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Actress
| alma_mater = [University](Fordham)(Fordham University) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| spouse =
| children = 1
| father = [Gilpin](Jack)(Jack Gilpin)
| years_active = 2006–present
}}
**Elizabeth Folan Gilpin** (born July 21, 1986) is an American actress. She is best known for portraying Debbie "Liberty Belle" Eagan in the [Netflix](Netflix) comedy series *[GLOW](GLOW (TV series))* (2017–2019), for which she was nominated for three [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s for [Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series). She also starred as Dr. Carrie Roman in the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) comedy-drama series *[Jackie](Nurse)(Nurse Jackie)* (2013–2015). In 2023, she began starring in the lead role as a nun who battles A.I. in the science fiction series *[Davis](Mrs.)(Mrs. Davis)*.
Gilpin has appeared in films such as the mystery thriller *[Story](True)(True Story (film))* (2015), the science fiction romantic comedy ''['38](Future)(Future '38)* (2017), the fantasy romantic comedy *[It Romantic](Isn't)(Isn't It Romantic (2019 film))* (2019), the drama *[Dog's Journey](A)(A Dog's Journey (film))* (2019), and the action comedy *[Stuber](Stuber (film))* (2019). In 2020, Gilpin starred in the horror film *[Grudge](The)(The Grudge (2020 film))*, the horror thriller film *[Hunt](The)(The Hunt (2020 film))*, and the action comedy *[& Kareem](Coffee)(Coffee & Kareem)*. For *The Hunt'', she won a [Choice Super Award](Critics')(Critics' Choice Super Awards) for Best Actress in an Action Movie.
## Early life
Elizabeth Folan Gilpin was born in [York City](New)(New York City) on July 21, 1986, the daughter of actors [Gilpin](Jack)(Jack Gilpin) and Ann McDonough. Her father, also an [Episcopal](Episcopal Church (United States)) priest, is a first cousin of [Gilpin Faust](Drew)(Drew Gilpin Faust), the [of Harvard University](president)(president of Harvard University) from 2007 to 2018. She grew up in the [Street Seaport](South)(South Street Seaport) neighborhood of [Manhattan](Manhattan), where she says that her family home was "one of the only occupied buildings on the block." Gilpin is a 2004 graduate of the [Chaffee School](Loomis)(Loomis Chaffee School), and a 2008 graduate of [University](Fordham)(Fordham University). During her time at Fordham, she studied under [Wiest](Dianne)(Dianne Wiest).
## Career
Gilpin began her acting career with guest starring roles in numerous television series, including *[& Order: Criminal Intent](Law)(Law & Order: Criminal Intent)*, *[Fringe](Fringe (TV series))*, *[Medium](Medium (TV series))*, *[& Order: Special Victims Unit](Law)(Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)*, and *[Elementary](Elementary (TV series))*. She received further recognition for her starring role as Dr. Carrie Roman in the comedy-drama series *[Jackie](Nurse)(Nurse Jackie)*, appearing from 2013 to the series' conclusion in 2015. She has also appeared off-Broadway in productions such as *Heartless*, ''I'm Gonna Pray for You So Hard*, and *We Live Here''.
Gilpin had supporting roles in such films as *[Town](Ghost)(Ghost Town (2008 film))* (2008), *[Care](Take)(Take Care (film))* (2014), *[Story](True)(True Story (film))* (2015), and ''['38](Future)(Future '38)* (2017). Her breakthrough came with her starring role as Debbie "Liberty Belle" Eagan in the [Netflix](Netflix) comedy series *[GLOW](GLOW (TV series))'' (2017–2019), which was inspired by the 1980s female professional wrestling league [the same name](of)(Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling). She received significant critical acclaim and numerous award nominations for her performance, including two [Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series) and three [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards) for [Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series). Between 2019 and 2020, Gilpin appeared in the fantasy romantic comedy film ''[It Romantic](Isn't)(Isn't It Romantic (2019 film))*, the comedy-drama film *[Dog's Journey](A)(A Dog's Journey (film))*, the action comedy film *[Stuber](Stuber (film))*, and the action horror film *[Hunt](The)(The Hunt (2020 film))*. In 2021, she appeared in the science fiction action movie *[Tomorrow War](The)(The Tomorrow War)*. In the same year, Gilpin was set to star in the [HBO](HBO) series *Blood Sugar''. In 2022, Betty appeared as Mo Dean in the political thriller limited series [*Gaslit*](Gaslit (TV series)). She received recognition for her role with a nomination for the [Choice Television Award](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Awards) for Best Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie Made for Television.
In September 2022, Betty published her first book, a collection of 20 essays titled *All the Women in My Brain: And Other Concerns.*
## Personal life
While she was in high school at Loomis Chafee School, Gilpin dated actor and musician [Daunno](Damon)(Damon Daunno).
In 2016 she married actor Cosmo Pfeil. She gave birth to their daughter in November 2020.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
[births](Category:1986)(Category:1986 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[from New York City](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from New York City)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[University alumni](Category:Fordham)(Category:Fordham University alumni)
[Chaffee School alumni](Category:Loomis)(Category:Loomis Chaffee School alumni)
|
Shemar Moore
|
shemar_moore
|
# Shemar Moore
*Revision ID: 1159128755 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T12:39:41Z*
---
| birth_place = [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California), U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 1994–present
| alma_mater = [Clara University](Santa)(Santa Clara University) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| partner = Jesiree Dizon (2020-present)
| children = 1
| awards =
}}
**Shemar Franklin Moore** (born April 20, 1970) is an American actor. His notable roles include [Winters](Malcolm)(Malcolm Winters) on *[Young and the Restless](The)(The Young and the Restless)* (1994–2005), [Morgan](Derek)(Derek Morgan (Criminal Minds)) on *[Minds](Criminal)(Criminal Minds)* (2005–2016), and the lead role of Sergeant II Daniel "Hondo" Harrelson on *[S.W.A.T.](S.W.A.T. (2017 TV series))* (2017–2024) all on [CBS](CBS). Moore was also the third permanent host of *[Train](Soul)(Soul Train)*, from 1999 to 2003.
Moore has won eight [Image Awards](NAACP)(NAACP Image Awards) as well as the 2000 [Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](Daytime)(Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) for his work on *The Young and the Restless*. He was nominated for a [Choice Award](People's)(People's Choice Award) in 2016 for his work on *Criminal Minds*.
## Early life
Moore was born in [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California), the son of Marilyn Wilson, a business consultant, and Sherrod Moore. Moore's father was African-American and his mother, who was born in the [Roxbury](Roxbury, Massachusetts) neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, was of Irish and French-Canadian descent. His mother, who had a degree in mathematics, worked as a teacher in [Bahrain](Bahrain) and Denmark. Moore moved with her to Denmark as an infant, and then to Bahrain when he was four, where he attended a British private school until the age of seven. His grandmother is from [City](Quebec)(Quebec City), Canada. Moore cites civil unrest, interracial relationships being taboo, and racism in the U.S. in the 1970s as part of the reason his mother moved abroad with him. Returning to the U.S. in 1977, the family moved to [California](Chico,)(Chico, California), where his mother worked at a clinic, before later moving to [Alto](Palo)(Palo Alto, California). A gifted and talented child, Moore attended [Nueva School](The)(The Nueva School) in [California](Hillsborough,)(Hillsborough, California) before graduating from [High School](Gunn)(Gunn High School) in Palo Alto. Moore was awarded an athletic scholarship to attend [Clara University](Santa)(Santa Clara University) where he played varsity baseball as both a pitcher and an outfielder all four years. He holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in communications with a minor in Theater Arts.
## Career
[[in 1995](File:Shemar_Moore_1995.jpg|thumb|upright|Moore)]
[[Minds at Paley.jpg|thumb|upright|Moore (left) with other Criminal Minds cast members](File:Criminal)]
Moore is best known for his role as Malcolm Winters on the [CBS](CBS) television soap opera *[Young and the Restless](The)(The Young and the Restless)* for more than a decade. In November 2004, he returned to *The Young and the Restless* after originally planning to leave the show, but after a few months he dropped back to [status](recurring)(recurring status) and left in September 2005. In 2007, he said, "My time is done on *Y&R*. I did eight solid years as Malcolm."
During his time on *The Young and the Restless*, Moore was the host of the [syndicated](Broadcast syndication) version of the series *[Train](Soul)(Soul Train)* from 1999 until 2003, and he appeared in the 2001 feature film *[Brothers](The)(The Brothers (2001 film))*. He portrayed Detective Jesse Reese on the television series *[of Prey](Birds)(Birds of Prey (TV series))* from 2002 to 2003. Moore played Emery Simms in the 2004 film *[Motives](Motives (film))* alongside [Fox](Vivica)(Vivica Fox) and [Brooks](Golden)(Golden Brooks), and had a supporting role in the film *[of a Mad Black Woman](Diary)(Diary of a Mad Black Woman)*. He also appeared in the romantic comedy *[Seat Filler](The)(The Seat Filler)* with [Rowland](Kelly)(Kelly Rowland) and [Martin](Duane)(Duane Martin).
In 2005, Moore began playing Derek Morgan in *[Minds](Criminal)(Criminal Minds)* beginning with the first season in which he was cast and he exited the role after 11 seasons and 251 episodes in episode 18 of season 11, "A Beautiful Disaster", in March 2016.
In February 2017, it was announced that Moore would star in [CBS](CBS)'s new series titled *[S.W.A.T.](S.W.A.T. (2017 TV series))*, based on the [film](2003)(S.W.A.T. (film)) and [television series](1975)(S.W.A.T. (1975 TV series)) of the same name. The show was renewed for a fourth season in 2020. On December 24, 2020, amidst the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), Moore tested positive for the infection, but said he professed to "feel fine". After contracting and recovering from the disease, Moore officially revealed that he was COVID-free, ready to get back on set and announcing that the show was renewed for a fifth season in 2021. The show has now filmed six seasons, and been renewed for a final, seventh season.
In June 2021, it was announced that Moore had joined the cast of *[the Hedgehog 2](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (film))*, as Randall Handel. He also stars as the "Unnecessary Action Hero" in a series of commercials for [Paycom](Paycom).
Moore worked as a model during his college years. He is signed to DNA Model Management in New York City. Moore appeared on the March 2009 issue of ''[Fitness](Men's)(Men's Fitness)'' magazine.
## Personal life
Moore dated soccer player [Gordon](Shawna)(Shawna Gordon) from 2014 to 2015. In 2018, he dated *[Quantico](Quantico (TV series))* actress [Acosta](Anabelle)(Anabelle Acosta). On January 9, 2023, he announced the due date of his first child with his girlfriend, Jesiree Dizon, was February 8, 2023. The couple's daughter was born January 24, 2023.
Moore formed a retail clothing company known as Baby Girl LLC. The company's profits are used to help fight [sclerosis](multiple)(multiple sclerosis), a disease Moore's mother had. The organization's name is derived from a phrase used by Moore's character, Derek Morgan, on *Criminal Minds*. In 2016, actor Keith Tisdell pleaded guilty to grand theft charges after stealing more than $60,000 from Baby Girl LLC. Tisdell agreed to repay the amount.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
* [Biography at CBS - *Criminal Minds*](https://web.archive.org/web/20100209052913/http://www.cbs.com/primetime/criminal_minds/bio/shemar_moore/bio.php)
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1970)(Category:1970 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male actors](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male actors)
[male models](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male models)
[television personalities](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American television personalities)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male models](Category:American)(Category:American male models)
[male soap opera actors](Category:American)(Category:American male soap opera actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[people of French-Canadian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of French-Canadian descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series winners](Category:Daytime)(Category:Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series winners)
[Emmy Award winners](Category:Daytime)(Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners)
[High School alumni](Category:Gunn)(Category:Gunn High School alumni)
[actors from California](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from California)
[actors from Oakland, California](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Oakland, California)
[models from California](Category:Male)(Category:Male models from California)
[Clara University alumni](Category:Santa)(Category:Santa Clara University alumni)
[Train](Category:Soul)(Category:Soul Train)
|
Michael Myers _Halloween
|
michael_myers__halloween
|
# Michael Myers (Halloween)
*Revision ID: 1159279378 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T10:13:20Z*
---
| first = *[Halloween](Halloween (1978 film))* (1978)
| last = *[Ends](Halloween)(Halloween Ends)* (2022)
| lbl21 = Classification
| data21 = [murder](Mass)(Mass murder)er
| lbl22 = [weapon](Signature)(Signature weapon)
| data22 = [knife](Chef's)(Chef's knife)
| lbl23 = Location
| data23 = Haddonfield, Illinois
}}
**Michael Myers** is a fictional [character](character (arts)) from the [series](*Halloween*)(Halloween (franchise)) of [film](slasher)(slasher film)s. He first appears in [Carpenter](John)(John Carpenter)'s *[Halloween](Halloween (1978 film))* (1978) as a young boy who murders his elder sister, [Myers](Judith)(Judith Myers (Halloween)). Fifteen years later, he returns home to Haddonfield, Illinois, to murder more teenagers. In the original *Halloween*, the adult Michael Myers, referred to as **The Shape** in the closing credits, was portrayed by [Castle](Nick)(Nick Castle) for most of the film and substituted by [Moran](Tony)(Tony Moran (actor)) in the final scene where Michael's face is revealed. The character was created by [Carpenter](John)(John Carpenter) and has appeared in thirteen films, as well as [novels](Halloween (novel)), multiple video games, and several comic books.
The character is the primary [antagonist](antagonist) in all films except *[III: Season of the Witch](Halloween)(Halloween III: Season of the Witch)*, which is not connected in [continuity](Continuity (fiction)) to the rest of the films. Since Castle and Moran put on the mask in the original film, six people have stepped into the same role. Castle, [P. Wilbur](George)(George P. Wilbur), [Mane](Tyler)(Tyler Mane), and [Jude Courtney](James)(James Jude Courtney) are the only actors to have portrayed Michael Myers more than once, with Mane and Courtney being the only actors to do so in consecutive films. Michael Myers is characterized as pure evil, both directly in the films, by the filmmakers who created and developed the character over nine films, and by random participants in a survey. In the first two films, Michael wears a [Kirk](Captain)(James T. Kirk) mask that is painted white. The mask, which was made from a cast of [Shatner](William)(William Shatner)'s face, was originally used in the 1975 horror film ''[Devil's Rain](The)(The Devil's Rain (film))''.
## Appearances
Michael Myers appears in all of the *Halloween* films excluding the standalone *[III: Season of the Witch](Halloween)(Halloween III: Season of the Witch)*, although he is briefly seen on a television advertisement for the original film. Myers has also appeared in [universe](expanded)(expanded universe) novels and comic books.
### Films
Michael Myers made his first appearance in the 1978 film *[Halloween](Halloween (1978 film))*. At the beginning of *Halloween*, a six-year-old Michael [his teenage sister](murders)(sororicide) [Judith](List of Halloween (film series) characters#Judith Myers) on Halloween night in 1963. Fifteen years later, he escapes Smith's Grove Sanitarium and returns to his hometown of Haddonfield, Illinois, where he stalks a teenage [babysitter](babysitting) named [Strode](Laurie)(Laurie Strode), while his [psychiatrist](Psychiatry), [Sam Loomis](Dr.)(Samuel Loomis), attempts to track him down. After murdering three of Laurie's friends, Michael attacks her as well. She fends him off long enough for Loomis to arrive and shoot Michael six times, knocking him off a balcony; when Loomis goes to check the body, he finds that Michael has disappeared. *[II](Halloween)(Halloween II (1981 film))* (1981) picks up directly where the original ended. Michael follows Laurie to the local hospital and kills the staff one by one. Loomis discovers that Laurie is Michael's younger sister and rushes to the hospital to find them. Laurie shoots Michael in the eyes, and Loomis blows up the [theater](operating)(operating theater) while Laurie escapes. Michael emerges from the explosion, engulfed in flames, before finally collapsing.
Michael does not appear again until *[4: The Return of Michael Myers](Halloween)(Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers)* in 1988, which picks up ten years after the events of *Halloween II*. Michael has been in a coma since the explosion. He awakens when he learns Laurie has died in a car accident but has a nine-year-old daughter, [Lloyd](Jamie)(Jamie Lloyd). Returning to Haddonfield, he causes a citywide [blackout](Power outage) and massacres the town's police force and some civilians before being shot by the [police](state)(Illinois State Police) and falling down a [shaft](mine)(Shaft mining). *[5: The Revenge of Michael Myers](Halloween)(Halloween 5: The Revenge of Michael Myers)* begins immediately after the fourth film ends, with Michael escaping the mine shaft and being nursed back to health by a local [hermit](hermit). One year later, he kills the hermit and returns to Haddonfield to find Jamie again, chasing her through his childhood home in a trap set by Loomis. He is eventually subdued by Loomis and taken to the local police station, but a mysterious "Man in Black" kills the officers and frees him.
*[The Curse of Michael Myers](Halloween:)(Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers)* takes place six years after the events of the previous film. Jamie, now fifteen, has been kidnapped and impregnated by a druid cult led by the Man in Black, later revealed to be [Terence Wynn](Dr.)(List of Halloween (film series) characters#Dr. Terence Wynn), Loomis' friend and colleague from Smith's Grove. After giving birth, Jamie escapes with her baby, only to be killed by Michael. The baby is found by Tommy Doyle, whom Laurie babysat in the original film. Upon returning to Haddonfield once more, Michael kills relatives of Laurie's adoptive family, who are living in his childhood home. He is revealed to be inflicted with the Curse of Thorn, which drives him to [his family](kill)(familicide). Wynn and his cult kidnap Jamie's baby, as well as Kara Strode and her son Danny. Loomis and Tommy follow them to Smith's Grove, where Michael ultimately turns against the cult and slaughters them all. Tommy injects Michael with chemicals and beats him unconscious. Loomis stays behind as the others escape. Michael's mask is shown on the ground as Loomis screams in the distance, leaving their fates unknown.
Ignoring the events of the previous three films, *[H20: 20 Years Later](Halloween)(Halloween H20: 20 Years Later)* establishes that Michael has been missing since the hospital explosion twenty years ago. Laurie Strode has faked her death and gone into hiding in California under an assumed name. She is the headmistress of a private boarding school and has a teenage son named [John](List of Halloween (film series) characters#John Tate). Michael tracks them down and murders John's friends. After getting her son to safety, Laurie decides to face Michael and ultimately decapitates him. *[Resurrection](Halloween:)(Halloween: Resurrection)*, which picks up three years after *H20*, [retcon](retcon)s Michael's death, establishing that the man Laurie decapitated was a [paramedic](paramedic) whom Michael had attacked and swapped clothes with before escaping. Michael tracks down an institutionalized Laurie and kills her. He returns to Haddonfield, where one year later, he kills a group of college students filming an internet [show](reality)(reality television) inside his childhood home. Contestant [Moyer](Sara)(List of Halloween (film series) characters#Sara Moyer) and show producer Freddie Harris escape after electrocuting Michael. Michael's body and the bodies of his victims are then taken to the morgue. As the medical examiner begins to inspect Michael's body, he awakens.
The series was rebooted in 2007 with [Zombie](Rob)(Rob Zombie)'s *[Halloween](Halloween (2007 film))*. The film establishes from the beginning that Michael and Laurie are siblings, and has an increased focus on Michael's childhood: a ten-year-old Michael is shown [animals](killing)(Zoosadism) and suffering [abuse](emotional)(emotional abuse) from Judith and his mother's boyfriend [Ronnie](List of Halloween (film series) characters#Ronnie White), both of whom he later murders, along with a boy named Wesley Rhoades who was bullying him. After being committed to Smith's Grove, Michael takes up the hobby of creating [papier-mâché](papier-mâché) masks and receives unsuccessful therapy from Dr. Sam Loomis. Michael's mother [Deborah](List of Halloween (film series) characters#Deborah Myers) commits suicide after witnessing him killing a nurse. As an adult, Michael returns to Haddonfield to reunite with Laurie, the only person he has ever loved. However, Laurie has no memory of Michael and is terrified of him, ultimately shooting him in the head in self-defense after he kills her friends and adoptive parents.
Zombie's story is continued in the sequel, *[II](Halloween)(Halloween II (2009 film))*, which picks up right where the remake leaves off and then jumps ahead one year. Here, Michael is presumed dead but resurfaces after a vision of Deborah informs him that he must track Laurie down so that they can "come home." In the film, Michael and Laurie have a mental link, with the two sharing visions of their mother. During the film's climax, Laurie kills Michael by stabbing him repeatedly in the chest and face with his knife, with the final scene suggesting that she has taken on her brother's psychosis as she dons his mask.
Michael's continuity is again rebooted in the 2018 film *[Halloween](Halloween (2018 film))*, which is a direct sequel to the original film in which Michael and Laurie are not siblings. It is established that after being shot by Loomis, Michael fled to his childhood home and was arrested by the Haddonfield police. After forty years at Smith's Grove Sanitarium, he escapes again and returns to Haddonfield for another killing spree. He again encounters Laurie, who has been living in fear of his return. She shoots off two of his fingers and, with the help of her daughter Karen and granddaughter Allyson, traps him in the basement of her house, which they then set on fire. Michael is heard breathing at the end of the credits, indicated that he survived.
*[Kills](Halloween)(Halloween Kills)* is a direct sequel to the 2018 film in which Michael escapes the burning house and resumes his killing spree. In response, the enraged townspeople form a mob to hunt him down. While the mob proves to be unnecessarily destructive, they do eventually swarm him and seemingly kill him. As they attempt to confirm he's really dead, Michael rises again and massacres them all. He returns to his childhood home, where he kills Karen as well.
*[Ends](Halloween)(Halloween Ends)* (2022) picks up four years after its predecessor, revealing that Michael went into hiding after killing Karen. Now in a badly weakened condition, Michael inhabits a sewer cavern where a troubled young man named Corey Cunningham, who is dating Allyson, encounters him. Corey begins helping Michael kill people and starts to manifest the same evil. He eventually steals Michael's mask and murders several people who wronged him. He also goes after Laurie, but is shot down a stairwell. Michael arrives to retrieve his mask and kills Corey. Laurie pins Michael to a table and slits his throat, but he chokes her with the last of his strength. Allyson intervenes and breaks Michael's arm, allowing Laurie to fatally slice his wrist. A town-wide [procession](procession) takes place, where everyone watches Laurie dispose of Michael's corpse in an industrial shredder, ending his rampage once and for all.
### Literature
Michael Myers made his literary debut in October 1979 when Curtis Richards released [novelization of the film](a)(Halloween (franchise)#Literature). The book follows the events of the film but includes references to the festival of [Samhain](Samhain). A prologue provides a possible explanation for Michael's murderous impulses, telling the story of Enda, a disfigured [Celtic](Celts) teenager who butchers the [Druid](Druid) princess Deirdre and her lover as revenge for rejecting him; the king subsequently has his [shaman](Shamanism) curse Enda's soul for walking the earth reliving his crime for eternity. It is later revealed that Michael Myers suffers nightmares about Enda and Deirdre, as did Michael's great-grandfather before shooting two people to death at a Halloween harvest dance in the 1890s. The novel shows Michael's childhood in more detail; his mother voices concern over her son's anti-social behavior shortly before he murders Judith. Dr. Loomis notices the boy's effortless control and manipulation of the staff and patients at Smith's Grove during his incarceration. Later in the story, Michael's stalking of Laurie and her friends is depicted as more explicitly sexual than was apparent in the film, with several references to him having an [erection](erection). Michael returned to the world of literature with the 1981 adaptation of *Halloween II* written by [Martin](Jack)(Dennis Etchison); it was published alongside the first film sequel, with the novel following the film events, with an additional victim, a reporter, added to the novel. The final novelization to feature Michael was *Halloween IV*, released October 1988. The novel was written by Nicholas Grabowsky, and like the previous adaptations, follows the events of *Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers*.
Over a four-month period, [Books](Berkley)(Berkley Books) published three [adult novels](young)(Young adult fiction) written by Kelly O'Rourke; the novels are original stories created by O'Rourke, with no direct continuity with the films. The first, released on October 1, 1997, titled *The Scream Factory*, follows a group of friends who set up a haunted house attraction in the basement of Haddonfield City Hall, only to be stalked and killed by Michael Myers while they are there. *The Old Myers Place* is the second novel, released 1 December 1997, and focuses on Mary White, who moves into the Myers house with her family and takes up residence in Judith Myers' former bedroom. Michael returns home and begins stalking and attacking Mary and her friends. O'Rourke's final novel, *The Mad House*, was released on 1 February 1998. *The Mad House* features a young girl, Christine Ray, who joins a documentary film crew that travels to haunted locations; they are currently headed to Smith Grove Mental Hospital. The crew is quickly confronted by Michael Myers.
The character's first break into comics came with a series of comics published by [Pulido](Brian)(Brian Pulido)'s [Comics](Chaos!)(Chaos! Comics). The first, simply titled *Halloween*, was intended to be a one-issue special, but eventually two sequels spawned: *Halloween II: The Blackest Eyes* and ''Halloween III: The Devil's Eyes*. All of the stories were written by Phil Nutman, with Daniel Farrands—writer for *Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers''—assisting on the first issue; David Brewer and Justiniano worked on the illustrations. Tommy Doyle is the main protagonist in each of the issues, focusing on his attempts to kill Michael Myers. The first issue includes backstory on Michael's childhood, while the third picks up after the events of the film *Halloween H20*.
In 2003, Michael appeared in the self-published comic *One Good Scare*, written by Stefan Hutchinson and illustrated by Peter Fielding. The main character in the comic is Lindsey Wallace, the young girl who first saw Michael Myers alongside Tommy Doyle in the original 1978 film. Hutchinson wanted to bring the character back to his roots, and away from the "lumbering Jason-clone" the film sequels had made him. On 25 July 2006, as an insert inside the DVD release of *Halloween: 25 Years of Terror*, the comic book *Halloween: Autopsis* was released. Written by Stefan Hutchinson and artwork by Marcus Smith and Nick Dismas, the story is about a photographer assigned to take pictures of Michael Myers. As the photographer, Carter, follows Dr. Loomis; he begins to take on Loomis's obsession himself, until finally meeting Michael Myers in person, which results in his death.
In 2008, [Due Publishing](Devil's)(Devil's Due Publishing) began releasing more *Halloween* comic books, starting with a four issue mini series, titled *Halloween: Nightdance*. Written by Stefan Hutchinson, *Nightdance* takes place in Russellville, and follows Michael's obsession with Lisa Thomas, a girl who reminds him of his sister Judith. Lisa is afraid of the dark after Michael trapped her in a basement for days, and years later, he starts sending her disturbing, childlike drawings and murdering those around her on Halloween. Meanwhile, Ryan Nichols is hunting Michael down after seeing him attack and kidnap his wife. In the end, Michael frames Ryan for the murders and buries Lisa alive. Hutchinson explains that *Nightdance* was an attempt to escape the dense continuity of the film series and recreate the tone of the 1978 film; Michael becomes inexplicably fixated on Lisa, just as he did with Laurie in the original *Halloween*, before the sequels established that a sibling bond was actually his motivation for stalking her. Included in the *Nightdance* [paperback](trade)(Trade paperback (comics)) is the short prose story *Charlie*, which features Charlie Bowles, a Russellville [killer](serial)(serial killer) who taps into the same evil force which motivates Michael Myers. To celebrate the anniversary of the *Halloween* series, Devil's Due released a [one-shot](One-shot (comics)) comic entitled *Halloween: 30 Years of Terror* in August 2008, written by Hutchinson. An anthology collection inspired by John Carpenter's original film, Michael appears in various stories, [with Halloween candy](tampering)(Poisoned candy myths), decapitating a beauty queen, tormenting Laurie Strode, and killing a school teacher.
## Concept and creation
### Characterization
'Michael Myers' was the real-life name of the head of the now-dissolved British company [Films](Miracle)(Miracle Films). Myers, after meeting producer [Yablans](Irwin)(Irwin Yablans), distributed John Carpenter's previous film *[on Precinct 13](Assault)(Assault on Precinct 13 (1976 film))* in England in 1977. His name was chosen as a tribute to this success. A common characterization of Michael Myers is that he is pure evil. John Carpenter has described the character as "almost a supernatural force—a force of nature. An evil force that's loose," a force that is "unkillable". Nicholas Rogers elaborates, "Myers is depicted as a mythic, elusive bogeyman, one of superhuman strength who bullets cannot kill, stab wounds, or fire." Carpenter's inspiration for the "evil" that Michael would embody came when he was in college. While on a class trip at a mental institution in [Kentucky](Kentucky), Carpenter visited "the most serious, mentally ill patients". Among those patients was a young boy around 12 to 13 years old. The boy gave a "[schizophrenic](schizophrenia) stare", "a real evil stare", which Carpenter found "unsettling", "creepy", and "completely insane". Carpenter's experience would inspire the characterization that Loomis would give of Michael to Sheriff Brackett in the original film. Debra Hill has stated the scene where Michael kills a [Shepherd](German)(German Shepherd) was done to illustrate how he is "really evil and deadly".
The ending scene of Michael being shot six times, and then disappearing after falling off the balcony, was meant to make the audience's imaginations run wild. Carpenter tried to keep the audience guessing as to who Michael Myers really is—he is gone, and everywhere at the same time; he is more than human; he may be supernatural, and no one knows how he got that way. To Carpenter, keeping the audience guessing was better than explaining away the character with "he's cursed by some..." For Josh Hartnett, who portrayed John Tate in *Halloween H20*, "it's that abstract, it's easier for me to be afraid of it. You know, someone who just kind of appears and, you know [mimics stabbing noise from *[Psycho](Psycho (1960 film))*] instead of an actual human who you think you can talk to. And no remorse, it's got no feelings, that's the most frightening, definitely." [Schickel](Richard)(Richard Schickel), film critic for *[TIME](Time (magazine))*, felt Michael was "irrational" and "really angry about something", having what Schickel referred to as "a kind of primitive, obsessed intelligence". Schickel considered this the "definition of a good monster", by making the character appear "less than human", but having enough intelligence "to be dangerous".
Dominique Othenin-Girard attempted to have audiences "relate to 'Evil', to Michael Myers' 'ill' side". Girard wanted Michael to appear "more human [...] even vulnerable, with contradicting feelings inside of him". He illustrated these feelings with a scene where Michael removes his mask and sheds a tear. Girard explains, "Again, to humanize him, to give him a tear. If Evil or in this case our [boogeyman](bogeyman) knows pain, or love or demonstrates a feeling of regret; he becomes even scarier to me if he pursues his malefic action. He shows an evil determination beyond his feelings. Dr. Loomis tries to reach his emotional side several times in [5*](*Halloween). He thinks he could cure Michael through his feelings."
Daniel Farrands, the writer of *The Curse of Michael Myers*, describes the character as a "sexual deviant". According to him, the way Michael follows girls around and watches them contains a subtext of repressed sexuality. Farrands theorizes that, as a child, Michael became fixated on the murder of his sister Judith, and for his own twisted reasons felt the need to repeat that action over and over again, finding a sister-like figure in Laurie who excited him sexually. He also believes that by making Laurie Michael's literal sister, the sequels took away from the simplicity and relatability of the original *Halloween*. Nevertheless, when writing *Curse*, Farrands was tasked with creating a mythology for Michael which defined his motives and why he could not be killed. He says, "He can't just be a man anymore, he's gone beyond that. He's mythical. He's supernatural. So, I took it from that standpoint that there's something else driving him. A force that goes beyond that five senses that have infected this boy's soul and now are driving him." As the script developed and more people became involved, Farrands admits that the film went too far in explaining Michael Myers and that he himself was not completely satisfied with the finished product.
Michael does not speak in the films; the first time audiences ever hear his voice is in the 2007 Rob Zombie reboot. Michael speaks as a child at the beginning of the film, but while in Smith's Grove he stops talking completely. Rob Zombie originally planned to have the adult Michael speak to Laurie in the film's finale, simply saying his childhood nickname for her, "Boo". Zombie explained that this version was not used because he was afraid having the character talk at that point would demystify him too much and because the act of Michael handing Laurie the photograph of them together was enough.
Describing aspects of Michael Myers that he wanted to explore in the comic book *Halloween: Night dance*, writer Stefan Hutchinson mentions the character's "bizarre and dark sense of humor", as seen when he wore a sheet over his head to trick a girl into thinking he was her boyfriend, and the satisfaction he gets from scaring the characters before he murders them, such as letting Laurie know he is stalking her. Hutchinson feels there is a perverse nature to Michael's actions: "see the difference between how he watches and pursues women to men". He also suggests that Michael Myers' hometown of Haddonfield is the cause of his behavior, likening his situation to that of [the Ripper](Jack)(Jack the Ripper), citing Myers as a "product of normal suburbia - all the repressed emotion of fake [Rockwell](Norman)(Norman Rockwell) smiles". Hutchinson describes Michael as a "monster of abjection". When asked his opinion of Rob Zombie's expansion on Michael's family life, Hutchinson says that explaining why Michael does what he does "[reduces] the character". That being said, Hutchinson explores the nature of evil in the short story *Charlie*—included in the *Halloween Night dance* trade paperback—and says that Michael Myers spent 15 years "attuning himself to this force to the point where he is, as Loomis says, 'pure evil'". *Night dance* artist [Seeley](Tim)(Tim Seeley) describes the character's personality in John Carpenter's 1978 film as "a void", which allows the character to be more open to interpretation than the later sequels allowed him. He surmises that Michael embodies a part of everyone; a part people are afraid will one day "snap and knife someone", which lends to the fear that Michael creates onscreen. He was further characterized in the video game *Dead by Daylight* as "infused with a distilled and pure form of evil... For Michael, he had to kill to find some inner peace. As he took his sister's life, the police found a silent boy dressed as a clown at the scene. Sending Michael to a mental institution was a feeble attempt to save the child. Unsuccessful therapy and nightly screams just made him even more and deranged."
In 2005, a study was conducted by the Media Psychology Lab of [State University, Los Angeles](California)(California State University, Los Angeles) on the psychological appeal of movie monsters—[vampire](vampire)s, [Krueger](Freddy)(Freddy Krueger), [monster](Frankenstein's)(Frankenstein's monster), [Voorhees](Jason)(Jason Voorhees), [Godzilla](Godzilla), [Chucky](Chucky (Child's Play)), [Kong](King)(King Kong), [Alien](the)(Alien (creature in Alien franchise)), and the shark from *[Jaws](Jaws (film))*—which surveyed 1,166 people nationwide (United States), with ages ranging from 16 to 91. It was published in the *[of Media Psychology](Journal)(Journal of Media Psychology)*. In the survey, Michael was considered the "embodiment of pure evil"; compared to the other characters, Michael Myers was rated the highest. Michael was characterized as lending to the understanding of insanity, being ranked second to Hannibal Lecter in this category; he also placed first as the character who shows audiences the "dark side of human nature". He was rated second in the category "monster enjoys killing" by the participants, and believed to have "superhuman strength". Michael was rated highest among the characters in the "monster is an outcast" category.
John Carpenter, serving as an executive producer and creative consultant for the 2018 sequel to *Halloween* (1978), expressed his disagreement with Rob Zombie's portrayal of the character: "I thought that he took away the mystique of the story by explaining too much about [Myers](Michael). I don't care about that. He's supposed to be a force of nature. He's supposed to be almost supernatural." Co-writer [McBride](Danny)(Danny McBride) felt that previous sequels had made Michael less scary by giving him an inhuman level of invulnerability, preferring to humanize the character: "I think we're just trying to strip it down and just take it back to what was so good about the original... I want to be scared by something that I really think could happen. I think it's much more horrifying to be scared by someone standing in the shadows while you're taking the trash out as opposed to someone who can't be killed pursuing you."
### History of the mask
In the documentary ''Halloween' Unmasked 2000* it is revealed that Michael almost had an entirely different face. The first mask considered was an [Kelly](Emmett)(Emmett Kelly) clown mask that the crew had put frizzy red hair on.Cerulli, M (Director). (1999). *Halloween Unmasked 2000'' [Film]. (n.p.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjRcG8qSXro&t=128s. Ultimately, it was decided that the mask did not have the "creepy and unsettling atmosphere" they were looking for with Michael. The second mask considered was a modified [T. Kirk](James)(James T. Kirk) mask that had the eyes opened up and the skin painted white. After modification, this mask captured the blank and emotionless look they wanted.
## In popular culture
In ''[Chicken](Robot)(Robot Chicken)'s* nineteenth episode, "[Hurts Me](That)(That Hurts Me)", Michael Myers (voiced by [Green](Seth)(Seth Green)) appears as a housemate of "Horror Movie [Brother](Big)(Big Brother (TV series))", alongside fellow horror movie killers [Voorhees](Jason)(Jason Voorhees), [Ghostface](Ghostface (Scream)), [Krueger](Freddy)(Freddy Krueger), [Pinhead](Pinhead (Hellraiser)), and [Leatherface](Leatherface). Myers is evicted from the house, and takes off his mask to reveal himself to be the comedian [Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers), and utters his [Powers](Austin)(Austin Powers (character)) catchphrase, "I feel randy, baby, yeah!" He then proceeds to kill the host. Michael appeared on 25 April 2008 episode of *[Whisperer](Ghost)(Ghost Whisperer)'', starring [Love Hewitt](Jennifer)(Jennifer Love Hewitt), titled "Horror Show". Here, a spirit communicates with Hewitt's character by placing her in scenes from the deceased's favorite horror movies, and one of the scenes involved Michael Myers. The *[Case](Cold)(Cold Case)* episode "Bad Night" has the main characters reopening a 1978 murder case after new evidence indicates the victim was killed by a mentally disturbed man who, after seeing *Halloween* in theatres, went on a killing spree dressed as Michael. Michael Myers makes a cameo appearance in Rob Zombie's *[Haunted World of El Superbeasto](The)(The Haunted World of El Superbeasto)*, released on 22 September 2009. Michael Myers appears in the DLC pack for the video game *[of Duty: Ghosts](Call)(Call of Duty: Ghosts)*, Onslaught, as a playable character. Myers also makes a playable appearance in the *Halloween* chapter of the video game *[by Daylight](Dead)(Dead by Daylight)*, alongside Laurie Strode. He also made cameos in a [within](film)(Film within a film) the [within a film](film)(film within a film) *Stab 8* in the 2022 film *[Scream](Scream (2022 film))*, portrayed by co-director [Bettinelli-Olpin](Matt)(Matt Bettinelli-Olpin).
In one of the various merchandises to feature the character, Michael Myers made his video game debut with the 1983 [Atari](Atari) video game *[Halloween](Halloween (video game))*. The game is rare to find, often being played on [emulator](emulator)s. No characters from the films are specifically named, with the goal of the game focusing on the player, who is a babysitter, protecting children from a "homicidal maniac [who] has escaped from a mental institution". Michael was one of several horror icons to be included in the 2009 version of [Studios Hollywood](Universal)(Universal Studios Hollywood)'s [Horror Nights](Halloween)(Halloween Horror Nights) event, as a part of a maze entitled *Halloween: The Life and Crimes of Michael Myers* Pop artist [Millikin](Eric)(Eric Millikin) created a large mosaic portrait of Michael Myers out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his "Totally Sweet" series in 2013. In 2018, Spirit Halloween released a lifesize animated Michael Myers prop to coincide with the 2018 film.
## See also
*[Boogeyman](Boogeyman)
## References
## External links
*[Halloween: Nightdance](https://web.archive.org/web/20080208093506/http://www.comixology.com/podcasts/17/Halloween-Nightdance-with-Stefan-Hutchinson) scribe Stefan Hutchinson interviewed at ComiXology.com
*[Official site](http://www.halloweenmovies.com) of the *Halloween* series
[characters in film](Category:Child)(Category:Child characters in film)
[characters from Illinois](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters from Illinois)
[characters with psychiatric disorders](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders)
[characters with superhuman strength](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional characters with superhuman strength)
[hermits](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional hermits)
[knife-fighters](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional knife-fighters)
[mass murderers](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional mass murderers)
[monsters](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional monsters)
[murderers of children](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional murderers of children)
[prisoners and detainees](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional prisoners and detainees)
[rampage and spree killers](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional rampage and spree killers)
[sororicides](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional sororicides)
[stalkers](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional stalkers)
[characters introduced in 1978](Category:Film)(Category:Film characters introduced in 1978)
[supervillains](Category:Film)(Category:Film supervillains)
[(franchise) characters](Category:Halloween)(Category:Halloween (franchise) characters)
[horror film villains](Category:Male)(Category:Male horror film villains)
[film antagonists](Category:Slasher)(Category:Slasher film antagonists)
|
Zinedine Zidane
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zinedine_zidane
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# Zinedine Zidane
*Revision ID: 1159132349 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T13:15:09Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Marseille](Marseille), France
| height = 1.85 m
| position = [midfielder](Attacking)(Midfielder#Attacking midfielder)
| currentclub =
| youthyears1 = 1981–1982
| youthclubs1 = AS Foresta
| youthyears2 = 1982–1983
| youthclubs2 = US Saint-Henri
| youthyears3 = 1983–1986
| youthclubs3 = SO Septèmes-les-Vallons
| youthyears4 = 1986–1990
| youthclubs4 = [Cannes](AS Cannes)
| years1 = 1989–1992
| clubs1 = [Cannes](AS Cannes)
| caps1 = 61
| goals1 = 6
| years2 = 1992–1996
| clubs2 = [Bordeaux](FC Girondins de Bordeaux)
| caps2 = 139
| goals2 = 28
| years3 = 1996–2001
| clubs3 = [Juventus](Juventus F.C.)
| caps3 = 151
| goals3 = 24
| years4 = 2001–2006
| clubs4 = [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF)
| caps4 = 155
| goals4 = 37
| totalcaps = 506
| totalgoals = 95
| nationalyears1 = 1988–1989
| nationalteam1 = [U17](France)(France national under-17 football team)
| nationalcaps1 = 4
| nationalgoals1 = 1
| nationalyears2 = 1989–1990
| nationalteam2 = [U18](France)(France national under-18 football team)
| nationalcaps2 = 6
| nationalgoals2 = 0
| nationalyears3 = 1990–1994
| nationalteam3 = [U21](France)(France national under-21 football team)
| nationalcaps3 = 20
| nationalgoals3 = 3
| nationalyears4 = 1994–2006
| nationalteam4 = [France](France national football team)
| nationalcaps4 = 108
| nationalgoals4 = [31](List of international goals scored by Zinedine Zidane)
| manageryears1 = 2013–2014
| managerclubs1 = [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF) (assistant)
| manageryears2 = 2014–2016
| managerclubs2 = [Madrid B](Real)(Real Madrid Castilla)
| manageryears3 = 2016–2018
| managerclubs3 = [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF)
| manageryears4 = 2019–2021
| managerclubs4 = [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF)
| medaltemplates =
}}
}}
**Zinedine Yazid Zidane** (; born 23 June 1972), popularly known as **Zizou**, is a French professional [manager](football)(Manager (association football)) and former [player](Football player) who played as an [midfielder](attacking)(Midfielder#Attacking midfielder). He most recently coached Spanish club [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF) and is one of the most successful coaches in the world. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time, Zidane was a [playmaker](playmaker) renowned for his elegance, vision, passing, ball control, and technique. He received many individual accolades as a player, including being named [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year) in 1998, 2000 and 2003, and winning the 1998 [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or).
Zidane started his career at [Cannes](AS Cannes) before establishing himself as one of the best players in the French [1](Ligue)(Ligue 1) at [Bordeaux](FC Girondins de Bordeaux). In 1996, he moved to Italian team [Juventus](Juventus F.C.), where he won several trophies including two [A](Serie)(Serie A) titles. He moved to Real Madrid for a [record fee](world)(List of most expensive association football transfers) at the time of €77.5 million in 2001, which remained unmatched for the next eight years. In Spain, Zidane won several trophies, including a [Liga](La)(La Liga) title and the [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League). In the [Champions League final](2002)(2002 UEFA Champions League Final), he scored a left-foot volleyed winner that is considered one of the greatest goals in the competition's history.
[Capped](Cap (sport)) 108 times by [France](France national football team), Zidane won the [FIFA World Cup](1998)(1998 FIFA World Cup), scoring a brace in the [final](1998 FIFA World Cup Final), and was named to the All-Star team. This triumph made him a national hero in France and he received the [of Honour](Legion)(Legion of Honour) in 1998. He won [Euro 2000](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2000) and was named Player of the Tournament. He also received the [Ball](Golden)(FIFA World Cup awards#Golden Ball) as Player of the Tournament at the [World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup), despite his infamous sending off in the [final](2006 FIFA World Cup Final) against Italy for headbutting [Materazzi](Marco)(Marco Materazzi) in the chest. He retired as the fourth-most capped player in French history.
In 2004, he was named in the [100](FIFA)(FIFA 100), a list of the world's greatest living players compiled by [Pelé](Pelé), and in the same year was named the best European footballer of the past 50 years in the [Golden Jubilee Poll](UEFA)(UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll). Zidane is one of nine players to have won the [Cup](World)(FIFA World Cup), the Champions League, and the Ballon d'Or. He was the ambassador for [Qatar](Qatar)'s successful bid to stage the [World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup), the first [country](Arab)(Arab country) to host the tournament.
After retiring as a player, Zidane began his coaching career at [Madrid Castilla](Real)(Real Madrid Castilla). He remained in the position for two years before taking the helm of the first team in 2016. In his initial two and a half seasons, Zidane became the first coach to win the Champions League three times in a row, won the UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup twice each, as well as a La Liga title and a Supercopa de España. This success led to Zidane being named [FIFA Men's Coach](Best)(The Best FIFA Football Awards 2017#The Best FIFA Men.27s Coach) in 2017. He resigned in 2018, but returned to the club in 2019 and won another La Liga and a Supercopa de España title before leaving again in 2021.
## Early life and career
[[File:Lacastellane-16-marseille.JPG|thumb|La Castellane in the northwestern edge of [Marseille](Marseille) where Zidane was born in 1972]]
[[Marseille.jpg|thumb|La Corniche, seaside roadway along the coast of Marseille, with a mural of Zidane on the wall](File:Corniche)]
Zinedine Yazid Zidane was born on 23 June 1972 in [Castellane, Marseille](La)(La Castellane, Marseille), in [France](Southern)(Southern France). He is the youngest of five siblings. Zidane is of Algerian [Kabyle](Kabyle people) descent and has described himself as a "non-practising [Muslim](Muslim)". His parents, Smaïl and Malika, immigrated to Paris from the village of [Aguemoune](Aguemoune) in the Berber-speaking region of [Kabylie](Kabylie) in northern Algeria in 1953 before the start of the [War](Algerian)(Algerian War). The family, which had settled in the city's tough northern districts of [Barbès](Barbès – Rochechouart (Paris Métro)) and [Saint-Denis](Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis), found little work in the region, and in the mid-1960s moved to the northern Marseille suburb of La Castellane in the [arrondissement of Marseille](16th)(16th arrondissement of Marseille). In an interview with *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))* magazine, he stated:
His father worked as a warehouseman and security guard at a department store, often on the night shift, while his mother was a housewife. The family lived a reasonably comfortable life by the standards of the neighbourhood, which was notorious throughout Marseille for its high crime and unemployment rates. Zidane credits his strict upbringing and his father as the "guiding light" in his career.
It was in Castellane where Zidane had his earliest introduction in football, joining in at the age of five in football games that the neighbourhood's children played on the Place Tartane, an 80-by-12-yard plaza that served as the main square of the housing complex.[In the footsteps Of Zidane](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/in-the-footsteps-of-zidane-652076.html), *The Independent* (London) In July 2011, Zidane named former [Marseille](Olympique de Marseille) players [Slišković](Blaž)(Blaž Slišković), [Francescoli](Enzo)(Enzo Francescoli) and [Papin](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Papin) as his idols while growing up. At the age of ten, Zidane got his first player's licence after joining the junior team of a local club from Castellane by the name of US Saint-Henri. After spending a year and a half at US Saint-Henri, Zidane joined SO Septèmes-les-Vallons when the Septèmes coach Robert Centenero convinced the club's Director to get Zidane.Clemente A. Lisi (2011). "A History of the World Cup: 1930–2010". p. 349. Scarecrow Press Zidane stayed with Septèmes until the age of 14, at which time he was selected to attend a three-day training camp at the [CREPS](National Football Centre) (Regional Centre for Sports and Physical Education) in [Aix-en-Provence](Aix-en-Provence), one of several such footballing institutes run by the [Football Federation](French)(French Football Federation). It was here that Zidane was spotted by [Cannes](AS)(AS Cannes) scout and former player Jean Varraud, who recommended him to the training centre director of the club. As a 14-year-old watching the 1986 World Cup, the performance of [Maradona](Diego)(Diego Maradona) left an indelible mark on him, with Zidane stating Maradona "was on another level".
## Club career
### Cannes
. FIFA.com. Retrieved 17 November 2013.}}
Zidane went to [Cannes](AS)(AS Cannes) for a six-week stay, but ended up remaining at the club for four years to play at the professional level. Having left his family to join Cannes, he was invited by Cannes Director Jean-Claude Elineau to leave the dormitory he shared with 20 other trainees and to come and stay with him and his family. Zidane later said that while living with the Elineaus he found equilibrium.
It was at Cannes where Zidane's first coaches noticed that he was raw and sensitive, prone to attack spectators who insulted his race or family. His first coach, Jean Varraud, encouraged him to channel his anger and focus on his own game. Zidane spent his first weeks at Cannes mainly on cleaning duty as a punishment for punching an opponent who mocked his ghetto origins. The occasional violence that he would display throughout his career was shaped by an internal conflict of being an Algerian-Frenchman suspended between cultures, and surviving the tough streets of La Castellane where he grew up.
Zidane made his professional debut with Cannes on 18 May 1989 in a [Division 1](French)(Ligue 1) match against [Nantes](FC Nantes).["Zidane swansong"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2006/teams/france/5064798.stm), BBC Sport He scored his first goal for the club on 10 February 1991[Agence France-Press](http://afp.pressedd.com/) from 10 February 1991 also against Nantes in a 2–1 win. After the match during a party for all the Cannes players, Zidane was given a car by Cannes chairman Alain Pedretti, who had promised him one the day he scored his first goal for the club.Virebayre, Jean. *Zinedine Zidane: A diamond in the rough*. FIFA magazine Portrait, September 2006, p. 16. On the pitch, Zidane displayed extraordinary technique on the ball, offering glimpses of the talent that would take him to the top of the world game. In his first full season with Cannes, the club secured its first ever European football berth by qualifying for the [Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League) after finishing fourth in the league. This remains the club's highest finish in the top flight since getting relegated for the first time from the first division in the 1948–49 season.
### Bordeaux
Zidane was transferred to [de Bordeaux](Girondins)(FC Girondins de Bordeaux) in the 1992–93 season, winning the [Intertoto Cup](1995)(1995 UEFA Intertoto Cup) after beating [Karlsruhe](Karlsruher SC) and finishing runner-up against [Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich) in the [UEFA Cup](1995–96)(1995–96 UEFA Cup) during his four years with the club. He played a set of midfield combinations with [Lizarazu](Bixente)(Bixente Lizarazu) and [Dugarry](Christophe)(Christophe Dugarry), which would become the trademark of both Bordeaux and the 1998 French national team. In 1995, [Rovers](Blackburn)(Blackburn Rovers F.C.) manager [Dalglish](Kenny)(Kenny Dalglish) had expressed interest in signing both Zidane and Dugarry, to which club owner [Walker](Jack)(Jack Walker) reportedly replied, "Why do you want to sign Zidane when we have [Sherwood](Tim)(Tim Sherwood)?"[The Ones That Got Away...Zidane](http://www.blackburn.vitalfootball.co.uk/article.asp?a=47576) – VitalFootball.co.uk, 2006 Also towards the beginning of the 1996 season, according to football agent [Silkman](Barry)(Barry Silkman), Zidane was offered to [United](Newcastle)(Newcastle United F.C.) for £1.2 million, but the club turned down the offer after watching him, claiming that he was not good enough for the [First Division](English)(Football League First Division). In 1996, Zidane received the award for [1 Player of the Year](Ligue)(Trophées UNFP du football).
### Juventus
After a series of stand out performances for both Bordeaux and France, Zidane had offers to join Europe's top clubs in the spring of 1996, deciding on a move to [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) winners [Juventus](Juventus F.C.) during the close season.V.K.S. Radhesh. "2002 World Cup Football Super Stars". p. 20. Sura Books Zidane's impact in Italy was immediate, winning the [Serie A](1996–97)(1996–97 Serie A) title and the [Intercontinental Cup](1996)(1996 Intercontinental Cup). He was named [A Foreign Footballer of the Year](Serie)(Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year) in his first season. Zidane's growing status in the sport saw him chosen in a European XI to face a World XI – featuring a forward line of [Ronaldo](Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)) and [Batistuta](Gabriel)(Gabriel Batistuta) – in December 1997.
As the playmaker at Juve, Zidane played just behind forward [Del Piero](Alessandro)(Alessandro Del Piero), with Del Piero recalling, "Zidane had an extraordinary talent, which contributed to his sole interest in helping the team. He was not a selfish player. He had a unique ability to be a great and to be a team player. I was lucky to play with him." He lost in the [UEFA Champions League Final](1997)(1997 UEFA Champions League Final) 3–1 to [Dortmund](Borussia)(Borussia Dortmund) when he was unable to make an impression against the close marking of [Lambert](Paul)(Paul Lambert).
The following season, Zidane scored seven goals in 32 matches in the league to help Juventus win the [Serie A](1997–98)(1997–98 Serie A) and thus retain the *[Scudetto](List of Italian football champions)*. In Europe, Juventus made their third consecutive [Champions League Final](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League Final) appearance, but lost the game [1–0](1998 UEFA Champions League Final) to [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF). In 1998, Zidane was named [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year), and won the [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or (1956–2009)). Juventus finished second in the [Serie A](2000–01)(2000–01 Serie A), but were eliminated in the group stage of the Champions League, after Zidane was banned for head-butting [SV](Hamburger)(Hamburger SV) player [Kientz](Jochen)(Jochen Kientz). In 2001, Zidane was named [A Foreign Footballer of the Year](Serie)(Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year) for the second time.[List of Oscar del Calcio winners](https://web.archive.org/web/20130515095258/http://www.assocalciatori.it/Pagine/AlbodOro/tabid/161/language/en-US/Default.aspx) on the AIC official website. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
### Real Madrid
[[File:Beckham zidane.jpg|thumb|right|150px|upright|Zidane with teammate [Beckham](David)(David Beckham) in 2003]]
In 2001, Zidane joined Real Madrid for a [record fee](world)(World football transfer record) of 150 billion Italian lire, (about €77.5 million by fixed exchange rate; a reported 12.8 billion [pesetas](Spanish peseta)) in instalments, and signed a four-year contract. The latest addition to the *[Galácticos](Galácticos)* era of global stars signed by Real Madrid every year, in his first season at the club Zidane scored a famous match-winning goal, a volley hit with his weaker left foot from the edge of the 18-yard box, in Madrid's 2–1 win over [Leverkusen](Bayer)(Bayer 04 Leverkusen) in the [UEFA Champions League Final](2002)(2002 UEFA Champions League Final). The goal has been cited as one of the greatest in [League history](Champions)(European Cup and UEFA Champions League history). The magnitude of the strike saw Zidane produce one of his most emotional [celebration](goal)(goal celebration)s as he ran towards the touchline with mouth wide open, screaming in delight.
. *Sports Illustrated*. Retrieved 17 November 2013.}}
The next season, Zidane helped Real Madrid to win the [La Liga](2002–03)(2002–03 La Liga), starring alongside [Figo](Luís)(Luís Figo) in midfield, and was named the [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(2003 FIFA World Player of the Year) for the third time. In 2004, fans voted him as the best European footballer of the previous 50 years in [UEFA](UEFA)'s fiftieth-anniversary [Jubilee Poll](Golden)(UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll).["Zidane voted Europe's best ever"](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2004/apr/23/newsstory.sport5) *The Guardian*. London. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
While Zidane's [season](final)(2005–06 Real Madrid CF season) of club football ended without a trophy, he enjoyed success on a personal note by scoring his first [hat-trick](hat-trick), against [Sevilla](Sevilla FC), in a 4–2 win in January 2006. He ended the season for Real Madrid as their second highest goalscorer and assists provider behind teammates [Ronaldo](Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)) and [Beckham](David)(David Beckham) respectively, with nine goals and ten assists in 28 games. On 7 May 2006, Zidane, who had announced his plans to retire after the 2006 World Cup, played his farewell match and scored in a 3–3 draw with [Villarreal](Villarreal CF). The squad wore commemorative shirts with *ZIDANE 2001–2006* below the club logo. The 80,000 fans inside the [Bernabéu](Santiago)(Santiago Bernabéu Stadium) held up a banner reading, "Thanks for the magic."
In 2012, Zidane featured for Madrid in an All Stars Match against [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.) which resulted in a 3–2 win for Real. In April 2013, he was named by *[Marca](Marca (newspaper))* as a member of the "Best foreign eleven in [Madrid's history](Real)(History of Real Madrid CF)."
## International career
Both France and Algeria consider Zidane a [citizen](Multiple citizenship). It was rumoured that coach [Kermali](Abdelhamid)(Abdelhamid Kermali) denied Zidane a position for the [squad](Algerian)(Algeria national football team) because he felt the young midfielder was not fast enough. However, Zidane dismissed the rumour in a 2005 interview, saying that he would have been ineligible to play for Algeria because he had already played for France.[Le Buteur magazine](http://img106.imageshack.us/my.php?image=sanstitre15bu.jpg) 7 May 2005
Zidane was a member of the French under-21 squad that won a bronze medal at the [Mediterranean Games](1993)(Football at the 1993 Mediterranean Games) in [Languedoc-Roussillon](Languedoc-Roussillon).
He earned his first [cap](Cap (sport)) with France as a substitute in a [friendly](Exhibition game#Association football) against the [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic national football team) on 17 August 1994, which ended in a 2–2 draw after Zidane scored twice to help France erase a 2–0 deficit. After [Cantona](Eric)(Eric Cantona) was handed a year-long suspension in January 1995 for assaulting a fan, Zidane took over the [playmaker](playmaker) position.
### Euro 1996
Despite not being at his best during the tournament, France reached the last four. Zidane was not yet fully established in the French team and his level was quite average during the whole event, but he managed to score in the penalty shootout in both the quarter-final and semi-final. France was eliminated in the [96](Euro)(UEFA Euro 1996) semi-finals in a [shootout](penalty)(Penalty shootout (association football)) against the Czech Republic.
### 1998 World Cup
[[File:ArcoTriunfo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|180px|Following France's World Cup win, an image of Zidane was projected on the [de Triomphe](Arc)(Arc de Triomphe) (*pictured*) along with the words "Merci Zizou".["Zizou top"](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2000/jul/02/euro2000.sport2). *The Guardian*. London. Retrieved 21 November 2013.]]
The [FIFA World Cup](1998)(1998 FIFA World Cup) was the first World Cup that Zidane participated in; the tournament was held in his home country, France. The French team won all three games in the group stage, with Zidane setting up Christophe Dugarry's goal in the opening match against [Africa](South)(South Africa national football team) from a corner, and contributing to Thierry Henry's opening goal in the second match against [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia national football team); however, Zidane was [off](sent)(Ejection (sports)#Association football) in the latter match for a stamp on [Anwar](Fuad)(Fuad Anwar), becoming the first French player to receive a [card in a World Cup Finals match](red)(List of FIFA World Cup red cards). Without their playmaker, France proceeded to win 1–0 in the round of sixteen game against [Paraguay](Paraguay national football team) and, on his return to the side, defeated [Italy](Italy national football team) 4–3 on penalties after a goalless draw in the quarter-finals, with Zidane netting the first spot kick in the shoot-out. France then defeated [Croatia](Croatia national football team) 2–1 in the semi-final. Although Zidane had played a role in the team's accomplishments, he had yet to score a goal at the World Cup.
Zidane and France went on to play against defending champions and favourites [Brazil](Brazil national football team) at the [de France](Stade)(Stade de France) in the [FIFA World Cup Final](1998)(1998 FIFA World Cup Final). France dominated Brazil from the kick-off, with Zidane scoring two similar goals, both headers from corner kicks taken by [Petit](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel Petit) and [Djorkaeff](Youri)(Youri Djorkaeff). Courtesy of Zidane's two goals, France went into the half-time break 2–0 up with one hand on the [Cup trophy](World)(FIFA World Cup Trophy). Petit added a third goal deep in stoppage time to seal the 3–0 win and France's first World Cup. Named man of the match, Zidane became an instant national hero and would receive the [of Honour](Legion)(Legion of Honour) later that year. More than one million people lined the [Champs-Élysées](Champs-Élysées) in Paris, with celebrations centred around the [de Triomphe](Arc)(Arc de Triomphe).["For Joyous French, a Night to Remember"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/soccer/longterm/worldcup98/articles/party.htm). *Washington Post*. Retrieved 21 November 2013.["Zidane calls time on international career"](http://www.abc.net.au/news/2004-08-13/zidane-calls-time-on-international-career/2025020). ABC. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
### Euro 2000
[[Zidane.jpg|thumb|upright|Zidane's France jersey from Euro 2000](File:Maillot)]
Two years later France won [2000](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2000), becoming the first team to hold both the World Cup and the European Championship since [Germany](West)(Germany national football team) in 1974. Zidane finished with two goals, a [bending](Curl (football)) free kick against [Spain](Spain national football team) in the quarter-final and the [goal](golden)(golden goal) in the semi-final against [Portugal](Portugal national football team) with a penalty. UEFA named Zidane [of the Tournament](Player)(UEFA Euro 2000#Awards).["Euro 2000: The French Revolution"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17760487). BBC Sport. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
Zidane himself believes he was at his peak during the tournament, while the [UEFA](UEFA) website states, "In Belgium and the Netherlands, Zidane dominated a major championship in a way no individual had managed since Diego Maradona in 1986. From the opening game against Denmark to the final against Italy, 'Zizou' shone brightly, casting a spell on his opponents with clever flicks, mesmerising stepovers, slaloming runs and masterful vision."
### 2002 World Cup
As reigning world and European champions, France entered the [World Cup](2002)(2002 FIFA World Cup) in Japan/Korea as favourites but a thigh injury sustained in a warm up match before the tournament prevented Zidane from playing in France's first two matches and without their talisman, the French team failed to score in either match. He was rushed back prematurely for the third game despite not being fully fit, but could not prevent France from being ignominiously eliminated in the group stage without scoring a single goal; the worst performance by a defending champion in the history of the competition.
### Euro 2004
At [2004](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2004), France topped their group with wins over England and Switzerland, before being knocked out in the quarter finals by eventual champions [Greece](Greece national football team) in a surprise 1–0 loss. In the opening match against [England](England national football team), Zidane scored a free kick and penalty in stoppage time to turn impending defeat into a 2–1 victory. After France's elimination, Zidane announced his retirement from international football.
### 2006 World Cup
|quote=What I am going to say may sound over the top, but it's the truth. God exists and he has returned to the France team.
}}
With the mass retirement of veteran key players such as [Lizarazu](Bixente)(Bixente Lizarazu), [Desailly](Marcel)(Marcel Desailly), [Makélélé](Claude)(Claude Makélélé) and [Thuram](Lilian)(Lilian Thuram), France struggled to qualify for the [World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup). At the urging of coach [Domenech](Raymond)(Raymond Domenech), Zidane came out of retirement and was immediately reinstated as team captain. Zidane, along with Thuram and Makélélé, made his competitive return for France in a 3–0 win over the [Islands](Faroe)(Faroe Islands national football team) on 3 September 2005. The trio helped France rise from fourth place to win their qualifying group. On 27 May 2006, Zidane earned his hundredth cap for France in a 1–0 friendly win over [Mexico](Mexico national football team), in what would also be his last match at the [de France](Stade)(Stade de France). Zidane became France's fourth player to reach [caps](100)(List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps), after Desailly, Thuram and [Deschamps](Didier)(Didier Deschamps).
France had a slow start to the 2006 Finals and, after being suspended for the third match of the group stage, Zidane returned to set up a goal for [Vieira](Patrick)(Patrick Vieira) and score one himself in the second round match against [Spain](Spain national football team). In the quarter-final France held Brazil to just one shot on goal in the rematch of the 1998 final. Zidane assisted [Henry](Thierry)(Thierry Henry)'s deciding goal and was named [of the Match](Man)(Man of the Match) by FIFA. France faced Portugal in the semi-final and, as in [Brussels](Brussels) six years earlier, Zidane's penalty kick decided the contest and sent France to another major final.
Having already announced he was to retire after the expiration of his Real Madrid contract at the end of the 2005–06 season, the world of football already knew Zidane's second World Cup final was to be the last match of his career. Seven minutes into the [World Cup final](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup Final) in Berlin, Zidane put France ahead with a [Panenka](Panenka (penalty kick))-style penalty kick which struck the crossbar and bounced just over the goal line to become only the fourth player in World Cup history to score in two different finals, along with [Pelé](Pelé), [Breitner](Paul)(Paul Breitner), and [Vavá](Vavá), in addition to being tied for first place with Vavá, Pelé and [Hurst](Geoff)(Geoff Hurst) with three World Cup final goals apiece. He almost scored a second goal during the first period of extra time but his header was saved by Italy's goalkeeper [Buffon](Gianluigi)(Gianluigi Buffon). Zidane was then [off](sent)(Dismissal (football)) in the 110th minute of the game after [Marco Materazzi](headbutting)(2006 FIFA World Cup Final#Provocation of Zidane analysis) in the chest, so he did not participate in the penalty shootout which Italy won 5–3. This marked the 14th overall [expulsion](Misconduct (association football)#Sending-off offences (red card)) of Zidane's career, and joined him with [Cameroon](Cameroon national football team)'s [Song](Rigobert)(Rigobert Song) as the only players ever to be sent off during two separate World Cup tournaments. He also became the fourth player red-carded in a World Cup final, in addition to being the first sent off in extra time. Zidane's actions made headlines all over the world, while in France *[Figaro](Le)(Le Figaro)* called his head-butt "odious", and the front page of ''[L'Équipe](L'Équipe)'' asked, "What should we tell our children, for whom you have become an example for ever? ... How could that happen to a man like you?" Zidane had received plaudits for his performances during the tournament, with [Guardiola](Pep)(Pep Guardiola) writing he exerts so much influence on the team that "France are never disorganised". The day after the final, Zidane was awarded the [Ball](Golden)(FIFA World Cup awards#Golden Ball) as the player of the tournament.
Upon his return to France, the [de la Concorde](Place)(Place de la Concorde) in Paris was filled with thousands of fans waving flags and rhythmically chanting "Zizou! Zizou!", and tributes were led by the French president [Chirac](Jacques)(Jacques Chirac). Chirac's words reflected the feeling of the French public, with polls done in the immediate wake of the incident showing support for Zidane: 61% of French people said they had already forgiven him for his actions while 52% said they understood them. According to French journalist Philippe Auclair, Zidane's performances in the knock-out rounds were "ranked among his finest in a blue shirt." As the player of the tournament, Zidane had given the team hope, with the French daily newspaper *[Libération](Libération)* stating, "For a month, France was dreaming with Zidane." Zidane remained an icon to the French public, and one French writer stated, "It's good for us to see our national hero is fallible." It was later revealed through interviews that [Materazzi](Marco)(Marco Materazzi) had insulted Zidane's sister, which led to Zidane's heightened anger and reaction. In 2010, Zidane said that he would "rather die than apologize" to Materazzi for the headbutt in the final, but also admitted that he "could never have lived with himself" had he been allowed to remain on the pitch and help France win the match. He later said, "If you look at the fourteen red cards I had in my career, twelve of them were a result of provocation. This isn't justification, this isn't an excuse, but my passion, temper and blood made me react."
Following his red card in the final, Zidane retired from professional football and confirmed that he would not go back on his decision. He was sentenced by FIFA to a three-match suspension for the red card. He agreed to complete three days of community service with children in one of FIFA's humanitarian projects.["Zidane/Materazzi disciplinary proceedings: suspensions, fines, community service and regret"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140514020245/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/news/newsid=104545/index.html). FIFA. Retrieved 13 May 2014. Zidane ended up tying with Brazil's [Cafu](Cafu) for the record for most cards given in World Cup matches, with six.
## Retirement
[[File:Zidane passing 2008.jpg|thumb|upright|Zidane playing a backheel during a game of [futsal](futsal) in 2008]]
Since his retirement, Zidane has regularly played for the Real Madrid Veterans team. He has also made several [futsal](futsal) appearances. In 2015 he played in a futsal tournament in [Dubai](Dubai), United Arab Emirates, during which an opposition player received a yellow card to much amusement for taking an in-match selfie with Zidane. In an interview in June 2008, Zidane stated that he wanted to return to football, but that he had no immediate plans to do so.
On 1 June 2009, Zidane was announced as the advisor to the president after [Pérez](Florentino)(Florentino Pérez) was named president of Real Madrid for the second time. He, along with general director [Valdano](Jorge)(Jorge Valdano) and sporting director [Pardeza](Miguel)(Miguel Pardeza), were to be the key decisionmakers on the sporting side of the club. After France's dismal campaign in the [World Cup](2010)(2010 FIFA World Cup), Zidane said that he did not plan to move into coaching any time soon.
[Qatar](Qatar)'s [World Cup bid](2022)(Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup bid) committee announced in September 2010 that Zidane had been appointed as an ambassador for Qatar's attempt to host the [World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup). After FIFA announced on 2 December 2010 that Qatar had won the bid to host the 2022 World Cup, Zidane stated that he was "very pleased" with the outcome. Zidane spoke of the message he was trying to convey in the campaign: "I was saying that football belonged to the whole world. I'm proud to have made my contribution to a new country getting the World Cup. Qatar and the entire Middle East as a whole deserves this event and that makes me happy. It's a victory for the [world](Arab)(Arab world)." Zidane has supported two Olympic bids for Paris, including the [Summer Olympics](2012)(2012 Summer Olympics) which was narrowly won by London and later Paris' successful bid for the [Summer Olympics](2024)(2024 Summer Olympics). Paris will also be hosting the [Summer Paralympics](2024)(2024 Summer Paralympics).
### Philanthropy
[[File:Zidane in Poznan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Zidane at the [Nations Cup](Danone)(Danone Nations Cup), 2008. A football tournament involving 2.5 million children from over 11,000 clubs from around the globe, Zidane is its ambassador.]]
On 24 February 2007, before a crowd of 10,000 fans at a match in northern Thailand for the Keuydaroon children's AIDS charity, Zidane scored the first goal and set up the second for a Malaysian teammate as the match ended 2–2. The event raised [฿](Baht)260,000 ($7,750). This money paid for the building of two schools and 16 three-bedroom houses.
On 19 November 2008, Zidane took part in the fifth annual [Against Poverty](Match)(Match Against Poverty) in [Málaga](Málaga), Spain, which also ended in a 2–2 draw; he went scoreless but set up his team's second goal. He and [Ronaldo](Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)), who collaborated in conceiving the yearly event to benefit the [Nations Development Programme](United)(United Nations Development Programme), regularly captain their respective teams consisting of active footballers, other professional athletes and celebrities.["Match Against Poverty"](http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/goodwillambassadors/match_against_poverty/) . United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 25 September 2014. Zidane, a UN Goodwill Ambassador since 2001, stated before the game that "everyone can do something to make the world a better place."
[[File:Football against poverty 2014 - Zidane (4).jpg|190px|thumb|Zidane in the [Against Poverty](Match)(Match Against Poverty) in [Bern](Bern), March 2014]]
In June and July 2009, Zidane toured across Canada with stops in [Toronto](Toronto), [Montreal](Montreal) and [Vancouver](Vancouver). Although billed as Zidane and "Friends", the likes of which included [Barthez](Fabien)(Fabien Barthez) and [Eto'o](Samuel)(Samuel Eto'o), the exhibition matches featured local players. Some proceeds were given to [UNICEF](UNICEF).
On 6 June 2010, Zidane took part in the biennial charity event [Aid](Soccer)(Soccer Aid). He played for the Rest of the World team, managed by former [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.) and [Celtic](Celtic F.C.) forward [Dalglish](Kenny)(Kenny Dalglish) against [England](England national football team) alongside former Real Madrid teammate [Figo](Luís)(Luís Figo) and Celtic legend [Larsson](Henrik)(Henrik Larsson). He played against former players such as [Sheringham](Teddy)(Teddy Sheringham) and [Shearer](Alan)(Alan Shearer), as well as celebrities such as Hollywood actors [Harrelson](Woody)(Woody Harrelson), [Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers), [Sheen](Michael)(Michael Sheen), chef [Ramsay](Gordon)(Gordon Ramsay), actor [Lewis](Damian)(Damian Lewis) and singer [Williams](Robbie)(Robbie Williams). The match took place at [Trafford](Old)(Old Trafford), Manchester and was won by the Rest of the World for the first time, the winning penalty scored by Harrelson after a 2–2 draw.["England Beaten at Soccer Aid"](http://www.mtv.co.uk/soccer-aid-2010/news/england-beaten-at-soccer-aid). MTV. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
On 2 June 2013, Zidane took part in a charity match played at Old Trafford as part of the Manchester United Legends vs. Real Madrid Legends reverse fixture. The first leg took place in [Bernabéu Stadium](Santiago)(Santiago Bernabéu Stadium). Part of a team that included the likes of Figo, [Redondo](Fernando)(Fernando Redondo) and [Sanchís](Manolo)(Manuel Sanchís Hontiyuelo), the fixture raised funds for the Manchester United Foundation.["Legends ready for battle"](http://www.manutd.com/en/LEGENDSAREBACK/LegendsAreBackNews/2013/May/red-heart-united-preview-manchester-united-v-real-madrid-legends.aspx) . Manchester United F.C. The 12th Match against Poverty took place in [Saint-Étienne](Saint-Étienne), France, on Monday 20 April 2015, where Ronaldo and Zidane teamed up with other football stars against past and present players of French [1](Ligue)(Ligue 1) club [Saint-Étienne](AS)(AS Saint-Étienne). According to UNDP, "two-thirds of all proceeds will go towards helping the hardest-hit countries of Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone build back better from the [epidemic](Ebola)(West African Ebola virus epidemic)." In June 2018, Zidane reunited with his France 1998 World Cup winning teammates to play a charity game against an All-Star side which included Jamaican sprinter [Bolt](Usain)(Usain Bolt). In a 3–2 win for France, [Henry](Thierry)(Thierry Henry) played a no-look one-two pass with Zidane before scoring, with Zidane then curling in a 25-yard free kick.
## Coaching career
[[File:Zidane Zizu.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Zidane in 2013. He was the Real Madrid assistant coach for the [season](2013–14)(2013–14 Real Madrid CF season)]]
In November 2010, Zidane was appointed as a special adviser to Real Madrid's first team in response to an appeal made by then-Real Madrid coach [Mourinho](José)(José Mourinho) for the former Real midfielder to work more closely with the team. In his new role, Zidane was expected to participate in Champions League events and functions and was also to travel with the first team on a regular basis and participate in pre-match gatherings, training sessions and meetings with the head coach. In July 2011, it was announced that he would become Real Madrid's new sporting director. In 2013, Zidane was appointed assistant coach to [Ancelotti](Carlo)(Carlo Ancelotti) at Real Madrid.
### Real Madrid Castilla
In June 2014, Real Madrid announced that Zidane would be the coach of Real Madrid's B team, [Madrid Castilla](Real)(Real Madrid Castilla). On 29 August, the director of the Spanish National Football Coach Education Centre (CENAFE), Miguel Galán, reported Zidane for acting as Real Madrid Castilla's head coach without the necessary coaching badges. According to Galán, "No one who has anything to do with the football world can be unaware that Zidane is acting as Real Madrid Castilla's head coach this season. It is a fait accompli that has been widely accepted, as shown by media reports, and Real Madrid do not deny it." While the official match report for Castilla's opening game in the Segunda División B lists Santiago Sánchez as the *Los Blancos*' head coach and Zidane as his assistant, Galán states, "This hierarchy only exists on paper. The truth is the exact opposite: Zidane is acting as Real Madrid Castilla's head coach, while, with all due respect to him as a colleague, Mr Sánchez's role basically boils down to providing the badges."
### Real Madrid
[[File:Ramos y Zidane con la Undécima Copa de Europa.jpg|thumb|left|Zidane (right) with Real Madrid captain [Ramos](Sergio)(Sergio Ramos) lifting the 2016 UEFA Champions League trophy]]
On 4 January 2016, Real Madrid announced the dismissal of [Benítez](Rafael)(Rafael Benítez) and on the same day Zidane was appointed the new head coach of the club on a two-and-a-half-year deal. His first match as the club's new manager took place five days later, when Real Madrid beat [La Coruña](Deportivo)(Deportivo La Coruña) 5–0 in a [Liga](La)(2015–16 La Liga) match. In his first *[Clásico](El)(El Clásico)* as a coach, held on 2 April at the [Nou](Camp)(Camp Nou), Zidane led his club to a 2–1 win over [Barcelona](FC Barcelona), ending Barça's 39-match unbeaten run. On 4 May, Zidane led Real Madrid to a place in the [League final](Champions)(2016 UEFA Champions League Final) by beating [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) 1–0 on aggregate. In La Liga, Madrid ended up finishing second, with 90 points and just one point behind champions Barcelona. On 28 May, Real Madrid's eleventh [League](Champions)(2015–16 UEFA Champions League) title was won after a 5–3 penalty shoot-out victory over [Madrid](Atlético)(Atlético Madrid), with the achievement being termed "*La Undécima*". Zidane became the seventh man to win the European Cup both as a player and a coach and the second man (after [Muñoz](Miguel)(Miguel Muñoz)) to achieve the feat with Real Madrid. He also became the first French coach, except the French-Argentinian [Herrera](Helenio)(Helenio Herrera), to win the trophy.
[[File:El dulce recibimiento del Ayuntamiento al Real Madrid (01).jpg|thumb|right|Zidane, with his Real Madrid players, standing to the right of Madrid mayor [Carmena](Manuela)(Manuela Carmena) after Real had won their 33rd [Liga](La)(La Liga) title, May 2017]]
Real Madrid began their 2016–17 campaign, which was to be Zidane's first full season in charge of the club, with a victory in the [UEFA Super Cup](2016)(2016 UEFA Super Cup) against Sevilla. On 10 December 2016, Madrid played their 35th-straight match without a loss, which set a new club record. On 18 December 2016, the club defeated Japanese outfit [Antlers](Kashima)(Kashima Antlers) 4–2 in the [final](2016 FIFA Club World Cup Final) of the [FIFA Club World Cup](2016)(2016 FIFA Club World Cup). With a 3–3 draw at Sevilla in the second leg of the [del Rey](Copa)(2016–17 Copa del Rey) round of 16 on 12 January 2017, Madrid progressed to the quarter-finals with a 6–3 aggregate victory and extended its unbeaten run to 40 matches, breaking Barcelona's Spanish record of 39 matches unbeaten in all competitions from the [season](previous)(2015–16 FC Barcelona season). Their unbeaten streak ended after a 1–2 away loss against the same opposition in [Liga](La)(2016–17 La Liga) three days later. The team then was knocked out of the Copa del Rey by [Vigo](Celta)(RC Celta de Vigo) 3–4 on aggregate. In May of that year, Madrid won the league title for a record 33rd time, their first title in five years, accumulating 93 points in the process. On 3 June 2017, the club's [League final](Champions)(2017 UEFA Champions League Final) win against [Juventus](Juventus F.C.) resulted in Real Madrid being the first team to successfully defend their title in the UEFA Champions League era, and the first to win consecutive titles in the competition since [Milan](A.C. Milan) in [1989](1988–89 European Cup) and [1990](1989–90 European Cup), when the tournament was known as the European Cup. Real Madrid's title was its 12th, extending the record, and its third in four years. The achievement is also known as "*La Duodécima*". With Real's Champions League victory, Zidane became only the second manager to win the European Cup in his first two seasons in management, alongside fellow Real Madrid coach [Villalonga](José)(José Villalonga Llorente).
Real kicked off the 2017–18 campaign by winning its second consecutive and fourth overall [Super Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Super Cup) in a [victory](2–1)(2017 UEFA Super Cup) against [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.). Five days later, Real Madrid beat Barcelona at the [Nou](Camp)(Camp Nou) 3–1 in the first leg of the [Supercopa de España](2017)(2017 Supercopa de España) and then defeated Barça 2–0 in the return leg, ending their 24 consecutive match scoring record in [Clásico* matches](*El)(List of El Clásico matches) and winning the second trophy of the season. This title tied Zidane with [del Bosque](Vicente)(Vicente del Bosque) as the third most successful Real Madrid coach with seven titles, one short of [Molowny](Luis)(Luis Molowny). This also meant that, at the time, Zidane had won as many titles in his coaching position in Real Madrid as games lost during his tenure. Zidane's success saw him named [FIFA Men's Coach](Best)(The Best FIFA Football Awards 2017#The Best FIFA Men's Coach) in 2017. On 16 December 2017, Zidane won his eighth trophy as coach as Real beat Brazilian club [Grêmio](Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense) 1–0 in the [Club World Cup](FIFA)(2017 FIFA Club World Cup) [final](2017 FIFA Club World Cup Final) and became the first team to retain the trophy. On 24 January 2018, Madrid was knocked out of the [del Rey](Copa)(2017–18 Copa del Rey) at the quarter-final stage by [Leganés](CD Leganés) on [goals](away)(Away goals rule). The team's [league](2017–18 La Liga) campaign was also a disappointment as Real collected only 76 points and finished third, 17 points behind champions Barcelona. Madrid fared far better in the [League](Champions)(2017–18 UEFA Champions League), once again progressing to the [final](2018 UEFA Champions League Final) where they defeated [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.) 3–1 to become the first club to win three straight titles in the Champions League era, as well as the first team to win three consecutive titles in the European Cup/Champions League since [Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich) in [1976](1975–76 European Cup). At that time, he became one of three managers, alongside [Paisley](Bob)(Bob Paisley) and Carlo Ancelotti, to win the European Cup three times, while also becoming the first coach to win the trophy in three consecutive seasons. On 31 May, five days after the Champions League final, Zidane announced his resignation as Real Madrid coach, citing the club's "need for change" as his rationale for departing.
### Return to Real Madrid
Following some poor results for Real Madrid in the months following Zidane's departure – culminating in elimination from the [del Rey](Copa)(2018–19 Copa del Rey) at home to Barcelona, a [league](2018–19 La Liga) loss to the same opponent at the same venue which opened up a 12-point gap between the clubs, and an unexpected home 4–1 defeat to [Ajax](AFC Ajax) in the [League](Champions)(2018–19 UEFA Champions League) which brought the long run of success in that competition to an end, all within the space of a week – his former teammate [Solari](Santiago)(Santiago Solari) (who himself had only been in the post for five months, after [Lopetegui](Julen)(Julen Lopetegui)'s equally brief spell in charge) was dismissed and Zidane returned as the Real Madrid head coach on 11 March 2019, on a contract until summer 2022.
The 2019–20 season seemed a promising one, as Madrid went on a spending spree in the summer of 2019, signing [Hazard](Eden)(Eden Hazard), [Jović](Luka)(Luka Jović), [Militão](Éder)(Éder Militão), [Mendy](Ferland)(Ferland Mendy), [Rodrygo](Rodrygo), [Reinier](Reinier Jesus Carvalho) and other players for a total of more than €350 million. On 12 January 2020, Zidane guided Madrid to their first trophy in his second spell, with the club defeating cross-city rivals Atlético Madrid in a penalty shootout in the [de España](Supercopa)(2019–20 Supercopa de España) [final](2020 Supercopa de España Final). After a three-month hiatus due to the [outbreak](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Spain) in March 2020, [Liga](La)(2019–20 La Liga) was restarted in June and Madrid won ten games in a row to capture the team's 34th league title, collecting 87 points in total. It was Zidane's second league title in his coaching career. His collective mindset was hailed by international and Spanish media, as Real Madrid broke several records, including the number of scorers and maintaining their best league defensive record in 30 years, with 21 of his players managing to get on the scoresheet during the campaign. Zidane left a second time on 27 May 2021 after going trophyless that season.
## Reception and legacy
### As a player
Many authoritative voices have acclaimed Zidane's skills and importance in the history of football, such as Brazil coach [Alberto Parreira](Carlos)(Carlos Alberto Parreira), who called Zidane "a monster" for his performance and abilities. German coach [Beckenbauer](Franz)(Franz Beckenbauer) stated, "Zidane is one of the greatest players in history, a truly magnificent player." Italy manager [Lippi](Marcello)(Marcello Lippi), who also coached Zidane, opined, "I think Zidane is the greatest talent we've known in football these last twenty years."[Stevenson](Jon)(Jon Stevenson). ["Zidane's lasting legacy"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2006/teams/france/5147908.stm). BBC Sport. Retrieved 15 July 2010. Former England manager [Keegan](Kevin)(Kevin Keegan) said, "You look at Zidane and think 'I've never seen a player quite like that.' What sets Zidane apart is the way he manipulates a football, buying himself space that isn't there. Add his vision and it makes him very special." At the 1998 World Cup, Italian manager [Maldini](Cesare)(Cesare Maldini) said, "I would give up five players to have Zidane in my squad."["Zizou Top"](https://www.theguardian.com/football/2000/jul/02/euro2000.sport2). *The Guardian*. London. 2 July 2000.
[[File:Zidane-France-2006-home-shirt.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Zidane's France home jersey from the 2006 World Cup. An elite [playmaker](playmaker), he wore number 10 for much of his international career.]]
Among his playing peers, Swedish striker [Ibrahimović](Zlatan)(Zlatan Ibrahimović) commented, "Zidane was from another planet. When Zidane stepped onto the pitch, the ten other guys just got suddenly better. It is that simple." [Beckham](David)(David Beckham) has described Zidane as "the greatest of all time", Barcelona star [Xavi](Xavi) has stated in a 2010 interview that Zidane was "best player in the '90s and early 2000s", while Brazilian defender and former Madrid teammate [Carlos](Roberto)(Roberto Carlos) has said of Zidane, "He is the best player I've seen. Supporters arrived earlier at the Bernabéu just to see him warm-up."
["Roberto Carlos in awe of Real Madrid legend Zidane"](http://nz.sports.yahoo.com/football/la-liga/news/article/-/8188178/roberto-carlos-in-awe-of-real-madrid-legend-/) Yahoo Sports. Retrieved 17 November 2013. Brazilian playmaker [Ronaldinho](Ronaldinho) stated, "Zidane is one of the best footballers of all time, one of my idols. He had such elegance and grace, a wonderful touch and superb vision."Ronaldinho interview. Four Four Two magazine (May 2006). Belgian playmaker [Hazard](Eden)(Eden Hazard) regards Zidane as "the best ever", and growing up he learned from his idol by "watching him on television and online for hours."
Displaying skills with an array of moves such as his signature *[Roulette](La)(Marseille turn)* pirouette, [over](step)(step over)s and close ball control, former Brazilian international [Rivaldo](Rivaldo) stated, "His elegance of movement on the pitch and his skills are uncanny."["Rivaldo dreams of Germany"](http://www.uefa.com/news/newsid=395064.html). UEFA. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Journalist [Lowe](Sid)(Sid Lowe) wrote, "Zidane was football's answer to the [Ballet](Bolshoi)(Bolshoi Ballet). Zidane was elegance above all else.""Football's Greatest – Zidane". Pitch International LLP. Retrieved 20 November 2013. In 2005, upon Zidane's return to the French national team, his teammate [Henry](Thierry)(Thierry Henry) stated, "In France, everybody realized that God exists, and that he is back in the French international team."["Henry hails 'God Zidane'](https://int.soccerway.com/news/2005/august/5/henry-hails-god-zidane/) *Soccerway*. Retrieved 17 November 2013. Zidane has been lauded by sportsmen outside football; having witnessed Zidane's goal against Deportivo La Coruña in January 2002, where he dragged the ball right then left, turning the defender inside out, before scoring with a left foot finish, basketball player [Johnson](Magic)(Magic Johnson) stated, "One of the most inspiring nights of my life. Zidane is a phenomenon."
Labelled a "flawed genius" by [ESPN](ESPN), Zidane possessed an exceptional first touch, and was also known for his [dribbling](Dribbling#Association football) skills, use of [feints](Dummy (football)), elegance on the ball, and creativity. He was capable of using either foot, despite being naturally right-footed. His technique and co-ordination enabled him to execute shots and volleys with extreme power and precision, in particular from outside the penalty area;["Brazil's Fans Lament Demise of the Beautiful Game"](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/03/sports/soccer/03brazil.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved 17 November 2013. he was also a [kick](free)(Direct free kick) and [kick](penalty)(Penalty kick (association football)) specialist. A world-class offensive playmaker, Zidane's natural position was in a free role as a classic number 10 behind the strikers. He was also capable of playing as a [striker](second)(Forward (association football)#Second striker), or in a more withdrawn role in [midfield](Midfielder), either as a [midfielder](central)(Midfielder#Central midfielder) or [playmaker](deep-lying)(Midfielder#Deep-lying playmaker (Strolling 10)), due to his ability to orchestrate his team's attacking plays from deep with his vision and passing. Thus, he was capable of both assisting and scoring goals, despite being neither the most prolific goalscorer nor the most productive creator throughout his career. While not known for his heading ability, his height and physical strength also allowed him to be effective in the air, and saw him score several crucial headers throughout his career. He also drew praise from his managers for his defensive work-rate. Despite not being the quickest player, he possessed good agility and acceleration, as well as exceptional balance and flair on the ball. He also had excellent positional sense and outstanding spatial awareness. Although he had a reserved and humble character, his former Juventus managers Lippi and Ancelotti also praised Zidane for being a team player, on whom his teammates could rely. Notwithstanding the acclaim that Zidane received from pundits over his playing ability, he also drew criticism in the media over his temperament and discipline, and for his occasional violent conduct on the pitch, which led to instances in which disciplinary action was taken against him; he was also accused by some in the sport of drifting in and out of games, and of lacking leadership qualities, although he was able to establish himself as a consistent and decisive player, who was also an influential captain at international level throughout his career.
Zidane has been named [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year) three times, a feat achieved only by [Ronaldo](Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)), [Messi](Lionel)(Lionel Messi) and [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo).["FIFA Ballon d'Or World Player of the Year: Award History"](http://m.fifa.com/ballon-dor/history/index.html) . FIFA. Retrieved 13 January 2015. In 2002, ESPN described Zidane as "the greatest player in the world in the world's biggest game". In a 2002 FIFA poll, Zidane was selected in the [World Cup Dream Team](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup Dream Team).[FIFA DREAM TEAM: Maradona voted top player.](http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=11759) Reuters. 19 June 2002. In 2004, he was voted [Best European Player of the Past 50 Years](UEFA)(UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll), and was named in the [100](FIFA)(FIFA 100) list of the world's greatest living players. In a 2004 poll conducted by French newspaper *[du Dimanche](Journal)(Journal du Dimanche)*, Zidane was voted as "the most popular Frenchman of all time". In 2014, in a poll carried out by French TV channel [TF1](TF1), Zidane was voted as the best player in the history of the French league. In 2016, in a study led by French newspaper *[Parisien](Le)(Le Parisien)*, Zidane was named "best French player of all time".
### As a coach
[[Zidane by Tasnim 02.jpg|thumb|right|Zidane at a press conference during the 2017 FIFA Club World Cup. As head coach of Real Madrid he won the UEFA Champions League an unprecedented three times in a row.](File:Zinedine)]
Despite establishing himself as one of the most successful coaches of his era and in the [of Real Madrid](history)(history of Real Madrid),
*
*
*
*}} Zidane's time at Real Madrid was considered by some to be shadowed by a partial amount of luck.
*
*
*
*
*
*}} However, Zidane's tactical philosophy, particularly his tactical flexibility, has been praised by many. Zidane's tactical style, characterized by its formation flexibility and attacking football, as well as his ability to unite the dressing room, have been positively compared to [Ancelotti](Carlo)(Carlo Ancelotti)'s coaching method. His use of in-game substitutions was particularly praised, as many of his substitutes led to victories, such as introducing [Asensio](Marco)(Marco Asensio) and [Vázquez](Lucas)(Lucas Vázquez) in order to provide pace and width against [Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain) in the UEFA Champions League to overturn a 1–0 deficit into a 3–1 victory. Similarly, his use of [Bale](Gareth)(Gareth Bale) as a substitute in the [UEFA Champions League Final](2018)(2018 UEFA Champions League Final) proved crucial; Bale scored two goals after being brought on, turning a 1-1 tie into a 3-1 Madrid victory. It is also noted that his team focused on attacking through the flanks, while he is credited for repopularising the [diamond](4–4–2)(Formation (association football)#4–4–2 diamond or 4–1–2–1–2) formation in contemporary football.
On the other hand, some consider that Zidane's role was more focused in grinding out results and uniting the dressing room, rather than having a fixed tactical scheme. Zidane emphasised the importance of players' physical levels and preferred to choose impactful players over a defined system. During his time at Real Madrid, he used several formations, including the 4–3–3, the 4–2–3–1, the 4–4–2, and the 3–5–2, in order to find the system that best suited his players, and has been credited with using "simple systems", "...so that his players have the freedom needed to prove their superiority." As such, although he is not considered to be a tactical innovator, he has been praised for his balanced approach as a coach, and for having the leadership skills and personability to manage and motivate several world class players, create a good team environment, foster professional relationships, and a strong winning mentality; he has also demonstrated an ability to rotate players and get the best out his team, which has played a key role in his success. In 2019 he commented "You ask me about two players but what interests me is the group. [Karim](Karim Benzema) is important for the team, not just for his goals. [Casemiro](Casemiro) gives a lot of balance, but not only that. Everyone contributes something to the team in their own way on the field". Regarding his coaching role at Real Madrid, Zidane commented in 2018: "When you work with high-quality players, they know how to manage those periods of games when you’re not playing well, and they get things back on track very quickly. My job was to keep people calm!" Two of his main influences as a manager are his own former managers Marcello Lippi and Carlo Ancelotti.
## In popular culture
[[File:P1070029 - voyages provence.jpg|thumb|right|Zidane's Z5 Group is a sporting complex made up of five a side football pitches sponsored by [Adidas](Adidas)]]
Zidane has had endorsements with many companies, including [Adidas](Adidas), [Lego](Lego), [Telecom](France)(France Telecom), [Orange](Orange SA), [Audi](Audi), [Volvic](Volvic (mineral water)) and [Dior](Christian)(Christian Dior S.A.). These sponsorship deals earned him €8.6 million on top of his €6.4 million Real Madrid salary in 2006, totalling €15 million ($20.4 million), which made him the sixth-highest paid footballer. In 2004, *[Forbes](Forbes)* magazine listed his earnings of $15.8 million for the previous 12 months.
In May 2010, Zidane appeared in a commercial for [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton), indulging in a game of [football](table)(table football) with [Pelé](Pelé) and [Maradona](Diego)(Diego Maradona).["Maradona, Pelé and Zidane for Vuitton"](http://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/style/articles/2010-04/26/gq-style-news-maradona-pele-and-zidane-for-louis-vuitton) . *GQ*. Retrieved 14 May 2014. Zidane features as the cover star of the Ultimate Edition of the [video game](*FIFA*)(FIFA (video game series)) *[20](FIFA)(FIFA 20)*.
In 2005, filmmakers Philippe Parreno and Douglas Gordon filmed a documentary *[A 21st Century Portrait](Zidane:)(Zidane: A 21st Century Portrait)*, which follows Zidane during an entire match, filmed with 17 cameras. Scottish [post-rock](post-rock) band [Mogwai](Mogwai) provided the soundtrack. The documentary was part of the 2009 [Frame Documentary Film Festival](Full)(Full Frame Documentary Film Festival).
[[File:Mogwai- Zidane, A 21st Century Portrait @ Albert Hall, Manchester 19-7-2013 (9323563699).jpg|thumb|left|Screening of *[A 21st Century Portrait](Zidane:)(Zidane: A 21st Century Portrait)* documentary at the Albert Hall in Manchester, with rock band [Mogwai](Mogwai), who provided the soundtrack, on stage]]
In November 2006, Zidane toured Bangladesh as the guest of [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize) winner [Yunus](Muhammad)(Muhammad Yunus). He also visited the Algerian birthplace of his parents and met with Algerian president [Bouteflika](Abdelaziz)(Abdelaziz Bouteflika), who gave him an official reception. In 2012, Algerian artist [Abdessemed](Adel)(Adel Abdessemed) unveiled a [sculpture depicting](bronze)(Headbutt (sculpture)) Zidane's headbutt of [Materazzi](Marco)(Marco Materazzi) in the 2006 World Cup Final.
On 5 November 2006, Zidane appeared in the American animated sitcom *[Guy](Family)(Family Guy)*, seen [an old lady](headbutting)(Saving Private Brian#Cultural references) in the episode "[Private Brian](Saving)(Saving Private Brian)" as a parody of his headbutt on Materazzi.["'Ode to defeat': Zidane headbutt immortalized in bronze statue"](http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/27/sport/football/zidane-head-butt-statue-football/). CNN. Retrieved 13 May 2014. The infamous headbutt has also been the subject of a lyrical essay by the Belgian novelist [Toussaint](Jean-Philippe)(Jean-Philippe Toussaint) entitled *La Mélancolie de Zidane* (2006).
In 2010, footage of Zidane appeared in the "[Waka](Waka)(Waka Waka (This Time for Africa))" music video by [Shakira](Shakira), which shows him celebrating France winning the 1998 World Cup. In 2014, Australian sports presenter [Murray](Les)(Les Murray (broadcaster)) collaborated with the band [Smash](Vaudeville)(Vaudeville Smash) and performed a Zidane tribute song, the accompanying video featuring four footballers performing ball tricks in Zidane masks, one of whom ends up headbutting a nightwatchman.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/nrOLGifnMJk) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140531005029/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrOLGifnMJk&gl=US&hl=en): In 2016, Zidane was ranked one of the 500 most influential [Muslims](Muslims) in the world by the [Islamic Strategic Studies Centre](Royal)(Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre) of Jordan, which noted: "[Zidane's] modest character has endeared him to the wider public."
## Personal life
[[File:Agmun At Slimane.jpg|thumb|Zidane's parents' house in the village of [Aguemoune](Aguemoune) in Algeria, which he visited on 15 December 2006.]]
At the age of 17, Zidane met his future wife, Véronique Fernández (born in [Aveyron](Aveyron) of Spanish descent), while playing for [Cannes](AS Cannes) in the 1988–89 season. Married in 1994, they have four sons: [Zidane Fernández](Enzo)(Enzo Zidane) (born 24 March 1995), [Zidane Fernández](Luca)(Luca Zidane) (born 13 May 1998), [Zidane Fernández](Theo)(Théo Zidane) (born 18 May 2002), and [Zidane Fernández](Elyaz)(Elyaz Zidane) (born 26 December 2005).
On 12 July 2019, his elder brother Farid died of cancer at the age of 54.
## Career statistics
### Club
### International
:''Scores and results list France's goal tally first.''
## Managerial statistics
## Honours
### Player
**Bordeaux**
*[Intertoto Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Intertoto Cup): [1995](1995 UEFA Intertoto Cup)
*[Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Europa League) runner-up: [1995–96](1995–96 UEFA Cup)
**Juventus**
*[A](Serie)(Serie A): [1996–97](1996–97 Serie A), [1997–98](1997–98 Serie A)
*[Italiana](Supercoppa)(Supercoppa Italiana): [1997](1997 Supercoppa Italiana)
*[Super Cup](UEFA)(UEFA Super Cup): [1996](1996 UEFA Super Cup)
*[Cup](Intercontinental)(Intercontinental Cup (football)): [1996](1996 Intercontinental Cup)
*UEFA Intertoto Cup: [1999](1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup)
*[Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) runner-up: [1996–97](1996–97 UEFA Champions League), [1997–98](1997–98 UEFA Champions League)
**Real Madrid**
*[Liga](La)(La Liga): [2002–03](2002–03 La Liga)
*[de España](Supercopa)(Supercopa de España): [2001](2001 Supercopa de España), [2003](2003 Supercopa de España)
*UEFA Champions League: [2001–02](2001–02 UEFA Champions League)
*UEFA Super Cup: [2002](2002 UEFA Super Cup)
*[Cup](Intercontinental)(Intercontinental Cup (football)): [2002](2002 Intercontinental Cup)
**France**
*[World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup): [1998](1998 FIFA World Cup); runner-up: [2006](2006 FIFA World Cup)
*[European Championship](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship): [2000](UEFA Euro 2000)
**Individual**
* [Division 1 Young Player of the Year](French)(Trophées UNFP du football): [1993–94](1993–94 French Division 1)
* [Division 1 Player of the Year](French)(Trophées UNFP du football): [1995–96](1995–96 French Division 1)
* [A Foreign Footballer of the Year](Serie)(Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year): [1996–97](1996–97 Serie A), [2000–01](2000–01 Serie A)
* [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or): Bronze award 1997
* [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year): Bronze award 1997, 2002
* [d'Argent](Onze)(Onze d'Or): 1997, 2002, 2003
* [FIFA](FIFA) XI: 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002
* [Team of the Year](ESM)(European Sports Magazines#ESM Team of the Year): 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2003–04
* [Club Midfielder of the Year](UEFA)(UEFA Club Football Awards): 1998
* [International Champion of Champions](L'Équipe)(L'Équipe Champion of Champions#International): 1998
* [France Champion of Champions](L'Équipe)(L'Équipe Champion of Champions#France): 1998
* [World Cup All-Star team](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup awards#All-Star Team): [1998](1998 FIFA World Cup), [2006](2006 FIFA World Cup)
* [Soccer Awards](World)(World Soccer Awards) Player of the Year: 1998
* [Football French Player of the Year](France)(French Player of the Year#Winners): 1998, 2002
* [d'Or](Onze)(Onze d'Or): 1998, 2000, 2001
* [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or): [1998](1998 Ballon d'Or)
* [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year): 1998, 2000, 2003
* [País European Player of the Year](El)(El País (Uruguay)): 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003
* [de Bronze](Onze)(Onze d'Or): 1999
* [Soccer's Selection of the 100 Greatest Footballers of the 20th century](World)(World Soccer (magazine)): 1999
* [French Player of the Century (France Football)](2nd)(French Player of the Year#Player of the Century): 2000
* [d'Or](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or): Silver award 2000
* [European Championship Player of the Tournament](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship awards#Player of the Tournament): 2000
* [European Championship Team of the Tournament](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship awards#Team of the Tournament): 2000, 2004
* Serie A top assist provider: [2000–01](2000–01 Serie A)
* [A Footballer of the Year](Serie)(Serie A Footballer of the Year): [2000–01](2000–01 Serie A)
* [Team of the Year](UEFA)(UEFA Team of the Year): 2001, 2002, 2003
* [Balón Award](Don)(Don Balón Award): [2001–02](2001–02 La Liga)
* [Liga Best Foreign Player](La)(El País): [2001–02](2001–02 La Liga)
* [Club Footballer of the Year](UEFA)(UEFA Club Footballer of the Year): 2002
* [World Cup Dream Team](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup Dream Team): 2002
* [100](FIFA)(FIFA 100): 2004
* [Best European Player of the Past 50 Years](UEFA)(UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll): 2004
* [FIFPro World XI](FIFA)(FIFPro#FIFA FIFPro World XI): 2005, 2006
* [World's Best Playmaker](IFFHS)(International Federation of Football History & Statistics#The World's Best Playmaker): 2006
* [World Cup Golden Ball](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup awards#Golden Ball): 2006
* [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year): Silver award 2006
* [Honorary Award](UNFP)(Trophées UNFP du football#Trophée d'honneur UNFP): 2007
* [AFS](Association of Football Statisticians) Top-100 Players of All Time #5: 2007
* [Leyenda](Marca)(Marca Leyenda) Award: 2008
* [Foot](Golden)(Golden Foot) Legends Award: 2008
* [ESPN](ESPN) Team of the Decade: 2009
* ESPN Player of the Decade: 2009
* [Sports](Fox)(Fox Sports) Player of the Decade: 2009
* [Illustrated Team of the Decade](Sports)(List of 2009 all-decade Sports Illustrated awards and honors#Association football All-Decade Team): 2009
* [Illustrated Player of the Decade](Sports)(List of 2009 all-decade Sports Illustrated awards and honors#Association Football): 2009
* [Balón Team of the Decade](Don)(Don Balón Award): 2010
* [Balón Player of the Decade](Don)(Don Balón Award): 2010
* [Lifetime Achievement Award](Laureus)(Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award): 2011
* [UEFA](UEFA) team of teams: 2011
* UEFA Champions League Best Player of the Past 20 Years: 2011
* [type spéciale 20 ans des trophées UNFP](Équipe)(Trophées UNFP du football#Équipe type spéciale 20 ans des trophées UNFP): 2011
* [Madrid](Real)(Real Madrid CF) Greatest XI of All Time: 2012
* [Soccer Greatest XI of All Time](World)(World Soccer (magazine)#Greatest XI of All Time): 2013
* Real Madrid Hall of Fame: 2014
* [Ultimate Team of the Year](UEFA)(UEFA Team of the Year#UEFA Ultimate Team of the Year) (substitute): 2015
* [IFFHS](IFFHS) Legends: 2016
* [European Championship All-Time XI](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship Teams of the Tournament#All-time Euro XI): 2016
* [FourFourTwo](FourFourTwo)'s Selection of the 100 Greatest Footballers of All Time #8: 2017
* [Juventus](Juventus F.C.) Greatest XI of All Time: 2017
* ''[L'Équipe](L'Équipe)'' Best French Player of All Time: 2018
* [d'Or Dream Team](Ballon)(Ballon d'Or Dream Team) (Silver): 2020
* [IFFHS](International Federation of Football History & Statistics) All-time Men's B Dream Team: 2021
* [IFFHS](International Federation of Football History & Statistics) All-time Europe Men's Dream Team: 2021
* [FourFourTwo](FourFourTwo)'s 100 best football players of all time #5: 2022
*[Football Hall of Fame](Italian)(Italian Football Hall of Fame): 2022
### Manager
**Real Madrid**
*La Liga: [2016–17](2016–17 La Liga), [2019–20](2019–20 La Liga)
*Supercopa de España: [2017](2017 Supercopa de España), [2019–20](2019–20 Supercopa de España)
*UEFA Champions League: [2015–16](2015–16 UEFA Champions League), [2016–17](2016–17 UEFA Champions League), [2017–18](2017–18 UEFA Champions League)
*UEFA Super Cup: [2016](2016 UEFA Super Cup), [2017](2017 UEFA Super Cup)
*[Club World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA Club World Cup): [2016](2016 FIFA Club World Cup), [2017](2017 FIFA Club World Cup)
**Individual**
* [Liga Manager of the Month](La)(La Liga Manager of the Month): [2016](April)(2015–16 La Liga#Monthly), [2017](May)(2016–17 La Liga#Monthly awards)
* [UEFA](UEFA) La Liga Team Revelation of the Year: [2015–16](2015–16 La Liga)
* UEFA Champions League Breakthrough XI: 2015–16["Our Champions League breakthrough team of 2016"](http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid=2431805.html). UEFA. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
* [World's Best Club Coach](IFFHS)(IFFHS World's Best Club Coach) – Runner-up: 2016
* [Best FIFA Football Coach](The)(The Best FIFA Football Coach): [2017](The Best FIFA Football Awards 2017#The Best FIFA Men's Coach); Runner-up: [2016](The Best FIFA Football Awards 2016#The Best FIFA Men's Coach), [2018](The Best FIFA Football Awards 2018#The Best FIFA Men's Coach)
* [Football French Manager of the Year](France)(French Player of the Year#Manager of the Year): 2016, 2017
* [Buteur](Le)(El Heddaf) Coach of the Year: 2016
* [UEFA](UEFA) La Liga Team of the Season: 2016–17, 2019–20
* [Football](France)(France Football) UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2016–17
* [d'Or Coach of the Year](Onze)(Onze d'Or#Coach of the Year): 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21
* ESPN Manager of the Year: 2017
* [World's Best Club Coach](IFFHS)(IFFHS World's Best Club Coach): 2017, 2018
* [Men's World Team](IFFHS)(IFFHS Men's World Team): 2017
* [RMC](RMC (France)) French Manager of the Year: 2017
* [Soccer Awards](Globe)(Globe Soccer Awards) Best Coach of the Year: 2017
* [Soccer Magazine World Manager of the Year](World)(World Soccer Magazine#Men's World Manager of the Year): 2017; Runner-up: 2018
**[Football](France)(France Football)* 22nd Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019
**[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)* 34th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019
*[Muñoz Trophy](Miguel)(Miguel Muñoz Trophy): [2019–20](2019–20 La Liga)
*[L'Equipe](L'Equipe)'s Best Club Coach: 2020
*[FourFourTwo](FourFourTwo)'s 36th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2020
* [Soccer Awards](Globe)(Globe Soccer Awards#2020) Coach of the Century 2001–2020 (Runners-up)
* [IFFHS](International Federation of Football History & Statistics)'s 38th All Time World's Best Coach: 2021
### Orders
*[of the Legion of Honour](Knight)(Knight of the Legion of Honour): 1998
*[Order of Merit](National)(National Order of Merit (Algeria)): 2006
*[of the Legion of Honour](Officer)(Officer of the Legion of Honour): 2008
### Records
#### As a player
* [most expensive footballer in history](The)(List of most expensive association football transfers): 2001–2009
* [FIFA World Cup Final matches scored in](Most)(FIFA World Cup records#Goalscoring): 2 matches (shared with [Pelé](Pelé), [Vavá](Vavá), [Breitner](Paul)(Paul Breitner) and [Mbappé](Kylian)(Kylian Mbappé))
* [red cards received in FIFA World Cup matches](Most)(FIFA World Cup records#Discipline): 2 (shared with [Song](Rigobert)(Rigobert Song))
* Midfielder with the [appearances in the ESM Team of the Season](most)(European Sports Media#By player)4 appearances between 1997–98 and 2003–04.
* One of the two players in history to be named player of the year in [of the Top 5 Leagues](3)(UEFA coefficient#Current ranking): [1 Player of the Year](Division)(Trophées UNFP du football) (1996), [A Footballer of the Year](Serie)(Serie A Footballer of the Year) (2001), [Balón Award](Don)(Don Balón Award) (2002)
* Only player in history to win the [Cup](World)(1998 FIFA World Cup) and the [Championship](European)(UEFA Euro 2000) while being named best player of both competitions[player of the Euro 2000](Best)(UEFA European Championship awards#Player of the Tournament) and [Ball award at the 2006 World Cup](Golden)(FIFA World Cup awards#Golden Ball).
* Most [d'Or](Onze)(Onze d'Or#Wins by player) awards: 7 in total (shared with [Ronaldo](Cristiano)(Cristiano Ronaldo))3 Onzes d'Or, 3 Onzes d'Argent and 1 Onze de Bronze.
* Most [World Player of the Year](FIFA)(FIFA World Player of the Year#Wins by player) awards: 6 in total3 FIFA World Player of the Year awards, 1 FIFA World Player of the Year Silver award and 2 FIFA World Player of the Year Bronze awards.
#### As a manager
* [winning streak in the history of La Liga](Best)(Football records in Spain#Wins): 16 games (shared with [Guardiola](Pep)(Pep Guardiola))
* [consecutive away wins in the history of La Liga](Most)(Football records in Spain#Wins): 13 games
* Manager with the lowest number of defeats after 100 games ([Spanish football](in)(La Liga)): 8 losses
* Manager with most trophies after 100 games ([Spanish football](in)(La Liga)): 7 titles
* [unbeaten run in Real Madrid history](Longest)(List of Real Madrid CF records and statistics#Streaks): 40 games
* Longest unbeaten run [Spanish football](in)(La Liga): 40 games
* First French manager, except the French-Argentinian [Herrera](Helenio)(Helenio Herrera), to win UEFA Champions League: 2015–16
* [scoring run (all major competitions) in European football](Longest)(List of Real Madrid CF records and statistics#Streaks): 73 games
* Only manager in history to win two consecutive UEFA Champions League trophies in its modern format: 2015–16, 2016–17
*Only manager to win three consecutive [Cup](European)(European Cup)/UEFA Champions League finals: 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18
* Only manager in Real Madrid history to win four trophies in one season
* Only manager in Real Madrid history to win the UEFA Super Cup twice
* First manager to win two consecutive UEFA Super Cup titles since [Sacchi](Arrigo)(Arrigo Sacchi)
* Quickest manager in the history of the [5 Leagues](Top)(UEFA coefficient#Current ranking) to win 7 titles with a single club: 19 months
* Quickest manager in the history of the [5 Leagues](Top)(UEFA coefficient#Current ranking) to win 8 titles with a single club: 23 months
* Quickest manager in history to be named [Football Coach of the Year](FIFA)(The Best FIFA Football Coach): 653 days
* Most [Best FIFA Football Coach](The)(The Best FIFA Football Coach) awards: 3 in total1 The Best FIFA Football Coach award and 2 The Best FIFA Football Coach Silver awards.
* Only person in history to win the [d'Or](Onze)(Onze d'Or) award [a player](as)(Onze d'Or#Winners) and [a manager](as)(Onze d'Or#Coach of the Year)3 Onze d'Or awards as a player (1998, 2000, 2001) and 1 Onze d'Or award as a manager (2017).
* Only person in history to win [Player of the Year award](FIFA's)(FIFA World Player of the Year#Wins by player) and [of the Year award](Coach)(The Best FIFA Football Coach)
* Only person in history to win the [IFFHS](IFFHS) award [the best playmaker](as)(International Federation of Football History & Statistics#The World's Best Playmaker) and [a manager](as)(IFFHS World's Best Club Coach#List of winners)
* Only person in history to win the FIFA Club World Cup trophy successively as a manager
* Only manager in Real Madrid history to win five trophies in a calendar year
* Only person in history to win the FIFA Club World Cup/Intercontinental Cup twice as a player and twice as a manager
* Only person in history to be named [Player of the Year](French)(French Player of the Year) twice and [Manager of the Year](French)(French Player of the Year#Manager of the Year) twice2 French Player of the Year awards (1998, 2002) and 2 French Manager of the Year awards (2016, 2017)
* Highest score for a manager winning the [World's Best Club Coach](IFFHS)(IFFHS World's Best Club Coach) award: 326 points
* First manager to reach three consecutive UEFA Champions League finals since [Lippi](Marcello)(Marcello Lippi): 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18
## See also
*[of UEFA Champions League winning managers](List)(List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League winning managers)
*[of footballers with 100 or more caps](List)(List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps)
*[of association football families](List)(List of association football families)
* [of Honour](Legion)(Legion of Honour)
* [of Legion of Honour recipients by name (Z)](List)(List of Légion d'honneur recipients by name (Z))
* [of Honour Museum](Legion)(Musée de la Légion d'honneur)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*[Zinedine Zidane](http://www.realmadrid.com/en/about-real-madrid/history/football-legends/zinedine-zidane) at [Madrid CF](Real)(Real Madrid CF)
*
*
*
}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Zidane family)
[births](Category:1972)(Category:1972 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[people](Category:Kabyle)(Category:Kabyle people)
[people of Kabyle descent](Category:French)(Category:French people of Kabyle descent)
[people of Berber descent](Category:French)(Category:French people of Berber descent)
[Muslims](Category:French)(Category:French Muslims)
[from Marseille](Category:Footballers)(Category:Footballers from Marseille)
[men's footballers](Category:French)(Category:French men's footballers)
[association football midfielders](Category:Men's)(Category:Men's association football midfielders)
[Cannes players](Category:AS)(Category:AS Cannes players)
[Girondins de Bordeaux players](Category:FC)(Category:FC Girondins de Bordeaux players)
[F.C. players](Category:Juventus)(Category:Juventus F.C. players)
[Madrid CF players](Category:Real)(Category:Real Madrid CF players)
[1 players](Category:Ligue)(Category:Ligue 1 players)
[A players](Category:Serie)(Category:Serie A players)
[Liga players](Category:La)(Category:La Liga players)
[Champions League winning players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Champions League winning players)
[men's youth international footballers](Category:France)(Category:France men's youth international footballers)
[men's under-21 international footballers](Category:France)(Category:France men's under-21 international footballers)
[men's international footballers](Category:France)(Category:France men's international footballers)
[at the 1993 Mediterranean Games](Category:Competitors)(Category:Competitors at the 1993 Mediterranean Games)
[Euro 1996 players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Euro 1996 players)
[FIFA World Cup players](Category:1998)(Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players)
[Euro 2000 players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Euro 2000 players)
[champions for France](Category:European)(Category:European champions for France)
[FIFA World Cup players](Category:2002)(Category:2002 FIFA World Cup players)
[Euro 2004 players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Euro 2004 players)
[FIFA World Cup players](Category:2006)(Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players)
[Games medalists in football](Category:Mediterranean)(Category:Mediterranean Games medalists in football)
[Games bronze medalists for France](Category:Mediterranean)(Category:Mediterranean Games bronze medalists for France)
[World Cup-winning players](Category:FIFA)(Category:FIFA World Cup-winning players)
[European Championship-winning players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA European Championship-winning players)
[Men's Century Club](Category:FIFA)(Category:FIFA Men's Century Club)
[d'Or winners](Category:Ballon)(Category:Ballon d'Or winners)
[World Player of the Year winners](Category:FIFA)(Category:FIFA World Player of the Year winners)
[Men's Player of the Year Award winners](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award winners)
[Soccer Magazine World Player of the Year winners](Category:World)(Category:World Soccer Magazine World Player of the Year winners)
[100](Category:FIFA)(Category:FIFA 100)
[expatriate footballers](Category:French)(Category:French expatriate footballers)
[expatriate sportspeople in Italy](Category:French)(Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Italy)
[expatriate sportspeople in Spain](Category:French)(Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Spain)
[footballers in Italy](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate footballers in Italy)
[footballers in Spain](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate footballers in Spain)
[football managers](Category:French)(Category:French football managers)
[Madrid Castilla managers](Category:Real)(Category:Real Madrid Castilla managers)
[Madrid CF managers](Category:Real)(Category:Real Madrid CF managers)
[División B managers](Category:Segunda)(Category:Segunda División B managers)
[Liga managers](Category:La)(Category:La Liga managers)
[Champions League winning managers](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Champions League winning managers)
[expatriate football managers](Category:French)(Category:French expatriate football managers)
[football managers in Spain](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate football managers in Spain)
[humanitarians](Category:French)(Category:French humanitarians)
[of the Legion of Honour](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour)
[of the Legion of Honour](Category:Officers)(Category:Officers of the Legion of Honour)
[Madrid CF non-playing staff](Category:Real)(Category:Real Madrid CF non-playing staff)
[football people awarded knighthoods](Category:Association)(Category:Association football people awarded knighthoods)
|
Pope John Paul II
|
pope_john_paul_ii
|
# Pope John Paul II
*Revision ID: 1160325584 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:35:04Z*
---
JP2|and|Pope John Paul II (disambiguation)|and|Karol Wojtyla (disambiguation)}}
| ordination = 1 November 1946
| ordained_by = [Stefan Sapieha](Adam)(Adam Stefan Sapieha)
| consecration = 28 September 1958
| consecrated_by = [Baziak](Eugeniusz)(Eugeniusz Baziak)
| cardinal = 26 June 1967
| created_cardinal_by = [VI](Paul)(Paul VI)
| rank = [priest](Cardinal)(Cardinal priest) (1967–1978)
| birth_name = Karol Józef Wojtyła
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Wadowice](Wadowice), [Voivodeship](Kraków)(Kraków Voivodeship (1919–1939)), Poland
| death_date =
| death_place = [Palace](Apostolic)(Apostolic Palace), Vatican City
| religion = [Catholic](Catholic)
| motto =
| signature = Signature of John Paul II.svg
| coat_of_arms = John paul 2 coa.svg
| feast_day = 22 October
| venerated = Catholic Church
| beatified_date = 1 May 2011
| beatified_place = [Peter's Square](St.)(St. Peter's Square), Vatican City
| beatified_by = Benedict XVI
| canonized_date = 27 April 2014
| canonized_place = St. Peter's Square, Vatican City
| canonized_by = [Francis](Pope Francis)
| attributes =
| patronage =
* [Świdnica](Świdnica)
* [Trecastelli](Trecastelli)
* Borgo Mantovano
* [Teor](Rivignano)(Rivignano Teor)
* Paradahan, Tanza, Cavite (Major Patron)
}}
| module =
| notable_ideas =
* [mortgage](Social)(Social mortgage)
}}
| era = [philosophy](20th-century)(20th-century philosophy)
| region = [philosophy](Western)(Western philosophy)
| school_tradition =
| influences =
* [Aquinas](Aquinas)
* [of the Cross](John)(John of the Cross)
* [Kant](Kant)
* [Mickiewicz](Mickiewicz)
* [Słowacki](Słowacki)
* [Krasiński](Zygmunt Krasiński)
* [Norwid](Norwid)
* [Husserl](Edmund Husserl)
* [Scheler](Max Scheler)
* [Buber](M. Buber)
* [Przywara](Przywara)Papal address to German theologians, Altötting, Germany. 18 November 1980.
* [Stein](Edith Stein)
* [Ingarden](Ingarden)
* [Marcel](G. H. Marcel)
* [Tyranowski](Tyranowski)
* [Mounier](E. Mounier)
* [Balthasar](von Balthasar)
* [Faustina](Faustina Kowalska)
* [Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka)
}}
| influenced =
}}
| education =
| module2 =
|date of consecration = 28 September 1958
|place of consecration = [Cathedral](Wawel)(Wawel Cathedral), Kraków
|elevated by = [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI)
|date of elevation = 26 June 1967
|bishop 1 = [Bednarczyk](Piotr)(Piotr Bednarczyk)
|consecration date 1 = 21 April 1968
|bishop 2 = [Rozwadowski](Józef)(Józef Rozwadowski)
|consecration date 2 = 24 November 1968
|bishop 3 = [Smolenski](Stanislaw)(Stanislaw Smolenski)
|consecration date 3 = 5 April 1970
|bishop 4 = [Małysiak](Albin)(Albin Małysiak) CM
|consecration date 4 = 5 April 1970
|bishop 5 = [Socha](Paweł)(Paweł Socha (bishop)) CM
|consecration date 5 = 26 December 1973
|bishop 6 = [Marek](Józef)(Józef Marek)
|consecration date 6 = 27 December 1973
|bishop 7 = [Macharski](Franciszek)(Franciszek Macharski)
|consecration date 7 = 6 January 1979
|bishop 8 = [Mullor García](Justo)(Justo Mullor García)
|consecration date 8 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 9 = [Rapisarda](Alfio)(Alfio Rapisarda)
|consecration date 9 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 10 = [Silvestrini](Achille)(Achille Silvestrini)
|consecration date 10 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 11 = [Seraphimov Djoundrine](Samuel)(Samuel Seraphimov Djoundrine) AA
|consecration date 11 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 12 = [López Ardón](Rubén)(Rubén López Ardón)
|consecration date 12 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 13 = [Lukudu Loro](Paulino)(Paulino Lukudu Loro) FSCJ
|consecration date 13 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 14 = [Mojwok Nyiker](Vincent)(Vincent Mojwok Nyiker)
|consecration date 14 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 15 = [Gasparini](Armido)(Armido Gasparini) FSCJ
|consecration date 15 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 16 = [Hughes Kenny](Michael)(Michael Hughes Kenny)
|consecration date 16 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 17 = [Russell Houck](William)(William Russell Houck)
|consecration date 17 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 18 = [Cardoso Sobrinho](José)(José Cardoso Sobrinho) OCarm
|consecration date 18 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 19 = [Ludwig Goebel](Gerhard)(Gerhard Ludwig Goebel) MSF
|consecration date 19 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 20 = [Pereira](Décio)(Décio Pereira)
|consecration date 20 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 21 = [José Penteado](Fernando)(Fernando José Penteado)
|consecration date 21 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 22 = [Grillo](Girolamo)(Girolamo Grillo)
|consecration date 22 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 23 = [Basilio Aniceto](Paciano)(Paciano Aniceto)
|consecration date 23 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 24 = [Basil de Lastic](Alan)(Alan Basil de Lastic)
|consecration date 24 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 25 = [Thomas Larkin](William)(William Thomas Larkin)
|consecration date 25 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 26 = [Joseph O'Connor](John)(John Joseph O'Connor (cardinal))
|consecration date 26 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 27 = [Lafontaine](Jean-Marie)(Jean-Marie Lafontaine)
|consecration date 27 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 28 = [Biernaski](Ladislau)(Ladislau Biernaski) CM
|consecration date 28 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 29 = [Holanda Gurgel](Newton)(Newton Holanda Gurgel)
|consecration date 29 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 30 = [Harvey Clark](Matthew)(Matthew Harvey Clark)
|consecration date 30 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 31 = [Goic Karmelic](Alejandro)(Alejandro Goic Karmelic)
|consecration date 31 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 32 = [G. Magugat](Pedro)(Pedro G. Magugat) MSC
|consecration date 32 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 33 = [López Carrozas](Ramón)(Ramón López Carrozas) OdeM
|consecration date 33 = 27 May 1979
|bishop 34 = [Tomko](Jozef)(Jozef Tomko)
|consecration date 34 = 15 September 1979
|bishop 35 = [Ivan Lubachivsky](Myroslav)(Myroslav Ivan Lubachivsky)
|consecration date 35 = 12 November 1979
|bishop 36 = [Coppa](Giovanni)(Giovanni Coppa)
|consecration date 36 = 6 January 1980
|bishop 37 = [Maria Cardinal Martini](Carlo)(Carlo Maria Martini) SJ
|consecration date 37 = 6 January 1980
|bishop 38 = [Wiyghan Tumi](Christian)(Christian Wiyghan Tumi)
|consecration date 38 = 6 January 1980
|bishop 39 = [Bam'ba Gongoa](Marcel)(Marcel Bam'ba Gongoa)
|consecration date 39 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 40 = [Nkinga Bondala](Louis)(Louis Nkinga Bondala) CICM
|consecration date 40 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 41 = [Monsengwo Pasinya](Laurent)(Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya)
|consecration date 41 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 42 = [Taban](Paride)(Paride Taban)
|consecration date 42 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 43 = [Mpungu](Roger)(Roger Mpungu)
|consecration date 43 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 44 = [Gagnon](Michel-Joseph-Gérard)(Michel-Joseph-Gérard Gagnon) MAfr
|consecration date 44 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 45 = [Kimpinde Amando](Dominique)(Dominique Kimpinde Amando)
|consecration date 45 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 46 = [Nduhirubusa](Joseph)(Joseph Nduhirubusa)
|consecration date 46 = 4 May 1980
|bishop 47 = [Joaquim Zico](Vicente)(Vicente Joaquim Zico) CM
|consecration date 47 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 48 = [Goretti](Sergio)(Sergio Goretti)
|consecration date 48 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 49 = [Sanguineti](Giulio)(Giulio Sanguineti)
|consecration date 49 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 50 = [Voto](Francesco)(Francesco Voto)
|consecration date 50 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 51 = [Obinna Ochiagha](Gregory)(Gregory Obinna Ochiagha)
|consecration date 51 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 52 = [Bongsu Antonius Sinaga](Anicetus)(Anicetus Bongsu Antonius Sinaga) OFM Cap
|consecration date 52 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 53 = [Luis Dónnelly Carey](Lucas)(Lucas Luis Dónnelly Carey) OdeM
|consecration date 53 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 54 = [Giannini](Filippo)(Filippo Giannini)
|consecration date 54 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 55 = [Appignanesi](Ennio)(Ennio Appignanesi)
|consecration date 55 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 56 = [Scarafile](Martino)(Martino Scarafile)
|consecration date 56 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 57 = [Plotti](Alessandro)(Alessandro Plotti)
|consecration date 57 = 6 January 1981
|bishop 58 = [Szymecki](Stanisław)(Stanisław Szymecki)
|consecration date 58 = 12 April 1981
|bishop 59 = [Louis Joseph Vandame](Charles)(Charles Louis Joseph Vandame) SJ
|consecration date 59 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 60 = [Bulaitis](John)(John Bulaitis)
|consecration date 60 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 61 = [Crișan](Traian)(Traian Crișan)
|consecration date 61 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 62 = [Kweku Sam](Charles)(Charles Kweku Sam)
|consecration date 62 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 63 = [Joseph O'Brien](Thomas)(Thomas J. O'Brien (bishop))
|consecration date 63 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 64 = [Alberto Guimarães Rezende](Antônio)(Antônio Alberto Guimarães Rezende) CSS
|consecration date 64 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 65 = [George Adeodatus Micallef](Francis)(Francis George Adeodatus Micallef) OCD
|consecration date 65 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 66 = [Michael Milone](Anthony)(Anthony Michael Milone)
|consecration date 66 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 67 = [Sayegh](Salim)(Salim Sayegh)
|consecration date 67 = 6 January 1982
|bishop 68 = [Noè](Virgilio)(Virgilio Noè)
|consecration date 68 = 6 March 1982
|bishop 69 = [Vitale Bommarco](Antonio)(Antonio Vitale Bommarco) OFM Conv
|consecration date 69 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 70 = [Sebastián Laboa Gallego](José)(José Sebastián Laboa Gallego)
|consecration date 70 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 71 = [Rauber](Karl-Josef)(Karl-Josef Rauber)
|consecration date 71 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 72 = [Monterisi](Francesco)(Francesco Monterisi)
|consecration date 72 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 73 = [Joseph Aje](Kevin)(Kevin Joseph Aje)
|consecration date 73 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 74 = [Olorunfemi Onaiyekan](John)(John Olorunfemi Onaiyekan)
|consecration date 74 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 75 = [Rossano](Pietro)(Pietro Rossano)
|consecration date 75 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 76 = [Sima Ngua](Anacleto)(Anacleto Sima Ngua)
|consecration date 76 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 77 = [Obama Obono](Ildefonso)(Ildefonso Obama Obono)
|consecration date 77 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 78 = [Škarvada](Jaroslav)(Jaroslav Škarvada)
|consecration date 78 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 79 = [Hrušovský](Dominik)(Dominik Hrušovský)
|consecration date 79 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 80 = [del Gallo Roccagiovine](Luigi)(Luigi del Gallo Roccagiovine)
|consecration date 80 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 81 = [Grocholewski](Zenon)(Zenon Grocholewski)
|consecration date 81 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 82 = [Paetz](Juliusz)(Juliusz Paetz)
|consecration date 82 = 6 January 1983
|bishop 83 = [Maria Stickler](Alfons)(Alfons Maria Stickler) SDB
|consecration date 83 = 1 November 1983
|bishop 84 = [Romeo](Paolo)(Paolo Romeo)
|consecration date 84 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 85 = [Kim Tchang-ryeol](Paul)(Paul Kim Tchang-ryeol)
|consecration date 85 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 86 = [Pengo](Polycarp)(Polycarp Pengo)
|consecration date 86 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 87 = [Okioh](Nicolas)(Nicolas Okioh)
|consecration date 87 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 88 = [Binini](Eugenio)(Eugenio Binini)
|consecration date 88 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 89 = [Kombo](Ernest)(Ernest Kombo) SJ
|consecration date 89 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 90 = [Pieter Schotte](Jan)(Jan Pieter Schotte) CICM
|consecration date 90 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 91 = [Kochuparampil](Mathai)(Mathai Kochuparampil) SDB
|consecration date 91 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 92 = [Pecile](Domenico)(Domenico Pecile)
|consecration date 92 = 6 January 1984
|bishop 93 = [Patrick Devlin](Bernard)(Bernard Patrick Devlin)
|consecration date 93 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 94 = [Górny](Kazimierz)(Kazimierz Górny)
|consecration date 94 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 95 = [Balina](Aloysius)(Aloysius Balina)
|consecration date 95 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 96 = [Nteka](Afonso)(Afonso Nteka) OFM Cap
|consecration date 96 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 97 = [Tomaso Ronchi](Pellegrino)(Pellegrino Tomaso Ronchi) OFM Cap
|consecration date 97 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 98 = [Sáenz Lacalle](Fernando)(Fernando Sáenz Lacalle)
|consecration date 98 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 99 = [Medina Estévez](Jorge)(Jorge Medina Estévez)
|consecration date 99 = 6 January 1985
|bishop 100 = [Francis Rigali](Justin)(Justin Francis Rigali)
|consecration date 100 = 14 September 1985
|bishop 101 = [Luigi Celata](Pier)(Pier Luigi Celata)
|consecration date 101 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 102 = [Komarica](Franjo)(Franjo Komarica)
|consecration date 102 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 103 = [Alberto Valle](Walmir)(Walmir Alberto Valle) IMC
|consecration date 103 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 104 = [Wendelin Mtega](Norbert)(Norbert Wendelin Mtega)
|consecration date 104 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 105 = [Bosco Manat Chuabsamai](John)(John Bosco Manat Chuabsamai)
|consecration date 105 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 106 = [William Wuerl](Donald)(Donald William Wuerl)
|consecration date 106 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 107 = [González González](Felipe)(Felipe González González) OFM Cap
|consecration date 107 = 6 January 1986
|bishop 108 = [Michalik](Józef)(Józef Michalik)
|consecration date 108 = 16 October 1986
|bishop 109 = [Agustoni](Gilberto)(Gilberto Agustoni)
|consecration date 109 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 110 = [Perko](Franc)(Franc Perko)
|consecration date 110 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 111 = [Monduzzi](Dino)(Dino Monduzzi)
|consecration date 111 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 112 = [Sangval Surasarang](Joseph)(Joseph Sangval Surasarang)
|consecration date 112 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 113 = [Biguzzi](George)(George Biguzzi) SX
|consecration date 113 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 114 = [Dotu Sekey](Benedict)(Benedict Dotu Sekey)
|consecration date 114 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 115 = [Edgar Cabrera Ovalle](Julio)(Julio Edgar Cabrera Ovalle)
|consecration date 115 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 116 = [Jerome McCormack](William)(William Jerome McCormack)
|consecration date 116 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 117 = [A. Mapunda](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel A. Mapunda)
|consecration date 117 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 118 = [Su Haw Chiu](Dominic)(Dominic Su Haw Chiu)
|consecration date 118 = 6 January 1987
|bishop 119 = [Magee](John)(John Magee (bishop)) SPS
|consecration date 119 = 17 March 1987
|bishop 120 = [Stella](Beniamino)(Beniamino Stella)
|consecration date 120 = 5 September 1987
|bishop 121 = [Pierre Louis Joseph Séjourné](René)(René Pierre Louis Joseph Séjourné)
|consecration date 121 = 5 September 1987
|bishop 122 = [Nicolini](Giulio)(Giulio Nicolini)
|consecration date 122 = 5 September 1987
|bishop 123 = [Battista Re](Giovanni)(Giovanni Battista Re)
|consecration date 123 = 7 November 1987
|bishop 124 = [Sabbah](Michel)(Michel Sabbah)
|consecration date 124 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 125 = [Oles](Marian)(Marian Oles)
|consecration date 125 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 126 = [Kabongo Kanundowi](Emery)(Emery Kabongo Kanundowi)
|consecration date 126 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 127 = [d'Andrea](Luís)(Luís d'Andrea) OFM Conv
|consecration date 127 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 128 = [Adibe Chikwe](Victor)(Victor Adibe Chikwe)
|consecration date 128 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 129 = [Atule Usuh](Athanasius)(Athanasius Atule Usuh)
|consecration date 129 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 130 = [Badurina](Srecko)(Srecko Badurina) T.O.R
|consecration date 130 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 131 = [Raúl Vera López](José)(José Raúl Vera López), O.P.
|consecration date 131 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 132 = [Belloli](Luigi)(Luigi Belloli)
|consecration date 132 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 133 = [Gavin Nolan](John)(John Gavin Nolan)
|consecration date 133 = 6 January 1988
|bishop 134 = [Bačkis](Audrys)(Audrys Bačkis)
|consecration date 134 = 4 October 1988
|bishop 135 = [Macchi](Pasquale)(Pasquale Macchi)
|consecration date 135 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 136 = [Marchisano](Francesco)(Francesco Marchisano)
|consecration date 136 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 137 = [Tetmu Samba](Justin)(Justin Tetmu Samba)
|consecration date 137 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 138 = [Mendes](John)(John Mendes)
|consecration date 138 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 139 = [Augustine Tharmaraj](Leon)(Leon Augustine Tharmaraj)
|consecration date 139 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 140 = [Ngalalekumtwa](Tarcisius)(Tarcisius Ngalalekumtwa)
|consecration date 140 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 141 = [Calabro](Raffaele)(Raffaele Calabro)
|consecration date 141 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 142 = [José Arnáiz Zarandona](Francisco)(Francisco José Arnáiz Zarandona) S.J.
|consecration date 142 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 143 = [Benito de La Rosa y Carpio](Ramón)(Ramón Benito de La Rosa y Carpio)
|consecration date 143 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 144 = [Calderón Polo](Cipriano)(Cipriano Calderón Polo)
|consecration date 144 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 145 = [Leonel Ramazzini Imeri](Álvaro)(Álvaro Leonel Ramazzini Imeri)
|consecration date 145 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 146 = [Maria Erba](Andrea)(Andrea Maria Erba)
|consecration date 146 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 147 = [Kowalczyk](Józef)(Józef Kowalczyk)
|consecration date 147 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 148 = [Farhat](Edmond)(Edmond Farhat)
|consecration date 149 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 150 = [Bolonek](Janusz)(Janusz Bolonek)
|consecration date 150 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 151 = [Kondrusiewicz](Tadeusz)(Tadeusz Kondrusiewicz)
|consecration date 151 = 6 January 1989
|bishop 152 = [Tonucci](Giovanni)(Giovanni Tonucci)
|consecration date 152 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 153 = [Bedini](Ignazio)(Ignazio Bedini) S.D.B.
|consecration date 153 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 154 = [Milano](Mario)(Mario Milano)
|consecration date 154 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 155 = [Ceirano](Giovanni)(Giovanni Ceirano (nuncio))
|consecration date 155 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 156 = [Rizzato](Oscar)(Oscar Rizzato)
|consecration date 156 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 157 = [Ignacio Velasco Garcia](Antonio)(Antonio Ignacio Velasco Garcia) S.D.B
|consecration date 157 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 158 = [R. Ruzoka](Paul)(Paul R. Ruzoka)
|consecration date 158 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 159 = [Błażej Kruszyłowicz](Marian)(Marian Błażej Kruszyłowicz) O.F.M. Conv.
|consecration date 159 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 160 = [François Marie Joseph Duprey](Pierre)(Pierre François Marie Joseph Duprey)
|consecration date 160 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 161 = [Umberto D'Ambrosio](Domenico)(Domenico Umberto D'Ambrosio)
|consecration date 161 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 162 = [Dajczak](Edward)(Edward Dajczak)
|consecration date 162 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 163 = [J. Almoneda](Benjamin)(Benjamin J. Almoneda)
|consecration date 163 = 6 January 1990
|bishop 164 = [Gioia](Francesco)(Francesco Gioia) O.F.M. Cap.
|consecration date 164 = 5 April 1990
|bishop 165 = [Nowak](Edward)(Edward Nowak)
|consecration date 165 = 5 April 1990
|bishop 166 = [Berloco](Giacinto)(Giacinto Berloco)
|consecration date 166 = 5 April 1990
|bishop 167 = [Josef Ender](Erwin)(Erwin Josef Ender)
|consecration date 167 = 5 April 1990
|bishop 168 = [Tauran](Jean-Louis)(Jean-Louis Tauran)
|consecration date 168 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 169 = [Puljić](Vinko)(Vinko Puljić)
|consecration date 169 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 170 = [Costalunga](Marcello)(Marcello Costalunga)
|consecration date 170 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 171 = [Padilla](Osvaldo)(Osvaldo Padilla)
|consecration date 171 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 172 = [Javier Errázuriz Ossa](Francisco)(Francisco Javier Errázuriz Ossa)
|consecration date 172 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 173 = [Pius Ngonyani](Bruno)(Bruno Pius Ngonyani)
|consecration date 173 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 174 = [Emmanuel Ogbonna Okobo](Francis)(Francis Emmanuel Ogbonna Okobo)
|consecration date 174 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 175 = [Gemma](Andrea)(Andrea Gemma) F.D.P
|consecration date 175 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 176 = [Habib Hitti](Joseph)(Joseph Habib Hitti)
|consecration date 176 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 177 = [Guerrero Torres](Jacinto)(Jacinto Guerrero Torres)
|consecration date 177 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 178 = [del Portillo](Álvaro)(Álvaro del Portillo)
|consecration date 178 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 179 = [Herranz Casado](Julián)(Julián Herranz Casado)
|consecration date 179 = 6 January 1991
|bishop 180 = [Bertagna](Bruno)(Bruno Bertagna)
|consecration date 180 = 6 January 1991
|sources =
}}
}}
**Pope John Paul II** (; ; ; born **Karol Józef Wojtyła** ;.}} 18 May 19202 April 2005) was head of the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) and sovereign of the [City State](Vatican)(Vatican City State) from 1978 until [death in 2005](his)(Death and funeral of Pope John Paul II). He was later [canonised](canonised) as **Pope Saint John Paul II**. In his youth, he also dabbled in stage acting.
A very good student in high school, Karol Wojtyła was respected by all. Coming from the [of Columbuses](Generation)(Generation of Columbuses), one in four of all his male classmates did not survive [War II](World)(World War II). During the war, Wojtyła went through struggles of his own. To avoid being kidnapped and sent off to a [slave labor camp](German)(Forced labour under German rule during World War II) he signed up for work in harsh conditions in a quarry. He was also struck by a German army truck and by a tram and barely survived these events. He took up acting and developed a love for the profession and participated at a local theater. The linguistically-skilled Wojtyła wanted to study [Polish](Polish studies) at university. Encouraged by a conversation with [Adam Stefan Sapieha](Prince)(Adam Stefan Sapieha), he decided to study theology and become a priest. Eventually, Karol Wojtyła rose to the position of Archbishop of Kraków and then Cardinal, both positions held by his mentor previously. Cardinal Wojtyła was elected pope on the third day of the [papal conclave of 1978](second)(second papal conclave of 1978), which was called after [Paul I](John)(John Paul I), who had been elected in the [papal conclave of 1978](first)(first papal conclave of 1978) earlier in August to succeed [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI), died after 33 days. Wojtyła adopted the name of his predecessor in tribute to him. Born in [Poland](Poland), John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since [VI](Adrian)(Adrian VI) in the 16th century, as well as the third [pope](longest-serving)(longest-serving pope) in history after [IX](Pius)(Pius IX) and [Peter](St.)(St. Peter). John Paul II attempted to improve the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, [Islam](Islam), and the [Orthodox Church](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church). He maintained the church's previous positions on such matters as abortion, [contraception](artificial)(artificial contraception), the [of women](ordination)(ordination of women), and a celibate clergy, and although he supported the reforms of the [Vatican Council](Second)(Second Vatican Council), he was seen as generally conservative in their interpretation. He put a lot of emphasis on family, identity, and questioned consumerism, hedonism and the pursuit of wealth. He was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his [pontificate](pontificate). As part of his special emphasis on the [call to holiness](universal)(universal call to holiness), he [1,344](beatified)(List of people beatified by Pope John Paul II), and also canonised 483 people, more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the preceding five centuries. By the time of his death, he had named most of the [of Cardinals](College)(College of Cardinals), consecrated or co-consecrated many of the world's bishops, and ordained many priests. He has been credited with fighting against dictatorships for democracy and with helping to end [rule](Communist)(Communist rule) in his native Poland and the rest of Europe.Lenczowski, John (2002). "Public Diplomacy and the Lessons of the Soviet Collapse". [JSTOR review](https://www.jstor.org/stable/26925348). Under John Paul II, the Catholic Church greatly expanded its influence in Africa and Latin America, and retained its influence in Europe and the rest of the world.
John Paul II's cause for canonisation commenced one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. On 19 December 2009, John Paul II was proclaimed [venerable](venerable) by his successor, [XVI](Benedict)(Benedict XVI), and was [beatified](beatified) on 1 May 2011 ([Mercy Sunday](Divine)(Divine Mercy Sunday)) after the [for the Causes of Saints](Congregation)(Congregation for the Causes of Saints) attributed one miracle to his intercession, the healing of a French nun called Marie Simon Pierre from [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease). A second miracle was approved on 2 July 2013, and confirmed by [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) two days later. John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014 (again Divine Mercy Sunday), together with [XXIII](John)(Pope John XXIII). On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added these two [day](feast)(feast day)s to the worldwide [Roman Calendar](General)(General Roman Calendar) of saints. While saints' feast days are traditionally celebrated on the anniversary of their deaths, that of John Paul II (22 October) is celebrated on the anniversary of his [inauguration](papal)(papal inauguration), due to his date of death, 2 April, usually falls in Lent or Easter Octave. Posthumously, he has been referred to by some Catholics as "Pope St. John Paul the Great", although the title has no official recognition. He has been criticised for allegedly condoning the sexual abuse of children by priests in Poland as archbishop, though the allegations themselves are criticized.
Under John Paul II, the two most important constitutions of the contemporary Catholic Church were drafted and put in force: the [of Canon Law](Code)(1983 Code of Canon Law) which, among many other innovations, begun the effort to curb [abuse in the Catholic Church](sexual)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases), and the [of the Catholic Church](Catechism)(Catechism of the Catholic Church), among its features, explaining and clarifying the Church's position on homosexuality.
## Early life
[[and Karol Wojtyla wedding portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|The wedding portrait of John Paul II's parents, Emilia and Karol Wojtyła Sr.](File:Emilia)]
Karol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of [Wadowice](Wadowice). He was the youngest of three children born to [Wojtyła](Karol)(Karol Wojtyła (senior)) (1879–1941), an [Pole](ethnic)(ethnic Pole), and [Kaczorowska](Emilia)(Emilia Kaczorowska) (1884–1929), who was of distant Lithuanian heritage. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died from a heart attack and kidney failure in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old. His elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmund's work as a physician eventually led to his death from [fever](scarlet)(scarlet fever), a loss that affected Wojtyła deeply.
Wojtyła was baptized a month after his birth, made his [Communion](First)(First Communion) at the age of 9, and was [confirmed](Confirmation in the Catholic Church) at the age of 18. As a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing [football](association)(association football) as [goalkeeper](Goalkeeper (association football)). During his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with the large Jewish community of [Wadowice](Wadowice). School football games were often organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. In 2005, he recalled: "I remember that at least a third of my classmates at elementary school in Wadowice were Jews. At secondary school there were fewer. With some I was on very friendly terms. And what struck me about some of them was their Polish patriotism." It was around this time that the young Karol had his first serious relationship with a girl. He became close to a girl called Ginka Beer, described as "a Jewish beauty, with stupendous eyes and jet black hair, slender, a superb actress."
In mid-1938, Wojtyła and his father left Wadowice and moved to [Kraków](Kraków), where he enrolled at the [University](Jagiellonian)(Jagiellonian University). While studying such topics as [philology](philology) and various languages, he worked as a volunteer librarian and though required to participate in [military training](compulsory)(compulsory military training) in the [Legion](Academic)(36th Infantry Regiment (Poland)), he refused to fire a weapon. He performed with various theatrical groups and worked as a playwright. During this time, his talent for language blossomed, and he learned as many as 15 languages — Polish, [Latin](Latin), Italian, English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, [Luxembourgish](Luxembourgish), Dutch, Ukrainian, [Serbo-Croatian](Serbo-Croatian language), [Czech](Czech language), [Slovak](Slovak language), and [Esperanto](Esperanto), nine of which he used extensively as pope.
In 1939, after invading Poland, [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany)'s [forces](occupation)(Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)) closed the university. Able-bodied males were required to work, so from 1940 to 1944 Wojtyła variously worked as a messenger for a restaurant, a manual labourer in a limestone quarry and for the [Solvay](Solvay (company)) chemical factory, in order to avoid deportation to Germany. In February 1940, he met [Tyranowski](Jan)(Jan Tyranowski) who introduced him to the [Carmelite](Carmelite) spirituality and the "[Rosary](Living)(Living Rosary)" youth groups.Weigel, George. Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II (p. 44). HarperCollins. Kindle Edition. In that same year he had two major accidents, suffering a fractured skull after being struck by a tram and sustaining injuries which left him with one shoulder higher than the other and a permanent stoop after being hit by a lorry in a quarry.[The Guardian, "History of the Pope's health problems", 1 April 2005](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/01/catholicism.religion3). Retrieved 26 March 2015. His father, a former Austro-Hungarian [officer](non-commissioned)(non-commissioned officer) and later officer in the [Army](Polish)(Polish Army), died of a heart attack in 1941, leaving the young adult Wojtyła an orphan and the immediate family's only surviving member. Reflecting on these times of his life, nearly forty years later he said: "I was not at my mother's death, I was not at my brother's death, I was not at my father's death. At twenty, I had already lost all the people I loved."
[[File:Baudienst, Kraków, Karol Wojtyła.jpg|thumb|left|Wojtyła (second from right) in a [Baudienst](Baudienst) forced labor work crew during the [of Poland (1939–1945)](occupation)(occupation of Poland (1939–1945)), circa 1941]]
After his father's death, he started thinking seriously about the priesthood. In October 1942, while [War II](World)(World War II) continued, he knocked on the door of the [Palace, Kraków](Bishop's)(Bishop's Palace, Kraków), and asked to study for the priesthood. Soon after, he began courses in the [underground seminary](clandestine)(Education in Poland during World War II) run by the [of Kraków](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Kraków), the future Cardinal [Stefan Sapieha](Adam)(Adam Stefan Sapieha). On 29 February 1944, Wojtyła was hit by a German truck. German [Wehrmacht](Wehrmacht) [officers](Officer (armed forces)) tended to him and sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there recovering from a severe [concussion](concussion) and a shoulder injury. It seemed to him that this accident and his survival was a confirmation of his vocation. On 6 August 1944, a day known as "Black Sunday", the [Gestapo](Gestapo) rounded up young men in Kraków to curtail [uprising there](the)(Kraków Uprising (1944)), similar to the recent [in Warsaw](uprising)(Warsaw Uprising). Wojtyła escaped by hiding in the basement of his uncle's house at 10 Tyniecka Street, while the German troops searched above. More than eight thousand men and boys were taken that day, while Wojtyła escaped to the Archbishop's residence, where he remained until after the [Germans](Germans) had left.
On the night of 17 January 1945, [Germans fled the city](the)(Vistula–Oder Offensive), and the students reclaimed the ruined [seminary](seminary). Wojtyła and another seminarian volunteered for the task of clearing away piles of frozen excrement from the toilets. Wojtyła also helped a 14-year-old Jewish refugee girl named Edith Zierer, who had escaped from a Nazi [camp](labour)(labour camp) in [Częstochowa](Częstochowa). Edith had collapsed on a railway platform, so Wojtyła carried her to a train and stayed with her throughout the journey to Kraków. She later credited Wojtyła with saving her life that day. [B'rith](B'nai)(B'nai B'rith) and other authorities have said that Wojtyła helped protect many other [Jews](Polish)(History of the Jews in Poland) from the Nazis. During the [occupation of Poland](Nazi)(Nazi occupation of Poland), a Jewish family sent their son, Stanley Berger, to be hidden by a [Gentile](Gentile) Polish family. Berger's biological Jewish parents were killed in [Holocaust](the)(the Holocaust), and after the war Berger's new Christian parents asked Karol Wojtyła to baptise the boy. Wojtyła refused, saying that the child should be raised in the Jewish faith of his birth parents and nation, not as a Catholic. He did everything he could to ensure that Berger leave Poland to be raised by his Jewish relatives in the United States. In April 2005, shortly after John Paul II's death, the Israeli government created a commission to honour the legacy of John Paul II. One of the honorifics proposed by a head of Italy's Jewish community, Emmanuele Pacifici was the medal of the [Among the Nations](Righteous)(Righteous Among the Nations). In Wojtyła's last book, *[and Identity](Memory)(Memory and Identity)*, he described the 12 years of the Nazi régime as "[bestiality](wikt:bestiality)", quoting from the Polish theologian and philosopher [Michalski](Konstanty)(Konstanty Michalski).
## Priesthood
[[Wojtyla image (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Wojtyła in 1958](File:Karol)]
After finishing his studies at the seminary in Kraków, Wojtyła was [ordained](ordained) as a priest on [Saints' Day](All)(All Saints' Day), 1 November 1946, by the archbishop of Kraków, cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha. Sapieha sent Wojtyła to Rome's Pontifical International Athenaeum *Angelicum*, the future [University of Saint Thomas Aquinas](Pontifical)(Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas), to study under the French [Dominican](Dominican Order) friar [Garrigou-Lagrange](Reginald)(Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange) beginning on 26 November 1946. He resided in the [Pontifical College](Belgian)(Belgian Pontifical College) during this time, under rectorship of [de Furstenberg](Maximilien)(Maximilien de Furstenberg). Wojtyła earned a [licence](Licentiate of Sacred Theology) in July 1947, passed his doctoral exam on 14 June 1948, and successfully defended his doctoral thesis titled *Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce* (The Doctrine of Faith in St. [of the Cross](John)(John of the Cross)) in philosophy on 19 June 1948. Even though his doctoral work was unanimously approved in June 1948, he was denied the degree because he could not afford to print the text of his dissertation in accordance with the *Angelicum* rules. In December 1948 a revised text of his dissertation was approved by the theological faculty of Jagiellonian University in Kraków, and Wojtyła was finally awarded his doctoral degree. The *Angelicum* preserves the original copy of Wojtyła's typewritten thesis. Among other courses at the *Angelicum*, Wojtyła studied Hebrew with the Dutch Dominican Peter G. Duncker, author of the *Compendium grammaticae linguae hebraicae biblicae*."30Giorni" 11 December 2002, http://www.30giorni.it/in_breve_id_numero_14_id_arg_32125_l1.htm Accessed 19 February 2013
[[File:Facade of the main entrance of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicum) (19May07).jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [International Athenaeum *Angelicum*](Pontifical)(Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicum)) in Rome, Italy]]
According to Wojtyła's fellow student, the future Austrian cardinal [Stickler](Alfons)(Alfons Stickler), in 1947 during his sojourn at the *[Angelicum](Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas)*, Wojtyła visited [Pio](Padre)(Padre Pio), who heard his confession and told him that one day he would ascend to "the highest post in the Church". Stickler added that Wojtyła believed that the prophecy was fulfilled when he became a cardinal.
Wojtyła returned to Poland in the summer of 1948 for his first [pastoral](pastoral) assignment in the village of [Niegowić](Niegowić), from Kraków, at the [of the Assumption](Church)(Church of the Assumption (Klodzko)). He arrived at Niegowić at harvest time, where his first action was to kneel and kiss the ground. He repeated this gesture, which he adopted from [Marie Baptiste Vianney](Jean)(John Vianney), throughout his papacy.
In March 1949, Wojtyła was transferred to the parish of [Florian](Saint)(Saint Florian) in [Kraków](Kraków). He taught ethics at [University](Jagiellonian)(Jagiellonian University) and subsequently at the [University of Lublin](Catholic)(John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin). While teaching, he gathered a group of about 20 young people, who began to call themselves *Rodzinka*, the "little family". They met for prayer, philosophical discussion, and to help the blind and the sick. The group eventually grew to approximately 200 participants, and their activities expanded to include annual [skiing](skiing) and [kayak](kayak)ing trips.
In 1953, Wojtyła's habilitation thesis was accepted by the Faculty of Theology at the Jagiellonian University. In 1954, he earned a [in Sacred Theology](Doctorate)(Doctor of Sacred Theology), writing a dissertation titled "Reevaluation of the possibility of founding a Catholic ethic on the ethical system of Max Scheler" (). Scheler was a German philosopher who founded a broad [movement](philosophical)(philosophical movement) that emphasised the study of conscious experience. The [Communist](Polish)(Polish Communist) authorities abolished the Faculty of Theology at the [University](Jagiellonian)(Jagiellonian University), thereby preventing him from receiving the degree until 1957. Wojtyła developed a theological approach, called [Thomism](phenomenological)(phenomenological Thomism), that combined traditional Catholic [Thomism](Thomism) with the ideas of [personalism](personalism), a philosophical approach deriving from phenomenology, which was popular among Catholic intellectuals in Kraków during Wojtyła's intellectual development. He translated Scheler's *Formalism and the Ethics of Substantive Values*. In 1961, he coined "Thomistic Personalism" to describe Aquinas's philosophy.Wojtyla, Karol. "Thomistic Personalism." In *Person and Community.* Translated by Theresa Sandok, OSM. Pages 165–175. New York: Peter Lang, 1993. Originally published 1961 in Polish
[[File:Karol Wojtyla-splyw.jpg|thumb|upright|Wojtyła pictured during a [kayaking](kayaking) trip to the countryside with a groups of students, circa 1960]]
During this period, Wojtyła wrote a series of articles in Kraków's Catholic newspaper, *[Powszechny](Tygodnik)(Tygodnik Powszechny)* (*Universal Weekly*), dealing with contemporary church issues. He focused on creating original [work](literary)(literary work) during his first dozen years as a priest. War, life in the [People's Republic](Polish)(Polish People's Republic), and his pastoral responsibilities all fed his poetry and plays. Wojtyła published his work under two pseudonyms, *Andrzej Jawień* and *Stanisław Andrzej Gruda*, to distinguish his literary from his religious writings (issued under his own name), and also so that his literary works would be considered on their own merits. In 1960, Wojtyła published the influential theological book *[and Responsibility](Love)(Love and Responsibility)*, a defence of traditional church teachings on marriage from a new philosophical standpoint.
The aforementioned students regularly joined Wojtyła for hiking, skiing, bicycling, camping and kayaking, accompanied by prayer, outdoor Masses and theological discussions. In Stalinist-era Poland, it was not permitted for priests to travel with groups of students. Wojtyła asked his younger companions to call him "Wujek" (Polish for "Uncle") to prevent outsiders from deducing he was a priest. The nickname gained popularity among his followers. In 1958, when Wojtyła was named [bishop](auxiliary)(auxiliary bishop) of Kraków, his acquaintances expressed concern that this would cause him to change. Wojtyła responded to his friends, "Wujek will remain Wujek," and he continued to live a simple life, shunning the trappings that came with his position as bishop. This beloved nickname stayed with Wojtyła for his entire life and continues to be affectionately used, particularly by the Polish people.Witness to Hope; The Biography of Pope John Paul II, by George Weigel. New York: Cliff Street Books/Harper Collins, 1999. p. 992.
## Episcopate and cardinalate
### Call to the episcopate
[[File:Kanonicza 19 - Kraków.jpg|thumb|19 Kanonicza Street in [Kraków](Kraków), Poland, where John Paul II lived as a priest and bishop (now an [Museum](Archdiocese)(Archdiocesal Museum in Kraków))]]
On 4 July 1958, while Wojtyła was on a kayaking holiday in the lakes region of northern Poland, [Pius XII](Pope)(Pope Pius XII) appointed him as an [bishop](auxiliary)(auxiliary bishop) of Kraków. He was consequently summoned to Warsaw to meet the [Primate](Primate (bishop)) of Poland, Cardinal [Wyszyński](Stefan)(Stefan Wyszyński), who informed him of his appointment. Wojtyła accepted the appointment as auxiliary bishop to Kraków's [Archbishop](Archbishop) [Baziak](Eugeniusz)(Eugeniusz Baziak), and he received episcopal consecration (as titular bishop of [Ombi](Ombi)) on 28 September 1958, with Baziak as the principal consecrator and as co-consecrators Bishop [Kominek](Bolesław)(Bolesław Kominek) (titular bishop of [Sophene](Sophene)), auxiliary of the Catholic [of Wrocław](Archdiocese)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław), and Franciszek Jop, [Bishop of Sandomierz](Auxiliary)(Roman Catholic Diocese of Sandomierz) (Titular Bishop of [Daulia](Daulia)). Kominek was to become Cardinal [of Wrocław](Archbishop)(Bishop of Wrocław)) and Jop was later Auxiliary Bishop of Wrocław and then Bishop of [Opole](Roman Catholic Diocese of Opole)). At the age of 38, Wojtyła became the youngest bishop in Poland.
In 1959, Wojtyła began an annual tradition of saying a [Mass](Midnight)(Midnight Mass) on Christmas Day in an open field at [Huta](Nowa)(Nowa Huta), the so-called model workers' town outside Kraków that was without a church building.Weigel, George. Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II (p. 151). HarperCollins. Kindle Edition. Baziak died in June 1962 and on 16 July, Wojtyła was selected as *Vicar Capitular* *(temporary administrator)* of the Archdiocese until an [archbishop](archbishop) could be appointed.
### Participation in Vatican II and subsequent events
From October 1962, Wojtyła took part in the [Vatican Council](Second)(Second Vatican Council) (1962–1965), where he made contributions to two of its most historic and influential products, the *Decree on Religious Freedom* (in Latin, *[humanae](Dignitatis)(Dignitatis humanae)*) and the *Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World* (*[et spes](Gaudium)(Gaudium et spes)*). Wojtyła and the Polish bishops contributed a draft text to the Council for *Gaudium et spes*. According to the [Jesuit](Jesuit) historian [W. O'Malley](John)(John W. O'Malley), the draft text *Gaudium et spes* that Wojtyła and the Polish delegation sent "had some influence on the version that was sent to the council fathers that summer but was not accepted as the base text". According to John F. Crosby, as pope, John Paul II used the words of *Gaudium et spes* later to introduce his own views on the nature of the human person in relation to God: man is "the only creature on earth that God has wanted for its own sake", but man "can fully discover his true self only in a sincere giving of himself".
He also participated in the assemblies of the [Synod](Synod) of Bishops. On 13 January 1964, [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI) appointed him Archbishop of Kraków. On 26 June 1967, Paul VI announced Wojtyła's promotion to the [of Cardinals](College)(College of Cardinals). Wojtyła was named [priest](cardinal)(cardinal priest) of the [titulus](Titular church) of [Cesareo in Palatio](San)(San Cesareo in Palatio).
In 1967, he was instrumental in formulating the [encyclical](encyclical) *[vitae](Humanae)(Humanae vitae)*, which dealt with the same issues that forbid abortion and [birth control](artificial)(birth control).
According to a contemporary witness, Wojtyła was against the distribution of a letter around Kraków in 1970, stating that the Polish Episcopate was preparing for the 50th anniversary of the [War](Polish–Soviet)(Polish–Soviet War).
In 1973, Wojtyła met philosopher [Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa)(Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka), the wife of [S. Houthakker](Hendrik)(Hendrik S. Houthakker), professor of economics at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) and [University](Harvard)(Harvard University), and member of President [Nixon](Richard M. Nixon)'s [of Economic Advisers](Council)(Council of Economic Advisers) Tymieniecka collaborated with Wojtyła on a number of projects including an English translation of Wojtyła's book [i czyn*](*Osoba)(Pope John Paul II bibliography) (*Person and Act*). *Person and Act*, one of John Paul II's foremost literary works, was initially written in Polish. Tymieniecka produced the English-language version. They corresponded over the years, and grew to be good friends. When Wojtyła visited New England in the summer of 1976, Tymieniecka put him up as a guest in her family home. Wojtyła enjoyed his holiday in [Vermont](Pomfret,)(Pomfret, Vermont), kayaking and enjoying the outdoors, as he had done in his beloved Poland.
During 1974–1975, Wojtyła served [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI) as consultor to the [Council for the Laity](Pontifical)(Pontifical Council for the Laity), as recording secretary for the 1974 synod on evangelism and by participating extensively in the original drafting of the 1975 [exhortation](apostolic)(apostolic exhortation), *[nuntiandi](Evangelii)(Evangelii nuntiandi)*.Moreira Neves, Lucas Cardinal. "EVANGELII NUNTIANDI: PAUL VI'S PASTORAL TESTAMENT TO THE CHURCH". Eternal Word Television Network.
## Papacy
### Election
[[papam Ioannes Paulus II.jpg|thumb|left|First appearance of Pope John Paul II following his election on 16 October 1978](File:Habemus)]
In August 1978, following the death of Pope Paul VI, Wojtyła voted in the [conclave](papal)(papal conclave), which elected [Paul I](John)(Pope John Paul I). John Paul I died after only 33 days as pope, triggering another conclave.
The second conclave of 1978 started on 14 October, ten days after the funeral. It was split between two strong [for the papacy](candidates)(Papabile): Cardinal [Siri](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Siri), the conservative [of Genoa](Archbishop)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Genoa), and the liberal [of Florence](Archbishop)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence), Cardinal [Benelli](Giovanni)(Giovanni Benelli), a close friend of John Paul I.
[[File:John paul 2 coa.svg|thumb|upright|The [of arms](coat)(coat of arms) of John Paul II displaying the *[Cross](Marian)(Marian Cross)* with the letter M signifying the [Virgin Mary](Blessed)(Blessed Virgin Mary), the mother of Jesus]]
Supporters of Benelli were confident that he would be elected, and in early [ballot](ballot)s, Benelli came within nine votes of success. However, both men faced sufficient opposition for neither to be likely to prevail. [Colombo](Giovanni)(Giovanni Colombo), the Archbishop of Milan, was considered as a compromise candidate among the Italian cardinal-electors, but when he started to receive votes, he announced that, if elected, he would decline to accept the papacy. Cardinal [König](Franz)(Franz König), [of Vienna](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Vienna), suggested Wojtyła as another compromise candidate to his fellow electors. Wojtyła won on the eighth ballot on the third day (16 October).
Among those cardinals who rallied behind Wojtyła were supporters of [Siri](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Siri), [Wyszyński](Stefan)(Stefan Wyszyński), most of the American cardinals (led by [Krol](John)(John Krol)), and other moderate cardinals. He accepted his election with the words: "With obedience in faith to Christ, my Lord, and with trust in the Mother of Christ and the Church, in spite of great difficulties, I accept". The pope, in tribute to his immediate predecessor, then took the [name](regnal)(regnal name) of *John Paul II*, also in honor of the late Pope Paul VI, and the traditional white smoke informed the crowd gathered in [Peter's Square](St.)(St. Peter's Square) that a pope had been chosen. There had been rumors that the new pope wished to be known as *Pope Stanislaus* in honor of [Polish saint of the name](the)(Stanislaus of Szczepanów), but was convinced by the cardinals that it was not a Roman name. When the new pontiff appeared on the balcony, he broke tradition by addressing the gathered crowd:
"Dear brothers and sisters, we are saddened at the death of our beloved Pope John Paul I, and so the cardinals have called for a new bishop of Rome. They called him from a faraway land—far and yet always close because of our communion in faith and Christian traditions. I was afraid to accept that responsibility, yet I do so in a spirit of obedience to the Lord and total faithfulness to Mary, our most Holy Mother. I am speaking to you in your—no, our Italian language. If I make a mistake, please me [mispronouncing the word 'correct'](deliberately) ... ."Agasso, Renzo. [*Caro Karol*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jUkrNOuindcC&pg=PA23). Effata Editrice IT, 2011. p. 23.[First Greetings and First Blessing to the Faithful: Address of John Paul II, Monday, October 16, 1978](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/1978/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19781016_primo-saluto_it.html) . [Vatican](Holy See). *Vatican.va*.
Wojtyła became the 264th pope according to the chronological [of popes](list)(list of popes), the first non-Italian in 455 years. At only 58 years of age, he was the youngest pope since [Pius IX](Pope)(Pope Pius IX) in 1846, who was 54. Like his predecessor, John Paul II dispensed with the traditional [coronation](papal)(papal coronation) and instead received ecclesiastical [investiture](investiture) with a simplified [inauguration](papal)(papal inauguration) on 22 October 1978. During his inauguration, when the cardinals were to kneel before him to take their vows and kiss his ring, he stood up as the Polish prelate, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński knelt down, stopped him from kissing the ring, and simply embraced him.
### Pastoral journeys
[[Jan Paweł II i kardynał Stefan kardynał Wyszyński w drodze na plac Zwycięstwa w dniu 2 czerwca 1979.jpg|thumb|John Paul's first papal trip to Poland in June 1979](File:Papież)]
During his pontificate, John Paul II made journeys to 129 countries, travelling more than while doing so. He consistently attracted large crowds, some among the largest ever assembled in [history](human)(human history), such as the [World Youth Day](Manila)(World Youth Day 1995), which gathered up to four million people, the largest papal gathering ever, according to the Vatican. John Paul II's earliest official visits were to the Dominican Republic and Mexico in January 1979. While some of his journeys (such as to the United States and the [Land](Holy)(Holy Land)) were to places previously visited by Pope Paul VI, John Paul II became the first pope to visit the [House](White)(White House) in October 1979, where he was [warmly](greeted)(List of meetings between the pope and the president of the United States) by President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter). He was the first pope ever to visit several countries in one year, starting in 1979 with Mexico and [Ireland](Pope John Paul II's visit to Ireland). He was the first reigning pope to [to the United Kingdom](travel)(Pope John Paul II's visit to the United Kingdom), in 1982, where he met [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth II), the [Governor of the Church of England](Supreme)(Supreme Governor of the Church of England). While in Britain he also visited [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral) and knelt in prayer with [Runcie](Robert)(Robert Runcie), the [of Canterbury](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Canterbury), at the spot where [Becket](Thomas)(Thomas Becket) had been killed, as well as holding several large-scale open air masses, including one at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium (1923)), which was attended by some 80,000 people.
[[File:Sandro Pertini e Giovanni Paolo II insieme sulle cime dell' Adamello 21.jpg|thumb|left|John Paul II with the president of Italy [Pertini](Sandro)(Sandro Pertini) in 1984]]
He travelled to Haiti in 1983, where he spoke in [Creole](Haitian Creole) to thousands of impoverished Catholics gathered to greet him at the airport. His message, "things must change in Haiti," referring to the disparity between the wealthy and the poor, was met with thunderous applause. In 2000, he was the first modern pope to visit Egypt, where he met with the [pope](Coptic)(Coptic Orthodox Church), [Shenouda III](Pope)(Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria) and the [Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria](Greek)(List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria). He was the first Catholic pope to visit and pray in an Islamic mosque, in [Damascus](Damascus), Syria, in 2001. He visited the [Mosque](Umayyad)(Umayyad Mosque), a former [church](Christian)(Christian Church) where [the Baptist](John)(John the Baptist) is believed to be interred, where he made a speech calling for Muslims, Christians and Jews to live together.
On 15 January 1995, during the X World Youth Day, he offered [Mass](Catholic Mass) to an estimated crowd of between five and seven million in [Park](Luneta)(Rizal Park), [Manila](Manila), Philippines, which was considered to be the largest single gathering in [history](Christian)(History of Christianity). In March 2000, while visiting [Jerusalem](Jerusalem), John Paul became the first pope in history to visit and pray at the [Wall](Western)(Western Wall). In September 2001, amid post-[September](11)(11 September attacks) concerns, he travelled to Kazakhstan, with an audience largely consisting of Muslims, and to Armenia, to participate in the celebration of 1,700 years of [Christianity](Armenian)(Armenian Apostolic Church).
In June 1979, John Paul II travelled to Poland, where ecstatic crowds constantly surrounded him. This first papal trip to Poland uplifted the nation's spirit and sparked the formation of the [Solidarity](Solidarity (Polish trade union)) movement in 1980, which later brought freedom and human rights to his troubled homeland. Leaders of the [United Workers' Party](Polish)(Polish United Workers' Party) intended to use the pope's visit to show the people that although the pope was Polish, it did not alter their capacity to govern, oppress, and distribute the goods of society. They also hoped that if the pope abided by the rules they set, the Polish people would see his example and follow them as well. If the pope's visit inspired a riot, the Communist leaders of Poland were prepared to crush the uprising and blame the suffering on the pope.Angelo M. Codevilla, "Political Warfare: A Set of Means for Achieving Political Ends", in Waller, ed., *Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare* (IWP Press, 2008.)
"When Pope John Paul II kissed the ground at the Warsaw airport he began the process by which Communism in Poland — and ultimately elsewhere in Europe — would come to an end."[Lewis Gaddis](John)(John Lewis Gaddis), *The Cold War: A New History*, p. 193, Penguin Books (2006),
On later trips to Poland, he gave tacit support to the [Solidarity](Solidarity (Polish trade union)) organisation. These visits reinforced this message and contributed to the collapse of East European Communism that took place between 1989 and 1990 with the reintroduction of democracy in Poland, and which then spread through Eastern Europe (1990–1991) and South-Eastern Europe (1990–1992).
### World Youth Days
[[File:President Clinton and Pope John Paul II in Denver, CO.webm|thumb|Pope John Paul II and US President [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) during the [Youth Day](World)(World Youth Day 1993) in Denver, Colorado, 1993]]
[[File:JohnPaulIICardinalSin1995WYD.jpg|thumb|Pope John Paul II (right) with Manila Archbishop Cardinal [Sin](Jaime)(Jaime Sin) (left) addressing the crowd attending the closing mass of the tenth [Youth Day](World)(World Youth Day 1995) at [Park](Luneta)(Rizal Park), 1995]]
As an extension of his successful work with youth as a young priest, John Paul II pioneered the international [Youth Day](World)(World Youth Day)s. John Paul II presided over nine of them: [Rome](Rome) (1985 and 2000), [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires) (1987), [de Compostela](Santiago)(Santiago de Compostela) (1989), [Częstochowa](Częstochowa) (1991), [Denver](Denver) (1993), [Manila](Manila) (1995), [Paris](Paris) (1997), and [Toronto](Toronto) (2002). Total attendance at these signature events of the pontificate was in the tens of millions.Weigel, George. The End and the Beginning: Pope John Paul II – The Victory of Freedom, the Last Years, the Legacy . The Crown Publishing Group. Kindle Edition.
### Dedicated Years
Keenly aware of the rhythms of time and the importance of anniversaries in the Catholic Church's life, John Paul II led nine "dedicated years" during the twenty-six and a half years of his pontificate: the Holy Year of the Redemption in 1983–84, the [Year](Marian)(Marian Year) in 1987–88, the Year of the Family in 1993–94, the three Trinitarian years of preparation for the [Jubilee](Great)(Great Jubilee) of 2000, the Great Jubilee itself, the Year of the Rosary in 2002–3, and the [of the Eucharist](Year)(Year of the Eucharist), which began on 17 October 2004, and concluded six months after the Pope's death.
### Great Jubilee of 2000
The [Jubilee](Great)(Great Jubilee) of 2000 was a call to the church to become more aware and to embrace her missionary task for the work of [evangelization](New evangelization).
"From the beginning of my Pontificate, my thoughts had been on this Holy Year 2000 as an important appointment. I thought of its celebration as a providential opportunity during which the Church, thirty-five years after the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, would examine how far she had renewed herself, in order to be able to take up her evangelising mission with fresh enthusiasm."Novo Millenio Inuente §2
John Paul II also made a pilgrimage to the [Land](Holy)(Holy Land) for the [Jubilee](Great)(Great Jubilee) of 2000. During his visit to the Holy Land, John Paul II visited many sites of the [Rosary](Rosary), including the following locations: [Beyond the Jordan (Al-Maghtas)](Bethany)(Al-Maghtas), at the [River](Jordan)(Jordan River), where [the Baptist](John)(John the Baptist) baptized Jesus; [Square](Manger)(Manger Square) and the [of the Nativity](Church)(Church of the Nativity) in the town of [Bethlehem](Bethlehem), the location of Jesus' birth; and the [of the Holy Sepulchre](Church)(Church of the Holy Sepulchre) in [Jerusalem](Jerusalem), the site of Jesus' burial and resurrection.
## Teachings
As pope, John Paul II wrote [papal encyclicals](14)(List of encyclicals of Pope John Paul II) and taught about sexuality in what is referred as the "[of the Body](Theology)(Theology of the Body)". Some key elements of his strategy to "reposition the Catholic Church" were encyclicals such as *[de Eucharistia](Ecclesia)(Ecclesia de Eucharistia)*, *[et paenitentia](Reconciliatio)(Reconciliatio et paenitentia)* and *[Mater](Redemptoris)(Redemptoris Mater)*. In his *At the beginning of the new millennium* (*[Millennio Ineunte](Novo)(Novo Millennio Ineunte)*), he emphasised the importance of "starting afresh from Christ": "No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person." In *The Splendour of the Truth* (*[Splendor](Veritatis)(Veritatis Splendor)*), he emphasised the dependence of man on God and His Law ("Without the Creator, the creature disappears") and the "dependence of freedom on the truth". He warned that man "giving himself over to relativism and scepticism, goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself". In *[et Ratio](Fides)(Fides et Ratio)* (*On the Relationship between Faith and Reason*) John Paul promoted a renewed interest in philosophy and an autonomous pursuit of truth in theological matters. Drawing on many different sources (such as Thomism), he described the mutually supporting relationship between [and reason](faith)(faith and rationality), and emphasised that theologians should focus on that relationship. John Paul II wrote extensively about workers and the [doctrine](social)(Catholic social teaching) of the church, which he discussed in three encyclicals: *[exercens](Laborem)(Laborem exercens)*, *[rei socialis](Sollicitudo)(Sollicitudo rei socialis)*, and *[annus](Centesimus)(Centesimus annus)*. Through his encyclicals and many [Letters](Apostolic)(General epistles) and Exhortations, John Paul II talked about the [dignity](dignity) and the equality of women. He argued for the importance of the family for the future of humanity.
Other encyclicals include *The Gospel of Life* (*[Vitae](Evangelium)(Evangelium Vitae)*) and *Ut Unum Sint* (*That They May Be One*). Though critics accused him of inflexibility in explicitly re-asserting Catholic moral teachings against abortion and [euthanasia](euthanasia) that have been in place for well over a thousand years, he urged a more nuanced view of [punishment](capital)(Catholic Church and capital punishment). In his second encyclical *[in misericordia](Dives)(Dives in misericordia)* he stressed that [mercy](divine)(divine mercy) is the greatest feature of God, needed especially in modern times.
### Social and political stances
John Paul II was considered a conservative on [doctrine](doctrine) and issues relating to human [reproduction](sexual)(sexual reproduction) and the ordination of women. While he was visiting the United States in 1977, the year before becoming pope, Wojtyła said: "All human life, from the moments of conception and through all subsequent stages, is sacred."
A series of 129 lectures given by John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in Rome between September 1979 and November 1984 were later compiled and published as a single work titled *[of the Body](Theology)(Theology of the Body)*, an extended meditation on [sexuality](human)(human sexuality). He extended it to the condemnation of abortion, euthanasia, and virtually all capital punishment, calling them all a part of a struggle between a "[of life](culture)(culture of life)" and a "culture of death".John Paul II. (1995). Evangelium Vitae. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, §95 He campaigned for world debt forgiveness and [justice](social)(social justice). He coined the term "[mortgage](social)(social mortgage)", which related that all private property had a social dimension, namely that "the goods of this are originally meant for all."article 42, Solicitudo Rei Socialis In 2000, he publicly endorsed the [2000](Jubilee)(Jubilee 2000) campaign on African [relief](debt)(debt relief) fronted by Irish rock stars [Geldof](Bob)(Bob Geldof) and [Bono](Bono), once famously interrupting a [U2](U2) recording session by telephoning the studio and asking to speak to Bono.
John Paul II, who was present and very influential at the 1962–65 [Vatican Council](Second)(Second Vatican Council), affirmed the teachings of that Council and did much to implement them. Nevertheless, his critics often wished that he would embrace what has been called a progressive agenda that some hoped would evolve as a result of the Council. In fact, the Council did not advocate progressive changes in these areas; for example, they still condemned abortion as an unspeakable crime. John Paul II continued to declare that contraception, abortion, and homosexual acts were gravely sinful, and, along with Joseph Ratzinger (future [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI)), opposed [theology](liberation)(liberation theology).
Following the church's exaltation of the marital act of sexual intercourse between a baptised man and woman within sacramental marriage as proper and exclusive to the [sacrament](sacrament) of marriage, John Paul II believed that it was, in every instance, profaned by contraception, abortion, divorce followed by a 'second' marriage, and by homosexual acts. In 1994, John Paul II asserted the church's lack of authority to ordain women to the priesthood, stating that without such authority ordination is not legitimately compatible with fidelity to Christ. This was also deemed a repudiation of calls to break with the constant tradition of the church by ordaining women to the priesthood. In addition, John Paul II chose not to end the discipline of mandatory priestly celibacy, although in a small number of unusual circumstances, he did allow certain married clergymen of other Christian traditions who later became Catholic to be ordained as Catholic priests.
### Apartheid in South Africa
John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of [in South Africa](apartheid)(apartheid in South Africa). In 1985, while visiting the Netherlands, he gave an impassioned speech condemning apartheid at the [Court of Justice](International)(International Court of Justice), proclaiming that "No system of apartheid or separate development will ever be acceptable as a model for the relations between peoples or races."["Pope Attacks Apartheid in Speech at U.N. Court"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130309014419/http://articles.latimes.com/1985-05-13/news/mn-9935_1_afrikaners) *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, 13 May 1985 In September 1988, John Paul II made a pilgrimage to ten Southern African countries, including those bordering South Africa, while demonstratively avoiding South Africa. During his visit to [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe), John Paul II called for economic sanctions against South Africa's government.[Pope's "South Africa Visit Honors 2 Vows"](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/17/world/pope-s-south-africa-visit-honors-2-vows.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, 13 May 1995 After John Paul II's death, both [Mandela](Nelson)(Nelson Mandela) and [Desmond Tutu](Archbishop)(Archbishop Desmond Tutu) praised the pope for defending human rights and condemning economic injustice.[Mandela 'deeply inspired' by Pope](https://web.archive.org/web/20060718134841/http://www.southafrica.info/mandela/pope-050405.htm#.UHIDqMr4IsA) [Africa Info](South), 5 April 2005
### Capital punishment
John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of the death penalty, although previous popes had accepted the practice. At a papal mass in [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri), in the United States he said:
"A sign of hope is the increasing recognition that the dignity of human life must never be taken away, even in the case of someone who has done great evil. Modern society has the means of protecting itself, without definitively denying criminals the chance to reform. I renew the appeal I made most recently at Christmas for a consensus to end the death penalty, which is both cruel and unnecessary."
During that visit, John Paul II convinced the then [governor](Governor (United States)) of Missouri, [Carnahan](Mel)(Mel Carnahan), to reduce the death sentence of convicted murderer Darrell J. Mease to life imprisonment without parole.Trigilio Jr., Rev. John, Rev. Kenneth Brighenti and Rev. Jonathan Toborowsky. *John Paul II for Dummies*, p. 140, John Wiley & Sons, 2011 John Paul II's other attempts to reduce the sentence of [death-row](death-row) inmates were unsuccessful. In 1983, John Paul II visited [Guatemala](Guatemala) and unsuccessfully asked the country's president, [Ríos Montt](Efraín)(Efraín Ríos Montt), to reduce the sentence for six left-wing guerrillas sentenced to death.Virginia Garrard-Burnett. *Terror in the Land of the Holy Spirit: Guatemala Under General Efrain Rios Montt, 1982–1983*, pp. 20–21, John Wiley & Sons, 2010
In 2002, John Paul II again travelled to Guatemala. At that time, Guatemala was one of only two countries in Latin America (the other being Cuba) to apply capital punishment. John Paul II asked the Guatemalan president, [Portillo](Alfonso)(Alfonso Portillo), for a moratorium on executions.
### European Union
John Paul II pushed for a reference to Europe's Christian cultural roots in the draft of the [Constitution](European)(European Constitution). In his 2003 [exhortation](apostolic)(apostolic exhortation) *[in Europa](Ecclesia)(Ecclesia in Europa)*, John Paul II wrote that he "fully (respected) the secular nature of (European) institutions". However, he wanted the constitution to enshrine religious rights, including acknowledging the rights of religious groups to organise freely, recognise the specific identity of each denomination and allow for a "structured dialogue" between each religious community and the [Union](European)(European Union) (EU), and extend across the EU the legal status enjoyed by religious institutions in individual member states. John Paul II said: "I wish once more to appeal to those drawing up the future European Constitutional Treaty so that it will include a reference to the religion and in particular to the Christian heritage of Europe." The pope's desire for a reference to Europe's Christian identity in the EU Constitution was supported by non-Catholic representatives of the [of England](Church)(Church of England) and [Orthodox Churches](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Churches) from Russia, Romania, and Greece. John Paul II's demand to include a reference to Europe's Christian roots in the European Constitution was supported by some non-Christians, such as [Weiler](Joseph)(Joseph Weiler), a practising [Jew](Orthodox)(Orthodox Jew) and renowned constitutional lawyer, who said that the EU Constitution's lack of a reference to Christianity was not a "demonstration of neutrality" but rather "a [Jacobin](Jacobin) attitude".
At the same time, John Paul II was an enthusiastic supporter of [integration](European)(European integration); in particular, he supported his native Poland's entry into the bloc. On 19 May 2003, three weeks before a referendum was held in Poland on EU membership, the Polish pope addressed his compatriots and urged them to vote for Poland's EU membership at St. Peter's Square in Vatican City State. While some conservative, Catholic politicians in Poland opposed EU membership, John Paul II said:
"I know that there are many in opposition to integration. I appreciate their concern about maintaining the cultural and religious identity of our nation. However, I must emphasise that Poland has always been an important part of Europe. Europe needs Poland. The Church in Europe needs the Poles' testimony of faith. Poland needs Europe."
The Polish pope compared Poland's entry into the EU to the [of Lublin](Union)(Union of Lublin), which was signed in 1569 and united the [of Poland](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)) and the [Duchy of Lithuania](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Lithuania) into one nation and created an elective monarchy.
### Evolution
On 22 October 1996, in a speech to the [Academy of Sciences](Pontifical)(Pontifical Academy of Sciences) [session](plenary)(wikt:plenary session) at the Vatican, John Paul II said of [evolution](evolution) that "this theory has been progressively accepted by researchers, following a series of discoveries in various fields of knowledge. The convergence, neither sought nor fabricated, of the results of work that was conducted independently is in itself a significant argument in favour of this theory." John Paul II's embrace of evolution was enthusiastically praised by American [paleontologist](Paleontology) and evolutionary biologist [Jay Gould](Stephen)(Stephen Jay Gould), with whom he had an audience in 1984.
Although generally accepting the theory of evolution, John Paul II made one major exception—the [soul](human)(Soul (spirit)), saying: "If the human body has its origin in living material which pre-exists it, the spiritual soul is immediately created by God."
### Iraq War
In 2003 John Paul II criticised the 2003 United States-led [of Iraq](invasion)(invasion of Iraq), saying in his State of the World address "No to war! War is not always inevitable. It is always a defeat for humanity."John Paul II, "[Address to the Diplomatic Corps](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/2003/january/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20030113_diplomatic-corps_en.html)", Vatican, 13 January 2003 (Retrieved 7 February 2007). He sent [Cardinal Laghi](Pio)(Pio Laghi), the former [Pro-Nuncio to the United States](Apostolic)(Nunciature of the Holy See in Washington DC), to talk with [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush), the US president, to express opposition to the war. John Paul II said that it was up to the United Nations to solve the international conflict through diplomacy and that a unilateral aggression is a [against peace](crime)(crime against peace) and a violation of [law](international)(international law). The pope's opposition to the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War) led to him being a candidate to win the 2003 [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize), which was ultimately awarded to Iranian attorney/judge and noted human rights advocate [Ebadi](Shirin)(Nobel Peace Prize in 2003).[Pope Mooted for Nobel Peace Prize](http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/10/09/1065601953306.html) *[Age](The)(The Age)*, 9 October 2003[Pope John Paul II is the Favorite to Win Nobel Peace Prize](http://www.deseretnews.com/article/515037715/Pope-John-Paul-II-is-the-favorite-to-win-Nobel-Peace-Prize.html?pg=all) *[News](Deseret)(Deseret News)*, 10 October 2003
### Liberation theology
In 1984 and 1986, through Cardinal Ratzinger (future [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI)) as [of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith](Prefect)(Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith), John Paul II officially condemned aspects of [theology](Liberation)(Liberation theology), which had many followers in Latin America.
Visiting Europe, Salvadoran Archbishop [Romero](Óscar)(Óscar Romero) unsuccessfully advocated for the Vatican to condemn the right-wing military regime of [Salvador](El)(El Salvador), for violations of human rights during the [Civil War](Salvadoran)(Salvadoran Civil War) and the support of [squads](death)(death squads). Though Romero expressed his frustration at working with clergy who cooperated with the government, John Paul II encouraged him to maintain episcopal unity as a top priority.
In his travel to [Managua](Managua), Nicaragua in 1983, John Paul II harshly condemned what he dubbed the "popular Church", referencing the [base communities](ecclesial)(basic ecclesial community) supported by the [CELAM](Latin American Episcopal Conference), and the Nicaraguan clergy's tendencies to support the leftist [Sandinistas](Sandinista National Liberation Front), reminding the clergy of their duties of obedience to the [See](Holy)(Holy See). During that visit [Cardenal](Ernesto)(Ernesto Cardenal), a priest and minister in the Sandinista government, knelt to kiss his hand. John Paul withdrew it, wagged his finger in Cardenal's face, and told him, "You must straighten out your position with the church."
### Organised crime
John Paul II was the first pontiff to denounce [Mafia](Organized crime in Italy) violence in [Italy](Southern)(Southern Italy). In 1993, during a pilgrimage to [Agrigento](Agrigento), Sicily, he appealed to the Mafiosi: "I say to those responsible: 'Convert! One day, the judgment of God will arrive!'" In 1994, John Paul II visited [Catania](Catania) and told victims of Mafia violence to "rise up and cloak yourself in light and justice!"
In 1995, the Mafia bombed two historical churches in Rome. Some believed that this was the mob's [vendetta](Feud) against the pope for his denunciations of organised crime.
### Persian Gulf War
Between 1990 and 1991, a 34-nation coalition led by the United States waged a war against [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein)'s [Iraq](Iraq), which had invaded and annexed [Kuwait](Kuwait). John Paul II was a staunch opponent of the [War](Gulf)(Gulf War). Throughout the conflict, he appealed to the international community to stop the war, and after it was over led diplomatic initiatives to negotiate peace in the Middle East. In his 1991 encyclical [Annus](Centesimus)(Centesimus annus), John Paul II harshly condemned the conflict:
"No, never again war, which destroys the lives of innocent people, teaches how to kill, throws into upheaval even the lives of those who do the killing and leaves behind a trail of resentment and hatred, thus making it all the more difficult to find a just solution of the very problems which provoked the war."
In April 1991, during his *[et Orbi](Urbi)(Urbi et Orbi)* Sunday message at [Peter's Basilica](St.)(St. Peter's Basilica), John Paul II called for the international community to "lend an ear" to "the long-ignored aspirations of oppressed peoples". He specifically named the [Kurds](Kurds), a people who were fighting a civil war against Saddam Hussein's troops in Iraq, as one such people, and referred to the war as a "darkness menacing the earth". During this time, the Vatican had expressed its frustration with the international ignoring of the pope's calls for peace in the Middle East.
### Rwandan genocide
In 1990, during the [war](civil)(Rwandan Civil War) between [Tutsis](Tutsis) and [Hutus](Hutus) in the mostly Catholic country of Rwanda, John Paul II called for a ceasefire and condemned the persecution of the Tutsis. In 1994, he was the first world leader to condemn the massacre of the Tutsis as a [genocide](genocide). In 1995, during his third visit to [Kenya](Kenya) before an audience of 300,000, John Paul II pleaded for an end to the violence in [Rwanda](Rwanda) and [Burundi](Burundi), urging forgiveness and reconciliation as a solution to the genocide. He told Rwandan and Burundian refugees that he "was close to them and shared their immense pain". He said:
"What is happening in your countries is a terrible tragedy that must end. During the African Synod, we, the pastors of the church, felt the duty to express our consternation and to launch an appeal for forgiveness and reconciliation. This is the only way to dissipate the threats of ethnocentrism that are hovering over Africa these days and that have so brutally touched Rwanda and [Burundi](Burundi Genocide)."
### Views on sexuality
While taking a traditional position on human [sexuality](Human sexuality), maintaining the Catholic Church's moral opposition to homosexual acts, John Paul II asserted that people with homosexual inclinations possess the same inherent dignity and rights as others. In his book *Memory and Identity*, he referred to the "strong pressures" by the [Parliament](European)(European Parliament) to recognise homosexual unions as an alternative type of family, with the right to adopt children. In the book, as quoted by [Reuters](Reuters), he wrote: "It is legitimate and necessary to ask oneself if this is not perhaps part of a new ideology of evil, more subtle and hidden, perhaps, intent upon exploiting human rights themselves against man and against the family."
In 1986, the Pope approved the release of a document from the [for the Doctrine of the Faith](Congregation)(Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith) regarding *Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons*. While not neglecting to comment on homosexuality and moral order, the letter issued multiple affirmations of the dignity of homosexual persons.
A 1997 study determined that of all the pope's public statements, only 3% addressed the issue of sexual morality.
## Reform of canon law
John Paul II completed a full-scale reform of the Catholic Church's legal system, Latin and Eastern, and a reform of the Roman Curia.
On 18 October 1990, when promulgating the *[of Canons of the Eastern Churches](Code)(Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches)*, John Paul II stated
In 1998, John Paul II issued the [proprio](motu)(motu proprio) *[tuendam fidem](Ad)(Ad tuendam fidem)*, which amended two canons (750 and 1371) of the 1983 Code of Canon Law and two canons (598 and 1436) of the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.
### 1983 *Code of Canon Law*
On 25 January 1983, with the Apostolic Constitution *[disciplinae leges](Sacrae)(Sacrae disciplinae leges)* John Paul II promulgated the current code of canon law for all members of the Catholic Church who belonged to the [Church](Latin)(Latin Church). It entered into force the first Sunday of the following [Advent](Advent),Ap. Const. *Sacræ Disciplineæ Leges* which was 27 November 1983.NYTimes.com, "[New Canon Law Code in Effect for Catholics](https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/27/us/new-canon-law-code-in-effect-for-catholics.html)", 27 November 1983, accessed June-25-2013 John Paul II described the new code as "the last document of Vatican II". [N. Peters](Edward)(Edward N. Peters) has referred to the 1983 *Code* as the "Johanno-Pauline Code"[Master Page on the Johanno-Pauline Code of 1983](http://www.canonlaw.info/masterpage1983.htm), CanonLaw.info, accessed 17 March 2016 (*Johannes Paulus* is [Latin](Latin) for "John Paul"), paralleling the [1917 code]("Pio-Benedictine")(1917 Code of Canon Law) that it replaced.
### *Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches*
John Paul II promulgated the *[of Canons of the Eastern Churches](Code)(Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches)* (CCEO) on 18 October 1990, by the document *Sacri Canones*.*AAS*82 (1990) pp. 1033–1063 The CCEO came into force of law on 1 October 1991.Dr. Thomas Kuzhinapurath, *Salvific Law: Salvific Character of CCEO, An Historical Overview*, Malankara Seminary Publications, Trivandrum, 2008, p.79 It is the [codification](Codification (law)) of the common portions of the [law](canon)(Canon law of the Catholic Church) for the 23 of the 24 *[iuris](sui)(sui iuris)* churches in the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) that are the [Catholic Churches](Eastern)(Eastern Catholic Churches). It is divided into 30 titles and has a total of 1540 [canons](Canon (canon law)).Pete Vere & Michael Trueman, "Surprised by Canon Law, Vol. 2" (Cincinnati, Ohio: Servant Books, 2007); pg. 123
### *Pastor bonus*
John Paul II promulgated the [constitution](apostolic)(apostolic constitution) *[bonus](Pastor)(Pastor bonus)* on 28 June 1988. It instituted a number of reforms in the process of running the [Curia](Roman)(Roman Curia). *Pastor bonus* laid out in considerable detail the organisation of the Roman Curia, specifying precisely the names and composition of each dicastery, and enumerating the competencies of each [dicastery](dicastery). It replaced the previous special law, *Regimini Ecclesiæ universæ*, which was promulgated by Paul VI in 1967.
## *Catechism of the Catholic Church*
On 11 October 1992, in his [constitution](apostolic)(apostolic constitution) *[depositum](Fidei)(Fidei depositum)* (*The Deposit of Faith*), John Paul ordered the publication of the *[of the Catholic Church](Catechism)(Catechism of the Catholic Church)*.
He declared the publication to be "a sure norm for teaching the faith … a sure and authentic reference text for teaching Catholic doctrine and particularly for preparing local catechisms". It was "meant to encourage and assist in the writing of new local catechisms [applicable and faithful](both)" rather than replacing them.
## Relationship with dictatorships
According to [Navarro-Valls](Joaquín)(Joaquín Navarro-Valls), John Paul II's press secretary:
"The single fact of John Paul II's election in 1978 changed everything. In Poland, everything began. Not in East Germany or Czechoslovakia. Then the whole thing spread. Why in 1980 did they lead the way in Gdansk? Why did they decide, now or never? Only because there was a Polish pope. He was in Chile and Pinochet was out. He was in Haiti and Duvalier was out. He was in the Philippines and Marcos was out. On many of those occasions, people would come here to the Vatican thanking the Holy Father for changing things."Jonathan Kwitny, *Man of the Century: The Life and Times of Pope John Paul II*, p. 592, Henry Holt and Co. (1997),
### Chile
Before John Paul II's pilgrimage to Latin America, during a meeting with reporters, he criticised [Pinochet](Augusto)(Augusto Pinochet)'s regime as "dictatorial". In the words of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, he used "unusually strong language" to criticise Pinochet and asserted to journalists that the church in Chile must not only pray, but actively fight for the restoration of democracy in Chile.[Pope, on Latin Trip, Attacks Pinochet Regime](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/01/world/pope-on-latin-trip-attacks-pinochet-regime.html?pagewanted=1) *The New York Times*, 1 April 1987
During his visit to Chile in 1987, John Paul II asked Chile's 31 Catholic bishops to campaign for free elections in the country.[Pope Tells Chile's Bishops To Press for Free Elections; Pontiff Joins Pinochet on Palace Balcony](http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-1314763.html) *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, 3 April 1987 According to [Weigel](George)(George Weigel) and Cardinal [Dziwisz](Stanisław)(Stanisław Dziwisz), he encouraged Pinochet to accept a democratic opening of the regime, and may even have called for his resignation.; According to Monsignor [Oder](Sławomir)(Sławomir Oder), the postulator of John Paul II's [beatification](beatification) cause, John Paul's words to Pinochet had a profound impact on the Chilean dictator. The pope confided to a friend: "I received a letter from Pinochet in which he told me that as a Catholic he had listened to my words, he had accepted them, and he had decided to begin the process to change the leadership of his country."Slawomir Oder, *Why He Is a Saint: The Life and Faith of Pope John Paul II and the Case for Canonisation*, p. 107–108, Rizzoli International Publications (2010),
During his visit to Chile, John Paul II supported the [of Solidarity](Vicariate)(Vicariate of Solidarity), the church-led pro-democracy, anti-Pinochet organisation. John Paul II visited the Vicariate of Solidarity's offices, spoke with its workers, and "called upon them to continue their work, emphasizing that the Gospel consistently urges respect for human rights".Timmerman, Jacobo *Chile: Death in the South*, p. 114, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1987 While in Chile, John Paul II made gestures of public support of Chile's anti-Pinochet democratic opposition. For instance, he hugged and kissed [Gloria Quintana](Carmen)(Carmen Gloria Quintana), a young student who had been nearly burned to death by Chilean police and told her that "We must pray for peace and justice in Chile."[Papal Mass In Chile Erupts In Violence](http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-04-04/news/8701250770_1_chile-marxist-president-salvador-allende-water-cannons) *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*, 4 April 1987 Later, he met with several opposition groups, including those that had been declared illegal by Pinochet's government. The opposition praised John Paul II for denouncing Pinochet as a dictator, for many members of Chile's opposition were persecuted for much milder statements. Bishop [Camus](Carlos)(Carlos Camus), one of the harshest critics of Pinochet's dictatorship within the Chilean Church, praised John Paul II's stance during the papal visit, saying: "I am quite moved, because our pastor supports us totally. Never again will anyone be able to say that we are interfering in politics when we defend human dignity." He added: "No country the Pope has visited has remained the same after his departure. The Pope's visit is a mission, an extraordinary social catechism, and his stay here will be a watershed in Chilean history."[Pionchet's Foes Cheered by the Pope's Presence](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/03/world/pinochet-foes-cheered-by-the-pope-s-presence.html?src=pm) *The New York Times*, 3 April 1987
Some have erroneously accused John Paul II of affirming Pinochet's regime by appearing with the Chilean ruler in public. Cardinal [Tucci](Roberto)(Roberto Tucci), the organiser of John Paul II's visits, revealed that Pinochet tricked the pontiff by telling him he would take him to his living room, while in reality he took him to his balcony. Tucci says that the pontiff was "furious".
### Haiti
John Paul II visited [Haiti](Haiti) on 9 March 1983, when the country was ruled by ["Baby Doc" Duvalier](Jean-Claude)(Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier). He bluntly criticised the poverty of the country, directly addressing [Doc](Baby)(Baby Doc) and his wife, [Bennett](Michèle)(Michèle Bennett) in front of a large crowd of Haitians:
"Yours is a beautiful country, rich in human resources, but Christians cannot be unaware of the injustice, the excessive inequality, the degradation of the quality of life, the misery, the hunger, the fear suffered by the majority of the people."Riccardo Orizio, *Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators*, p. 131, Walker & Company (2003),
John Paul II spoke in French and occasionally in Creole, and in the homily outlined the basic human rights that most Haitians lacked: "the opportunity to eat enough, to be cared for when ill, to find housing, to study, to overcome illiteracy, to find worthwhile and properly paid work; all that provides a truly human life for men and women, for young and old." Following John Paul II's pilgrimage, the Haitian opposition to Duvalier frequently reproduced and quoted the pope's message. Shortly before leaving Haiti, John Paul II called for social change in Haiti by saying: "Lift up your heads, be conscious of your dignity of men created in God's image...."James Ferguson, *Papa Doc, Baby Doc: Haiti and the Duvaliers*, p. 75-77, Basil Blackwell (1987),
John Paul II's visit inspired massive protests against the Duvalier dictatorship. In response to the visit, 860 Catholic priests and church workers signed a statement committing the church to work on behalf of the poor.Douglas Bond, Christopher Kruegler, Roger S. Powers, and William B. Vogele, ''Protest, Power, and Change: An Encyclopedia of Nonviolent Action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage'', p. 227, Routledge (1997), In 1986, Duvalier was deposed in an uprising.
### Paraguay
The collapse of the dictatorship of General [Stroessner](Alfredo)(Alfredo Stroessner) of Paraguay was linked, among other things, to John Paul II's visit to the South American country in May 1988. Since Stroessner's taking power through a coup d'état in 1954, Paraguay's bishops increasingly criticised the regime for human rights abuses, rigged elections, and the country's feudal economy. During his private meeting with Stroessner, John Paul II told the dictator:
"Politics has a fundamental ethical dimension because it is first and foremost a service to man. The Church can and must remind men—and in particular those who govern—of their ethical duties for the good of the whole of society. The Church cannot be isolated inside its temples just as men's consciences cannot be isolated from God."[Willey](David)(David Willey (journalist)), ''God's Politician: Pope John Paul II, the Catholic Church, and the New World Order'', p. 227, St. Martin's Press (1992),
Later, during a Mass, John Paul II criticised the regime for impoverishing the peasants and the unemployed, saying that the government must give people greater access to the land. Although Stroessner tried to prevent him from doing so, John Paul II met opposition leaders in the one-party state.
## Role in the fall of Communism
[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II.jpg|thumb|US President [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) meeting with Pope John Paul II during a visit to the [City](Vatican)(Vatican City), 1982]]
### Role as spiritual inspiration and catalyst
By the late 1970s, the [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union) had been predicted by some observers.Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "Will Russia blow up?" Newsweek (19 November 1979): 144,147. John Paul II has been credited with being instrumental in bringing down Communism in Central and Eastern Europe, by being the spiritual inspiration behind its downfall and catalyst for "a peaceful revolution" in Poland. [Wałęsa](Lech)(Lech Wałęsa), the founder of [Solidarity](Solidarity (Polish trade union)) and the first [post-Communist](post-Communist) [of Poland](President)(President of Poland), credited John Paul II with giving Poles the courage to demand change. According to Wałęsa, "Before his pontificate, the world was divided into blocs. Nobody knew how to get rid of Communism. In [Warsaw](Warsaw), in 1979, he simply said: 'Do not be afraid', and later prayed: 'Let your Spirit descend and change the image of the land ... this land'." It has also been widely alleged that the [Bank](Vatican)(Vatican Bank) covertly funded Solidarity.
In 1984, the [policy of the Ronald Reagan administration](foreign)(foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration) saw opened diplomatic relations with the Vatican [the first time since 1870](for)(Holy See–United States relations). In sharp contrast to the long history of strong domestic opposition, this time there was very little opposition from Congress, the courts, and Protestant groups.Andrew M. Essig, and Jennifer L. Moore. "US-Holy See Diplomacy: The Establishment of Formal Relations, 1984." *Catholic Historical Review* (2009) 95#4, pp. 741-764741-764. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27745671) Relations between Reagan and John Paul II were close, especially because of their shared [anti-communism](anti-communism) and keen interest in forcing the Soviets out of Poland.Gayte, Marie (2011). "The Vatican and the Reagan Administration: A Cold War Alliance?" *Catholic Historical Review*. **97** (4): 713–736. . Reagan's correspondence with the pope reveals "a continuous scurrying to shore up Vatican support for U.S. policies. Perhaps most surprisingly, the papers show that, as late as 1984, the pope did not believe the Communist Polish government could be changed."
"No one can prove conclusively that he was a primary cause of the end of communism. However, the major figures on all sides—not just Lech Wałęsa, the Polish Solidarity leader, but also Solidarity's arch-opponent, General [Jaruzelski](Wojciech)(Wojciech Jaruzelski); not just the former American president [Bush Senior](George)(George Bush Senior) but also the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev—now agree that he was. I would argue the historical case in three steps: without the Polish Pope, no Solidarity revolution in Poland in 1980; without Solidarity, no dramatic change in Soviet policy towards eastern Europe under Gorbachev; without that change, no velvet revolutions in 1989."
In December 1989, John Paul II met with the Soviet leader [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) at the Vatican and each expressed his respect and admiration for the other. Gorbachev once said: "The collapse of the [Curtain](Iron)(Iron Curtain) would have been impossible without John Paul II." On John Paul II's death, Gorbachev said: "Pope John Paul II's devotion to his followers is a remarkable example to all of us."
On 4 June 2004, U.S. president [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) presented the [Medal of Freedom](Presidential)(Presidential Medal of Freedom), the United States' highest civilian honour, to John Paul II during a ceremony at the [Palace](Apostolic)(Apostolic Palace). The president read the citation that accompanied the medal, which recognised "this son of Poland" whose "principled stand for peace and freedom has inspired millions and helped to topple communism and tyranny".
After receiving the award, John Paul II said, "May the desire for freedom, peace, a more humane world symbolised by this medal inspire men and women of goodwill in every time and place."
### Communist attempt to compromise John Paul II
[[File:Grafiti rijeka 1208.jpg|thumb|Graffiti showing John Paul II with quote "Do not be afraid" in [Rijeka](Rijeka), [Croatia](Croatia)]]
In 1983, Poland's Communist government unsuccessfully tried to humiliate John Paul II by falsely saying he had fathered an illegitimate child. Section D of [Bezpieczeństwa](Służba)(Służba Bezpieczeństwa) (SB), the security service, had an action named "Triangolo" to carry out criminal operations against the Catholic Church; the operation encompassed all Polish hostile actions against the pope. Captain Grzegorz Piotrowski, one of the murderers of beatified [Popiełuszko](Jerzy)(Jerzy Popiełuszko), was the leader of section D. They drugged Irena Kinaszewska, the secretary of the Kraków-based weekly Catholic magazine *Tygodnik Powszechny* where Wojtyła had worked, and unsuccessfully attempted to make her admit to having had sexual relations with him.
The SB then attempted to compromise Kraków priest Andrzej Bardecki, an editor of *Tygodnik Powszechny* and one of the closest friends of Cardinal Wojtyła before he became pope, by planting false memoirs in his dwelling; Piotrowski was exposed and the forgeries were found and destroyed before the SB could say to have discovered them.
## Relations with other Christian denominations
John Paul II travelled extensively and met with believers from many divergent faiths. At the [Day of Prayer for Peace](World)(Day of Prayer), held in [Assisi](Assisi) on 27 October 1986, more than 120 representatives of different religions and [denominations](Christian denomination) spent a day of fasting and prayer.
### Churches of the East
Although the contact between the [See](Holy)(Holy See) and many Christians of the East had never totally ceased, communion had been interrupted since ancient times. Again, the history of conflict in Central Europe was a complex part of John Paul II's personal cultural heritage which made him all the more determined to react so as to attempt to overcome abiding difficulties, given that relatively speaking the [See](Holy)(Holy See) and the non-Catholic Eastern Churches are close in many points of faith.
#### Eastern Orthodox Church
In May 1999, John Paul II visited Romania on the invitation from Patriarch [Arăpaşu](Teoctist)(Teoctist Arăpaşu) of the [Orthodox Church](Romanian)(Romanian Orthodox Church). This was the first time a pope had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the [Schism](Great)(East–West Schism) in 1054. On his arrival, the Patriarch and the [of Romania](President)(President of Romania), [Constantinescu](Emil)(Emil Constantinescu), greeted the pope. The Patriarch stated, "The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity."
On 23–27 June 2001, John Paul II visited Ukraine, another heavily Orthodox nation, at the invitation of the [of Ukraine](President)(President of Ukraine) and bishops of the [Greek Catholic Church](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church). The Pope spoke to leaders of the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches and Religious Organisations, pleading for "open, tolerant and honest dialogue". About 200 thousand people attended the liturgies celebrated by the Pope in [Kyiv](Kyiv), and the liturgy in [Lviv](Lviv) gathered nearly one and a half million faithful. John Paul II said that an end to the Great Schism was one of his fondest wishes. Healing divisions between the Catholic and [Orthodox Churches](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Churches) regarding Latin and [Byzantine](Byzantine) traditions was clearly of great personal interest. For many years, John Paul II sought to facilitate dialogue and unity stating as early as 1988 in *Euntes in mundum*, "Europe has two lungs, it will never breathe easily until it uses both of them."
During his 2001 travels, John Paul II became the first pope to visit Greece in 1291 years. In [Athens](Athens), the pope met with [Christodoulos](Archbishop)(Archbishop Christodoulos of Athens), the head of the [of Greece](Church)(Church of Greece). After a private 30-minute meeting, the two spoke publicly. Christodoulos read a list of "13 offences" of the Catholic Church against the Eastern Orthodox Church since the Great Schism, including the pillaging of [by crusaders](Constantinople)(Siege of Constantinople (1204)) in 1204, and bemoaned the lack of apology from the Catholic Church, saying "Until now, there has not been heard a single request for pardon" for the "maniacal crusaders of the 13th century".
The pope responded by saying "For the occasions past and present, when sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by action or omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us forgiveness", to which Christodoulos immediately applauded. John Paul II said that the sacking of Constantinople was a source of "profound regret" for Catholics. Later John Paul II and Christodoulos met on a spot where [of Tarsus](Paul)(Paul of Tarsus) had once preached to Athenian Christians. They issued a common declaration saying, "We shall do everything in our power, so that the Christian roots of Europe and its Christian soul may be preserved.... We condemn all recourse to violence, [proselytism](proselytism) and [fanaticism](fanaticism), in the name of religion." The two leaders then said the [Prayer](Lord's)(Lord's Prayer) together, breaking an Orthodox taboo against praying with Catholics.
The pope had said throughout his pontificate that one of his greatest dreams was to visit Russia, but this never occurred. He attempted to solve the problems that had arisen over centuries between the Catholic and [Orthodox](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church) churches, and in 2004 gave them a 1730 copy of the lost icon of [Lady of Kazan](Our)(Our Lady of Kazan).
#### Armenian Apostolic Church
John Paul II was determined to maintain good relations with the [Apostolic Church](Armenian)(Armenian Apostolic Church), whose separation from the [See](Holy)(Holy See) dated to Christian antiquity. In 1996, he brought the Catholic Church and the [Apostolic Church](Armenian)(Armenian Apostolic Church) closer by agreeing with Armenian Archbishop [II](Karekin)(Karekin II) on Christ's nature. During an audience in 2000, John Paul II and [II](Karekin)(Karekin II), by then the [of All Armenians](Catholicos)(Catholicos of All Armenians), issued a joint statement condemning the [genocide](Armenian)(Armenian genocide). Meanwhile, the pope gave Karekin the relics of [Gregory the Illuminator](St.)(Gregory the Illuminator), the first head of the Armenian Church that had been kept in [Naples](Naples), Italy, for 500 years. In September 2001, John Paul II went on a three-day pilgrimage to [Armenia](Armenia) to take part in an ecumenical celebration with [II](Karekin)(Karekin II) in the newly consecrated St. Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral in Yerevan. The two Church leaders signed a declaration remembering the victims of the Armenian genocide.George Weigel, *The End and the Beginning: Pope John Paul II – The Victory of Freedom, the Last Years, the Legacy*, p. 283, Doubleday Religion (2010),
### Protestantism
Like his successors after him, John Paul II took a large number of initiatives to promote friendly relations, practical humanitarian cooperation and theological dialogue with a range of [Protestant](Protestant) bodies. Of these the first in importance had to be with [Lutheran](Lutheran)ism, given that the contention with [Luther](Martin)(Martin Luther) and his followers was the most significant historical split in Western Christianity.
#### Lutheranism
From 15 to 19 November 1980, John Paul II visited [Germany](West)(West Germany) on his first trip to a country with a large [Lutheran](Lutheran) [Protestant](Protestant) population. In [Mainz](Mainz), he met with leaders of the [Church in Germany](Evangelical)(Evangelical Church in Germany), and with representatives of other Christian denominations.
On 11 December 1983, John Paul II participated in an ecumenical service in the [Lutheran Church in Rome](Evangelical)(Christuskirche, Rome), the first papal visit ever to a Lutheran church. The visit took place 500 years after the birth of the German [Luther](Martin)(Martin Luther), who was first an [Augustinian](Order of Saint Augustine) friar and subsequently a leading Protestant [Reformer](Reformation).
In his apostolic pilgrimage to Norway, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Sweden of June 1989, John Paul II became the first pope to visit countries with Lutheran majorities. In addition to celebrating Mass with Catholic believers, he participated in ecumenical services at places that had been Catholic shrines before the Reformation: [Cathedral](Nidaros)(Nidaros Cathedral) in Norway; near St. Olav's Church at [Thingvellir](Þingvellir) in Iceland; [Cathedral](Turku)(Turku Cathedral) in Finland; [Cathedral](Roskilde)(Roskilde Cathedral) in Denmark; and [Cathedral](Uppsala)(Uppsala Cathedral) in Sweden.
On 31 October 1999, (the 482nd anniversary of [Day](Reformation)(Reformation Day), Martin Luther's posting of the [Theses](95)(The Ninety-Five Theses)), representatives of the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church)'s [Council for Promoting Christian Unity](Pontifical)(Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity) and the [World Federation](Lutheran)(Lutheran World Federation) signed a [Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification](Joint)(Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification), as a gesture of unity. The signing was a fruit of a theological dialogue that had been going on between the [World Federation](Lutheran)(Lutheran World Federation) and the [See](Holy)(Holy See) since 1965.
#### Anglicanism
John Paul II had good relations with the [of England](Church)(Church of England), as also with other parts of the [Communion](Anglican)(Anglican Communion). He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth II), the [Governor of the Church of England](Supreme)(Supreme Governor of the Church of England). He preached in [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral) and received [Runcie](Robert)(Robert Runcie), the [of Canterbury](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Canterbury). He said that he was disappointed by the Church of England's decision to [women](ordain)(Ordination of women in the Anglican Communion) and saw it as a step away from unity between the [Communion](Anglican)(Anglican Communion) and the Catholic Church.
In 1980, John Paul II issued a [Provision](Pastoral)(Pastoral Provision) allowing married former Episcopal priests to become Catholic priests, and for the acceptance of former [Church](Episcopal)(Episcopal Church (United States)) parishes into the Catholic Church. He allowed the creation of a form of the [Rite](Roman)(Roman Rite), known informally by some as the [Use](Anglican)(Anglican Use), which incorporates selected elements of the Anglican [of Common Prayer](Book)(Book of Common Prayer) that are compatible with Catholic doctrine. He permitted Archbishop [Flores](Patrick)(Patrick Flores) of [Antonio](San)(San Antonio), Texas, to establish [Lady of the Atonement Catholic Church](Our)(Our Lady of the Atonement Catholic Church), together as the inaugural parish for the use of this hybrid liturgy.
## Relations with Judaism
[between Catholicism and Judaism](Relations)(Relations between Catholicism and Judaism) improved dramatically during the pontificate of John Paul II. He spoke frequently about the Catholic Church's relationship with the Jewish faith. It is likely that his attitude was shaped in part by his own experience of the terrible fate of the Jews in Poland and the rest of Central Europe in the 1930s and 1940s.
In 1979, John Paul II visited the [concentration camp](Auschwitz)(Auschwitz concentration camp) in Poland, where many of his compatriots (mostly [Jews](History of the Jews in Poland)) had perished during the German occupation there in World War II, the first pope to do so. In 1998, he issued *We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah*, which outlined his thinking on [Holocaust](the)(the Holocaust). He became the first pope known to have made an official papal visit to a synagogue, when he visited the [Synagogue of Rome](Great)(Great Synagogue of Rome) on 13 April 1986.
On 30 December 1993, John Paul II established formal diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the [of Israel](State)(State of Israel), acknowledging its centrality in Jewish life and faith.
On 7 April 1994, he hosted the *[Concert to Commemorate the Holocaust](Papal)(Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah)*. It was the first-ever Vatican event dedicated to the memory of the six million Jews murdered in World War II. This concert, which was conceived and conducted by US conductor Gilbert Levine, was attended by the Chief Rabbi of Rome [Toaff](Elio)(Elio Toaff), the President of Italy [Luigi Scalfaro](Oscar)(Oscar Luigi Scalfaro), and survivors of the Holocaust from around the world. The [Philharmonic Orchestra](Royal)(Royal Philharmonic Orchestra), actor Richard Dreyfuss and cellist Lynn Harrell performed on this occasion under Levine's direction. On the morning of the concert, the pope received the attending members of survivor community in a special audience in the Apostolic Palace.
In March 2000, John Paul II visited [Vashem](Yad)(Yad Vashem), the national Holocaust memorial in Israel, and later made history by touching one of the holiest sites in Judaism, the Western Wall in Jerusalem, placing a letter inside it (in which he prayed for forgiveness for the actions against Jews). In part of his address he said: "I assure the Jewish people the Catholic Church ... is deeply saddened by the hatred, acts of persecution and displays of [anti-Semitism](Antisemitism) directed against the Jews by Christians at any time and in any place." He added that there were "no words strong enough to deplore the terrible tragedy of the Holocaust." He added: "We are deeply saddened by the behaviour of those who in the course of history have caused these children of yours to suffer, and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant." [cabinet](Israeli)(Israeli cabinet) minister Rabbi [Melchior](Michael)(Michael Melchior), who hosted the pope's visit, said he was "very moved" by the pope's gesture. He said: "It was beyond history, beyond memory."
In October 2003, the [League](Anti-Defamation)(Anti-Defamation League) (ADL) issued a statement congratulating John Paul II on entering the 25th year of his papacy. In January 2005, John Paul II became the first pope known to receive a [blessing](priestly)(priestly blessing) from a rabbi, when Rabbis [Blech](Benjamin)(Benjamin Blech), Barry Dov Schwartz, and Jack Bemporad visited the Pontiff at [Hall](Clementine)(Clementine Hall) in the Apostolic Palace.
Immediately after John Paul II's death, the [League](Anti-Defamation)(Anti-Defamation League) said in a statement that he had revolutionised Catholic-Jewish relations, saying that "more change for the better took place in his 27-year Papacy than in the nearly 2,000 years before." In another statement issued by the Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council, Director Dr Colin Rubenstein said, "The Pope will be remembered for his inspiring spiritual leadership in the cause of freedom and humanity. He achieved far more in terms of [relations](transforming)(Christian–Jewish reconciliation) with both the Jewish people and the State of Israel than any other figure in the history of the Catholic Church." In April 1986, John Paul II said: "With Judaism, therefore, we have a relationship which we do not have with any other religion. You are our dearly beloved brothers, and in a certain way, it could be said that you are our *elder* brothers."
In an interview with the Polish Press Agency, [Schudrich](Michael)(Michael Schudrich), chief rabbi of Poland, said that never in history did anyone do as much for Christian-Jewish dialogue as John Paul II, adding that many Jews had a greater respect for the late pope than for some rabbis. Schudrich praised John Paul II for condemning anti-Semitism as a sin, which no previous pope had done.
On John Paul II's beatification the Chief Rabbi of Rome [Di Segni](Riccardo)(Riccardo Di Segni) said in an interview with the Vatican newspaper ''[Romano](L'Osservatore)(L'Osservatore Romano)'' that "John Paul II was revolutionary because he tore down a thousand-year wall of Catholic distrust of the Jewish world." Meanwhile, Elio Toaff, the former Chief Rabbi of Rome, said that:
"Remembrance of the Pope Karol Wojtyła will remain strong in the collective Jewish memory because of his appeals to fraternity and the spirit of tolerance, which excludes all violence. In the stormy history of relations between Roman popes and Jews in the ghetto in which they were closed for over three centuries in humiliating circumstances, John Paul II is a bright figure in his uniqueness. In relations between our two great religions in the new century that was stained with bloody wars and the plague of racism, the heritage of John Paul II remains one of the few spiritual islands guaranteeing survival and human progress."
## Relations with other world religions
### Animism
In his book-length interview *[the Threshold of Hope](Crossing)(Crossing the Threshold of Hope)* with the Italian journalist [Messori](Vittorio)(Vittorio Messori) published in 1995, John Paul II draws parallels between [animism](animism) and Christianity. He wrote:
"... it would be helpful to recall ... the animist religions which stress ancestor worship. It seems that those who practice them are particularly close to Christianity, and among them, the Church's missionaries also find it easier to speak a common language. Is there, perhaps, in this veneration of ancestors a kind of preparation for the Christian faith in the Communion of Saints, in which all believers—whether living or dead—form a single community, a single body? ... There is nothing strange, then, that the African and Asian animists would become believers in Christ more easily than followers of the great religions of the Far East."John Paul II. *Crossing the Threshold of Hope*, p. 82, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1994
In 1985, the pope visited the African country of [Togo](Togo), where 60 per cent of the population espouses animist beliefs. To honour the pope, animist religious leaders met him at a Catholic Marian shrine in the forest, much to the pontiff's delight. John Paul II proceeded to call for the need for religious tolerance, praised nature, and emphasised common elements between animism and Christianity, saying:
"Nature, exuberant and splendid in this area of forests and lakes, impregnates spirits and hearts with its mystery and orients them spontaneously toward the mystery of He who is the author of life. It is this religious sentiment that animates you and one can say that animates all of your compatriots."[Pope Visits Palace in Togo, Then a Woman's Mud Hut](https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/10/world/pope-visits-palace-in-togo-then-a-woman-s-mud-hut.html) *The New York Times*, 10 August 1985
During the investiture of President [Boni Yayi](Thomas)(Thomas Boni Yayi) of [Benin](Benin) as a titled [Yoruba](Yoruba people) [chieftain](Nigerian Chieftaincy) on 20 December 2008, the reigning [of Ile-Ife](Ooni)(Ooni of Ile-Ife), [Nigeria](Nigeria), [II](Olubuse)(Olubuse II), referred to John Paul II as a previous recipient of the same royal honour.
### Buddhism
Tenzin Gyatso, the [Dalai Lama](14th)(14th Dalai Lama), visited John Paul II eight times. The two men held many similar views and understood similar plights, both coming from nations affected by Communism and both serving as heads of major religious bodies. As Archbishop of Kraków, long before the 14th Dalai Lama was a world-famous figure, Wojtyła held special Masses to pray for the Tibetan people's non-violent struggle for freedom from [China](Maoist)(Maoist China).Levi, Mons. Virgilio and Christine Allison. *John Paul II: A Tribute in Words and Pictures*, p. 165, William Morrow, 1999 During his 1995 visit to [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka), a country where a majority of the population adheres to [Buddhism](Theravada)(Theravada Buddhism), John Paul II expressed his admiration for Buddhism. He said:
"In particular I express my highest regard for the followers of Buddhism, the majority religion in Sri Lanka, with its ... four great values of … loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; with its ten transcendental virtues and the joys of the [Sangha](Sangha (Buddhism)) expressed so beautifully in the Theragathas. I ardently hope that my visit will serve to strengthen the goodwill between us, and that it will reassure everyone of the Catholic Church's desire for interreligious dialogue and cooperation in building a more just and fraternal world. To everyone I extend the hand of friendship, recalling the splendid words of the [Dhammapada](Dhammapada): 'Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace' ... ."
### Islam
[[File:StJohnInUmmayad.jpg|thumb|John Paul II was the first Pope to enter and pray in a mosque, visiting the tomb of John the Baptist at [Mosque](Umayyad)(Umayyad Mosque), Damascus.]]
John Paul II made considerable efforts to improve relations between Catholicism and Islam.
He officially supported the project of the [Mosque in Rome](Great)(Mosque of Rome) and participated in the inauguration in 1995.
On 6 May 2001, he became the first Catholic pope to enter and pray in a mosque, namely the [Mosque](Umayyad)(Umayyad Mosque) in [Damascus](Damascus), Syria. Respectfully removing his shoes, he entered the former [Byzantine-era](Byzantine Empire) Christian church dedicated to [the Baptist](John)(John the Baptist), who is also revered as a [of Islam](prophet)(Prophets and messengers in Islam). He gave a speech including the statement: "For all the times that Muslims and Christians have offended one another, we need to seek forgiveness from the Almighty and to offer each other forgiveness." He also kissed the [Qur'an](Qur'an) while in [Syria](Syria), an act that made him popular among Muslims but disturbed many Catholics.
In 2004, John Paul II hosted the "[Concert of Reconciliation](Papal)(Papal Concert of Reconciliation)", which brought together leaders of Islam with leaders of the Jewish community and of the Catholic Church at the Vatican for a concert by the Kraków Philharmonic Choir from Poland, the [Philharmonic Choir](London)(London Philharmonic Choir) from the United Kingdom, the [Symphony Orchestra](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra) from the United States, and the Ankara State Polyphonic Choir of Turkey. The event was conceived and conducted by Sir [Levine](Gilbert)(Gilbert Levine), [KCSG](Order of St. Gregory the Great) and was broadcast throughout the world.
John Paul II oversaw the publication of the [of the Catholic Church](Catechism)(Catechism of the Catholic Church), which makes a special provision for Muslims; therein, it is written, "together with us they adore the one, merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day."
### Jainism
In 1995, John Paul II held a meeting with 21 [Jains](Jainism), organised by the [Council for Interreligious Dialogue](Pontifical)(Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue). He praised [Gandhi](Mohandas)(Mohandas Gandhi) for his "unshakeable faith in God", assured the Jains that the Catholic Church will continue to engage in dialogue with their religion and spoke of the common need to aid the poor. The Jain leaders were impressed with the pope's "transparency and simplicity", and the meeting received much attention in the [Gujarat](Gujarat) state in western India, home to many Jains.
## Assassination attempts and plots
[[File:Pope John Paul II after shooted.jpg|thumb|John Paul II moments after being shot during an [attempt](assassination)(Attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II) by [Ali Ağca](Mehmet)(Mehmet Ali Ağca) in St. Peter's Square, 13 May 1981]]
As he entered St. Peter's Square to address an audience on 13 May 1981, John Paul II was shot and [wounded](critically)(ballistic trauma) by [Ali Ağca](Mehmet)(Mehmet Ali Ağca), an expert Turkish gunman who was a member of the militant fascist group [Wolves](Grey)(Grey Wolves (organization)). The assassin used a [9 mm semi-automatic pistol](Browning)(Browning Hi-Power), shooting the pope in the abdomen and perforating his [colon](colon (anatomy)) and [intestine](small)(small intestine) multiple times. John Paul II was rushed into the Vatican complex and then to the [Hospital](Gemelli)(Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic). On the way to the hospital, he lost consciousness. Even though the two bullets missed his [mesenteric artery](superior)(superior mesenteric artery) and [aorta](abdominal)(abdominal aorta), he lost nearly three-quarters of his blood. He underwent five hours of surgery to treat his wounds. Surgeons performed a [colostomy](colostomy), temporarily rerouting the upper part of the [intestine](large)(large intestine) to let the damaged lower part heal. When he briefly regained consciousness before being operated on, he instructed the doctors not to remove his [Scapular](Brown)(Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel) during the operation. One of the few people allowed in to see him at the [Clinic](Gemelli)(Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic) was one of his closest friends philosopher [Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa)(Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka), who arrived on Saturday 16 May and kept him company while he recovered from emergency surgery.[What really happened between Pope John Paul II and his close friend, Anna-Teresa Tymienecka?](https://web.archive.org/web/20160216020844/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/bbc/12157733/What-really-happened-between-Pope-John-Paul-II-and-his-close-friend-Anna-Teresa-Tymienecka.html) by Edward Stourton, 15 February 2016, *The Telegraph* The pope later stated that the [Virgin Mary](Blessed)(Blessed Virgin Mary) helped keep him alive throughout his ordeal. He said:
"Could I forget that the event in St. Peter's Square took place on the day and at the hour when the first appearance of the Mother of Christ to the poor little peasants has been remembered for over sixty years at Fátima, Portugal? For in everything that happened to me on that very day, I felt that extraordinary motherly protection and care, which turned out to be stronger than the deadly bullet."
Ağca was caught and restrained by a nun and other bystanders until police arrived. He was sentenced to [imprisonment](life)(life imprisonment). Two days after Christmas in 1983, John Paul II visited Ağca in prison. John Paul II and Ağca spoke privately for about twenty minutes. John Paul II said, "What we talked about will have to remain a secret between him and me. I spoke to him as a brother whom I have pardoned and who has my complete trust."
Numerous other theories were advanced to explain the assassination attempt, some of them controversial. One such theory, advanced by [Ledeen](Michael)(Michael Ledeen) and heavily pushed by the United States [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) at the time of the assassination but never substantiated by evidence, was that the Soviet Union was behind the attempt on John Paul II's life in retaliation for the pope's support of Solidarity, the Catholic, pro-democratic Polish workers' movement. This theory was supported by the 2006 [Commission](Mitrokhin)(Mitrokhin Commission), set up by [Berlusconi](Silvio)(Silvio Berlusconi) and headed by *[Italia](Forza)(Forza Italia)* senator [Guzzanti](Paolo)(Paolo Guzzanti), which alleged that Communist Bulgarian security departments were utilised to prevent the Soviet Union's role from being uncovered, and concluded that [military intelligence (''Glavnoje Razvedyvatel'noje Upravlenije'')](Soviet)(Glavnoye Razvedyvatel'noye Upravleniye), not the [KGB](KGB), were responsible. Russian Foreign Intelligence Service spokesman Boris Labusov called the accusation "absurd". The pope declared during a May 2002 visit to Bulgaria that the country's Soviet-bloc-era leadership had nothing to do with the [attempt](assassination)(List of people who survived assassination attempts). However, his secretary, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, alleged in his book *A Life with Karol*, that the pope was convinced privately that the former Soviet Union was behind the attack. It was later discovered that many of John Paul II's aides had foreign-government attachments; Bulgaria and Russia disputed the Italian commission's conclusions, pointing out that the pope had publicly denied the Bulgarian connection.
A second assassination attempt was made on 12 May 1982, just a day before the anniversary of the first attempt on his life, in [Portugal](Fátima,)(Fátima, Portugal), when a man tried to stab John Paul II with a [bayonet](bayonet). He was stopped by security guards. Stanisław Dziwisz later said that John Paul II had been injured during the attempt but managed to hide a non-life-threatening wound. The assailant, a [Catholic](traditionalist)(traditionalist Catholic) Spanish priest named [María Fernández y Krohn](Juan)(Juan María Fernández y Krohn), had been ordained as a priest by Archbishop [Lefebvre](Marcel)(Marcel Lefebvre) of the [of St. Pius X](Society)(Society of St. Pius X) and was opposed to the changes made by the Second Vatican Council, saying that the pope was an agent of Communist Moscow and of the Marxist [Bloc](Eastern)(Eastern Bloc). Fernández y Krohn subsequently left the priesthood and served three years of a six-year sentence. The ex-priest was treated for [illness](mental)(mental illness) and then expelled from Portugal to become a solicitor in Belgium.
The [Al-Qaeda](Al-Qaeda)-funded [plot](Bojinka)(Bojinka plot) planned to kill John Paul II during a visit to the Philippines during World Youth Day 1995 celebrations. On 15 January 1995 a [bomber](suicide)(suicide attack) was planning to dress as a priest and detonate a bomb when the pope passed in his [motorcade](motorcade) on his way to the San Carlos Seminary in [Makati](Makati). The assassination was supposed to divert attention from the next phase of the operation. However, a chemical fire inadvertently started by the cell alerted police to their whereabouts, and all were arrested a week before the pope's visit, and confessed to the plot.
In 2009 [Koehler](John)(Jack Koehler), a journalist and former army intelligence officer, published ''Spies in the Vatican: The Soviet Union's Cold War Against the Catholic Church*. Mining mostly East German and Polish secret police archives, Koehler claimed the assassination attempts were "KGB-backed".*Publishers Weekly'', review of 'Spies in the Vatican', 11 May 2009
## Apologies
John Paul II apologised to many groups that had suffered at the hands of the Catholic Church through the years. Before becoming pope he had been a prominent editor and supporter of initiatives such as the [of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops](Letter)(Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops) from 1965. As pope, he officially made public apologies for over 100 wrongdoings, including:
* The legal process on the Italian scientist and philosopher [Galilei](Galileo)(Galileo Galilei), himself a devout Catholic, around 1633 (31 October 1992).
* Catholics' involvement with the African chiefs who sold their subjects and captives in the [slave trade](African)(African slave trade) (9 August 1993).
* The church hierarchy's role in [at the stake](burnings)(Death by burning) and the [war](religious)(religious war)s that followed the [Reformation](Protestant)(Protestant Reformation) (20 May 1995, in the Czech Republic).
* The injustices committed against women, the violation of [rights](women's)(women's rights) and the historical denigration of women (10 July 1995, in a letter to "every woman").
* The inactivity and silence of many Catholics during the [Holocaust](The Holocaust) (see the article [in Nazi Germany](Religion)(Religion in Nazi Germany)) (16 March 1998).
The [Jubilee](Great)(Great Jubilee) of the year 2000 included a day of [for Forgiveness of the Sins of the Church](Prayer)(Great Jubilee#Prayer for Forgiveness for Sins of the Church) on 12 March 2000.
On 20 November 2001, from a laptop in the Vatican, John Paul II sent his first e-mail apologising for the [sex abuse cases](Catholic)(Catholic sex abuse cases), the church-backed "[Generations](Stolen)(Stolen Generations)" of Aboriginal children in Australia, and to China for the behaviour of Catholic missionaries in [times](colonial)(Colonialism).
## Health
[[File:PapstJPII20040922.jpg|thumb|An ailing John Paul II riding in the [Popemobile](Popemobile) in September 2004 in [Peter's Square](St.)(St. Peter's Square)]]
When he became pope in 1978 at the age of 58, John Paul II was an avid sportsman. He was extremely healthy and active, jogging in the [gardens](Vatican)(Gardens of Vatican City), weight training, swimming, and hiking in the mountains. He was fond of football. The media contrasted the new pope's athleticism and trim figure to the poor health of John Paul I and Paul VI, the portliness of [XXIII](John)(Pope John XXIII) and the constant claims of ailments of Pius XII. The only modern pope with a fitness regimen had been [Pius XI](Pope)(Pope Pius XI) (1922–1939), who was an avid mountaineer. An *[Independent](Irish)(Irish Independent)* article in the 1980s labelled John Paul II the *keep-fit pope*.
However, after over twenty-six years as pope, two assassination attempts, one of which injured him severely, and a number of cancer scares, John Paul's physical health declined. In 2001 he was diagnosed as suffering from [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease). International observers had suspected this for some time, but it was only publicly acknowledged by the Vatican in 2003. Despite difficulty speaking more than a few sentences at a time, trouble [hearing](Hearing (sense)), and severe [osteoarthrosis](osteoarthrosis), he continued to tour the world although rarely walking in public.
## Death and funeral
### Final months
John Paul II was hospitalised with breathing problems caused by a bout of [influenza](influenza) on 1 February 2005. He left the hospital on 10 February, but was subsequently hospitalised again with breathing problems two weeks later and underwent a [tracheotomy](tracheotomy).
### Final illness and death
On 31 March 2005, following a [tract infection](urinary)(urinary tract infection), he developed [shock](septic)(septic shock), a form of infection with a high fever and low [pressure](blood)(blood pressure), but was not hospitalised. Instead, he was [monitored](medical monitor) by a team of consultants at his private residence. This was taken as an indication by the pope, and those close to him, that he was nearing death; it would have been in accordance with his wishes to die in the Vatican. Later that day, Vatican sources announced that John Paul II had been given the [of the Sick](Anointing)(Anointing of the Sick) by his friend and secretary Stanisław Dziwisz. The day before his death, one of his closest personal friends, [Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa)(Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka) visited him at his bedside. During the final days of the pope's life, the lights were kept burning through the night where he lay in the Papal apartment on the top floor of the Apostolic Palace. Tens of thousands of people assembled and held vigil in St. Peter's Square and the surrounding streets for two days. Upon hearing of this, the dying pope was said to have stated: "I have searched for you, and now you have come to me, and I thank you."
On Saturday, 2 April 2005, at approximately 15:30 [CEST](Central European Summer Time), John Paul II spoke his final words in [Polish](Polish language), *"Pozwólcie mi odejść do domu Ojca"* ("Allow me to depart to the house of the Father"), to his aides, and fell into a coma about four hours later. The Mass of the vigil of the Second Sunday of Easter commemorating the [canonisation](canonisation) of [Kowalska](Faustina)(Faustina Kowalska) on 30 April 2000, had just been celebrated at his bedside, presided over by Stanisław Dziwisz and two Polish associates. Present at the bedside was a cardinal [Husar](Lubomyr)(Lubomyr Husar) from Ukraine, who served as a priest with John Paul in Poland, along with Polish nuns of the Congregation of the [Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus](Sisters,)(Sisters, Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus), who ran the [household](papal)(Prefecture of the Pontifical Household). John Paul II died in his private apartment at 21:37 CEST (19:37 [UTC](Coordinated Universal Time)) of heart failure from profound [hypotension](hypotension) and complete [collapse](circulatory)(circulatory collapse) from septic shock. His death was verified when an electrocardiogram that ran for 20 minutes showed a [flatline](flatline).
He had no close family by the time of his death; his feelings are reflected in his words written in 2000 at the end of his Last Will and Testament. Stanisław Dziwisz later said he had not burned the pontiff's personal notes despite the request being part of the will.
[[File:JPII on bier.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|(l-r) [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush), [Bush](Laura)(Laura Bush), [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush), [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton), [Rice](Condoleezza)(Condoleezza Rice), and [Card](Andrew)(Andrew Card), US dignitaries paying respects to John Paul II on 6 April 2005 at [Peter's Basilica](St.)(St. Peter's Basilica), [City](Vatican)(Vatican City)]]
### Aftermath
The death of the pontiff set in motion rituals and traditions dating back to medieval times. The Rite of Visitation took place from 4 April 2005 to 7 April 2005 at St. Peter's Basilica. John Paul II's testament, published on 7 April 2005, revealed that the pontiff contemplated being buried in his native Poland but left the final decision to The College of Cardinals, which in passing, preferred burial beneath St. Peter's Basilica, honouring the pontiff's request to be placed "in bare earth".
The Requiem Mass held on 8 April 2005 was said to have set world records both for attendance and number of [of state](heads)(head of state) present at a funeral. *(See: [of Dignitaries](List)(List of dignitaries at the funeral of Pope John Paul II).)* It was the single largest gathering of heads of state up to that time, surpassing the funerals of [Churchill](Winston)(Funeral of Winston Churchill) (1965) and [Broz Tito](Josip)(Funeral of Josip Broz Tito) (1980). Four kings, five queens, at least 70 presidents and prime ministers, and more than 14 leaders of other religions attended. An estimated four million mourners gathered in and around Vatican City. Between 250,000 and 300,000 watched the event from within the Vatican's walls. In a historical rarity, [Protestant](Protestant) and [Orthodox](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox) leaders, as well as representatives and heads from Judaism, [Islam](Islam), [Druze](Druze)[Greetings by Pope Benedict XVI to religious leaders in the Galilee](https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/PapalVisit/Pages/Greetings_Pope_Benedict_XVI_religious_leaders_Galilee_14-May-2009.aspx) and [Buddhism](Buddhism), offered their own memorials and prayers as a way of sympathising with the grief of Catholics.
The [of the College of Cardinals](Dean)(Dean of the College of Cardinals), Cardinal [Ratzinger](Joseph)(Pope Benedict XVI), conducted the ceremony. John Paul II was interred in the [grotto](grotto)es under the basilica, the [of the Popes](Tomb)(List of extant papal tombs). He was lowered into a tomb created in the same [alcove](alcove (architecture)) previously occupied by the remains of [XXIII](John)(Pope John XXIII). The alcove had been empty since John XXIII's remains had been moved into the main body of the basilica after his beatification.
## Posthumous recognition
### Title "the Great"
Upon the death of John Paul II, a number of clergy at the Vatican and laymen began referring to the late pontiff as "John Paul the Great" — in theory only the fourth pope to be so acclaimed. [Angelo Sodano](Cardinal)(Angelo Sodano) specifically referred to John Paul as "the Great" in his published written [homily](homily) for the pope's funeral [of Repose](Mass)(Funeral of Pope John Paul II). The South African Catholic newspaper *The Southern Cross* has referred to him in print as "John Paul II the Great". Some Catholic educational institutions in the US have additionally changed their names to incorporate "the Great", including [Paul the Great Catholic University](John)(John Paul the Great Catholic University) and schools called some variant of [Paul the Great High School](John)(John Paul the Great High School (disambiguation)).
Scholars of [law](canon)(Canon law (Catholic Church)) say that there is no official process for declaring a pope "Great"; the title simply establishes itself through popular and continued usage, as was the case with celebrated secular leaders (for example, Alexander III of Macedon became popularly known as [the Great](Alexander)(Alexander the Great)). The three popes who today commonly are known as "Great" are [I](Leo)(Pope Leo I), who reigned from 440–461 and persuaded [the Hun](Attila)(Attila the Hun) to withdraw from Rome; [I](Gregory)(Pope Gregory I), 590–604, after whom the [Chant](Gregorian)(Gregorian chant) is named; and [Nicholas I](Pope)(Pope Nicholas I), 858–867, who consolidated the Catholic Church in the Western world in the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages).
John Paul's successor, Benedict XVI, has not used the term directly in public speeches, but has made oblique references to "the great Pope John Paul II" in his first address from the [loggia](loggia) of St. Peter's Basilica, at the [World Youth Day](20th)(World Youth Day 2005) in Germany 2005 when he said in Polish: "As the great Pope John Paul II would say: Keep the flame of faith alive in your lives and your people";Susan Crimp, "The Last Wish of Pope John Paul II: The Life and Messages of Saint Faustina", p92 and in May 2006 during a visit to Poland where he repeatedly made references to "the great John Paul" and "my great predecessor".
[[File:Vaticano sightseeing (fc31 – edited).jpg|thumb|The tomb of John Paul II in the [Vatican](Vatican City) Chapel of Saint Sebastian within [Peter's Basilica](St.)(St. Peter's Basilica) where it has been since 2011]]
### Institutions named after John Paul II
* [John Paul II High School (Tennessee)](Pope)(Pope John Paul II High School (Tennessee))
* [Paul the Great Catholic University](John)(John Paul the Great Catholic University)
* [Paul the Great Catholic High School (Indiana)](John)(John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Indiana))
* [Paul II Catholic Secondary School (London, Ontario, Canada)](John)(John Paul II Catholic Secondary School)
* [Paul II Catholic University of Lublin](John)(John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin)
* [John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Virginia)](Saint)(Saint John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Virginia))
* [Paul II High School, Greymouth](John)(John Paul II High School, Greymouth)
* [Wojtyla College](Karol)(Karol Wojtyla College), Lima, [Peru](Peru)
*Scoil Eoin Phóil, [Leixlip](Leixlip), Ireland
* John Paul II Gymnasium, [Kaunas](Kaunas), Lithuania
*Pope John Paul II High School in Olympia, Washington
* Universidad Privada Juan Pablo II, Lima, Peru
* Karol Wojtyła building at [Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia](Atma)(Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia) in [Indonesia](Jakarta,)(Jakarta)
*St. John Paul II Chapel and Museum at Pakuwon Mall in Surabaya, Indonesia
*St. John Paul II Minor Seminary, Minor Seminary in Antipolo City, Philippines
*St. John Paul II Parish Community (Lake View, NY)
* [John Paul II High School (Hyannis, MA)](St.)(St. John Paul II High School (Hyannis, MA))
* [John Paul II Academy](Saint)(Saint John Paul II Academy) Boca Raton, FL
* [John Paul II Catholic High School (Alabama)](St.)(St. John Paul II Catholic High School (Alabama))
* [John Paul II Catholic High School (Arizona)](St.)(St. John Paul II Catholic High School (Arizona))
* [John Paul II Seminary (Washington, DC)](St.)(St. John Paul II Seminary (Washington, DC))
* [Saint John Paul II Major Seminary Awka (Nigeria)](Pope)(Pope Saint John Paul II Major Seminary Awka (Nigeria))
* [John Paul II Catholic Secondary School](St.)(St. John Paul II Catholic Secondary School), Scarborough, Ontario, Canada
* [John Paul II High School](Pope)(Pope John Paul II High School (Pennsylvania)), [Royersford](Royersford, Pennsylvania) [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), [USA](United States)
### Beatification
[[File:Beatification of John Paul II (1).jpg|thumb|upright|1.5 million [Peter's Square](St.)(St. Peter's Square) attendees witness the beatification of John Paul II on 1 May 2011 in [City](Vatican)(Vatican City).]]
Inspired by calls of *"Santo Subito!*" ("[him a](Make) Saint Immediately!") from the crowds gathered during the funeral Mass that he celebrated, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, bypassing the normal restriction that five years must pass after a person's death before beginning the beatification process. In an audience with Pope Benedict XVI, [Ruini](Camillo)(Camillo Ruini), Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome, who was responsible for promoting the cause for canonisation of any person who died within that diocese, cited "exceptional circumstances", which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of [Lady of Fátima](Our)(Our Lady of Fátima) and the 24th anniversary of the assassination attempt on John Paul II at St. Peter's Square.
In early 2006, it was reported that the Vatican was investigating a possible [miracle](miracle) associated with John Paul II. [Marie Simon-Pierre](Sister)(Sister Marie Simon-Pierre), a French nun and member of the Congregation of Little Sisters of Catholic Maternity Wards, confined to her bed by
Parkinson's disease, was reported to have experienced a "complete and lasting cure after members of her community prayed for the intercession of Pope John Paul II". , Sister Marie-Simon-Pierre, then 46, was working again at a [hospital](maternity)(Obstetrics) run by her [institute](religious)(religious institute).
"I was sick and now I am cured," she told reporter Gerry Shaw. "I am cured, but it is up to the church to say whether it was a miracle or not."
On 28 May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI celebrated Mass before an estimated 900,000 people in John Paul II's native Poland. During his [homily](homily), he encouraged prayers for the early canonisation of John Paul II and stated that he hoped canonisation would happen "in the near future".
[[File:Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe - Wiki Loves Pyramids tour 018.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statue of John Paul II outside the [of Our Lady of Guadalupe](Basilica)(Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe), Tepeyac, [City](Mexico)(Mexico City)]]
In January 2007, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz announced that the interview phase of the beatification process, in Italy and Poland, was nearing completion. In February 2007, [class relics](second)(Relics#Classification and prohibitions in the Catholic Church) of John Paul II—pieces of white papal [cassock](cassock)s he used to wear—were freely distributed with prayer cards for the cause, a typical pious practice after a saintly Catholic's death. On 8 March 2007, the [of Rome](Vicariate)(Cardinal Vicar) announced that the diocesan phase of John Paul's cause for beatification was at an end. Following a ceremony on 2 April 2007—the second anniversary of the Pontiff's death—the cause proceeded to the scrutiny of the committee of lay, clerical, and episcopal members of the Vatican's [for the Causes of Saints](Congregation)(Congregation for the Causes of Saints), to conduct a separate investigation. On the fourth anniversary of John Paul II's death, 2 April 2009, Cardinal Dziwisz, told reporters of a presumed miracle that had recently occurred at the former pope's tomb in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-year-old Polish boy from [Gdańsk](Gdańsk), who was suffering from kidney cancer and was completely unable to walk, had been visiting the tomb with his parents. On leaving St. Peter's Basilica, the boy told them, "I want to walk," and began walking normally. On 16 November 2009, a panel of reviewers at the Congregation for the Causes of Saints voted unanimously that John Paul II had lived a life of heroic virtue. On 19 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI signed the first of two decrees needed for beatification and proclaimed John Paul II "Venerable", asserting that he had lived a heroic, virtuous life. The second vote and the second signed decree certifying the authenticity of the first miracle, [curing of Sister Marie Simon-Pierre](the)(Beatification and canonisation of Pope John Paul II), a French nun, from Parkinson's disease. Once the second decree is signed, the *position* (the report on the cause, with documentation about his life and writings and with information on the cause) is complete. He can then be beatified. Some speculated that he would be beatified sometime during (or soon after) the month of the 32nd anniversary of his 1978 election, in October 2010. As Monsignor Oder said, this course would have been possible if the second decree were signed in time by Benedict XVI, stating that a posthumous miracle directly attributable to his intercession had occurred, completing the positio.
[[File:John Paul II Monument Gdansk-Zaspa.jpg|thumb|right|[Candle](Candle)s around monument to John Paul II in [Zaspa](Zaspa), Gdańsk, at the time of his death]]
The Vatican announced on 14 January 2011 that Pope Benedict XVI had confirmed the miracle involving Sister Marie Simon-Pierre and that John Paul II was to be beatified on 1 May, the Feast of Divine Mercy. 1 May is commemorated in former Communist countries, such as Poland, and some Western European countries as May Day, and John Paul II was well known for his contributions to Communism's relatively peaceful demise. In March 2011 the Polish mint issued a gold 1,000 [złoty](Polish)(Polish złoty) coin (equivalent to US$350), with the Pope's image to commemorate his beatification.
On 29 April 2011, John Paul II's coffin was disinterred from the grotto beneath St. Peter's Basilica ahead of his beatification, as tens of thousands of people arrived in Rome for one of the biggest events since his funeral. John Paul II's remains, which were not exposed, were placed in front of the Basilica's main altar, where believers could pay their respect before and after the beatification mass in St. Peter's Square on 1 May 2011. On 3 May 2011 his remains were interred in the marble altar in Pier Paolo Cristofari Chapel of [Sebastian](St.)(St. Sebastian), where [Innocent XI](Pope)(Pope Innocent XI) was buried. This more prominent location, next to the Chapel of the Pietà, the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, and statues of Popes Pius XI and Pius XII was intended to allow more pilgrims to view his memorial. John Paul II's body is located near the bodies of [Pius X](Pope)(Pope Pius X) and [John XXIII](Pope)(Pope John XXIII), whose bodies were reinterred in the Basilica after their own beatifications and together are three of the five popes beatified in the last century. The two popes who were not exhumed and reinterred after becoming a blessed in the last century were [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI) and [John Paul I](Pope)(Pope John Paul I), who both remain entombed in the papal grottos.
In July 2012, a Colombian man, Marco Fidel Rojas, the former mayor of [Colombia](Huila,)(Huila, Colombia), testified that he was "miraculously cured" of [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease) after a trip to Rome where he met John Paul II and prayed with him. Dr. Antonio Schlesinger Piedrahita, a renowned [neurologist](neurologist) in Colombia, certified Fidel's healing. The documentation was then sent to the Vatican office for sainthood causes.
In September 2020, Poland unveiled a sculpture of him in Warsaw, designed by and installed outside the [Museum](National)(National Museum, Warsaw), holding up a [meteorite](meteorite). In the same month, a relic containing his blood was stolen from the [Cathedral](Spoleto)(Spoleto Cathedral) in Italy.
### Canonisation
[[2014- The Canonization of Saint John XXIII and Saint John Paul II (14036819834).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The canonisation of John Paul II and John XXIII](File:Canonization)]
To be eligible for canonisation (being declared a saint) by the Catholic Church, two miracles must be attributed to a candidate.
The first miracle attributed to John Paul was the above mentioned healing of a man's Parkinson's disease, which was recognised during the beatification process. According to an article on the Catholic News Service (CNS) dated 23 April 2013, a Vatican commission of doctors concluded that a healing had no natural (medical) explanation, which is the first requirement for a claimed miracle to be officially documented.The article by Cindy Wooden cited news reports from Italian news media agencies, and included remarks by the Pope's longtime aide, [Kraków](Kraków)'s Cardinal [Dziwisz](Stanislaw)(Stanislaw Dziwisz), and Vatican spokesman Jesuit Father [Lombardi](Federico)(Federico Lombardi), S.J.[[File:Grób rodziców Jana Pawła II na cmentarzu Rakowickim w Krakowie.jpg|thumb|The tomb of the parents of John Paul II at [Cemetery](Rakowicki)(Rakowicki Cemetery) in [Kraków](Kraków), Poland]]
The second miracle was deemed to have taken place shortly after the late pope's beatification on 1 May 2011; it was reported to be the healing of Costa Rican woman Floribeth Mora of an otherwise terminal [aneurysm](brain)(brain aneurysm).["Costa Rican Woman Describes John Paul Miracle Cure"](http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2013/07/06/costa-rican-woman-describes-john-paul-miracle-cure/) , *Fox News Latino*, 6 July 2013 A Vatican panel of expert theologians examined the evidence, determined that it was directly attributable to the intercession of John Paul II, and recognised it as miraculous. The next stage was for Cardinals who compose the membership of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to give their opinion to [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) to decide whether to sign and promulgate the decree and set a date for canonisation.
On 4 July 2013, Pope Francis confirmed his approval of John Paul II's canonisation, formally recognising the second miracle attributed to his intercession. He was canonised together with John XXIII. The date of the canonisation was on 27 April 2014, Divine Mercy Sunday.
The canonisation Mass for Pope John Paul II and Pope John XXIII, was celebrated by Pope Francis (with Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI), on 27 April 2014 in St. Peter's Square at the Vatican (John Paul II had died on [vigil](vigil) of Divine Mercy Sunday in 2005). About 150 cardinals and 700 bishops concelebrated the Mass, and at least 500,000 people attended the Mass, with an estimated 300,000 others watching from video screens placed around Rome.
The new saint's remains, considered to be holy [relics](Relic), were exhumed from their place in the basilica's grotto, and a new tomb was established at the altar of St. Sebastian.
### Beatification of the Pope's parents
On 10 October 2019, the [of Krakow](Archdiocese)(Archdiocese of Krakow) and the Polish Bishops' Conference approved *nihil obstat* the opening of the beatification cause of the parents of its patron saint John Paul II, Karol Wojtyła Sr. and Emilia Kaczorowska. It gained approval from the [See](Holy)(Holy See) to open the diocesan phase of the cause on 7 May 2020.
## Sexual abuse scandals
John Paul II was criticised by representatives of the victims of clergy sexual abuse for failing to respond quickly enough to the Catholic sex abuse crisis. In his response, he stated that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young". The Catholic Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring [check](background)(background check)s for church employees and, because a significant majority of victims were boys, disallowing ordination of men with "deep-seated homosexual tendencies". They now require dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty. In 2008, the church asserted that the scandal was a very serious problem and estimated that it was "probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent'", or 5,000, of the over 500,000 Catholic priests worldwide.
In April 2002, John Paul II, despite being frail from Parkinson's disease, summoned all the American cardinals to the Vatican to discuss possible solutions to the issue of sexual abuse in the American Church. He asked them to "diligently investigate accusations". John Paul II suggested that American bishops be more open and transparent in dealing with such scandals and emphasised the role of seminary training to prevent sexual deviance among future priests. In what *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* called "unusually direct language", John Paul condemned the arrogance of priests that led to the scandals:
"Priests and candidates for the priesthood often live at a level both materially and educationally superior to that of their families and the members of their own age group. It is therefore very easy for them to succumb to the temptation of thinking of themselves as better than others. When this happens, the ideal of priestly service and self-giving dedication can fade, leaving the priest dissatisfied and disheartened."
The pope read a statement intended for the American cardinals, calling the sex abuse "an appalling sin" and said the priesthood had no room for such men.
In 2002, Archbishop [Paetz](Juliusz)(Juliusz Paetz), the Catholic Archbishop of [Poznań](Poznań), was accused of molesting seminarians. John Paul II accepted his resignation, and placed sanctions on him, prohibiting Paetz from exercising his ministry as bishop. It was reported that these restrictions were lifted, though Vatican spokesperson Federico Lombardi strenuously denied this saying "his rehabilitation was without foundation".
In 2003, John Paul II reiterated that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young". In April 2003, a three-day conference was held, titled "Abuse of Children and Young People by Catholic Priests and Religious", where eight non-Catholic psychiatric experts were invited to speak to near all Vatican dicasteries' representatives. The panel of experts overwhelmingly opposed implementation of policies of "zero-tolerance" such as was proposed by the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. One expert called such policies a "case of overkill" since they do not permit flexibility to allow for differences among individual cases.
In 2004, John Paul II recalled [Francis Law](Bernard)(Bernard Francis Law) to be Archpriest of the Papal Basilica of Saint Mary Major in Rome. Law had previously resigned as [of Boston](archbishop)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston) in 2002 in response to the [Church sexual abuse cases](Catholic)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases) after church documents were revealed that suggested he had covered up sexual abuse committed by priests in his archdiocese. Law resigned from this position in November 2011.
John Paul II was a firm supporter of the [of Christ](Legion)(Legion of Christ), and in 1998 discontinued investigations into [misconduct by its leader Marcial Maciel](sexual)(Sexual scandal of Father Marcial Maciel), who in 2005 resigned his leadership and was later requested by the Vatican to withdraw from his ministry. However, Maciel's trial began in 2004 during the pontificate of John Paul II, but the Pope died before it ended and the conclusions were known. In an interview with [Romano](L'Osservatore)(L'Osservatore Romano), [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) said: "I am grateful to Pope Benedict, who dared to say this publicly (when more facts began to come to light after Degollado's death in 2008, Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 launched another investigation and on 1 May 2010 announced a declaration about the crimes of the founder of the Legionaries), and to Pope John Paul II, who dared to give the green light to the Legionaries' case".
On 10 November 2020, the Vatican published a report which found that John Paul II learned of allegations of sexual impropriety against former cardinal [McCarrick](Theodore)(Theodore McCarrick), who at the time was serving as Archbishop of Newark, through a 1999 letter from Cardinal [O'Connor](John)(John O'Connor (cardinal)) warning him that appointing McCarrick to be Archbishop of Washington D.C., a position which had recently been opened, would be a mistake. John Paul II ordered an investigation, which stalled when three of the four bishops tasked with investigating claims allegedly brought back "inaccurate or incomplete information". John Paul II planned on not giving McCarrick the appointment anyway, but relented and gave him the appointment after McCarrick wrote a letter of denial. He created McCarrick a cardinal in 2001. McCarrick would eventually be laicized after allegations surfaced that he abused minors. [Weigel](George)(George Weigel), a biographer of John Paul II, defended the pope's actions as follows: "Theodore McCarrick fooled a lot of people ... and he deceived John Paul II in a way that is laid out in almost biblical fashion in [Vatican's](the) report".
In a 2019 interview with Mexican television, [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) defended John Paul II's legacy on protecting minors against clerical sexual abuse. He said that John Paul II was "often misled", as in the case of [Hermann Groër](Hans)(Hans Hermann Groër). Francis said that with respect to the case of [Maciel](Marcial)(Marcial Maciel):
"Ratzinger was courageous, and so was John Paul II. ... With respect to John Paul II, we have to understand certain attitudes because he came from a closed world, from behind the [Curtain](Iron)(Iron Curtain), where communism was still in force. There was a defensive mentality. We have to understand this well, and no one can doubt the saintliness of this great man and his good will. He was great, he was great."On March 6, 2023, an investigative report by the Polish television station [TVN24](TVN24) concluded that "there [now](is) no doubt" that John Paul II "knew about [abuse of children by priests](sexual)(Catholic Church sexual abuse cases) under his authority and sought to conceal it when he was an archbishop in his native Poland". The Dutch journalist Ekke Overbeek released a book on John Paul II with similar claims the following week. In response to the claims, [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) stated: "You have to put things in the context of the era[...] At that time everything was covered up. [...] It was only when the [scandal broke](Boston)(Sexual abuse scandal in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston) that the church began to look at the problem." [Polish Episcopal Conference](The)(Polish Episcopal Conference) stated that "'further archival research' would be needed to arrive at a just evaluation of the decisions and actions" of Wojtyła. Furthermore, other journalists have criticised the report, especially the interpretation of the sources. Another point of contention is the use of materials from the [secret police](communist)(Ministry of Public Security (Poland)) in the report.
## Other criticism and controversy
John Paul II was widely criticised for a variety of his views. He was a target of criticism from progressives for his opposition to the [of women](ordination)(ordination of women) and use of [contraception](contraception), and from [Catholics](traditional)(traditional Catholics) for his support for the Second Vatican Council and its reform of the [liturgy](Mass (liturgy)). John Paul II's response to [sexual abuse within the Catholic Church](child)(child sexual abuse within the Catholic Church) has also come under heavy censure.
### Opus Dei controversies
John Paul II was criticised for his support of the [Dei](Opus)(Opus Dei) prelature and the 2002 canonisation of its founder, [Escrivá](Josemaría)(Josemaría Escrivá), whom he called "the saint of ordinary life". Other movements and religious organisations of the church went decidedly under his wing [of Christ](Legion)(Legion of Christ), the [Way](Neocatechumenal)(Neocatechumenal Way), [Schoenstatt](Schoenstatt Movement), the [movement](charismatic)(Charismatic Movement), etc. And he was accused repeatedly of taking a soft hand with them, especially in the case of [Maciel](Marcial)(Marcial Maciel), founder of the Legion of Christ.
In 1984 John Paul II appointed Joaquín Navarro-Valls, a member of Opus Dei, as Director of the [Press Office](Vatican)(Vatican Press Office). An Opus Dei spokesman said that "the influence of Opus Dei in the Vatican has been exaggerated". Of the nearly 200 cardinals in the Catholic Church, only two are known to be members of Opus Dei.Associated Press, "Opus Dei backs new pope", CNN, 19 April 2005.
### Banco Ambrosiano scandal
John Paul II was alleged to have links with [Ambrosiano](Banco)(Banco Ambrosiano), an Italian bank that collapsed in 1982. At the centre of the bank's failure was its chairman, [Calvi](Roberto)(Roberto Calvi), and his membership in the illegal [Lodge](Masonic)(Masonic Lodge) [Due](Propaganda)(Propaganda Due) (aka P2). The Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosiano's main shareholder, and the death of [Paul I](John)(John Paul I) in 1978 is rumoured to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal.
Calvi, often referred to as "God's Banker", was also involved with the Vatican Bank, [per le Opere di Religione](Istituto)(Istituto per le Opere di Religione), and was close to Bishop [Marcinkus](Paul)(Paul Marcinkus), the bank's chairman. Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the [Somoza](Somoza) dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. It has been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank provided money for [Solidarity](Solidarity (Polish trade union)) in Poland.
Calvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to arrange massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the [of Italy](Bank)(Bank of Italy) produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster. On 5 June 1982, two weeks before the collapse of Banco Ambrosiano, Calvi had written a letter of warning to John Paul II, stating that such a forthcoming event would "provoke a catastrophe of unimaginable proportions in which the Church will suffer the gravest damage". On 18 June 1982 Calvi's body was found hanging from scaffolding beneath [Bridge](Blackfriars)(Blackfriars Bridge) in the financial district of London. Calvi's clothing was stuffed with bricks, and contained cash valued at US$14,000, in three different currencies.
### Problems with traditionalists
In addition to all the criticism from those demanding modernisation, some [Catholics](traditionalist)(traditionalist Catholics) denounced him as well. These issues included demanding a return to the [Mass](Tridentine)(Tridentine Mass), as well as the repudiation of reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, such as the use of the vernacular language in the formerly Latin [Rite](Roman)(Roman Rite) Mass, [ecumenism](ecumenism), and the principle of [liberty](religious)(religious liberty).e.g. Marcel Lefebvre, *An Open Letter to Confused Catholics* (Herefordshire: Gracewing Publishing, 1986). . In 1988, the controversial traditionalist Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of the Society of St. Pius X (1970), was [excommunicated](excommunication) under John Paul II because of the unapproved ordination of four bishops, which Cardinal Ratzinger called a "schismatic act".A discussion of the crucial work of Ratzinger (later pope) to attempt reconciliation between Lefebvre and the Holy See, *vide* John Thavis, *The Vatican Diaries: A Behind-the-Scenes Look at the Power, Personalities, and Politics at the Heart of the Catholic Church* (London: Penguin, 2014), 147–49.
The [Day of Prayer for Peace](World)(World Day of Prayer for Peace), with a meeting in Assisi, Italy, in 1986, in which the pope prayed only with the Christians, was criticised for giving the impression that [syncretism](syncretism) and [indifferentism](indifferentism) were openly embraced by the Papal [Magisterium](Magisterium). When a second Day of Prayer for Peace in the World was held in 2002, it was condemned as confusing the laity and compromising to false religions. Likewise criticised was his kissing of the Qur'an in Damascus, Syria, on one of his travels on 6 May 2001. His call for religious freedom was not always supported; bishops like [de Castro Mayer](Antônio)(Antônio de Castro Mayer) promoted [tolerance](religious)(religious tolerance) but at the same time rejected the Vatican II principle of religious liberty as being liberalist and already condemned by Pope Pius IX in his *[errorum](Syllabus)(Syllabus errorum)* (1864) and at the [Vatican Council](First)(First Vatican Council).
### Religion and AIDS
John Paul II continued the tradition of advocating for the [of life](culture)(culture of life). In solidarity with [Paul VI](Pope)(Pope Paul VI)'s *[vitae](Humanae)(Humanae vitae)*, he rejected artificial birth control, even in the use of condoms to prevent the spread of [AIDS](AIDS). Critics have said that large families are caused by lack of contraception and exacerbate [World](Third)(Third World) poverty and problems, such as street children in South America. John Paul II argued that the proper way to prevent the spread of AIDS was not condoms but rather "correct practice of sexuality, which presupposes chastity and fidelity". The focus of John Paul II's point is that the need for artificial birth control is itself artificial, and that principle of respecting the sacredness of life ought not be rent asunder in order to achieve the good of preventing AIDS.
### Social programmes
There was strong criticism of the pope for the controversy surrounding the alleged use of charitable social programmes as a means of converting people in the Third World to Catholicism. The pope created an uproar in the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian sub continent) when he suggested that a great harvest of faith would be witnessed on the subcontinent in the third Christian millennium.
### Argentine military regime
John Paul II endorsed Cardinal [Laghi](Pio)(Pio Laghi), who critics say supported the [War](Dirty)(Dirty War) in Argentina and was on friendly terms with the Argentine generals of the [dictatorship](military)(National Reorganization Process), playing regular tennis matches with the Navy's representative in the junta, Admiral [Eduardo Massera](Emilio)(Emilio Eduardo Massera).
### Ian Paisley
In 1988, when John Paul II was delivering a speech to the European Parliament, [Paisley](Ian)(Ian Paisley), the leader of the [Unionist Party](Democratic)(Democratic Unionist Party) and [of the General Assembly](Moderator)(Moderator of the General Assembly) of the [Presbyterian Church of Ulster](Free)(Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster), shouted "I denounce you as the [Antichrist](Antichrist)!" from 1:45 m into video He held up a red banner reading "Pope John Paul II ANTICHRIST". [von Habsburg](Otto)(Otto von Habsburg) (the last [Prince of Austria-Hungary](Crown)(Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary)), a [of the European Parliament](Member)(Member of the European Parliament) (MEP) for Germany, snatched Paisley's banner, tore it up, and along with other MEPs helped eject him from the chamber. The pope continued with his address after Paisley had been ejected.
### Međugorje apparitions
A number of quotes about the [of Međugorje](apparitions)(Catholic Church response to the Medjugorje apparitions), in [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina), have been attributed to John Paul II. In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements that were supposedly made by the pope and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: "The only thing I can say regarding statements on [Međugorje](Međugorje) ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are [erfunden*](*frei) complete invention". Similar claims were also rebuked by the Vatican's Secretariate of State.
### Beatification controversy
Some Catholic theologians disagreed with the call for the beatification of John Paul II. Eleven dissident theologians, including [Jesuit](Jesuit) professor José María Castillo and Italian theologian [Franzoni](Giovanni)(Giovanni Franzoni), said that his stance against contraception and the ordination of women as well as the church scandals during his pontificate presented "facts which according to their consciences and convictions should be an obstacle to beatification". Some traditionalist Catholics opposed his beatification and canonisation for his views on liturgy and participation in prayer with enemies of the church, heretics and non-Christians.
After the 2020 report about the handling of the sexual misconduct complaints against Theodore McCarrick, some called for John Paul II's sainthood to be revoked.
## Personal life
[[File:Prof.Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.65|[Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa)(Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka), maintained a thirty-year friendship with Pope John Paul II.]]
Wojtyła was a [Cracovia](KS Cracovia (football)) football team supporter, and the club retired number 1 in his honour.
Having played the game himself as a goalkeeper, John Paul II was a fan of English football team [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.), where his compatriot [Dudek](Jerzy)(Jerzy Dudek) played in the same position.
In 1973, while still the archbishop of Kraków, Wojtyła befriended a Polish-born, later American philosopher, [Tymieniecka](Anna-Teresa)(Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka). The thirty-two-year friendship (and occasional academic collaboration) lasted until his death. She served as his host when he visited New England in 1976, and photos show them together on skiing and camping trips. Letters that he wrote to her were part of a collection of documents sold by Tymieniecka's estate in 2008 to the [Library of Poland](National)(National Library of Poland). According to the BBC the library had initially kept the letters from public view, partly because of John Paul's path to sainthood, but a library official announced in February 2016 the letters would be made public. In February 2016, the BBC documentary program *[Panorama](Panorama (TV series))* reported that John Paul II had apparently had a close relationship with the Polish-born philosopher.[Panorama report: The Secret Letters of Pope John Paul II](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b071flrn) by Ed Stourton, 15 February 2016 The pair exchanged personal letters over 30 years, and Stourton believes that Tymieniecka had confessed her love for Wojtyła.[Pope John Paul II letters reveal 32-year relationship with woman](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/15/pope-john-paul-ii-letters-reveal-32-year-relationship-with-woman) by Stephanie Kirchgaessner, Rome, 15 February 2016 The Vatican described the documentary as "more smoke than fire", and Tymieniecka denied being involved with John Paul II.[Vatican dismisses JPII 'letter love-affair' probe:](http://www.thenews.pl/1/10/Artykul/240672,Vatican-denies-JPII-letter-loveaffair-report) 14 February 2016, The Vatican[Pope John Paul II 'conducted secret romance with married woman' says new documentary](https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/pope-john-paul-ii-conducted-7366760) by John Kelly, Mirror.co.uk News
Writers [Bernstein](Carl)(Carl Bernstein), the veteran investigative journalist of the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal), and Vatican expert Marco Politi, were the first journalists to talk to Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the 1990s about her importance in John Paul's life. They interviewed her and dedicated 20 pages to her in their 1996 book *His Holiness*.[Did Pope John Paul II Have a Secret Lover?](http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/02/15/did-pope-john-paul-ii-have-a-secret-lover.html) by Barbi Latzu Nadeau, 15 February 2016*His Holiness: John Paul II & the History of Our Time*—Carl Bernstein, Marco Politi (1996) Bernstein and Politi even asked her if she had ever developed any romantic relationship with John Paul II, "however one-sided it might have been". She responded, "No, I never fell in love with the cardinal. How could I fall in love with a middle-aged clergyman? Besides, I'm a married woman."
## See also
* [by Pope John Paul II](Beatifications)(:Category:Beatifications by Pope John Paul II)
* [created by John Paul II](Cardinals)(Cardinals created by John Paul II)
* [of the Social Doctrine of the Church](Compendium)(Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church)
* [of longest-reigning popes](List)(List of longest-reigning popes)
* [of peace activists](List)(List of peace activists)
* [of places named after Pope John Paul II](List)(List of places named after Pope John Paul II)
* [of popes](List)(List of popes)
* [of pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II](List)(List of pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II)
* [of John Paul II and Primate Wyszynski](Museum)(Museum of John Paul II and Primate Wyszyński)
* [travel](Papal)(Papal travel)
* [John Paul II bibliography](Pope)(Pope John Paul II bibliography)
* [Kluger](Jerzy)(Jerzy Kluger)
* [assassination of Pope John Paul II](Attempted)(Attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II)
### People
* [Le Jacq](Peter)(Peter Le Jacq)
* [Taborski](Bolesław)(Bolesław Taborski)
*[Dziwisz](Stanisław)(Stanisław Dziwisz)
## References
### Notes
### Citations
Roberts, Genevieve. , *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*, 3 April 2005. Retrieved 17 June 2007.
["Pope Benedict Forgoes Waiting Period, begins John Paul II Beatification Process"](http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope_benedict_forgoes_waiting_period_begins_john_paul_ii_beatification_process/) [News Agency](Catholic)(Catholic News Agency) 13 May 2005 Retrieved 1 May 2011
[Riccardi](Andrea)(Andrea Riccardi). *La Pace Preventiva.* [Milan](Milan): San Paolo 2004.
["John Paul II-The Millennial Pope"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pope/etc/synopsis.html) Synopsis "Pope John Paul II-The Millennial Pope" *Frontline''
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[di Roma](Vicariato)(#Vicariato70):A nun tells her story.... 2009
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### Sources
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## Further reading
* For a comprehensive list of books written by and about Pope John Paul II, please see [John Paul II bibliography](Pope)(Pope John Paul II bibliography)
* For other references see [John Paul II in popular culture](Pope)(Pope John Paul II in popular culture)
## External links
* [John Paul the Great Catholic University](https://web.archive.org/web/20120122052707/http://www.jpcatholic.com/)
* [The Holy See website – John Paul II](https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en.html)
* [Papal Transition 2005 Web Archive](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/lcwa/html/papal/papal-overview.html) from the US [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)
* [Karol Wojtyła](http://culture.pl/en/artist/karol-wojtyla) on [Culture.pl](Culture.pl)
* [Third pilgrimage of John Paul II to Poland](https://trzeciapielgrzymka.ipn.gov.pl/jp2/introduction/676,Introduction.html), [of National Remembrance](Institute)(Institute of National Remembrance)
* [Tomb of John Paul II in St Peter's](http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Altars/StSebastian/StSebastian.htm)
* [Text of the Apostolic Constitution *Fidei Depositum*](https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220256/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_19921011_fidei-depositum_en.html)
* [Text of *Laetamur magnopere*](https://web.archive.org/web/20111010175944/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_15081997_laetamur_en.html), on the promulgation of the *editio typica* of the [Catechism of the Catholic Church](https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc/index.htm).
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* [Audio recordings with Pope John Paul II](https://www.mediathek.at/nc/type/8000/searchQuery/1866/hash/GtGbYL5w/) in the Online Archive of the [Mediathek](Österreichische)(Österreichische Mediathek) Retrieved 27. March 2021
* Liturgical texts for the optional Memorial of St. John Paul II, Pope: Celebration of the Eucharist ([English](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20110402_colletta_en.html), [Latin](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20110402_colletta_lt.html)); Liturgy of the Hours ([English](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20110402_uff-letture_en.html), [Latin](https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_doc_20110402_uff-letture_lt.html)) from [The Holy See website](https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en.html).
}}
[ ](Category:Pope John Paul II)
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Bird
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bird
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# Bird
*Revision ID: 1158771677 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T03:55:19Z*
---
}}Possible [Cretaceous](Early)(Early Cretaceous) or early Late Cretaceous origin based on [clock](molecular)(molecular clock)
| image =
File:Bird Diversity 2013.png|300px
rect 0 0 333 232 [turaco](Red-crested)(Red-crested turaco)
rect 0 232 333 470 [sea eagle](Steller's)(Steller's sea eagle)
rect 0 696 333 470 [dove](Rock)(Rock dove)
rect 0 928 333 700 [cassowary](Southern)(Southern cassowary)
rect 0 1160 333 930 [penguin](Gentoo)(Gentoo penguin)
rect 0 1392 333 1160 [minla](Bar-throated)(Bar-throated minla)
rect 666 0 333 232 [shoebill](shoebill)
rect 666 232 333 470 [crowned crane](grey)(grey crowned crane)
rect 666 696 333 470 [hummingbird](Anna's)(Anna's hummingbird)
rect 666 928 333 700 [lorikeet](rainbow)(rainbow lorikeet)
rect 666 1160 333 930 [heron](grey)(grey heron)
rect 666 1392 333 1160 [eagle-owl](Eurasian)(Eurasian eagle-owl)
rect 999 0 666 232 [tropicbird](white-tailed)(white-tailed tropicbird)
rect 999 232 666 470 [peafowl](Indian)(Indian peafowl)
rect 999 696 666 470 [puffin](Atlantic)(Atlantic puffin)
rect 999 928 666 700 [flamingo](American)(American flamingo)
rect 999 1160 666 930 [booby](blue-footed)(blue-footed booby)
rect 999 1392 666 1160 [toucan](keel-billed)(keel-billed toucan)
| display_parents = 3
| taxon = Aves
| authority = [Linnaeus](Carl Linnaeus), [1758](10th edition of Systema Naturae)
| subdivision_ranks = Extant [clade](clade)s
| subdivision = *[Palaeognathae](Palaeognathae) (ratites and tinamou)
**[Struthionimorphae](Struthioniformes) (ostrich)
**[Notopalaeognathae](Notopalaeognathae)
*[Neognathae](Neognathae)
**[Pangalloanserae](Pangalloanserae) (fowl)
**[Neoaves](Neoaves)
| synonyms = * Neornithes Gadow, 1883
}}
**Birds** are a group of [warm-blooded](warm-blooded) [vertebrate](vertebrate)s constituting the [class](class (biology)) **Aves** (), characterised by [feather](feather)s, toothless beaked jaws, the [laying](Oviparity) of [hard-shelled](Eggshell) eggs, a high [metabolic](Metabolism) rate, a four-chambered [heart](heart), and a strong yet lightweight [skeleton](Bird skeleton). Birds live worldwide and range in size from the [hummingbird](bee)(bee hummingbird) to the [ostrich](common)(common ostrich). There are about ten thousand living species, more than half of which are [passerine](passerine), or "perching" birds. Birds have whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct [moa](moa) and [bird](elephant)(elephant bird)s. Wings, which are modified [forelimb](forelimb)s, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the [of flight in some birds](loss)(Flightless bird), including [ratite](ratite)s, [penguin](penguin)s, and diverse [endemic](endemism) island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly [seabird](seabird)s and some [waterbirds](Water bird), have further evolved for swimming.
Birds are [feathered](feathered dinosaur) [theropod](theropod) [dinosaur](dinosaur)s and constitute the [known living dinosaurs](only)(Origin of birds). Likewise, birds are considered [reptile](reptile)s in the modern [cladistic](Cladistics) sense of the term, and their closest living relatives are the [crocodilia](crocodilia)ns. Birds are descendants of the primitive [avialans](Avialae) (whose members include *[Archaeopteryx](Archaeopteryx)*) which first appeared during the [Jurassic](Late)(Late Jurassic). According to DNA evidence, modern birds (**Neornithes**) evolved in the [Early](Early Cretaceous) to [Cretaceous](Late)(Late Cretaceous), and diversified dramatically around the time of the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event) 66 mya, which killed off the [pterosaur](pterosaur)s and all non-avian dinosaurs.
Many [species](social)(social animal) pass on knowledge across generations, which is considered [form of culture](a)(Animal culture#Examples of culturally transmitted behaviors in birds). Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and [songs](bird vocalization), and participating in such behaviours as [breeding](cooperative)(helpers at the nest) and hunting, [flocking](Flocking (behavior)), and [mobbing](Mobbing (animal behavior)) of predators. The vast majority of bird species are socially (but not necessarily sexually) [monogamous](Monogamy in animals), usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, and rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are [polygynous](Polygyny in animals) (one male with many females) or, rarely, [polyandrous](Polyandry in nature) (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through [reproduction](sexual)(sexual reproduction). They are usually laid in a nest and [incubated](Avian incubation) by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching.
Many species of birds are economically important as food for human consumption and raw material in manufacturing, with [domesticated](Poultry) and [undomesticated](Game (hunting)) birds being important sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. [Songbird](Songbird)s, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. [Guano](Guano) (bird excrement) is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120 to 130 species have become [extinct](Bird extinction) due to human activity since the 17th century, and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational [birdwatching](birdwatching) is an important part of the [ecotourism](ecotourism) industry.
## Evolution and classification
[[File:Archaeopteryx_lithographica_(Berlin_specimen).jpg|alt= Slab of stone with fossil bones and feather impressions|thumb|right|*[lithographica](Archaeopteryx)(Archaeopteryx lithographica)* is often considered the oldest known true bird.]]
The first [classification](biological classification) of birds was developed by [Willughby](Francis)(Francis Willughby) and [Ray](John)(John Ray) in their 1676 volume *Ornithologiae*.
[Linnaeus](Carl)(Carl Linnaeus) modified that work in 1758 to devise the [classification](taxonomic)(taxonomic classification) system currently in use.
Birds are categorised as the [class](biological)(Class (biology)) Aves in [taxonomy](Linnaean)(Linnaean taxonomy). [taxonomy](Phylogenetic)(Phylogenetic taxonomy) places Aves in the [clade](clade) [Theropoda](Theropoda).
### Definition
Aves and a sister group, the order [Crocodilia](Crocodilia), contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade [Archosauria](Archosauria). During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined [phylogenetically](Phylogenetics) as all descendants of the [recent common ancestor](most)(most recent common ancestor) of modern birds and *[lithographica](Archaeopteryx)(Archaeopteryx)*. However, an earlier definition proposed by [Gauthier](Jacques)(Jacques Gauthier) gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents to the *[PhyloCode](PhyloCode)*. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the [group](crown)(crown group) of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from [fossils](fossils), and assigning them, instead, to the broader group Avialae, in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of *Archaeopteryx* in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs.
Gauthier and de Queiroz identified four different definitions for the same biological name "Aves", which is a problem. The authors proposed to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group consisting of the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants, which corresponds to meaning number 4 below. He assigned other names to the other groups.
|2= [Turtle](Turtle)s
}}
|2=
}}
}}
}}
# Aves can mean all [archosaur](archosaur)s closer to birds than to [crocodile](crocodile)s (alternately [Avemetatarsalia](Avemetatarsalia))
# Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers (alternately [Avifilopluma](Avifilopluma))
# Aves can mean those feathered dinosaurs that fly (alternately [Avialae](Avialae))
# Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants (a "[group](crown)(crown group)", in this sense synonymous with **Neornithes**)
Under the fourth definition *Archaeopteryx*, traditionally considered one of the earliest members of Aves, is removed from this group, becoming a non-avian dinosaur instead. These proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of palaeontology and [evolution](bird)(bird evolution), though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent. Avialae, initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves, is often used synonymously with the vernacular term "bird" by these researchers.
}} }} }} }} }} }}
Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade, though definitions vary. Many authors have used a definition similar to "all [theropod](theropod)s closer to birds than to *[Deinonychus](Deinonychus)*", with *[Troodon](Troodon)* being sometimes added as a second external specifier in case it is closer to birds than to *Deinonychus*. Avialae is also occasionally defined as an [clade](apomorphy-based)(Phylogenetic nomenclature#Phylogenetic definitions) (that is, one based on physical characteristics). [Gauthier](Jacques)(Jacques Gauthier), who named Avialae in 1986, re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping [flight](Bird flight), and the birds that descended from them.
Despite being currently one of the most widely used, the crown-group definition of Aves has been criticised by some researchers. Lee and Spencer (1997) argued that, contrary to what Gauthier defended, this definition would not increase the stability of the clade and the exact content of Aves will always be uncertain because any defined clade (either crown or not) will have few synapomorphies distinguishing it from its closest relatives. Their alternative definition is synonymous to Avifilopluma.
### Dinosaurs and the origin of birds
|clades=
[Scansoriopterygidae](Scansoriopterygidae)
|2=*[Eosinopteryx](Eosinopteryx)*
|label2=[Eumaniraptora](Eumaniraptora)
|2= }} }} }} }}
[[File:Birds and dinosaurs.webp|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Simplified [tree](phylogenetic)(phylogenetic tree) showing the relationship between modern birds and dinosaurs]]
Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialised subgroup of [theropod](theropod) [dinosaur](dinosaur)s and, more specifically, members of [Maniraptora](Maniraptora), a group of theropods which includes [dromaeosaurids](Dromaeosauridae) and [oviraptorosaurs](Oviraptorosauria), among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. By the 2000s, discoveries in the [Liaoning](Liaoning) Province of northeast China, which demonstrated many small theropod [dinosaur](feathered)(feathered dinosaur)s, contributed to this ambiguity.
[[File:Anchiornis feathers.jpg|thumb|*[huxleyi](Anchiornis)(Anchiornis huxleyi)* is an important source of information on the early evolution of birds in the [Jurassic](Late)(Late Jurassic) period.]]
The consensus view in contemporary [palaeontology](paleontology) is that the flying theropods, or [avialans](Avialae), are the closest relatives of the [deinonychosaur](deinonychosaur)s, which include dromaeosaurids and [troodontid](troodontid)s. Together, these form a group called [Paraves](Paraves). Some [basal](basal (phylogenetics)) members of Deinonychosauria, such as *[Microraptor](Microraptor)*, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been [arboreal](arboreal), have been able to glide, or both. Unlike *Archaeopteryx* and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, studies suggest that the first avialans were [omnivore](omnivore)s.
The [Jurassic](Late)(Late Jurassic) *Archaeopteryx* is well known as one of the first [fossil](transitional)(transitional fossil)s to be found, and it provided support for the [of evolution](theory)(theory of evolution) in the late 19th century. *Archaeopteryx* was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics—teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail—as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor.
### Early evolution
[[File:Confuciusornis male.jpg|thumb|left|alt= White slab of rock left with cracks and impression of bird feathers and bone, including long paired tail feathers|*[sanctus](Confuciusornis)(Confuciusornis sanctus)*, a Cretaceous bird from China that lived 125 million years ago, is the oldest known bird to have a beak.]]
Over 40% of key traits found in modern birds evolved during the 60 million year transition from the earliest [archosaurs](bird-line)(Avemetatarsalia) to the first [maniraptoromorphs](Maniraptoromorpha), i.e. the first dinosaurs closer to living birds than to *[rex](Tyrannosaurus)(Tyrannosaurus)*. The loss of osteoderms otherwise common in archosaurs and acquisition of primitive feathers might have occurred early during this phase. After the appearance of Maniraptoromorpha, the next 40 million years marked a continuous reduction of body size and the accumulation of [neotenic](Neoteny) (juvenile-like) characteristics. [Hypercarnivory](Hypercarnivore) became increasingly less common while braincases enlarged and forelimbs became longer. The [integument](integument) evolved into complex, [feather](pennaceous)(pennaceous feather)s.
The oldest known paravian (and probably the earliest avialan) fossils come from the [Formation](Tiaojishan)(Tiaojishan Formation) of China, which has been dated to the late [Jurassic](Jurassic) period ([Oxfordian](Oxfordian (stage)) stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include *[huxleyi](Anchiornis)(Anchiornis huxleyi)*, *[zhengi](Xiaotingia)(Xiaotingia zhengi)*, and *[xui](Aurornis)(Aurornis xui)*.
The well-known probable early avialan, *Archaeopteryx*, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from [Germany](Germany). Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering.
Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the [Cretaceous](Cretaceous) period. Many groups retained [characteristics](primitive)(symplesiomorphy), such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). Increasingly stiff tails (especially the outermost half) can be seen in the evolution of maniraptoromorphs, and this process culminated in the appearance of the [pygostyle](pygostyle), an ossification of fused tail vertebrae. In the late Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago, the ancestors of all modern birds evolved a more open pelvis, allowing them to lay larger eggs compared to body size. Around 95 million years ago, they evolved a better sense of smell.
A third stage of bird evolution starting with [Ornithothoraces](Ornithothoraces) (the "bird-chested" avialans) can be associated with the refining of aerodynamics and flight capabilities, and the loss or co-ossification of several skeletal features. Particularly significant are the development of an enlarged, [keeled](Keel (bird anatomy)) sternum and the [alula](alula), and the loss of grasping hands.
|label2=[Euavialae](Euavialae)
|2=[Confuciusornithiformes](Confuciusornithiformes)
|2=
|2=[Ornithothoraces](Ornithothoraces) }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}
### Early diversity of bird ancestors
|clades= [Hesperornithes](Hesperornithes)
|2=
}}
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}}
}}
}}
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}} }} }} }} }} }} }}
[[File:Ichthyornis Clean.png|thumb|upright|*[Ichthyornis](Ichthyornis)*, which lived 93 million years ago, was the first known prehistoric bird relative preserved with teeth.]]
The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the [Enantiornithes](Enantiornithes), or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of [niche](ecological)(ecological niche)s, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the [Mesozoic](Mesozoic) era.
Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the [Euornithes](Euornithes) (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialised in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the Enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked [perching](Perching bird) adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species.
The latter included the superficially [gull](gull)-like *[Ichthyornis](Ichthyornis)* and the [Hesperornithiformes](Hesperornithiformes), which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws). Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true [pygostyle](pygostyle) and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers, which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight.
A study on [evolution](mosaic)(mosaic evolution) in the avian skull found that the [common ancestor](last)(Most recent common ancestor) of all Neornithes might have had a beak similar to that of the modern [vanga](hook-billed)(hook-billed vanga) and a skull similar to that of the [golden oriole](Eurasian)(Eurasian golden oriole). As both species are small aerial and canopy foraging omnivores, a similar ecological niche was inferred for this hypothetical ancestor.
### Diversification of modern birds
}}
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Most studies agree on a [Cretaceous](Cretaceous) age for the most recent common ancestor of modern birds but estimates range from the Early Cretaceous to the latest Cretaceous. Similarly, there is no agreement on whether most of the early diversification of modern birds occurred in the Cretaceous and associated withe breakup of the supercontinent [Gondwana](Gondwana) or occurred later and potentially as a consequence of the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Palaeogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; most molecular dating studies suggests a Cretaceous [radiation](evolutionary)(evolutionary radiation), while fossil evidence points to a Cenozoic radiation (the so-called 'rocks' versus 'clocks' controversy).
The discovery of *[Vegavis](Vegavis)* from the [Maastrichtian](Maastrichtian), the last stage of the [Cretaceous](Late)(Late Cretaceous) proved that the diversification of modern birds started before the [Cenozoic](Cenozoic) era. The affinities of an earlier fossil, the possible [galliform](Galliformes) *[Austinornis](Austinornis) lentus*, dated to about 85 million years ago, are still too controversial to provide a fossil evidence of modern bird diversification. In 2020, *[Asteriornis](Asteriornis)* from the Maastrichtian was described, it appears to be a close relative of [Galloanserae](Galloanserae), the earliest diverging lineage within Neognathae.
Attempts to reconcile molecular and fossil evidence using genomic-scale DNA data and comprehensive fossil information have not resolved the controversy. However, a 2015 estimate that used a new method for calibrating [clocks](molecular)(molecular clocks) confirmed that while modern birds originated early in the Late Cretaceous, likely in Western [Gondwana](Gondwana), a pulse of diversification in all major groups occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event. Modern birds would have expanded from West Gondwana through two routes. One route was an Antarctic interchange in the Paleogene. The other route was probably via Paleocene land bridges between South American and North America, which allowed for the rapid expansion and diversification of Neornithes into the [Holarctic](Holarctic) and [Paleotropics](Paleotropics). On the other hand, the occurrence of *Asteriornis* in the Northern Hemisphere suggest that Neornithes dispersed out of East Gondwana before the Paleocene.
### Classification of bird orders
All modern birds lie within the [group](crown)(crown group) Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the [Palaeognathae](Palaeognathae), which includes the flightless [ratite](ratite)s (such as the [ostrich](ostrich)es) and the weak-flying [tinamou](tinamou)s, and the extremely diverse [Neognathae](Neognathae), containing all other birds. These two subdivisions have variously been given the [rank](taxonomic rank) of [superorder](superorder), cohort, or infraclass.
Depending on the [taxonomic](alpha taxonomy) viewpoint, the number of known living bird species is around 10,906 Clements Checklist |url=https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/updateindex/october-2022/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=www.birds.cornell.edu}} although other sources may differ in their precise number.
[Cladogram](Cladogram) of modern bird relationships based on Braun & Kimball (2021)
}}
|label2=[Neognathae](Neognathae)
|2=
|label2=[Neoaves](Neoaves)
|2=
|label2=[Columbimorphae](Columbimorphae)
|2=
}}
|label3=[Passerea](Passerea)
|3=
|2=[Musophagiformes](Musophagiformes) (turacos)[px](50)(File:Planches enluminées d'histoire naturelle (1765) (Tauraco persa).jpg)
|3=[Gruiformes](Gruiformes) ([rails](Rail (bird)) and [cranes](Crane (bird)))[px](50)(File:Cuvier-72-Grue cendrée.jpg)
|4=[Charadriiformes](Charadriiformes) ([wader](wader)s and relatives)[px](50)(File:D'Orbigny-Mouette rieuse et Bec-en-ciseaux white background.jpg)
|5=[Opisthocomiformes](Opisthocomiformes) (hoatzin)[60px](File:Cuvier-59-Hoazin huppé.jpg)
|label6=[Strisores](Strisores)
|6=
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label7=[Phaethoquornithes](Phaethoquornithes) |sublabel7=(Ardeae)
|7=
|label2=[Aequornithes](Aequornithes)
|2= ([loon](loon)s) [50px](File:Loon (PSF).png)
|label2=
|2=
|label2=
|2=
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label8=[Telluraves](Telluraves)
|8=
|2=[Strigiformes](Strigiformes) (owls)[px](40)(File:Cuvier-12-Hibou à huppe courte.jpg)
|label3=[Coraciimorphae](Coraciimorphae)
|3=
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label4=[Australaves](Australaves)
|4=
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}}
The classification of birds is a contentious issue. [Sibley](Charles Sibley) and [Ahlquist](Jon Ahlquist)'s *Phylogeny and Classification of Birds* (1990) is a landmark work on the subject. Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate, but scientists disagree about the relationships among the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. Fossil and molecular evidence from the 2010s providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders.
### Genomics
, the [genome](genome) had been sequenced for only two birds, the [chicken](chicken) and the [finch](zebra)(zebra finch). the genomes of 542 species of birds had been completed. At least one genome has been sequenced from every order.
These include at least one species in about 90% of extant avian families (218 out of 236 families recognised by the *Howard and Moore Checklist*).
Being able to sequence and compare whole genomes gives researchers many types of information, about genes, the DNA that regulates the genes, and their evolutionary history. This has led to reconsideration of some of the classifications that were based solely on the identification of protein-coding genes. Waterbirds such as [pelicans](pelicans) and [flamingos](flamingos), for example, may have in common specific adaptations suited to their environment that were developed independently.
## Distribution
[[File:House sparrow04.jpg|thumb|left|alt= small bird withpale belly and breast and patterned wing and head stands on concrete |The range of the [sparrow](house)(house sparrow) has expanded dramatically due to human activities.]]
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the [petrel](snow)(snow petrel)'s breeding colonies up to inland in [Antarctica](Antarctica). The highest bird [diversity](biodiversity) occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher [speciation](speciation) rates in the tropics; however studies from the 2000s found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater [extinction](extinction) rates than in the tropics. Many species migrate annually over great distances and across oceans; several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, and some [seabird](seabird) species come ashore only to breed, while some [penguin](penguin)s have been recorded diving up to deep.
Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been [introduced](introduced species) by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the [pheasant](ring-necked)(ring-necked pheasant), for example, has been introduced around the world as a [bird](game)(game bird). Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild [parakeet](monk)(monk parakeet)s in several North American cities after their escape from captivity. Some species, including [egret](cattle)(cattle egret), [caracara](yellow-headed)(yellow-headed caracara) and [galah](galah), have [naturally](spread)(Avian range expansion) far beyond their original ranges as [expansion](agricultural)(Agriculture) created alternative habitats although modern practices of intensive agriculture have negatively impacted farmland bird populations.
## Anatomy and physiology
[[File:Birdmorphology.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|External anatomy of a bird (example: [lapwing](yellow-wattled)(yellow-wattled lapwing)): 1 Beak, 2 Head, 3 Iris, 4 Pupil, 5 Mantle, 6 Lesser [coverts](covert (feather)), 7 Scapulars, 8 Median coverts, 9 Tertials, 10 Rump, 11 Primaries, 12 [Vent](Cloaca#Birds), 13 Thigh, 14 Tibio-tarsal articulation, 15 Tarsus, 16 Foot, 17 Tibia, 18 Belly, 19 Flanks, 20 Breast, 21 Throat, 22 Wattle, 23 Eyestripe]]
Compared with other vertebrates, birds have a [plan](body)(body plan) that shows many unusual adaptations, mostly to facilitate [flight](bird flight).
### Skeletal system
The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the [system](respiratory)(respiratory system). Based on The Birder's Handbook ([Ehrlich](Paul)(Paul Ehrlich), David Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. 1988. Simon and Schuster, New York.) The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show [sutures](cranial)(cranial sutures). The [cavities](orbital)(orbit (anatomy)) that house the eyeballs are large and separated from each other by a bony [septum](septum) (partition). The [spine](vertebral column) has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior [vertebrae](thoracic)(thoracic vertebrae) and absent in the later vertebrae. The last few are fused with the [pelvis](pelvis) to form the [synsacrum](synsacrum). The ribs are flattened and the [sternum](sternum) is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings. The wings are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups that lost their wings are the [extinct](extinct) [moa](moa) and [bird](elephant)(elephant bird)s.
### Excretory system
Like the [reptile](reptile)s, birds are primarily [uricotelic](Metabolic_waste#Uricotelism), that is, their [kidney](kidney)s extract [waste](nitrogenous)(nitrogenous waste) from their bloodstream and excrete it as [acid](uric)(uric acid), instead of [urea](urea) or [ammonia](ammonia), through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a [bladder](urinary)(urinary bladder) or external urethral opening and (with exception of the [ostrich](Ostrich#Description)) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste. However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete [creatine](creatine), rather than [creatinine](creatinine) like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's [cloaca](Cloaca#Birds). The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by [cloaca](joining)(Bird anatomy#Reproduction), and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate [pellets](Pellet (ornithology)).
It is a common but not universal feature of [altricial](Altriciality) [passerine](passerine) nestlings (born helpless, under constant parental care) that instead of excreting directly into the nest, they produce a [sac](fecal)(fecal sac). This is a mucus-covered pouch that allows parents to either dispose of the waste outside the nest or to recycle the waste through their own digestive system.
### Reproductive system
Males within [Palaeognathae](Palaeognathae) (with the exception of the [kiwi](Kiwi (bird))s), the [Anseriformes](Anseriformes) (with the exception of [screamer](screamer)s), and in rudimentary forms in [Galliformes](Galliformes) (but fully developed in [Cracidae](Cracidae)) possess a [penis](bird penis), which is never present in [Neoaves](Neoaves). The length is thought to be related to [competition](sperm)(sperm competition). For male birds to get an erection, they depend on lymphatic fluid instead of blood. When not copulating, it is hidden within the [proctodeum](proctodeum) compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. Female birds have [storage](sperm)(Female sperm storage) tubules that allow sperm to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species. Sperm from multiple males may [compete](Sperm competition) through this mechanism. Most female birds have a single [ovary](ovary) and a single [oviduct](oviduct), both on the left side, but there are exceptions: species in at least 16 different orders of birds have two ovaries. Even these species, however, tend to have a single oviduct. It has been speculated that this might be an adaptation to flight, but males have two testes, and it is also observed that the gonads in both sexes decrease dramatically in size outside the breeding season. Also terrestrial birds generally have a single ovary, as does the [platypus](platypus), an egg-laying mammal. A more likely explanation is that the egg develops a shell while passing through the oviduct over a period of about a day, so that if two eggs were to develop at the same time, there would be a risk to survival. While rare, mostly abortive, [parthenogenesis](parthenogenesis) is not unknown in birds and eggs can be [diploid](Ploidy#Diploid), [automictic](automixis) and results in male offspring.
Birds are solely [gonochoric](Gonochorism). Meaning they have two sexes: either [female](female) or [male](male). The sex of birds is determined by the [and W sex chromosomes](Z)(ZW sex-determination system), rather than by the [and Y chromosomes](X)(XY sex-determination system) present in [mammal](mammal)s. Male birds have two Z chromosomes (ZZ), and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome (WZ). A complex system of [mating](disassortative)(disassortative mating) with two morphs is involved in the [sparrow](white-throated)(white-throated sparrow) *Zonotrichia albicollis*, where white- and tan-browed morphs of opposite sex pair, making it appear as if four sexes were involved since any individual is compatible with only a fourth of the population.
In nearly all species of birds, an individual's sex is determined at fertilisation. However, one 2007 study claimed to demonstrate [sex determination](temperature-dependent)(temperature-dependent sex determination) among the [brushturkey](Australian)(Australian brushturkey), for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male [ratio](sex)(sex ratio). This, however, was later proven to not be the case. These birds do not exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, but temperature-dependent sex mortality.
### Respiratory and circulatory systems
Birds have one of the most complex [system](respiratory)(respiratory system)s of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior [sac](air)(Parabronchi) which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lungs and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the [syrinx](syrinx (biology)), a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea; the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalisations and the perception of the bird's size.
In birds, the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right [arch](aortic)(aortic arches) (or pharyngeal arch), unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the [aorta](aorta). The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system. Unlike in mammals, the circulating [blood cells](red)(red blood cells) in birds retain their [nucleus](cell nucleus).
#### Heart type and features
[[File:Didactic model of an avian heart-FMVZ USP-13 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|[model](Didactic)(Educational toy) of an avian heart]]
The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a [fluid](serous)(serous fluid) for lubrication. The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an [atrium](atrium (heart)) and [ventricle](ventricle (heart)). The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by [valves](atrioventricular)(atrioventricular valves) which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium.
The [node](sinoatrial)(sinoatrial node) uses calcium to cause a [depolarising](Depolarization) [transduction pathway](signal)(signal transduction pathway) from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of [endocardial](endocardial), [myocardial](myocardial) and [epicardial](epicardial) layers. The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight.
#### Organisation
Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to [exchange](gas)(gas exchange) volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular contractions, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo [vasoconstriction](vasoconstriction), and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Blood travels through the arterioles and moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur.
Capillaries are organised into capillary beds in tissues; it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds, blood flow is slowed to allow maximum [diffusion](diffusion) of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated, it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called [vasodilation](vasodilation) bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart, it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.
### Nervous system
The [system](nervous)(nervous system) is large relative to the bird's size. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the [cerebellum](cerebellum) coordinates movement and the [cerebrum](cerebrum) controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and [nest](Bird nest) building. Most birds have a poor [of smell](sense)(olfaction) with notable exceptions including [kiwi](Kiwi (bird))s, [World vulture](New)(New World vulture)s and [tubenoses](tubenoses). The avian [system](visual)(visual system) is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing [accommodation](Accommodation (eye)) for vision in air and water. Some species also have dual [fovea](Fovea centralis). Birds are [tetrachromatic](tetrachromacy), possessing [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) (UV) sensitive [cell](cone)(cone cell)s in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones. They also have [cones](double)(Double cone (biology)), likely to mediate [vision](achromatic)(Monochromacy).
[[File:Bird blink-edit.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|The [membrane](nictitating)(nictitating membrane) as it covers the eye of a [lapwing](masked)(masked lapwing)]]
Many birds show plumage patterns in [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) that are invisible to the human eye; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers. Male [tit](blue)(blue tit)s have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers. Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—[kestrel](kestrel)s have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents. With the exception of pigeons and a few other species, the eyelids of birds are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the [membrane](nictitating)(nictitating membrane), a third eyelid that moves horizontally. The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a [lens](contact)(contact lens) in many aquatic birds. The bird [retina](retina) has a fan shaped blood supply system called the [pecten](Pecten oculi).
Eyes of most birds are large, not very round and capable of only limited movement in the orbits, typically 10–20°. Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide [field](visual)(visual field), while birds with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have [vision](binocular)(binocular vision) and can estimate the [of field](depth)(depth of field). The avian [ear](ear) lacks external [pinnae](pinna (anatomy)) but is covered by feathers, although in some birds, such as the *[Asio](Asio)*, *[Bubo](Horned owl)* and *[Otus](Scops owl)* [owl](owl)s, these feathers form tufts which resemble ears. The [ear](inner)(inner ear) has a [cochlea](cochlea), but it is not spiral as in mammals.
### Defence and intraspecific combat
A few species are able to use chemical defences against predators; some [Procellariiformes](Procellariiformes) can eject an unpleasant [oil](stomach)(stomach oil) against an aggressor, and some species of [pitohui](pitohui)s from [Guinea](New)(New Guinea) have a powerful [neurotoxin](neurotoxin) in their skin and feathers.
A lack of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death. The screamers ([Anhimidae](Anhimidae)), some jacanas (*[Jacana](Jacana (genus))*, *[Hydrophasianus](Hydrophasianus)*), the spur-winged goose (*[Plectropterus](Plectropterus)*), the torrent duck (*[Merganetta](Merganetta)*) and nine species of lapwing (*[Vanellus](Vanellus)*) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks (*[Tachyeres](Tachyeres)*), geese and swans (*[Anserinae](Anserinae)*), the solitaire (*[Pezophaps](Pezophaps)*), sheathbills (*[Chionis](Chionis)*), some guans (*[Crax](Crax)*) and stone curlews (*[Burhinus](Burhinus)*) use a bony knob on the [alula](alula)r metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents. The jacanas *[Actophilornis](Actophilornis)* and *[Irediparra](Irediparra)* have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct *[Xenicibis](Xenicibis)* was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. [Swans](Cygnus olor), for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young.
### Feathers, plumage, and scales
[[File:African Scops owl.jpg|alt=Owl with eyes closed in front of similarly coloured tree trunk partly obscured by green leaves|thumb|left|The [patterned](disruptively)(disruptively patterned) plumage of the [scops owl](African)(African scops owl) allows it to blend in with its surroundings.]]
Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds (though also present in [dinosaurs](some)(Feathered dinosaurs) not currently considered to be true birds). They facilitate [flight](bird flight), provide insulation that aids in [thermoregulation](thermoregulation), and are used in display, camouflage, and signalling. There are several types of feathers, each serving its own set of purposes. Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called [pterylae](Pterylography). The distribution pattern of these feather tracts (pterylosis) is used in taxonomy and systematics. The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body, called [plumage](plumage), may vary within species by age, [status](social)(social status), and [sex](sexual dimorphism).
Plumage is regularly [moult](moult)ed; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the "" plumage, or—in the [terminology](Humphrey–Parkes)(Humphrey–Parkes terminology)—"basic" plumage; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey–Parkes system as "" plumages. Moulting is annual in most species, although [some](Glossary of bird terms#cite note-32) may have two moults a year, and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years. Moulting patterns vary across species. In passerines, [feather](flight)(flight feather)s are replaced one at a time with the innermost being the first. When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced, the outermost begin to drop. After the innermost tertiaries are moulted, the starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers (centrifugal moult). The greater primary are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap.
A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless. As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair. Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the [Phasianidae](Phasianidae). The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of [woodpecker](woodpecker)s and [treecreeper](treecreeper)s, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail. The general pattern seen in [passerine](passerine)s is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward. Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare [patch](brood)(brood patch) by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation.
[[File:Red Lory (Eos bornea)-6.jpg|alt=Red parrot with yellow bill and wing feathers in bill|upright|right|thumb|[lory](Red)(Red lory) preening]]
Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this. The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply [wax](wax)y secretions from the [gland](uropygial)(uropygial gland); these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an [agent](antimicrobial)(Antimicrobial), inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading [bacteria](bacteria). This may be supplemented with the secretions of [acid](formic)(formic acid) from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as [anting](Anting (bird activity)), to remove feather parasites.
The [scales](Bird anatomy#Scales) of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and [metatarsus](metatarsus), but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. Most bird scales do not overlap significantly, except in the cases of [kingfisher](kingfisher)s and [woodpecker](woodpecker)s.
The scales of birds are thought to be [homologous](Homology (biology)) to those of reptiles and mammals.
### Flight
[[File:Restless flycatcher04.jpg|left|alt=Black bird with white chest in flight with wings facing down and tail fanned and down pointing| thumb|[flycatcher](Restless)(Restless flycatcher) in the downstroke of flapping flight]]
Most birds can [fly](Flying and gliding animals), which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for searching for food and for escaping from predators. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb ([wing](wing)) that serves as an [aerofoil](airfoil).
Wing shape and size generally determine a bird's flight style and performance; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are [flightless](Flightless bird), as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, most likely due to limited resources and the absence of [mammal](mammal)ian land predators. Flightlessness is almost exclusively correlated with [gigantism](Island gigantism) due to an island's inherent condition of isolation. Although flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly" through the water, as do some flight-capable birds such as [auk](auk)s, [shearwater](shearwater)s and [dipper](dipper)s.
## Behaviour
Most birds are [diurnal](diurnal animal), but some birds, such as many species of [owl](owl)s and [nightjar](nightjar)s, are [nocturnal](nocturnal) or [crepuscular](crepuscular) (active during twilight hours), and many coastal [wader](wader)s feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night.
### Diet and feeding
[[Illustration of the heads of 16 types of birds with different shapes and sizes of beak|Feeding adaptations in beaks](File:BirdBeaksA.svg|thumb|upright|right|alt=)]
are varied and often include [nectar](nectar (plant)), fruit, plants, seeds, [carrion](carrion), and various small animals, including other birds. The [system of birds](digestive)(digestive system of birds) is unique, with a [crop](Crop (anatomy)) for storage and a [gizzard](gizzard) that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Some species such as pigeons and some psittacine species do not have a [gallbladder](gallbladder). Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein stored in many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration. (Erratum in *Proceedings of the Royal Society B* **267**(1461):2567.)
Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists. [foraging](Avian)(Avian foraging) strategies can vary widely by species. Many birds [glean](Gleaning (birds)) for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch. Those species that seek [pest](Pest (organism)) [insect](insect)s are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and their presence encouraged in [pest control](biological)(biological pest control) programmes. Combined, insectivorous birds eat 400–500 million metric tons of arthropods annually.
Nectar feeders such as [hummingbird](hummingbird)s, [sunbird](sunbird)s, [and lorikeets](lories,)(lories and lorikeets) amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit [co-adapted](Coevolution) flowers. [Kiwi](Kiwi (bird))s and [shorebird](shorebird)s with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of [niche](ecological)(ecological niche)s. [Loon](Loon)s, [duck](diving)(diving duck)s, [penguin](penguin)s and [auks](auks) pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion, while aerial predators such as [sulids](sulidae), [kingfisher](kingfisher)s and [tern](tern)s plunge dive after their prey. [Flamingo](Flamingo)s, three species of [prion](prion (bird)), and some ducks are [feeder](filter)(filter feeder)s. [Geese](Geese) and [duck](dabbling)(dabbling duck)s are primarily grazers.
Some species, including [frigatebird](frigatebird)s, [gull](gull)s, and [skua](skua)s, engage in [kleptoparasitism](kleptoparasitism), stealing food items from other birds. Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting, rather than a significant part of any species' diet; a study of [frigatebird](great)(great frigatebird)s stealing from [boobies](masked)(masked booby) estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40% of their food and on average stole only 5%. Other birds are [scavenger](scavenger)s; some of these, like [vulture](vulture)s, are specialised carrion eaters, while others, like gulls, [corvid](corvid)s, or other birds of prey, are opportunists.
### Water and drinking
Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of [gland](sweat)(sweat gland)s reduces the physiological demands. Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food. They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise, saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting. Seabirds can drink seawater and have [gland](salt)(salt gland)s inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils.
Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat. Some species, especially of arid zones, belonging to the [pigeon](Columbidae), [finch](Estrildidae), [mousebird](Coliidae), [button-quail](Turnicidae) and [bustard](Otididae) families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads. Some desert birds depend on water sources and [sandgrouse](sandgrouse) are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes. Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers. Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food. The pigeon family, flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called [milk](crop)(crop milk) that they provide to their chicks.
### Feather care
Feathers, being critical to the survival of a bird, require maintenance. Apart from physical wear and tear, feathers face the onslaught of fungi, [ectoparasitic](ectoparasitic) feather mites and [lice](bird)(Bird louse). The physical condition of feathers are maintained by often with the application of secretions from the . Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves. While some birds dip into shallow water, more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves. Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust-bathe. A behaviour termed as [anting](Anting (bird activity)) in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers. Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage.
### Migration
[[File:CanadianGeeseFlyingInVFormation.jpg|thumb|A flock of [geese](Canada)(Canada geese) in [formation](V)(V formation)]]
Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of [season](season)al temperatures, therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds, [shorebird](shorebird)s, and [waterbird](waterbird)s undertake annual long-distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the [temperate](temperate) or [region](polar)(polar region)s and a non-breeding season in the [tropical](tropical) regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. (Erratum in *Proceedings of the Royal Society B* **267**(1461):2567.)
Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling. Landbirds have a flight range of around and shorebirds can fly up to , although the [godwit](bar-tailed)(bar-tailed godwit) is capable of non-stop flights of up to . [Seabird](Seabird)s also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of [shearwater](sooty)(sooty shearwater)s, which nest in [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) and [Chile](Chile) and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, [Alaska](Alaska) and [California](California), an annual round trip of . Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. [Albatross](Albatross)es nesting in the [Ocean](Southern)(Southern Ocean) often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons.
[[File:Bar-tailed Godwit migration.jpg|alt= A map of the Pacific Ocean with several coloured lines representing bird routes running from New Zealand to Korea|thumb|left|The routes of satellite-tagged [godwit](bar-tailed)(bar-tailed godwit)s migrating north from [Zealand](New)(New Zealand). This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to .]]
Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food. [Irruptive](wikt:irruptive) species such as the boreal [finch](finch)es are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next. This type of migration is normally associated with food availability. Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range, with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics; others undertake partial migrations, where only a fraction of the population, usually females and subdominant males, migrates. Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions; in Australia, surveys found that 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerines were partially migratory.
[migration](Altitudinal)(Altitudinal migration) is a form of short-distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions. It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when [normal territories](the)(territory (animal)) also become inhospitable due to lack of food. Some species may also be nomadic, holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability. [Parrots](True parrots) as a [family](family (biology)) are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive, irruptive, nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations.
The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s, a [shearwater](Manx)(Manx shearwater) released in [Boston](Boston) in the United States returned to its colony in [Skomer](Skomer), in Wales within 13 days, a distance of . Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods. For [diurnal](diurnal animal) migrants, the [sun](sun) is used to navigate by day, and a stellar compass is used at night. Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an [clock](internal)(Chronobiology). Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the [constellation](constellation)s surrounding [Polaris](Polaris). These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth's [geomagnetism](geomagnetism) through specialised [photoreceptors](Photoreceptor cell).
### Communication
Birds [communicate](Animal communication) primarily using visual and auditory signals. Signals can be interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species).
Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the [sunbittern](sunbittern)'s mimicry of a large predator to ward off [hawk](hawk)s and protect young chicks.
[[File:Stavenn Eurypiga helias 00.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Large brown patterned ground bird with outstretched wings each with a large spot in the centre|The startling display of the [sunbittern](sunbittern) mimics a large predator.]]Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements; males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays.
[calls and songs](Bird)(Bird vocalization), which are produced in the [syrinx](Syrinx (biology)), are the major means by which birds communicate with [sound](sound). This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs.
Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction, evaluation of potential mates, bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories, the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season), and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat. Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The *[Coenocorypha](Coenocorypha)* [snipe](snipe)s of [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) drive air through their feathers, [woodpecker](woodpecker)s drum for long-distance communication, and [cockatoo](palm)(palm cockatoo)s use tools to drum.
### Flocking and other associations
[[File:Red-billed quelea flocking at waterhole.jpg|thumb|right|alt= massive flock of tiny birds seen from distance so that birds appear as specks|[quelea](Red-billed)(Red-billed quelea)s, the most numerous species of wild bird, form enormous flockssometimes tens of thousands strong.]]
While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds may form large [flocks](flock (birds)). The principal benefits of flocking are [in numbers](safety)(safety in numbers) and increased foraging efficiency. Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests, where [predation](ambush)(ambush predation) is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable [warning system](early)(early warning system). This has led to the development of many [feeding flock](mixed-species)(mixed-species feeding flock)s, which are usually composed of small numbers of many species; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources. Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases.
Birds sometimes also form associations with non-avian species. Plunge-diving [seabird](seabird)s associate with [dolphin](dolphin)s and [tuna](tuna), which push shoaling fish towards the surface. Some species of [hornbill](hornbill)s have a [relationship](mutualistic)(Mutualism (biology)) with [mongoose](dwarf)(dwarf mongoose)s, in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby [of prey](birds)(birds of prey) and other predators.
### Resting and roosting
Roost}}
[[File:Caribbean Flamingo2 (Phoenicopterus ruber) (0424) - Relic38.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Pink flamingo with grey legs and long neck pressed against body and head tucked under wings|Many birds, like this [flamingo](American)(American flamingo), tuck their head into their back when sleeping.]]
The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. [birds](Sleeping)(Sleep in animals#Birds) often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening "peeks", allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. [Swift](Swift (bird))s are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight.
Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into [sleep](slow-wave)(slow-wave sleep) one [hemisphere](Cerebral hemisphere) of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for [predator](predator)s by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from [mammal](marine)(marine mammal)s. [roosting](Communal)(Communal roosting) is common because it lowers the [of body heat](loss)(thermoregulation) and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety. Unusual mobile roost sites include large herbivores on the African savanna that are used by [oxpecker](oxpecker)s.
Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their [bills](beak) in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. [birds](Perching)(Passerine) have a tendon-locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus *[Loriculus](Loriculus)* roost hanging upside down. Some [hummingbird](hummingbird)s go into a nightly state of [torpor](torpor) accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This [adaptation](physiological)(Adaptation) shows in nearly a hundred other species, including [owlet-nightjar](owlet-nightjar)s, [nightjar](nightjar)s, and [woodswallow](woodswallow)s. One species, the [poorwill](common)(common poorwill), even enters a state of [hibernation](hibernation). Birds do not have sweat glands, but can lose water directly through the skin, and they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or using special behaviours like [urohidrosis](urohidrosis) to cool themselves.
### Breeding
#### Social systems
[[File:Raggiana Bird-of-Paradise wild 5.jpg|thumb|alt= Bird faces up with green face, black breast and pink lower body. Elaborate long feathers on the wings and tail.|right|Like others of its family, the male [bird-of-paradise](Raggiana)(Raggiana bird-of-paradise) has elaborate breeding plumage used to impress females.]]
Ninety-five per cent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for both [care](paternal)(paternal care) and [care](biparental)(Parental investment), which is especially important for species in which care from both the female and the male parent is required in order to successfully rear a brood. Among many socially monogamous species, [copulation](extra-pair)(extra-pair copulation) (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of [copulation](forced)(forced copulation) in ducks and other [anatids](anatidae).
For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.
Other mating systems, including [polygyny](polygyny), [polyandry](polyandry), [polygamy](polygamy), [polygynandry](polygynandry), and [promiscuity](promiscuity), also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Mating systems vary across bird families but variations within species are thought to be driven by environmental conditions.
Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of [song](bird vocalization). Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal [lekking](Lek mating). Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection, although in the polyandrous [phalaropes](phalaropes), this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females. [feeding](Courtship)(Courtship feeding), [billing](Billing (birds)) and are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated.
[behaviour has been observed](Homosexual)(Homosexuality in animals#Birds) in males or females in numerous species of birds, including copulation, pair-bonding, and joint parenting of chicks. Over 130 avian species around the world engage in sexual interactions between the same sex or homosexual behaviours. "Same-sex courtship activities may involve elaborate displays, synchronized dances, gift-giving ceremonies, or behaviors at specific display areas including bowers, arenas, or leks."
#### Territories, nesting and incubation
Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks. Species that are unable to defend feeding territories, such as [seabird](seabird)s and [swift](Swift (bird))s, often breed in [colonies](Bird colony) instead; this is thought to offer protection from predators. Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites, and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense.
All birds lay [egg](amniotic)(amniotic egg)s with hard shells made mostly of [carbonate](calcium)(calcium carbonate). Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay [camouflage](camouflage)d eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting [nightjar](nightjar)s have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of [parasites](brood)(brood parasites) have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts.
[[File:Golden-backed Weaver.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Yellow weaver (bird) with black head hangs an upside-down nest woven out of grass fronds.|Male [weaver](golden-backed)(golden-backed weaver)s construct elaborate suspended nests out of grass.]]
Bird eggs are usually laid in a [nest](Bird nest). Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, mounds, or burrows. Some bird nests can be a simple scrape, with minimal or no lining; most seabird and wader nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival, and feathers are often used for nest insulation. Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting [guillemot](common)(common guillemot) lays its eggs on bare rock, and male [penguin](emperor)(emperor penguin)s keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in open habitat ground-nesting species where any addition of nest material would make the nest more conspicuous. Many ground nesting birds lay a clutch of eggs that hatch synchronously, with [precocial](precocial) chicks led away from the nests ([nidifugous](nidifugous)) by their parents soon after hatching.
[[File:Eastern Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg|thumb|alt= Nest made of straw with five white eggs and one grey speckled egg|Nest of an [phoebe](eastern)(eastern phoebe) that has been parasitised by a [cowbird](brown-headed)(brown-headed cowbird)]]
[Incubation](Egg incubation), which regulates temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through [patch](brood)(brood patch)es, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as of body weight per day of incubation. The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of [megapode](megapode)s comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources. Incubation periods range from 10 days (in [woodpecker](woodpecker)s, [cuckoo](cuckoo)s and [passerine](passerine) birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and [kiwi](Kiwi (bird))s).
The diversity of characteristics of birds is great, sometimes even in closely related species. Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below.
#### Parental care and fledging
At the time of their hatching, chicks range in development from helpless to independent, depending on their species. Helpless chicks are termed *[altricial](altricial)*, and tend to be born small, [blind](Blindness), immobile and naked; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed *[precocial](precocial)*. Altricial chicks need help [thermoregulating](thermoregulation) and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks. The young of many bird species do not precisely fit into either the precocial or altricial category, having some aspects of each and thus fall somewhere on an "altricial-precocial spectrum". Chicks at neither extreme but favouring one or the other may be termed or .
[[File:White-breasted Woodswallow chicks in nest.jpg|thumb|alt=Looking down on three helpless blind chicks in a nest within the hollow of a dead tree trunk|right|[Altricial](Altricial) chicks of a [woodswallow](white-breasted)(white-breasted woodswallow)]]
The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in [megapode](megapode)s ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately. At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the [frigatebird](great)(great frigatebird), whose chicks take up to six months to [fledge](fledge) and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months. The *chick guard stage* describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation.
[[File:Calliope-nest edit.jpg|thumb|alt=Hummingbird perched on edge of tiny nest places food into mouth of one of two chicks|left|A female [hummingbird](calliope)(calliope hummingbird) feeding fully grown chicks]]
In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, [members](other)(helpers at the nest) of the same species—usually close relatives of the [pair](breeding)(breeding pair), such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Such [alloparenting](alloparenting) is particularly common among the [Corvida](Corvida), which includes such birds as the true [crows](Corvidae), [magpie](Australian)(Australian magpie) and [fairy-wren](fairy-wren)s, but has been observed in species as different as the [rifleman](Rifleman (bird)) and [kite](red)(red kite). Among most groups of animals, [parental care](male)(Paternal care) is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class. Although territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a [of labour](division)(division of labour) in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty.
The point at which chicks [fledge](fledge) varies dramatically. The chicks of the *[Synthliboramphus](Synthliboramphus)* murrelets, like the [murrelet](ancient)(ancient murrelet), leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first [migration](bird migration).
#### Brood parasites
[[File:Reed warbler cuckoo.jpg|thumb|upright|right|alt=Small brown bird places an insect in the bill of much larger grey bird in nest|[warbler](Reed)(Reed warbler) raising a [cuckoo](common)(common cuckoo), a [parasite](brood)(brood parasite)]]
[parasitism](Brood)(Brood parasitism), in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism. After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either *obligate brood parasites*, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or *non-obligate brood parasites*, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of [conspecific](conspecific)s to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young. One hundred bird species, including [honeyguide](honeyguide)s, [icterid](icterid)s, and [ducks](Black-headed duck), are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the [cuckoo](cuckoo)s. Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks.
#### Sexual selection
[[File:Peacock Flying.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|The peacock tail in flight, the classic example of a [runaway](Fisherian)(Fisherian runaway)]]
Birds have [evolved](evolution) a variety of [mating](mating) behaviours, with the [peacock](peafowl) tail being perhaps the most famous example of [selection](sexual)(sexual selection) and the [runaway](Fisherian)(Fisherian runaway). Commonly occurring [dimorphism](sexual)(sexual dimorphism)s such as size and colour differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations. Many types of avian [selection](sexual)(sexual selection) have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual's fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage colouration and [behaviour](courtship)(courtship behavior) are "honest" traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours.
#### Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding causes early death ([depression](inbreeding)(inbreeding depression)) in the [finch](zebra)(zebra finch) *Taeniopygia guttata*. Embryo survival (that is, hatching success of fertile eggs) was significantly lower for [sib-sib](sibling) mating pairs than for unrelated pairs.
[finch](Darwin's)(Darwin's finches) *Geospiza scandens* experiences [depression](inbreeding)(inbreeding depression) (reduced survival of offspring) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by environmental conditions such as low food availability.
#### Inbreeding avoidance
Incestuous matings by the [fairy wren](purple-crowned)(Purple-crowned fairywren) *Malurus coronatus* result in severe fitness costs due to [depression](inbreeding)(inbreeding depression) (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see [animals](Promiscuity#Other)(Promiscuity#Other animals) for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.
Inbreeding depression occurs in the [tit](great)(great tit) (*Parus major*) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. In natural populations of *Parus major*, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.
[pied babbler](Southern)(Southern pied babbler)s *Turdoides bicolor* appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways. The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates.
[breeding](Cooperative)(Cooperative breeding) in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness ([depression](inbreeding)(inbreeding depression)) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles. [Cross-fertilisation](Outcrossing) between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny.
## Ecology
[[File:Pinzón azul de Gran Canaria (macho), M. A. Peña.jpg|thumb|right|[Canaria blue chaffinch](Gran)(Gran Canaria blue chaffinch), an example of a bird highly specialised in its habitat, in this case in the [pine](Canarian)(Pinus canariensis) forests]]
Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the [niches](Ecological niche) occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the [canopy](forest)(forest canopy), others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be [insectivore](insectivore)s, [frugivore](frugivore)s, or [nectarivore](nectarivore)s. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or [kleptoparasitism](kleptoparasitism). Many grassland birds are granivores. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised [scavenger](scavenger)s. Birds are also preyed upon by a range of mammals including a few [avivorous](Avivore) bats. A wide range of endo- and ectoparasites depend on birds and some parasites that are transmitted from parent to young have [co-evolved](Coevolution) and show host-specificity.
Some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators, and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal. Plants and pollinating birds often [coevolve](coevolution), and in some cases a flower's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar.
Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfil ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand nine species of [moa](moa) were important browsers, as are the [kererū](kererū) and [kokako](kokako) today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa.
Many birds act as [engineer](ecosystem)(ecosystem engineer)s through the construction of nests, which provide important microhabitats and food for hundreds of species of invertebrates. Nesting [seabird](seabird)s may affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of [guano](guano), which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas.
A wide variety of [ecology field methods](avian)(avian ecology field methods), including counts, nest monitoring, and capturing and marking, are used for researching avian ecology.
## Relationship with humans
[[File:Industrial-Chicken-Coop.JPG|thumb|alt=Two rows of cages in a dark barn with many white chickens in each cage|[farming](Industrial)(Industrial farming) of [chicken](chicken)s]]
Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are [mutualistic](Mutualism (biology)), like the cooperative honey-gathering among [honeyguide](honeyguide)s and African peoples such as the [Borana](Borana people). Other times, they may be [commensal](Commensalism), as when species such as the [sparrow](house)(house sparrow) have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an [hazard](aviation)(bird strike). Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction ([hunting](hunting), [lead poisoning](avian)(avian lead poisoning), [pesticide](pesticide)s, [roadkill](roadkill), [turbine](wind)(wind turbine) kills and predation by pet [cat](cat)s and [dog](dog)s are common causes of death for birds).
Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as [psittacosis](psittacosis), [salmonellosis](salmonellosis), [campylobacteriosis](campylobacteriosis), mycobacteriosis (avian [tuberculosis](tuberculosis)), [influenza](avian)(avian influenza) (bird flu), [giardiasis](giardiasis), and [cryptosporidiosis](cryptosporidiosis) over long distances. Some of these are [diseases](zoonotic)(zoonosis) that can also be transmitted to humans.
### Economic importance
[[of fisherman on raft with pole for punting and numerous black birds on raft|The use of cormorants by Asian fishermen is in steep decline but survives in some areas as a tourist attraction.](File:FishingCormorants.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Illustration)]
Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called [poultry](poultry), are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, tons of poultry and tons of eggs were produced worldwide. [Chicken](Chicken)s account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated [turkeys](domesticated turkey), [ducks](domestic duck), and [geese](domestic goose) are also relatively common. Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include [pheasant](pheasant)s, [turkey](wild)(wild turkey)s, quail, [dove](dove)s, [partridge](partridge), [grouse](grouse), [snipe](snipe), and [woodcock](woodcock). [Muttonbirding](Muttonbirding) is also popular in Australia and New Zealand. Although some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species.
Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers (especially the [down](Down feather) of geese and ducks), which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding, and seabird faeces ([guano](guano)), which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen. The [of the Pacific](War)(War of the Pacific), sometimes called the Guano War, was fought in part over the control of guano deposits.
Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as [parrots](Parrot (family)) and [myna](myna)s, are bred in [captivity](aviculture) or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some [species](endangered)(endangered species). [Falcon](Falcon)s and [cormorant](cormorant)s have long been used for [hunting](Falconry) and [fishing](Cormorant fishing), respectively. [pigeon](Messenger)(Messenger pigeon)s, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as [War II](World)(World War II). Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism,
Amateur bird enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, [birders](birding)) number in the millions. Many homeowners erect [feeder](bird)(bird feeder)s near their homes to attract various species. [feeding](Bird)(Bird feeding) has grown into a multimillion-dollar industry; for example, an estimated 75% of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter.
### In religion and mythology
[[File:Vogel Drei (Meister der Spielkarten).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Woodcut of three long-legged and long-necked birds|The *3 of Birds* by the [of the Playing Cards](Master)(Master of the Playing Cards), 15th-century Germany]]
Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology.
In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a [deity](deity), such as in the Cult of [Makemake](Makemake (mythology)), in which the [manu](Tangata)(Tangata manu) of [Island](Easter)(Easter Island) served as chiefs or as attendants, as in the case of [and Munin](Hugin)(Hugin and Munin), the two [raven](common)(common raven)s who whispered news into the ears of the [god](Norse)(Norse god) [Odin](Odin). In several civilisations of [Italy](ancient)(History of Italy), particularly [Etruscan](Etruscan mythology) and [Roman](Ancient Rome) [religion](Religion in Ancient Rome), priests were involved in [augur](augur)y, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to foretell events.
They may also serve as [symbols](religious)(Religious symbolism), as when [Jonah](Jonah) (, [dove](dove)) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves. Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the [peacock](common)(common peacock), which is perceived as Mother Earth by the people of southern India. In the ancient world, doves were used as symbols of the [goddess](Mesopotamian)(Mesopotamian goddess) [Inanna](Inanna) (later known as Ishtar), the [Canaanite](Ancient Canaanite religion) mother goddess [Asherah](Asherah), and the Greek goddess [Aphrodite](Aphrodite). In [Greece](ancient)(ancient Greece), [Athena](Athena), the goddess of wisdom and patron deity of the city of [Athens](Athens), had a [owl](little)(little owl) as [symbol](her)(Owl of Athena). In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms. Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds.
### In culture and folklore
[[File:17.6-24-1974-Cuerda-seca-flisepanel.jpg|thumb|left|Painted [tiles](tiles) with design of birds from [dynasty](Qajar)(Qajar dynasty)]]
Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early [painting](cave)(cave painting) and carvings. Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological [Roc](Roc (mythology)) and the [Māori](Māori people)'s legendary , a giant bird capable of snatching humans. Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the magnificent [Throne](Peacock)(Peacock Throne) of the [Mughal](Mughal era) and [Persian](History of Iran) emperors. With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books.
Among the most famous of these bird artists was [James Audubon](John)(John James Audubon), whose paintings of [American birds](North)(List of North American birds) were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the [Audubon Society](National)(National Audubon Society). Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, [Homer](Homer) incorporated [nightingale](nightingale)s into his *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*, and [Catullus](Catullus) used a [sparrow](Old World sparrow) as an erotic symbol in his [2](Catullus)(Catullus 2). The relationship between an [albatross](albatross) and a sailor is the central theme of [Taylor Coleridge](Samuel)(Samuel Taylor Coleridge)'s *[Rime of the Ancient Mariner](The)(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)*, which led to the use of the [as a metaphor for a 'burden'](term)(Albatross (metaphor)). Other [English](English language) metaphors derive from birds; [fund](vulture)(vulture fund)s and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture. Aircraft, particularly military aircraft, are frequently named after birds. The predatory nature of raptors make them popular choices for fighter aircraft such as the [Fighting Falcon](F-16)(F-16 Fighting Falcon) and the [Jump Jet](Harrier)(Harrier Jump Jet), while the names of seabirds may be chosen for aircraft primarily used by naval forces such as the [Albatross](HU-16)(HU-16 Albatross) and the [Osprey](V-22)(V-22 Osprey).
[[File:Flag of Dominica.svg|thumb|right|The [flag](Flag of Dominica) of [Dominica](Dominica) prominently features the [Parrot](Sisserou)(Sisserou Parrot), its national bird.]]
Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures. [Owl](Owl)s are associated with bad luck, [witchcraft](witchcraft), and death in parts of Africa, but are regarded as wise across much of Europe. [Hoopoe](Hoopoe)s were considered sacred in [Egypt](Ancient)(Ancient Egypt) and symbols of virtue in [Persia](Persia), but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in [Scandinavia](Scandinavia). In [heraldry](heraldry), birds, especially [eagles](Eagle (heraldry)), often appear in [of arms](coats)(coats of arms) In [vexillology](vexillology), birds are a popular choice on [flags](List of national flags by design#Bird). Birds feature in the flag designs of 17 countries and numerous subnational entities and territories. Birds are used by nations to symbolize a country's identity and heritage, with 91 countries officially recognizing a [bird](national)(List_of_national_birds). Birds of prey are highly represented, though some nations have chosen other species of birds with parrots being popular among smaller, tropical nations.
### In music
[music](In)(Birds in music), birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition, as [Vivaldi](Antonio Vivaldi), [Messiaen](Olivier Messiaen), and [Beethoven](Beethoven) did, along with many later composers; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as [Respighi](Ottorino)(Ottorino Respighi) first did; or like [Harrison](Beatrice)(Beatrice Harrison) and [Rothenberg](David)(David Rothenberg), they can duet with birds.
### Conservation
[[File:California-Condor3-Szmurlo edit.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Large black bird with featherless head and hooked bill|The [condor](California)(California condor) once numbered only 22 birds, but conservation measures have raised that to over 500 today.]]
Although human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the [swallow](barn)(barn swallow) and [starling](European)(European starling), they have caused population decreases or [extinction](extinction) in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times, although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of [Melanesia](Melanesia)n, [Polynesia](Polynesia)n, and [Micronesia](Micronesia)n islands. Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as [threatened](threatened species) by [International](BirdLife)(BirdLife International) and the [IUCN](IUCN) in 2009.
The most commonly cited human threat to birds is [loss](habitat)(Habitat destruction). Other threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to collisions with [buildings](bird-skyscraper collisions) or [vehicles](bird strike), [fishing](long-line)(long-line fishing) [bycatch](bycatch), pollution (including [spill](oil)(oil spill)s and pesticide use),; competition and predation from nonnative [species](invasive)(invasive species), and [change](climate)(Climate change and birds).
Governments and [conservation](conservation biology) groups work to protect birds, either by passing laws that [preserve](In-situ conservation) and [restore](ecological restoration) bird habitat or by establishing [populations](captive)(Ex-situ conservation) for reintroductions. Such projects have produced some successes; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004, including the [condor](California)(California condor) and [parakeet](Norfolk)(Norfolk parakeet).
## See also
* [track](Animal)(Animal track)
* [sleep](Avian)(Avian sleep)
* [Bat](Bat)
* [change and birds](Climate)(Climate change and birds)
* [of bird terms](Glossary)(Glossary of bird terms)
* [of individual birds](List)(List of individual birds)
* [Ornithology](Ornithology)
* [dinosaurs](Paleocene)(Paleocene dinosaurs)
## References
## Further reading
* *All the Birds of the World*, Lynx Edicions, 2020.
* Del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.). *Handbook of the Birds of the World* (17-volume encyclopaedia), Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 1992–2010. (*Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks*: , etc.).
* Lederer, Roger; Carol Burr (2014). *Latein für Vogelbeobachter: über 3000 ornithologische Begriffe erklärt und erforscht*, aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Susanne Kuhlmannn-Krieg, Verlag DuMont, Köln, .
* *National Geographic Field Guide to Birds of North America*, National Geographic, 7th edition, 2017.
* *National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Eastern Region*, National Audubon Society, Knopf.
* *National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds: Western Region*, National Audubon Society, Knopf.
* Svensson, Lars (2010). *Birds of Europe*, Princeton University Press, second edition.
* Svensson, Lars (2010). *Collins Bird Guide: The Most Complete Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe*, Collins, 2nd edition.
## External links
* [Birdlife International](http://www.birdlife.org/) – Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species.
* [Bird biogeography](http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdbiogeography1.htm)
* [Birds and Science](https://web.archive.org/web/20100810134957/http://www.audubon.org/bird/index.html) from the [Audubon Society](National)(National Audubon Society)
* [Cornell Lab of Ornithology](http://www.birds.cornell.edu/)
*
* [Essays on bird biology](http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/completed_essays.html)
* [North American Birds for Kids](http://www.mrnussbaum.com/birdsindex.htm)
* [Ornithology](http://www.ornithology.com/)
* [Sora](http://sora.unm.edu/) – Searchable online research archive; Archives of the following ornithological journals *[Auk](The)(The Auk)*, *[Condor](Condor (journal))*, *Journal of Field Ornithology*', *North American Bird Bander*, *Studies in Avian Biology*, *Pacific Coast Avifauna*, and the *[Bulletin](Wilson)(the Wilson Bulletin)*.
* [The Internet Bird Collection](http://ibc.lynxeds.com/) – A free library of videos of the world's birds
* [The Institute for Bird Populations, California](http://www.birdpop.org/)
* [List of field guides to birds](https://web.archive.org/web/20100323064035/http://media.library.uiuc.edu/cgi/b/bib/bix-idx?c=bix%3Bcc%3Dbix%3Bsid%3D0c4f6243857204b94fcdebc6dce5d8b2%3Btype%3Dsimple%3Bpage%3Dbrowse%3Binst%3Dbix_10%3Bsort%3Dregion), from the International Field Guides database
* [RSPB bird identifier](http://www.rspb.org.uk/wildlife/birdidentifier/) – Interactive identification of all UK birds
* [Are Birds Really Dinosaurs?](http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html) — University of California Museum of Paleontology.
[ ](Category:Birds)
[classes](Category:Animal)(Category:Animal classes)
[Category:Dinosaurs](Category:Dinosaurs)
[Late Cretaceous first appearances](Category:Extant)(Category:Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances)
[dinosaurs](Category:Feathered)(Category:Feathered dinosaurs)
[first appearances](Category:Santonian)(Category:Santonian first appearances)
[named by Carl Linnaeus](Category:Taxa)(Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus)
|
M2 Bradley
|
m2_bradley
|
# M2 Bradley
*Revision ID: 1160020015 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T23:46:23Z*
---
| width =
| height =
| weight =
| suspension = [bar](Torsion)(Torsion bar suspension)
| speed = ; 40 km/h off-road; 7.2 km/h in water
| vehicle_range =
| armour =
}}
| primary_armament =
| secondary_armament = 7.62 mm [coaxial](coaxial) [M240C](M240 machine gun) [gun](machine)(machine gun) (2,200 rounds)
| engine = [Cummins](Cummins) VTA-903T 8-cylinder [diesel](Diesel engine)
| crew = 3 (commander, gunner, driver)
| passengers = 6 (7 in M2A2 ODS/M2A3/M2A4)
| engine_power =
| pw_ratio = 16.18 kW/tonne (21.7 hp/tonne)
}}
The **M2 Bradley**, or **Bradley IFV**, is an American [fighting vehicle](infantry)(infantry fighting vehicle) that is a member of the [Fighting Vehicle](Bradley)(Bradley Fighting Vehicle) family. It is manufactured by [Systems Land & Armaments](BAE)(BAE Systems Land & Armaments), which was formerly [Defense](United)(United Defense).
The Bradley is designed for reconnaissance and to transport a squad of infantry, providing them protection from small arms fire, while providing firepower to both suppress and eliminate most threats to friendly infantry. It is designed to be highly maneuverable and to be fast enough to keep up with heavy armor during an advance. The M2 holds a crew of three: a commander, a gunner, and a driver, as well as six fully equipped soldiers as passengers.
In the year 2000 the total cost of the program was $5,664,100,000 for 1,602 units, giving an average unit cost of $3,166,000, or $5,500,000 per in 2022.
## Design
The Bradley [IFV](IFV) was developed largely in response to the [amphibious](Amphibious vehicle) Soviet [family](BMP)(BMP-1) of infantry fighting vehicles, and to serve as both an [personnel carrier](armored)(armored personnel carrier) (APC), and a [tank-killer](Tank killer). Design began in 1963 and entered production in 1981. One specific design requirement was that it should be as fast as the new [Abrams](M1)(M1 Abrams) main battle tank so that they could maintain formations while moving, something which the older [armored personnel carrier](M113)(M113 armored personnel carrier) could not do, as it had been designed to complement the older [Patton](M60)(M60 Patton).
### Armament
[[Bradley Shadow Hawk 1987.JPEG|thumb|right|An early M2 Bradley demonstrating the ability to engage targets at high angles of elevation.](File:M2)]
The Bradley is equipped with the [M242](M242) [25 mm](25 mm caliber) [autocannon](autocannon) as its main weapon. The M242 has a single barrel with an integrated dual-feed mechanism and remote feed selection.[Bradley M2 / M3 Tracked Armoured Fighting Vehicles, USA.](http://www.army-technology.com/projects/bradley/) Army-Technology.com. Retrieved on August 1, 2008. The gun has 300 ready rounds in two ready boxes, one of 70 rounds – usually AP-type rounds, the other of 230 rounds – usually HE-type rounds, with another 600 rounds in storage. The two ready boxes allow a selectable mix of rounds, such as the M791 APDS-T ([Discarding Sabot](Armor-Piercing)(Armor-piercing discarding sabot) (with) [Tracer](Tracer ammunition)), and M792 HEI-T ([Explosive Incendiary](High)(High Explosive Incendiary) (with) Tracer) rounds. The 25 mm automatic gun is primarily used for clearing bunkers and firing on lightly armored vehicles.
While the 25 mm automatic gun is not the weapon of choice for engaging tanks, vehicle commanders, crews, and CALL and Army Infantry Center personnel reported isolated instances in which the 25 mm automatic gun had killed older generation tanks. However, Army Materiel Systems Analysis Activity (AMSAA) officials stated that, on the basis of their assessment of combat vehicles in the Persian Gulf war, for the 25 mm automatic gun to kill a tank, the tank would have to be hit at close range in its more vulnerable areas.
Subsequent ammunition developments resulted in the M919 [APFSDS-T](APFSDS-T) ([Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot](Armor-Piercing)(Armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot) with Tracer) round, which contains a finned depleted-uranium penetrator similar in concept to armor-piercing munitions used in modern tanks. The M919 was used in combat during the [invasion of Iraq](2003)(2003 invasion of Iraq).
It is also armed with an [M240C](M240 machine gun) [gun](machine)(machine gun) mounted [coaxially](Coaxial weapon) to the M242, with 2,200 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition. For engaging heavier targets, such as when acting in an [anti-tank](anti-tank) fashion, the Bradley has a [missile system](TOW)(BGM-71 TOW) on board. It was changed from the M2A1 model to fire TOW II missiles. M2 infantry Bradleys have firing ports for a number of [Firing Port Weapon](M231)(M231 Firing Port Weapon)s or FPWs, providing a button-up firing position to replace the top-side gunners on the old ACAV, though the M231 is rarely employed. Initial variants carried six, but the side ports were plated over with the new armor used on the A2 and A3 variants, leaving only the two rear-facing mounts in the loading ramp.
### Countermeasures
The use of aluminum armor and the storage of large quantities of ammunition in the vehicle initially raised questions about its combat survivability. Spaced laminate belts and high hardness steel skirts have been added to later versions to improve armor protection. This has increased overall weight to 33 tons. However, actual combat operations have not shown the Bradley to be deficient as losses have been few. In friendly fire incidents in [Storm](Desert)(Desert Storm), many crew members survived hits that resulted in total losses for lighter USMC [LAV-25](LAV-25) vehicles.
All versions are equipped with two four-barreled [grenade](smoke)(smoke grenade) [launchers](grenade launcher) on the front of the turret for creating defensive [screen](smoke)(smoke screen)s, which can be loaded with [chaff](chaff (countermeasure)) and [flares](flare#Military use).
In December 2018, the Army announced it would be installing an Israeli made [protection system](active)(active protection system) the [Fist](Iron)(Iron Fist (countermeasure)), on M2 Bradleys of one armored brigade as a near-term solution to enhance protection against anti-tank rockets and missiles.[Army Bradley Brigade Will Get Israeli Anti-Missile System: Iron Fist](https://breakingdefense.com/2018/12/army-bradley-brigade-will-get-israeli-anti-missile-system-iron-fist/). *Breaking Defense*. 14 December 2018. However, the original configuration proved too ineffective and delayed the installment. Testing in 2022 of a reconfigured version called the Iron Fist Light Decoupled were more successful, and the Army intends to field a brigade set in 2025.[With issues resolved, Bradley to get Iron Fist protection system](https://www.defensenews.com/land/2023/01/24/with-issues-resolved-bradley-to-get-iron-fist-protection-system/). *[News](Defense)(Defense News)*. 24 January 2023.
### Chassis
The Bradley has a welded aluminum unit or [monocoque](monocoque) structure to which the armor is attached, mostly on the outside. The suspension is by [bar](torsion)(torsion bar)s and cranks. Six small rubber rimmed, divided road wheels on each side straddle the location flanges sticking up from the tread. These were originally of aluminum, but were changed to steel as vehicle weight increased. The steel treads sit on flat hard rubber tires.
### Mobility
The Bradley is highly capable in cross-country open terrain, in accordance with one of the main design objectives of keeping pace with the [Abrams](M1)(M1 Abrams) main battle tank. Whereas the M113 would float without much preparation, the Bradley was initially designed to float by deploying a flotation curtain around the vehicle. This caused some drownings due to failures during its first trials. Armor upgrades have negated this capability.
## History
### Production history
[[Bradley Reforger 1985.JPEG|thumb|right|United States Army M2 Bradley in 1985, Germany.](File:M2)]
The M2, which was named after [War II](World)(World War II) [General](General) [Bradley](Omar)(Omar Bradley), carries a crew of three and a six-man dismountable [infantry](infantry) [squad](squad).
The vehicle entered service with the [Army](U.S.)(United States Army) in 1981, and 4,641 M2 variants have been produced since.
Even after the troubled development history of the Bradley,Diane L. Urbina. "Lethal beyond all expectations: The Bradley Fighting Vehicle"—in chapter 12 of George F. Hofmann and [A. Starry](Donn)(Donn A. Starry) (editors) *Camp Colt to Desert Storm: The History of U.S. Armored Forces*, Lexington, Kentucky; The University Press of Kentucky, . additional problems occurred after production started, as later detailed by Air Force Colonel [G. Burton](James)(James G. Burton), who took part in the design and fielding process.James G. Burton, Col. *The Pentagon Wars: Reformers Challenge the Old Guard*, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press (1993). . Burton advocated the use of comprehensive live fire tests against fully loaded military vehicles to check for survivability. The Army and Navy agreed and established the Joint Live Fire testing program in 1984. When testing the Bradley, disagreements occurred between Burton and the [Research Laboratory](Ballistic)(Ballistic Research Laboratory) (BRL) at [Proving Ground](Aberdeen)(Aberdeen Proving Ground)s, which preferred smaller, more controlled, "building block" tests that could be used to improve the databases used to model vehicle survivability, as opposed to full up tests with random shots, which reduce the possibility of bias but produced little useful statistical data.
Burton insisted on a series of “[overmatch](overmatch)" tests in which weapon systems would be fired at the Bradley that were known to be able to easily penetrate its armor. Burton saw attempts to avoid such tests as dishonest, while the BRL saw them as wasteful as they already knew the vehicle would fail. The disagreements became so contentious that a Congressional inquiry was set up. As a result of the tests, additional improvements to vehicle survivability were added.
As of May 2000, 4,641 M2s had been produced for the U.S. Army.
[Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia) stated an interest in acquiring the Bradley in 1989 and began importing the vehicle in 1990. Bradley production concluded in 1995. A total of 6,785 M2/M3 Bradleys were produced, including 400 for Saudi Arabia.
### Combat history
[[File:Bradley on fire.jpg|thumb|A Bradley IFV burns after being hit during the [of 73 Easting](Battle)(Battle of 73 Easting), one of only three Bradleys lost to the Iraqis, February 1991.]]
During the [Gulf War](Persian)(Persian Gulf War), M2 Bradleys destroyed more Iraqi armored vehicles than the [Abrams](M1)(M1 Abrams).. Global Security Twenty Bradleys were lost—three by enemy fire and 17 due to friendly fire incidents. Another 12 were damaged. The gunner of one Bradley was killed when his vehicle was hit by Iraqi fire, possibly from an Iraqi [BMP-1](BMP-1), during the [of 73 Easting](Battle)(Battle of 73 Easting).Quotation from ''General accounting office's report about the Bradleys and Abrams performance in the Persian Gulf War'': "According to information provided by the Army's Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 20 Bradleys were destroyed during the Persian Gulf war. Another 12 Bradleys were damaged, but four of these were quickly repaired. Friendly fire accounted for 17 of the destroyed Bradleys and three of the damaged ones." To remedy some problems that were identified as contributing factors in the friendly fire incidents, [identification panels](infrared)(Combat Identification Panel) and other marking/identification measures were added to the Bradleys.
In the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War), the Bradley proved somewhat vulnerable to [explosive device](improvised)(improvised explosive device) (IED) and [grenade](rocket-propelled)(rocket-propelled grenade) (RPG) attacks, but casualties were light—the doctrine being to allow the crew to escape at the expense of the vehicle. As of early 2006, total combat losses included between 55 and 100 Bradleys.L.B. Thompson, L.J. Korb, C.P. Wadhams. [Army Equipment After Iraq](http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/docs/773.pdf) . [Institute](Lexington)(Lexington Institute) and [for American Progress](Center)(Center for American Progress). By the end of the war, about 150 Bradleys had been destroyed.[The US Army's armoured vehicle conundrum](http://www.army-technology.com/features/featurethe-us-armys-armoured-vehicle-conundrum-4369690/) - Army-Technology.com, 11 September 2014
The M2A3 variant began to replace the [cavalry fighting vehicles](M3A3)(M3 Bradley) in US Army armored reconnaissance units in 2014, as the increased ammunition of the loads carried by the M3A3s reduced the number of scouts able to be dismounted. In 2016, a reorganisation of reconnaissance unit structures and compositions saw large-scale replacements of [Humvees](Humvees) within these units with M2A3s, increasing the tactical mobility and maneuver warfare capabilities of US Army armored reconnaissance brigades. Structure & Equipment|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmiIqONvHeQ|language=en|access-date=2021-05-25 |via=YouTube}}
On 4 January 2023, President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) was asked by a journalist during a press event if M2 Bradleys were "on the table" for Ukraine. His response was "Yes," without further explanation. This follows France's promise to send [RC](AMX-10)(AMX-10 RC) and [Bastion](ACMAT)(ACMAT Bastion).["France to send armoured combat vehicles to Ukraine to aid Zelenskiy"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/jan/04/russia-ukraine-war-live-moscow-revises-makiivka-death-toll-to-89-zelenskiy-reiterates-warning-of-new-russian-offensive), The Guardian, 4 January 2023 The next day, the Pentagon confirmed 50 Bradleys were included as part of a $3 billion package as part of assistance to Ukraine during the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine); Germany also committed to sending the [(IFV)](Marder)(Marder (IFV)).[US and Germany pledge infantry fighting vehicles for Ukraine](https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2023/01/05/us-and-germany-pledge-infantry-fighting-vehicles-for-ukraine/). *[News](Defense)(Defense News)*. 5 January 2023.[Biden OKs sending Bradley Fighting Vehicles to Ukraine](https://breakingdefense.com/2023/01/biden-oks-sending-bradley-fighting-vehicles-to-ukraine/). *Breaking Defense*. 5 January 2023.[U.S. $3 Billion Military Package to Ukraine Looks to Change Battlefield Dynamics](https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3261583/us-3-billion-military-package-to-ukraine-looks-to-change-battlefield-dynamics/). *[Defense.gov](Defense.gov)*. 6 January 2023. The decision to send the Bradley was made because by that point the U.S. had determined Ukrainian forces had demonstrated they were proficient in maintenance and sustainment of such Western-made AFVs.[US to send Ukraine largest package yet, worth $3.75 billion](https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2023/01/06/us-to-send-ukraine-largest-package-yet-worth-375-billion/). *[News](Defense)(Defense News)*. 6 January 2023.[From Washington, Berlin and Paris, a sudden influx of armor bound for Ukraine](https://breakingdefense.com/2023/01/from-washington-berlin-and-paris-a-sudden-influx-of-armor-bound-for-ukraine/). *Breaking Defense*. 6 January 2023. Another 59 vehicles were included in another package later that month.[Ukraine Contact Group meeting caps off deluge of new arms pledges, but no German Leopards](https://breakingdefense.com/2023/01/ukraine-contact-group-meeting-caps-off-deluge-of-new-arms-pledges-but-no-german-leopards/). *Breaking Defense*. 20 January 2023. Bradleys were first shown to be in Ukrainian service in mid-April 2023.[Bradley Fighting Vehicles Have Arrived In Ukraine](https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/bradley-fighting-vehicles-have-officially-arrived-in-ukraine). *The Drive/The War Zone*. 18 April 2023.
Ukraine first employed M2 Bradleys in combat during the [Ukrainian counteroffensive](2023)(2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive) beginning in early June 2023. On 8 June, Russian drone footage showed multiple Bradley Fighting Vehicles abandoned in [Oblast](Zaporizhzhia)(Zaporizhzhia Oblast) along with a [2A6](Leopard)(Leopard 2).[Russia Has Destroyed Its First Ukrainian Bradley Fighting Vehicles](https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/russia-has-destroyed-its-first-ukrainian-bradley-fighting-vehicles). *The Drive/The War Zone*. 9 June 2023 As of 10 June, at least 17 Ukrainian Bradleys have been confirmed lost, either destroyed or damaged and abandoned. Several were lost to mines and ATGMs attempting to breach Russian defensive lines.[Armor Expert Breaks Down Ukraine’s Loss Of Bradleys During Breaching Operation](https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/armor-expert-breaks-down-ukraines-loss-of-bradleys-during-breaching-operation). *The Drive/The War Zone*. 12 June 2023. A US aid package announced on 13 June included 15 more Bradleys as the counteroffensive was underway.[Biden Administration Announces Additional Security Assistance for Ukraine](https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3426389/biden-administration-announces-additional-security-assistance-for-ukraine/). *[Department of Defense](US)(US Department of Defense)*. 13 June 2023.[US sending $325 million package of military aid to Ukraine](https://www.militarytimes.com/home/middle-column/2023/06/13/us-sending-325-million-package-of-military-aid-to-ukraine/). *[Times](Military)(Military Times)*. 13 June 2023.
### Replacement
[[Advanced Running Gear.jpg|thumb|right|The Army conducts tests of an Advanced Running Gear using a Bradley Fighting Vehicle as a surrogate for the OMFV](File:Bradley)]
U.S. Army efforts to replace the Bradley began in the mid-1980s under the [Systems Modernization](Armored)(Armored Systems Modernization) program. The Army studied creating several vehicle variants under a common heavy chassis to replace main battle tanks and Bradleys. This effort was canceled in 1992 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union.
The U.S. Army began the [Combat Systems](Future)(Future Combat Systems) (FCS) [Ground Vehicles](Manned)(Future Combat Systems Manned Ground Vehicles) program in 1999. This family of 18-ton lightweight tracked vehicles centered around a common chassis. It would consist of eight variants, including infantry carriers, scouting vehicles and main battle tanks. FCS was canceled in 2009 due to budget cuts.
In 2010, the Army began the [Combat Vehicle](Ground)(Ground Combat Vehicle) program to replace the M2 Bradley. Entries from BAE and General Dynamics were selected for evaluation. Concerns grew around the vehicle's proposed weight of around 70 tons. The GCV program was cancelled in 2014 due to sequestration budget cuts.
In June 2018, the Army established the [Generation Combat Vehicle](Next)(Next Generation Combat Vehicle) (NGCV) program to replace the M2 Bradley. In October 2018, the program was re-designated as the [Manned Fighting Vehicle](Optionally)(Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle) (OMFV). This program placed much of the cost burden of development on contractors, causing many competitors to drop out. In February 2020, the Army restarted the program, promising to take on more responsibility for funding.
## Variants
### M2
[[File:M2 Bradley exiting the water at Victory Pond, 1983.jpg|thumb|A M2 Bradley configured for swimming, [Benning](Fort)(Fort Benning), June 1983]]
The M2 was the basic production model, first fielded in 1981. The M2 can be identified by its standard TOW missile system, steel laminate armor, and [Cummins](Cummins) VT903 engine with HMPT-500 Hydro-mechanical transmission. Basic features included an integrated sight unit for the M242 25 mm gun, and thermal imaging system. The M2 was amphibious with the use of a "swim barrier" or "[screen](flotation)(Floatation Screen)" and was transportable by [Starlifter](C-141)(C-141 Starlifter) and [Galaxy](C-5)(C-5 Galaxy) aircraft. All M2 vehicles have been upgraded to improved standards. The M2 armor protects the vehicle through a full 360 degrees against 14.5 mm [incendiary](armor-piercing)(armor-piercing incendiary) (API) ammunition.
The turret was offset to the right to maximize the room in the passenger compartment. Six infantry soldiers for dismounted fighting were held in the passenger compartment. Vision for the troops was provided through three periscopes placed between the rear ramp and the cargo hatch just behind the turret, as well as two periscopes on each side of the hull above the side firing ports. The passenger compartment held up to five TOW or [Dragon](M47 Dragon) missile reloads. The side and rear hull armor consisted of two steel plates one inch apart and away from the aluminum armor. The hull top, bottom, and front consisted of [aluminum](5083)(5083 aluminium alloy) armor, and steel armor was added to the front third of the hull bottom to increase mine protection.[M2 Variants](http://afvdb.50megs.com/usa/m2bradley.html) - AFVDB.com
### M3
The M3 Bradley CFV is very similar to the M2 Bradley IFV (Infantry Fighting Vehicle) and is fielded with the same two-man 25mm Bushmaster Cannon turret with the coaxial 7.62mm machine gun. It only varies from the M2 in a few subtle ways and by role. The M3 is classified as an armored reconnaissance and scout vehicle and does away with the firing ports found in the M2 series. The M3 carries more TOW missiles as well as more ammunition for its 25mm and 7.62mm guns.
### M2A1
Introduced in 1986, the A1 variant included an improved TOW II missile system, a Gas Particulate Filter Units (GPFU) NBC system, and a fire-suppression system. In 1992, the M2A1s had begun being remanufactured to upgraded standards. The GPFU system was only connected to the vehicle commander, driver, and gunner, while the infantry squad had to use their own from [MOPP](MOPP (protective gear)) suits. A seventh infantryman was added just behind the center of the turret.
[[File:US M2A2 Bradley with explosive reactive armor deployed to Somalia as part of UNOSOM II.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Army M2A2 equipped with [reactive armor](explosive)(explosive reactive armor) deployed to Somalia to provide security for [II](UNOSOM)(United Nations Operation in Somalia II), 1994.]]
### M2A2
Introduced in 1988, the A2 received an improved engine with an HMPT-500-3 Hydromechanical transmission. Armor was improved, both passive and the ability to mount [reactive armor](explosive)(explosive reactive armor). The new armor protects the Bradley against 30 mm APDS rounds and RPGs, or similar anti-armor weapons. The new armor eliminated the trim vane that made the Bradley amphibious and covered up the side firing ports. Spaced [laminate](Lamination) armor was installed to the hull rear. Spaced laminate track skirts protected the lower hull.
A semicircular shield was attached to the turret rear to add more stowage space, as well as act as spaced armor. [Kevlar](Kevlar) [spall](spall#Antitank warfare) liners were added to critical areas. The troop carrying number was reduced to six, eliminating the periscope position behind the driver. After live firing testing, the seating and stowage arrangements were redrawn. These upgrades raised the cumulative gross weight of the vehicle to 30,519 kg (). The M2A2 was qualified to be transported by the [Globemaster III](C-17)(C-17 Globemaster III). M2A2s were all eventually modified to the M2A2 ODS or M2A3 standard.
[[Bradley.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Army M2A2 at the National Training Center, Fort Irwin.](File:M2A2)]
#### M2A2 ODS/ODS-E
The "Operation Desert Storm" and "Operation Desert Storm-Engineer" improvements were based on lessons learned during the first Gulf War in 1991. The major improvements included an eye-safe laser rangefinder (ELRF), a tactical navigation system (TACNAV) incorporating the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) and the Digital Compass Systems (DCS), a missile countermeasure device designed to defeat first-generation wire-guided missiles, and the [XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below](Force)(Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below) (FBCB2) Battlefield Command Information System.
The internal stowage was further improved and a thermal imaging system was added for the driver. The infantry squad was again increased to seven men, six of whom sat facing each other on two 3-man benches in the passenger compartment, with the seventh back in the position behind the turret. An [MRE](Meal, Ready-to-Eat) ('Meal, Ready-to-Eat') heater was added to the vehicle to assist in the preparation of food while in the field or warzone. With the retirement of the Dragon missile, the vehicle had the option of carrying some [Javelin](FGM-148 Javelin) anti-tank missiles.
### M2A3
[[File:Pi111804a1.jpg|thumb|A M2A3 Bradley operating near [Fallujah](Fallujah), Iraq, in November 2004. The main recognition feature of the M2/M3A3 is the Commander's Independent Viewer (CIV), at the right rear of the turret.]]
Introduced in 2000, the A3 upgrades make the Bradley IFV totally digital, with upgraded or improved existing electronics systems throughout, improving target acquisition and fire control, navigation, and situational awareness. The survivability of the vehicle was upgraded with a series of armor improvements, again both passive and reactive, as well as improved [systems](fire-suppression)(Fire suppression system) and [equipment](NBC)(Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear).[NBC](Weapons of mass destruction#The Cold War and the War against Terrorism) also stands for *nuclear, biological, chemical*
[[File:M2A3 Bradley's Prepare for Patrol.jpg|thumb|right|Three M2A3 Bradleys exit an OCCD at the start of a Patrol at [Irwin](Fort)(Fort Irwin), [California](California).]]
The A3 Bradley incorporates the Improved Bradley Acquisition Subsystem (IBAS) and the Commander's Independent Viewer (CIV). Both include a second-generation [looking infrared](forward)(forward looking infrared) (FLIR) and an electro-optical/TV imaging system. The IBAS has direct-view optics (DVO) and the eye-safe laser rangefinder (ELRF).Field Manual 3-22.1, Bradley Gunnery (Nov 2003). Headquarters, Department of the Army. The CIV allows the commander to scan for targets and maintain situational awareness while remaining under armor, and without interfering with the gunner's acquisition and engagement of targets.Hans Halberstadt (2001). *Europa Militaria No 30: Bradley Company.* Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd. .
[[Bradley live fire exercise.jpg|thumb|A pair of M2A3 Bradleys firing their M242 chain guns in a live fire exercise.](File:M2)]
The A3's fire control software (FCSW) combines laser range, environmental readings, ammunition type, and turret control inputs to automatically elevate the gun for range and to automatically generate a kinematic lead solution if a target is moving. This functionality, very similar to that of the M1A2 Abrams, allows the gunner or commander to center the reticule on a moving target, lase the target, and achieve a first-round-hit, without the need to fire sensing rounds and adjust aim.Michael Green & James D. Brown (2007). *M2/M3 Bradley at War.* St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press. . The FCSW incorporates a thermal aided target tracker (ATT) function that can track two targets in the FLIR field of view and switch between them, primarily intended for employing TOW missiles against moving vehicles. The FCSW allows the turret and gunner's sights to be slewed automatically onto a target that has been designated with the CIV.
The A3 Bradley uses a position-navigation subsystem that incorporates a [positioning system](global)(global positioning system) (GPS), an [navigation unit](inertial)(inertial navigation unit) (INU), and a vehicle motion sensor (MVS), which, in addition to allowing accurate own-vehicle navigation, allows accurate position reporting and the ability to hand-off designated targets to other units via FBCB2.
The Commander's Tactical Display (CTD) presents information from the FBCB2 and the vehicle navigation systems on a moving-map display. This allows the commander to communicate via text over FBCB2, and allows him to check vehicle built-in test (BIT) information and access various other information. The Squad Leader's Display (SLD) in the infantry compartment improves the situational awareness of the passengers by allowing them to view navigational information from the FBCB2 and imagery from the IBAS, CIV, or Driver's Vision Enhancer (DVE) to familiarize themselves with their surroundings prior to dismounting.
The M2A3 Bradley II, and an M2A3 Bradley variant used in Iraq, were included in the GCV Analysis of Alternatives.
### M2A4
[[File:M2A4 Bradley (1).jpg|280px|thumb|Troopers assigned to [Cavalry Division](1st)(1st Cavalry Division (United States)), engage an opposing force during the testing of the newest version of the Bradley, [Cavazos](Fort)(Fort Cavazos), Oct. 24, 2020]]
After the Iraq War, the army began researching engineering change proposals (ECPs) for the M2 Bradley to restore space, weight, power, and cooling capacity reduced by the addition of armor and electronics hastily added during combat. ECP1 will work to restore mobility and allow the vehicle to handle more weight. As weight increased, the Bradley got lower on its suspension, which reduced ground clearance. This decreased mobility on rough terrain and left it more vulnerable to IEDs.[Army Develops New Concepts, Keeps Existing Fleets Rolling](https://archive.today/20141018155450/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20141012/DEFREG02/310120017/Army-Develops-New-Concepts-Keeps-Existing-Fleets-Rolling) - Defensenews.com, 12 October 2014[Upgrades 'new normal' for armor in uncertain budget environment](http://www.army.mil/article/136551/Upgrades__new_normal__for_armor_in_uncertain_budget_environment/) - Army.mil, 20 October 2014
The effort will install lighter tracks, shock absorbers, a new suspension support system, and heavy weight torsion bars. ECP2 will restore automotive power with a larger engine, a new transmission, and a smart-power management system for better electrical power distribution to accept future networked tactical radio and battle command systems. The first Bradleys upgraded with ECP1 were fielded in mid-2015, and the first to be upgraded with ECP2 will begin fielding in 2018.[Army Begins Massive Makeover of Combat Vehicle Fleet](http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/blog/lists/posts/post.aspx?ID=1829) - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 6 May 2015 Vehicles that receive both the ECP1 and ECP2 upgrade will be designated A4.
In June 2018, BAE Systems Land and Armaments was awarded a contract to produce up to 164 M2A4 and M7A4 Bradley Fighting Vehicles using existing M2A3, M7A3 and M2A2 ODS-SA Bradleys. The M2A4 is equipped with an enhanced drivetrain, a more powerful engine, new digitized electronics, a new fire suppression system, and a new IED jammer.[BAE Systems continues to deliver upgraded variant M2 A4 Bradley tracked armored IFV to US Army](https://www.armyrecognition.com/june_2020_news_defense_global_security_army_industry/bae_systems_continues_to_deliver_upgraded_variant_m2_a4_bradley_tracked_armored_ifv_to_us_army.html). *Army Recognition*. 6 June 2020.
The first M2A4 models were fielded in April 2022.
### Mission Enabler Technologies-Demonstrator
The **MET-D** is an experimental variant of the M2 Bradley which prototypes the use of surrogate [combat vehicles](robotic)(Unmanned ground vehicle) (RCVs) that are operated by the crew of the MET-D. It is equipped with a [turret](remote)(Remote controlled weapon station) for the main 25mm chain gun, 360-degree situational awareness cameras and enhanced crew stations with touchscreens.[Vietnam-Vintage Vehicles Blaze Trail For Robot Tanks: Army RCV](https://breakingdefense.com/2018/08/vietnam-vintage-vehicles-blaze-trail-for-robot-tanks/) . *Breaking Defense*. 30 August 2018.
### Other uses of the Bradley chassis
[[Linebacker, 5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, Iraq, 2005.jpg|thumb|M6 Linebacker](File:M6)]
The Bradley series has been widely modified. Its chassis is the basis for the [Multiple Launch Rocket System](M270)(M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System), the **M4 C2V battlefield command post**, and the **M6 Bradley Linebacker** air defense vehicle. Armed with a quad Stinger surface-to-air missile launcher in place of the [anti-tank missiles](TOW)(BGM-71 TOW), but maintaining the 25 mm autocannon, the M6 Bradley Linebacker Air Defense Vehicle (no longer in service) possessed a unique role in the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army), providing highly mobile air defense at the front line.
The Bradley's suspension system has been used on upgraded versions of the [Marines](U.S.)(U.S. Marines)' [Amphibious Vehicle](Assault)(Assault Amphibious Vehicle).
### Table of variants
## Operators
[[of M2 Bradley operators.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A map with Bradley operators in blue](File:Map)]
* : 32 M2A2
* : 400
* : 113 M2A2 Bradleys supplied by the United States
* : 6,230
### Future operators
* : 89 units in M2A2 ODS variant costing $196.4 million
### Potential operators
* ()
## See also
* [Multi-Purpose Vehicle](Armored)(Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle) – Bradley-based APC
* [Development](BMP)(BMP Development) – contemporary Soviet project
* [BTR-4](BTR-4)- Ukrainian army wheeled IFV
* [Combat Vehicle](Ground)(Ground Combat Vehicle) – U.S. Army IFV canceled in 2014
* [Infantry Carrier Vehicle](M1126)(M1126 Infantry Carrier Vehicle) – US Army Stryker infantry carrier vehicle
* [Bushmaster](M242)(M242 Bushmaster)
* [infantry](Mechanized)(Mechanized infantry)
* [MICV-65](MICV-65) – US Army project leading to development of the M2 Bradley
* [tracked armoured vehicle](Warrior)(Warrior tracked armoured vehicle) – contemporary British IFV
* *[Pentagon Wars](The)(The Pentagon Wars)* – film loosely based on Burton's account of the Bradley's development
## References
## Sources
*
## External links
* [U.S. Army fact file on M2/M3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle](http://www.army.mil/factfiles/equipment/tracked/bradley.html)
* [M2 Bradley - Armoured Vehicles](http://armour.ws/m2-bradley/)
* [Bradley Fighting Vehicle Systems Upgrade to A3](https://web.archive.org/web/20081030131745/http://www.pogo.org/m/dp/dp-2003-Bradley.pdf)
* [M2A3 and M3A3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle Systems (BFVS)](https://man.fas.org/dod-101/sys/land/docs/m2.htm) at the [FAS](Federation of American Scientists) Military Analysis Network
[infantry fighting vehicles](Category:Amphibious)(Category:Amphibious infantry fighting vehicles)
[War armored fighting vehicles of the United States](Category:Cold)(Category:Cold War armored fighting vehicles of the United States)
[fighting vehicles of the Cold War](Category:Infantry)(Category:Infantry fighting vehicles of the Cold War)
[fighting vehicles of the post–Cold War period](Category:Infantry)(Category:Infantry fighting vehicles of the post–Cold War period)
[fighting vehicles of the United States](Category:Infantry)(Category:Infantry fighting vehicles of the United States)
[infantry fighting vehicles](Category:Tracked)(Category:Tracked infantry fighting vehicles)
[vehicles introduced in the 1980s](Category:Military)(Category:Military vehicles introduced in the 1980s)
[Defense](Category:United)(Category:United Defense)
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Ruth Bader Ginsburg
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ruth_bader_ginsburg
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# Ruth Bader Ginsburg
*Revision ID: 1159855761 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:44:32Z*
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| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date = }}
| death_place = Washington, D.C., U.S.
| resting_place = [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery)
| spouse =
| children =
| education =
| signature = Ruth Bader Ginsburg signature.svg
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}}
**Joan Ruth Bader Ginsburg** ( ; March 15, 1933 – September 18, 2020) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an [justice of the Supreme Court of the United States](associate)(associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States) from 1993 until her death in 2020. She was nominated by President [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) to replace retiring justice [White](Byron)(Byron White), and at the time was viewed as a moderate consensus-builder. Ginsburg was the first Jewish woman and the second woman to serve on the Court, after [Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor). During her tenure, Ginsburg authored the majority opinions in cases such as *[States v. Virginia](United)(United States v. Virginia)*(1996), *[v. L.C.](Olmstead)(Olmstead v. L.C.)*(1999), *[of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.](Friends)(Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.)*(2000), and *[of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York](City)(City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York)*(2005). Later in her term, Ginsburg received attention for passionate dissents that reflected [views of the law](liberal)(Ideological leanings of United States Supreme Court justices). She was dubbed "**the Notorious R.B.G.**", and she later embraced the moniker.
Ginsburg was born and grew up in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York. Her older sister died when she was a baby, and her mother died shortly before Ginsburg graduated from high school. She earned her bachelor's degree at [University](Cornell)(Cornell University) and married [D. Ginsburg](Martin)(Martin D. Ginsburg), becoming a mother before starting law school at Harvard, where she was one of the few women in her class. Ginsburg transferred to [Law School](Columbia)(Columbia Law School), where she graduated joint first in her class. During the early 1960s she worked with the Columbia Law School Project on International Procedure, learned Swedish, and co-authored a book with Swedish jurist [Bruzelius](Anders)(Anders Bruzelius); her work in Sweden profoundly influenced her thinking on gender equality. She then became a professor at [Law School](Rutgers)(Rutgers Law School) and Columbia Law School, teaching civil procedure as one of the few women in her field.
Ginsburg spent much of her legal career as an advocate for [equality](gender)(gender equality) and [rights](women's)(women's rights), winning many arguments before the Supreme Court. She advocated as a volunteer attorney for the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union) and was a member of its board of directors and one of its general counsel in the 1970s. In 1980, President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) appointed her to the [Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit](U.S.)(United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit), where she served until her appointment to the Supreme Court in 1993. Between O'Connor's retirement in 2006 and the appointment of [Sotomayor](Sonia)(Sonia Sotomayor) in 2009, she was the only female justice on the Supreme Court. During that time, Ginsburg became more forceful with her dissents, such as with *[v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.](Ledbetter)(Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.)*(2007).
Despite two bouts with cancer and public pleas from liberal law scholars, she decided not to retire in [or 2014](2013)(113th United States Congress) when Obama and a Democratic-controlled Senate could appoint and confirm her successor. [died](Ginsburg)(Death and state funeral of Ruth Bader Ginsburg) at her home in Washington, D.C., on September 18, 2020, at the age of 87, from complications of [metastatic](Metastasis) [cancer](pancreatic)(pancreatic cancer). The vacancy created by her death was filled days later by [Coney Barrett](Amy)(Amy Coney Barrett), a [conservative](Conservatism in the United States#Courts). The result was one of three major [rightward](Right-wing politics) shifts in the Court since 1953, following the appointment of [Thomas](Clarence)(Clarence Thomas) to replace [Marshall](Thurgood)(Thurgood Marshall) in 1991 and the appointment of [Burger](Warren)(Warren E. Burger) to replace [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren) in 1969.
## Early life and education
Joan Ruth Bader was born on March 15, 1933, at [Moses Hospital](Beth)(Beth Moses Hospital) in the [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) borough of New York City, the second daughter of Celia (née Amster) and Nathan Bader, who lived in the [Flatbush](Flatbush, Brooklyn) neighborhood. Her father was a Jewish emigrant from [Odesa](Odesa), Ukraine, at that time part of the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire), and her mother was born in New York to Jewish parents who came from [Kraków](Kraków), Poland, at that time part of [Austria-Hungary](Austria-Hungary). The Baders' elder daughter Marylin died of [meningitis](meningitis) at age six. Joan, who was 14 months old when Marylin died, was known to the family as "Kiki", a nickname Marylin had given her for being "a kicky baby." When Joan started school, Celia discovered that her daughter's class had several other girls named Joan, so Celia suggested the teacher call her daughter by her second name, Ruth, to avoid confusion. Although not devout, the Bader family belonged to [Midwood Jewish Center](East)(East Midwood Jewish Center), a [Conservative](Conservative Judaism) synagogue, where Ruth learned tenets of the Jewish faith and gained familiarity with the [language](Hebrew)(Hebrew language). Ruth was not allowed to have a bat mitzvah ceremony because of Orthodox restrictions on women reading from the Torah, which upset her. Starting as a camper from the age of four, she attended Camp Che-Na-Wah, a Jewish [program](summer)(summer camp) at Lake Balfour near [New York](Minerva,)(Minerva, New York), where she was later a camp counselor until the age of eighteen.
Celia took an active role in her daughter's education, often taking her to the library. Celia had been a good student in her youth, graduating from high school at age 15, yet she could not further her own education because her family instead chose to send her brother to college. Celia wanted her daughter to get more education, which she thought would allow Ruth to become a high school history teacher. Ruth attended [Madison High School](James)(James Madison High School (Brooklyn)), whose law program later dedicated a courtroom in her honor. Celia struggled with cancer throughout Ruth's high school years and died the day before Ruth's high school graduation.
[[File:RBG Columbia.jpg|thumb|Ginsburg in 1959, wearing her [Law School](Columbia)(Columbia Law School) academic regalia]]
Ruth Bader attended [University](Cornell)(Cornell University) in [New York](Ithaca,)(Ithaca, New York), and was a member of [Epsilon Phi](Alpha)(Alpha Epsilon Phi). While at Cornell, she met [D. Ginsburg](Martin)(Martin D. Ginsburg) at age 17. She graduated from Cornell with a Bachelor of Arts degree in government on June 23, 1954. While at Cornell, Bader studied under Russian-American novelist [Nabokov](Vladimir)(Vladimir Nabokov), and she later identified Nabokov as a major influence on her development as a writer. Open Culture|url=https://www.openculture.com/2016/11/when-vladimir-nabokov-taught-to-care-deeply-about-writing.html|access-date=April 4, 2021|archive-date=January 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122191014/https://www.openculture.com/2016/11/when-vladimir-nabokov-taught-to-care-deeply-about-writing.html|url-status=live}} She was a member of [Beta Kappa](Phi)(Phi Beta Kappa) and the highest-ranking female student in her graduating class. Bader married Ginsburg a month after her graduation from Cornell. The couple moved to [Sill, Oklahoma](Fort)(Fort Sill), where Martin Ginsburg, a [Officers' Training Corps](Reserve)(Reserve Officers' Training Corps) graduate, was stationed as a called-up active duty [States Army Reserve](United)(United States Army Reserve) officer during the [War](Korean)(Korean War). At age 21, Ruth Bader Ginsburg worked for the [Security Administration](Social)(Social Security Administration) office in Oklahoma, where she was demoted after becoming pregnant with her first child. She gave birth to a daughter in 1955.
In the fall of 1956, Ruth Bader Ginsburg enrolled at [Law School](Harvard)(Harvard Law School), where she was one of only 9 women in a class of about 500 men. The [of Harvard Law](dean)(Dean of Harvard Law School), [Griswold](Erwin)(Erwin Griswold), reportedly invited all the female law students to dinner at his family home and asked the female law students, including Ginsburg, "Why are you at Harvard Law School, taking the place of a man?" When her husband took a job in New York City, that same dean denied Ginsburg's request to complete her third year towards a Harvard law degree at [Law School](Columbia)(Columbia Law School), so Ginsburg transferred to Columbia and became the first woman to be on two major [review](law)(law review)s: the *[Law Review](Harvard)(Harvard Law Review)* and *[Law Review](Columbia)(Columbia Law Review)*. In 1959, she earned her law degree at Columbia and tied for first in her class.[Jeffrey](Toobin,)(Jeffrey Toobin) (2007). *[Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court](The)(The Nine (book))*, New York, [Doubleday](Doubleday (publisher)), p. 82.
## Early career
At the start of her legal career, Ginsburg encountered difficulty in finding employment. In 1960, Supreme Court Justice [Frankfurter](Felix)(Felix Frankfurter) rejected Ginsburg for a clerkship because of her gender. He did so despite a strong recommendation from [Martin Sacks](Albert)(Albert Sacks), who was a professor and later [dean](Dean (education)) of Harvard Law School. Columbia law professor [Gunther](Gerald)(Gerald Gunther) also pushed for Judge [L. Palmieri](Edmund)(Edmund Louis Palmieri) of the [District Court for the Southern District of New York](U.S.)(United States District Court for the Southern District of New York) to hire Ginsburg as a [clerk](law)(law clerk), threatening to never recommend another Columbia student to Palmieri if he did not give Ginsburg the opportunity and guaranteeing to provide the judge with a replacement clerk should Ginsburg not succeed. Later that year, Ginsburg began her clerkship for Judge Palmieri, and she held the position for two years.
### Academia
From 1961 to 1963, Ginsburg was a research associate and then an associate director of the Columbia Law School Project on International Procedure, working alongside director [Smit](Hans)(Hans Smit (professor)); she learned [Swedish](Swedish language) to co-author a book with [Bruzelius](Anders)(Anders Bruzelius) on civil procedure in Sweden. Ginsburg conducted extensive research for her book at [University](Lund)(Lund University) in Sweden.Bayer, Linda N. (2000). *Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Women of Achievement)*. Philadelphia. [House](Chelsea)(Infobase Publishing). p. 46. . Ginsburg's time in Sweden and her association with the Swedish Bruzelius family of jurists also influenced her thinking on gender equality. She was inspired when she observed the changes in Sweden, where women were 20 to 25 percent of all law students; one of the judges whom Ginsburg observed for her research was eight months pregnant and still working. Bruzelius' daughter, Norwegian supreme court justice and president of the [Association for Women's Rights](Norwegian)(Norwegian Association for Women's Rights), [M. Bruzelius](Karin)(Karin M. Bruzelius), herself a law student when Ginsburg worked with her father, said that "by getting close to my family, Ruth realized that one could live in a completely different way, that women could have a different lifestyle and legal position than what they had in the United States."
Ginsburg's first position as a professor was at [Law School](Rutgers)(Rutgers Law School) in 1963. She was paid less than her male colleagues because, she was told, "your husband has a very good job." At the time Ginsburg entered academia, she was one of fewer than twenty female law professors in the United States. She was a professor of law at Rutgers from 1963 to 1972, teaching mainly [procedure](civil)(civil procedure) and receiving tenure in 1969.
In 1970, she co-founded the ''[Rights Law Reporter](Women's)(Women's Rights Law Reporter)'', the first [journal](law)(law journal) in the U.S. to focus exclusively on women's rights....}} From 1972 to 1980, she taught at Columbia Law School, where she became the first [tenured](Academic tenure) woman and co-authored the first law school [casebook](casebook) on [discrimination](sex)(Sexism). She also spent a year as a fellow of the [for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences](Center)(Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences) at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) from 1977 to 1978.
### Litigation and advocacy
[[File:RB Ginsburg 1977 ©Lynn Gilbert.jpg|thumb|alt=Ginsburg standing by a window|left|Ginsburg in 1977, photographed by [Gilbert](Lynn)(Lynn Gilbert)]]
In 1972, Ginsburg co-founded the Women's Rights Project at the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union) (ACLU), and in 1973, she became the Project's general counsel. The Women's Rights Project and related ACLU projects participated in more than 300 gender discrimination cases by 1974. As the director of the ACLU's Women's Rights Project, she argued six gender discrimination cases before the Supreme Court between 1973 and 1976, winning five. Rather than asking the Court to end all gender discrimination at once, Ginsburg charted a strategic course, taking aim at specific discriminatory statutes and building on each successive victory. She chose plaintiffs carefully, at times picking male plaintiffs to demonstrate that gender discrimination was harmful to both men and women. The laws Ginsburg targeted included those that on the surface appeared beneficial to women, but in fact reinforced the notion that women needed to be dependent on men. Her strategic advocacy extended to word choice, favoring the use of "gender" instead of "sex", after her secretary suggested the word "sex" would serve as a distraction to judges. She attained a reputation as a skilled oral advocate, and her work led directly to the end of gender discrimination in many areas of the law.Pullman, Sandra (March 7, 2006). ["Tribute: The Legacy of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and WRP Staff"](https://www.aclu.org/womens-rights/tribute-legacy-ruth-bader-ginsburg-and-wrp-staff) . ACLU.org. Retrieved November 18, 2010.
Ginsburg volunteered to write the brief for *[v. Reed](Reed)(Reed v. Reed)*, , in which the Supreme Court extended the protections of the [Protection Clause](Equal)(Equal Protection Clause) of the [Amendment](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) to women.|name=note 3}} In 1972, she argued before the [Circuit](10th)(United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit) in *[v. Commissioner](Moritz)(Moritz v. Commissioner)* on behalf of a man who had been denied a caregiver deduction because of his gender. As *amicus* she argued in *[v. Richardson](Frontiero)(Frontiero v. Richardson)*, , which challenged a statute making it more difficult for a female service member (Frontiero) to claim an increased housing allowance for her husband than for a male service member seeking the same allowance for his wife. Ginsburg argued that the statute treated women as inferior, and the Supreme Court ruled 8–1 in Frontiero's favor. The court again ruled in Ginsburg's favor in *[v. Wiesenfeld](Weinberger)(Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld)*, , where Ginsburg represented a widower denied survivor benefits under Social Security, which permitted widows but not widowers to collect special benefits while caring for minor children. She argued that the statute discriminated against male survivors of workers by denying them the same protection as their female counterparts.
In 1973, the same year *[v. Wade](Roe)(Roe v. Wade)* was decided, Ginsburg filed a federal case to challenge [sterilization](involuntary)(Compulsory sterilization), suing members of the [Board of North Carolina](Eugenics)(Eugenics Board of North Carolina) on behalf of Nial Ruth Cox, a mother who had been coercively sterilized under North Carolina's Sterilization of Persons Mentally Defective program on penalty of her family losing welfare benefits. During a 2009 interview with [Bazelon](Emily)(Emily Bazelon) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, Ginsburg stated: "I had thought that at the time *Roe* was decided, there was concern about population growth and particularly growth in populations that we don't want to have too many of." Bazelon conducted a follow-up interview with Ginsburg in 2012 at a joint appearance at [University](Yale)(Yale University), where Ginsburg claimed her 2009 quote was vastly misinterpreted and clarified her stance.
Ginsburg filed an [brief](amicus)(Amicus curiae) and sat with counsel at oral argument for *[v. Boren](Craig)(Craig v. Boren)*, , which challenged an Oklahoma statute that set different minimum drinking ages for men and women. For the first time, the court imposed what is known as [scrutiny](intermediate)(intermediate scrutiny) on laws discriminating based on gender, a heightened standard of Constitutional review. Her last case as an attorney before the Supreme Court was *[v. Missouri](Duren)(Duren v. Missouri)*, , which challenged the validity of voluntary [duty](jury)(jury duty) for women, on the ground that participation in jury duty was a citizen's vital governmental service and therefore should not be optional for women. At the end of Ginsburg's oral argument, then-Associate Justice [Rehnquist](William)(William Rehnquist) asked Ginsburg, "You won't settle for putting [B. Anthony](Susan)(Susan B. Anthony) on the new dollar, then?"Von Drehle, David (July 19, 1993). ["Redefining Fair With a Simple Careful Assault—Step-by-Step Strategy Produced Strides for Equal Protection"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100902061856/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/23/AR2007082300903_pf.html). *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*. Retrieved August 24, 2009. Ginsburg said she considered responding, "We won't settle for tokens," but instead opted not to answer the question.
Legal scholars and advocates credit Ginsburg's body of work with making significant legal advances for women under the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution. Taken together, Ginsburg's legal victories discouraged legislatures from treating women and men differently under the law. She continued to work on the ACLU's Women's Rights Project until her appointment to the Federal Bench in 1980. Later, colleague [Scalia](Antonin)(Antonin Scalia) praised Ginsburg's skills as an advocate. "She became the leading (and very successful) litigator on behalf of women's rights—the [Marshall](Thurgood)(Thurgood Marshall) of that cause, so to speak." This was a comparison that had first been made by former solicitor general [Griswold](Erwin)(Erwin Griswold) who was also her former professor and dean at Harvard Law School, in a speech given in 1985.
## U.S. Court of Appeals
In light of the mounting backlog in the federal judiciary, Congress passed the [Judgeship Act of 1978](Omnibus)(Omnibus Judgeship Act of 1978) increasing the number of federal judges by 117 in district courts and another 35 to be added to the circuit courts. The law placed an emphasis on ensuring that the judges included women and minority groups, a matter that was important to President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) who had been elected two years before. The bill also required that the nomination process consider the character and experience of the candidates. Ginsburg was considering a change in career as soon as Carter was elected. She was interviewed by the [of Justice](Department)(United States Department of Justice) to become [General](Solicitor)(Solicitor General of the United States), the position she most desired, but knew that she and the African-American candidate who was interviewed the same day had little chance of being appointed by Attorney General [Bell](Griffin)(Griffin Bell).
[[File:President Jimmy Carter and Ruth Bader Ginsburg.jpg|thumb|alt=Ginsburg shaking hands with Carter as the two smile|Ginsburg with President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) in 1980|left]]
At the time, Ginsburg was a fellow at Stanford University where she was working on a written account of her work in litigation and advocacy for equal rights. Her husband was a visiting professor at [Law School](Stanford)(Stanford Law School) and was ready to leave his firm, [Gotshal & Manges](Weil,)(Weil, Gotshal & Manges), for a tenured position. He was at the same time working hard to promote a possible judgeship for his wife. In January 1979, she filled out the questionnaire for possible nominees to the [Court of Appeals](U.S.)(United States courts of appeals) for [Second Circuit](the)(United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit), and another for [District of Columbia Circuit](the)(United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit). Ginsburg was nominated by President Carter on April 14, 1980, to a seat on the DC Circuit vacated by Judge [Leventhal](Harold)(Harold Leventhal (judge)) upon his death. She was confirmed by the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) on June 18, 1980, and received her commission later that day.
[[Bader Ginsburg - Sibley Lecture 1981.jpg|thumb|201x201px|Ginsburg in 1981](File:Ruth)]
During her time as a judge on the DC Circuit, Ginsburg often found consensus with her colleagues including conservatives [H. Bork](Robert)(Robert Bork) and [Scalia](Antonin)(Antonin Scalia). Her time on the court earned her a reputation as a "cautious jurist" and a moderate. Her service ended on August 9, 1993, due to her elevation to the United States Supreme Court, and she was replaced by Judge [S. Tatel](David)(David S. Tatel).
## Supreme Court
### Nomination and confirmation
[[File:Announcement of Ruth Bader Ginsburg as Nominee for Associate Supreme Court Justice at the White House - NARA - 131493870.jpg|thumb|alt=Ginsburg speaking at a lectern|Ginsburg officially accepting the nomination from President [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) on June 14, 1993]]
President [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) nominated Ginsburg as an associate justice of the Supreme Court on June 22, 1993, to fill the seat vacated by retiring justice [White](Byron)(Byron White). She was recommended to Clinton by then–U.S. [general](attorney)(United States Attorney General) [Reno](Janet)(Janet Reno), after a suggestion by Utah Republican senator [Hatch](Orrin)(Orrin Hatch). At the time of her nomination, Ginsburg was viewed as having been a moderate and a consensus-builder in her time on the appeals court. Clinton was reportedly looking to increase the Court's diversity, which Ginsburg did as the first Jewish justice since the 1969 resignation of Justice [Fortas](Abe)(Abe Fortas). She was the second female and the first Jewish female justice of the Supreme Court. She eventually became the longest-serving Jewish justice. The [Bar Association](American)(American Bar Association)'s [Committee on the Federal Judiciary](Standing)(Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary) rated Ginsburg as "well qualified", its highest rating for a prospective justice.
[[File:Ruth Bader Ginsburg at her confirmation hearing (a).jpg|alt=Ginsburg speaking into microphone at Senate confirmation hearing on her for her Supreme Court appointment|left|thumb|Ginsburg giving testimony before the [Judiciary Committee](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary) during the hearings on her nomination to be an associate justice]]
During her testimony before the [Judiciary Committee](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary) as part of the [hearings](confirmation)(Senate confirmation), Ginsburg refused to answer questions about her view on the constitutionality of some issues such as the [penalty](death)(Capital punishment in the United States) as it was an issue she might have to vote on if it came before the Court.
At the same time, Ginsburg did answer questions about some potentially controversial issues. For instance, she affirmed her belief in a constitutional right to privacy and explained at some length her personal judicial philosophy and thoughts regarding gender equality. Ginsburg was more forthright in discussing her views on topics about which she had previously written. The [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) confirmed her by a 96–3 vote on August 3, 1993.}} She received her commission on August 5, 1993 and took her judicial oath on August 10, 1993.
Ginsburg's name was later invoked during the confirmation process of [Roberts](John)(John Roberts). Ginsburg was not the first nominee to avoid answering certain specific questions before Congress, and as a young attorney in 1981 Roberts had advised against Supreme Court nominees' giving specific responses. Nevertheless, some conservative commentators and senators invoked the phrase "Ginsburg precedent" to defend his [demurrers](demurrers). In a September 28, 2005, speech at [Forest University](Wake)(Wake Forest University), Ginsburg said Roberts's refusal to answer questions during his Senate confirmation hearings on some cases was "unquestionably right".
### Supreme Court tenure
[[Justice William Rehnquist Administers the Oath of Office to Judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg as Associate Supreme Court Justice at the White House - NARA - 131493872.jpg|alt=Ginsburg being sworn in and smiling|thumb|Chief Justice William Rehnquist swearing in Ginsburg as an associate justice of the Supreme Court, as her husband Martin Ginsburg and President Clinton watch](File:Chief)]
Ginsburg characterized her performance on the Court as a cautious approach to adjudication. She argued in a speech shortly before her nomination to the Court that "[m]easured motions seem to me right, in the main, for constitutional as well as common law adjudication. Doctrinal limbs too swiftly shaped, experience teaches, may prove unstable." Legal scholar [Sunstein](Cass)(Cass Sunstein) characterized Ginsburg as a "rational minimalist", a jurist who seeks to build cautiously on precedent rather than pushing the Constitution towards her own vision.
The retirement of Justice [Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor) in 2006 left Ginsburg as the only woman on the Court.}} [Greenhouse](Linda)(Linda Greenhouse) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* referred to the subsequent [term](2006–2007)(2006 term United States Supreme Court opinions of Ruth Bader Ginsburg) of the Court as "the time when Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg found her voice, and used it". The term also marked the first time in Ginsburg's history with the Court where she read multiple dissents from the bench, a tactic employed to signal more intense disagreement with the majority.
[[File:O'Connor, Sotomayor, Ginsburg, and Kagan.jpg|alt=The justices standing side-by-side, smiling|thumb|left|[Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor), [Sotomayor](Sonia)(Sonia Sotomayor), Ginsburg, and [Kagan](Elena)(Elena Kagan), October 1, 2010. O'Connor is not wearing a robe because she was retired from the court when the picture was taken.]]
With the retirement of Justice [Paul Stevens](John)(John Paul Stevens), Ginsburg became the senior member of what was sometimes referred to as the Court's "liberal wing". When the Court split 5–4 along ideological lines and the liberal justices were in the minority, Ginsburg often had the authority to assign authorship of the [opinion](dissenting)(dissenting opinion) because of her seniority.}} Ginsburg was a proponent of the liberal dissenters speaking "with one voice" and, where practicable, presenting a unified approach to which all the dissenting justices can agree.
During Ginsburg's entire Supreme Court tenure from 1993 to 2020, she only hired one African-American clerk ([J. Watford](Paul)(Paul J. Watford)). Supreme Court clerks are not a particularly diverse lot|newspaper=[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/12/12/supreme-court-clerks-are-not-a-particularly-diverse-lot/|access-date=September 26, 2020|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=October 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004224121/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/12/12/supreme-court-clerks-are-not-a-particularly-diverse-lot/|url-status=live}}|last2=Journal|first2=2017 at 04:00 AM The original version of this story was published on The National Law|title=Mostly White and Male: Diversity Still Lags Among SCOTUS Law Clerks|url=https://www.law.com/nationallawjournal/sites/nationallawjournal/2017/12/11/mostly-white-and-male-diversity-still-lags-among-scotus-law-clerks/|access-date=September 26, 2020|website=National Law Journal|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924142116/https://www.law.com/nationallawjournal/sites/nationallawjournal/2017/12/11/mostly-white-and-male-diversity-still-lags-among-scotus-law-clerks/|url-status=live}} During her 13 years on the [States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit), she never hired an African-American clerk, intern, or secretary. The lack of diversity was briefly an issue during her 1993 confirmation hearing. When this issue was raised by the [Judiciary Committee](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary), Ginsburg stated that "If you confirm me for this job, my attractiveness to black candidates is going to improve." This issue received renewed attention after more than a hundred of her former legal clerks served as [pallbearer](pallbearer)s during her [funeral](Death and funeral of Ruth Bader Ginsburg).
#### Gender discrimination
Ginsburg authored the Court's opinion in *[States v. Virginia](United)(United States v. Virginia)*, , which struck down the [Military Institute](Virginia)(Virginia Military Institute)'s (VMI) male-only admissions policy as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the [Amendment](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). For Ginsburg, a state actor could not use gender to deny women equal protection; therefore VMI must allow women the opportunity to attend VMI with its unique educational methods. Ginsburg emphasized that the government must show an "exceedingly persuasive justification" to use a classification based on sex. VMI proposed a separate institute for women, but Ginsburg found this solution reminiscent of the effort by Texas decades earlier to preserve the University of Texas Law School for Whites by establishing a separate school for Blacks.
[[Bader Ginsburg.jpg|alt=A painting of Ginsburg in her robe, smiling and leaning in a chair|left|thumb|Commissioned portrait of Ginsburg in 2000](File:Ruth)]
Ginsburg dissented in the Court's decision on *[v. Goodyear](Ledbetter)(Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.)*, , in which plaintiff [Ledbetter](Lilly)(Lilly Ledbetter) sued her employer, claiming pay discrimination based on her gender, in violation of TitleVII of the [Rights Act of 1964](Civil)(Civil Rights Act of 1964). In a 5–4 decision, the majority interpreted the [of limitations](statute)(statute of limitations) as starting to run at the time of every pay period, even if a woman did not know she was being paid less than her male colleague until later. Ginsburg found the result absurd, pointing out that women often do not know they are being paid less, and therefore it was unfair to expect them to act at the time of each paycheck. She also called attention to the reluctance women may have in male-dominated fields to making waves by filing lawsuits over small amounts, choosing instead to wait until the disparity accumulates. As part of her dissent, Ginsburg called on Congress to amend TitleVII to undo the Court's decision with legislation. Following the election of [Barack Obama](President)(Barack Obama) in 2008, the [Ledbetter Fair Pay Act](Lilly)(Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009), making it easier for employees to win pay discrimination claims, became law. Ginsburg was credited with helping to inspire the law.
#### Abortion rights
Ginsburg discussed her views on abortion and gender equality in a 2009 *[York Times](New)(New York Times)* interview, in which she said, "[t]he basic thing is that the government has no business making that choice for a woman." Although Ginsburg consistently supported [rights](abortion)(Abortion-rights movements) and joined in the Court's opinion striking down Nebraska's [abortion](partial-birth)(Intact dilation and extraction) law in *[v. Carhart](Stenberg)(Stenberg v. Carhart)*, , on the 40th anniversary of the Court's ruling in *[v. Wade](Roe)(Roe v. Wade)*, , she criticized the decision in *Roe* as terminating a nascent democratic movement to liberalize abortion laws which might have built a more durable consensus in support of abortion rights.[Pusey, Allen. "Ginsburg: Court should have avoided broad-based decision in Roe v. Wade", *ABA Journal*, May 13, 2013](http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/ginsburg_expands_on_her_disenchantment_with_roe_v._wade_legacy/) . Retrieved July 5, 2013.
Ginsburg was in the minority for *[v. Carhart](Gonzales)(Gonzales v. Carhart)*, , a 5–4 decision upholding restrictions on partial birth abortion. In her dissent, Ginsburg opposed the majority's decision to defer to legislative findings that the procedure was not safe for women. Ginsburg focused her ire on the way Congress reached its findings and with their veracity. Joining the majority for ''[Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt](Whole)(Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt)'', , a case which struck down parts of a 2013 [law](Texas)(Texas law) regulating abortion providers, Ginsburg also authored a short concurring opinion which was even more critical of the legislation at issue. She asserted the legislation was not aimed at protecting women's health, as Texas had said, but rather to impede women's access to abortions.
#### Search and seizure
Although Ginsburg did not author the majority opinion, she was credited with influencing her colleagues on *[Unified School District v. Redding](Safford)(Safford Unified School District v. Redding)*, , which held that a school went too far in ordering a 13-year-old female student to strip to her bra and underpants so female officials could search for drugs. In an interview published prior to the Court's decision, Ginsburg shared her view that some of her colleagues did not fully appreciate the effect of a strip search on a 13-year-old girl. As she said, "They have never been a 13-year-old girl." In an 8–1 decision, the Court agreed that the school's search violated the [Amendment](Fourth)(Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution) and allowed the student's lawsuit against the school to go forward. Only Ginsburg and Stevens would have allowed the student to sue individual school officials as well.
In *[v. United States](Herring)(Herring v. United States)*, , Ginsburg dissented from the Court's decision not to suppress evidence due to a police officer's failure to update a computer system. In contrast to Roberts's emphasis on suppression as a means to deter police misconduct, Ginsburg took a more robust view on the use of suppression as a remedy for a violation of a defendant's [Amendment](Fourth)(Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution) rights. Ginsburg viewed suppression as a way to prevent the government from profiting from mistakes, and therefore as a remedy to preserve judicial integrity and respect civil rights. She also rejected Roberts's assertion that suppression would not deter mistakes, contending making police pay a high price for mistakes would encourage them to take greater care.
#### International law
Ginsburg advocated the use of foreign law and norms to shape U.S. law in judicial opinions, a view rejected by some of her conservative colleagues. Ginsburg supported using foreign interpretations of law for persuasive value and possible wisdom, not as binding precedent. Ginsburg expressed the view that consulting international law is a well-ingrained tradition in American law, counting [Henry Wigmore](John)(John Henry Wigmore) and President [Adams](John)(John Adams) as internationalists. Ginsburg's own reliance on international law dated back to her time as an attorney; in her first argument before the Court, *Reed v. Reed*, 404 U.S. 71 (1971), she cited two German cases. In her concurring opinion in *[v. Bollinger](Grutter)(Grutter v. Bollinger)*, [U.S. 306](539)(Case citation) (2003), a decision upholding [Law School](Michigan)(Michigan Law School)'s affirmative action admissions policy, Ginsburg noted there was accord between the notion that [action](affirmative)(affirmative action) admissions policies would have an end point and agrees with international treaties designed to combat racial and gender-based discrimination.
#### Voting rights and affirmative action
In 2013, Ginsburg dissented in *[County v. Holder](Shelby)(Shelby County v. Holder)*, in which the Court held unconstitutional the part of the [Rights Act of 1965](Voting)(Voting Rights Act of 1965) requiring federal preclearance before changing voting practices. Ginsburg wrote, "Throwing out preclearance when it has worked and is continuing to work to stop discriminatory changes is like throwing away your umbrella in a rainstorm because you are not getting wet."
Besides *Grutter*, Ginsburg wrote in favor of affirmative action in her dissent in *[v. Bollinger](Gratz)(Gratz v. Bollinger)* (2003), in which the Court ruled an affirmative action policy unconstitutional because it was not [tailored](narrowly)(Strict scrutiny) to the state's interest in diversity. She argued that "government decisionmakers may properly distinguish between policies of exclusion and inclusion...Actions designed to burden groups long denied full citizenship stature are not sensibly ranked with measures taken to hasten the day when entrenched discrimination and its after effects have been extirpated."
#### Native Americans
In 1997, Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion in *[v. A-1 Contractors](Strate)(Strate v. A-1 Contractors)* against tribal jurisdiction over tribal-owned land in a reservation. The case involved a nonmember who caused a car crash in the [Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation](Mandan,)(Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation). Ginsburg reasoned that the state right-of-way on which the crash occurred rendered the tribal-owned land equivalent to non-Indian land. She then considered the rule set in *[v. United States](Montana)(Montana v. United States)*, which allows tribes to regulate the activities of nonmembers who have a relationship with the tribe. Ginsburg noted that the driver's employer did have a relationship with the tribe, but she reasoned that the tribe could not regulate their activities because the victim had no relationship to the tribe. Ginsburg concluded that although "those who drive carelessly on a public highway running through a reservation endanger all in the vicinity, and surely jeopardize the safety of tribal members", having a nonmember go before an "unfamiliar court" was "not crucial to the political integrity, the economic security, or the health or welfare of the Three Affiliated Tribes" (internal quotations and brackets omitted). The decision, by a unanimous Court, was generally criticized by scholars of Indian law, such as [Getches](David)(David Getches) and [Pommersheim](Frank)(Frank Pommersheim).
Later in 2005, Ginsburg cited the [of discovery](doctrine)(Discovery doctrine) in the majority opinion of *[of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York](City)(City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York)* and concluded that the [Indian Nation](Oneida)(Oneida Indian Nation) could not revive its ancient sovereignty over its historic land. The discovery doctrine has been used to grant ownership of Native American lands to colonial governments. The Oneida had lived in towns, grew extensive crops, and maintained trade routes to the Gulf of Mexico. In her opinion for the Court, Ginsburg reasoned that the historic Oneida land had been "converted from wilderness" ever since it was dislodged from the Oneidas' possession. She also reasoned that "the longstanding, distinctly non-Indian character of the area and its inhabitants" and "the regulatory authority constantly exercised by New York State and its counties and towns" justified the ruling. Ginsburg also invoked, [sponte](sua)(sua sponte), the doctrine of [laches](laches (equity)), reasoning that the Oneidas took a "long delay in seeking judicial relief". She also reasoned that the dispossession of the Oneidas' land was "ancient". Lower courts later relied on *Sherrill* as precedent to extinguish Native American land claims, including in *[Indian Nation of New York v. Pataki](Cayuga)(Cayuga Indian Nation of New York v. Pataki)*.
Less than a year after *Sherrill*, Ginsburg offered a starkly contrasting approach to Native American law. In December 2005, Ginsburg dissented in *[v. Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation](Wagnon)(Wagnon v. Prairie Band Potawatomi Indians)*, arguing that a state tax on fuel sold to [Potawatomi](Potawatomi) retailers would impermissibly nullify the [Band Potawatomi Nation](Prairie)(Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation)'s own tax authority. In 2008, when Ginsburg's precedent in *Strate* was used in *[Commerce Bank v. Long Family Land & Cattle Co.](Plains)(Plains Commerce Bank v. Long Family Land & Cattle Co.)*, she dissented in part and argued that the tribal court of the Cheyenne River Lakota Nation had jurisdiction over the case. In 2020, Ginsburg joined the ruling of *[v. Oklahoma](McGirt)(McGirt v. Oklahoma)*, which affirmed Native American jurisdictions over reservations in much of Oklahoma.
#### Other majority opinions
In 1999, Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion in *[v. L.C.](Olmstead)(Olmstead v. L.C.),* in which the Court ruled that mental illness is a form of disability covered under the [with Disabilities Act of 1990](Americans)(Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In 2000, Ginsburg wrote the majority opinion in *[of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.](Friends)(Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.)*, in which the Court held that residents have standing to seek fines for an industrial polluter that affected their interests and that is able to continue doing so.
### Decision not to retire under Obama
When [Paul Stevens](John)(John Paul Stevens) retired in 2010, Ginsburg became the oldest justice on the court at age 77. Despite rumors that she would retire because of advancing age, poor health, and the death of her husband, she denied she was planning to step down. In an interview in August 2010, Ginsburg said her work on the Court was helping her cope with the death of her husband. She also expressed a wish to emulate Justice [Brandeis](Louis)(Louis Brandeis)'s service of nearly 23years, which she achieved in April 2016.
Several times during the [of Barack Obama](presidency)(presidency of Barack Obama), progressive attorneys and activists called for Ginsburg to retire so that Obama could appoint a like-minded successor, particularly while the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)) held control of the U.S. Senate. Ginsburg reaffirmed her wish to remain a justice as long as she was mentally sharp enough to perform her duties. In 2013, Obama invited her to the White House when it seemed likely that Democrats would lose control of the Senate, but she again refused to step down. She opined that Republicans would use the judicial filibuster to prevent Obama from appointing a jurist like herself. She stated that she had a new model to emulate in her former colleague, Justice John Paul Stevens, who retired at the age of 90 after nearly 35 years on the bench.Biskupic, Joan. [Exclusive: Supreme Court's Ginsburg vows to resist pressure to retire](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-court-ginsburg-idUSBRE9630C820130704) , [Reuters](Reuters), July 4, 2013.
Some believed that, in the lead-up to the [U.S. presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election), Ginsburg was waiting for [Hillary Clinton](candidate)(Hillary Clinton) to beat [Donald Trump](candidate)(Donald Trump) before retiring, because Clinton would nominate a more liberal successor for her than Obama would, or so that her successor could be nominated by the first female president. After Trump's victory in 2016 and the election of a Republican Senate, she would have had to wait until 2021 for a Democrat to be president, but died in office in September 2020 at age 87.
## Other activities
[[Bader Ginsburg, SCOTUS photo portrait.jpg|alt=Ginsburg standing in front of a bookshelf|thumb|Portrait of Ginsburg, ](File:Ruth)]
At his request, Ginsburg administered the [of office](oath)(oath of office) to Vice President [Gore](Al)(Al Gore) for a second term during the [inauguration of Bill Clinton](second)(second inauguration of Bill Clinton) on January 20, 1997. She was the third woman to administer an inaugural oath of office. Ginsburg is believed to have been the first Supreme Court justice to officiate at a same-sex wedding, performing the August 31, 2013, ceremony of [Center](Kennedy)(John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts) president [Kaiser](Michael)(Michael Kaiser) and John Roberts, a government economist. Earlier that summer, the Court had bolstered same-sex marriage rights in two separate cases. Ginsburg believed the issue being settled led same-sex couples to ask her to officiate as there was no longer the fear of compromising rulings on the issue.
The Supreme Court bar formerly inscribed its certificates "[the year of our Lord](in)(in the year of our Lord)", which some [Jews](Orthodox)(Orthodox Jews) opposed, and asked Ginsburg to object to. She did so, and due to her objection, Supreme Court bar members have since been given other choices of how to inscribe the year on their certificates.
Despite their ideological differences, Ginsburg considered Antonin Scalia her closest colleague on the Court. The two justices often dined together and attended the opera. In addition to befriending modern composers, including [Picker](Tobias)(Tobias Picker), in her spare time, Ginsburg appeared in several operas in non-speaking [supernumerary](Supernumerary actor) roles such as *[Fledermaus](Die)(Die Fledermaus)* (2003) and *[auf Naxos](Ariadne)(Ariadne auf Naxos)* (1994 and 2009 with Scalia), and spoke lines penned by herself in *[Daughter of the Regiment](The)(La fille du régiment)* (2016).
In January 2012, Ginsburg went to Egypt for four days of discussions with judges, law school faculty, law school students, and legal experts. In an interview with [Hayat TV](Al)(Al Hayat TV), she said the first requirement of a new constitution should be that it would "safeguard basic fundamental human rights like our [Amendment](First)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution)". Asked if Egypt should model its new constitution on those of other nations, she said Egypt should be "aided by all Constitution-writing that has gone on since the end of World WarII", and cited the United States Constitution and [of South Africa](Constitution)(Constitution of South Africa) as documents she might look to if drafting a new constitution. She said the U.S. was fortunate to have a constitution authored by "very wise" men but said that in the 1780s, no women were able to participate directly in the process, and slavery still existed in the U.S.[[File:Ginsburg speaks at naturalization ceremony 2018 (44580901170).jpg|alt=Ginsburg speaking at a podium|thumb|left|Ginsburg speaking at a naturalization ceremony at the [Archives](National)(National Archives Building) in 2018]]
During three interviews in July 2016, Ginsburg criticized [presumptive](Republican Party presidential primaries, 2016#May 2016: Trump as presumptive nominee) Republican presidential nominee [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump), telling *The New York Times* and the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) that she did not want to think about the possibility of a [presidency](Trump)(Presidency of Donald Trump). She joked that she might consider moving to New Zealand. She later apologized for commenting on the [Republican nominee](presumptive)(2016 Republican National Convention), calling her remarks "ill advised".
Ginsburg's first book, *[Own Words](My)(My Own Words)*, was published by [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster) on October 4, 2016. The book debuted on [*New York Times* Best Seller List](The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) for hardcover nonfiction at No.12. While promoting her book in October 2016 during an interview with [Couric](Katie)(Katie Couric), Ginsburg responded to a question about [Kaepernick](Colin)(Colin Kaepernick) choosing not to stand for the [anthem](national)(The Star-Spangled Banner) at sporting events by calling [protest](the)(U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)) "really dumb". She later apologized for her criticism calling her earlier comments "inappropriately dismissive and harsh" and noting she had not been familiar with the incident and should have declined to respond to the question. In 2021, Couric revealed that she had edited out some statements by Ginsburg in their interview; Ginsburg said that athletes who protested by not standing were showing "contempt for a government that has made it possible for their parents and grandparents to live a decent life … which they probably could not have lived in the places they came from."
In 2017, Ginsburg gave the keynote address to a Georgetown University symposium on governmental reform. She spoke on the need for improving the confirmation process, "recall[ing] the 'collegiality' and 'civility' of her own nomination and confirmation..."
In 2018, Ginsburg expressed her support for the [Too movement](Me)(Me Too movement), which encourages women to speak up about their experiences with [harassment](sexual)(sexual harassment). She told an audience, "It's about time. For so long women were silent, thinking there was nothing you could do about it, but now the law is on the side of women, or men, who encounter harassment and that's a good thing." She also reflected on her own experiences with gender discrimination and sexual harassment, including a time when a chemistry professor at Cornell unsuccessfully attempted to trade her exam answers for sex.
## Personal life
[[Ruth Bader Ginsburg and her husband Martin D. Ginsburg in 2009.jpg|alt=The Ginsburgs smiling at the front of a crowd|thumb|Martin and Ruth Bader Ginsburg at a White House event, 2009](File:Justice)]
A few days after Ruth Bader graduated from Cornell, she married [D. Ginsburg](Martin)(Martin D. Ginsburg), who later became an internationally prominent tax attorney practicing at Weil, Gotshal & Manges. Upon Ruth Bader Ginsburg's accession to the D.C. Circuit, the couple moved from New York City to Washington, D.C., where Martin became a professor of law at [University Law Center](Georgetown)(Georgetown Law). The couple's daughter, [C. Ginsburg](Jane)(Jane C. Ginsburg) (born 1955), is a professor at Columbia Law School. Their son, [Steven Ginsburg](James)(James Steven Ginsburg) (born 1965), is the founder and president of [Records](Cedille)(Cedille Records), a classical music recording company based in Chicago, Illinois. Martin and Ruth had four grandchildren.
After the birth of their daughter, Martin was diagnosed with [cancer](testicular)(testicular cancer). During this period, Ruth attended class and took notes for both of them, typing her husband's dictated papers and caring for their daughter and her sick husband. During this period, she also was selected be a [member](Law review#Overview) of the *Harvard Law Review*. Martin died of complications from metastatic cancer on June 27, 2010, four days after their 56th wedding anniversary. They spoke publicly of being in a [earning/shared parenting marriage](shared)(shared earning/shared parenting marriage) including in a speech Martin wrote and had intended to give before his death that Ruth delivered posthumously.
Ruth Bader Ginsburg was a non-observant Jew, attributing this to gender inequality in [prayer ritual](Jewish)(Minyan) and relating it to her mother's death. However, she said she might have felt differently if she were younger, and she was pleased that [Reform](Reform Judaism) and Conservative Judaism were becoming more [egalitarian](Egalitarianism) in this regard.[Ginsburg Is Latest Justice to Reflect on Faith](https://web.archive.org/web/20081007132256/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/14/AR2008011402290.html), *The Washington Post*, January 15, 2008. In March 2015, Ginsburg and Rabbi Lauren Holtzblatt released "The Heroic and Visionary Women of [Passover](Passover)", an essay highlighting the roles of five key women in the saga. The text states, "These women had a vision leading out of the darkness shrouding their world. They were women of action, prepared to defy authority to make their vision a reality bathed in the light of the day..."[Justice Ginsburg has released a new feminist take on the Passover narrative](https://web.archive.org/web/20150319153632/http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2015/03/18/ginsburg-feminist-reading-exodus-passover/), *The Washington Post*, March 18, 2015. In addition, she decorated her chambers with an artist's rendering of the Hebrew phrase from [Deuteronomy](Deuteronomy), "*Zedek, zedek, tirdof,*" ("Justice, justice shall you pursue") as a reminder of her heritage and professional responsibility.
Ginsburg had a collection of lace [jabots](Jabot (neckwear)) from around the world. She said in 2014 she had a particular jabot she wore when issuing her dissents (black with gold embroidery and faceted stones) as well as another she wore when issuing majority opinions (crocheted yellow and cream with crystals), which was a gift from her law clerks. Her favorite jabot (woven with white beads) was from [Town](Cape)(Cape Town), South Africa.
### Health
[[File:Ruth Bader Ginsburg gravestone.png|thumb|Ginsburg's gravestone in [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery).]]
In 1999, Ginsburg was diagnosed with [cancer](colon)(Colorectal cancer), the first of her five bouts with cancer. She underwent surgery followed by [chemotherapy](chemotherapy) and [therapy](radiation)(radiation therapy). During the process, she did not miss a day on the bench.Garry, Stephanie (February 6, 2009). ["For Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Hopeful Signs in Grim News about Pancreatic Cancer"](http://www.tampabay.com/news/health/article973728.ece) . *[Petersburg Times](St.)(Tampa Bay Times)*. Retrieved August 24, 2009. Ginsburg was physically weakened by the cancer treatment, and she began working with a personal trainer. Bryant Johnson, a former Army reservist attached to the [Army Special Forces](U.S.)(U.S. Army Special Forces), trained Ginsburg twice weekly in the justices-only gym at the Supreme Court. Ginsburg saw her physical fitness improve after her first bout with cancer; she was able to complete twenty [push-ups](push-ups) in a session before her 80th birthday.
Nearly a decade after her first bout with cancer, Ginsburg again underwent surgery on February 5, 2009, this time for [cancer](pancreatic)(pancreatic cancer). She had a tumor that was discovered at an early stage. She was released from a New York City hospital on February 13, 2009, and returned to the bench when the Supreme Court went back into session on February 23, 2009. After experiencing discomfort while exercising in the Supreme Court gym in November 2014, she had a [stent](stent) placed in her right coronary artery.
Ginsburg's next hospitalization helped her detect another round of cancer. On November 8, 2018, Ginsburg fell in her office at the Supreme Court, [three ribs](fracturing)(Rib fracture), for which she was hospitalized. An outpouring of public support followed. Although the day after her fall, Ginsburg's nephew revealed she had already returned to official judicial work after a day of observation, a [scan](CT)(CT scan) of her ribs following her fall showed cancerous [nodules](Nodule (medicine)) in her lungs. On December 21, Ginsburg underwent a left-lung [lobectomy](Lobectomy (lung)) at [Sloan Kettering Cancer Center](Memorial)(Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center) to remove the nodules. For the first time since joining the Court more than 25 years earlier, Ginsburg missed oral argument on January 7, 2019, while she recuperated. She returned to the Supreme Court on February 15, 2019, to participate in a private conference with other justices in her first appearance at the Court since her cancer surgery in December 2018.
Months later in August 2019, the Supreme Court announced that Ginsburg had recently completed three weeks of focused radiation treatment to [ablate](Ablation#Medicine) a tumor found in her [pancreas](pancreas) over the summer. By January 2020, Ginsburg was cancer-free. By February 2020, the cancer had returned but this news was not released to the public. However, by May 2020, Ginsburg was once again receiving treatment for a recurrence of cancer. She reiterated her position that she "would remain a member of the Court as long as I can do the job full steam", adding that she remained fully able to do so.
## Death and succession
[[Bader Ginsburg Memorial (50401877182).jpg|thumb|alt=Ginsburg was honored in a ceremony in Statuary Hall, and she became the first woman to lie in state at the Capitol on September 25, 2020, in the United States Capitol.|Ginsburg was honored in a ceremony in Statuary Hall, and she became the first woman to lie in state at the Capitol, September 25, 2020.](File:Ruth)]
Ginsburg died from complications of pancreatic cancer on September 18, 2020, at age 87. She died on the eve of [Hashanah](Rosh)(Rosh Hashanah), and according to Rabbi [Jacobs](Richard)(Richard Jacobs (rabbi)), "One of the themes of Rosh Hashanah suggest that very righteous people would die at the very end of the year because they were needed until the very end". After the announcement of her death, thousands of people gathered in front of the Supreme Court building to lay flowers, light candles, and leave messages.
Five days after her death, the eight Supreme Court justices, Ginsburg's children, and other family members held a private ceremony for Ginsburg in the Court's great hall. Following the private ceremony, due to [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) conditions prohibiting the usual lying in repose in the great hall, Ginsburg's casket was moved outdoors to the Court's west portico so the public could pay respects. Thousands of mourners lined up to walk past the casket over the course of two days. After the two days in repose at the Court, Ginsburg [in state](lay)(Lying in state#United States) at the Capitol. She was the first woman and first Jew to lie in state therein. On September 29, Ginsburg was buried beside her husband in [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery).
Ginsburg's death opened a vacancy on the Supreme Court about six weeks before the [presidential election](2020)(2020 United States presidential election), initiating controversies regarding the [and confirmation of her successor](nomination)(Amy Coney Barrett Supreme Court nomination). and stirs Scalia's ghost|work=[Reuters](Reuters)|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-court-ginsburg-congress-idUKKBN26A03T|access-date=September 19, 2020|archive-date=September 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921055743/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-court-ginsburg-congress-idUKKBN26A03T|url-status=live}} Days before her death, Ginsburg dictated a statement to her granddaughter Clara Spera, as heard by Ginsburg's doctor and others in the room at the time: "My most fervent wish is that I will not be replaced until a new president is installed." President Trump's pick to replace her, [Coney Barrett](Amy)(Amy Coney Barrett), was confirmed by the Senate on October 27.
## Recognition
[[File:U.S. Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 2020.jpg|alt=Three women gripping a bust and smiling|thumb|Ginsburg receiving the [Liberty & Justice for All Award](LBJ)(Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum) from [Johnson Robb](Lynda)(Lynda Johnson Robb) and [Baines Johnson](Luci)(Luci Baines Johnson) at the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) in January 2020|left]]
In 2002, Ginsburg was inducted into the [Women's Hall of Fame](National)(National Women's Hall of Fame). Ginsburg was named one of [Most Powerful Women](100)(Forbes list of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women) (2009), one of [*Glamour*](Glamour (magazine)) magazine's Women of the Year 2012, and one of *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine's [most influential people](100)(Time 100) (2015). She was awarded honorary degrees by [University](Lund)(Lund University) (1969), [University Law School](American)(American University Law School) (1981), [Law School](Vermont)(Vermont Law School) (1984), Vermont Law School|url=https://www.vermontlaw.edu/blog/Ruth-Bader-Ginsburg|access-date=March 22, 2021|website=www.vermontlaw.edu|archive-date=April 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420232535/https://www.vermontlaw.edu/blog/Ruth-Bader-Ginsburg|url-status=live}} [University](Georgetown)(Georgetown University) (1985), [University](DePaul)(DePaul University) (1985), [Law School](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Law School) (1987), [Union College](Hebrew)(Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion) (1988), [University](Rutgers)(Rutgers University) (1990), [College](Amherst)(Amherst College) (1990), [& Clark College](Lewis)(Lewis & Clark College) (1992), [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) (1994), [Island University](Long)(Long Island University) (1994), [NYU](NYU) (1994), [College](Smith)(Smith College) (1994), [University of Illinois](The)(The University of Illinois) (1994), [University](Brandeis)(Brandeis University) (1996), [Washington University](George)(George Washington University) (1997), GW Libraries|url=http://library.gwu.edu/|access-date=March 22, 2021|website=library.gwu.edu|archive-date=March 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319232412/https://library.gwu.edu/|url-status=live}} [Theological Seminary of America](Jewish)(Jewish Theological Seminary of America) (1997), [College (Massachusetts)](Wheaton)(Wheaton College (Massachusetts)) (1997), [University](Northwestern)(Northwestern University) (1998), [of Michigan](University)(University of Michigan) (2001), [University](Brown)(Brown University) (2002), [University](Yale)(Yale University) (2003), [Jay College of Criminal Justice](John)(John Jay College of Criminal Justice) (2004), [Hopkins University](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University) (2004), [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania) (2007), [University](Willamette)(Willamette University) (2009), [University](Princeton)(Princeton University) (2010), [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) (2011), and the [University of New York](State)(State University of New York) (2019).
In 2009, Ginsburg received a Lifetime Achievement Award from [The American Society of Legal Writers](Scribes)(Scribes: The American Society of Legal Writers).
In 2013, a painting featuring the four female justices to have served as justices on the Supreme Court (Ginsburg, [Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor), [Sotomayor](Sonia)(Sonia Sotomayor), and [Kagan](Elena)(Elena Kagan)) was unveiled at the [Smithsonian](Smithsonian)'s [Portrait Gallery](National)(National Portrait Gallery (United States)) in Washington, D.C.|website=National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution|access-date=June 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707104724/http://www.npg.si.edu/exhibit/fourjustices/|archive-date=July 7, 2017|url-status=live}}
Researchers at the [Museum of Natural History](Cleveland)(Cleveland Museum of Natural History) gave a species of [mantis](praying)(Mantis) the name *[ginsburgae](Ilomantis)(Ilomantis ginsburgae)* after Ginsburg. The name was given because the neck plate of the *Ilomantis ginsburgae* bears a resemblance to a jabot, which Ginsburg was known for wearing. Moreover, the new species was identified based upon the female insect's genitalia instead of based upon the male of the species. The researchers noted that the name was a nod to Ginsburg's fight for gender equality.
Ginsburg was the recipient of the 2019 $1million [Prize](Berggruen)(Berggruen Prize) for Philosophy and Culture. Awarded annually, the Berggruen Institute stated it recognizes "thinkers whose ideas have profoundly shaped human self-understanding and advancement in a rapidly changing world", noting Ginsburg as "a lifelong trailblazer for human rights and gender equality". Ginsburg donated the entirety of the prize money to charitable and non-profit organizations, including the [Fund](Malala)(Malala Fund), [in Hand: Center for Jewish-Arab Education in Israel](Hand)(Hand in Hand: Center for Jewish-Arab Education in Israel), the [Bar Foundation](American)(American Bar Foundation), [Sloan Kettering Cancer Center](Memorial)(Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center), and the [Concert Opera](Washington)(Washington Concert Opera). Ginsburg received numerous additional awards, including the LBJ Foundation's Liberty & Justice for All Award, the [Peace & Liberty Award](World)(World Peace & Liberty Award) from international legal groups, a lifetime achievement award from [von Furstenberg](Diane)(Diane von Fürstenberg)'s foundation, and the [Liberty Medal](2020)(Philadelphia Liberty Medal) by the [Constitution Center](National)(National Constitution Center) all in 2020 alone. In February 2020, she received the World Peace & Liberty Award from the World Jurist Association and the World Law Foundation.
In 2019, the [Cultural Center](Skirball)(Skirball Cultural Center) in Los Angeles created *Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg*, a large-scale exhibition focusing on Ginsburg's life and career.
The U.S. Navy announced on March 31, 2022, that it will name one of its [Lewis*-class replenishment oilers](*John)(John Lewis-class replenishment oiler) the USNS *Ruth Bader Ginsburg*.
In March 2023, a special session and bar memorial was held by the Supreme Court honoring Ginsburg's legacy.
Also in 2023, Ginsburg will be featured on a [USPS](USPS) [stamp](Forever)(Forever stamp). The stamp was designed by art director Ethel Kessler, using an oil painting by [J. Deas](Michael)(Michael J. Deas) based on a photograph by Philip Bermingham.
## In popular culture
[[File:2018 Women's March in Missoula, Montana 69.jpg|thumb|alt=A poster with "hang in there we need you" written around Ginsburg's face and a crown on her head|A poster depicting Ginsburg as "the Notorious R.B.G." in the likeness of American rapper [Notorious B.I.G.](the)(the Notorious B.I.G.), 2018]]
Ginsburg has been referred to as a "pop culture icon" and also an "American cultural icon." Ginsburg's profile began to rise after O'Connor's retirement in 2006 left Ginsburg as the only serving female justice. Her increasingly fiery dissents, particularly in *[County v. Holder](Shelby)(Shelby County v. Holder)*, led to the creation of a sobriquet, "the Notorious R.B.G." (a takeoff on the name of a rap star, [Notorious B.I.G.](the)(the Notorious B.I.G.)), which became an [meme](internet)(internet meme). The name beginning on [Tumblr](Tumblr) The Tumblr blogger who coined the meme, law student [Knizhnik](Shana)(Shana Knizhnik), teamed up with MSNBC reporter [Carmon](Irin)(Irin Carmon) to turn the contents of the blog into a book titled *Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg*. Released in October 2015, the book became a *New York Times* bestseller. In 2016, the [progressive](Progressivism) magazine [Affairs](Current)(Current Affairs (magazine)) criticized Ginsburg's status as an icon of progressivism, noting that her voting record was significantly more moderate than deceased justices [Marshall](Thurgood)(Thurgood Marshall), [J. Brennan Jr.](William)(William J. Brennan Jr.), and [O. Douglas](William)(William O. Douglas), and that she often sided with law enforcement in [immunity](qualified)(qualified immunity) cases.
In 2015, Ginsburg and Scalia, known for their shared love of opera, were fictionalized in *[Scalia/Ginsburg](Scalia/Ginsburg)*, an opera by Derrick Wang broadcast on national radio on November 7, 2020. Trial by Jury & Scalia/Ginsburg|url=https://www.operade.org/radio|access-date=November 1, 2020|website=OperaDelaware|archive-date=November 5, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105150245/https://www.operade.org/radio|url-status=live}} The opera was introduced before Ginsburg and Scalia at the Supreme Court in 2013, and Ginsburg attended the 2015 [Festival](Castleton)(Castleton Festival) world premiere as well as a revised version at the 2017 [Festival](Glimmerglass)(Glimmerglass Festival). Ginsburg, who with Scalia wrote forewords to Wang's libretto, included excerpts from the opera as a chapter in her book *[Own Words](My)(My Own Words)*, Kirkus Reviews|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=November 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108015154/https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/ruth-bader-ginsburg/my-own-words-ginsburg/|url-status=live}} quoted it in her official statement on Scalia's death, and spoke about it frequently. C-SPAN.org|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?c4815053/user-clip-justice-ginsburg-opera-scaliaginsburg|access-date=November 1, 2020|website=www.c-span.org|archive-date=December 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215061259/https://www.c-span.org/video/?c4815053%2Fuser-clip-justice-ginsburg-opera-scaliaginsburg|url-status=live}}
Additionally, Ginsburg's pop culture appeal has inspired nail art, Halloween costumes, a bobblehead doll, tattoos, t-shirts, coffee mugs, and a children's coloring book among other things. She appears in both a comic opera and a workout book. Musician [Mann](Jonathan)(Jonathan Mann (musician)) also made a song using part of her *[v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.](Burwell)(Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.)* dissent. Ginsburg admitted to having a "large supply" of Notorious R.B.G. t-shirts, which she distributed as gifts.
Since 2015, [McKinnon](Kate)(Kate McKinnon) has portrayed Ginsburg on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*. McKinnon has repeatedly reprised the role, including during a *[Update](Weekend)(Weekend Update)* sketch that aired from the 2016 Republican National Convention in Cleveland. The segments typically feature McKinnon (as Ginsburg) lobbing insults she calls "Ginsburns" and doing a celebratory dance. Filmmakers [West](Betsy)(Betsy West) and Julie Cohen created a documentary about Ginsburg, titled [*RBG*](RBG (film)), for [Films](CNN)(CNN Films), which premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](2018)(2018 Sundance Film Festival). In the film *[Deadpool 2](Deadpool 2)* (2018), a photo of her is shown as [Deadpool](Deadpool) considers her for his [X-Force](X-Force), a team of superheroes. Another film, *[the Basis of Sex](On)(On the Basis of Sex)*, focusing on Ginsburg's career struggles fighting for equal rights, was released later in 2018; its screenplay was named to the Black List of best unproduced screenplays of 2014. English actress [Jones](Felicity)(Felicity Jones) portrays Ginsburg in the film, with [Hammer](Armie)(Armie Hammer) as her husband Marty. Ginsburg herself has a cameo in the film. The [season](seventh)(New Girl (season 7)) of the sitcom *[Girl](New)(New Girl)* features a three-year-old character named Ruth Bader Schmidt, named after Ginsburg. A [Lego](Lego) mini-figurine of Ginsburg is shown within a brief segment of *[Lego Movie 2](The)(The Lego Movie 2)*. Ginsburg gave her blessing for the cameo, as well as to have the mini-figurine produced as part of the Lego toy sets following the film's release in February 2019. Also in 2019, [Adams](Samuel)(Samuel Adams (beer)) released a limited-edition beer called When There Are Nine, referring to Ginsburg's well-known reply to the question about when there would be enough women on the Supreme Court.
In the sitcom *[Good Place](The)(The Good Place)*, the "craziest secret celebrity hookup" was Ginsburg and Canadian rapper [Drake](Drake (musician)), whom protagonist Tahani reveals she set up as a "perfect couple".
*[in Law](Sisters)(Sisters in Law (book))* (2015), by [Hirshman](Linda)(Linda Hirshman), follows the careers and judicial records of [Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor) and Ginsburg.
In 2018, Ginsburg appeared on *[Late Show with Stephen Colbert](The)(The Late Show with Stephen Colbert)*, which featured her following her regular workout routine accompanied by [Colbert](Stephen)(Stephen Colbert) joking with her and attempting to perform the same routine. She also answered a few questions and weighed in on the famous internet question "Is a [dog](hot)(hot dog) a sandwich?" and ultimately ruled that, based on Colbert's definition of a sandwich, a hot dog is a sandwich.
## See also
* [Clinton Supreme Court candidates](Bill)(Bill Clinton Supreme Court candidates)
* [of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States](List)(List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States)
* [of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6)](List)(List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6))
* [of U.S. Supreme Court cases during the Rehnquist Court](List)(List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court)
* [of U.S. Supreme Court cases during the Roberts Court](List)(List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court)
* [of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office](List)(List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office)
* [of Jewish United States Supreme Court justices](List)(Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States#Jewish justices)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* Campbell, Amy Leigh, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg. ''Raising the Bar: Ruth Bader Ginsburg and the ACLU Women's Rights Project*. Princeton, NJ: Xlibris Corporation, 2003. . .
* [Irin](Carmon,)(Irin Carmon), and Knizhnik, Shana. *Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg*. New York, [Street](Dey)(Dey Street Books), [Morrow Publishers](William)(William Morrow and Company), 2015. . .
* [Bill](Clinton,)(Bill Clinton). *[Life](My)(My Life (Clinton autobiography))*. New York: [Books](Vintage)(Vintage Books), 2005. pp.524–25, 941. . .
*
* Dodson, Scott. [*The Legacy of Ruth Bader Ginsburg*](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/897881843). Cambridge: [University Press](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Press), 2015.
* [Bryan A.](Garner,)(Bryan A. Garner) *[Garner on Language and Writing](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/310224965)*. Chicago: [Bar Association](American)(American Bar Association), 2009. Foreword by Ruth Bader Ginsburg. . .
* Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, et al. *Essays in Honor of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law School, 2013. .
* [Linda R.](Hirshman,)(Linda Hirshman) *[Sisters in Law: How Sandra Day O'Connor and Ruth Bader Ginsburg Went to the Supreme Court and Changed the World](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907678612)*. New York: HarperCollins, 2015. . .
* Moritz College of Law (2009). "The Jurisprudence of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg: A Discussion of Fifteen Years on the U.S. Supreme Court: Symposium". *Ohio State Law Journal*. 70, no. 4: 797–1126. . .
*
## External links
*
*
*
* [Issue positions and quotes](http://www.OnTheIssues.org/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg.htm) at [OnTheIssues](On the Issues)
* [Ruth Bader Ginsburg](https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015600/https://www.makers.com/ruth-bader-ginsburg), video produced by *[Women Who Make America](Makers:)(Makers: Women Who Make America)''
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Iron Man _2008 film
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iron_man__2008_film
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# Iron Man (2008 film)
*Revision ID: 1160132798 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T16:07:59Z*
---
| screenplay =
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi)
| cinematography = [Libatique](Matthew)(Matthew Libatique)
| editing = [Lebental](Dan)(Dan Lebental)
| studio = [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios)
| distributor = [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 126 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $130–140 million
| gross = $585.8 million
}}
***Iron Man*** is a 2008 American [film](superhero)(superhero film) based on the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) character [the same name](of)(Iron Man). Produced by [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) and distributed by [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures), it is [first film](the)(List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU). Directed by [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau) from a screenplay by the writing teams of [Fergus and Hawk Ostby](Mark)(Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby), and [Marcum and Matt Holloway](Art)(Art Marcum and Matt Holloway), the film stars [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) as [Stark / Iron Man](Tony)(Tony Stark (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) alongside [Howard](Terrence)(Terrence Howard), [Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges), [Paltrow](Gwyneth)(Gwyneth Paltrow), [Bibb](Leslie)(Leslie Bibb), and [Toub](Shaun)(Shaun Toub). In the film, following his escape from captivity by a terrorist group, world famous industrialist and master engineer Tony Stark builds a [suit of armor](mechanized)(Iron Man's armor (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) and becomes the superhero Iron Man.
A film featuring the character was in development at [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures), [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox), and [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema) at various times since 1990, before Marvel Studios reacquired the rights in 2005. Marvel put the project in production as its first self-financed film, with Paramount Pictures distributing. Favreau signed on as director in April 2006, and faced opposition from Marvel when trying to cast Downey in the title role; the actor was signed in September. Filming took place from March to June 2007, primarily in California to differentiate the film from numerous other superhero stories that are set in New York City-esque environments. During filming, the actors were free to create their own dialogue because pre-production was focused on the story and action. Rubber and metal versions of the armor, created by [Winston](Stan)(Stan Winston)'s company, were mixed with [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery) to create the title character.
*Iron Man* premiered in Sydney on April 14, 2008, and was released in the United States on May 2, being the first film in [One](Phase)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One) of the MCU. It grossed over $585 million, becoming the [grossing film of 2008](eighth-highest)(2008 in film#Highest-grossing films). The film received praise from critics, especially for Downey's performance, as well as Favreau's direction, visual effects, action sequences, and writing. It was selected by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) as one of the ten best films of 2008, received two nominations at the [Academy Awards](81st)(81st Academy Awards) for [Sound Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Editing) and [Visual Effects](Best)(Academy Award for Best Visual Effects). In 2022, the film was selected for preservation in the United States [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Two sequels have been released: *[Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)* (2010) and *[Man 3](Iron)(Iron Man 3)* (2013).
## Plot
[Stark](Tony)(Tony Stark (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), who has inherited the defense contractor [Industries](Stark)(Stark Industries (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) from his late father [Stark](Howard)(Howard Stark (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), is in [Afghanistan](war-torn)(War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)) with his friend and military liaison, [Colonel](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant colonel (United States)) [Rhodes](James)(James Rhodes (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), to demonstrate the new "Jericho" missile. After the demonstration, his convoy is ambushed and Stark is critically wounded by a missile used by the attackers—one of his company's own. He is captured and imprisoned in a cave by a terrorist group called the [Rings](Ten)(Ten Rings (organization)). [Yinsen](Ho Yinsen (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), a fellow captive and doctor, implants an electromagnet into Stark's chest to keep the shrapnel shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him. Ten Rings leader [Raza](Raza (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) offers Stark freedom in exchange for building a Jericho missile for the group, but he and Yinsen believe that Raza will not keep his word.
Stark and Yinsen secretly build a small, powerful electric generator called an [reactor](arc)(Arc reactor (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) to power Stark's electromagnet and a prototype [of powered armor](suit)(Iron Man's armor (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) to aid in their escape. Although they keep the suit hidden almost to completion, the Ten Rings discover their hostages' intentions and attack the workshop. Yinsen sacrifices himself to divert them while the suit powers up. The armored Stark battles his way out of the cave to find the dying Yinsen, then burns the Ten Rings' weapons and flies away, crashing in the desert and destroying the suit. After being rescued by Rhodes, Stark returns home and announces that his company will cease manufacturing weapons. [Stane](Obadiah)(Obadiah Stane (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), his father's old partner and the company's manager, advises Stark that this may ruin Stark Industries and his father's legacy. In his home workshop, Stark builds a sleeker, more powerful version of his improvised armor suit as well as a more powerful arc reactor for it and his chest. Personal assistant [Potts](Pepper)(Pepper Potts (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) places the original reactor inside a small glass showcase. Though Stane requests details, a suspicious Stark decides to keep his work to himself.
At a charity event held by Stark Industries, reporter [Everhart](Christine)(Christine Everhart (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) informs Stark that his company's weapons were recently delivered to the Ten Rings and are being used to attack Yinsen's home village, Gulmira. Stark dons his new armor and flies to Afghanistan, where he saves the villagers. While flying home, Stark is attacked by two [Raptor](F-22)(F-22 Raptor)s. He reveals his secret identity to Rhodes over the phone in an attempt to end the attack. Meanwhile, the Ten Rings gather the pieces of Stark's prototype suit and meet with Stane, who has been trafficking arms to the Ten Rings and has staged a [coup](coup) to replace Stark as Stark Industries' CEO by hiring the Ten Rings to kill him. He subdues Raza and has the rest of the group killed. Stane has a massive new suit reverse-engineered from the wreckage. Seeking to track his company's illegal shipments, Stark sends Potts to hack into its database. She discovers that Stane hired the Ten Rings to kill Stark, but the group reneged when they realized they had a direct route to Stark's weapons. Potts meets with Agent [Coulson](Phil)(Phil Coulson) of [S.H.I.E.L.D.](S.H.I.E.L.D. (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), an intelligence agency, to inform him of Stane's activities.
Stane's scientists cannot duplicate Stark's miniaturized arc reactor, so Stane ambushes Stark at his home and steals the one from his chest. Stark manages to replace it with his original reactor. Potts and several S.H.I.E.L.D. agents attempt to arrest Stane, but he dons his suit and attacks them. Stark fights Stane but is outmatched without his new reactor to run his suit at full capacity. The fight carries Stark and Stane to the top of the Stark Industries building, where Stark instructs Potts to overload the large arc reactor powering the building. This unleashes a massive electrical surge that causes Stane and his armor to fall into the exploding reactor, killing him. The next day, at a press conference, Stark publicly admits to being the superhero the press has dubbed "Iron Man".
In a [scene](post-credits)(post-credits scene), S.H.I.E.L.D. director [Fury](Nick)(Nick Fury (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) visits Stark at home, telling him that Iron Man is not "the only superhero in the world", and explaining that he wants to discuss the "[Initiative](Avenger)(Avengers Initiative (Marvel Cinematic Universe))".
## Cast
* [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) as [Stark / Iron Man](Tony)(Tony Stark (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): An [industrialist](industrialist), genius inventor, and consummate playboy, he is CEO of [Industries](Stark)(Stark Industries) and chief weapons manufacturer for the [military](U.S.)(U.S. military). Director [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau) felt that Downey's past made him an appropriate choice for the part and that the actor could not only make Stark a "likable asshole," but also portray an authentic emotional journey, once he had won over the audience. Favreau was also attracted to Downey because of his performance in *[Kiss Bang Bang](Kiss)(Kiss Kiss Bang Bang).* Downey frequently spoke with that film's director, [Black](Shane)(Shane Black), about the script and dialogue in *Iron Man*. Downey had an office next to Favreau during pre-production, which allowed him greater involvement in the screenwriting process, especially when it came to adding humor to the film. Downey explained, "What I usually hate about these [superhero] movies [is] when suddenly the guy that you were digging turns into [Do-Right](Dudley)(Dudley Do-Right), and then you're supposed to buy into all his 'Let's go do some good!' That [Ness](Eliot)(Eliot Ness)-in-a-cape-type thing. What was really important to me was to not have him change so much that he's unrecognizable. When someone used to be a schmuck and they're not anymore, hopefully they still have a sense of humor." To get into shape, Downey spent five days a week weight training and practiced martial arts, which he said benefited him because "it's hard not to have a personality meltdown ... after about several hours in that suit. I'm calling up every therapeutic moment I can think of to just get through the day."
* [Howard](Terrence)(Terrence Howard) as ["Rhodey" Rhodes](James)(James Rhodes (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): A friend of Stark's and the liaison between Stark Industries and the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) in the department of acquisitions, specifically weapons development. Favreau cast Howard because he felt he could play [Machine](War)(War Machine) in a sequel. Howard prepared for the role by visiting [Air Force Base](Nellis)(Nellis Air Force Base) on March 16, 2007, where he ate with the pilots and observed [Pave Hawk](HH-60)(HH-60 Pave Hawk) rescue helicopters and [Raptor](F-22)(F-22 Raptor)s. While Rhodes is roguish in the comics after he meets Stark, his previous role as a disciplinarian creates a dynamic tension with Stark's character. He is unsure whether Stark's actions are acceptable. "Rhodey is completely disgusted with the way Tony has lived his life, but at a certain point he realizes that perhaps there is a different way," Howard said. "Whose life is the right way: Is it the strict military life, or the life of an independent?" Howard and his father are Iron Man fans, partly because Rhodes was one of the few black superheroes when Howard was a child. He has been a Downey fan since he saw him in *[Science](Weird)(Weird Science (film));* the two competed physically on set.
* [Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges) as [Stane](Obadiah)(Obadiah Stane (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): Stark's business second-in-command, mentor, and friend, who turns on him to take over the company, eventually building a giant exosuit to fight Stark. Bridges read the comics as a boy and liked Favreau's modern, realistic approach. He shaved his head, something he had wanted to do for some time, and grew a beard for the role. Bridges researched the [of Obadiah](Book)(Book of Obadiah), and was surprised to learn retribution is a major theme in that book of the Bible, something that Stane represents. Many of Stane's scenes were cut to focus more on Stark, but the writers felt Bridges's performance allowed the application of "less is more" when editing the film.
* [Paltrow](Gwyneth)(Gwyneth Paltrow) as ["Pepper" Potts](Virginia)(Pepper Potts (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): Stark's personal assistant and budding love interest. Paltrow asked Marvel to send her any comics they would consider relevant to her understanding of the character, whom she considered to be very smart, level-headed, and grounded. She said she liked "the fact that there's a sexuality that's not blatant." Favreau wanted Potts' and Stark's relationship to be reminiscent of a 1940s comedy, something which Paltrow considered to be fun in an "innocent yet sexy" way.
* [Bibb](Leslie)(Leslie Bibb) as [Everhart](Christine)(Christine Everhart (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): A reporter for *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*.
* [Toub](Shaun)(Shaun Toub) as [Yinsen](Ho)(Ho Yinsen (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): Stark's fellow captive, who grafts an electromagnet to Stark's chest "to keep the shrapnel shell shards that wounded him from reaching his heart and killing him" and helps Stark build the first Iron Man suit.
Additionally, [Tahir](Faran)(Faran Tahir) appears as [Raza](Raza (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), the leader of the [Rings](Ten)(Ten Rings (organization)); [Bettany](Paul)(Paul Bettany) voices [J.A.R.V.I.S.](J.A.R.V.I.S.), Stark's personal [AI](Artificial Intelligence) system; and [Gregg](Clark)(Clark Gregg) appears as [Coulson](Phil)(Phil Coulson), an agent of [S.H.I.E.L.D.](S.H.I.E.L.D. (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) [Lyman](Will)(Will Lyman) provides the voice-over during the opening award ceremony. Director [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau) plays ["Happy" Hogan](Harold)(Happy Hogan (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), Stark's bodyguard and [chauffeur](chauffeur), and [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson) makes a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) as [Fury](Nick)(Nick Fury (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), director of S.H.I.E.L.D., in a post-credits scene. Jackson's face was previously used as the model for the [Marvel](Ultimate)(Ultimate Marvel) imprint [of Nick Fury](version)(Ultimate Nick Fury). Other cameos in the film include [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee) as himself, being mistaken for [Hefner](Hugh)(Hugh Hefner) by Stark at a party; [Billingsley](Peter)(Peter Billingsley) as [Ginter Riva](William)(William Ginter Riva), a scientist who works for Stane; [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello), who provided guitar music for the film, as a terrorist guard; and [Cramer](Jim)(Jim Cramer) as himself. [Killah](Ghostface)(Ghostface Killah), who often adopted Iron Man's name as an alias, had a cameo in a scene where Stark stays in [Dubai](Dubai), but the scene was cut for pacing reasons.
## Production
### Development
In April 1990, [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios) bought the rights to develop *Iron Man* for the big screen, with [Gordon](Stuart)(Stuart Gordon) to direct a low-budget film based on the property. By February 1996, [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) had acquired the rights from Universal. In January 1997, [Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage) expressed interest in portraying the character, while in September 1998, [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise) expressed interest in producing as well as starring in an Iron Man film. [Vintar](Jeff)(Jeff Vintar) and Iron Man co-creator Stan Lee co-wrote a story for Fox, which Vintar adapted into a screenplay. It included a new science-fiction origin for the character, and featured [MODOK](MODOK) as the villain. [Rothman](Tom)(Tom Rothman), President of Production at Fox, credited the screenplay with finally making him understand the character. In May 1999, Jeffrey Caine was hired to rewrite Vintar and Lee's script. That October, [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) was approached to write and direct the film. Fox sold the rights to [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema) the following December, reasoning that although the Vintar/Lee script was strong, the studio had too many Marvel superheroes in development, and "we can't make them all."
By July 2000, the film was being written for New Line by [Elliott](Ted)(Ted Elliott (screenwriter)), [Rossio](Terry)(Terry Rossio), and [McCanlies](Tim)(Tim McCanlies). McCanlies' script used the idea of a Nick Fury cameo to set up his own film. In June 2001, New Line entered talks with [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon), a fan of the character, to direct, and in December 2002, McCanlies had turned in a completed script. New Line took a "unique" approach to writing the film's script, hiring [Hayter](David)(David Hayter), David S. Goyer, and [Protosevich](Mark)(Mark Protosevich) to "sit in a room and simply talk on camera about Iron Man for a few days". After this, Hayter was hired in 2004 to write a script. He reworked scripts that had been written by Jeff Vintar and [Gough](Alfred)(Alfred Gough) and [Millar](Miles)(Miles Millar), which had included the villain the [Mandarin](Mandarin (character)) and [Potts](Pepper)(Pepper Potts) as a love interest. Hayter removed the Mandarin and instead chose to pit Iron Man against his father [Stark](Howard)(Howard Stark), who becomes [Machine](War)(War Machine). Hayter said "you want to try to mirror your hero with your villain as much as possible" for his reasoning behind making Howard the villain. He also made [Cabe](Bethany)(Bethany Cabe) the film's love interest over Potts. In December 2004, the studio attached director [Cassavetes](Nick)(Nick Cassavetes) to the project for a target 2006 release. However, this deal ultimately fell through, and Iron Man's film rights returned to Marvel.
In November 2005, [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) worked to start development from scratch, and announced *Iron Man* as their first independent feature, because the character was their only major one not already depicted in live action. According to associate producer Jeremy Latcham, "we went after about 30 writers and they all passed," saying they were uninterested in the project due to both the relative obscurity of the character and the fact that it was solely a Marvel production. When the film did have a script, even the requests for rewrites met with many refusals. Early scripts for the film also directly referenced [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures)' *[2](Spider-Man)(Spider-Man 2)* (2004) by identifying Stark as the creator of [Octavius](Otto)(Otto Octavius (film character))'s bionic arms. In order to build the general public's awareness of Iron Man and elevate him to the same level of popularity as [Spider-Man](Spider-Man) or [Hulk](Hulk), Marvel conducted [group](focus)(focus group)s, trying to find a way to remove the general perception that the character is a robot. The information Marvel received from the focus groups was used to formulate an awareness-building plan, which included releasing three animated short films ahead of the film's release. The shorts were called "Iron Man Advertorials", and were produced by [Miller](Tim)(Tim Miller (director)) and [Studio](Blur)(Blur Studio).
### Pre-production
[Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau) was hired to direct the film in April 2006, celebrating getting the job by going on a diet, losing . Favreau had wanted to work with Marvel producer [Arad](Avi)(Avi Arad) on another film after they both worked on *[Daredevil](Daredevil (film))*. The director found the opportunity to create a politically ambitious "ultimate spy movie" in *Iron Man*, citing inspiration from [Clancy](Tom)(Tom Clancy), [Bond](James)(James Bond), and *[RoboCop](RoboCop)*, and compared his approach to an independent film—"[i]f [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman) had directed *[Superman](Superman (1978 film))*"—and *[Begins](Batman)(Batman Begins)*. Favreau wanted to make *Iron Man* a story of an adult man literally reinventing himself after discovering the world is far more complex than he originally believed. He changed the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) origin of the character to Afghanistan, as he did not want to do a [piece](period)(period piece). [Marcum & Matt Holloway](Art)(Art Marcum and Matt Holloway) were hired to write the script, while [Fergus & Hawk Ostby](Mark)(Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby) wrote another version, with Favreau compiling both teams' scripts, and [August](John)(John August) then "polishing" the combined version. Comic book staff [Millar](Mark)(Mark Millar), [Michael Bendis](Brian)(Brian Michael Bendis), [Quesada](Joe)(Joe Quesada), [Brevoort](Tom)(Tom Brevoort), [Alonso](Axel)(Axel Alonso), and [Macchio](Ralph)(Ralph Macchio (comics)) were also called upon by Favreau to give advice on the script. By July 2006, [Libatique](Matthew)(Matthew Libatique) was attached to serve as cinematographer.
Favreau planned to cast a newcomer in the title role, as "those movies don't require an expensive star; Iron Man's the star, the superhero is the star. The success of *[X-Men](X-Men (film))* and *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (2002 film))* without being star-driven pieces reassures [executives] that the film does have an upside commercially." However, before the screenplay was prepared he had approached [Rockwell](Sam)(Sam Rockwell) to play the part. Rockwell was interested, but Favreau changed his decision after the screen-test of [Downey, Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey, Jr.) (Rockwell would later portray [Hammer](Justin)(Justin Hammer) in *[Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)* (2010)). In September 2006, Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the role. Favreau chose Downey, a fan of the comic, because he felt the actor's past made him an appropriate choice for the part, explaining "The best and worst moments of Robert's life have been in the public eye. He had to find an inner balance to overcome obstacles that went far beyond his career. That's Tony Stark." Favreau faced opposition from Marvel in casting Downey, but would not take no for an answer, saying, "It was my job as a director to show that it was the best choice creatively ... everybody knew he was talented [and] certainly by studying the Iron Man role and developing that script I realized that the character seemed to line-up with Robert in all the good and bad ways." Downey earned $500,000 for the role. While preparing for filming, Favreau and Downey were given a tour of SpaceX by [Musk](Elon)(Elon Musk). Downey said, "Elon was someone Tony probably hung out with and partied with, or more likely they went on some weird jungle trek together to drink concoctions with the shamans."
Additional casting for the film occurred over the next few months: [Howard](Terrence)(Terrence Howard) was announced in the role of Stark's best friend ["Rhodey" Rhodes](James)(James Rhodes (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) in October 2006; Gwyneth Paltrow was cast as love interest Virginia "Pepper" Potts in January 2007; and Jeff Bridges was cast in an undisclosed role in February. [Cheadle](Don)(Don Cheadle) had also been approached for the role of Rhodes, and would eventually replace Howard in the role starting with the sequel, *Iron Man 2*. Choosing a character to be the villain of the film was difficult, as Favreau felt Iron Man's arch-nemesis the Mandarin would not feel realistic, especially after Mark Millar gave his opinion on the script. The Mandarin had originally been envisioned as a rival to Tony Stark with a building of his own right next to [Industries](Stark)(Stark Industries (Marvel Cinematic Universe)), with the Mandarin eventually drilling a hole underneath Stark Industries to steal all of Stark's technology for himself; associate producer Jeremy Latcham described such story as "crazy terrible" and "underwhelming". Favreau felt only in a sequel, with an altered tone, would the fantasy of the [rings](Mandarin's)(Mandarin's rings) be appropriate. The decision to push him into the background is comparable to [Sauron](Sauron) in *[Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings)*, or [Palpatine](Palpatine) in *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)*. Favreau also wanted Iron Man to face a giant enemy. The switch from Mandarin to Obadiah Stane was done after Bridges was cast in that role, with Stane originally intended to become a villain in the sequel. The [Dynamo](Crimson)(Crimson Dynamo) was also a villain in early drafts of the script. Favreau felt it was important to include intentional [references](inside)(in-joke) for fans of the comics, such as giving the two fighter jets that attack Iron Man the [sign](call)(call sign)s of "Whiplash 1" and "Whiplash 2", a reference to the comic book villain [Whiplash](Blacklash), and including [America's shield](Captain)(Captain America's shield) in Stark's workshop.
[[File:Iron Monger in Iron Man (2008 film).jpg|thumb|The scale model of the [Monger](Iron)(Iron Monger) suit as seen in the film, based on the larger animatronic version built by Stan Winston Studios.]]
Favreau wanted the film to be believable by showing the construction of the Iron Man suit in its three stages. [Winston](Stan)(Stan Winston), a fan of the comic book, and his company, who Favreau worked with on *[Zathura](Zathura (film))*, built metal and rubber versions of the armor. The Mark I design was intended to look like it was built from spare parts. The back is less armored than the front, because Stark would use his resources for a forward attack. It also foreshadows the design of Stane's armor. A single version was built, causing concern when a stuntman fell over inside it, though both the stuntman and the suit were unscathed. The armor was also designed to have only its top half worn at times. Stan Winston Studios built a , [animatronic](animatronic) version of [Monger](Iron)(Iron Monger) (Obadiah Stane), a name which Obadiah Stane calls Tony Stark and himself earlier in the film as a reference, but is never actually used for the suit itself in the film. The animatronic required five operators for the arm, and was built on a [gimbal](gimbal) to simulate walking. A [model](scale)(scale model) was used for the shots of it being built. The Mark II resembles an airplane prototype, with visible flaps. Iron Man comic book artist [Granov](Adi)(Adi Granov) designed the Mark III with illustrator [Saunders](Phil)(Phil Saunders). Granov's designs were the primary inspiration for the film's, and he came on board the film after he recognized his work on Jon Favreau's [MySpace](MySpace) page. Saunders streamlined Granov's concept art, making it stealthier and less cartoonish in its proportions, and also designed the War Machine armor, but it was "cut from the script about halfway through pre-production." He explained that the War Machine armor "was going to be called the Mark IV armor and would have had weaponized swap-out parts that would be worn over the original Mark III armor," and that it "would have been worn by Tony Stark in the final battle sequence."
### Filming
Production was based in the former Hughes Company soundstages in [Vista, Los Angeles, California](Playa)(Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California). [Hughes](Howard)(Howard Hughes) was one of the inspirations for the comic book, and the filmmakers acknowledged the coincidence that they would film Iron Man creating the flying Mark III where the [H-4 Hercules](Hughes)(Hughes H-4 Hercules) was built. Favreau rejected the [Coast](East)(East Coast of the United States) setting of the comic books because many superhero films had already been set there.
Filming began on March 12, 2007, with [Libatique](Matthew)(Matthew Libatique) serving as director of photography. The first few weeks of filming were spent on Stark's captivity in Afghanistan. The cave where Stark is imprisoned was a long set, which had movable forks in the caverns to allow greater freedom for the film's crew. [designer](Production)(Production designer) [Michael Riva](J.)(J. Michael Riva) saw footage of a [Taliban](Taliban) fighter in Afghanistan, and saw the cold breath as he spoke: realizing remote caves are actually very cold, Riva placed an air conditioning system in the set. He also sought Downey's advice about makeshift objects in prison, such as a sock being used to make tea. Afterwards, Stark's capture was filmed at [Pine](Lone)(Lone Pine, California), and other exterior scenes in Afghanistan were filmed at [Olancha](Olancha) Sand Dunes, where the crew endured two days of winds. Filming at [Air Force Base](Edwards)(Edwards Air Force Base) began in mid-April, and ended on May 2. In return for production assistance, the [States Department of Defense](United)(United States Department of Defense) consulted on the film regarding certain scenes and dialogue depicting the military. This included changing Stark from being opposed to arms deals, to instead becoming one who sells his technology to the U.S. military. Exterior shots of Stark's home were digitally added to footage of [Dume](Point)(Point Dume) in [Malibu](Malibu, California), while the interior was built at Playa Vista, where Favreau and Riva aimed to make Stark's home look less futuristic and more "[monkey](grease)(wikt:grease monkey)". Filming concluded on June 25, 2007, at [Palace](Caesars)(Caesars Palace) in [Vegas, Nevada](Las)(Las Vegas, Nevada). Favreau, a newcomer to action films, remarked, "I'm shocked that I [was] on schedule. I thought that there were going to be many curveballs". He hired "people who are good at creating action", so "the human story [felt] like it belongs to the comic book genre".
There was much improvisation in dialogue scenes, because the script was not completed when filming began (the filmmakers had focused on the story making sense and planning the action). Favreau felt that improvisation would make the film feel more natural. Some scenes were shot with two cameras to capture lines said on the spot. Multiple takes were done, as Downey wanted to try something new each time. It was Downey's idea to have Stark hold a [conference](news)(news conference) on the floor, and he created the speech Stark makes when demonstrating the Jericho weapon. Bridges described this approach as "a $200 million student film", and noted that it caused stress for Marvel executives when the stars were trying to come up with dialogue on the day of filming scenes. He also noted that in some instances, he and Downey would swap characters for rehearsal to see how their own lines sounded. The crew conceived a [scene](post-credits)(post-credits scene) featuring [Fury](Nick)(Nick Fury (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) and called [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson) to ask him if he would be interest in playing Fury, as Jackson had learned a few years ago that his likeness had been used for Fury in the [Marvel](Ultimate)(Ultimate Marvel) imprint. However, according to Latchman, Jackson originally appeared without any deal for him to reappear in later movies: "It was just this weird idea that maybe people give a shi-- if we stick it on the end". The dialogue for the Nick Fury cameo scene was also changed on set, with comic writer [Michael Bendis](Brian)(Brian Michael Bendis) providing three pages of dialogue for the part, and the filmmakers choosing the best lines for filming on set. The Nick Fury cameo was filmed with a [crew](skeleton)(skeleton crew) in order to keep it a secret, but rumors appeared on the Internet only days later. Marvel Studios President [Feige](Kevin)(Kevin Feige) subsequently had the scene removed from all preview prints in order to maintain the surprise and keep fans guessing. An alternate version of the Nick Fury post-credits scene was filmed in which he specifically said "As if gamma accidents, radioactive bugs bites and assorted [mutants](Mutant (Marvel Comics)) weren't enough" referencing Hulk, Spider-Man and the [X-Men](X-Men) but this was cut due to legal problems with Sony Pictures and [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) who at the time had full ownership of the characters until their reacquisition much later in the mid to late 2010s.
### Post-production
Favreau's main concern with the film's effects was whether the transition between the computer-generated and practical costumes would be too obvious. He hired [Light & Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light & Magic) (ILM) to create the bulk of the visual effects for the film after seeing ''[of the Caribbean: At World's End](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End)* and *[Transformers](Transformers (film))''. [Orphanage](The)(The Orphanage (company)) and [Embassy](The)(The Embassy Visual Effects) did additional work, with the latter creating a digital version of the Mark I armor. To help with animating the more refined suits, information was sometimes captured by having Downey wear only the helmet, sleeves and chest of the costume over a [capture](motion)(motion capture) suit, and skydivers were filmed in a vertical [tunnel](wind)(wind tunnel) to study the physics of flying. For shots of the Mark III flying, it was animated to look realistic by taking off slowly, and landing quickly. To generate shots of Iron Man and the F-22 Raptors battling, cameras were flown in the air to provide reference for physics, wind and frost on the lenses.
## Music
Composer [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi) had been a fan of the character [Man](Iron)(Iron Man) as a child, saying that he always liked superheroes "that actually don't have any superpowers". After Favreau's previous collaborator [Debney](John)(John Debney) was unavailable to score the film, Djawadi sought out the role himself. Favreau had a clear vision of [metal music](heavy)(heavy metal music) and guitars for the project, saying that Tony Stark was more of a rock star than a traditional superhero. Djawadi subsequently composed most of the film's score on guitar, before arranging it for orchestra. Djawadi had help with arrangements and additional cues from [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer) and [Control Productions](Remote)(Remote Control Productions (American company)), and [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine) guitarist [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello), who also makes a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in the film, contributed guitar performances to the score. The film also features a [band](big)(big band)-style arrangement of the Iron Man theme song from the 1966 cartoon *[Marvel Super Heroes](The)(The Marvel Super Heroes)* from frequent Favreau collaborators John O'Brien and [Boston](Rick)(Rick Boston). A soundtrack featuring Djawadi's score was released by [Gate Records](Lions)(Lions Gate Entertainment) on April 29, 2008.
## Marketing
[[File:Robert Downey Jr-2008.JPG|thumb|upright|Downey promoting the film in [City](Mexico)(Mexico City)]]
In July 2006, with the film still in pre-production, Favreau and Arad attended [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) to promote the film, where the film's armor design, drawn by [Granov](Adi)(Adi Granov), was revealed along with the announcement that the Mandarin was intended to be the antagonist of the film. The following year, Favreau returned to San Diego Comic-Con to once again promote the film with Downey and Feige, where a teaser trailer was shown. With much of the visuals not yet ready, Favreau worked with ILM to have the flying shots ready, saying "I knew that I had to make a splash because there was zero anticipation for the film at the time". Stan Winston Studios also brought a life-sized replica of the film's armor to display at the convention.
Marvel and Paramount modeled their marketing campaign for *Iron Man* on that of *Transformers*. In May 2008, [Sega](Sega) released an official tie-in [game based on the film](video)(Iron Man (video game)) on multiple gaming platforms. Downey, Howard and Toub reprise their roles from the film. A 30-second spot for the film aired during a [Bowl XLII](Super)(Super Bowl XLII) break. [Hasbro](Hasbro) created figures of armor from the film, as well as [Man](Titanium)(Titanium Man) (who appears in the video game) and the [from the *World War Hulk* comics](armor)(Hulkbuster Armor MK II).
The [7-Eleven](7-Eleven) convenience store chain helped promote the film across the United States, and [Group](LG)(LG Group) also made a sponsorship deal with Paramount. Worldwide, [King](Burger)(Burger King) and [Audi](Audi) promoted the film. Jon Favreau was set to direct a commercial for the fast-food chain, as [Bay](Michael)(Michael Bay) did for *Transformers*. In the film, Tony Stark drives an [R8](Audi)(Audi R8 (road car)), and also has an "American cheeseburger" from Burger King after his rescue from Afghanistan, as part of the studio's [placement](product)(product placement) deal with the respective companies. Three other vehicles, the [S6](Audi)(Audi S6) sedan, [S5](Audi)(Audi A5) sports coupe and the [Q7](Audi)(Audi Q7) SUV, also appear in the film. Audi created a tie-in website, as [Motors](General)(General Motors) did for *Transformers*. [Corporation](Oracle)(Oracle Corporation) also promoted the film on its site. Several [comics](tie-in)(Marvel Cinematic Universe tie-in comics) were released for the film.
## Release
### Theatrical
*Iron Man* premiered at the [Union](Greater)(Greater Union) theater at [Street, Sydney](George)(George Street, Sydney), on April 14, 2008. The film began releasing in international markets on April 30, and was released in the United States on May 2, 2008. *Iron Man* was the first film released in [One](Phase)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One) of the MCU. The film was re-formatted and screened in [IMAX](IMAX) for the first time on August 30, 2018, as part of Marvel Studios' 10th anniversary IMAX festival.
### Home media
The film was released by [Home Entertainment](Paramount)(Paramount Home Entertainment) on DVD and [Disc](Blu-ray)(Blu-ray Disc) on September 30, 2008, in the United States and Canada, and October 27, 2008 in most of Europe. DVD sales were very successful, selling over 4 million copies the first week and generating a gross of over US$93 million. There were a total of 9 million copies sold and an accumulated total sales of over $160 million (not including Blu-ray). For the home releases of the film, the image on the newspaper Stark reads before he announces he is Iron Man had to be altered because of amateur photographer Ronnie Adams filing a lawsuit against Paramount and Marvel for using his on-location spy photo in the scene. A [Walmart](Walmart)-exclusive DVD release included a preview of *[Man: Armored Adventures](Iron)(Iron Man: Armored Adventures)*.
The film was also collected in a 10-disc [set](box)(box set) titled "[Cinematic Universe: Phase One – Avengers Assembled](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One#Home media)" which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released by [Disney Studios Home Entertainment](Walt)(Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment) on April 2, 2013. The IMAX Enhanced version of the film was made available on [Disney+](Disney+) beginning on November 12, 2021.
## Reception
### Box office
*Iron Man* earned $319 million in the United States and Canada and $266.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $585.8 million.
In its opening weekend, *Iron Man* grossed $98.6 million in 4,105 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking first at the box office, giving it the eleventh biggest-opening weekend at the time, ninth-widest release in terms of theaters, and the third highest-grossing opening weekend of 2008 behind *[Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull](Indiana)(Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull)* and *[Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight (film))*. It grossed $35.2 million on its first day, giving it the thirteenth biggest-opening day at the time. *Iron Man* had the second-best premiere for a non-sequel, behind *[Spider-Man](Spider-Man (2002 film))*, and the fourth biggest-opening for a superhero film. *Iron Man* was also the number one film in the U.S. and Canada in its second weekend, grossing $51.2 million, giving it the twelfth-best second weekend and the fifth-best for a non-sequel. On June 19, 2008, *Iron Man* became that year's first film to pass the $300 million mark for the domestic box office.
### Critical response
The [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) reported an approval rating of , with an average score of , based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Powered by Robert Downey Jr.'s vibrant charm, *Iron Man* turbo-charges the superhero genre with a deft intelligence and infectious sense of fun." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has an average score of 79 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Among the major trade journals, [McCarthy](Todd)(Todd McCarthy) of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* called the film an "expansively entertaining special effects extravaganza" with "fresh energy and stylistic polish", while Kirk Honeycutt of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* praised the film, while nonetheless finding "disappointment [in] a climatic battle between different Iron Man prototypes ... how did Tony's nemesis learn how to use the suit?" In one of the first major-daily newspaper reviews, [Lovece](Frank)(Frank Lovece) of *[Newsday](Newsday)* lauded the film's "emotional truth ... pitch-perfect casting and plausibly rendered super-science" that made it "faithful to the source material while updating it – and recognizing what's made that material so enduring isn't just the high-tech cool of a man in a metal suit, but the human condition that got him there". [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* gave the film four out of four stars, praising Downey Jr.'s performance and stating, "At the end of the day it's Robert Downey Jr. who powers the lift-off separating this from most other superhero movies". [O. Scott](A.)(A. O. Scott) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* called the film "an unusually good superhero picture. Or at least – since it certainly has its problems – a superhero movie that's good in unusual ways." Among the specialty press, Garth Franklin of *[Horizons](Dark)(Dark Horizons)* commended the "impressive sets and mechanics that combine smoothly with relatively seamless CG", and said, "Robert Downey Jr., along with director Jon Favreau ... help this rise above formula. The result is something that, whilst hardly original or groundbreaking, is nevertheless refreshing in its earnestness to avoid dark dramatic stylings in favor of an easy-going, crowd-pleasing action movie with a sprinkle of anti-war and redemption themes".
Among major metropolitan weeklies, [Edelstein](David)(David Edelstein) of *[York](New)(New York (magazine))* magazine called the film "a shapely piece of mythmaking ... Favreau doesn't go in for stylized comic-book frames, at least in the first half. He gets real with it – you'd think you were watching a military thriller", while conversely, [Denby](David)(David Denby (film critic)) of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* gave a negative review, claiming "a slightly depressed, going-through-the-motions feel to the entire show ... [Paltrow](Gwyneth)(Gwyneth Paltrow), widening her eyes and palpitating, can't do much with an antique role as Stark's [Friday](girl)(Girl Friday (idiom)), who loves him but can't say so; Terrence Howard, playing a military man who chases around after Stark, looks dispirited and taken for granted". [IGN](IGN)'s Todd Gilchrist recognized Downey as "the best thing" in a film that "functions on autopilot, providing requisite story developments and character details to fill in this default 'origin story' while the actors successfully breathe life into their otherwise conventional roles".
### Accolades
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) and [Corliss](Richard)(Richard Corliss) named *Iron Man* as among their favorite films of 2008. It was selected by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) as one of the [best films of the year](ten)(American Film Institute Awards 2008) and by *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* magazine as one of *The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time*. Tony Stark was also selected by *Empire* as one of *The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time*, and on their list of the *100 Greatest Fictional Characters*, Fandomania.com ranked him at number 37. The [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) selected *Iron Man* to be added to the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) in 2022, deeming it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Responding to the selection, Feige stated its inclusion on the Film Registry meant the film "has stood the test of time and that it is still meaningful to audiences around the world".
## Sequels
*Iron Man 2*|Iron Man 3*Iron Man 3*}}
A sequel written by [Theroux](Justin)(Justin Theroux) and released in the United States on May 7, 2010, saw Favreau, Downey, Paltrow, and Jackson returning. [Cheadle](Don)(Don Cheadle) replaced Terrence Howard in the role of Colonel Rhodes, who is also seen as War Machine. Also starring are [Rourke](Mickey)(Mickey Rourke) as villain [Vanko](Ivan)(Whiplash (comics)), [Rockwell](Sam)(Sam Rockwell) as [Hammer](Justin)(Justin Hammer), and [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson) as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent [Romanoff](Natasha)(Natasha Romanoff (Marvel Cinematic Universe)). [Disney Studios](Walt)(Walt Disney Studios (division)) and Marvel Studios released a second sequel on May 3, 2013, with Favreau opting to direct *[Kingdom](Magic)(Magic Kingdom (film))* instead, but still reprising his role as Happy Hogan. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle also return, while Shane Black took over directing, from a screenplay by [Pearce](Drew)(Drew Pearce). [Pearce](Guy)(Guy Pearce) also starred as [Killian](Aldrich)(Aldrich Killian), and [Kingsley](Ben)(Ben Kingsley) as Trevor Slattery.
## See also
* "[If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?](What)(What If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?)", an episode of the MCU television series *[If...?](What)(What If...? (TV series))* that reimagines the events of this film
* [of films featuring powered exoskeletons](List)(List of films featuring powered exoskeletons)
## Notes
## References
Estimates for the cost of marketing *Iron Man* ranged from US$50 to $75 million.
|url-status=live}}
}}
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [*Iron Man* At 10: How One Film Set A Dominant Path For Marvel, Kevin Feige, Robert Downey Jr. & Jon Favreau](https://deadline.com/2018/07/iron-man-10th-anniversary-marvel-robert-downey-jr-kevin-feige-jon-favreau-comic-con-1202428754/) at *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)*
*
}}
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[scored by Ramin Djawadi](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Ramin Djawadi)
[set in 2010](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2010)
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[with screenplays by Art Marcum and Matt Holloway](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Art Marcum and Matt Holloway)
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[films](Category:IMAX)(Category:IMAX films)
[Man (film series)](Category:Iron)(Category:Iron Man (film series))
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[Pictures films](Category:Paramount)(Category:Paramount Pictures films)
[States National Film Registry films](Category:United)(Category:United States National Film Registry films)
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|
Sacramento, California
|
sacramento,_california
|
# Sacramento, California
*Revision ID: 1160059187 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T05:26:44Z*
---
| image_flag = Flag of Sacramento, California.svg
| image_seal = Seal of Sacramento, California.png
| nickname = ["Sac", "City of Trees","River City", "Camellia City"]("Sactown",)(List of city nicknames in California)
| motto =
| image_map = #########|zoom=SWITCH:10;8;5;3|type=SWITCH:shape-inverse;shape;shape;point|marker=city|stroke-width=2|stroke-color=#5f5f5f|id2=SWITCH:Q18013;Q108131;Q99;Q30|type2=shape|fill2=#ffffff|fill-opacity2=SWITCH:0;0.1;0.1;0.1|stroke-width2=2|stroke-color2=#5f5f5f|stroke-opacity2=SWITCH:0;1;1;1|switch=Sacramento;Sacramento County;California;the United States}}
| coordinates =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = [State](U.S. state)
| subdivision_name1 =
| subdivision_type2 = [County](List of counties in California)
| subdivision_name2 = [Sacramento](Sacramento County, California)
| subdivision_type3 = [Region](List of regions of California)
| subdivision_name3 = [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley)
| subdivision_type4 = [CSA](Combined Statistical Area)
| subdivision_name4 = [Sacramento-Roseville](Sacramento metropolitan area)
| subdivision_type5 = [MSA](Metropolitan statistical area)
| subdivision_name5 = Sacramento–Roseville–Arden-Arcade
| established_title = [Incorporated](Municipal corporation)
| established_date = February 27, 1850
| established_title2 = [Chartered](Charter city)
| established_date2 = 1920
| named_for = [of the Holy Eucharist](Sacrament)(Eucharist)
| government_type = [Council–Manager](Council–manager government)
| governing_body = [City Council](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Council)
| leader_title = [Mayor](List of mayors of Sacramento, California)
| leader_name = [Steinberg](Darrell)(Darrell Steinberg) ([D](Democratic Party (United States)))
| leader_title1 = [Mayor](Vice)(Vice Mayor)
| leader_name1 = Eric Guerra ([D](Democratic Party (United States)))
| leader_title2 = [Pro Tem](Mayor)(Mayor Pro Tem)
| leader_name2 = Mai Vang ([D](Democratic Party (United States)))
| leader_title3 = [Council](City)(Sacramento City Council)
| leader_name3 =
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes =
| total_type = City
| area_total_sq_mi = 99.77
| area_land_sq_mi = 97.68
| area_water_sq_mi = 2.09
| area_water_percent = 2.19
| area_total_km2 = 258.41
| area_land_km2 = 253.00
| area_water_km2 = 5.41
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_ft = 26
| population_total = 524943
| population_as_of = [2020](2020 United States census)
| population_footnotes =
| population_rank = [35th](List of United States cities by population) in the United States[6th](List of largest cities in California by population) in California
| population_density_sq_mi = 5374.11
| population_density_km2 = 2074.87
| population_metro_footnotes =
| population_metro = 2397382 ([26th](US:)(List of metropolitan statistical areas))
| population_urban = 1,946,618 ([25th](US:)(List of United States urban areas))
| population_density_urban_km2 = 1,607.4
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 4,163.2
| population_demonym = Sacramentan
| timezone = [PST](Pacific Time Zone)
| utc_offset = −08:00
| timezone_DST = [PDT](Pacific Time Zone)
| utc_offset_DST = −07:00
| postal_code_type = [code](ZIP)(ZIP code)s
| postal_code = 942xx, 958xx
| area_code_type = [code](Area)(North American Numbering Plan)
| area_code = [and 279](916)(Area codes 916 and 279)
| blank_name = [FIPS](Federal Information Processing Standards) code
| blank_info =
| blank1_name = [GNIS](Geographic Names Information System) feature IDs
| blank1_info = ,
| website =
}}
( ; ) is the [city](capital)(capital city) of the [state](U.S.)(U.S. state) of [California](California) and the [seat](county)(county seat) and largest city of [County](Sacramento)(Sacramento County). Located at the [confluence](confluence) of the [Sacramento](Sacramento River) and [River](American)(American River)s in [California](Northern)(Northern California)'s [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley), Sacramento's 2020 population of 524,943 makes it the fourth-largest city in [California](Northern)(Northern California), [city in California](sixth-largest)(List of largest California cities by population), and the [state capital in the United States](ninth-largest)(List of United States cities by population).State of California, Department of Finance, E-1 Population Estimates for Cities, Counties and the State with Annual percent change – January 1, 2016, and 2017. Sacramento, California, May 2017 Sacramento is the seat of the [Legislature](California)(California Legislature) and the [of California](Governor)(Governor of California). It features the [State Capitol Museum](California)(California State Capitol Museum).
Sacramento is also the cultural and economic core of the [Sacramento area](Greater)(Sacramento metropolitan area), which at the [census](2020)(2020 United States census) had a population of 2,680,831, the [metropolitan area in California](fourth-largest)(Statistical area (United States)).
Before the [of the Spanish](arrival)(Spanish colonization of the Americas), the area was inhabited by the [Nisenan](Nisenan), [Maidu](Maidu), and other [peoples of California](indigenous)(indigenous peoples of California). Spanish cavalryman [Moraga](Gabriel)(Gabriel Moraga) surveyed and named the *Río del Santísimo Sacramento* ([River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River)) in 1808, after the [Sacrament](Blessed)(Blessed Sacrament). In 1839, [Bautista Alvarado](Juan)(Juan Bautista Alvarado), [governor](Mexican)(List of Governors of California before 1850) of [California](Alta)(Alta California), granted the responsibility of colonizing the [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley) to [Swiss](Switzerland)-born Mexican citizen [Augustus Sutter](John)(John Sutter), who subsequently established [Fort](Sutter's)(Sutter's Fort) and the settlement at the *Rancho [Helvetia](Nueva)(New Helvetia).* Following the American [of California](Conquest)(Conquest of California) and the 1848 [of Guadalupe-Hidalgo](Treaty)(Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo), the waterfront developed by Sutter began to be developed and incorporated in 1850 as the City of Sacramento.
Sacramento is the fastest-growing major city in California, owing to its status as a notable political center on the [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States) and as a major educational hub, home of [State](Sacramento)(California State University, Sacramento), and [Davis](UC)(University of California, Davis). Similarly, Sacramento is a major center for the California [industry](healthcare)(healthcare industry), as the seat of [Health](Sutter)(Sutter Health), the world-renowned [Davis Medical Center](UC)(UC Davis Medical Center), and the [Davis School of Medicine](UC)(UC Davis School of Medicine). It is a [tourist](tourism) destination, featuring [California Museum](the)(the California Museum), [Art Museum](Crocker)(Crocker Art Museum), [State Railroad Museum](California)(California State Railroad Museum), [Hall of Fame](California)(California Hall of Fame), and [Sacramento State Historic Park](Old)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park). It is also a [city](global)(Global City), designated at the ["Gamma"-level](Globalization and World Cities Research Network).
Sacramento is known for its evolving contemporary culture, even being dubbed the fourth most "[hipster](Hipster (contemporary subculture)) city" in the United States in one 2016 poll. Infogroup|url=http://www.infogroup.com/about/news/study-seattle-tops-portland-as-most-hipster-city-in-us-0|publisher=Infogroup|access-date=May 7, 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429233530/http://www.infogroup.com/about/news/study-seattle-tops-portland-as-most-hipster-city-in-us-0|archive-date=April 29, 2017}} In 2002, the [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) Civil Rights Project conducted for *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine ranked Sacramento as "America's Most Diverse City".
## History
### Pre-Columbian period
[Nisenan](Nisenan) (Southern [Maidu](Maidu)), [Modoc](Modoc people), and [Miwok](Plains)(Plains Miwok) Native Americans lived in the area for perhaps thousands of years. Unlike the settlers who would eventually make Sacramento their home, these Native Americans left little evidence of their existence. Their diet was dominated by [acorn](acorn)s taken from the plentiful oak trees in the region and by fruits, bulbs, seeds, and roots gathered throughout the year.
### Spanish period
In 1808, the Spanish explorer [Moraga](Gabriel)(Gabriel Moraga) encountered and named the [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley) and the Sacramento River. A Spanish writer with the Moraga expedition wrote: "Canopies of oaks and cottonwoods, many festooned with grapevines, overhung both sides of the blue current. Birds chattered in the trees and big fish darted through the pellucid depths. The air was like [champagne](champagne), and *(the Spaniards)* drank deep of it, drank in the beauty around them. "¡Es como el sagrado sacramento! (It's like the Blessed Sacrament.)" The valley and the river were then christened after the "Most Holy Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ," referring to the Catholic [sacrament](Sacraments of the Catholic Church) of the [Eucharist](Eucharist in the Catholic Church).
### Mexican period
[[File:Sutterfort (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|In 1839, [Augustus Sutter](John)(John Augustus Sutter) established [Fort](Sutter's)(Sutter's Fort), which he called [Helvetia](Nueva)(New Helvetia). In 1841, he was officially granted the land by Governor [Bautista Alvarado](Juan)(Juan Bautista Alvarado).]]
[Sutter Sr.](John)(John Sutter) first arrived in the area on August 13, 1839, at the divergence of the American and Sacramento Rivers with a Mexican land grant of . The next year, he and his party established Sutter's Fort, a massive adobe structure with walls high and thick.
Representing Mexico, Sutter Sr. called his colony New [Helvetia](Helvetia), a Swiss-inspired name, and was the political authority and dispenser of justice in the new settlement. Soon, the colony began to grow as more and more pioneers headed west. Within just a few short years, Sutter Sr. had become a grand success, owning a orchard and a herd of 13,000 cattle. Fort Sutter became a regular stop for the increasing number of immigrants coming through the valley. In 1847, Sutter Sr. received 2,000 fruit trees, which started the agriculture industry in the Sacramento Valley. Later that year, Sutter Sr. hired James Marshall to build a [sawmill](sawmill) so he could continue to expand his empire, but unbeknownst to many, Sutter Sr.'s "empire" had been built on thin margins of credit.[ John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier](https://archive.org/details/johnsutterlifeon00hurt/page/83) By Albert L. Hurtado. University of Oklahoma Press, 2006. p. 236. Retrieved September 10, 2017
### American period
[[File:Sacramento california 1849.jpg|thumb|left|Sacramento in 1849, when the city was an economic center of the [Gold Rush](California)(California Gold Rush)]]
In 1848, when [W. Marshall](James)(James W. Marshall) discovered gold at [Mill](Sutter's)(Sutters Mill) in [Coloma](Coloma, California) (some northeast of the fort), numerous gold-seekers came to the area, increasing the population. In August 1848, Sutter Sr.'s son, [Sutter Jr.](John)(John Augustus Sutter Jr.), arrived to assist his father in reducing his [debt](debt). The Sutters struggled to contain the effects of thousands of new gold miners and prospectors in the area, many of whom squatted on unwatched portions of the vast Sutter lands or stole various unattended Sutter properties or belongings. For Sutter, his employee's discovery of gold in the area turned out to be a bane.
By December 1848, John Sutter Jr., in association with [Brannan](Sam)(Sam Brannan), began laying out the City of Sacramento, south of his father's settlement of New Helvetia. This venture was undertaken against the wishes of Sutter Sr., but the father, being deeply in debt, was unable to stop it. For commercial reasons, the new city was named "Sacramento City" after the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River). Sutter Jr. and Brannan had [States Army](United)(United States Army) Captain [H. Warner](William)(William H. Warner) assigned to draft the official layout of the city, which included 26 lettered and 31 numbered streets (today's grid from C St. to Broadway and from Front St. to Alhambra Blvd.) Relations between Sutter and his son became embittered after Sacramento became an overnight commercial success. (Sutter's Fort, Mill, and the town of [Sutterville](Sutterville, California), all founded by John Sutter Sr., eventually failed).
[[File:Sacramento, CA USA - panoramio (10).jpg|thumb|[Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park), the oldest quarter of the city, grew up along the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River) in the mid-1800s.]]
Residents of Sacramento adopted a [charter](city)(Municipal charter) in 1849, which was recognized by the state legislature in 1850. Sacramento is the oldest [incorporated](municipal corporation) city in California, incorporated on February 27, 1850.
On January 10, 1850, a flood occurred that devastated the city. The rushing waters uprooted homes and drowned livestock. The city was almost destroyed. Due to the efforts of [Bigelow](Hardin)(Hardin Bigelow), Sacramento's first elected mayor, the construction of the city's first levee was completed in early 1852 (the city became known as "The Levee City"). However, a month after it was completed, it was breached during the first major storm of the season and the city flooded again. A new levee was built for $50,000, but it also broke, causing more flooding of the city. Marking the 170-year anniversary of the flood that started it all |url=https://www.abc10.com/article/news/history/when-sacramento-became-levee-city/103-48d5063b-ad48-4b32-9709-c7ca4fe8ea79 |website=abc10 |date=January 10, 2020 |publisher=KXTV-TV |access-date=August 20, 2022}} Between October and December 1850, Sacramento was hit with a cholera epidemic that killed 1,000 residents, including Mayor Bigelow and 17 of the city's 40 physicians. Up to 80 percent of the populace left town. On November 2, 1852, a fire known as the Great Conflagration burned more than 80 percent of the structures in the city. It is estimated that the total damage was around six million dollars. Within a month 761 structures were re-built, many of them in brick. In spite of all these hardships the new city's location just downstream from the [Lode](Mother)(Mother Lode) in the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada (U.S.)) proved irresistible, and it grew rapidly during the early 1850s, attracting a population of 10,000. The [Flood of 1862](Great)(Great Flood of 1862) from December 1861 to January 1862 caused the worst flooding in Sacramento's history. In 1861, Governor [Stanford](Leland)(Leland Stanford), who was inaugurated in early January 1862, traveled to his inauguration in a rowboat.
[[File:'Sacramento Railroad Station' by William Hahn.JPG|thumb|left|An 1874 depiction of a Sacramento railway station by painter [Hahn](William)(William Hahn)]]
The [State Legislature](California)(California State Legislature), with the support of Governor [Bigler](John)(John Bigler), moved to Sacramento in 1854. The capital of California under Spanish (and, subsequently, Mexican) rule had been [Monterey](Monterey, California), where, in 1849, the first [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (California)) and state elections were held. The convention decided [Jose](San)(San Jose, California) would be the new state's capital. After 1850, when California's statehood was ratified, the legislature met in San Jose until 1851, [Vallejo](Vallejo, California) in 1852, and [Benicia](Benicia, California) in 1853, before moving to Sacramento. During the 1850s the city was [with](consolidated)(Consolidated city-county) the County of Sacramento.[*The California State register and year book of facts: for the year 1859*](https://books.google.com/books?id=P_sBAAAAYAAJ&num=9), Henry G. Langley and Samuel A. Morison, San Francisco, 1859, p.315 In the [Constitutional Convention of 1879](Sacramento)(California Constitutional Conventions), Sacramento was named the permanent state capital.
The [Revival](Classical)(Classical Revival)-style [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol), similar to the national Capitol, was started in 1860 and completed in 1874. In 1861, the legislative session was moved to the [Exchange Building in San Francisco](Merchants)(Merchants Exchange Building (San Francisco)) for one session because of the massive flooding in Sacramento. From 1862 to 1868, part of the [Stanford Mansion](Leland)(Leland Stanford Mansion) was used for the governor's offices during Stanford's tenure as the Governor; and the legislature met in the Sacramento County Courthouse. The legislative chambers were first occupied in 1869, while construction continued around them.
[[File:Construction_of_the_California_Capitol_in_1868.jpg|thumb|The [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol), built between 1860 and 1874, shown here under construction in 1868]]
With its new status and strategic location, Sacramento quickly prospered. It was designated as the western terminus of the [Express](Pony)(Pony Express). Later it became a terminus of the [transcontinental railroad](First)(First transcontinental railroad), which began construction in Sacramento in 1863 and was financed by "[Big Four](The)(The Big Four (Central Pacific Railroad))"—[Hopkins](Mark)(Mark Hopkins Jr.), [Crocker](Charles)(Charles Crocker), [P. Huntington](Collis)(Collis P. Huntington), and [Stanford](Leland)(Leland Stanford). Both the American and especially Sacramento rivers were key elements in the economic success of the city. Sacramento effectively controlled commerce on these rivers, and public works projects were funded through taxes levied on goods unloaded from boats and loaded onto rail cars in the historic [Rail Yards](Sacramento)(Sacramento Railyards).
From 1862 until the mid-1870s, Sacramento raised the level of its downtown by building reinforced brick walls on its downtown streets and filling the resulting street walls with dirt. The previous first floors of buildings became [basement](basement)s, with open space between the street and the building, previously the [sidewalk](sidewalk), now at the basement level. Over the years, many of these underground spaces have been filled or destroyed by subsequent development. However, it is still possible to view portions of the "[Underground](Sacramento)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park#Old Sacramento Underground)".
### Modern era
[[File:Tower Bridge Sacramento edit.jpg|thumb|left|Built in 1935, [Bridge](Tower)(Tower Bridge (California)) connects Sacramento to [Sacramento](West)(West Sacramento).]]
The city's current charter was adopted by voters in 1920. As a [city](charter)(charter city), Sacramento is exempt from many laws and regulations passed by the [legislature](state)(California State Legislature). The city has expanded continuously over the years. The 1964 merger of the City of [Sacramento](North)(North Sacramento) with Sacramento substantially increased its population, and large annexations of the [Natomas](Natomas, Sacramento, California) area eventually led to significant population growth throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.
Sacramento County (along with a portion of adjacent [County](Placer)(Placer County, California)) is served by a customer-owned electric utility, the [Municipal Utility District](Sacramento)(Sacramento Municipal Utility District) (SMUD). Sacramento voters approved the creation of SMUD in 1923. In April 1946, after 12 years of litigation, a judge ordered [Gas & Electric](Pacific)(Pacific Gas and Electric Company) to transfer the title of Sacramento's electric distribution system to SMUD. Today SMUD is the sixth-largest public electric utility in the U.S. and is a leader in innovative programs and services, including the development of clean fuel resources, such as [power](solar)(solar energy).
The year following the creation of SMUD, 1924, brought several events in Sacramento: [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil) executive Verne McGeorge established [School of Law](McGeorge)(McGeorge School of Law), American [store](department)(department store) [& Lubin](Weinstock)(Weinstock & Lubin) opened a new store at 12th and K street, the US$2 million [Hotel](Senator)(Senator Hotel) was opened, Sacramento's drinking water became filtered and treated drinking water, and Sacramento boxer Georgie Lee fought [Guilledo](Francisco)(Francisco Guilledo), a [Filipino](Filipino people) professional [boxer](Boxing) known as Pancho Villa, at L Street Auditorium on March 21.
[[File:Sacramento DSC 0063 (5673641314) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|The [Tower](Elks)(Elks Tower) was built in 1926 in an [style](Italianate)(Italianate architecture).]]
Early in World War II, the Sacramento Assembly Center (also known as the Walerga Assembly Center) was established to house Japanese Americans ["evacuated" from the West Coast](forcibly)(Internment of Japanese Americans) under [Order 9066](Executive)(Executive Order 9066). The camp was one of fifteen temporary detention facilities where over 110,000 [Americans](Japanese)(Japanese Americans), two-thirds of them U.S. citizens, were held while construction on the more permanent [Relocation Authority](War)(War Relocation Authority) camps was completed. The assembly center was built on the site of a former migrant labor camp, and inmates began arriving from Sacramento and San Joaquin Counties on May 6, 1942. It closed after only 52 days, on June 26, and the population of 4,739 was transferred to the [Lake](Tule)(Tule Lake Unit, World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument) concentration camp. The site was then turned over to the Army Signal Corps and dedicated as [Kohler](Camp)(Camp Kohler).
After the war and the end of the incarceration program, returning Japanese Americans were often unable to find housing and so 234 families temporarily lived at the former assembly center. Camp Kohler was destroyed by a fire in December 1947, and the assembly center site is now part of the Foothill Farms-North Highlands subdivision.
The Sacramento-Yolo Port District was created in 1947, and the ground was broken on the Port of Sacramento in 1949.
[[File:Ford rushed from Sacramento assassination attempt image A6320-24A.jpg|thumb|left|The [assassination attempt](1975)(Gerald Ford assassination attempt in Sacramento) of President [Ford](Gerald)(Gerald Ford) in [Park](Capitol)(Capitol Park (Sacramento, California))]]
On June 29, 1963, with 5,000 spectators waiting to welcome her, the Motor Vessel *Taipei Victory* arrived. The [Chinese](Nationalist)(Nationalist Chinese) flagship docked at the [of Sacramento](Port)(Port of Sacramento), being the first ocean-going vessel in Sacramento since the steamship *Harpoon* in 1934.
In 1967, [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) became the last [of California](Governor)(Governor of California) to live permanently in the city. The 1980s and 1990s saw the closure of several local military bases: [Air Force Base](McClellan)(McClellan Air Force Base), [Air Force Base](Mather)(Mather Air Force Base), and Sacramento Army Depot. In 1980, there was another flood. Despite military base closures and the decline of agricultural food processing, Sacramento has continued to experience population growth in recent years. Primary sources of population growth are an influx of residents from the nearby [Francisco Bay Area](San)(San Francisco Bay Area), as well as immigration from Asia and Latin America.
In 1985, Hugh Scrutton, a 38-year-old Sacramento, California, computer store owner, was killed by a nail-and-splinter-loaded bomb placed in the parking lot of his store. In 1996, his death was attributed to the Unabomber, [Kaczynski](Theodore)(Theodore Kaczynski).
After acquiring the majority stake in the [Kings](Sacramento)(Sacramento Kings), the team's new owner, [Ranadivé](Vivek)(Vivek Ranadivé), with the help of the city, agreed to build a new arena in the downtown area. With a final estimated cost of $558.2 million, Sacramento's [1 Center](Golden)(Golden 1 Center) opened on September 30, 2016.
## Geography
According to the [States Census Bureau](United)(United States Census Bureau), the city covers . 97.81% of it is land, and 2.19% of it is water.
Depth to groundwater is typically about . Much of the land to the west of the city (in [County](Yolo)(Yolo County, California)) is permanently reserved for a vast flood control basin (the [Bypass](Yolo)(Yolo Bypass)), due to the city's historical vulnerability to floods. As a result, the contiguous urban area sprawls only west of downtown (as [Sacramento, California](West)(West Sacramento, California)) but northeast and east, into the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada (U.S.)) foothills, and to the south into valley farmland.
The city is at the confluence of the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River) and the [River](American)(American River) and has a deep-water port connected to the [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay) by a channel through the [Joaquin River Delta](Sacramento–San)(Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta). It is the shipping and rail center for the [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley). Hotels, Restaurants, Events, and Things to Do|url = http://www.visitsacramento.com/|publisher = Visit Sacramento|access-date = November 16, 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151109180143/http://www.visitsacramento.com/|archive-date = November 9, 2015|url-status = live}}
### Trees
[[File:Sacramento International Airport 5.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Central Sacramento and the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River)]]Sacramento has long been known as the "City of Trees" owing to its abundant [forest](urban)(urban forest). The city has more trees per capita than anywhere else in the world. The first recorded use of the term was in 1855, and it was popular by the early 20th century. It was not always so: it was at first called the "City of Plains" because of the lack of trees, but soon afterward there were [cottonwood](populus) trees planted, and [eucalyptus](eucalyptus) varieties were imported to dry out [swamp](swamp)land. Later, [tree](locust)(locust tree)s, and [willow](willow)s were planted along streets, then [elm](elm)s, then [tree](palm)(palm tree)s, then [tree](fruit)(fruit tree)s in the late 1910s. It was the first US city to be designated a City of Trees by the [Day Foundation](Arbor)(Arbor Day Foundation) in 1978.
In the early 21st century, the tree cover is well above that of the average tree cover of other major cities in the United States and the rest of the world, with the main species being the [plane](London)(London plane). Other species are being introduced to increase diversity and to help cope with the effects of [change](climate)(climate change) on vegetation in the future. [Treepedia](Treepedia), a project run by [MIT](MIT) using [Maps](Google)(Google Maps)' street-view data to calculate tree coverage in cities, ranked Sacramento the greenest city of 15 studied in the US, and third globally, after [Vancouver](Vancouver) and [Singapore](Singapore).
A prominent [tower](water)(water tower) bore the slogan "City of Trees" until 2017 when it was repainted with the words "America's Farm-to-Fork Capital" (referring to the [farm-to-fork](farm-to-fork) movement, which promotes the consumption of locally-grown food). After 4,000 displeased citizens signed a petition protesting the change, officials agreed to include both slogans on the water tower.
### Cityscape
#### City neighborhoods
[[File:Sacramento , California (33994662274).jpg|thumb|right|[Sacramento](Downtown)(Downtown Sacramento) is the home of numerous corporate regional headquarters.]]
The city groups most of its neighborhoods into four areas:
* Area One: Alkali Flat, [Park](Boulevard)(Boulevard Park, Sacramento, California), Campus Commons, [State](Sacramento)(California State University, Sacramento), Dos Rios Triangle, [Downtown](Downtown, Sacramento, California), [Sacramento](East)(East Sacramento, Sacramento, California), Fab Forties, Mansion Flats, Marshall School, [Midtown](Midtown Sacramento), [Era Park](New)(New Era Park, Sacramento, California), McKinley Village, [Booth](Newton)(#Newton Booth Historic District), [Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park), [Ridge](Poverty)(#Poverty Ridge Historic District), Richards, Richmond Grove, River Park, Elmhurst, Sierra Oaks, [Park](Southside)(Southside Park, Sacramento, California).
* Area Two: Airport, Carleton Tract, Freeport Manor, Golf Course Terrace, [Greenhaven](Pocket-Greenhaven, Sacramento, California), Curtis Park, Hollywood Park, [Park](Land)(Land Park, Sacramento, California), Little Pocket, Mangan Park, [Meadowview](Meadowview, Sacramento, California), Parkway, [Pocket](Pocket-Greenhaven, Sacramento, California), [City College](Sacramento)(Sacramento City College), [Land Park](South)(Land Park, Sacramento, California#South Land Park), Valley Hi / North Laguna, Z'Berg Park.
* Area Three: Alhambra Triangle, Avondale, Brentwood, Carleton Tract, [Heights](Colonial)(Colonial Heights, Sacramento, California), Colonial Manor, [Park](Curtis)(Curtis Park, Sacramento, California), [Elmhurst](Elmhurst, Sacramento, California), Fairgrounds, [Florin](Florin, California), Fruitridge Manor, Glen Elder, Glenbrook, Granite Regional Park, Industrial Park, Lawrence Park, Med Center, North City Farms, [Park](Oak)(Oak Park, Sacramento, California), [Bell](Packard)(Packard Bell), South City Farms, [Village](Southeast)(Southeast Village), [Park](Tahoe)(Tahoe Park, Sacramento, California), [Park East](Tahoe)(Tahoe Park, Sacramento, California#Tahoe Park East), [Park South](Tahoe)(Tahoe Park South), Tallac Village, Vintage Park, Churchill Downs, and Woodbine.
* Area Four: [Ali](Ben)(Ben Ali, Sacramento, California), [Paso Heights](Del)(Del Paso Heights, Sacramento, California), Gardenland, Hagginwood, McClellan Heights West, [Natomas](Natomas, Sacramento, California) (north, south, west), [Sacramento](North)(North Sacramento), Northgate, [Robla](Robla, Sacramento, California), Swanston Estates, Terrace Manor, [View Acres](Valley)(Valley View Acres, Sacramento, California), and Woodlake.
[[File:Sacramento Riverfront.jpg|thumb|[Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento) and [Downtown](Downtown Sacramento) are seen from the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River).]]
Additional prominent regions and neighborhoods in the city include American River Parkway, Arden-Arcade, Arden Fair, Cal Expo, Capital Avenue, Coffing, College Glen, College Greens, Cordova, Creekside, East Fruitridge, Elder Creek, Elkhorn, Elvas, Erikson Industrial Park, Excelsior Sunrise, Foothill Farms, Franklin, Frates Ranch, Gateway Center, Gateway West, Glenwood Meadows, Hansen Park, Heritage Park, Johnson Business Park, Johnson Heights, Mayhew, Metro Center, Mills, Natomas Corporate Center, Natomas Creek, Natomas Crossing, Natomas Park, Newton Booth, Noralto, Northpointe, Norwood, Oak Knoll, Old North Sacramento, Parker Homes, Point West, Raley Industrial Park, Regency Park, Richardson Village, Richmond Grove, Rosemont, Sierra Oaks, Sports Complex, Strawberry Manor, Sundance Lake, Swanston Palms, Town and Country Village, Upper Land Park, Village 5, Village 7, Village 12, Village 14, Village Green, Walerga, Walsh Station, West Del Paso Heights, Westlake, Willowcreek, Wills Acres, Winn Park, Woodside, and Youngs Heights.
### Climate
[[File:American River at Sunrise Park, June 1974 (26251615404).jpg|thumb|right|The [River](American)(American River) is popular for [kayaking](kayaking) and [boating](recreational)(recreational boating).]]
Sacramento has a [Mediterranean climate](hot-summer)(hot-summer Mediterranean climate) ([Köppen](Köppen climate classification) *Csa*), characterized by hot, dry summers and cool winters with a decent amount of rainfall. The wet season is generally October through April, though there may be a day or two of light rainfall in June or September. The normal annual mean temperature is , with the monthly daily average temperature ranging from in December to in July. Summer heat is sometimes moderated by a sea breeze known as the "delta breeze" which comes through the [Joaquin River Delta](Sacramento–San)(Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta) from the [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay), and temperatures cool down sharply at night.
The foggiest months are December and January. [fog](Tule)(Tule fog) can be extremely dense, lowering visibility to less than and making driving conditions extremely hazardous. Chilling tule fog events have been known to last for several consecutive days or weeks. During Tule fog events, temperatures do not exceed .
[[File:Farmers' market Sacramento.jpg|thumb|A [market](Farmer's market) at César Chávez Plaza]]
Snowfall is rare in Sacramento, which is only [sea level](above)(Above mean sea level). In the downtown area, only three significant snow accumulations have occurred since 1900, the last one being in 1976. During especially cold winter and spring storms, intense showers do occasionally produce a significant amount of hail, which can create hazardous driving conditions. Snowfall in the city often melts upon ground contact, with traceable amounts occurring in some years. Significant annual snow accumulations occur in the foothills east of the city, which had brief and traceable amounts of snowfall in January 2002, December 2009, and February 2011.["Arctic Blast Could Bring Dusting Of Snow To Sacramento Valley and Several Feet To Sierra"](http://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2011/02/24/arctic-blast-could-bring-dusting-of-snow-to-sacramento-valley-and-several-feet-to-sierra/) CBS Sacramento The greatest snowfall ever recorded in Sacramento was on January 5, 1888.
On average, there are 76 days with a high of +, and 14 days with a high of +; On the other extreme, there are 8.5 days where the temperature remains below , and 15 freezing nights per year. Official temperature extremes range from on December 22, 1990, to on September 6, 2022; a station around east-southeast of the city dipped to on December 11, 1932.
[[File:Sacramento Skyline (2) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|View of [Sacramento](Downtown)(Downtown Sacramento)]]
The average annual precipitation is . On average, precipitation falls on 58 days each year in Sacramento, and nearly all of this falls during the winter months. Average January rainfall is , and measurable precipitation is rare during the summer months. In February 1992, Sacramento had 16 consecutive days of rain, resulting in an accumulation of for the period. On rare occasions, monsoonal moisture surges from the Desert Southwest can bring upper-level moisture to the Sacramento region, leading to increased summer cloudiness, humidity, and even light showers and thunderstorms. Monsoon clouds do occur, usually during late July through early September. Sacramento is the second most flood-susceptible city in the United States after New Orleans.
Sacramento has been noted as being the sunniest location on the planet for four months of the year, from May through August. It holds the distinction as the sunniest month, in terms of the percentage of possible sunshine, of anywhere in the world; July in Sacramento averages 14 hours and 12 minutes of sunshine per day, amounting to approximately 100% of possible sunshine.
Since 2010, statewide [in California](droughts)(droughts in California) have further strained Sacramento's [security](water)(water security).
## Demographics
2010–2020
}}
In 2002, the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University conducted for *Time* magazine named Sacramento "America's Most Diverse City." The U.S. Census Bureau also groups Sacramento with other U.S. cities having a "high diversity" rating of the [index](diversity)(diversity index).[The Geography of U.S. Diversity](https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/atlas/censr01-104.pdf) (PDF). United States Census. Retrieved on June 15, 2007. Moreover, Sacramento is one of the most well-integrated U.S. cities, having a relatively high level of ethnic and racial heterogeneity within its neighborhoods.
The Chinese are the largest Asian ethnic group in Sacramento, followed by Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, and Hmong.
### 2010 census
[[File:CathBSlow (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[of the Blessed Sacrament](Cathedral)(Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament in Sacramento), the seat of the [of Sacramento](Diocese)(Roman Catholic Diocese of Sacramento)]]
The [United States Census](2010)(2010 United States Census) reported Sacramento had a population of 466,488. The population density was .
Hispanic or Latino of any race were 138,165 persons (26.9%); 22.6% of [[and ethnicity 2010- Sacramento (5559878519).png|thumb|right|Map of racial distribution in Sacramento, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: **White**, **Black**, **Asian**, **Hispanic**, or **other**](File:Race)]Sacramento's population is of Mexican heritage which amounts to over four-fifths of the city's Hispanic/Latino diaspora, 0.7% Puerto Rican, 0.5% Salvadoran, 0.2% Guatemalan, and 0.2% Nicaraguan. [Whites](Non-Hispanic)(Non-Hispanic Whites) were 34.5% of the population in 2010, down from 71.4% in 1970.
The Census reported 458,174 people (98.2% of the population) lived in households, 4,268 (0.9%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 4,046 (0.9%) were institutionalized. The recent housing crash has not impacted these numbers.
There were 174,624 households, out of which 57,870 (33.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 65,556 (37.5%) were [married couples](opposite-sex)(marriage) living together, 27,640 (15.8%) had a female householder with no husband present, 10,534 (6.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 13,234 (7.6%) [opposite-sex partnerships](unmarried)(POSSLQ), and 2,498 (1.4%) [married couples or partnerships](same-sex)(Domestic partnership in California). 53,342 households (30.5%) were made up of individuals, and 14,926 (8.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62. There were 103,730 [families](family (U.S. Census)) (59.4% of all households); the average family size was 3.37.
[[File:Sacramento, CA — Westminster Presbyterian Church (cropped).jpg|thumb|[Presbyterian Church](Westminster)(Westminster Presbyterian Church (Sacramento, California))]]The age distribution of the city is as follows: 116,121 people (24.9%) were under the age of 18, 52,438 people (11.2%) aged 18 to 24, 139,093 people (29.8%) aged 25 to 44, 109,416 people (23.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 49,420 people (10.6%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 92.2 males.
There were 190,911 housing units at an average density of , of which 86,271 (49.4%) were owner-occupied, and 88,353 (50.6%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 8.3%. 231,593 people (49.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 226,581 people (48.6%) lived in rental housing units.
Sacramento has one of the highest [LGBT](LGBT) populations per capita, ranking seventh among major American cities, and third in California behind San Francisco and slightly behind Oakland, with roughly 10% of the city's total population identifying themselves as gay, lesbian, transgender, or bisexual. [Heights](Lavender)(Lavender Heights, Sacramento, California) is the hub for LGBTQ activities in the city and is a centrally located district in [Sacramento](Midtown)(Midtown Sacramento) centered within and around K & 20th streets.
## Economy
[[File:Californiastatecapitol.jpg|thumb|right|The [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol) is the seat of the [of California](Government)(Government of California), hosting the [of California](Governor)(Governor of California) and the [State Legislature](California)(California State Legislature).]]
[[File:Citizen hotel sacramento.jpg|thumb|right|The historic Citizen Hotel in [Sacramento](Downtown)(Downtown Sacramento)]]
The [metropolitan area](Sacramento)(Sacramento metropolitan area) is the fifth largest in California after the [Angeles metropolitan area](Los)(Los Angeles metropolitan area), the [Francisco Bay Area](San)(San Francisco Bay Area), the [Empire](Inland)(Inland Empire), and the [Diego metropolitan area](San)(San Diego metropolitan area), and is the [largest in the United States](27th)(Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas).
[Health](Sutter)(Sutter Health), [Diamond Growers](Blue)(Blue Diamond Growers), [Rocketdyne](Aerojet)(Aerojet Rocketdyne), [Teichert](Teichert (company)), and [McClatchy Company](The)(The McClatchy Company) are among the companies based in Sacramento.
The [of Sacramento](Port)(Port of Sacramento) has been plagued with operating losses in recent years and faces bankruptcy. This severe loss in business is due to the heavy competition from the [of Stockton](Port)(Port of Stockton), which has a larger facility and a deeper channel. As of 2006, the city of [Sacramento](West)(West Sacramento, California) took responsibility for the Port of Sacramento. During the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) era, the Port of Sacramento was the major terminus in the supply route for all military parts, hardware, and other cargo going to Southeast Asia.
### Top employers
As of 2019, the top employers in the County of Sacramento were:
## Culture
### Museums
[[File:Crocker Museum entrance (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [Art Museum](Crocker)(Crocker Art Museum) is the oldest public [museum](art)(art museum) in the [United States](Western)(Western United States) and has one of the largest public art collections in the country.]]
Sacramento is home to several major museums. The [Art Museum](Crocker)(Crocker Art Museum) is the oldest public [museum](art)(art museum) west of the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River). In 2010, the museum completed an expansion that tripled the museum's floor space to more than 145,000 square feet of exhibit space.
Also of interest is the [Mansion State Historic Park](Governor's)(Governor's Mansion State Historic Park), a large Victorian Mansion that was home to 14 of California's Governors. The [Stanford Mansion](Leland)(Leland Stanford Mansion), which was completely restored in 2006, serves as the State's official address for diplomatic and business receptions. Guided public tours are available. [California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts](The)(The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts), home of the [Hall of Fame](California)(California Hall of Fame), is a cultural destination. The [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol) is home to the [State Capitol Museum](California)(California State Capitol Museum) and offers free tours of the capitol's historic chambers and assembly rooms as well as a museum that is home to several historical artifacts.
[[File:California Museum.jpg|thumb|right|[California Museum](The)(The California Museum) is dedicated to the [of California](history)(history of California) and also hosts the [Hall of Fame](California)(California Hall of Fame).]]
The [State Railroad Museum](California)(California State Railroad Museum) in Old Sacramento has historical exhibits and live steam locomotives that patrons may ride. The [Automobile Museum](California)(California Automobile Museum), just south of Old Sacramento, displays the automotive history and vehicles from 1880 to 2006 and is the oldest non-profit automotive museum in the West. [Air Force Base](McClellan)(McClellan Air Force Base) is home to the [Museum of California](Aerospace)(Aerospace Museum of California) where more than 40 civilian and military aircraft and 50 historical jet engines are displayed to the public. In addition, the [History Museum](Sacramento)(Sacramento History Museum), in the heart of Old Sacramento, focuses on the history of Sacramento from the region's pre-Gold Rush history through the present day. In 2021, the Museum of Science and Curiosity (MOSAC) opened in the restored historic power station building of Matsui Waterfront Park.
There is a Museum Day held in Sacramento every year when 26 museums in the greater Sacramento area offer free admission. The 2009 Sacramento Museum Day brought out more than 80,000 people, the largest number the event has gathered. Sacramento Museum Day is held every year on the first Saturday of February.
### Performing arts
[[File:Sacramento Memorial Auditorium joins the LightSactoBlue campaign.jpg|thumb|[Memorial Auditorium](Sacramento)(Sacramento Convention Center Complex) hosts the [Ballet](Sacramento)(Sacramento Ballet) and the [Philharmonic Orchestra](Sacramento)(Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra).]]
The [Ballet](Sacramento)(Sacramento Ballet), [Philharmonic Orchestra](Sacramento)(Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra), and the Sacramento Opera perform at the SAFE Credit Union Performing Arts Center (formerly known as the Community Center Theater).
There are several major theater venues in Sacramento. The [Convention Center Complex](Sacramento)(Sacramento Convention Center Complex) governs both the SAFE Credit Union Performing Arts Center and [Auditorium](Memorial)(Memorial Auditorium (Sacramento)). The H Street Theatre Complex consists of the [Fargo Pavilion](Wells)(Wells Fargo Pavilion), built in 2003 atop the old Music Circus tent foundations, the McClatchy Mainstage, and the Pollock Stage, originally built as a television studio and renovated at the same time the Pavilion was built. These smaller venues seat 300 and 90, offering a more intimate presentation than the 2300-seat Pavilion. The [Theatre](Eagle)(Eagle Theatre (Sacramento, California)) in Old Sacramento is a reconstruction of the oldest permanent theater in California and hosts several performances year-round. The newest venue in the city, the Sophia Tsakopoulos Center for the Arts, consists of the 365-seat Sutter Theatre for Children and the Mainstage, seating 250.
[[File:Wells Fargo Pavilion.jpg|thumb|upright|The [Fargo Pavilion](Wells)(Wells Fargo Pavilion) hosts the [Musical Theatre](California)(California Musical Theatre) and the [Theatre Company](Sacramento)(Sacramento Theatre Company).]]
Professional theatre is represented in Sacramento by several companies. [Sacramento](Broadway)(Broadway Sacramento) and its locally produced [stock theatre](summer)(summer stock theatre), [at Music Circus](Broadway)(Broadway at Music Circus), lures many directors, performers, and artists from New York and Los Angeles to work alongside a large local staff at the [Fargo Pavilion](Wells)(Wells Fargo Pavilion). During the fall, winter, and spring seasons Broadway Sacramento brings bus and truck tours to the [Credit Union Performing Arts Center](SAFE)(SAFE Credit Union Performing Arts Center). Resident at the H Street Theatre Complex for the remainder of the year (from September to May), the [Theatre Company](Sacramento)(Sacramento Theatre Company) prepares to celebrate its 75th season, beginning in the Fall of 2019. In addition to a traditional regional theatre fare of classical plays and musicals, the Sacramento Theatre Company has a large School of the Arts with a variety of opportunities for arts education. The [Street Theatre](B)(B Street Theatre), having completed its 2018 move into the new Sophia Tsokopoulos Center for the Arts, continues its pursuit of producing smaller and more intimate professional works for families and children. Rounding out the professional companies is Capital Stage, which performed aboard the Delta King until the end of the 2010–2011 season and soon took up residence at its venue along the J-Street corridor.
The Sacramento area has one of the largest collections of community theatres in California. Some of these include the Thistle Dew Dessert Theatre and Playwrights Workshop, Davis Musical Theatre Co., El Dorado Musical Theatre, Runaway Stage Productions, River City Theatre Company, Flying Monkey Productions, The Actor's Theatre, KOLT Run Productions, Kookaburra Productions, Big Idea Theatre, Celebration Arts, Lambda Player, Light Opera Theatre of Sacramento, Synergy Stage and the historic Eagle Theatre. The [Shakespeare Festival](Sacramento)(Sacramento Shakespeare Festival) provides entertainment under the stars every summer in William Land Park. Many of these theatres compete annually for the Elly Awards overseen by The Sacramento Area Regional Theatre Alliance or SARTA.
### Visual arts
[[File:Church of Scientology Sacramento, California.jpg|thumb|The [Colonial Revival style](Spanish)(Spanish Colonial Revival style) Ramona Building, built in 1930]]
The Sacramento Metropolitan Arts Commission is an organization that was established as the Sacramento [council](arts)(arts council) in 1977 to provide several arts programs for the city. These include Art in Public Places, Arts Education, Grants, and Cultural Programs, Poet Laureate Programs, Arts Stabilization Programs and Other Resources, and opportunities.
Sacramento Second Saturday Art Walk is a program of local art galleries that stay open into the late evenings every second Saturday of each month.
Sacramento is also home to the [Open Walls Festival](Wide)(Wide Open Walls (Sacramento Mural Festival)) where artists from across the world have added more than 140 murals across the city since the festival's inception in 2016.
[[File:Elks and Masons 4009 02.JPG|thumb|right|The [Masonic Temple](Sacramento)(Sacramento Masonic Temple)]]
Sacramento is home to one of California's oldest Latino cultural centers, the Latino Center of Art and Culture The Latino Center of Art and Culture was founded in the early '70s by activist Chicano students to combat racism and instill pride in the Chicano community. Known as La Raza Galeria it was home to artists like Ricardo Favela, José Montoya, and Esteban Villa who formed the Chicano artist collective, the Royal Chicano Air Force. The center is a community hub offering support to emerging Latino artists and producing live programming.
### Music
[[File:Tower Theater (50216124686).jpg|thumb|upright|The Tower Theatre, where [Records](Tower)(Tower Records) was founded]]
[Records](Tower)(Tower Records (music retailer)) was started and based in Sacramento until its closing.
*a "I was born and raised in Sacramento, California, which most people don't know is where [Tower](Tower Records (music retailer)) started and was based until the end." – ¶ 4. Classical music is widely available. The [Philharmonic Orchestra](Sacramento)(Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra), the Sacramento Baroque Soloists, the Sacramento Choral Society & Orchestra, the [Youth Symphony](Sacramento)(Sacramento Youth Symphony), the Sacramento Master Singers, the Sacramento Children's Chorus, and the Camellia Symphony each present a full season of concerts.
Each year, the city hosts the Sammies, the Sacramento Music Awards. Sacramento also has a reputation as a center for [Dixieland](Dixieland) jazz, because of the [Jazz Jubilee](Sacramento)(Sacramento Jazz Jubilee) which was held every [Day](Memorial)(Memorial Day) weekend until 2017. Events and performances are held in multiple locations throughout the city. Each year thousands of jazz fans from all over the world visit for this one weekend.
A growing number of rock, [hardcore](Hardcore punk), and [metal](Heavy metal music) bands hail from the Sacramento area, including [Tesla](Tesla (band)), AS IS, [Deftones](Deftones), [Roach](Papa)(Papa Roach), [Haven](Will)(Will Haven), [Talk](Trash)(Trash Talk (band)), [Gavin Dance](Dance)(Dance Gavin Dance), [Lot Like Birds](A)(A Lot Like Birds), [Far](Far (band)), [CAKE](Cake (band)), [!!!](!!!), [Oleander](Oleander (band)) and [Breeze](Steel)(Steel Breeze); plus some other famous musicians like record producer and recording artist [Peacock](Charlie)(Charlie Peacock), Duane Leinan, Bob Stubbs of [Distortion](Social)(Social Distortion), and Craig Chaquico of [Starship](Jefferson)(Jefferson Starship).
Sacramento is home to several music festivals throughout the year. Since 2012, Sacramento hosts the four-day [Festival](Aftershock)(Aftershock Festival) at [Park](Discovery)(Discovery Park (Sacramento)) where acclaimed bands such as [Evanescence](Evanescence), [Kiss](Kiss (band)), and [Muse](Muse (band)) perform for up to 160,000 visitors. Other notable music festivals include the country-based GoldenSky Festival and the soul and R&B-based Sol Blume festival.
Scottish pop band [of the Road](Middle)(Middle of the Road (band)) sang kindly of Sacramento in their 1972 European hit song "[Sacramento](Sacramento (A Wonderful Town))". [Experimental](Experimental) groups such as [Hella](Hella (band)), [Grips](Death)(Death Grips), and [Melos](Tera)(Tera Melos) also come out of Sacramento.
Rappers [C-Bo](C-Bo), [Marvaless](Marvaless), [Lunasicc](Lunasicc), [Mozzy](Mozzy), [Johnson](Hobo)(Hobo Johnson), and [Chuuwee](Chuuwee) are among those native to the area.
### Film
[[File:K Street, Downtown Sacramento, California (51030469438) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|The historic [Theatre](Crest)(Crest Theatre)]]
Sacramento is home to the [French Film Festival](Sacramento)(Sacramento French Film Festival), a cultural event held every year in July that features U.S. premieres of French films and classic masterpieces of French cinema, and the Sacramento Japanese Film Festival, also held in July. In addition, Sacramento is home to the Trash Film Orgy, a summer film festival celebrating the absurd, B-movies, horror, monster, and exploitation films. Founded in 2007, the Sacramento Horror Film Festival showcases feature-length and short films as well as live musical and theatrical performances in the horror and macabre genres.
Of note, Sacramento has been home to various actors, including [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy), who resided in the Riverlake community of [Pocket-Greenhaven](Pocket-Greenhaven) with his then-wife Nicole Mitchell Murphy, a fashion model and Sacramento native. It is also the home of director [Gerwig](Greta)(Greta Gerwig), whose solo directorial debut [Bird*](*Lady)(Lady Bird (film)) is set in Sacramento.
### Landmarks
[[File:Ebner's Hotel 2011 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The historic [Hotel](Ebner's)(Ebner's Hotel), built in 1856, in [Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park)]]
;Old Sacramento
The oldest part of the town besides [Fort](Sutter's)(Sutter's Fort) is [Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento State Historic Park), which consists of cobbled streets and many historic buildings, several from the 1850s and 1860s. Buildings have been preserved, restored, or reconstructed, and the district is now a substantial tourist attraction, with rides on steam-powered historic trains and horse-drawn carriages.
;Poverty Ridge Historic District
The Poverty Ridge Historic District is within Sacramento's original 1848 street grid and bounded to the west by 21st Street, to the north by S Street, to the east by 23rd Street, to the south by W Street and U.S. Route 50, and includes the block bounded by 20th Street, 21st Street, S Street, and T Street.
The Poverty Ridge Historic District was considered to be Sacramento's wealthiest
neighborhood from 1868 to 1947.
;Historic Chinatown
The [Wars](Opium)(Opium Wars) of the 1840s and 1850s, along with the Gold Rush, brought many Chinese people to California. Most arrived at San Francisco, which was then the largest city in California and known as "Daai Fau" (). Some eventually came to Sacramento, then the second-largest city in California and consequently called "Yee Fow" (). Today the city is known as "" () by Mainland Chinese and as "" *Sāgāmíhndouh* and *Shājiāmiǎnduó* by Cantonese speakers and Taiwanese respectively.[[Chinatown 溯源堂 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|Sacramento's historic Chinatown](File:Sacramento)]Sacramento's [Chinatown](Chinatowns in the United States) was on "I" Street from Second to Sixth Streets. At the time, this area of "I" Street was considered a health hazard because, lying within a levee zone, it was lower than other parts of the city, which were situated on higher land. Throughout Sacramento's Chinatown history, there were fires, acts of discrimination, and prejudicial legislation such as the [Exclusion Act](Chinese)(Chinese Exclusion Act) that was not repealed until 1943. The mysterious fires were thought to be set off by those who resented the Chinese working class. Ordinances on what was viable building material were set into place to try to get the Chinese to move out. Newspapers such as [Sacramento Union](The)(The Sacramento Union) wrote stories at the time that portrayed the Chinese in an unfavorable light to inspire ethnic discrimination and drive the Chinese away. While most of Sacramento's Chinatown has now been razed, a small Chinatown mall remains as well as a museum dedicated to the history of Sacramento's Chinatown.
;Newton Booth Historic District
The Newton Booth Historic District, named for [Booth](Newton)(Newton Booth), is located on the southeast corner of Sacramento's original 1848 street grid.
### Cuisine
[[File:The Old Tavern (Sacramento, CA).jpg|thumb|The [Tavern](Old)(Old Tavern (Sacramento, California)), built in the 1850s]]
In 2012, Sacramento started the marketing campaign as "America's Farm-to-Fork Capital" due to Sacramento's many restaurants that source their food from the numerous surrounding farms. The city has an annual Farm-to-Fork festival that showcases various grocers, restaurants, and growers in the industry. In 2012, one of the city's farm-to-fork restaurants [Kitchen](The)(The Kitchen (California restaurant)) was nominated for Outstanding Restaurant by the James Beard Foundation. Sacramento is home to well-known cookbook authors, [Caggiano](Biba)(Biba Caggiano) of Biba's Restaurant and Mai Pham of Lemongrass and Star Ginger.
Sacramento is also known for its alcoholic beverage culture, with keystone events that include [Expo](Cal)(Cal Expo)'s Grape and Gourmet, Sacramento Beer Week, and Sacramento Cocktail Week. Its growing beer scene is evident, with over 60 microbreweries in the region as of 2017. Some local brews include Track 7 Brewing Company, Big Stump Brew Co, Oak Park Brewing Co., and Sactown Union Brewery. Numerous beer festivals around the region highlight both local and visitor beers. In addition to festivals in Elk Grove, Davis, Roseville, Placerville, and Woodland, Sacramento hosts the annual California Beer Craft Summit, an exposition dedicated to the art of brewing. The summit also hosts the largest beer festival on the West Coast, featuring over 160 breweries in downtown Sacramento.
Sacramento's contemporary culture is reflected in its coffee. An "underrated coffee city", Sacramento has above-average marks for local coffee. The city has numerous community roasters and coffee shops. Examples include Temple Coffee, Insight Coffee Roasters, Old Soul Co., Chocolate Fish Roasters, Naked Lounge, Pachamama Coffee Cooperative, and Identity Coffees. In addition to local brands, the region offers other chains such as Starbucks, Peet's Coffee & Tea, and Philz Coffee.
## Sports
[[File:Allan 000528 171534 516361 4578 (36130546274).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.36|The [1 Center](Golden)(Golden 1 Center) is home of the [Kings](Sacramento)(Sacramento Kings) of the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA).]]
Sacramento is home to one major league sports team – the [Kings](Sacramento)(Sacramento Kings) of the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association). The Kings came to Sacramento from Kansas City in 1985. On January 21, 2013, a controlling interest in the Sacramento Kings was sold to hedge fund manager [Hansen](Chris)(Chris R. Hansen), who intended to move the franchise to Seattle for the 2013–2014 NBA season and rename the team the [SuperSonics](Seattle)(Seattle SuperSonics). Sacramento Mayor [Johnson](Kevin)(Kevin Johnson (basketball)), himself a former NBA basketball player, fought the move, forming an ownership group led by [Ranadive](Vivek)(Vivek Ranadive) to keep the Kings in Sacramento. On May 16, 2013, the NBA Board of Governors voted 22–8 to keep the Kings in Sacramento.
Sacramento has two other professional teams. [Republic FC](Sacramento)(Sacramento Republic FC) began play to in April 2014 at [Stadium](Hughes)(Charles C. Hughes Stadium) before a sellout crowd of 20,231, setting a USL Pro regular-season single-game attendance record.["Republic FC loses home opener before sellout crowd at Hughes Stadium"](http://www.sacbee.com/2014/04/26/6357273/republic-fc-loses-home-opener.html) , Sacramento Bee, April 27, 2014.["Sacramento Republic FC opener sells out, sets league record"](http://www.sacbee.com/2014/04/25/6355033/sacramento-republic-fc-opener.html) , Sacramento Bee, April 25, 2014. They now play in Papa Murphy's Park. Republic FC won the [USL](United Soccer League) championship in their first season. In October 2019, Republic FC's [League Soccer](Major)(Major League Soccer) expansion bid was approved; the team was expected to begin MLS play in the 2022 season, until being delayed by COVID-19 to the 2023 season. However, as of February 26, 2021, the bid is on indefinite hiatus.
[[File:City Skyline Raley Field.JPG|thumb|View from [Health Park](Sutter)(Sutter Health Park), home of the [River Cats](Sacramento)(Sacramento River Cats)]]
In 2000, AAA minor league baseball returned to Sacramento with the [River Cats](Sacramento)(Sacramento River Cats), an affiliate of the [Francisco Giants](San)(San Francisco Giants) and formerly an affiliate of the [Athletics](Oakland)(Oakland Athletics). The River Cats play at [Health Park](Sutter)(Sutter Health Park), in West Sacramento.
The [State Hornets](Sacramento)(Sacramento State Hornets football) of the [Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS)](NCAA)(NCAA Division I) play at [Stadium](Hornet)(Hornet Stadium (Sacramento)) as part of the [Sky Conference](Big)(Big Sky Conference). Since 1954, the Hornets have won seven conference titles and have participated in four playoff appearances and two bowl games.
Sacramento is the former home of two professional basketball teams. The [Heatwave](Sacramento)(Sacramento Heatwave) of the [Basketball Association](American)(American Basketball Association (21st century)) previously played in the Sacramento area until 2013. Sacramento was also formerly home to the now-defunct [Monarchs](Sacramento)(Sacramento Monarchs) of the [WNBA](Women's National Basketball Association). The Monarchs were one of the eight founding members of the WNBA in 1997 and won the [Championship](WNBA)(WNBA Championship) in 2005, but folded in November 2009.
Sacramento has frequently hosted the [Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship](NCAA)(NCAA Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship) as well as the first and second rounds of the [Men's Division I Basketball Championship](NCAA)(NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship). The California International Marathon (est. 1983) attracts a field of international elite runners who vie for a share of the $50,000 prize purse. The fast course is popular for runners seeking to achieve a Boston Marathon qualifying time and fitness runners.
## Parks and recreation
[[File:Capitol Mall Sacramento,CA.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [Mall](Capitol)(Capitol Mall) is a major monumental [parkway](parkway) leading from [Bridge](Tower)(Tower Bridge (Sacramento)) to the [Capitol](California)(California State Capitol).]]
Sacramento boasts an extensive park system consisting of over of parkland and recreation centers.Warner, Anmargaret. (June 6, 2013). ["New York Parks Rank No. 2 in a Survey of 50 U.S. cities"](www.businessinsider.com/us-cities-with-the-best-parks-2013-6?op=1). *Business Insider*. Accessed July 15, 2013. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, [Trust for Public Land](The)(Trust for Public Land) reported Sacramento was tied with San Francisco and [Boston](Boston) for having the third-best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities.Lindelof, Bill. ["Capitol rated highly for its parks"](http://www.sacbee.com/2013/06/06/5475461/capital-rated-highly-for-its-parks.html) . June 6, 2013. *The Sacramento Bee*. Retrieved on July 15, 2013. ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes the city's median park size, park acres as percent of city area, the percent of residents within a half-mile of a park, spending of park services per resident, and the number of playgrounds per 10,000 residents.
The city features a collection of smaller parks in the downtown district, including Crocker Park, Roosevelt Park, Fremont Park, and Southside Park, and is home to basketball courts, playgrounds, and year-round farmers markets and local events. In addition, [Chavez Plaza](Cesar)(Cesar Chavez Plaza) is home to concerts in the summertime and is a well-known rallying spot for gatherings. In addition, surrounding the [State Capitol](California)(California State Capitol) is [Park](Capitol)(Capitol Park (Sacramento)), a park consisting of more than 200 types of trees and 155 memorials. The most recent park constructed in Sacramento is the Hanami Line at [Matsui](Robert)(Robert Matsui) Waterfront Park, which is home to a line of [Blossoms](Cherry)(Cherry blossom) surrounding the park. Popular parks outside the central core include [River Parkway](American)(American River Parkway) which spans 23 miles along the American River, William McKinley Park and Memorial Rose Garden, and [Land Park](William)(William Land Park).
[Land Park](William)(William Land Park) is home to several key attractions in the city. The [Zoo](Sacramento)(Sacramento Zoo) spans and is home to more than 400 native and endangered animals around the world. The park is also home to Funderland, a small amusement park open from February to November consisting of 9 rides, and Fairytale Town, which sees more than 250,000 visitors each year.
Sacramento is a hotbed for high school rugby. Jesuit High is the recent defending national champion (winning five times in total). Their arch-rival school Christian Brothers came in second nationwide. Burbank, Del Campo, and Vacaville have also placed well in the national competition over the years. The Sacramento Valley High School Rugby Conference hosts the largest and arguably deepest preseason youth and high school rugby tournament in America.
[[File:Monorail and rides at dusk at the 2012 California State Fair held in Sacramento, California LCCN2013633011.tif|thumb|right|The [State Fair](California)(California State Fair) is held annually at the [Exposition](California)(California Exposition).]]
The [State Fair](California)(California State Fair) is held in Sacramento each year at the end of the summer, ending on [Day](Labor)(Labor Day). In 2010, the State Fair moved to July. More than one million people attended this fair in 2001. The [Smith Memorial Trail](Jedediah)(Jedediah Smith Memorial Trail) that runs between [Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento) and [Lake](Folsom)(Folsom Lake) grants access to the American River Parkway, a natural area that includes more than of undeveloped land. It attracts cyclists and equestrians from across the state. Among other recreational options in Sacramento is Discovery Park, a park studded with stands of mature trees and grasslands. This park is situated where the American River flows into the Sacramento River.
There are several casinos and card rooms in the city scattered throughout the Sacramento area. Since 1991, Capitol Casino has been open in downtown Sacramento and is home to several card games. Other notable casinos in the area include [Valley Casino Resort](Thunder)(Thunder Valley Casino Resort), [Creek Casino Resort](Cache)(Cache Creek Casino Resort), Red Hawk Casino Resort, Hard Rock Hotel & Casino Sacramento at Fire Mountain, Jackson Rancheria Casino Resort, and Sky River Casino in Elk Grove. In addition, Sacramento is a 2-hour drive from nearby [Reno](Reno, Nevada), providing residents and tourists with several options for gambling.
In amateur sports, Sacramento claims many prominent Olympians such as [Spitz](Mark)(Mark Spitz), [Meyer](Debbie)(Debbie Meyer) (6-time gold medalist in US swimming), [Burton](Mike)(Mike Burton (swimmer)), [Sanders](Summer)(Summer Sanders) (gold medalist in swimming, and trained in childhood by Debbie Meyer at Rio Del Oro Racquet Club), [Float](Jeff)(Jeff Float) (all swimming), and [Mills](Billy)(Billy Mills) (track). Coach [Chavoor](Sherm)(Sherm Chavoor) founded his world-famous Arden Hills Swim Club just east of the city and trained Burton, Spitz, and others.
## Government
[[File:Sacramento City Hall - panoramio (cropped).jpg|thumb|[City Hall](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Hall) is the seat of the [of Sacramento](Government)(Government of Sacramento), hosting the [of Sacramento](Mayor)(Mayor of Sacramento) and [City Council](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Council).]]
Sacramento is both the capital city of California and the [seat](county)(county seat) of [County](Sacramento)(Sacramento County). As such, it hosts both the [government](Californian)(Government of California) and the county administration, alongside the city government.
### City government
The [of Sacramento](Government)(government of Sacramento, California) operates as a [city](charter)(charter city) (as opposed to a general law city) under the Charter of the City of Sacramento. The elected government is composed of the [City Council](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Council) with 8 city council districts and the [of Sacramento](Mayor)(Mayor of Sacramento), which operates under a [government](mayor-council)(mayor-council government). In addition, there are numerous departments and appointed officers such as the City Manager, [Police Department](Sacramento)(Sacramento Police Department) (SPD), the [Fire Department](Sacramento)(Sacramento Fire Department) (SFD), City Clerk, City Attorney, and City Treasurer.
As of 2016, the mayor is [Steinberg](Darrell)(Darrell Steinberg) and the council members are Angelique Ashby, Allen Warren, Jeff Harris, Steve Hansen, Jay Schenirer, Rich Jennings, and Larry Carr. The City of Sacramento is part of [County](Sacramento)(Sacramento County, California), for which the [of Sacramento County](government)(government of Sacramento County, California) is defined and authorized under the [Constitution](California)(California Constitution), [law](California)(California law), and the Charter of the County of Sacramento.California Government Code § 23004
### Californian government
As the [city](capital)(capital city) of [California](California), Sacramento is home to the [of California](government)(government of California). The California State Capitol is the seat of the [of California](governor)(governor of California) and the [State Legislature](California)(California State Legislature), and the city is home to numerous [state agencies](California)(List of California state agencies). The [Court of California](Supreme)(Supreme Court of California) is headquartered in San Francisco but maintains one of its two branch offices in Sacramento, where it shares a courtroom with the [of Appeal for the Third Appellate District](Court)(California Courts of Appeal).
File:CA DOJ HQ Front.jpg|[Department of Justice](California)(California Department of Justice)
File:Stanleymosklibraryandcourtsbldg.jpg|[Court of California](Supreme)(Supreme Court of California)
File:Sacramento Federal Court Building - Robert T. Matsui United States Courthouse (25379475283) (cropped).jpg|[Federal Courthouse](Matsui)(Robert T. Matsui United States Courthouse)
File:Cal EPA Building (cropped).jpg|[EPA](California)(California Environmental Protection Agency)
File:California Department of Health Care Services 4.jpg|[Department of Health Care Services](California)(California Department of Health Care Services)
File:300 Capitol Mall Sacramento.jpg|[State Controller](California)(California State Controller)
File:Californiaattorneygeneraloffice (cropped).jpg|[General of California](Attorney)(Attorney General of California)
File:Jesse M. Unruh State Office Building.jpg|[State Building](Unruh)(Jesse M. Unruh State Office Building)
### State and federal representation
In the [State Senate](California)(California State Senate), Sacramento is in the [Senate District](8th)(California's 8th State Senatorial district), In the [State Assembly](California)(California State Assembly) it is in the [Assembly District](6th)(California's 6th State Assembly district).
In the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives), Sacramento forms the majority of .
## Education
### Higher education
The Sacramento area hosts a wide variety of higher educational opportunities. There are two major public universities, many private institutions, community colleges, vocational schools, and the McGeorge School of Law.
Sacramento is home to [State (California State University, Sacramento)](Sacramento)(California State University, Sacramento), founded as Sacramento State College in 1947. In 2004, enrollment was 22,555 undergraduates and 5,417 graduate students in the university's eight colleges. The university's mascot is the hornet, and the school colors are green and gold. The campus is along the American River Parkway a few miles east of downtown.
The [of California](University)(University of California) has a campus, [Davis](UC)(UC Davis), in nearby [Davis](Davis, California) and has a graduate center in downtown Sacramento. The [Davis Graduate School of Management](UC)(UC Davis Graduate School of Management) (GSM) is near the [Davis Medical Center](UC)(UC Davis Medical Center) off Stockton Boulevard near Highway 50. Many students, about 400 out of 517, at the UC Davis GSM are working professionals and are completing their MBA part-time. UC also maintains the University of California Sacramento Center (UCCS) for undergraduate and graduate studies. The [Davis School of Medicine](UC)(UC Davis School of Medicine) is at the [Davis Medical Center](UC)(UC Davis Medical Center) between the neighborhoods of [Elmhurst](Elmhurst, Sacramento, California), [Park](Tahoe)(Tahoe Park, Sacramento, California), and Oak Park.
[[File:Sac State Library Quad.jpg|thumb|[State University](Sacramento)(California State University, Sacramento) is one of the best-ranked on the [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States).]]
[[File:Drexel University, Sacramento campus.JPG|thumb|[University Sacramento](Drexel)(Drexel University Sacramento)]]
The [Rios Community College District](Los)(Los Rios Community College District) consists of several [colleges](two-year)(Community college) in the Sacramento area—[River College](American)(American River College), [River College](Cosumnes)(Cosumnes River College), [City College](Sacramento)(Sacramento City College), and [Lake College](Folsom)(Folsom Lake College), plus a large number of outreach centers for those colleges. [College](Sierra)(Sierra College) is on the outskirts of Sacramento in Rocklin.
The [of the Pacific](University)(University of the Pacific (United States)) has its Sacramento Campus in the Oak Park neighborhood of Sacramento. The campus has long included [School of Law](McGeorge)(McGeorge School of Law) and in 2015 was expanded to become a comprehensive graduate and professional campus, including programs in analytics, business, education, health sciences, and public policy. The [University](National)(National University (California)) Sacramento regional campus offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business, education, health-care and teaching credential programs.
The [of San Francisco](University)(University of San Francisco) has one of its four regional campuses in Sacramento. At the undergraduate level, they offer degrees in Applied Economics, Information Systems, Organizational Behavior and Leadership, and Public Administration. At the graduate level, Master's programs are offered in Information Security and Assurance, Information Systems, Organization Development, Project Management, Public Administration, Nonprofit Administration, and Counseling.
The private [of Southern California](University)(University of Southern California) has an extension in downtown Sacramento, called the State Capital Center. The campus, taught by main campus professors, Sacramento-based professors, and practitioners in the State Capitol and state agencies, offers Master of Public Administration, Masters of Public Policy, and Master of Public Health degrees.
[Bible College](Epic)(Epic Bible College) and the [School of Psychology](Professional)(Professional School of Psychology) are also based in Sacramento. [Seminary](Western)(Western Seminary) has one of its four campuses in Sacramento, which opened on the campus of Arcade Church in 1991. Western is an evangelical, Christian graduate school that provides theological training for students who hope to serve in a variety of ministry roles including pastors, marriage and family therapists, educators, missionaries, and lay leadership. The Sacramento campus offers four master's degrees and a variety of other graduate-level programs.
[[File:McGeorge School of Law logo.png|thumb|right|The [School of Law](McGeorge)(McGeorge School of Law) of the [of the Pacific](University)(University of the Pacific (United States)) is a [school](law)(law school) in the [Park neighborhood](Oak)(Oak Park, Sacramento, California).]]
A satellite campus of [International University](Alliant)(Alliant International University) offers graduate and undergraduate programs of study.
[Art Institute of California – Sacramento](The)(The Art Institute of California – Sacramento) was established in 2007 and is a branch of [Art Institute of California – Los Angeles](The)(The Art Institute of California – Los Angeles). The school is focused on educating students in the field of commercial arts. The school offers both a Bachelor of Science and an Associate of Science degree, as well as diplomas in some areas of study. Some majors the school offers are Digital Film-making & Video Production, Culinary Management, Graphic Design, and Game Art & Design. The school has since been closed.
On J Street, there is the [Law School of Sacramento](Lincoln)(Lincoln Law School of Sacramento), a private, evening-only law school program with a strong legal presence in the region.
The [Technical Institute](Universal)(Universal Technical Institute) (UTI) is in Sacramento; it offers automotive programs in auto mechanics, auto body, and diesel.
### Primary and secondary education
[[McClatchy High School.jpg|thumb|left|The historic McClatchy High School](File:C.K.)]
[[Patrick Academy in Sacramento California (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Saint Patrick Academy](File:Saint)]
[[- North Sacramento School - 20211029085401 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|North Sacramento School](File:Sacramento)]
The [Public Library](Sacramento)(Sacramento Public Library) system has 28 branches in the greater area. The Sacramento area is served by various public school districts, including the [City Unified School District](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Unified School District), [Unified School District](Natomas)(Natomas Unified School District), [Juan Unified School District](San)(San Juan Unified School District), [Rivers Unified School District](Twin)(Twin Rivers Unified School District), and [Grove Unified School District](Elk)(Elk Grove Unified School District). As of 2009, the area's schools employed 9,600 elementary school teachers (not including special education teachers), and 7,410 middle school teachers (not including special education or vocational teachers).
Almost all areas south of the American River are served by the [City Unified School District](Sacramento)(Sacramento City Unified School District). The only exceptions are the Valley Hi/North Laguna and Florin areas served by the [Grove Unified School District](Elk)(Elk Grove Unified School District).
Areas north of the American River are served by the remaining school districts. This area was not originally part of the City of Sacramento and as such is not served by Sacramento City Unified School District. North Sacramento outside of Natomas and Robla (for K-8) is served by the Twin Rivers Unified School District. The Robla area is served by the Robla School District for K-8 and by Twin Rivers for 9–12. The [Natomas](Natomas, Sacramento, California) region is served by the Natomas Unified School District. The Campus Commons area and the small portions of the Sierra Oaks neighborhood that fall into the city of Sacramento are served by the San Juan Unified School District.
While Roman Catholic institutions still dominate the independent school scene in the Sacramento area, in 1964, [Country Day School](Sacramento)(Sacramento Country Day School) opened and offered Sacramento citizens an independent school affiliated with the California Association of Independent Schools. SCDS has grown to its present-day status as a learning community for students from pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. Additionally, the suburb of [Oaks](Fair)(Fair Oaks, California) hosts the expansive riverside campus of the [Waldorf School](Sacramento)(Sacramento Waldorf School), a [Steiner](Waldorf Education) school adjacent to the Rudolf Steiner College, and the largest Waldorf school in North America. Sacramento Waldorf School educates students from pre-K through 12th grade on a secluded, pastoral site that incorporates a large, functioning [biodynamic](biodynamic agriculture) farm.
Shalom School is the only Jewish day school in Sacramento; however, Brookefield School on property owned by Congregation B'nai Israel provides extracurricular Jewish education.
Capital Christian School is a preschool–12th grade private Christian school. There is a small Bible college on campus offering associate degrees in Bible studies or theology. Sacramento Adventist Academy is another Christian school in Greater Sacramento. This is a preschool–12 institution, as well.
There is one Islamic school in Sacramento, Masjid Annur, founded in 1988.
## Media
[[File:US Bank Plaza (Sacramento, California).jpg|thumb|right|[Tower](Park)(Park Tower (Sacramento)), Downtown Sacramento]]
### Magazines
*''[Magazine](Comstock's)(Comstock's Magazine)*
**[Technology Magazine](Government)(Government Technology Magazine)*
**[Magazine](Sacramento)(Sacramento Magazine)*
**[Magazine](Sactown)(Sactown Magazine)*
### Newspapers
; Top two newspapers
**[Sacramento Bee](The)(The Sacramento Bee)*, the primary newspaper, was founded in 1857 by [McClatchy](James)(James McClatchy). *The Sacramento Bee* is the flagship paper of [McClatchy Company](The)(The McClatchy Company), the second-largest newspaper publisher in the United States. The *Sacramento Bee* has won five [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize)s in its history and numerous other awards, including many for its progressive public service campaigns promoting free speech (the *Bee* often criticized government policy, and uncovered many scandals hurting Californians), anti-racism (the *Bee'' supported the Union during the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) and later publicly denounced the [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan)), worker's rights (the *Bee* has a strong history of supporting [unionization](unionization)), and [protection](environmental)(environmental protection) (leading numerous tree-planting campaigns and fighting against environmental destruction in the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada (U.S.))).
* The *[Union](Sacramento)(Sacramento Union)*, the *Sacramento Bee*s rival, started publishing six years earlier, in 1851; it closed its doors in 1994, with an attempted revival lasting from 2005 to 2009. Writer and journalist [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain) wrote for the *Union* in 1866.
;Other newspapers
**[Business Journal](Sacramento)(Sacramento Business Journal)*
**[News & Review](Sacramento)(Sacramento News & Review)*
**[Sacramento Observer](The)(The Sacramento Observer)*
## Transportation
[[File:The Tower Bridge 2017-02-23 (33055244176).jpg|thumb|[Bridge](Tower)(Tower Bridge (Sacramento)) crosses over the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River), connecting Sacramento to [Sacramento](West)(West Sacramento, California).]]
A 2011 study by [Score](Walk)(Walk Score) ranked Sacramento the 24th most walkable of the fifty largest U.S. cities.
### Roads
Sacramento is a [city](control)(control city) and the region is served by several highways and freeways. [80](Interstate)(Interstate 80 (California)) (I-80) is the major east–west route, connecting Sacramento with San Francisco in the west, and [Reno](Reno, Nevada) in the east. [80](Business)(Interstate 80 Business (Sacramento, California)) (the Capital City Freeway) splits from I-80 in [Sacramento](West)(West Sacramento, California), runs through Sacramento, and then rejoins its parent in the northwest portion of the city. [Highway 50](U.S.)(U.S. Route 50 (California)) also begins its eastern journey in West Sacramento, [co-signed](Concurrency (road)) with Business 80, but then splits off and heads toward [Lake Tahoe](South)(South Lake Tahoe, California) as the El Dorado Freeway. A sign at the eastern terminus of US 50 in [City, Maryland](Ocean)(Ocean City, Maryland), gives the distance to Sacramento as .
[[File:Guy West Bridge (5248634716) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[West Bridge](Guy)(Guy West Bridge) is a pedestrian and cyclist crossing over the [River](American)(American River), connecting [State University, Sacramento](California)(California State University, Sacramento) to the Campus Commons neighborhood.]]
[5](Interstate)(Interstate 5 (California)) (I-5) runs through Sacramento, heads north up to [Redding](Redding, California), and then heads south near the western edge of the [Central Valley](California)(California Central Valley) towards Los Angeles. [State Highway 99](California)(California State Route 99) runs through Sacramento, heading closer to the eastern edge of the Central Valley, connecting to [Marysville](Marysville, California) and [City](Yuba)(Yuba City, California) in the north, and [Fresno](Fresno) and [Bakersfield](Bakersfield) in the south. [State Highway 160](California)(California State Route 160) approaches the city after running along the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River) from [Costa County](Contra)(Contra Costa County, California) in the south and then becomes a major city street in [Sacramento](Downtown)(Downtown Sacramento) before turning into the North Sacramento Freeway, going over the [River](American)(American River) to Business 80.
Some Sacramento neighborhoods, such as Downtown Sacramento and [Sacramento](Midtown)(Midtown Sacramento) are very bicycle friendly as are many other communities in the region. As a result of litigation, Sacramento has undertaken to make all city facilities and sidewalks wheelchair accessible. In an effort to preserve its urban neighborhoods, Sacramento has constructed [traffic-calming](Traffic calming) measures in many areas.
### Rail service
[[File:Sacramento Valley Station (cropped2).JPG|thumb|The historic [Valley Rail Station](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley Rail Station), utilized by [California](Amtrak)(Amtrak California), is a gateway to the [Valley](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley).]]
[Amtrak](Amtrak) provides passenger rail service to the city of Sacramento. The [Valley Rail Station](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley Rail Station) is on the corner of 5th and I streets near the historic Old Town Sacramento and underwent extensive renovations in 2007. The station serves as a [Regional Transit District Light Rail](Sacramento)(Sacramento RT Light Rail) terminus.
[California](Amtrak)(Amtrak California) operates the *[Corridor](Capitol)(Capitol Corridor (Amtrak))*, a multiple-frequency service providing service from the capital city to its northeastern suburbs and the [Francisco Bay Area](San)(San Francisco Bay Area).
Sacramento is the northern terminus of the [California](Amtrak)(Amtrak California) *[Joaquins](San)(San Joaquins)* route which provides direct multiple-frequency passenger rail service to California's Central Valley as far as [Bakersfield](Bakersfield, California); [Motorcoach](Thruway)(Thruway Motorcoach) connections are available from the trains at Bakersfield to [California](Southern)(Southern California) and Southern [Nevada](Nevada). An additional service under this banner is expected to be routed through Midtown in 2020.
Sacramento is a stop along Amtrak's *[Starlight](Coast)(Coast Starlight)* route which provides scenic service to [Seattle](Seattle) via [Falls](Klamath)(Klamath Falls, Oregon) and [Portland](Portland, Oregon) to the north and Los Angeles via [Luis Obispo](San)(San Luis Obispo, California) and [Barbara](Santa)(Santa Barbara, California) to the south.
[[File:Sacramento WP station, October 2006.jpg|thumb|right|The historic [Western Pacific station](Sacramento)(Sacramento station (Western Pacific Railroad)) was served by the *[Zephyr](California)(California Zephyr (1949–1970))* until 1970.]]
Amtrak's *[Zephyr](California)(California Zephyr)* serves Sacramento daily and provides service to the east serving [Reno](Reno, Nevada), [Lake](Salt)(Salt Lake City, Utah), [Denver](Denver, Colorado), [Omaha](Omaha, Nebraska), [Chicago](Chicago, Illinois), and intermediate cities.
The [Valley Rail Station](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley Rail Station) provides numerous Thruway Motorcoach routes. One route serves the cities of [Marysville](Marysville, California), [Oroville](Oroville, California), [Chico](Chico, California), [Corning](Corning, California), [Bluff](Red)(Red Bluff, California),and [Redding](Redding, California) with additional service to [Yreka](Yreka, California) and even [Oregon](Medford,)(Medford, Oregon). A second serves the cities of [Roseville](Roseville, California), [Rocklin](Rocklin, California), [Auburn](Auburn, California), [Colfax](Colfax, California), [Truckee](Truckee, California), Reno, and [Sparks](Sparks, Nevada). The third and final thruway motorcoach route serves [Placerville](Placerville, California), [Tahoe](Lake)(Lake Tahoe), [Stateline](Stateline, Nevada) Casinos, and [City, Nevada](Carson)(Carson City, Nevada). Each of these routes provides multiple frequencies each day.
Sacramento has the second busiest Amtrak station in California and the seventh busiest in the country.
[Corridor Express](Altamont)(Altamont Corridor Express) [rail](commuter)(commuter rail) service is expected to be routed through Sacramento in 2020. This service will utilize the [Pacific](Union)(Union Pacific)'s [Subdivision](Sacramento)(Sacramento Subdivision), the route of the original *California Zephyr*, where additional passenger capacity is available.
Sacramento is expected to serve as the northern terminus of the [High-Speed Rail](California)(California High-Speed Rail) system.
### Airport
[[File:Sacramento Airport, Sacramento, California LCCN2013633188.tif|thumb|[International Airport](Sacramento)(Sacramento International Airport)]]
[International Airport](Sacramento)(Sacramento International Airport) is a public [airport](airport) northwest of downtown Sacramento, in [County, California](Sacramento)(Sacramento County, California). [Airlines](Southwest)(Southwest Airlines) is the dominant passenger airline with more than 104 daily flights to 25 cities across the US. Other airlines include [Delta](Delta Air Lines), [United](United Airlines), [Airlines](Spirit)(Spirit Airlines), [Airlines](American)(American Airlines) and [Airlines](Alaska)(Alaska Airlines). The airport handles flights to and from various US destinations (including Hawaii) as well as Mexico, Canada and connecting flights to Europe, Asia, and South America, and served more than 13 million passengers in 2019. The airport is well known for the red aluminum rabbit titled "Leap" by [Argent](Lawrence)(Lawrence Argent) in Terminal B.
### Transit
[[File:Sacramento CAF-built LRV 228 on K St at 7th Ave in 2006.jpg|thumb|right|The [RT Light Rail](Sacramento)(Sacramento RT Light Rail)]]
The city and its suburbs are served by [Regional Transit District](Sacramento)(Sacramento Regional Transit District), which ranks as [eleventh busiest in the United States](the)(List of United States Light Rail systems by ridership). Sac RT is a bus and light-rail system, with 274 buses and 76 light-rail vehicles providing service for 58,200 daily passengers. The three light-rail lines (Blue, Gold, & Green) is a system with 54 stations. The Gold Line was extended east as far as the city of [Folsom](Folsom, California), and more recently the Blue Line was extended south from Meadowview Rd to [River College](Cosumnes)(Cosumnes River College). Sacramento's light rail system goes to the [Valley Rail Station](Sacramento)(Sacramento Valley Rail Station), [River College Station](Cosumnes)(Cosumnes River College (Sacramento RT)) in south Sacramento, and north to Watt/I-80 where [I-80](I-80) and Business 80 meeting. The light-rail Blue & Gold Lines have 15-minute weekday headways and 30-minute weekday evening and weekend/holiday headways; the Green Line has 30-minute weekday headways and no weekend service. Route 142 is an express bus line to/from [downtown](Downtown Sacramento) to Sacramento International Airport. There are expansion plans to extend the Green Line to the [airport](Sacramento International Airport) and the Blue Line to the City of [Roseville](Roseville, California) through the City of [Heights](Citrus)(Citrus Heights, California). [Yolobus](Yolobus) provides bus service to [Sacramento](West)(West Sacramento, California) and [County](Yolo)(Yolo County, California).
[[File:Delta King.JPG|thumb|[Sacramento](Old)(Old Sacramento)'s riverfront docks]]
[Lines](Greyhound)(Greyhound Lines) provides intercity bus service to Portland, Reno, Los Angeles, and San Francisco from its new station along Richards Boulevard. Intercity bus service to San Francisco and [Nevada](Sparks,)(Sparks, Nevada) is offered by [Megabus](Megabus (North America)).
[Bicycling](Bicycling) is an increasingly popular transportation mode in Sacramento, which enjoys a mild climate and flat terrain. Bicycling is especially common in the older neighborhoods of Sacramento's center, such as Alkali Flat, [Midtown](Midtown Sacramento), McKinley Park, [Park](Land)(Land Park), and [Sacramento](East)(East Sacramento). Many employees who work downtown commute by bicycle from suburban communities on a dedicated bicycle path on the [River Parkway](American)(American River Parkway). Sacramento was designated as a Silver Level Bicycle Friendly Community by the [of American Bicyclists](League)(League of American Bicyclists) in September 2006. The advocacy organization [Area Bicycle Advocates](Sacramento)(Sacramento Area Bicycle Advocates) co-sponsors the Sacramento Area Council of Governments' May is Bike Month campaign. Rideshare companies such as [Lime](Lime (transportation company)), [Bird](Bird (transportation company)), and [Helbiz](Helbiz) have introduced up to 4,000 electric-powered scooters and bikes in Downtown Sacramento for residents to rent as a faster and alternative way to get around the city. Sacramento ranks second worldwide in ride sharable, with ridership totaling 1 million riders in 8 months.
There is a commuter bus service from Yolo County on [Yolobus](Yolobus), from Solano County on [FAST](Fairfield and Suisun Transit), on two bus lines from [County](Yuba)(Yuba County, California)'s [Sutter Transit](Yuba)(Yuba Sutter Transit), from [Amador](Amador County, California) Transit's Sacramento Line, on [County Transit](Placer)(Placer County Transit)'s Auburn to Light Rail Line, and from [Joaquin County](San)(San Joaquin County, California) on several [SMART](San Joaquin Regional Transit District) bus lines.
## Notable people
## International relations
[[File: Stanford_Mansion_(Sacramento,_California).jpg|thumb|right|[Mansion](Stanford)(Leland Stanford Mansion) is the official reception center for the [government](Californian)(Government of California) and one of the workplaces of the [of California](Governor)(Governor of California).]]
As of 2015, the City of Sacramento has 13 [cities](sister)(Sister city). They are:
## See also
*[of mayors of Sacramento, California](List)(List of mayors of Sacramento, California)
*[of people from Sacramento, California](List)(List of people from Sacramento, California)
*[California Megaregion](Northern)(Northern California Megaregion)
## Notes
-->
}}
## References
## External links
*
*[Official tourism website](https://web.archive.org/web/20050406173128/http://www.sacramentocvb.org/) from the Sacramento Convention and Visitors Bureau
*[Wiki](Sacramento)(localwiki:sac)
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Sacramento, California)
[cities and towns in California](Category:Incorporated)(Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California)
[in Sacramento County, California](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Sacramento County, California)
[in Sacramento metropolitan area](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Sacramento metropolitan area)
[seats in California](Category:County)(Category:County seats in California)
[of the Sacramento Valley](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of the Sacramento Valley)
[places on the Sacramento River](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places on the Sacramento River)
[places established in 1839](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in 1839)
[places established in 1850](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in 1850)
[establishments in California](Category:1850)(Category:1850 establishments in California)
[towns in California](Category:Railway)(Category:Railway towns in California)
|
Unix time
|
unix_time
|
# Unix time
*Revision ID: 1159078420 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T02:53:38Z*
---
Current Unix time ()
[[File:1000000000seconds.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Unix time passed seconds on 2001-09-09T01:46:40Z. It was celebrated in Copenhagen, Denmark at a party held by the [UNIX User Group](Danish)(Danish UNIX User Group) at 03:46:40 local time.]]
**Unix time** "seconds since the Epoch", "Unix timestamp" or "UNIX Epoch time".}} is a date and time representation widely used in [computing](computing). It measures time by the number of [second](second)s that have elapsed since 00:00:00 [UTC](Coordinated Universal Time) on 1 January 1970, the Unix [epoch](Epoch (computing)), without adjustments made due to [second](leap)(leap second)s. In modern computing, values are sometimes stored with higher [granularity](Data granularity), such as [microseconds](microseconds) or [nanoseconds](nanoseconds).
Unix time originated as the [time](system)(system time) of [Unix](Unix) operating systems. It has come to be widely used in other computer [systems](operating)(operating systems), [systems](file)(file systems), [languages](programming)(programming languages), and [databases](databases).
## Definition
Unix time is currently defined as the number of seconds which have passed since 00:00:00UTC on Thursday, 1 January 1970, which is referred to as the *Unix [epoch](epoch (computing))*. Unix time is typically encoded as a [integer](signed)(signed integer).
The Unix time is exactly midnight UTC on 1 January 1970, with Unix time incrementing by 1 for every non-leap second after this. For example, 00:00:00UTC on 1 January 1971 is represented in Unix time as . Negative values indicate times before the Unix epoch, with the value decreasing by 1 for every non-leap second before the epoch. For example, 00:00:00UTC on 1 January 1969 is represented in Unix time as . Every day in Unix time consists of exactly seconds.
Unix time is sometimes referred to as *Epoch time*. This can be misleading since Unix time is not the only time system based on an epoch and the Unix epoch is not the only epoch used by other time systems.
### Leap seconds
Unix time differs from both [Universal Time](Coordinated)(Coordinated Universal Time) (UTC) and [Atomic Time](International)(International Atomic Time) (TAI) in its handling of [seconds](leap)(leap seconds). UTC includes leap seconds that adjust for the discrepancy between precise time, as measured by [clocks](atomic)(atomic clocks), and [time](solar)(solar time), relating to the position of the earth in relation to the sun. [Atomic Time](International)(International Atomic Time) (TAI), in which every day is precisely seconds long, ignores solar time and gradually loses [synchronization](synchronization) with the Earth's rotation at a rate of roughly one second per year. In Unix time, every day contains exactly seconds. Each leap second uses the [timestamp](timestamp) of a second that immediately precedes or follows it.
On a normal UTC day, which has a duration of seconds, the Unix time number changes in a [continuous](continuous function) manner across midnight. For example, at the end of the day used in the examples above, the time representations progress as follows:
When a [second](leap)(leap second) occurs, the UTC day is not exactly seconds long and the Unix time number (which always increases by exactly each day) experiences a [discontinuity](discontinuity (mathematics)). Leap seconds may be positive or negative. No negative leap second has ever been declared, but if one were to be, then at the end of a day with a negative leap second, the Unix time number would jump up by 1 to the start of the next day. During a positive leap second at the end of a day, which occurs about every year and a half on average, the Unix time number increases continuously into the next day during the leap second and then at the end of the leap second jumps back by 1 (returning to the start of the next day). For example, this is what happened on strictly conforming POSIX.1 systems at the end of 1998:
Unix time numbers are repeated in the second immediately following a positive leap second. The Unix time number is thus ambiguous: it can refer either to start of the leap second (2016-12-31 23:59:60) or the end of it, one second later (2017-01-01 00:00:00). In the theoretical case when a negative leap second occurs, no ambiguity is caused, but instead there is a range of Unix time numbers that do not refer to any point in UTC time at all.
A Unix clock is often implemented with a different type of positive leap second handling associated with the [Time Protocol](Network)(Network Time Protocol) (NTP). This yields a system that does not conform to the POSIX standard. See the section below concerning NTP for details.
When dealing with periods that do not encompass a UTC leap second, the difference between two Unix time numbers is equal to the duration in seconds of the period between the corresponding points in time. This is a common computational technique. However, where leap seconds occur, such calculations give the wrong answer. In applications where this level of accuracy is required, it is necessary to consult a table of leap seconds when dealing with Unix times, and it is often preferable to use a different time encoding that does not suffer from this problem.
A Unix time number is easily converted back into a UTC time by taking the quotient and modulus of the Unix time number, modulo . The quotient is the number of days since the epoch, and the modulus is the number of seconds since midnight UTC on that day. If given a Unix time number that is ambiguous due to a positive leap second, this algorithm interprets it as the time just after midnight. It never generates a time that is during a leap second. If given a Unix time number that is invalid due to a negative leap second, it generates an equally invalid UTC time. If these conditions are significant, it is necessary to consult a table of leap seconds to detect them.
#### Non-synchronous Network Time Protocol-based variant
Commonly a [Mills](David L. Mills)-style Unix clock is implemented with leap second handling not synchronous with the change of the Unix time number. The time number initially decreases where a leap should have occurred, and then it leaps to the correct time 1 second after the leap. This makes implementation easier, and is described by Mills' paper. This is what happens across a positive leap second:
This can be decoded properly by paying attention to the leap second state variable, which unambiguously indicates whether the leap has been performed yet. The state variable change is synchronous with the leap.
A similar situation arises with a negative leap second, where the second that is skipped is slightly too late. Very briefly the system shows a nominally impossible time number, but this can be detected by the TIME_DEL state and corrected.
In this type of system the Unix time number violates POSIX around both types of leap second. Collecting the leap second state variable along with the time number allows for unambiguous decoding, so the correct POSIX time number can be generated if desired, or the full UTC time can be stored in a more suitable format.
The decoding logic required to cope with this style of Unix clock would also correctly decode a hypothetical POSIX-conforming clock using the same interface. This would be achieved by indicating the TIME_INS state during the entirety of an inserted leap second, then indicating TIME_WAIT during the entirety of the following second while repeating the seconds count. This requires synchronous leap second handling. This is probably the best way to express UTC time in Unix clock form, via a Unix interface, when the underlying clock is fundamentally untroubled by leap seconds.
#### Variant that counts leap seconds
Another, much rarer, non-conforming variant of Unix time keeping involves incrementing the value for all seconds, including leap seconds; some Linux systems are configured this way. Time kept in this fashion is sometimes referred to as "TAI" (although time stamps can be converted to UTC if the value corresponds to a time when the difference between TAI and UTC is known), as opposed to "UTC" (although not all UTC time values have a unique reference in systems that do not count leap seconds).
Because TAI has no leap seconds, and every TAI day is exactly 86400 seconds long, this encoding is actually a pure linear count of seconds elapsed since 1970-01-01T00:00:10TAI. This makes time interval arithmetic much easier. Time values from these systems do not suffer the ambiguity that strictly conforming POSIX systems or NTP-driven systems have.
In these systems it is necessary to consult a table of leap seconds to correctly convert between UTC and the pseudo-Unix-time representation. This resembles the manner in which time zone tables must be consulted to convert to and from [time](civil)(civil time); the [time zone database](IANA)(IANA time zone database) includes leap second information, and the sample code available from the same source uses that information to convert between TAI-based time stamps and local time. Conversion also runs into definitional problems prior to the 1972 commencement of the current form of UTC (see section [basis](UTC)(#UTC basis) below).
This system, despite its superficial resemblance, is not Unix time. It encodes times with values that differ by several seconds from the POSIX time values. A version of this system, in which the epoch was 1970-01-01T00:00:00TAI rather than 1970-01-01T00:00:10TAI, was proposed for inclusion in ISO C's [[date and time functions|](C)], but only the UTC part was accepted in 2011. A does, however, exist in C++20.
### Representing the number
A Unix time number can be represented in any form capable of representing numbers. In some applications the number is simply represented textually as a string of decimal digits, raising only trivial additional problems. However, certain binary representations of Unix times are particularly significant.
The Unix [time_t](time_t) data type that represents a point in time is, on many platforms, a [integer](signed)(Integer (computer science)), traditionally of 32[bit](bit)s (but see below), directly encoding the Unix time number as described in the preceding section. A signed 32-bit value covers about 68 years before and after the 1970-01-01 epoch. The minimum representable date is Friday 1901-12-13, and the maximum representable date is Tuesday 2038-01-19. One second after 03:14:07UTC 2038-01-19 this representation will [overflow](arithmetic overflow) in what is known as the [2038 problem](year)(year 2038 problem).
In some newer operating systems, time_t has been widened to 64 bits. This expands the times representable by approximately 292 billion years in both directions, which is over twenty times the present [of the universe](age)(age of the universe).
There was originally some controversy over whether the Unix time_t should be signed or unsigned. If unsigned, its range in the future would be doubled, postponing the 32-bit overflow (by 68 years). However, it would then be incapable of representing times prior to the epoch. The consensus is for time_t to be signed, and this is the usual practice. The software development platform for version 6 of the [QNX](QNX) operating system has an unsigned 32-bit time_t, though older releases used a signed type.
The [POSIX](POSIX) and [Group](Open)(Open Group) Unix specifications include the [standard library](C)(C standard library), which includes the time types and functions defined in the [<time.h>](time.h) header file. The ISO C standard states that time_t must be an arithmetic type, but does not mandate any specific type or encoding for it. POSIX requires time_t to be an integer type, but does not mandate that it be signed or unsigned.
Unix has no tradition of directly representing non-integer Unix time numbers as binary fractions. Instead, times with sub-second precision are represented using [data type](composite)(composite data type)s that consist of two integers, the first being a time_t (the integral part of the Unix time), and the second being the fractional part of the time number in millionths (in struct timeval) or billionths (in struct timespec). These structures provide a [decimal](decimal)-based [fixed-point](Fixed-point arithmetic) data format, which is useful for some applications, and trivial to convert for others.
### UTC basis
The present form of UTC, with leap seconds, is defined only starting from 1 January 1972. Prior to that, since 1 January 1961 there was an older form of UTC in which not only were there occasional time steps, which were by non-integer numbers of seconds, but also the UTC second was slightly longer than the SI second, and periodically changed to continuously approximate the Earth's rotation. Prior to 1961 there was no UTC, and prior to 1958 there was no widespread [timekeeping](atomic)(atomic clock); in these eras, some approximation of [GMT](GMT) (based directly on the Earth's rotation) was used instead of an atomic timescale.
The precise definition of Unix time as an encoding of UTC is only uncontroversial when applied to the present form of UTC. The Unix epoch predating the start of this form of UTC does not affect its use in this era: the number of days from 1 January 1970 (the Unix epoch) to 1 January 1972 (the start of UTC) is not in question, and the number of days is all that is significant to Unix time.
The meaning of Unix time values below (i.e., prior to 1 January 1972) is not precisely defined. The basis of such Unix times is best understood to be an unspecified approximation of UTC. Computers of that era rarely had clocks set sufficiently accurately to provide meaningful sub-second timestamps in any case. Unix time is not a suitable way to represent times prior to 1972 in applications requiring sub-second precision; such applications must, at least, define which form of UT or GMT they use.
, the possibility of ending the use of leap seconds in civil time is being considered. A likely means to execute this change is to define a new time scale, called *International Time*, that initially matches UTC but thereafter has no leap seconds, thus remaining at a constant offset from TAI. If this happens, it is likely that Unix time will be prospectively defined in terms of this new time scale, instead of UTC. Uncertainty about whether this will occur makes prospective Unix time no less predictable than it already is: if UTC were simply to have no further leap seconds the result would be the same.
## History
The earliest versions of Unix time had a 32-bit integer incrementing at a rate of 60 [Hz](Hertz), which was the rate of the system clock on the hardware of the early Unix systems. Timestamps stored this way could only represent a range of a little over two and a quarter years. The epoch being counted from was changed with Unix releases to prevent overflow, with midnight on 1 January 1971 and 1 January 1972 both being used as epochs during Unix's early development. Early definitions of Unix time also lacked timezones.
The current epoch of 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UTC was selected arbitrarily by Unix engineers because it was considered a convenient date to work with. The precision was changed to count in seconds in order to avoid short-term overflow.
When [POSIX.1](POSIX#POSIX.1) was written, the question arose of how to precisely define time_t in the face of leap seconds. The POSIX committee considered whether Unix time should remain, as intended, a linear count of seconds since the epoch, at the expense of complexity in conversions with civil time or a representation of civil time, at the expense of inconsistency around leap seconds. Computer clocks of the era were not sufficiently precisely set to form a precedent one way or the other.
The POSIX committee was swayed by arguments against complexity in the library functions, and firmly defined the Unix time in a simple manner in terms of the elements of UTC time. This definition was so simple that it did not even encompass the entire [year](leap)(leap year) rule of the Gregorian calendar, and would make 2100 a leap year.
The 2001 edition of POSIX.1 rectified the faulty leap year rule in the definition of Unix time, but retained the essential definition of Unix time as an encoding of UTC rather than a linear time scale. Since the mid-1990s, computer clocks have been routinely set with sufficient precision for this to matter, and they have most commonly been set using the UTC-based definition of Unix time. This has resulted in considerable complexity in Unix implementations, and in the [Time Protocol](Network)(Network Time Protocol), to execute steps in the Unix time number whenever leap seconds occur.
## Usage
Unix time is widely adopted in computing beyond its original application as the system time for [Unix](Unix). Unix time is available in almost all system programming [API](API)s, including those provided by both Unix-based and non-Unix [systems](operating)(operating systems). Almost all modern [languages](programming)(programming languages) provide APIs for working with Unix time or converting them to another data structure. Unix time is also used as a mechanism for storing timestamps in a number of [systems](file)(file systems), [formats](file)(file formats), and [databases](databases).
The [standard library](C)(C standard library) uses Unix time for all date and time functions, and Unix time is sometimes referred to as time_t, the name of the [type](data)(data type) used for timestamps in [C](C (programming language)) and [C++](C++). C's Unix time functions are defined as the system time API in the [POSIX](POSIX) specification. The C standard library is used extensively in all modern desktop operating systems, including [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) and [Unix-like](Unix-like) systems such as [macOS](macOS) and [Linux](Linux), where it is a standard programming interface.
[iOS](iOS) provides a Swift API which defaults to using an epoch of 1 January 2001 but can also be used with Unix timestamps. [Android](Android (operating system)) uses Unix time alongside a timezone for its system time API.
Windows does not use Unix time for storing time internally but does use it in system APIs, which are provided in C++ and implement the C standard library specification. Unix time is used in the [format](PE)(PE format) for Windows executables.
Unix time is typically available in major programming languages and is widely used in desktop, mobile, and web application programming. [Java](Java (programming language)) provides an Instant object which holds a Unix timestamp in both seconds and nanoseconds. [Python](Python (programming language)) provides a time library which uses Unix time. [JavaScript](JavaScript) provides a Date library which provides and stores timestamps in milliseconds since the Unix epoch and is implemented in all modern desktop and mobile [browsers](web)(web browsers) as well as in JavaScript server environments like [Node.js](Node.js). MDN |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Date |website=developer.mozilla.org |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=1 May 2023}}
Filesystems designed for use with Unix-based operating systems tend to use Unix time. [APFS](APFS), the file system used by default across all Apple devices, and [ext4](ext4), which is widely used on Linux and Android devices, both use Unix time in nanoseconds for file timestamps. Several [file formats](archive)(archive file format) can store timestamps in Unix time, including [RAR](RAR (file format)) and [tar](tar (computing)). Unix time is also commonly used to store timestamps in databases, including in [MySQL](MySQL) and [PostgreSQL](PostgreSQL).
## Limitations
Unix time was designed to encode calendar dates and times in a compact manner intended for use by computers internally. It is not intended to be easily read by humans or to store timezone-dependent values. It is also limited by default to representing time in seconds, making it unsuited for use when a more precise measurement of time is needed, such as when measuring the execution time of programs.
### Range of representable times
[[File:Year 2038 problem.gif|thumb|upright=1.8|An animated visual of the [Unix time overflow which will occur in 2038](32-bit)(Year 2038 problem)]]
Unix time by design does not require a specific size for the storage, but most common implementations of Unix time use a [integer](signed)(signed integer) with the [size](word)(Word (computer architecture)) of the underlying computer. As the majority of modern computers are [32-bit](32-bit) or [64-bit](64-bit), and a large number of programs are still written in 32-bit compatibility mode, this means that many programs using Unix time are using signed 32-bit integer fields. The maximum value of a signed 32 bit integer is 2-1, and the minimum value is -(2), making it impossible to represent dates before 13 December 1901 (at 20:45:52 UTC) or after 19 January 2038 (at 03:14:07 UTC). The early cutoff can have an impact on databases that are storing historical information; in some databases where 32-bit Unix time is used for timestamps, it may be necessary to store time in a different form of field, such as a string, to represent dates before 1901. The late cutoff is known as the [2038 problem](Year)(Year 2038 problem) and has the potential to cause issues as the date approaches, as dates beyond the 2038 cutoff would wrap back around to the start of the representable range in 1901.
Date range cutoffs are not an issue with 64-bit representations of Unix time, as the effective range of dates representable with Unix time stored in a signed 64-bit integer is over 584 billion years.[IDRBT Working Paper No. 9 Y2K38](https://web.archive.org/web/20120513133703/http://www.idrbt.ac.in/publications/workingpapers/Working%20Paper%20No.%209.pdf) – Ashutosh Saxena and Sanjay Rawat
## Alternatives
Unix time is not the only standard for time that counts away from an epoch. On [Windows](Microsoft Windows), the FILETIME type stores time as a count of 100-nanosecond intervals that have elapsed since 0:00 [GMT](GMT) on 1 January 1601. Windows epoch time is used to store time stamps for files and in protocols such as the [Directory](Active)(Active Directory) Time Service and [Message Block](Server)(Server Message Block).
The [Time Protocol](Network)(Network Time Protocol) used to coordinate time between computers uses an epoch of 1 January 1900, counted in an unsigned 32-bit integer for seconds and another unsigned 32-bit integer for fractional seconds, which rolls over every 2 seconds (about once every 136 years).
Many applications and programming languages provide methods for storing time with an explicit timezone. There are also a number of time format standards which exist to be readable by both humans and computers, such as [8601](ISO)(ISO 8601).
## Notable events in Unix time
Unix enthusiasts have a history of holding "time_t parties" (pronounced "time [parties](tea)(Tea party)") to celebrate significant values of the Unix time number. date +%s Turning 1111111111 |date=17 March 2005 |access-date=12 January 2020 |archive-date=12 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112103650/https://slashdot.org/story/05/03/17/169200/date-s-turning-1111111111 |url-status=live }} These are directly analogous to the [year](new)(new year) celebrations that occur at the change of year in many calendars. As the use of Unix time has spread, so has the practice of celebrating its milestones. Usually it is time values that are round numbers in [decimal](decimal) that are celebrated, following the Unix convention of viewing time_t values in decimal. Among some groups round [binary](binary numeral system) numbers are also celebrated, such as +230 which occurred at 13:37:04 UTC on Saturday, 10 January 2004.
The events that these celebrate are typically described as "*N* seconds since the Unix epoch", but this is inaccurate; as discussed above, due to the handling of leap seconds in Unix time the number of seconds elapsed since the Unix epoch is slightly greater than the Unix time number for times later than the epoch.
* At 18:36:57 UTC on Wednesday, 17 October 1973, the first appearance of the date in [8601](ISO)(ISO 8601) format within the digits of Unix time (119731017) took place.
* At 01:46:40 UTC on Sunday, 9 September 2001, the Unix billennium (Unix time number ) was celebrated. The name *billennium* is a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of *[billion](billion (word))* and *[millennium](millennium)*. Some programs which stored timestamps using a text representation encountered sorting errors, as in a text sort, times after the turnover starting with a *1* digit erroneously sorted before earlier times starting with a *9* digit. Affected programs included the popular [Usenet](Usenet) reader [KNode](KNode) and [e-mail](e-mail) client [KMail](KMail), part of the [KDE](KDE) desktop environment. Such bugs were generally cosmetic in nature and quickly fixed once problems became apparent. The problem also affected many *Filtrix* document-format filters provided with [Linux](Linux) versions of [WordPerfect](WordPerfect); a patch was created by the user community to solve this problem, since [Corel](Corel) no longer sold or supported that version of the program.
* At 23:31:30 UTC on Friday, 13 February 2009, the [decimal](decimal) representation of Unix time reached seconds. [Google](Google) celebrated this with a [doodle](Google)(Google doodle). Parties and other celebrations were held around the world, among various technical subcultures, to celebrate the th second.
## In popular culture
[Vinge](Vernor)(Vernor Vinge)'s novel *[Deepness in the Sky](A)(A Deepness in the Sky)* describes a spacefaring trading civilization thousands of years in the future that still uses the Unix epoch. The "[programmer-archaeologist](software archaeology)" responsible for finding and maintaining usable code in mature computer systems first believes that the epoch refers to the time when [first walked on the Moon](man)(Apollo 11), but then realizes that it is "the 0-second of one of humankind's first computer operating systems".
## See also
* [(computing)](Epoch)(Epoch (computing))
* [time](System)(System time)
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Unix Programmer's Manual, first edition](https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/1stEdman.html)
* [Personal account of the POSIX decisions](http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg00109.html) by [Curt Noll](Landon)(Landon Curt Noll)
* [chrono-Compatible Low-Level Date Algorithms](https://howardhinnant.github.io/date_algorithms.html) – algorithms to convert between Gregorian and Julian dates and the number of days since the start of Unix time
[standards](Category:Calendaring)(Category:Calendaring standards)
[time-related software](Category:Network)(Category:Network time-related software)
[measurement systems](Category:Time)(Category:Time measurement systems)
[scales](Category:Time)(Category:Time scales)
[Time](Category:Unix)
[in computing](Category:1970)(Category:1970 in computing)
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Dirk Nowitzki
|
dirk_nowitzki
|
# Dirk Nowitzki
*Revision ID: 1160055312 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T04:41:23Z*
---
| birth_place = [Würzburg](Würzburg), [Germany](West)(West Germany)
| height_ft = 7
| height_in = 0
| weight_lb = 245
| draft_year = 1998
| draft_round = 1
| draft_pick = 9
| draft_team = [Bucks](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Bucks)
| career_start = 1994
| career_end = 2019
| career_position = [forward](Power)(Power forward (basketball)) / [center](Center (basketball))
| career_number = 41 ([Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks))14 ([Germany](Germany men's national basketball team))
| years1 = 1994–1998
| team1 = [Würzburg](DJK)(DJK Würzburg)
| years2 = –
| team2 = [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks)
| highlights = * [champion](NBA)(List of NBA champions) ([2011](2011 NBA Finals))
* [Finals MVP](NBA)(Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award) ([2011](2011 NBA Finals))
* [Most Valuable Player](NBA)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award) ()
* 14× [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star) (–, , , )
* 4× [First Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA First Team) (–, )
* 5× [Second Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Second Team) (, , , , )
* 3× [Third Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Third Team) (, , )
* [club](50–40–90)(50–40–90 club) ()
* [Three-Point Contest](NBA)(NBA Three-Point Contest) champion ()
* [Teammate of the Year](NBA)(Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award) ()
* [75th Anniversary Team](NBA)(NBA 75th Anniversary Team)
* No. 41 [by Dallas Mavericks](retired)(Dallas Mavericks#Retired numbers)
* [Most Valuable Player](Bundesliga)(Basketball Bundesliga MVP) (1999)
* [Top Scorer](Bundesliga)(Basketball Bundesliga Top Scorer) (1999)
* [World Cup MVP](FIBA)(FIBA Basketball World Cup Most Valuable Player) ([2002](2002 FIBA World Championship))
* 2× [World Cup Top Scorer](FIBA)(FIBA Basketball World Cup Top Scorer) ([2002](2002 FIBA World Championship), [2006](2006 FIBA World Championship))
* [EuroBasket MVP](FIBA)(FIBA EuroBasket MVP) ([2005](EuroBasket 2005))
* 3× [EuroBasket Top Scorer](FIBA)(FIBA EuroBasket Top Scorer) ([2001](2001 EuroBasket), [2005](2005 EuroBasket), [2007](2007 EuroBasket))
* 6× [Player of the Year](Euroscar)(Euroscar Player of the Year) (2002–2006, 2011)
* 2× [Europe Men's Player of the Year](FIBA)(FIBA Europe Men's Player of the Year Award) (2005, 2011)
* 11× All-Europeans First Team (2003–2011, 2013, 2014)
* 9× All-Europeans Power Forward of the Year (2005–2011, 2013, 2014)
* [Europa Player of the Year](Mister)(Mr. Europa) (2005)
* [Lorbeerblatt](Silbernes)(Silbernes Lorbeerblatt) (2011)
* [Sports Personality of the Year](German)(German Sports Personality of the Year) (2011)
* [Lifetime Achievement Award](Laureus)(Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award) (2020)
* No. 14 retired by [national team](Germany)(Germany men's national basketball team)
| stat1label = [Points](Point (basketball))
| stat1value = 31,560 (20.7 ppg)
| stat2label = [Rebounds](Rebound (basketball))
| stat2value = 11,489 (7.5 rpg)
| stat3label = [Assists](Assist (basketball))
| stat3value = 3,651 (2.4 apg)
| medaltemplates =
}}
}}
**Dirk Werner Nowitzki** (, ; born June 19, 1978) is a German former professional [basketball](basketball) player who is a special advisor for the [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks) of the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA). Listed at , he is widely regarded as one of the greatest [forwards](power)(Power forward (basketball)) of all time and is considered by many to be the greatest European player of all time. In 2021, he was selected to the [75th Anniversary Team](NBA)(NBA 75th Anniversary Team). In 2023, it was announced that Nowitzki would be inducted into the [Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame](Naismith)(Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame).
An alumnus of the [Würzburg](DJK)(DJK Würzburg) basketball club, Nowitzki was chosen as the ninth pick in the [NBA draft](1998)(1998 NBA draft) by the [Bucks](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Bucks) and was immediately traded to the Dallas Mavericks, where he played his entire 21-year [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA) career. Nowitzki led the Mavericks to 15 [playoff appearances](NBA)(NBA Playoffs) ([2001](2001 NBA Playoffs)–[2012](2012 NBA Playoffs); [2014](2014 NBA Playoffs)–[2016](2016 NBA Playoffs)), including the franchise's first Finals appearance in [2006](2006 NBA Finals) and its only NBA championship in [2011](2011 NBA Finals). Known for his scoring ability, versatility, accurate outside shooting, and trademark fadeaway jump shot, Nowitzki won the [Most Valuable Player Award](NBA)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award) in 2007 and the [Finals Most Valuable Player Award](NBA)(NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award) in 2011.
Nowitzki is the only player ever to play for a single NBA franchise for 21 seasons. He is a 14-time [All-Star](List of NBA All-Stars), a 12-time [All-NBA](All-NBA) Team member, the first European player to start in an All-Star Game, and the first European player to receive the NBA Most Valuable Player Award.[Nowitzki is first European to be named MVP](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2871035), ESPN, May 16, 2007. Retrieved January 6, 2008 Nowitzki is the highest-scoring foreign-born player in NBA history. He is the first Maverick voted onto an All-NBA Team and holds several [Mavericks franchise records](all-time)(Dallas Mavericks all-time roster#Statistics leaders). On December 10, 2012, he became the first non-American player to receive the [Legacy Award](Naismith)(Naismith Award). Following his retirement, Nowitzki stood sixth on the [all-time scoring list](NBA)(List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders).[Career points leaders](https://www.basketball-reference.com/leaders/pts_career.html) Basketball-Reference.com – NBA & ABA Leaders and Records for Points – retrieved October 31, 2019
In international play, Nowitzki led the [national team](Germany)(Germany men's national basketball team) to a bronze medal in the [FIBA World Championship](2002)(2002 FIBA World Championship) and silver in [2005](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2005), and was the leading scorer and [MVP](Most Valuable Player) in both tournaments. He is also the first German men's player to have his number retired, receiving this honor in September 2022.
## Early life
Born in [Würzburg](Würzburg), Germany, Dirk Werner Nowitzki comes from an athletic family: his mother [Nowitzki](Helga)(Helga Nowitzki) (née Bredenbröcker) was a professional basketball player and his father Jörg-Werner was a [handball](handball) player who represented [Germany](Germany men's national handball team) at the highest international level. His older sister [Nowitzki](Silke)(Silke Nowitzki), a local champion in track and field, also became a basketball player and now works for the NBA in International TV.Sauer, 30
Nowitzki was a very tall child; most of the time he stood above his peers by a foot or more. He initially played handball and [tennis](tennis). He managed to become a ranked junior tennis player in the German youth circuit, but soon grew tired of being called a "freak" for his height and eventually turned to basketball.Sauer, 14–17 After joining the local [Würzburg](DJK)(DJK Würzburg), the 15-year-old attracted the attention of former German international basketball player [Geschwindner](Holger)(Holger Geschwindner), who spotted his talent immediately and offered to coach him individually two to three times per week. After getting both the approval of Nowitzki and his parents, Geschwindner put his student through an unorthodox training scheme: he emphasized shooting and passing exercises, and shunned weight training and tactical drills, because he felt it was "unnecessary friction".Sauer, 20–22 Furthermore, Geschwindner encouraged Nowitzki to play a musical instrument and read literature to make him a more complete personality.
After a year, the coach was so impressed with Nowitzki's progress that he advised him, "You must now decide whether you want to play against the best in the world or just stay a local hero in Germany. If you choose the latter, we will stop training immediately, because nobody can prevent that anymore. But if you want to play against the best, we have to train on a daily basis." After pondering this lifetime decision for two days, Nowitzki agreed to enter the full-time training schedule, choosing the path to his eventual international career. Geschwindner let him train seven days a week with DJK Würzburg players and future German internationals [Garrett](Robert)(Robert Garrett (basketball)), [Willoughby](Marvin)(:de:Marvin Willoughby), and [Greene](Demond)(Demond Greene), and in the summer of 1994, then 16-year-old Nowitzki made the DJK squad.Sauer, 22–24
## Professional career
### DJK Würzburg (1994–1998)
When Nowitzki joined the team, DJK played in [second-tier level league](Germany's)(German basketball league system), the [Bundesliga](Second)(2. Basketball Bundesliga), South Division. His first trainer was Pit Stahl, who played the tall teenager as an outside-scoring [forward](forward (basketball)) rather than an inside-scoring [center](center (basketball)) to utilise his shooting skills.Sauer, 25 In the [Second Bundesliga season](1994–95)(1995 in basketball), ambitious DJK finished as a disappointing sixth of 12 teams; the rookie Nowitzki was often benched and struggled with bad school grades, which forced him to study rather than work on his game.Sauer, 26 In the next [Second Bundesliga season](1995–96)(1996 in basketball), Nowitzki established himself as a starter next to [Finnish](Finnish people) star forward Martti Kuisma and soon became a regular double-digit scorer: after German national basketball coach [Bauermann](Dirk)(Dirk Bauermann) saw him score 24 [points](point (basketball)) in a DJK game, he stated that "Dirk Nowitzki is the greatest German basketball talent of the last 10, maybe 15 years."Sauer, 30–31
In the [Second Bundesliga season](1996–97)(1997 in basketball), Nowitzki averaged 19.4 points per game and led DJK again to second place after the regular season, but could not help his team gain promotion.Sauer, 33–38 In the following [Second Bundesliga season](1997–98)(1998 in basketball), Nowitzki finished his "[Abitur](Abitur)" (German [A-level](A-level)s), but had to do compulsory military service in the [Bundeswehr](Bundeswehr) which lasted from September 1, 1997, to June 30, 1998; The 18-year-old, who had grown to tall, made progress, leading DJK to a 36:4-point total (in Germany, a victory gives 2:0 points and a loss 0:2) and ending as leading scorer with 28.2 points per game. In the promotion playoffs, DJK finally broke its hex, finishing at first place with 14:2 points and earning [promotion](promotion and relegation) to the next higher league; Nowitzki was voted "German Basketballer of the Year" by the German BASKET magazine.Sauer, 38–45
Abroad, Nowitzki's progress was noticed. A year later, the teenager participated in the [Nike](Nike, Inc.) "Hoop Heroes Tour", where he played against NBA stars like [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley) and [Pippen](Scottie)(Scottie Pippen). In a 30-minute show match, Nowitzki outplayed Barkley and even [dunked](slam dunk) on him, causing the latter to exclaim: "The boy is a genius. If he wants to enter the NBA, he can call me."Sauer, 39–40 On March 29, 1998, Nowitzki was chosen to play in the [Hoop Summit](Nike)(Nike Hoop Summit), one of the premier talent watches in U.S. men's basketball. In a match between the U.S. talents and the international talents, Nowitzki scored 33 points on 6-of-12 shooting, 14 [rebounds](rebound (basketball)) and 3 [steals](steal (basketball)) for the internationals and outplayed future US NBA players [Lewis](Rashard)(Rashard Lewis) and [Harrington](Al)(Al Harrington). He impressed with a combination of quickness, ball handling, and shooting range, and from that moment a multitude of European and NBA clubs wanted to recruit him.Sauer, 42–43
### Dallas Mavericks (1998–2019)
#### Difficult start (1998–1999)
Projected to be the seventh pick in the [NBA draft](1998)(1998 NBA draft), Nowitzki passed up many college offers and went directly into the NBA as a [prep-to-pro](prep-to-pro) player.Sauer, 47 The [Bucks](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Bucks) selected Nowitzki with the ninth pick in the draft and traded him to the [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks) in a multi-team deal; future star point guard [Nash](Steve)(Steve Nash) came to Dallas in the same trade. Nowitzki and Nash quickly became close friends.Sauer, 49–51 Nowitzki became only the fourth German player in NBA history, following [pivots](Center (basketball)) [Blab](Uwe)(Uwe Blab) and [Welp](Christian)(Christian Welp) and All-Star [swingman](swingman) [Schrempf](Detlef)(Detlef Schrempf), who was a 35-year-old veteran of the [SuperSonics](Seattle)(Seattle SuperSonics) when his young compatriot arrived. Nowitzki finished his DJK career as the only Würzburg player to have ever made the NBA.[DJK Basketball: Wir über uns](http://www.djk-wuerzburg-basketball.de/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=85&Itemid=152) , djk-wuerzburg-basketball.de. Retrieved March 9, 2008
In Dallas, Nowitzki joined a franchise which had last made the playoffs in 1990. [guard](Shooting)(Shooting guard) [Finley](Michael)(Michael Finley) captained the squad, supported by center [Bradley](Shawn)(Shawn Bradley) (once a number two draft pick) and team scoring leader [Ceballos](Cedric)(Cedric Ceballos), an ex-Laker forward. The start of the season was delayed by the [NBA lockout](1998–99)(1998–99 NBA lockout), which put the entire season in jeopardy. In limbo, Nowitzki returned to DJK Würzburg and played thirteen games before both sides worked out a late compromise deal that resulted in a shortened NBA schedule of only 50 games.Sauer, 54–59 When the season finally started, Nowitzki struggled. Played as a [forward](power)(Power forward (basketball)) by coach Don Nelson, the 20-year-old felt overpowered by the more athletic NBA forwards, was intimidated by the expectations as a number nine pick, and played bad defense; hecklers taunted him as "Irk Nowitzki", omitting the "D" which stands for "defense" in basketball slang.Sauer, 59–65 He only averaged 8.2 points and 3.4 rebounds in 20.4 minutes of playing time.[Dirk Nowitzki Statistics](https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/n/nowitdi01.html) , Basketball-reference.com. Retrieved January 6, 2008 Looking back, Nowitzki said: "I was so frustrated I even contemplated going back to Germany.... [jump from Second Bundesliga to the NBA](the) was like jumping out of an airplane hoping the parachute would somehow open." The Mavericks only won 19 of their 50 games and missed the playoffs.Sauer, 67
#### "Big Three" era (1999–2004)
##### 1999–00 season: Improving as a sophomore
On January 4, 2000, team owner [Perot Jr.](Ross)(Ross Perot Jr.) sold the Mavericks to Internet billionaire [Cuban](Mark)(Mark Cuban) for $280 million. Cuban quickly invested into the Mavericks and restructured the franchise, attending every game at the sidelines, buying the team a $46 million [757](Boeing)(Boeing 757) to travel in, and increasing franchise revenues to over $100 million. Nowitzki lauded Cuban, stating that he "created the perfect environment... we only have to go out and win."Sauer, 74–75 As a result of Nelson's tutelage, Cuban's improvements and his own progress, Nowitzki significantly improved in his second season. Nowitzki averaged 17.5 points, 6.5 rebounds and 2.5 [assists](assist (basketball)) per game in 35.8 minutes. He was voted runner-up in the [Most Improved Player Award](NBA)(NBA Most Improved Player Award) behind [Rose](Jalen)(Jalen Rose), and made it into the NBA All-Star Sophomore squad. The Nowitzki also was chosen for the [Contest](Three-Point)(Three-Point Contest), becoming the tallest player ever to participate.Sauer, 77 While he improved on an individual level, the Mavericks missed [playoffs](the)(2000 NBA Playoffs) after a mediocre 40–42 season.
##### 2000–01 season: First All-NBA and playoff appearances
In the [NBA season](2000–01)(2000–01 NBA season), Nowitzki further improved his averages, recording 21.8 points, 9.2 rebounds, and 2.1 assists per game. As a sign of his growing importance, he joined team captain Finley as only one of two Mavericks to play and start in all 82 games, and had 10 games in which he scored at least 30 points. Nowitzki became the first Maverick ever to be voted into the [All-NBA](All-NBA) squads, making the Third Team. In addition, his best friend Nash became a valuable point guard, and with Finley scoring more than ever, pundits took to calling this trio the "Big Three" of the Mavericks.
Posting a 53–29 record in the regular season,[2000–01 Standings](http://www.nba.com/history/standings/20002001.html) , National Basketball Association/history. Retrieved January 7, 2008 the Mavericks reached [playoffs](the)(2001 NBA Playoffs) for the first time since 1990.[Playoff Appearances](http://nbahoopsonline.com/History/Leagues/NBA/playoffs/teams.html), Nbahoopsonline.com. Retrieved January 7, 2008 As the fifth seed, they were paired against the [Jazz](Utah)(2000–01 Utah Jazz season), who were led by point guard [Stockton](John)(John Stockton) and power forward [Malone](Karl)(Karl Malone). The Mavericks won the series in five games, setting up a meeting with their Texas rivals, the [Antonio Spurs](San)(2000–01 San Antonio Spurs season).Sauer, 89–90 The Mavericks lost the first three games of the series, and Nowitzki fell ill with the flu and later lost a tooth after a collision with Spurs guard [Porter](Terry)(Terry Porter). After a Game 4 win, Nowitzki scored 42 points and grabbed 18 rebounds in Game 5, but could not prevent a deciding 105–87 loss.Sauer, 92
##### 2001–02 season: First All-Star selection
Prior to the [NBA season](2001–02)(2001–02 NBA season), Nowitzki signed a six-year, $90 million contract extension, which made him the second-highest-paid German athlete after [One](Formula)(Formula One) champion [Schumacher](Michael)(Michael Schumacher).Sauer, 93–94 He continued to improve, averaging 23.4 points, 9.9 rebounds and 2.4 assists per game. Nowitzki was voted into the All-NBA Second Team and into his first All-Star Game. After making [playoffs](the)(2002 NBA Playoffs) with a 57–25 record,[2001–02 Standings](http://www.nba.com/history/standings/20012002.html) , National Basketball Association/history. Retrieved January 5, 2008 the Mavericks swept [Garnett](Kevin)(Kevin Garnett) and the [Timberwolves](Minnesota)(2001–02 Minnesota Timberwolves season) in the first round; Nowitzki averaged 33.3 points per game.Sauer, 103 In the second round, the Mavericks met the [Kings](Sacramento)(2001–02 Sacramento Kings season) and rival power forward [Webber](Chris)(Chris Webber). After splitting the first two games, Kings coach [Adelman](Rick)(Rick Adelman) changed his defensive scheme, assigning [Türkoğlu](Hedo)(Hedo Türkoğlu) to cover Nowitzki. Türkoğlu would use his agility to play Nowitzki tightly, and if the taller Maverick tried to post up Türkoğlu, Webber would [team](double)(double team) Nowitzki.Sauer, 104 In Game 3 in Dallas, the Mavericks lost, 125–119; Nowitzki scored only 19 points and said: "I simply could not pass Türkoğlu, and if I did, I ran into a double team and committed too many turnovers." In Game 4, Nowitzki missed two potentially game-deciding jump shots, and the Mavericks lost, 115–113, at home. In Game 5, the Mavericks were eliminated, 114–101.Sauer, 105 However, Nowitzki received a consolation award: the *[dello Sport](Gazzetta)(Gazzetta dello Sport)* voted him as "European Basketballer of the Year", his 104 votes lifting him over second-placed [Bodiroga](Dejan)(Dejan Bodiroga) (54) and Stojakovic (50).Sauer, 106
##### 2002–03 season: First Western Conference Finals appearance
Before the [NBA season](2002–03)(2002–03 NBA season), Don Nelson and Mark Cuban put more emphasis on defense, specializing in a zone anchored by prolific shotblockers [LaFrentz](Raef)(Raef LaFrentz) and [Bradley](Shawn)(Shawn Bradley). The Mavericks won their first fourteen games, and Finley, Nash and Nowitzki were voted "Western Conference Players of the Month" in November 2002.Sauer, 108–109 In that season, Nowitzki lifted his averages again, now scoring 25.1 points, 9.9 rebounds and 3.0 assists per game. He led the Mavericks to a franchise-high 60–22 record, which earned them the third seed: as a result, the Mavericks had to play sixth seed [Trail Blazers](Portland)(2002–03 Portland Trail Blazers season) in the [NBA Playoffs](2003)(2003 NBA Playoffs).Sauer, 112 Now playing in a best-of-seven series instead of the former best-of-five, the Mavericks quickly won the first three games, but then completely lost their rhythm and the next three. In Game 7, Nowitzki hit a clutch three to make it 100–94 with 1:21 left and the Mavericks won 107–95. "This was the most important basket of my career", he later said, "I was not prepared to go on vacation that early."Sauer, 114 In the next round, the Mavericks met the Kings again, and the series went seven games. Nowitzki delivered a clutch performance in Game 7; he scored 30 points, grabbed 19 rebounds, and played strong defense, leading the Mavericks to a series-deciding 112–99 win. In the Western Conference Finals, the Mavericks met the Spurs again. In Game 3, Nowitzki went up for a rebound and Spurs guard [Ginóbili](Manu)(Manu Ginóbili) collided with his knee, forcing him out of the series. Without their top scorer, the Mavericks ultimately lost in six games.Sauer, 117
##### 2003–04 season: Playoff disappointment
After Dallas traded starting center [LaFrentz](Raef)(Raef LaFrentz) to Boston for forward [Walker](Antoine)(Antoine Walker), Nelson decided to start Nowitzki at center.Sauer, 118–119 To cope with his more physical role, Nowitzki put on of muscle mass over summer, sacrificed part of his agility, and put more emphasis on defense rather than scoring.Sauer, 119 Nowitzki's averages fell for the first time in his career, dropping to 21.8 points, 8.7 rebounds and 2.7 assists per game, but he still led the Mavericks in scoring, rebounding, steals (1.2 spg) and blocks (1.35 bpg). These figures earned him nominations for the All-Star Game and the All-NBA Third Team. Compiling a 52–30 record, the Mavericks met their familiar rivals the [Kings](Sacramento)(2003–04 Sacramento Kings season) in the playoffs once again, but were eliminated in five games.[Bibby hits for 36, Nowitzki misses at buzzer](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/recap?gameId=240429023), ESPN. Retrieved January 7, 2008
#### Franchise player (2004–2010)
[[nowitzki mavs.jpg|thumb|right|Nowitzki (#41) was the face of the Mavericks franchise from 2004 to 2019.](File:Dirk)]
##### 2004–05 season: First All-NBA First Team selection
Before the [NBA season](2004–05)(2004–05 NBA season), the Mavericks were re-tooled again. Center [Dampier](Erick)(Erick Dampier) was acquired from the [State Warriors](Golden)(Golden State Warriors) in an eight-player trade. Also, Nowitzki's close friend and fellow international teammate [Nash](Steve)(Steve Nash) left Dallas and returned to the [Suns](Phoenix)(Phoenix Suns) as a [agent](free)(free agent), going on to win two Most Valuable Player awards with the Suns. During the season, long-time head coach Don Nelson resigned, and his assistant [Johnson](Avery)(Avery Johnson) took on head coaching duties. In the midst of these changes, Nowitzki stepped up his game and averaged 26.1 points a game (a career high) and 9.7 rebounds; and his 1.5 blocks and 3.1 assists were also career-high numbers. On December 2, 2004, Nowitzki scored 53 points in an overtime win against the [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets), a career best. Nowitzki was voted to the All-NBA First Team for the first time. He also placed third in the league's [MVP](Most valuable player) voting, behind Nash and [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal).
However, the Mavericks had a subpar [NBA Playoffs](2005)(2005 NBA Playoffs) campaign. In the first round, Dallas met [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets) scoring champion [McGrady](Tracy)(Tracy McGrady) and center [Ming](Yao)(Yao Ming). The Rockets took a 2–0 series lead before the Mavericks won three games in a row. After losing Game 6, Dallas won Game 7 convincingly and won the series even though Nowitzki struggled with his shooting.[Mavericks Cruise Past Rockets in Game 7](http://www.nba.com/games/20050507/HOUDAL/recap.html) , National Basketball Association, May 7, 2006. Retrieved January 19, 2008 In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Mavericks met the Phoenix Suns, the new club of Nash. They split the first four games before the Suns won the last two games. In Game 6, which the Mavericks lost in overtime, Nowitzki was not at his best: he scored 28 points, but also sank only 9 of his 25 field goal attempts[NBA Western Conference Semi Finals, Game 6, Suns 130 @ Mavericks 126](http://www.nba.com/games/20050520/PHODAL/boxscore.html) , National Basketball Association, May 20, 2005. Retrieved January 19, 2008 and missed all five of his shots in overtime.[Nash Crashes Mavs' Party; Suns Advance](http://www.nba.com/games/20050520/PHODAL/recap.html) , National Basketball Association, May 20, 2005. Retrieved January 19, 2008
##### 2005–06 season: First NBA Finals appearance
Prior to the [NBA season](2005–06)(2005–06 NBA season), veteran Mavericks captain [Finley](Michael)(Michael Finley) was waived, leaving Nowitzki as the last player remaining from the Mavericks' "Big Three" of Nash, Finley, and himself. Nowitzki averaged 26.6 points, 9.0 rebounds, and 2.8 assists during the season. Not only was this his third 2,000-point season, but his scoring average of 26.6 points was highest ever by a European. He improved his shooting percentage, setting personal season records in [goals](field)(field goal percentage) (48.0%), [three-point](three-pointer) shots (40.6%) and [throw](free)(free throw)s (90.1%). During the 2006 All-Star Weekend in [Houston](Houston), Nowitzki scored 18 points to defeat [SuperSonics](Seattle)(Seattle SuperSonics) guard [Allen](Ray)(Ray Allen) and [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards) guard [Arenas](Gilbert)(Gilbert Arenas) in the Three-Point Contest.[Dirk's Daggers Light Up Houston](http://www.nba.com/allstar2006/three_point/) , National Basketball Association. Retrieved January 7, 2008
Nowitzki paced Dallas to a 60-win season. The team finished with the third-best record in the league behind the defending champion [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs) and the defending Eastern Conference champion [Pistons](Detroit)(Detroit Pistons).[NBA Standings – 2005–2006](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/standings?season=2006), ESPN. Retrieved January 7, 2008 As in the 2004–05 season, he finished third in the league's MVP voting, this time behind Nash and [James](LeBron)(LeBron James). He was again elected to the first team All-NBA squad. Nowitzki averaged 27.0 points, 11.7 rebounds, and 2.9 assists in the playoffs. In the opening round, the Mavericks swept the [Grizzlies](Memphis)(Memphis Grizzlies), 4–0, with Nowitzki making a clutch three-pointer in the closing seconds of Game 3 which tied the game and forced overtime. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Mavericks played against the San Antonio Spurs again. After splitting the first six games, the Mavericks took a 20-point lead in Game 7 before Spur [Ginóbili](Manu)(Manu Ginóbili) broke a tie at 101 by hitting a 3 with 30 seconds left. On the next play, Nowitzki completed a three-point play, which tied the game at 104. In the end, the Mavericks won, 119–111, and Nowitzki ended the game with 37 points and 15 rebounds.[Nowitzki, Mavericks Outlast and Dethrone Spurs](http://www.nba.com/games/20060522/DALSAS/recap.html) , National Basketball Association, May 22, 2006. Retrieved January 7, 2007 Nowitzki commented: "I don't know how the ball went in. Manu hit my hand. It was a lucky bounce." The Mavericks advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they again met the Suns. Nowitzki scored 50 points to lead the Mavericks to a victory in the crucial Game 5 with the series tied at 2; the Mavericks won the series in six games and faced the [Heat](Miami)(Miami Heat) in the [NBA Finals](2006)(2006 NBA Finals). A content Nowitzki commented: "We've been a good road team all season long, we believed in each other. We went through some ups and downs this season, but the playoffs are all about showing heart and playing together."[Comeback win vaults Mavs into NBA Finals](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/recap?gameId=260603021), ESPN. Retrieved January 7, 2008 Of Nowitzki's performance, [ESPN](ESPN) columnist [Simmons](Bill)(Bill Simmons) wrote, "Dirk is playing at a higher level than any forward since [[Larry Bird|[Larry] Bird]]."Simmons, Bill, ["Time to put Dirk in Pantheon"](http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=simmons/060602), ESPN. Retrieved January 19, 2008
The Mavericks took an early 2–0 Finals lead, but then gave away a late 15-point lead in a Game 3 loss.[Dallas Mavericks @ Miami Heat, NBA Finals Game 3, Play-by-Play](http://www.nba.com/games/20060613/DALMIA/playbyplay.html) , National Basketball Association. Retrieved January 7, 2008 Nowitzki only made 20 of his last 55 shots in the final three games as the Mavericks lost the Finals series, 4–2, to the Heat. The German was criticized by ESPN as "clearly... not as his best this series" and remarked: "That was a tough loss (in Game 3) and that really changed the whole momentum of the series."[Wade Leads Heat to First NBA Championship](http://www.nba.com/games/20060620/MIADAL/recap.html) , National Basketball Association. Retrieved January 7, 2008
##### 2006–07 season: NBA MVP and franchise record in wins
In the [season](2006–07)(2006–07 NBA season), Nowitzki shot a career-best 50.2% from the field, recorded averages of 24.6 points, 8.9 rebounds, and 3.4 assists, and led the Mavericks to a franchise-high 67 wins and the No. 1 seed in the Western Conference in the [NBA Playoffs](2007)(2007 NBA Playoffs).[NBA Standings – 2006–2007](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/standings?season=2007), ESPN. Retrieved January 7, 2008 He averaged 50% from the field, 40% for three-pointers, and 90% from the free-throw line, becoming (at the time) only the fifth player in NBA history to join the [club](50–40–90)(50–40–90 club). Nowitzki was touted as the overwhelming favorite for the Most Valuable Player award and was expected to lead the Mavericks to an easy win against the eighth-seed [State Warriors](Golden)(Golden State Warriors), despite the Warriors having won all three regular-season meetings against Dallas. However, the Mavericks ended up losing to the Warriors in six games, marking the first time a No. 8 seed had beaten the No. 1 seed in a best-of-seven series in NBA history.[Warriors Make History, Close Out Mavs](http://www.nba.com/playoffs2007/series/series_w1s1.html) , National Basketball Association. Retrieved January 7, 2008 In the clinching Game 6, Nowitzki shot just 2–13 from the field for only eight points. Defended by [Jackson](Stephen)(Stephen Jackson), Nowitzki averaged nearly five points less than his regular-season average in that series and shot 38.3% from the field as compared to 50.2% during the regular season. He described that loss as a low point in his career: "This series, I couldn't put my stamp on it the way I wanted to. That's why I'm very disappointed."[Nowitzki stumbles to 2-for-13 shooting in Game 6](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/playoffs2007/news/story?id=2859854), ESPN. Retrieved January 7, 2008 In spite of this historic playoffs loss, Nowitzki was named the NBA's regular-season Most Valuable Player and beat his friend and back-to-back NBA MVP Nash with more than 100 votes. He also became the first European player in NBA history to receive the honor.
##### 2007–08 season: First triple-double
[[2008](File:Dirkn.jpg|thumb|Nowitzki,)]
[[shoots his fade-away jump shot in 2008.](File:NowitzkiWizards1.jpg|thumb|Nowitzki)]
The [campaign](2007–08)(2007–08 NBA season) saw another first-round playoff exit for Nowitzki and the Mavericks. Despite a mid-season trade that brought veteran NBA All-Star [Kidd](Jason)(Jason Kidd) to Dallas, the Mavericks finished seventh in a highly competitive Western Conference. Nowitzki averaged 23.6 points, 8.6 rebounds, and a career-high 3.5 assists for the season.[Paul's Triple-Double Helps Hornets Oust Mavericks](http://www.nba.com/games/20080429/DALNOH/recap.html) , National Basketball Association, April 29, 2008. Retrieved May 9, 2008 In [playoffs](the)(2008 NBA Playoffs), they faced rising star [Paul](Chris)(Chris Paul)'s [Orleans Hornets](New)(New Orleans Hornets), and were eliminated in five games. The playoff loss led to the firing of Avery Johnson as head coach and the eventual hiring of [Carlisle](Rick)(Rick Carlisle). The few positive highlights that season for Nowitzki were his first career triple-double against the [Bucks](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Bucks) on February 6, 2008, with 29 points, 10 rebounds, and a career-high 12 assists, and on March 8, 2008 (34 points against the [Jersey Nets](New)(New Jersey Nets)), when he surpassed [Blackman](Rolando)(Rolando Blackman) with his 16,644th point to become the Mavericks' all-time career points leader.Aron, Jaime, ["Nets Slapped with Fifth Straight Loss"](http://www.nba.com/games/20080308/NJNDAL/recap.html) , National Basketball Association, March 8, 2008. Retrieved March 9, 2008
##### 2008–09 season: Playoff upset
The [NBA season](2008–09)(2008–09 NBA season) saw Nowitzki finish with averages of 25.9 points, 8.4 rebounds, and 2.4 assists. He was fourth in the league in scoring, and garnered his fourth [First Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA First Team) selection. He also made the 2009 All-Star game, his eighth appearance. Nowitzki led Dallas to a tight finish towards the [playoffs](2009 NBA Playoffs), finishing 50–32 for the season (6th in the West), after a slow 2–7 start. In the playoffs, the German led Dallas to an upset win over long-time rival San Antonio (the third seed), winning the first-round series, 4–1. The Mavericks, however, fell short against the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets), 4–1, in the second round, with Nowitzki averaging 34.4 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 4 assists in the series.
##### 2009–10 season: 20,000 points
The Mavericks finished the [NBA season](2009–10)(2009–10 NBA season) as the second seed for the [NBA Playoffs](2010)(2010 NBA Playoffs). Notable additions to the squad were multiple All-Stars [Marion](Shawn)(Shawn Marion) and [Butler](Caron)(Caron Butler), with the latter coming in the second half of the season. On January 13, 2010, Nowitzki became the 34th player in NBA history—and the first European—to hit the 20,000-point milestone, while ending the regular season with averages of 25 points, 7.7 rebounds, 2.7 assists, and 1 block. He was selected to the 2010 All-Star Game, his ninth appearance. The Mavericks faced off against San Antonio once more in the first round of the playoffs, but for the third time in four seasons, they failed to progress to the next round. Nowitzki became a free agent after the season, but signed a four-year, $80 million deal to remain in Dallas.Stein, Marc, ["Advisor: Dirk, Mavs agree to deal"](http://sports.espn.go.com/dallas/nba/news/story?id=5352960), ESPN, July 4, 2010. Retrieved July 5, 2010
#### Championship season (2010–2011)
[[File:Nowitzki-v-wizards1.jpg|thumb|Nowitzki posting up [Lewis](Rashard)(Rashard Lewis) in 2011]]
Prior to the [2010–11](2010–11 NBA season) season, the Mavericks traded for center [Chandler](Tyson)(Tyson Chandler). Nowitzki was injured in the middle of the season, but finished the regular season with averages of 23 points, 7 rebounds, and 3 assists. Despite missing nine games, Nowitzki was selected to the All-Star Game for the tenth time. The Mavericks defeated Portland in the first round of the playoffs and swept the two-time defending champion Lakers in the Conference Semifinals. In the Conference Finals, they faced the [City Thunder](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City Thunder) and their All-NBA duo of [Durant](Kevin)(Kevin Durant) and [Westbrook](Russell)(Russell Westbrook). In Game 1, Nowitzki scored 48 points and set an NBA record of 24 consecutive free throws made in a game as well as a record for most free throws in a game without a miss. In Game 4, with Dallas leading the series 2–1, Nowitzki scored 40 points to rally his team from a 99–84 fourth-quarter deficit to a 112–105 overtime victory. Dallas won the Western Conference title in Game Five.
In the [NBA Finals](2011)(2011 NBA Finals), Dallas once again faced the Miami Heat, which had acquired All-Stars [James](LeBron)(LeBron James) and [Bosh](Chris)(Chris Bosh) before the season began. During a Game 1 loss in Miami, Nowitzki tore a tendon in his left middle finger; however, MRIs were negative, and Nowitzki vowed that the injury would not be a factor. In Game 2, he led a Dallas rally from an 88–73 fourth-quarter deficit, making a driving left-handed layup over Bosh to tie the series at 1. Miami took a 2–1 series lead after Nowitzki missed a potential game-tying shot at the end of Game 3. Despite carrying a fever in Game 4, he hit the winning basket to tie the series yet again at 2, evoking comparisons to [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan)'s "Flu Game" against Utah in the [NBA Finals](1997)(1997 NBA Finals). Dallas went on to win the next two games, with Nowitzki scoring 10 fourth-quarter points in the series-clinching game in Miami. The championship was the first in the history of the franchise.[Mavericks finish off Heat 4–2 as Dallas wins its first NBA title](https://www.usatoday.com/sports/basketball/nba/2011-06-12-mavericks-heat-game-6_N.htm?csp=ipmps), *USA Today*, June 13, 2011. Retrieved June 16, 2011 Nowitzki was named NBA Finals Most Valuable Player.
### Post-championship and final years (2011–2019)
#### 2011–12 season: Naismith Legacy Award
As Dallas celebrated their title, the NBA was in a [lockout](2011 NBA lockout) that ended on December 8, 2011. The defending champions lost core players, such as [Stevenson](DeShawn)(DeShawn Stevenson), [J. Barea](J.)(J. J. Barea), [Stojaković](Peja)(Peja Stojaković), and Tyson Chandler, while adding [Odom](Lamar)(Lamar Odom), [West](Delonte)(Delonte West), and veteran all-star [Carter](Vince)(Vince Carter) in free agency. The Mavericks played only two preseason games, which led to a slow start for Nowitzki. Nowitzki made his 11th straight All-Star game appearance in [Orlando](2012 NBA All-Star Game). Nowitzki led his team in scoring 45 times during the season. Nowitzki's streak of 11 seasons with 1,500 points came to an end after scoring 1,342 in the shortened NBA season. Dallas clinched the seventh spot in the West, and were matched against the Oklahoma City Thunder in the [NBA Playoffs](2012)(2012 NBA Playoffs). The Thunder swept the Mavericks in four games.
#### 2012–13 season: Surgery and missing playoffs
[[Nowitzki high fives 2013.jpg|thumb|Nowitzki in 2013](File:Dirk)]
Before the season, [Kidd](Jason)(Jason Kidd) and [Terry](Jason)(Jason Terry) left the Mavericks in free agency. Nowitzki underwent knee surgery in October 2012 and missed the first 27 games of the season. He returned on December 23, 2012, in a game against [Antonio](San)(San Antonio Spurs). In January 2013, Nowitzki and some of his teammates made a pact not to shave their beards until the team reached .500. They were often called "The Beard Bros." On April 14, 2013, after a fadeaway jumper in a game against the [Orleans Hornets](New)(New Orleans Hornets), Nowitzki became the 17th player in NBA history to score 25,000 points. The Mavs went on to win the game and climbed back to .500 with a 40–40 record, and Nowitzki shaved his beard. However the Mavericks missed the playoffs for the first time since Nowitzki's second season, ending their 12-year playoff streak.
#### 2013–14 season: Magic Johnson Award
On January 29, 2014, Nowitzki scored his 26,000th point in a 115–117 loss to the Houston Rockets. In 35 minutes of play, he recorded 38 points, 17 rebounds, and 3 assists. On March 12, 2014, in a 108–101 victory over the Utah Jazz, Nowitzki finished the game with 31 points and passed [Havlicek](John)(John Havlicek) on the NBA scoring list with 26,426 points. On April 8, 2014, Nowitzki scored his 26,712th point, passing Oscar Robertson to move to the 10th position on the all-time scoring list. Nowitzki led the Mavericks back to the playoffs where they faced their in-state rival [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs) in the first round. Dallas lost the series in seven games, and the Spurs went on to win the [championship](NBA)(NBA championship).
#### 2014–15 season: 10,000 rebounds
On July 15, 2014, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks to a reported three-year, $25 million contract. He was also reunited with former championship teammate Tyson Chandler, who was traded to Dallas after a three-year stint with New York. However, longtime teammate [Marion](Shawn)(Shawn Marion) signed with the [Cavaliers](Cleveland)(Cleveland Cavaliers) before the season.
On November 11, 2014, Nowitzki scored 23 points to surpass [Olajuwon](Hakeem)(Hakeem Olajuwon) as the highest-scoring player born outside the United States, as the Mavericks came from 24 points down to defeat Sacramento, 106–98. Nowitzki hit a jumper from just inside the three-point line early in the fourth quarter to pass Olajuwon at No. 9, and he finished the night at 26,953 career points. Six days later, Nowitzki became the fourth player in NBA history to eclipse 27,000 career points with the same franchise, joining Michael Jordan, Karl Malone and Kobe Bryant. On December 26 against the Los Angeles Lakers, Nowitzki passed [Hayes](Elvin)(Elvin Hayes) for eighth place on the NBA's all-time scoring list. He went on to pass [Malone](Moses)(Moses Malone) for seventh place on the NBA's all-time scoring list on January 5, 2015, in a 96–88 overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets. He recorded his 10,000th career rebound on March 24 against the San Antonio Spurs, and scored his 28,000th career point on April 1 against the Oklahoma City Thunder.
The Mavericks finished the regular season as the No. 7 seed in the Western Conference with a record of 50–32. They faced the [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets) in the first round of the [playoffs](2015 NBA Playoffs) and lost the series in five games.
#### 2015–16 season: Final playoff appearance
On November 11, 2015, Nowitzki scored a season-high 31 points in a 118–108 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. He also grabbed a team-high 11 rebounds and passed former teammate [Marion](Shawn)(Shawn Marion) for 15th on the all-time career rebounding list. On December 23, Nowitzki moved past [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal) into sixth place on the NBA's career scoring list, then made the go-ahead basket with 19.2 seconds left in overtime to help the Mavericks defeat the Brooklyn Nets, 119–118. On February 21, he scored 18 points against the Philadelphia 76ers, becoming the sixth player in NBA history to reach 29,000 career points. On March 20, he set a new season high with 40 points in a 132–120 overtime win over the Portland Trail Blazers. His 20th career 40-point game was his first since January 2014, and the first by a 37-year-old since [Malone](Karl)(Karl Malone) in 2000–01.
In Game 4 of the Mavericks' first-round playoff series against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Nowitzki passed [Baylor](Elgin)(Elgin Baylor) (3,623 points) for 15th on the NBA's career playoff scoring list. The Mavericks lost the series four games to one.
#### 2016–17 season: NBA Teammate of the Year and 30,000 points
On July 27, 2016, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks. Nowitzki missed several games early in the season with Achilles tendon problems. On March 7, 2017, in a 122–111 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, Nowitzki became the sixth player in NBA history to score 30,000 regular-season points. He also became the first international player to reach the milestone and one of only three to score all 30,000-plus with one team—the others being [Malone](Karl)(Karl Malone) (Utah Jazz) and [Bryant](Kobe)(Kobe Bryant) (L.A. Lakers). The Mavericks finished the season with a 33–49 record and missed the NBA Playoffs.
Following the 2016–17 season, Nowitzki exercised his player option to become a free agent; this move allowed the Mavericks to re-sign him with less money and be able to pursue other free agents.
#### 2017–18 season: Season-ending surgery
On July 6, 2017, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks on a two-year, $10 million contract (with a team option on the second year). On February 5, 2018, in a 104–101 loss to the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(2017–18 Los Angeles Clippers season), Nowitzki became the sixth player in NBA history to reach 50,000 career minutes. On February 28, 2018, in a 111–110 overtime loss to the [City Thunder](Oklahoma)(2017–18 Oklahoma City Thunder season), Nowitzki reached 31,000 career points. On March 17, 2018, in a 114–106 loss to the [Nets](Brooklyn)(2017–18 Brooklyn Nets season), Nowitzki played in his 1,463rd game, moving past [Garnett](Kevin)(Kevin Garnett) into fifth place in the NBA career list. He had season-ending ankle surgery on April 5 after appearing in 77 of the first 78 games. The Mavericks finished the season with a 24–58 record and missed the NBA Playoffs.
#### 2018–19 season: Final season
On July 23, 2018, Nowitzki re-signed with the Mavericks for the 2018–19 season. With his season debut on December 13, 2018, he set the NBA record for the most seasons played with the same team (21), breaking a tie with Kobe Bryant, who spent 20 seasons with the Lakers. He also became the fifth player in NBA history to play 21 seasons, tying an NBA record. Nowitzki was named to his 14th All-Star game as a special team roster addition. On March 18, 2019, Nowitzki became the sixth-highest scoring player of all time, surpassing [Chamberlain](Wilt)(Wilt Chamberlain)'s 31,419 points in a loss to the [Orleans Pelicans](New)(2018–19 New Orleans Pelicans season). In his team's final home game of the season, a 120–109 victory over the [Suns](Phoenix)(Phoenix Suns) on April 9, Nowitzki scored 30 points, and announced his retirement in an emotional ceremony during which [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley), [Bird](Larry)(Larry Bird), [Kemp](Shawn)(Shawn Kemp), [Pippen](Scottie)(Scottie Pippen), and [Schrempf](Detlef)(Detlef Schrempf) appeared on the court to give laudatory speeches for Nowitzki. One day later, he played his final NBA game, recording a double-double with 20 points and 10 rebounds in a 105–94 loss to the Spurs.
## National team career
[[File:Dirk Nowitzki.jpg|thumb|270px|Nowitzki played for the [national basketball team](German)(Germany men's national basketball team) from 1997 to 2015.]]
Nowitzki began playing for the [national basketball team](German)(Germany men's national basketball team) in 1997. In his debut tournament, the [1999](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 1999), the 21-year-old rookie emerged as the main German scorer, but Germany finished seventh and failed to qualify for the [Olympic Games](2000)(Basketball at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament).Sauer, 122–124 In the [2001](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2001), Nowitzki was top scorer with 28.7 points per game, and narrowly lost the MVP vote to Serbian player [Stojaković](Peja)(Peja Stojaković). Germany reached the semi-finals and were close to beating host nation [Turkey](Turkey national basketball team), but [Türkoğlu](Hedo)(Hedo Türkoğlu) hit a three-point [beater](buzzer)(buzzer beater) to tie it, and the Turks eventually won in overtime.Sauer, 125–129 Germany then lost, 99–90, against [Spain](Spain national basketball team), and did not win a medal. However, with averages of 28.7 points and 9.1 rebounds, Nowitzki led the tournament in both statistics, and was voted to the All-Star team.[2001 European Dream Team 2001](http://www.basket-stats.info/eurobasket/2001/results/dream-team.htm#Statistics) , Basket-stats.info. Retrieved January 19, 2008 Back home, the German basketball team attracted up to 3.7 million television viewers, a German basketball record at the time.
Nowitzki earned his first medal when he led Germany to a bronze medal in the [FIBA World Championship](2002)(2002 FIBA World Championship). In the quarter-finals against the [Gasol](Pau)(Pau Gasol)-led Spain, Spain was up 52–46 after three-quarters, but then Nowitzki scored 10 points in the last quarter and led Germany to a 70–62 win.Sauer, 129–140 In the semi-finals, his team played against the [Argentinian](Argentina national basketball team) team led by [Ginóbili](Manu)(Manu Ginóbili), but despite leading, 74–69, four minutes from the end and despite Argentina losing Ginobili to a foot injury, the South Americans won, 86–80. However, the Germans won 117–94 against [Zealand](New)(New Zealand national basketball team) in the consolation finals and won bronze, and Nowitzki, as [tournament's top scorer](the)(FIBA World Cup Top Scorer), (24.0 points per game), was elected the [MVP](tournament)(FIBA World Cup MVP). Back in Germany, over four million television viewers followed the games, an all-time record in German basketball history.
In a preparation game for [2003](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2003), Nowitzki suffered a foot injury after a collision with French player [Piétrus](Florent)(Florent Piétrus); as a result, Nowitzki played inconsistently and was also often target of hard fouls.Sauer, 140–145 In the decisive second-round match against [Italy](Italy national basketball team) (only the winner was allowed to play the medal round), Germany lost, 86–84, finished ninth and did not qualify for the [Olympic Games](2004)(Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament). Nowitzki scored 22.5 points per game (third overall), but in general seemed to lack focus and dominance due to his injury.
In the [2005](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2005), Nowitzki led a depleted German squad into the Finals, beating title favorites [Slovenia](Slovenia national basketball team) in the quarter-finals and Spain in the semi-finals on the way. EuroBasket pundits praised Nowitzki in both matches: against Slovenia (76–62), the forward scored a game-high 22 points and commented: "The Slovenians underestimated us. They said we were the team they wanted and that was wrong, you shouldn't do that in the quarter-finals."[European Championships 2005](http://www.eurobasket.com/events/ec/05/ec05.asp), Eurobasket.com. Retrieved January 19, 2008 Against Spain (74–73), Nowitzki scored a game-high 27 points and scored the decisive basket: down by one and with only a few seconds to go, he drove on Spanish forward [Garbajosa](Jorge)(Jorge Garbajosa), and hit a baseline jump shot over Garbajosa's outstretched arms with 3.9 seconds to go. The German later commented: "It was indescribable. Garbajosa kind of pushed me towards the baseline so I just went with it." Despite losing the Finals, 78–62, to the [Greeks](Greece national basketball team), Nowitzki was [tournament's leading scorer](the)(FIBA EuroBasket Top Scorer) (26.1 per game), and second-leading rebounder (10.6 per game), and shot blocker (1.9 per game), and he was also voted [Most Valuable Player of the tournament](the)(FIBA EuroBasket MVP).[MVP Nowitzki Tops EuroBasket 2005 All-Tournament Team](http://eurobasket2005.fibaeurope.com/en/coid_dy8NLcUpIqYqy5qCbpGal2.articleMode_on.html) , Eurobasket2005.fibaeurope.com. Retrieved January 19, 2008 When he was subbed out towards the end of the final, Nowitzki received a standing ovation from the crowd, which he later recalled as "one of the best moments of [his] career".[Nowitzki Honoured by Player of the Year Status](http://www.fibaeurope.com/cid_ZnnR2TnfIj6JQUylexIUh3.coid_gHoxMMKeI8AM5K4G,SXuk0.articleMode_on.html), Fibaeurope.com. Retrieved June 22, 2011 The German team was awarded a silver medal.
In the [FIBA World Championship](2006)(2006 FIBA World Championship), Nowitzki led the German team to an eighth place and commented: "It's tough luck. But overall, finishing eighth in the world is not bad."[Game Report, Lithuania vs Germany, 77–62, 7th Place](http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/06_wcm/scheResu/p/eventid//gamename/A/groupname/77/langid//playernumber//roundid/5153/teamnumber//zone//fe_scheStat_gameRepo.html) , Fiba.com. Retrieved January 19, 2008
[[Nowitzki 2015.jpg|thumbnail|Nowitzki playing for Germany in 2015](File:Dirk)]
In the [2007](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2007), in which the top three teams automatically qualified for the [Olympics](2008)(Basketball at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament), Nowitzki led Germany to a fifth place. He was the leading scorer with 24.0 points per game.[Eurobasket 2007: Players – Statistical Leaders](http://www.eurobasket2007.org/en/cid_BqypGFJPHy-Nw4lwIAq,v3.pageID_52EsHaHtGkAK-VU0djWhV3.compID_qMRZdYCZI6EoANOrUf9le2.season_2007.roundID_5169.html) , Eurobasket2007.org. Retrieved June 20, 2008 The fifth place meant that Germany fell short of direct qualification, but was allowed to participate in the [Olympic Qualifying Tournament](2008)(FIBA World Olympic Qualifying Tournament 2008). Nowitzki led Germany into a decisive match against [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico national basketball team) for the last remaining slot. In that crucial match, he scored a game-high 32 points and was vital for the 96–82 win which sent the German basketball team to their first Olympics since the [Summer Olympics](1992)(Basketball at the 1992 Summer Olympics).[Deutsche Basketballer erkämpfen sich Olympia-Qualifikation](http://www.spiegel.de/sport/sonst/0,1518,566944,00.html), *Der Spiegel*. Retrieved June 20, 2008 Nowitzki was chosen to be the [bearer](flag)(2008 Summer Olympics national flag bearers) for the German Olympic Team at the [Ceremony](Opening)(2008 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony) for the 2008 Olympics. Nowitzki led the German team to a tenth-place finish, and averaged 17.0 points and 8.4 rebounds for the tournament.[Basketball star Nowitzki to carry German Olympic flag](https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080806/sp_wl_afp/oly2008basketgernowitzki_080806054718), Yahoo! News, August 6, 2008. Retrieved August 7, 2008.
In 2009, Nowitzki skipped the [2009](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2009). In July 2010, he said that he would skip the [FIBA World Championship](2010)(2010 FIBA World Championship). In summer 2011, Nowitzki played with Germany in the [2011](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2011), where the team reached ninth place. In 2015, Nowitzki [captained](captain (sports)) Germany at the [EuroBasket](EuroBasket 2015). They won only one game, and were eliminated in the group stage, on home soil. In January 2016, Nowitzki officially announced his retirement from Germany's national team. In his career with Germany's senior men's national team, he averaged 19.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 1.6 assists per game.
Nowitzki was named the [European Basketball Player of the Year](Euroscar)(Euroscar Award) by the Italian sports newspaper *[dello Sport](Gazzetta)(Gazzetta dello Sport)* for five years running from 2002 to 2006 and again in 2011.[Dirk Nowitzki named Europlayer of the year – Dallas Mavericks Blog – ESPN Dallas](http://espn.go.com/blog/dallas/mavericks/post/_/id/4683475/dirk-nowitzki-named-europlayer-of-the-year). ESPN. Retrieved August 10, 2012. He was also named the [Europa European Player of the Year](Mister)(Mister Europa) by the Italian sports magazine *[Superbasket](Superbasket)* in 2005, and the [Europe Men's Player of the Year](FIBA)(FIBA Europe Men's Player of the Year Award) twice in 2005 and 2011.
The [Basketball Federation](German)(German Basketball Federation) (DBB) honored Nowitzki with a jersey (number 14) retirement in September 2022, ahead of [2022](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2022). The ceremony was held on September 2, immediately before Germany's EuroBasket opening game against [France](France men's national basketball team) in [Cologne](Lanxess Arena). DBB also announced that a replica of Nowitzki's national team jersey would hang from the arena rafters at all future Germany men's home games.
## Player profile
[[File:FreiwurfNowitzki.jpg|thumb|Nowitzki shooting a free-throw against the [Bobcats](Charlotte)(Charlotte Bobcats) on November 11, 2005]]
Nowitzki was a versatile frontcourt player who mostly played the [forward](power)(Power forward (basketball)), but also played [center](Center (basketball)) and [forward](small)(small forward) in his career. An exceptional shooter for his size, Nowitzki made 88% of his free throws, nearly 50% of his field goal attempts and nearly 40% of his 3-point shots, and won the 2006 NBA All-Star Three-Point Contest. In the 2006–07 season, Nowitzki became only the fifth member of the NBA's [Club](50–40–90)(50–40–90 Club) for players who shot 50% or better from the field, 40% or better on three-pointers, and 90% or better on free-throws in a single season while achieving the NBA league minimum number of makes in each category.
Nowitzki's shooting accuracy, combined with his long seven-foot frame and unique shooting mechanics (such as having a release point above his head), made his jump shots difficult to contest. Before the start of the 2011 NBA Finals, LeBron James called Nowitzki's one-legged [fadeaway](fadeaway) the second most unstoppable move ever, behind only [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar)'s skyhook.
Additionally, Nowitzki could drive to the basket from the perimeter like few men his size were able to do.[ESPN.com's Greatest Power Forwards](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2074360), ESPN, June 2, 2005. Retrieved January 7, 2008 NBA.com lauded his versatility by stating: "The 7–0 forward who at times mans the pivot can strike fear in an opponent when he corrals a rebound and leads the break or prepares to launch a three-point bomb." [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley) said the best way to guard Nowitzki was to "get a cigarette and a blindfold".[Charles Barkley: Ron Artest should be suspended: 'Lakers are done'](http://www.hoopsdaily.com/content/charles-barkley-ron-artest-should-be-suspended-lakers-are-done) , Hoopsdaily.com, May 5, 2011. Retrieved June 16, 2011 Later on in his career, Nowitzki also developed an unorthodox post-up game, often backing down his opponents from the free-throw line or near the middle of the key, opening up the floor for multiple passing angles should a double team come his way. In 2022, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary *[Athletic](The)(The Athletic)* ranked their top 75 players of all time, and named Nowitzki as the 21st greatest player in NBA history.
Nowitzki was the sixth player in NBA history, and the first European, to hit the 30,000-point milestone. Apart from being the Mavericks' all-time leader in points, rebounds, field goals, field goal attempts, 3-pointers, 3-point attempts, blocks, free throws, and free-throw attempts, Nowitzki made the [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star Game) games fourteen times and the [Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Team)s twelve times. He was voted [MVP](NBA)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award) of the 2006–07 NBA season, becoming the first European player to receive the honor, as well as the MVP of the 2011 NBA Finals. Other achievements include winning the 2006 [Contest](Three-Point)(Three-Point Contest) and the 2017 NBA [of the Year](Teammate)(Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award) award, being voted [Basketballer of the Year](European)(Euroscar) five times in a row by *[Gazzetta dello Sport](La)(La Gazzetta dello Sport)*. He was the leading scorer and [MVP](Most valuable player) of the [FIBA World Championship](2002)(2002 FIBA World Championship), and [2005](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2005) tournaments.[XXXIV European Championship Beograd 2005](http://www.linguasport.com/baloncesto/internacional/eurobasket/eurobasket_e.htm), *Linguasport*, 2017. Retrieved June 10, 2019.[Dirk Nowitzki's Last Press Conference After His Final Game](https://foxsportsradio.iheart.com/content/dirk-nowitzkis-last-press-conference-after-his-final-game-mavericks/), *[Sports Radio](Fox)(Fox Sports Radio)*, Ed Black, April 11, 2019. Retrieved June 10, 2019.
Nowitzki is the only player to record at least 30,000 points, 10,000 rebounds, 3,000 assists, 1,200 steals, 1,200 blocks and 1,500 three-point field goals.
## NBA career statistics
### Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](1998–99 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 47 || 24 || 20.4 || .405 || .206 || .773 || 3.4 || 1.0 || .6 || .6 || 8.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](1999–2000 Dallas Mavericks season)
| **82** || 81 || 35.8 || .461 || .379 || .830 || 6.5 || 2.5 || .8 || .8 || 17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2000–01 Dallas Mavericks season)
| **82** || style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 38.1 || .474 || .387 || .838 || 9.2 || 2.1 || 1.0 || 1.2 || 21.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2001–02 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 76 || 76 || 38.0 || .477 || .397 || .853 || **9.9** || 2.4 || 1.1 || 1.0 || 23.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2002–03 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 80 || 80 || **39.0** || .463 || .379 || .881 || **9.9** || 3.0 || **1.4** || 1.0 || 25.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2003–04 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 77 || 77 || 37.9 || .462 || .341 || .877 || 8.7 || 2.7 || 1.2 || 1.4 || 21.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2004–05 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 78 || 78 || 38.7 || .459 || .399 || .869 || 9.7 || 3.1 || 1.2 || **1.5** || 26.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2005–06 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 81 || 81 || 38.1 || .480 || .406 || .901 || 9.0 || 2.8 || .7 || 1.0 || **26.6**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2006–07 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 78 || 78 || 36.2 || .502 || .416 || .904 || 8.9 || 3.4 || .7 || .8 || 24.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2007–08 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 77 || 77 || 36.0 || .479 || .359 || .879 || 8.6 || **3.5** || .7 || .9 || 23.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2008–09 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 81 || 81 || 37.7 || .479 || .359 || .890 || 8.4 || 2.4 || .8 || .8 || 25.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2009–10 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 81 || 80 || 37.5 || .481 || **.421** || **.915** || 7.7 || 2.7 || .9 || 1.0 || 25.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2010–11 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 73 || 73 || 34.3 || .**517** || .393 || .892 || 7.0 || 2.6 || .5 || .6 || 23.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2011–12 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 62 || 62 || 33.5 || .457 || .368 || .896 || 6.8 || 2.2 || .7 || .5 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2012–13 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 53 || 47 || 31.3 || .471 || .414 || .860 || 6.8 || 2.5 || .7 || .7 || 17.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2013–14 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 80 || 80 || 32.9 || .497 || .398 || .899 || 6.2 || 2.7 || .9 || .6 || 21.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2014–15 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 77 || 77 || 29.6 || .459 || .380 || .882 || 5.9 || 1.9 || .5 || .4 || 17.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2015–16 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 75 || 75 || 31.5 || .448 || .368 || .893 || 6.5 || 1.8 || .7 || .7 || 18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2016–17 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 54 || 54 || 26.4 || .437 || .378 || .875 || 6.5 || 1.5 || .6 || .7 || 14.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2017–18 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 77 || 77 || 24.7 || .456 || .409 || .898 || 5.7 || 1.6 || .6 || .6 || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2018–19 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 51 || 20 || 15.6 || .359 || .312 || .780 || 3.1 || .7 || .2 || .4 || 7.3
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | Career
| 1,522 || 1,460 || 33.8 || .471 || .380 || .879 || 7.5 || 2.4 || .8 || .8 || 20.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | All-Star
| 14 || 2 || 16.2 || .450 || .290 || .875 || 3.7 || 1.1 || .7 || .4 || 8.7
### Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2001](2001 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2000–01 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 10 || 10 || 39.9 || .423 || .283 || .883 || 8.1 || 1.4 || 1.1 || .8 || 23.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2002](2002 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2001–02 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 8 || 8 || **44.6** || .445 || **.571** || .878 || **13.1** || 2.3 || **2.0** || .8 || **28.4**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2003](2003 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2002–03 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 17 || 17 || 42.5 || .479 || .443 || .912 || 11.5 || 2.2 || 1.2 || .9 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2004](2004 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2003–04 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 5 || 5 || 42.4 || .450 || .467 || .857 || 11.8 || 1.4 || 1.4 || **2.6** || 26.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2005](2005 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2004–05 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 13 || 13 || 42.4 || .402 || .333 || .829 || 10.1 || 3.3 || 1.4 || 1.6 || 23.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2006](2006 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2005–06 Dallas Mavericks season)
| **23** || **23** || 42.7 || .468 || .343 || .895 || 11.7 || 2.9 || 1.1 || .6 || 27.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2007](2007 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2006–07 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 6 || 6 || 39.8 || .383 || .211 || .840 || 11.3 || 2.3 || 1.8 || 1.3 || 19.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2008](2008 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2007–08 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 5 || 5 || 42.2 || .473 || .333 || .808 || 12.0 || **4.0** || .2 || 1.4 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2009](2009 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2008–09 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 10 || 10 || 39.5 || .518 || .286 || .925 || 10.1 || 3.1 || .9 || .8 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2010](2010 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2009–10 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 6 || 6 || 38.8 || **.547** || **.571** || **.952** || 8.2 || 3.0 || .8 || .7 || 26.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|[2011](2011 NBA playoffs)†
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2010–11 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 21 || 21 || 39.3 || .485 || .460 || .941 || 8.1 || 2.5 || .6 || .6 || 27.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2012](2012 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2011–12 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 4 || 4 || 38.5 || .442 || .167 || .905 || 6.3 || 1.8 || .8 || .0 || 26.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2014](2014 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2013–14 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 7 || 7 || 37.6 || .429 || .083 || .806 || 8.0 || 1.6 || .9 || .9 || 19.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2015](2015 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2014–15 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 5 || 5 || 36.2 || .452 || .235 || .929 || 10.2 || 2.4 || .4 || .4 || 21.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2016](2016 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Dallas](2015–16 Dallas Mavericks season)
| 5 || 5 || 34.0 || .494 || .364 || .941 || 5.0 || 1.6 || .4 || .6 || 20.4
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2" | Career
| 145 || 145 || 40.7 || .462 || .365 || .892 || 10.0 || 2.5 || 1.0 || .9 || 25.3
|}
## Career highlights
;NBA
* [Finals MVP](NBA)(Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award): 2011
* [Most Valuable Player](NBA)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award): 2007
* 14× [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star): 2002–2012, 2014–2015, 2019
* 12× [Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA): 2001–2012
** 4× First Team: 2005–2007, 2009
** 5× Second Team: 2002–2003, 2008, 2010–2011
** 3× Third Team: 2001, 2004, 2012
* [Three-Point Contest](NBA)(NBA Three-Point Contest) champion: [2006](2006 NBA All-Star Game)
* [Shooting Stars champion](NBA)(NBA All-Star Weekend Shooting Stars Competition): [2010](2010 NBA All-Star Game)
* [Teammate of the Year](NBA)(Twyman–Stokes Teammate of the Year Award): 2017
* Ranked 6th in all-time-scoring
* Ranked 5th in all-time defensive-rebounds
* Ranked 2nd in all-time NBA Finals free throw percentage
* 82 consecutive free throws made in the regular season (the third-longest streak of all time)
* 26 consecutive free throws made in the Finals (longest streak of all time)
* One of three players with at least 30,000 points, 10,000 rebounds, 3,000 assists, 1,000 steals and 1,000 blocks
* One of two players with 150 three-pointers and 100 blocks in a single season: 2001
* One of four players with an NBA Playoff career average of 25 ppg and 10 rpg (25.3 ppg, 10.0 rpg)[Dirk Nowitzki Stats](http://espn.go.com/nba/player/stats/_/id/609/seasontype/3/dirk-nowitzki). ESPN NBA. Retrieved March 27, 2015.
* One of eight members of the [club](50–40–90)(50–40–90 club): 2007
* One of three players to surpass the mark of 1,000 in both three-pointers and blocks for the career
* One of four players to surpass the marks of 30,000 in points and 10,000 in rebounds for the career
* Holds the record for most free-throws made in a single playoff season with 205 free-throws made: 2006[NBA & ABA Single Season Playoff Leaders and Records for Free Throws](https://www.basketball-reference.com/leaders/ft_season_p.html). Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
* [Mavericks all-time statistical leader](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks all-time roster#Statistics leaders) in games, seasons, points, rebounds, blocks, field goals, three-point field goals and free throws[Dallas Mavericks Career Leaders](https://www.basketball-reference.com/teams/DAL/leaders_career.html). Basketball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 9, 2019.
*NBA record for most seasons with one team (21) and games played in a career spent with only one team (1,522)
;German national basketball team
* [FIBA World Championship](2002)(2002 FIBA World Championship): bronze medal, [MVP](FIBA World Cup MVP), [scorer](top)(FIBA World Cup Top Scorer), [team](all-tournament)(FIBA World Cup All-Tournament Team)
* [2005](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2005): silver medal, [MVP](EuroBasket MVP), [scorer](top)(EuroBasket Top Scorer), [team](all-tournament)(EuroBasket All-Tournament Team)
* [FIBA World Championship](2006)(2006 FIBA World Championship), [2001](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2001), [2007](EuroBasket)(EuroBasket 2007): top scorer, all-tournament team
* *Goldener Ehrenring* (golden honorary ring) of the DBB (German Basketball Federation): 2007
* [leading scorer](Third)(EuroBasket Records#All-time leading scorers in total points scored) (1,052 points) in the history of [EuroBasket](EuroBasket)
* Leading scorer in the history of the senior [national basketball team](German)(German national basketball team) (3,045 points in 153 international games)
* Member of the German national basketball team which was voted Outstanding German Team of the Year: 2005[Sportler des Jahres: Mannschaften des Jahres seit 1947](http://www.sportler-des-jahres.de/2-wahl/mannschaften-seit-1947) . Sportler-des-jahres.de. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
;Other achievements and highlights
* [League MVP](German)(Basketball Bundesliga MVP): 1999
* [League Top Scorer](German)(Basketball Bundesliga Top Scorer): 1999
* 6× [Euroscar](Euroscar): 2002–2006, 2011
* 2× [Europe Men's Player of the Year](FIBA)(FIBA Europe Men's Player of the Year Award): 2005, 2011
* [Europa](Mr.)(Mr. Europa): 2005
* 5× All-Europeans Player of the Year: 2005–2008, 2011
* German national [bearer](flag)(2008 Summer Olympics national flag bearers) at the [Summer Olympics](2008)(2008 Summer Olympics) in Beijing, China
* [NBA Player ESPY Award](Best)(Best NBA Player ESPY Award): 2011
* [Male Athlete ESPY Award](Best)(Best Male Athlete ESPY Award): 2011
* [Team ESPY Award](Outstanding)(Outstanding Team ESPY Award) with the Dallas Mavericks: 2011
* [Illustrated* NBA All-Decade Second Team](*Sports)(List of 2009 all-decade Sports Illustrated awards and honors#NBA All-Decade Team) (2000–2009)
* [Lorbeerblatt](Silbernes)(Silbernes Lorbeerblatt): 2011
* [Sports Personality of the Year](German)(German Sportspersonality of the Year): 2011
* Naismith Legacy Award: 2012
* [Johnson Award](Magic)(Magic Johnson Award): 2014[Dirk Nowitzki named winner of the 2013–14 Magic Johnson Award](http://probasketballwriters.org/dirk-nowitzki-wins-magic-johnson-award/). Probasketballwriters.org. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
* [Lifetime Achievement Award](Laureus)(Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award): 2020
## Personal life
Nowitzki's older sister, [Nowitzki](Silke)(Silke Nowitzki), described Nowitzki as a confident but low-key character, unspoiled by money and fame.Sauer, 46 He enjoys reading and playing the [saxophone](saxophone). Nowitzki passed his [Abitur](Abitur) examination at Röntgen Gymnasium Grammar School of [Würzburg](Würzburg). He founded the Dirk Nowitzki Foundation, a charity which aims at fighting [in Africa](poverty)(poverty in Africa).Sauer, 159
Nowitzki dated Sybille Gerer, a female basketball player from his local club DJK Würzburg. The relationship started in 1992 and lasted for 10 years before it ended in 2002; Nowitzki said, "At the end, we found out we developed in separate ways.... It did not work anymore, but we are still good friends."Sauer, 158 He added: "I surely want to start a family and have kids, but I cannot imagine it happening before I become 30."
In 2010, Nowitzki met and began dating Jessica Olsson, sister of twin Swedish footballers [Olsson](Martin)(Martin Olsson) and [Olsson](Marcus)(Marcus Olsson).[Dirk Nowitzki ist frisch verliebt – Es ist die schöne Schwedin Jessica Olsson](http://www.shortnews.de/id/853075/Dirk-Nowitzki-ist-frisch-verliebt-Es-ist-die-schoene-Schwedin-Jessica-Olsson) , Sshortnews.de, October 7, 2010. Retrieved July 27, 2011 The couple got married on July 20, 2012, at Nowitzki's home in Dallas. They have a daughter, born in July 2013 and two sons, born in March 2015 and November 2016. Though Nowitzki has considered acquiring U.S. citizenship, he remains a German national.
Nowitzki acknowledged close ties to his mentor Holger Geschwindner, whom he called his best friend. He is also good friends with his ex-teammate [Nash](Steve)(Steve Nash).Sauer, 85–86 Nash said of playing with Nowitzki, "We were both joining a new club, living in a new city, we were both single and outsiders: this creates a bond... He made life easier for me and I for him... Our friendship was something solid in a very volatile world." Nowitzki added, "He would have also become a good friend if we had met at the supermarket."
Nowitzki is a keen [football](association)(association football) fan and an avid supporter of [F.C.](Arsenal)(Arsenal F.C.)
## Books
Nowitzki's career has been chronicled in books. *[Nowitzki: German Wunderkind](Dirk)(Dirk Nowitzki: German Wunderkind)*, written by German sports journalists Dino Reisner and Holger Sauer, was published in 2004 by CoPress Munich. The 160-page hardcover book follows Nowitzki's beginnings in his native [Würzburg](Würzburg), documents his entry into and ascent within the NBA, and ends at the beginning of the 2004–05 NBA season.
In November 2011, the Würzburg local newspaper *Main-Post* published a 216-page book written by its sports journalists Jürgen Höpfl and Fabian Frühwirth: *Einfach Er – Dirk Nowitzki – Aus Würzburg an die Weltspitze*, (*Just Him – Dirk Nowitzki – From Würzburg to the Top of the World*). Both Höpfl and Frühwirth accompanied Nowitzki throughout his career, collecting interviews and photos used in the book. It looks back on the [NBA Finals](2011)(2011 NBA Finals) but also has a strong focus on Nowitzki's relation to his hometown Würzburg and his career progression which began there. The book features insights from former coaches, family members, and friends.
Thomas Pletzinger published in 2019 the 502-page biography *The Great Nowitzki*, which was regarded as one of the best sports-biographies to have ever been published in German.
## In popular culture
In 2014, the film documentary *[The Perfect Shot](Nowitzki.)(Nowitzki. The Perfect Shot)* was released, which retells Nowitzki's career and life.
## Honors
On October 30, 2019, by a unanimous resolution of the Dallas City Council, part of Olive Street was renamed Nowitzki Way, which runs past the [Airlines Center](American)(American Airlines Center). In December 2019, Nowitzki received the [of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](Order)(Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany) from Federal President [Steinmeier](Frank-Walter)(Frank-Walter Steinmeier), in recognition of his social commitment.
On January 5, 2022, Nowitzki's number 41 was retired by the Mavericks. The same night, [Cuban](Mark)(Mark Cuban) unveiled the design for the statue of Nowitzki that was planned to be installed outside the arena. The statue was unveiled on Christmas Day later that year.
## See also
*[of National Basketball Association career games played leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association players with 9 or more steals in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with 9 or more steals in a game)
*[of National Basketball Association players with 50 or more points in a playoff game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with 50 or more points in a playoff game)
*[of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders)
*[of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise](List)(List of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise)
*[Summer Olympics national flag bearers](2008)(2008 Summer Olympics national flag bearers)
*[of European basketball players in the United States](List)(List of European basketball players in the United States)
## Footnotes
## References
## External links
*
*[The Dirk Nowitzki Foundation](http://dnfoundation.org/)
*[Dirk Nowitzki](http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/p/q/Dirk%20NOWITZKI/pid/21377/_//players.html) at fiba.com
}}
| years = [2008](Beijing)(2008 Summer Olympics) | after = [Keller](Natascha)(Natascha Keller)}}
}}
[births](Category:1978)(Category:1978 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[FIBA World Championship players](Category:2002)(Category:2002 FIBA World Championship players)
[FIBA World Championship players](Category:2006)(Category:2006 FIBA World Championship players)
[players at the 2008 Summer Olympics](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics)
[Mavericks players](Category:Dallas)(Category:Dallas Mavericks players)
[award winners](Category:Euroscar)(Category:Euroscar award winners)
[expatriate basketball people in the United States](Category:German)(Category:German expatriate basketball people in the United States)
[men's basketball players](Category:German)(Category:German men's basketball players)
[World Sports Awards winners](Category:Laureus)(Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners)
[Bucks draft picks](Category:Milwaukee)(Category:Milwaukee Bucks draft picks)
[Basketball Association All-Stars](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars)
[Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association Most Valuable Player Award winners)
[Basketball Association players from Germany](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association players from Germany)
[Basketball Association players with retired numbers](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association players with retired numbers)
[basketball players for Germany](Category:Olympic)(Category:Olympic basketball players for Germany)
[from Würzburg](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from Würzburg)
[forwards (basketball)](Category:Power)(Category:Power forwards (basketball))
[of the Silver Laurel Leaf](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf)
[of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany)
[Würzburg players](Category:S.Oliver)(Category:S.Oliver Würzburg players)
|
Ali Siddiq
|
ali_siddiq
|
# Ali Siddiq
*Revision ID: 1160303411 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T16:22:25Z*
---
| subject =
| spouse =
| children =
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| notable_work =
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| website =
}}
**Ali Siddiq** (born 17 October 1973 is an American [comedian](stand-up)(Stand-up comedy), public speaker, and writer based in [Houston](Houston), [Texas](Texas).
In 2013 [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central) named him the "#1 Comic to Watch". In 2019 he was a finalist on [NBC](NBC)'s comedy competition show *[the Funny](Bring)(Bring the Funny)*.
## Early life
Siddiq was born in Houston. After his parents' separation, Siddiq and his siblings were raised by their single mother, living for a time in [projects](the)(the projects). He and his siblings also went on to live with other family members. Siddiq started selling drugs around the age of 14 and was imprisoned at the age of 19 for trafficking in cocaine. He served 6 years of a 15-year sentence in the [M. Torres Unit](Ruben)(Ruben M. Torres Unit) in [Texas](Hondo,)(Hondo, Texas). It was during his incarceration, while telling jokes to fellow inmates, that he discovered his ability to make people laugh. He worked in the prison's laundromat and his workmates were his captive audience.
After his release from prison in 1997, Siddiq started doing stand-up at the Just Joking Comedy Cafe in Houston. His first stage appearance was during the comedy club's [Apollo](Showtime at the Apollo) Night, which tended to attract a college crowd. Siddiq was booed on his first occasion on stage because he was wearing a suit. He decided to wait a couple of weeks before trying again while wearing jeans and a t-shirt. Siddiq became the co-host of the Apollo Night show a month later.
## Career
Siddiq's stand-up comedy tends to be in the storytelling style, versus the more common setup/punch-line style. Siddiq's sets involve stories from his personal life, as well his observations on current events, race and politics.
Siddiq's first television appearance was in 2008 on [HBO](HBO)'s *[Comedy Jam](Def)(Def Comedy Jam)*. In 2012 he appeared on [BET](BET)'s *[View](Comic)(Comic View)* and also appeared at the [for Laughs](Just)(Just for Laughs) comedy festival in [Montreal](Montreal). In 2013 he was named Comedy Central's "#1 Comic to Watch".
In 2015 he appeared on the Comedy Central web and television series *[is Not Happening](This)(This Is Not Happening (TV series))* and told his story of a prison riot where he learned the meaning of the phrase "Mexican got on boots!" The video of this story received 12 million hits on [YouTube](YouTube). Siddiq also appeared on [TV](AXS)(AXS TV)'s *Gotham Comedy Live* (filmed at the [Comedy Club](Gotham)(Gotham Comedy Club)) that same year. In 2016 he released his first half hour special on Comedy Central.
In 2017 he began production on his one-hour special ''Ali Siddiq: It's Bigger Than These Bars'', which was filmed at the Bell County Jail in [Texas](Belton,)(Belton, Texas). Released on Comedy Central in 2018, Siddiq can be seen performing in front of a group of inmates interspersed with scenes of him sitting down with smaller groups of incarcerated men and women in their cells, as well as with prison administrators.
In 2019 Siddiq appeared on [Hughley](D.L.)(D.L. Hughley)'s late night talk show *The D.L. Hughley Show*, as well as the Comedy Central series *This Week at the [Cellar](Comedy)(Comedy Cellar)*, in addition to being a finalist on the [NBC](NBC) comedy competition series *[the Funny](Bring)(Bring the Funny)*.
Siddiq has released five comedy albums: *Talking Loud Saying Something (Live at the Improv)* released in 2010; *Enjoy Your Life* and *Freedom of Speech*, which were both released in 2013; *Damaged Goods* released in 2016 and *The Prison Manual* released in 2019.
In early 2020, Siddiq headlined an episode of ''[Mobb's Laff Tracks](Laff)(Laff Mobb's Laff Tracks)''.
In January 2021, Siddiq joined the Funky Larry Jones afternoon drive show on [KMJQ](KMJQ) (102.1 FM) in Houston.
## Discography
* *Talking Loud, Saying Something* (2010)
* *Freedom of Speech* (Aug. 5, 2013)
* *Enjoy Your Life* (Aug. 18, 2013)
* *Damaged Goods* (2016)
* ''It's Bigger Than These Bars* (Aug. 2019)
* *The Prison Manual'' (Sep. 2019)
## Philanthropy
Since 2009 Siddiq has hosted the annual Jive Turkeys Comedy Show to raise money for the Houston Food Bank. The show is performed each November close to [Thanksgiving](Thanksgiving).
In 2017 he organized and performed at a benefit for Houstonians affected by [Harvey](Hurricane)(Hurricane Harvey). In 2018 Siddiq also performed at an annual benefit held by Saba Homes, an orphanage organization created to help orphans of the [Kashmir earthquake](2005)(2005 Kashmir earthquake) in Pakistan.
Siddiq has also volunteered for [County](Harris)(Harris County, Texas)'s Juvenile Justice Alternative Education Program.
## References
## External links
*
*
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Houston](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Houston)
[stand-up comedians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American stand-up comedians)
[stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians)
[American comedians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American comedians)
[American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians)
[male comedians](Category:Muslim)(Category:Muslim male comedians)
[of birth missing (living people)](Category:Year)(Category:Year of birth missing (living people))
[African-American people](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century African-American people)
[African-American people](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American people)
|
Bupkis _TV series
|
bupkis__tv_series
|
# Bupkis (TV series)
*Revision ID: 1160345726 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T22:25:02Z*
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| country = United States
| language = English
| num_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer =
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| cinematography =
| runtime =
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| network = [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service))
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}}
***Bupkis*** is an American [drama](comedy)(comedy drama) [series](television)(Television show). It premiered on [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)) on May 4, 2023.
## Premise
The show is described as a "heightened fictionalized version of [Davidson](Pete)(Pete Davidson)'s life", and has been compared to [C.K.](Louis)(Louis C.K.)'s *[Louie](Louie (American TV series))* and [David](Larry)(Larry David)s *[Your Enthusiasm](Curb)(Curb Your Enthusiasm)*.
## Cast
### Main
* [Davidson](Pete)(Pete Davidson) as himself
* [Falco](Edie)(Edie Falco) as Amy Davidson
* [Pesci](Joe)(Joe Pesci) as Joe Larocca
### Recurring
* [Ettinger](Philip)(Philip Ettinger) as Evan, Pete’s friend and manager
* Derek Gaines as Derek
* James Crillz DeSimone as Crillz
* [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale) as Uncle Tommy
* [Garrett](Brad)(Brad Garrett) as Roy
* [Gillis](Shane)(Shane Gillis) as Gilly
* [Sirus](Dave)(Dave Sirus) as Dave
* [Jaret Winokur](Marissa)(Marissa Jaret Winokur) as Lori
* Oona Roche as Casey Davidson
* [Sui Wonders](Chase)(Chase Sui Wonders) as Nikki, Pete's girlfriend
### Guest
* [Day](Charlie)(Charlie Day) as Dr. Rossi
* [Thompson](Kenan)(Kenan Thompson) as Referee/Barista
* [Stan](Sebastian)(Sebastian Stan) as himself
* [Buscemi](Steve)(Steve Buscemi) as Father Mac
* [Man](Method)(Method Man) as a man pretending to be a carny
* [Stewart](Jon)(Jon Stewart) as himself
* [Gore](Al)(Al Gore) as himself
* [Cam’ron](Cam’ron) as himself
* [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams) as himself
* [Walter Hauser](Paul)(Paul Walter Hauser) as Hauser
* [Curtin](Jane)(Jane Curtin) as Marie
* [Gun Kelly](Machine)(Machine Gun Kelly (musician)) as himself
* Jordan Rock as a rehab orderly
* [O'Donnell](Chris)(Chris O'Donnell) as Pete's Agent
* [La Anthony](La)(La La Anthony) as Lisa
* [Mulaney](John)(John Mulaney) as himself
* [Rex](Simon)(Simon Rex) as Crispy
* [Pollono](John)(John Pollono) as Michael
* Ricky Velez as a rehab orderly
* [Aquilino](Carly)(Carly Aquilino) as herself
* [Attell](Dave)(Dave Attell) as Park Guest
* [Fillion](Nathan)(Nathan Fillion) as Gunslinger
* [Corrigan](Kevin)(Kevin Corrigan) as Bartender
* Giulio Gallarotti as Giulio
* [Keach](Stacy)(Stacy Keach) as legal disclaimer narrator
* [Jadakiss](Jadakiss) as himself
* [Manning](Eli)(Eli Manning) as himself
* [tha God](Charlamagne)(Charlamagne tha God) as Priest
* [Mani](Sunita)(Sunita Mani) as Monica
* [Romano](Ray)(Ray Romano) as Himself
* [Howard Thornton](David)(David Howard Thornton) as [the Clown](Art)(Art the Clown)
## Episodes
|airdate= |airdateR= |released=y |episodes=
(Peacock) June 4, 2023 (NBC)
|ShortSummary = Pete moves back in with his mom on Staten Island but is sent spiraling when he learns that the family has been dealing with tragic news without him; Pete uses his friends, connections and creativity to make the best of a sad situation.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
(Peacock) June 11, 2023 (NBC)
|ShortSummary = Seven-year-old Pete, his mom and his sister attend his aunt's wedding just weeks after the death of his father; his uncle Tommy steps in to be there for Pete when he needs him most; in present day, Pete makes sure to be there for Uncle Tommy.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = Pete obsesses over an online photograph of himself that an internet troll has been posting, ending up on a dark path as he tries to hunt down the anonymous troll; Pete's mother, Amy, tries to protect Pete from himself.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = Pete introduces his crew as they drive to Florida to hopefully perform a gig without any mishaps; the sudden appearance of an eccentric jeweler named "Crispy" kicks off a surreal and possibly hallucinated series of events.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = Pete wants to be a father, but only his mother supports the idea; Pete spends the day with a child at an amusement park to see what being a dad is like, while Amy pursues multiple angles to help make Pete a dad as soon as possible.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = Pete is miserable after getting stuck in Canada on Christmas to film a war movie; he wanders the strange, small town searching for a way to improve his mood until receiving a bizarre and probably hallucinated visit from a beloved celebrity.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = The Canadian drugs take their toll on Pete, who manages to offend his entire family on a solemn occasion; his only choice is to go to rehab, but first he must meet with several people in his life to tell them that he's going away.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
|ShortSummary = Pete goes to rehab and finds himself unable to avoid misadventures as his old friend Machine Gun Kelly shows up intent on getting him high; Pete's sister, Casey, is set to graduate without him there.
|LineColor = 000000
}}
}}
## Production
The series was first announced in March 2022, with [Davidson](Pete)(Pete Davidson) developing the series alongside [Miller](Judah)(Judah Miller) and [Sirus](Dave)(Dave Sirus), and Jason Orley set to direct. Davidson was also set to star. The series was given a greenlight by [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)) in April. The following month, [Falco](Edie)(Edie Falco) was announced to play Davidson's mother in the series. In August, [Pesci](Joe)(Joe Pesci) was added to the cast as Davidson's grandfather. This is Pesci's first time starring in a television series in 37 years.
Filming for the series began by October 2022, with a first look image of Davidson and Pesci released by Peacock. Most of the filming was done in New York. In April 2023, it was revealed that [Howard Thornton](David)(David Howard Thornton) would appear in the series as [the Clown](Art)(Art the Clown).
## Release
All eight episodes of the first season were released on May 4, 2023, exclusively on Peacock. The series made its linear premiere on NBC in the United States on the early morning hours of June 4, 2023. In Canada, the series will premiere May 25, 2023 on Showcase.
## Reception
Review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) reported an approval rating of 77% based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Pete Davidson's second crack at playing a fictionalized version of himself may feel faintly recycled, but a terrific supporting cast and some surprising depth ensure this series adds up to more than just *Bupkis*." [Metacritic](Metacritic) gave the first season a weighted average score of 67 out of 100 based on 25 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
## References
## External links
*
[American comedy-drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American comedy-drama television series)
[American television series debuts](Category:2023)(Category:2023 American television series debuts)
[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[(streaming service) original programming](Category:Peacock)(Category:Peacock (streaming service) original programming)
[action comedy television series](Category:American)(Category:American action comedy television series)
[series by Broadway Video](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Broadway Video)
[series by Universal Television](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Universal Television)
[series about families](Category:Television)(Category:Television series about families)
|
Bobby Fischer
|
bobby_fischer
|
# Bobby Fischer
*Revision ID: 1157810565 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T03:56:19Z*
---
Bob Fisher}}
| birth_place = [Illinois](Chicago,)(Chicago), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), Iceland
| title = [Grandmaster](Grandmaster (chess)) (1958)
| worldchampion = 1972–1975
| peakrating = 2785 (July 1972)
| peakranking = [1](No.)(List of FIDE chess world number ones) (July 1971)
}}
**Robert James Fischer** (March 9, 1943January 17, 2008) was an American [grandmaster](chess)(Grandmaster (chess)) and the eleventh [Chess Champion](World)(World Chess Championship). A [prodigy](chess)(chess prodigy), he won his first of a record eight [Championships](US)(U.S. Chess Championship) at the age of 14. In 1964, he won with an 11–0 score, the only perfect score in the history of the tournament. Qualifying for the [World Championship](1972)(World Chess Championship 1972), Fischer swept matches with [Taimanov](Mark)(Mark Taimanov) and [Larsen](Bent)(Bent Larsen) by 6–0 scores. After another qualifying match against [Petrosian](Tigran)(Tigran Petrosian), Fischer won the title match against [Spassky](Boris)(Boris Spassky) of the [USSR](USSR), in [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), Iceland. Publicized as a [War](Cold)(Cold War) confrontation between the US and USSR, the match attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since.
In 1975, Fischer [to defend his title](refused)(World Chess Championship 1975) when an agreement could not be reached with [FIDE](FIDE), chess's international governing body, over the match conditions. Consequently, the Soviet challenger [Karpov](Anatoly)(Anatoly Karpov) was named World Champion by default. Fischer subsequently disappeared from the public eye, though occasional reports of erratic behavior emerged. In 1992, he reemerged to win an unofficial [against Spassky](rematch)(Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)). It was held in [Yugoslavia](Serbia and Montenegro), which was under a [Nations](United)(United Nations) [embargo](embargo) at the time. His participation led to a conflict with the US government, which warned Fischer that his participation in the match would violate an [order](executive)(executive order) imposing US [on Yugoslavia](sanctions)(sanctions on Yugoslavia). The US government ultimately issued a warrant for his arrest. After that, Fischer lived as an [émigré](émigré). In 2004, he was arrested in Japan and held for several months for using a passport that the US government had revoked. Eventually, he was granted Icelandic citizenship by a special act of the [parliament](Icelandic)(Althing), allowing him to live there until his death in 2008.
Fischer made numerous lasting contributions to chess. His book *[60 Memorable Games](My)(My 60 Memorable Games)*, published in 1969, is regarded as essential reading in chess literature. In the 1990s, he patented a modified [timing](chess)(Chess clock) system that added a time increment after each move, now a standard practice in top tournament and match play. He also invented [random chess](Fischer)(Fischer random chess), also known as Chess960, a [variant](chess)(chess variant) in which the initial position of the pieces is randomized to one of 960 possible positions.
Fischer made numerous [antisemitic](antisemitic) statements, including [denial](Holocaust)(Holocaust denial). His antisemitism was a major theme in his public and private remarks, and there has been widespread comment and speculation concerning his psychological condition based on his extreme views and eccentric behavior.
## Early years
Bobby Fischer was born at [Reese Hospital](Michael)(Michael Reese Hospital) in [Chicago](Chicago), Illinois, on March 9, 1943.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 2. His mother, Regina Wender Fischer, was a US citizen, born in Switzerland; her parents were [Jews](Polish)(Polish Jews).[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 313.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 27. "…she appears to have been religiously unobservant." Raised in [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri), Regina became a teacher, a registered nurse, and later a physician.
After graduating from college in her teens, Regina traveled to Germany to visit her brother. It was there she met geneticist and future [Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) winner [Joseph Muller](Hermann)(Hermann Joseph Muller), who persuaded her to move to [Moscow](Moscow) to study medicine. She enrolled at [Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University](I.M.)(I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University), where she met Hans-Gerhardt Fischer, also known as Gerardo Liebscher, a German [biophysicist](Biophysics), whom she married in November 1933.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 7–8. In 1938, Hans-Gerhardt and Regina had a daughter, [Fischer](Joan)(Joan Targ). The reemergence of antisemitism under [Stalin](Stalin) prompted Regina to go with Joan to [Paris](Paris), where Regina became an English teacher. The threat of a German invasion led her and Joan to go to the United States in 1939. Regina and Hans-Gerhardt had already separated in Moscow, although they did not officially divorce until 1945.
At the time of her son's birth, Regina was homeless[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 8. and shuttled to different jobs and schools around the country to support her family. She engaged in political activism and raised both Bobby and Joan as a single parent.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 9. "The family lived in [Idaho, Oregon, Illinois, and Arizona](California,) before moving to New York. Regina's flexibility and desperation led her to a surprising gamut of jobs. She was a welder, schoolteacher, riveter, farm worker, toxicologist's assistant, and stenographer, all throughout the early and mid 1940s."[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 5.
In 1949, Regina moved the family to [Manhattan](Manhattan)[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 10. "In early 1949 Regina Fischer took the least expensive housing she could find when she moved the family—Bobby, Joan, and herself—to East 13th Street in Manhattan, facing the kitchen back entrance of the famed Luchow's restaurant, where many of the best chess players would occasionally dine. The Fischers could never afford to eat there. The apartment's entrance was marred by a rusty fire escape running up the front, and there was only one small bedroom—but the rent was $45 a month." and the following year to [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York City, where she studied for her master's degree in nursing and subsequently began working in that field.
### Paul Nemenyi as Fischer's father
In 2002, Peter Nicholas and Clea Benson of *[Philadelphia Inquirer](The)(The Philadelphia Inquirer)* published an investigative report which stated that Bobby Fischer's [father](biological)(biological father) was actually [Nemenyi](Paul)(Paul Nemenyi).
Nemenyi, a Hungarian [mathematician](mathematician) and [physicist](physicist) of [heritage](Jewish)(History of the Jews in Hungary), specialized in continuum mechanics. His work applied geometrical solutions to fluid dynamics. Like Bobby, he was a child prodigy and won the Hungarian national mathematics competition at the age of 17.
Benson and Nicholas continued their work and gathered additional evidence in court records, personal interviews, and a summary of an FBI investigation written by [Edgar Hoover](J.)(J. Edgar Hoover), which confirmed their earlier conclusions.
Throughout the 1950s, the [FBI](FBI) investigated Regina and her circle due to her supposed communist views and due to her time living in Moscow. FBI files note that Hans-Gerhardt Fischer never entered the United States, while recording that Nemenyi took a keen interest in Fischer's upbringing.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 22.Regina Fischer entry, passenger manifest, , January 18, 1939, p. 74, line 6, accessed January 20, 2008, via ancestry.com Not only were Regina and Nemenyi reported to have had an affair in 1942, but Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby's schooling until Paul Nemenyi's death in 1952.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 22, 135.
### Chess beginnings
[[File:JWC Lombardy Fischer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[Lombardy](William)(William Lombardy) and Fischer analyzing, with [Collins](Jack)(John W. Collins) looking on]]
In March 1949, six-year-old Bobby and his sister Joan learned how to play [chess](chess) using the instructions from a set bought at a candy store....|magazine=Parade|date=October 27, 1957|page=22|title=Bobby Fischer Autobiographical Essay}} Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 10–11. When Joan lost interest in chess and Regina did not have time to play, Fischer was left to play many of his first games against himself.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 10–12. When the family vacationed at [Long Island, New York](Patchogue,)(Patchogue, New York), that summer, Bobby found a book of old chess games and studied it intensely.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 5.
In 1950, the family moved to Brooklyn, first to an apartment at the corner of Union Street and Franklin Avenue and later to a two-bedroom apartment at 560 Lincoln Place.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 12. It was there that "Fischer soon became so engrossed in the game that Regina feared he was spending too much time alone." As a result, on November 14, 1950, Regina sent a postcard to the *[Eagle](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Eagle)* newspaper, seeking to place an ad inquiring whether other children of Bobby's age might be interested in playing chess with him. The paper rejected her ad, because no one could figure out how to classify it, but forwarded her inquiry to [Helms](Hermann)(Hermann Helms), the "Dean of American Chess", who told her that [Master](Chess master) [Pavey](Max)(Max Pavey), former Scottish champion, would be giving a [exhibition](simultaneous)(simultaneous exhibition) on January 17, 1951.[1959](Fischer)(#F1959), p. xi.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 5–6. Fischer played in the exhibition. Although he held on for 15 minutes, drawing a crowd of onlookers, he eventually lost to the chess master.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 17–18.
One of the spectators was Brooklyn Chess Club President[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 18. [Nigro](Carmine)(Carmine Nigro), an American [expert](chess)(chess expert) of near master strength and an instructor.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 20. Nigro was so impressed with Fischer's play that he introduced him to the club and began teaching him.[1959](Fischer)(#F1959), pp. xi–xii.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 7.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 19–21. Fischer noted of his time with Nigro: "Mr. Nigro was possibly not the best player in the world, but he was a very good teacher. Meeting him was probably a decisive factor in my going ahead with chess."[1959](Fischer)(#F1959), p. 2.
Nigro hosted Fischer's first chess tournament at his home in 1952.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 21. In the summer of 1955, Fischer, then 12 years old, joined the [Chess Club](Manhattan)(Manhattan Chess Club).[1959](Fischer)(#F1959), p. xii.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 38–39. Fischer's relationship with Nigro lasted until 1956, when Nigro moved away.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 52.
### The Hawthorne Chess Club
In June 1956, Fischer began attending the Hawthorne Chess Club, based in master ["Jack" W. Collins](John)(John W. Collins)'s home.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 6. Collins taught chess to children, and has been described as Fischer's teacher,[1974](Collins)(#Collins), p. 47. "'He taught Bobby Fischer to play chess' is the way I am sometimes publicly and privately introduced." but Collins himself suggested that he did not actually teach Fischer,"Collins, for his part, said that he never 'taught' Bobby in the strictest sense" and that Fischer "knew before instructed". [1974](Collins)(#Collins), pp. 48–49. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 52. and the relationship might be more accurately described as one of mentorship."Fischer was also extremely fortunate in having John W. (Jack) Collins, a chess master, who was a friend, guide, and mentor to him during his early formative years". Arthur Bisguier, in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 44.
Fischer played thousands of [blitz](Fast chess) and offhand games with Collins and other strong players, studied the books in Collins' large chess library, and ate almost as many dinners at Collins' home as his own.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 10–11.[1974](Collins)(#Collins), pp. 34–35.[1959](Fischer)(#F1959), p. xiii.
## Young champion
[[Fisher in Cuba (trimmed).jpg|thumb|left|Fischer in Cuba, March 1956](File:Bobby)]
In March 1956, the Log Cabin Chess Club of [Orange, New Jersey](West)(West Orange, New Jersey) (based in the home of the club's eccentric multi-millionaire founder and patron Elliott Forry Laucks), took Fischer on a tour to [Cuba](Cuba), where he gave a 12-board simultaneous exhibition at Havana's Capablanca Chess Club, winning ten games and drawing two.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 15.[1974](Collins)(#Collins), pp. 55–56. On this tour the club played a series of matches against other clubs. Fischer played , behind International Master [Whitaker](Norman)(Norman Whitaker). Whitaker and Fischer were the club's leading scorers, each scoring 5½ points out of 7 games.*The New York Times*, March 5, 1956, p. 36. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 49.
Fischer experienced a "meteoric rise" in his playing strength during 1956.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011) p. 56. Fischer's first real tournament sucess occurred in July 1956, when he won the US Junior Chess Championship in Philadelphia. He scored 8½/10 to become the youngest-ever Junior Champion at age 13,*Chess Life*, July 20, 1956, p. 1. Also available on DVD (p. 105 in "Chess Life 1956" PDF file").[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 100. a record that still stands. At the 1956 [Open Chess Championship](US)(US Open Chess Championship) in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City), he scored 8½/12 to tie for 4th–8th places, with [Bisguier](Arthur)(Arthur Bisguier) winning.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 101. In the first [Open Chess Championship](Canadian)(Canadian Open Chess Championship) at Montreal 1956, he scored 7/10 to tie for 8th–12th places, with [Evans](Larry)(Larry Evans (chess grandmaster)) winning.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 105. In November, Fischer played in the 1956 Eastern States Open Championship in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), tying for second with [Lombardy](William)(William Lombardy), [Rossolimo](Nicholas)(Nicholas Rossolimo), and [Feuerstein](Arthur)(Arthur Feuerstein), with [Berliner](Hans)(Hans Berliner) taking first by a half-point.[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 76.
Fischer accepted an invitation to play in the Third [J. Rosenwald](Lessing)(Lessing J. Rosenwald) Trophy Tournament in New York City (1956), a premier tournament limited to the 12 players considered the best in the US.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 16. Playing against top opposition, the 13-year-old Fischer could only score 4½/11, tying for 8th–9th place.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 108. Yet he won the [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 65. for his game against International Master [Byrne](Donald)(Donald Byrne), in which Fischer sacrificed his queen to unleash an unstoppable attack. [Kmoch](Hans)(Hans Kmoch) called it "[Game of the Century](The)(The Game of the Century (chess))",[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 48. writing: "The following game, a stunning masterpiece of play performed by a boy of 13 against a formidable opponent, matches the finest on record in the history of chess prodigies."*[Review](Chess)(Chess Review)*, December 1956, p. 374. Also available on DVD (p. 418 in *Chess Review 1956* PDF file). According to Frank Brady, The Game of the Century' has been talked about, analyzed, and admired for more than fifty years, and it will probably be a part of the canon of chess for many years to come."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 64. "In reflecting on his game a while after it occurred, Bobby was refreshingly modest: 'I just made the moves I thought were best. I was just lucky., February 24, 1957. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 64.
In 1957, Fischer played a two-game match against former world champion [Euwe](Max)(Max Euwe) at New York, losing ½–1½.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 123.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 67. "To wrest a draw from a former World Champion was neither small cheese nor minor chess, but Bobby was unhappy since he'd lost the match, 1½–½." When the [Chess Federation](US)(US Chess Federation) published its rating list in May, Fischer had the rank of Master, the youngest player to earn that title up to that point.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 17. In July, he successfully defended his US Junior title, scoring 8½/9 at San Francisco.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 127. In August, he scored 10/12 at the US Open Chess Championship in [Cleveland](Cleveland), winning on [points](tie-breaking)(Tie-breaking in Swiss system tournaments) over Arthur Bisguier.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 130.[1974](Collins)(#Collins), p. 56. This made Fischer the youngest ever US Open Champion.*[Review](Chess)(Chess Review)*, September 1957, p. 260. Also available on DVD (p. 294 in "Chess Review 1957" PDF file).[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 75. "No one as young as Bobby had won the United States Open before, and no one had ever held the United States Junior and Open titles concurrently. When Bobby returned to New York, both the Marshall and Manhattan chess clubs conducted victory celebrations, and he was lauded as America's new chess hero." He won the New Jersey Open Championship, scoring 6½/7.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 138–40. He then defeated the young Filipino master [Tan Cardoso](Rodolfo)(Rodolfo Tan Cardoso) 6–2 in a New York match sponsored by [Pepsi-Cola](Pepsi).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 19.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 135–37.
### Wins first US title
Based on Fischer's rating and strong results, the USCF invited him to play in the 1957/58 [Championship](US)(U.S. Chess Championship). The tournament included six-time US champion Samuel Reshevsky, defending US champion Arthur Bisguier, and William Lombardy, who in August had won the [Junior Championship](World)(World Junior Chess Championship).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 20. Bisguier predicted that Fischer would "finish slightly over the center mark".A writer in *[Life](Chess)(Chess Life)*, apparently Editor Fred M. Wren, expected Fischer to score about 50%. "The Monday-Morning Quarterback Speaks", *Chess Life*, January 20. 1958, p. 4. Also available on DVD (p. 12 on *Chess Life 1958* PDF file). Despite all the predictions to the contrary, Fischer scored eight wins and five draws to win the tournament by a one-point margin, with 10½/13.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 51.[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 196. Still two months shy of his 15th birthday, Fischer became the youngest ever US Champion.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 20–21. Since the championship that year was also the US [Championship](Zonal)(Zonal Tournament), Fischer's victory earned him the title of [Master](International)(International Master).[Winter](Edward)(Edward Winter (chess historian)), [Chess Note 6428](http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter65.html#6424._Quiz_question) (citing *Chess Life*, February 5, 1958).Edward Winter, [Chess Note 6436](http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter65.html#6434._St_Petersburg_1895-96) (citing *FIDE Revue*, April 1958, p. 106). Fischer's victory in the US Championship qualified him to participate in the 1958 [Portorož](Portorož) Interzonal, the next step toward challenging the World Champion.
## Grandmaster, candidate, and author
In 1957, Fischer wanted to go to Moscow. At his pleading, "Regina wrote directly to the Soviet leader, [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev), requesting an invitation for Fischer to participate in the 6th [Youth and Student Festival](World)(World Festival of Youth and Students) of 1957. The reply—affirmative—came too late for him to go."[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 8. Regina did not have the money to pay the airfare, but in 1958, Fischer was invited onto the game show ''[Got a Secret](I've)(I've Got a Secret)'', where, thanks to Regina's efforts, the producers of the show arranged two round-trip tickets to the Soviet Union, for Bobby and his sister Joan.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 89–90.
Once in Russia, Fischer was invited by the Soviet Union to Moscow,...|via=Marshall Chess Foundation Archive|author=Regina Fischer|recipient=Bobby Fischer|date=June 1958}} Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 93. where International Master Lev Abramov would serve as a guide to Bobby and his sister, Joan.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 91. Upon arrival, Fischer immediately demanded that he be taken to the Moscow Central Chess Club,[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 92. where he played [chess](speed)(speed chess) with "two young Soviet masters", [Vasiukov](Evgeni)(Evgeni Vasiukov) and Alexander Nikitin,[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 9. winning every game. Chess author V. I. Linder writes about the impression Fischer gave grandmaster (GM) [Alatortsev](Vladimir)(Vladimir Alatortsev) when he played blitz against the Soviet masters:
Fischer demanded to play against [Botvinnik](Mikhail)(Mikhail Botvinnik), the reigning World Champion. When told that this was impossible, Fischer asked to play [Keres](Paul)(Paul Keres). "Finally, [Petrosian](Tigran)(Tigran Petrosian) was, on a semi-official basis, summoned to the club…" where he played speed games with Fischer, winning the majority.. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 93. "When Bobby discovered that he wasn't going to play any formal games … he went into a not-so-silent rage",[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 94. saying he was fed up "with these Russian pigs,". Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 94. which angered the Soviets who saw Fischer as their honored guest. It was then that the Yugoslavian chess officials offered to take in Fischer and Joan as early guests to the [Interzonal](Interzonal). Fischer took them up on the offer, arriving in Yugoslavia to play two short training matches against masters [Janošević](Dragoljub)(Dragoljub Janošević) and [Matulović](Milan)(Milan Matulović).[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 94–96. Fischer drew both games against Janošević and then defeated Matulović in [Belgrade](Belgrade) by 2½–1½.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 163–64.
At Portorož, Fischer was accompanied by Lombardy.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 98–100.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 26. The top six finishers in the Interzonal would qualify for the [Tournament](Candidates)(Candidates Tournament).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 25. Most observers doubted that a 15-year-old with no international experience could finish among the six qualifiers at the Interzonal, but Fischer told journalist Miro Radoicic, "I can draw with the grandmasters, and there are half-a-dozen in the tournament I reckon to beat."[Barden](Leonard)(Leonard Barden), "From Portorož to Petrosian", in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 332...."[2011](Lombardy)(#Lombardy), p. 87.}} Despite some bumps in the road and a problematic start, Fischer succeeded in his plan: after a strong finish, he ended up with 12/20 (+6−2=12) to tie for 5th–6th.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade). pp. 332–34, 347. The Soviet GM [Averbakh](Yuri)(Yuri Averbakh) observed,
Soviet GM [Bronstein](David)(David Bronstein) said of Fischer's time in Portorož: "It was interesting for me to observe Fischer, but for a long time I couldn't understand why this 15-year-old boy played chess so well."[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 20–21. Fischer became the youngest person ever to qualify for the Candidates and the youngest ever grandmaster at 15 years, 6 months, 1 day.}} "By then everyone knew we had a genius on our hands."
Before the Candidates' Tournament, Fischer won the 1958/59 US Championship (scoring 8½/11).[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 301. He tied for third (with [Ivkov](Borislav)(Borislav Ivkov)) in [del Plata](Mar)(Mar del Plata chess tournaments) (scoring 10/14), a half-point behind [Pachman](Luděk)(Luděk Pachman) and [Najdorf](Miguel)(Miguel Najdorf).[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 340. He tied for 4th–6th at [Santiago](Santiago, Chile) (scoring 7½/12) behind Ivkov, Pachman, and [Pilnik](Herman)(Herman Pilnik).[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 356. At the [Zürich](Zürich) International Tournament, spring 1959, Fischer finished a point behind future world champion [Tal](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tal) and a half-point behind Yugoslavian GM [Gligorić](Svetozar)(Svetozar Gligorić).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 28.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 27.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 165, 171, 176.
Although Fischer had ended his formal education at age 16, dropping out of [Hall High School](Erasmus)(Erasmus Hall High School) in Brooklyn, he subsequently taught himself several foreign languages so he could read foreign chess periodicals.Paul Keres "From the Opposite Side of the Board" in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade) According to Latvian chess master [Koblencs](Alexander)(Alexander Koblencs), even he and Tal could not match the commitment that Fischer had made to chess. Recalling a conversation from the tournament:
Until late 1959, Fischer "had dressed atrociously for a champion, appearing at the most august and distinguished national and international events in sweaters and corduroys."[1965](Brady)(#Brady1965), p. 34. Now, encouraged by [Benko](Pal)(Pal Benko) to dress more smartly, Fischer "began buying suits from all over the world, hand-tailored and made to order."[1965](Brady)(#Brady1965), p. 35.[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), p. 136. "At 16 he was able to earn his living from chess, and soon began to dress well, with suits tailored in London and New York." He told journalist [Ginzburg](Ralph)(Ralph Ginzburg) that he had 17 hand-tailored suits and that all of his shirts and shoes were handmade.[1962](Ginzburg)(#Ginzburg), pp. 53–54.
At the age of 16, Fischer finished equal fifth out of eight at the [Candidates Tournament](1959)(World Chess Championship 1960#1959 Candidates tournament) in [Bled](Bled)/[Zagreb](Zagreb)/[Belgrade](Belgrade), Yugoslavia,[Felice 2010](Di)(#DiFelice2010), p. 310. scoring 12½/28. He was outclassed by tournament winner Tal, who won all four of their individual games.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 356. That year, Fischer released his first book of collected games: ''Bobby Fischer's Games of Chess'', published by Simon & Schuster.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 105, 125.
### Drops out of school
Fischer's interest in chess became more important than schoolwork, to the point that "by the time he reached the fourth grade, he'd been in and out of six schools." In 1952, Regina got Bobby a scholarship (based on his chess talent and "astronomically high IQ") to Brooklyn Community Woodward.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 25. "Attempts by Regina and Joan to engage Bobby in schoolwork were usually fruitless. Bobby could concentrate on puzzles or chess for hours, but he fidgeted and grew restless when confronted with reading, writing, and arithmetic… he was accepted by Community Woodward with the understanding that he'd teach the other students to play, and also as a result of his astronomically high IQ test score of 180." Fischer later attended [Hall High School](Erasmus)(Erasmus Hall High School) at the same time as [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand) and [Diamond](Neil)(Neil Diamond). Streisand later said that Fischer was "always alone and very peculiar … But I found him very sexy." *Id.* at 41. In 1959, its student council awarded him a gold medal for his chess achievements.[1965](Brady)(#Brady1965), pp. 1, 25.[1974](Collins)(#Collins), p. 52. The same year, Fischer dropped out of high school when he turned 16, the earliest he could legally do so.Arthur Bisguier, in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 47.[1965](Brady)(#Brady1965), p. 25. He later explained to Ralph Ginzburg, "You don't learn anything in school."[1962](Ginzburg)(#Ginzburg), p. 51.[1973](Schonberg)(#Schonberg), p. 261. "In his junior year Bobby left school for good because 'the stuff they teach you in school I can't use one way or the other.
When Fischer was 16, his mother moved out of their apartment to pursue medical training. Her friend [Rodker](Joan)(Joan Rodker), who had met Regina when the two were "idealistic communists" living in Moscow in the 1930s, believes that Fischer resented his mother for being mostly absent, a communist activist, and an admirer of the Soviet Union, and that this led to his hatred for the Soviets. In letters to Rodker, Fischer's mother stated her desire to pursue her own "obsession" of training in medicine and wrote that her son would have to live in their Brooklyn apartment without her: "It sounds terrible to leave a 16-year-old to his own devices, but he is probably happier that way". The apartment was on the edge of [Bedford-Stuyvesant](Bedford-Stuyvesant), a neighborhood that had one of the highest homicide and general crime rates in New York City.[1962](Ginzburg)(#Ginzburg), p. 55. Despite the alienation from her son, Regina, in 1960, protested the practices of the American Chess Foundation[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 131. "Probing into the activities of the American Chess Foundation, she demonstrated that some players (such as Reshevsky) received support while others (such as Bobby) did not… she sent out indignant press releases, [and] letters to the government demanding a public accounting." and staged a five-hour protest in front of the [House](White)(White House), urging President [D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower) to send an American team to [year's chess Olympiad](that)(14th Chess Olympiad) (set for [Leipzig](Leipzig), [Germany](East)(East Germany), behind the [Curtain](Iron)(Iron Curtain)) and to help support the team financially.
## US Championships
Fischer played in eight US Championships, winning all of them,[& Soltis 1974](Bisguier)(#Bisguier), pp. 282–84.[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), pp. 136–37. by at least a one-point margin.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 51 (1-point margin in 1957/58), 57 (1-point margin in 1958/59), 62 (1-point margin in 1959/60), 67 (2-point margin in 1960/61), 71 (1-point margin in 1962/63), 77 (2½-point margin in 1963/64), 82 (1-point margin in 1965), 87 (2-point margin in 1966/67). His results were:[2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 399–400.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 51, 57, 62, 67, 71, 76, 82, 87.
Fischer missed the 1961/62 Championship (he was preparing for the 1962 Interzonal), and there was no 1964/65 event.[& Soltis 1974](Bisguier)(#Bisguier), p. 283. In his eight US Chess Championships, Fischer lost only three games; to [Mednis](Edmar)(Edmar Mednis) in the 1962/63 event, and in consecutive rounds to Samuel Reshevsky, and Robert Byrne in the 1965 championship, culminating in a total score of 74/90 (61 wins, 26 draws, 3 losses).[1997](Mednis)(#Mednis), pp. x–xi, 179–83, 202–11.
## Olympiads
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-76052-0335, Schacholympiade, Tal (UdSSR) gegen Fischer (USA).jpg|thumb|Fischer at 17 playing 23-year-old World Champion [Tal](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tal) in Leipzig, [Germany](East)(East Germany)]]
Fischer refused to play in the [Munich Olympiad](1958)(13th Chess Olympiad) when his demand to play ahead of Samuel Reshevsky was rejected.Larry Evans, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 7. Some sources claim that 15-year-old Fischer was unable to arrange leave from attending high school. Fischer later represented the United States on first board at four Men's Chess [Olympiads](Chess Olympiad), winning two individual Silver and one individual Bronze medals:
Out of four Men's Chess Olympiads, Fischer scored +40−7=18, for 49/65: 75.4%.[1974](Kažić)(#Kazic), pp. 75, 81, 94, 108. In 1966, Fischer narrowly missed the individual gold medal, scoring 88.23% to World Champion Tigran Petrosian's 88.46%. He played four games more than Petrosian, faced stiffer opposition,[2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 276–77. and would have won the gold if he had accepted [Gheorghiu](Florin)(Florin Gheorghiu)'s draw offer, rather than declining it and suffering his only loss.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 120. "Later Gheorghiu stated that when he offered Fischer the draw, he was convinced he actually had a won game but that he wanted Fischer to be awarded the gold medal. It was obvious that Fischer was trying too hard and had tired and overextended himself. He lost the game decisively. Nevertheless, all of the players and spectators considered Bobby to be the real hero of the most magnificent chess event in history."
At the 1962 Varna Olympiad, Fischer predicted that he would defeat Argentinian GM [Najdorf](Miguel)(Miguel Najdorf) in 25 moves. Fischer actually did it in 24, becoming the only player to beat Najdorf in the tournament.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 65. Najdorf lost the game while employing the very opening variation named after him: the [Najdorf](Sicilian)(Sicilian Najdorf).[2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 224–25.
Fischer had planned to play for the US at the [Lugano Olympiad](1968)(18th Chess Olympiad), but backed out when he saw the poor playing conditions.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 286–87. Both former world champion Tigran Petrosian and Belgian-American International Master [Koltanowski](George)(George Koltanowski), the leader of the American team that year, felt that Fischer was justified in not participating in the Olympiad.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 335. It is important to draw a distinction between the myth of the 'extravagant, capricious, uncontrollable' Fischer and those actions that he undertook quite consciously. Many of his demands in Lugano were absolutely justified. 'It was not only Fischer who did not like the conditions,' writes Petrosian. 'This also applied to me and my colleagues. Imagine a hall, in which three thousand players, trainers and spectators are gathered, a hall without any ventilation and in addition with poor lighting. I have never complained about my eyesight, but I only needed once or twice in a game to think intensively over a move, and my eyes began to hurt. According to Lombardy, Fischer's non-participation was due to Reshevsky's refusal to yield first board.[2011](Lombardy)(#Lombardy), p. 184. "Fischer was clearly the best and highest rated U.S. player and also the U.S. Champion. But in consideration of his lifelong prestige, Reshevsky would not yield first board."
In 1974, Fischer was willing to play the [Chess Olympiad](21st)(21st Chess Olympiad) in [Nice](Nice), France, but FIDE rejected his demand to play in a separate room with only Fischer, his opponent, and spectators.
## 1960–61
In 1960, Fischer tied for first place with Soviet star Boris Spassky at the strong Mar del Plata Tournament in Argentina, winning by a two-point margin, scoring 13½/15 (+13−1=1),[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 156.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 183. ahead of David Bronstein.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 12. Fischer lost only to Spassky; this was the start of their lifelong friendship and rivalry.[& Fürstenberg 1995](Bronstein)(#Bronstein), p. 121. "They became friends instantly and have remained so until this day."
Fischer experienced a rare failure in his competitive career[2006](Donner)(#Donner), p. 228. at the Buenos Aires Tournament (1960), finishing with 8½/19 (+3−5=11), far behind winners [Korchnoi](Viktor)(Viktor Korchnoi) and Samuel Reshevsky with 13/19.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 189. According to Larry Evans, Fischer's first sexual experience was with a girl to whom Evans introduced him during the tournament.[& Silman 2003](Benko)(#Benko), p. 422 (interview with Evans).[2006](Donner)(#Donner), p. 228. "One of his rivals in that tournament was American GM Larry Evans, and the story goes that he found a [Bovaryan](Madame Bovary) lady prepared for a small sum to surround Fischer with her charms. This approach proved successful for Evans, as Fischer finished thirteenth in the tournament…" Pal Benko said that Fischer did horribly in the tournament "because he got caught up in women and sex. Afterwards, Fischer said he'd never mix women and chess together, and kept the promise."[& Silman 2003](Benko)(#Benko), pp. 426–27 (interview with Benko). Fischer concluded 1960 by winning a small tournament in [Reykjavík](Reykjavík) with 4½/5,[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 196–97. and defeating [Darga](Klaus)(Klaus Darga) in an exhibition game in West Berlin.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 198.
In 1961, Fischer started a 16-game match with Reshevsky, split between New York and Los Angeles.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 135. "The officers of the American Chess Foundation maintained that Reshevsky was the better player, and they arranged to have him prove it." Reshevsky, 32 years Fischer's senior, was considered the favorite since he had far more match experience and had never lost a set match. After 11 games and a tie score (two wins apiece with seven draws), the match ended prematurely due to a scheduling dispute between Fischer and match organizer and sponsor [Piatigorsky](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Piatigorsky). Fischer forfeited 2 games, and even though the score was now 7½ to 5½, with 8½ required to win, Reshevsky was declared the winner, by default, and received the winner's share of the prize fund.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 42–46.
Fischer was second in a super-class field, behind only former world champion Tal, at Bled, 1961.[Felice 2013a](Di)(#DiFelice2013a), p. 17. Yet, Fischer defeated Tal head-to-head for the first time in their individual game, scored 3½/4 against the Soviet contingent, and finished as the only unbeaten player, with 13½/19 (+8−0=11).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 68.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 199.
## 1962: success, setback, accusations of collusion
Fischer won the 1962 [Stockholm](Stockholm) Interzonal by a 2½-point margin,[Felice 2013a](Di)(#DiFelice2013a), p. 223. going undefeated, with 17½/22 (+13−0=9).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 75.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 369. He was the first non-Soviet player to win an Interzonal since FIDE instituted the tournament in 1948.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 51. Russian GM [Kotov](Alexander)(Alexander Kotov) said of Fischer:[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 81.
Fischer's victory made him a favorite for the [Tournament](Candidates)(Candidates Tournament) in [Curaçao](Curaçao).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 53–54. Yet, despite his result in the Interzonal, Fischer only finished fourth out of eight with 14/27 (+8−7=12),[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 82. far behind Tigran Petrosian (17½/27), [Geller](Efim)(Efim Geller), and [Keres](Paul)(Paul Keres) (both 17/27).[1974](Kažić)(#Kazic), pp. 188–89. Tal fell very ill during the tournament, and had to withdraw before completion. Fischer, a friend of Tal's, was the only contestant who visited him in the hospital.[& Silman 2003](Benko)(#Benko), p. 155.
### Accuses Soviets of collusion
Following his failure in the 1962 Candidates, Fischer asserted in a *[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)* article, that three of the five Soviet players (Tigran Petrosian, Paul Keres, and Efim Geller) had a prearranged agreement to quickly draw their games against each other in order to conserve their energy for playing against Fischer. It is generally thought that this accusation is correct.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 29–30, 37, 40, 83. Fischer stated that he would never again participate in a Candidates' tournament, since the format, combined with the alleged [collusion](collusion), made it impossible for a non-Soviet player to win. Following Fischer's article, [FIDE](FIDE), in late 1962, voted to implement a radical reform of the playoff system, replacing the Candidates' tournament with a format of one-on-one knockout matches—the format that Fischer would dominate in 1971.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 331–46.
Fischer defeated [Larsen](Bent)(Bent Larsen) in a summer 1962 exhibition game in [Copenhagen](Copenhagen) for Danish TV. Later that year, Fischer beat [Śliwa](Bogdan)(Bogdan Śliwa) in a team match against Poland in Warsaw.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 207–08.
In the 1962/63 US Championship, Fischer lost to [Mednis](Edmar)(Edmar Mednis) in round one. It was his first loss ever in a US Championship. Bisguier was in excellent form, and Fischer caught up to him only at the end. Tied at 7–3, the two met in the final round. Bisguier stood well in the middlegame, but blundered, handing Fischer his fifth consecutive US championship.
## Semi-retirement in the mid-1960s
Influenced by ill will over the aborted 1961 match against Reshevsky, Fischer declined an invitation to play in the 1963 [Cup](Piatigorsky)(Piatigorsky Cup) tournament in Los Angeles, which had a world-class field.Arthur Bisguier, in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 49. He instead played in the Western Open in [City, Michigan](Bay)(Bay City, Michigan), which he won with 7½/8.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 237. "At the time he was also writing for *Chess Life*, a column called "Fischer Talks Chess," and he made some very favorable comments about the overall quality of the opposition he faced as well as the organization of the tournaments."[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 49, 149–51. In August–September 1963, Fischer won the New York State Championship at [Poughkeepsie](Poughkeepsie, New York), with 7/7, his first perfect score,[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 49, 152–53. ahead of Arthur Bisguier and [Sherwin](James)(James Sherwin).[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 70.
In the 1963/64 US Championship, Fischer achieved his second perfect score, this time against the top-ranked chess players in the country. This result brought Fischer heightened fame, including a profile in [*Life*](Life Magazine) magazine. *[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)* diagrammed each of the 11 games in its article, "The Amazing Victory Streak of Bobby Fischer". Such extensive chess coverage was groundbreaking for the top American sports magazine. His 11–0 win in the 1963/64 Championship is the only perfect score in the history of the tournament,Arthur Bisguier, in Wade & Connell 1973, pp. 49–50. and one of about ten [scores](perfect)(World records in chess#Perfect tournament and match scores) in high-level chess tournaments ever.[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), p. 81. [Hooper](David)(David Hooper (chess player)) and [Whyld](Kenneth)(Kenneth Whyld) called it "the most remarkable achievement of this kind". Fischer recalls:[1969](Fischer)(#F1969), p. 305. "Motivated by my lopsided result (11–0!), Dr. [Hans] Kmoch congratulated [Larry] Evans (the runner up) on 'winning' the tournament… and then he congratulated me on 'winning the exhibition'."
Fischer's 21-move victory against [Byrne](Robert)(Robert Byrne (chess player)) won the brilliancy prize for the tournament. Byrne wrote:
International Master [Saidy](Anthony)(Anthony Saidy) recalled his last round encounter with the undefeated Fischer:[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 248.
At adjournment, Saidy saw a way to force a draw, yet he had already "sealed a different, wrong move", and lost. "Chess publications around the world wrote of the unparalleled achievement. Only Bent Larsen, always a Fischer detractor, was unimpressed: 'Fischer was playing against children.*Chess Life*, August 1964, p. 202. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 155.
Fischer, eligible as US Champion, decided against his participation in the 1964 Amsterdam Interzonal, taking himself out of the [World Championship cycle](1966)(World Chess Championship 1966),[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 80–81. even after FIDE changed the format of the eight-player Candidates Tournament from a [round-robin](Round-robin tournament) to a series of [knockout](Single-elimination tournament) matches, which eliminated the possibility of collusion. Instead, Fischer embarked on a tour of the United States and Canada from February through May, playing a [exhibition](simultaneous)(simultaneous exhibition), and giving a lecture in each of more than 40 cities. He had a 94% winning percentage over more than 2,000 games. Fischer declined an invitation to play for the US in the [Olympiad](1964)(16th Chess Olympiad) in [Aviv](Tel)(Tel Aviv).[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 285.
## Successful return
[[Bobby Fisher aan bord (archief), Bestanddeelnr 924-7362.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Fischer in 1971](File:Schaker)]
Fischer wanted to play in the [Memorial Tournament](Capablanca)(Capablanca Memorial) in Havana in August and September 1965.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 127–28. Since the [Department](State)(United States Department of State) refused to endorse Fischer's passport as valid for visiting Cuba,[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 209. he proposed, and the tournament officials and players accepted, a unique arrangement: Fischer played his moves from a room at the [Chess Club](Marshall)(Marshall Chess Club), which were then transmitted by [teleprinter](teleprinter) to Cuba.[& Soltis 1974](Bisguier)(#Bisguier), p. 213.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 86–89.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 127–31.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 160, 209. Luděk Pachman observed that Fischer "was handicapped by the longer playing session resulting from the time wasted in transmitting the moves, and that is one reason why he lost to three of his chief rivals." The tournament was an "ordeal" for Fischer, who had to endure eight-hour and sometimes even twelve-hour playing sessions.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 88–89. Despite the handicap, Fischer tied for second through fourth places, with 15/21 (+12−3=6),[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 127. behind former world champion Vasily Smyslov, whom Fischer defeated in their individual game. The tournament received extensive media coverage.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 86–88.
In December, Fischer won his seventh US Championship (1965), with the score of 8½/11 (+8−2=1),[Felice 2013b](Di)(#DiFelice2013b), p. 167. despite losing to Robert Byrne and Reshevsky in the eighth and ninth rounds.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 92–94.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 82–86. Fischer also reconciled with Mrs. Piatigorsky, accepting an invitation to the very strong second [Cup](Piatigorsky)(Piatigorsky Cup) (1966) tournament in [Monica](Santa)(Santa Monica, California). Fischer began disastrously and after eight rounds was tied for last with 3/8. He then staged a strong comeback, scoring 7/8 in the next eight rounds. In the end, World Chess Championship finalist Boris Spassky edged him out by a half point, scoring 11½/18 to Fischer's 11/18 (+7−3=8).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 134.
Now aged 23, Fischer would win every match or tournament he completed for the rest of his life.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 322.
Fischer won the US Championship (1966/67) for the eighth and final time, ceding only three draws (+8−0=3).[2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 284–85.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 87–91. In March–April and August–September, Fischer won strong tournaments at [Carlo](Monte)(Monte Carlo), with 7/9 (+6−1=2),[Felice 2013b](Di)(#DiFelice2013b), p. 396. and [Skopje](Skopje), with 13½/17 (+12−2=3).[Felice 2013b](Di)(#DiFelice2013b), pp. 423–24.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 236–47. In the Philippines, Fischer played nine exhibition games against master opponents, scoring 8½/9.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 450–53.
### Withdrawal while leading Interzonal
Fischer's win in the 1966/67 US Championship qualified him for the next World Championship cycle.
At the 1967 Interzonal, held at [Sousse](Sousse), [Tunisia](Tunisia), Fischer scored 8½ points in the first 10 games, to lead the field. His observance of the [Church of God's](Worldwide)(Grace Communion International) [Sabbath](seventh-day)(seventh-day Sabbath) was honored by the organizers but deprived Fischer of several rest days, which led to a scheduling dispute,[1973](Schonberg)(#Schonberg), pp. 256–57. "[the Sousse Internzonal](At), Fischer quit at the halfway mark… faced with four games in four consecutive days… for religious reasons, [Bobby] will not play between sundowns on Friday and Saturday. He objected to the consecutive playoffs, claiming that the judges were taking advantage of him, subjecting him to cruel and inhuman punishment. He also pointed out, correctly, that he had entered the tournament with the assurance that such conditions would not prevail. But the judges would not change their ruling…" causing Fischer to forfeit two games in protest and later withdraw, eliminating himself from the [World Championship cycle](1969)(World Chess Championship 1969).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 161–66. Communications difficulties with the highly inexperienced local organizers were also a significant factor since Fischer knew little French and the organizers had very limited English. No one in Tunisian chess had previous experience running an event of this stature.[Horowitz](Al)(Al Horowitz) (1973) *The World Chess Championship: A History*. Macmillan. New York.
Since Fischer had completed fewer than half of his scheduled games, all of his results were annulled, meaning players who had played Fischer had those games cancelled, and the scores nullified from the official tournament record.
### Second semi-retirement
In 1968, Fischer won tournaments at [Netanya](Netanya), with 11½/13 (+10−0=3),[Felice 2013c](Di)(#DiFelice2013c), pp. 56–57. and [Vinkovci](Vinkovci), with 11/13 (+9−0=4),[Felice 2013c](Di)(#DiFelice2013c), p. 91. by large margins.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 248–59. Fischer then stopped playing for the next 18 months, except for a win against Anthony Saidy in a 1969 New York Metropolitan League team match.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 320–21.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 154–55. That year, Fischer (assisted by GM Larry Evans) released his second book of collected games: *[60 Memorable Games](My)(My 60 Memorable Games)*, published by Simon & Schuster.[& Tangborn 1999](Donaldson)(#Donaldson), p. 170. The book "was an immediate success".[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 162–63. "In this new book, his first—and, ultimately, only—serious work as an adult, Fischer was anything but sparse… what he produced was one of the most painstakingly precise and delightful chess books ever written, rivaling the works of Tarrasch, Alekhine, and Reti… If Fischer had never played another game of chess, his reputation, certainly as an analyst, would have been preserved through its publication."
## 1969–1972: Road to World Champion
In 1970, Fischer began a new effort to become World Champion. His dramatic march toward the title made him a household name and made chess front-page news for a time. He won the title in 1972, but forfeited it three years later.
### Road to the World Championship
[[File:Fischer Score Card.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.75|Fischer's [scoresheet](scoresheet (chess)) from his round 3 game against [Najdorf](Miguel)(Miguel Najdorf) in the 1970 [Olympiad](Chess)(Chess Olympiad) in [Siegen](Siegen), Germany]]
The 1969 US Championship was also a zonal qualifier, with the top three finishers advancing to the Interzonal. Fischer, however, had sat out the US Championship because of disagreements about the tournament's format and prize fund. Benko, one of the three qualifiers, agreed to give up his spot in the Interzonal to give Fischer another shot at the World Championship; Lombardy, who would have been "next in line" after Benko, did the same.[& Silman 2003](Benko)(#Benko), p. 426.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 84–86.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 343.[Barden](Leonard)(Leonard Barden), in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 342.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 174.*Chess Life & Review*, July 1975, Vol. XXX, No. 7. "The only condition I asked for stepping down was for Fischer to agree not to withdraw from the Interzonal or the ensuing matches should he qualify for them – and he fulfilled this condition."
In 1970 and 1971, Fischer "dominated his contemporaries to an extent never seen before or since".
Before the Interzonal, in March and April 1970, the world's best players competed in the [vs. Rest of the World](USSR)(Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World) match in [Belgrade](Belgrade), Yugoslavia, often referred to as "the Match of the Century". There was much surprise when Fischer decided to participate.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 82.
With Evans as his second,... |author=Larry Melvyn Evans|url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chess.pl?tid=79449 |title=The Rest Of The World Sort Of Strikes Back |magazine=Sports Illustrated|via=chessgames.com |date=April 20, 1970 |access-date=September 19, 2015}} Fischer flew to Belgrade[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 164. with the intention of playing for the rest of the world.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 321. Danish GM Bent Larsen, however, due to his recent tournament victories, demanded to play first board instead of Fischer, even though Fischer had the higher [rating](Elo)(Elo rating). To the surprise of everyone, Fischer agreed.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 161.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 82–83. Although the USSR team eked out a 20½–19½ victory, "On the top four boards, the Soviets managed to win only one game out of a possible sixteen. Bobby Fischer was the high scorer for his team, with a 3–1 score against Petrosian (two wins and two draws)."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 165. "Fischer left no doubt in anyone's mind that he had put his temporary break from the tournament circuit to good use. Petrosian was almost unrecognizable in the first two games, and by the time he had collected himself, although pressing his opponent, he could do no more than draw the last two games of the four-game set".
After the USSR versus the Rest of the World Match, the unofficial World Championship of Lightning Chess (5-minute games) was held at [Novi](Herceg)(Herceg Novi). "[Russians](The) figured on teaching Fischer a lesson and on bringing him down a peg or two".[1973](Schonberg)(#Schonberg), p. 267. Petrosian and Tal were considered the favorites, but Fischer overwhelmed the super-class field with 19/22 (+17−1=4), far ahead of Tal (14½), Korchnoi (14), Petrosian (13½), and Bronstein (13).[& Parr 1995](Denker)(#Denker), p. 105. Fischer lost only one game (to Korchnoi, who was also the only player to achieve an even score against him in the double [robin tournament](round)(round robin tournament)).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 188–89. Fischer "crushed such blitz kings as Tal, Petrosian and Vasily Smyslov by a clean score".[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 343. Tal marveled that, "During the entire tournament he didn't leave a single pawn [prise](en)(en prise)!", while the other players "blundered knights and bishops galore".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 183. For Lombardy, who had played many blitz games with Fischer,[2011](Lombardy)(#Lombardy), p. 90. "I was among the best blitz players around [to the fact that](due) I trained regularly with Bobby since he was 11-years old." Fischer's 4½-point margin of victory "came as a pleasant surprise".[2011](Lombardy)(#Lombardy), pp. 90–91. "As for Bobby's ability at speed chess, it came as no shock that Bobby would win the world blitz championship in 1970 in Belgrade. I expected Bobby to win by a wide margin, but his winning by a margin of 4½ points ahead of Tal did come as a pleasant surprise!"
[[File:Stevan Kragujevic, Bobi Fiser u Beogradu.jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|left|Fischer in [Belgrade](Belgrade) for the [vs. Rest of the World](USSR)(Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World) match in 1970]]
In April–May 1970, Fischer won at [Rovinj](Rovinj)/[Zagreb](Zagreb) with 13/17 (+10−1=6), by a two-point margin, ahead of Gligorić, [Hort](Vlastimil Hort), Korchnoi, Smyslov, and Petrosian.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 342.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 263–70. In July–August, Fischer crushed the mostly grandmaster field at [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires), winning by a 3½-point margin, scoring 15/17 (+13−0=4).[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 271–78. Fischer then played first board for the US Team in the 19th Chess Olympiad in Siegen, where he won an individual Silver medal, scoring 10/13 (+8−1=4), with his only loss being to World Champion Boris Spassky.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 201–02. Right after the Olympiad, Fischer defeated [Andersson](Ulf)(Ulf Andersson) in an exhibition game for the Swedish newspaper *Expressen*.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 279. Fischer had taken his game to a new level.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), pp. 342–44.
Fischer won the Interzonal (held in [de Mallorca](Palma)(Palma de Mallorca) in November and December 1970) with 18½/23 (+15−1=7),[Felice 2013c](Di)(#DiFelice2013c), pp. 320–21. far ahead of Larsen, [Geller](Efim)(Efim Geller), and [Hübner](Robert)(Robert Hübner), with 15/23.[1974](Kažić)(#Kazic), pp. 171–72. "Fischer's 3½-point margin set a new record for an Interzonal, beating Alexander Kotov's 3-point margin at [Saltsjöbaden](Saltsjöbaden) 1952." Fischer finished the tournament with seven consecutive wins.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 179. "Panno refused to play in protest of the organizers' rescheduling of the game to accommodate Fischer's desire not to play on his religion's [Sabbath](seventh-day Sabbath). Panno was not present when the game was to begin. Fischer waited ten minutes before playing his first move (1.c4) and went to get Panno to convince him to play. Forty-five minutes later, Panno came to the board and resigned."[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 344, 410. Setting aside the Sousse Interzonal (which Fischer withdrew from while leading), Fischer's victory gave him a string of eight consecutive first prizes in tournaments.[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), p. 137. Former world champion Mikhail Botvinnik was not, however, impressed by Fischer's results, stating: "Fischer has been declared a genius. I do not agree with this… In order to rightly be declared a genius in chess, you have to defeat equal opponents by a big margin. As yet he has not done this".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 214. Despite Botvinnik's remarks, "Fischer began a miraculous year in the history of chess".[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 86.
In the 1971 Candidates matches, Fischer was set to play against Soviet grandmaster and concert pianist [Taimanov](Mark)(Mark Taimanov) in the quarter-finals. The match began in mid-May in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 167. Fischer was generally favored to win.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 88. Taimanov had reason to be confident. He was backed by the firm guidance of Botvinnik, who "had thoroughly analysed Fischer's record and put together a 'dossier' on him", from when he was in talks to play Fischer in a match "a couple of years earlier".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 220–22. After Fischer defeated Taimanov in the second game of the match, Taimanov asked Fischer how he managed to come up with the move 12. N1c3, to which Fischer replied "that the idea was not his—he had come across it in the monograph by the Soviet master Alexander Nikitin in a footnote".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 225–26. Taimanov said of this: "It is staggering that I, an expert on the Sicilian, should have missed this theoretically significant idea by my compatriot, while Fischer had uncovered it in a book in a foreign language!"[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 226. With the score at 4–0, in Fischer's favor, the fifth game adjournment was a sight to behold.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 232. What happened next during the resumption of the 5th game,' Tal wrote later, 'had to be seen to be believed. It is simply incredible that three grandmasters could have left a rook en prise a mere three moves after the resumption of the game. Schonberg explains the scene:
Fischer beat Taimanov by the score of 6–0.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 412–16. There was little precedent for such a lopsided score in a match leading to the World Championship.[Barden](Leonard)(Leonard Barden) "From Portorož to Petrosian", in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 345. "The record books showed that the only comparable achievement to the 6–0 score against Taimanov was [Steinitz](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Steinitz)'s 7–0 win against [Henry Blackburne](Joseph)(Joseph Henry Blackburne) in 1876 in an era of more primitive defensive technique."
Upon losing the final game of the match, Taimanov shrugged his shoulders, saying sadly to Fischer: "Well, I still have my music."[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 188. Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 168. As a result of his performance, Taimanov "was thrown out of the USSR team and forbidden to travel for two years. He was banned from writing articles, was deprived of his monthly stipend… [and] the authorities prohibited him from performing on the concert platform."[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 91–92. "The crushing loss virtually ended Taimanov's chess career."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 168.
Fischer was next scheduled to play against Danish GM Bent Larsen. "Spassky predicted a tight struggle. 'Larsen is a little stronger in spirit.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 92. Before the match, Botvinnik had told a Soviet television audience:
Fischer beat Larsen by the identical score of 6–0.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 360. "…the chess world… was positively sent reeling by Bobby's crushing 6–0 defeat of Larsen." Robert Byrne writes: "To a certain extent I could grasp the Taimanov match as a kind of curiosity—almost a freak, a strange chess occurrence that would never occur again. But now I am at a loss for anything whatever to say… So, it is out of the question for me to explain how Bobby, how anyone, could win six games in a row from such a genius of the game as Bent Larsen".[& Nei 1974](Byrne)(#Byrne), p. 19. Just a year before, Larsen had played first board for the Rest of the World team ahead of Fischer, and had handed Fischer his only loss at the Interzonal. [Kasparov](Garry)(Garry Kasparov) later wrote that no player had ever shown a superiority over his rivals comparable to Fischer's "incredible" 12–0 score in the two matches.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), pp. 405–06. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas concludes that the victory over Larsen gave Fischer the "highest single-match [rating](performance)(Elo rating#Performance rating) ever".
On August 8, 1971, while preparing for his last Candidates match with former world champion Tigran Petrosian, Fischer won the [Chess Club](Manhattan)(Manhattan Chess Club) Rapid Tournament, scoring 21½/22 against a strong field.
Despite Fischer's results against Taimanov and Larsen, his upcoming match against Petrosian seemed a daunting task.[1974](Steiner)(#Steiner), p. 21. "Petrosian's opponents have declared him to be 'the hardest player in history to defeat. Nevertheless, the Soviet government was concerned about Fischer.[1991](Karpov)(#Karpov), p. 114.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 273. "**Karpov:** It was already clear that the winner [the Petrosian-Korchnoi Semi-Final Candidates Match](of) would have to play Fischer, who on the other staircase was rapidly ascending to the chess throne. There was practically no doubt that Spassky would be able to deal with him, but in the Sports Committee they decided that it was better if it didn't come to this… And so the officials summoned Petrosian and Korchnoi and asked them directly which of them had the better chances against Fischer. Korchnoi said that the 'generation beaten by Fischer' had practically no chances. But Petrosian said that he believed in himself. After this it was suggested to Korchnoi that he should allow Petrosian to win, and in compensation they promised to send him to three major tournaments (which for a Soviet player in those times was a princely reward)." "Reporters asked Petrosian whether the match would last the full twelve games… 'It might be possible that I win it earlier,' Petrosian replied",[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 169. and then stated: "Fischer's [consecutive](nineteen) wins do not impress me. He is a great chess player but no genius."[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 195. Petrosian played a strong in the first game, gaining the advantage, but Fischer eventually won the game after Petrosian faltered.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), pp. 408–17.[Timman](Jan)(Jan Timman) (1980) *The Art of Chess Analysis*, R.H.M. Press, pp. 36–42. .[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), pp. 259–62. This gave Fischer a run of 20 consecutive wins against the world's top players (in the Interzonal and Candidates matches), a [streak](winning)(winning streak (sports)) topped only by Steinitz's 25 straight wins in 1873–1882.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 311–12. Petrosian won the second game, finally snapping Fischer's streak.[1997](Mednis)(#Mednis), pp. 266–70.}} After three consecutive draws, Fischer swept the next four games to win the match 6½–2½ (+5−1=3).[Fine](Reuben)(Reuben Fine) (1971) *The Final Candidates Match Buenos Aires, 1971: Fischer vs Petrosian*, Hostel Chess Association. pp. 13–32. *Sports Illustrated* ran an article on the match, highlighting Fischer's domination of Petrosian as being due to Petrosian's outdated system of preparation:
Upon completion of the match, Petrosian remarked: "After the sixth game Fischer really did become a genius. I on the other hand, either had a breakdown or was tired, or something else happened, but the last three games were no longer chess."[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 96.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 289. "Some experts kept insisting that Petrosian was off form, and that he should have had a plus score at the end of the sixth game…" to which Fischer replied, "People have been playing against me below strength for fifteen years."[1973](Schonberg)(#Schonberg), p. 269. Fischer's match results befuddled Botvinnik: "It is hard to talk about Fischer's matches. Since the time that he has been playing them, miracles have begun."[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 293. "When Petrosian played like Petrosian, Fischer played like a very strong grandmaster, but when Petrosian began making mistakes, Fischer was transformed into a genius."
Fischer gained a far higher rating than any player in history up to that time.[1972](Alexander)(#Alexander), p. 74. On the July 1972 FIDE rating list, his [rating](Elo)(Elo rating) of 2785 was 125 points above (World No. 2) Spassky's rating of 2660.*[Informant](Chess)(Chess Informant)*, Volume 14, Šahovski Informator, 1973, pp. 302–07.Albert Silver, [The name of the game is domination](https://en.chessbase.com/(X(1)S(llg5s3n25xhqbvopexo5w3mx))/post/the-name-of-the-game-is-domination), ChessBase, March 1, 2013 His results put him on the cover of [magazine](*Life*)(Life (magazine)), and allowed him to challenge World Champion Boris Spassky, whom he had never beaten (+0−3=2).[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 429.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 336. "[**Petrosian:**]' … I must warn Spassky that Fischer is armed with all the new ideas in chess. As soon as Fischer gains even the slightest advantage, he begins playing like a machine. You cannot hope for some mistake. Fischer is a quite extraordinary player. His match with Spassky will be tough.
### World Championship match
Fischer's career-long stubbornness about match and tournament conditions was again seen in the run-up to his match with Spassky. Of the possible sites, Fischer's first choice was [Belgrade](Belgrade), [Yugoslavia](Yugoslavia), while Spassky's was [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), Iceland.[1972](Gligorić)(#Gligoric), pp. 10–11. For a time it appeared that the dispute would be resolved by splitting the match between the two locations, but that arrangement failed.[1972](Gligorić)(#Gligoric), pp. 11–12. After that issue was resolved, Fischer refused to appear in Iceland until the prize fund was increased. London financier [Slater](Jim)(Jim Slater (accountant)) donated an additional US$125,000, bringing the prize fund up to an unprecedented $250,000 ($ million today) and Fischer finally agreed to play.[1972](Gligorić)(#Gligoric), p. 13.
Before and during the match, Fischer paid special attention to his physical training and fitness, which was a relatively novel approach for top chess players at that time. Leading up to this match he conducted interviews with [Minutes](60)(60 Minutes) and [Cavett](Dick)(Dick Cavett) explaining the importance of physical fitness in his preparation. He had developed his [tennis](tennis) skills to a good level, and played frequently during off-days in Reykjavík. He had also arranged for exclusive use of his hotel's swimming pool during specified hours, and swam for extended periods, usually late at night.[1972](Gligorić)(#Gligoric), p. 47. According to Soviet [Grandmaster](Grandmaster (chess)) [Krogius](Nikolai)(Nikolai Krogius), Fischer "was paying great attention to sport, and that he was swimming and even boxing…"[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 308.
The match took place in Reykjavík from July to September 1972. Fischer was accompanied by William Lombardy; besides assisting with analysis,[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), pp. 225, 253. Lombardy may have played an important role in getting Fischer to play in the match and to stay in it.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 248. The match was the first to receive an American broadcast in prime time.[1972](Alexander)(#Alexander), p. 141. Fischer lost the first two games in strange fashion: the first when he played a risky pawn-grab in a drawn [endgame](chess endgame), the second by forfeit when he refused to play the game in a dispute over playing conditions.[1972](Alexander)(#Alexander), pp. 84–87. Fischer would likely have forfeited the entire match, but Spassky, not wanting to win by default, yielded to Fischer's demands to move the next game to a back room, away from the cameras, whose presence had upset Fischer.[1972](Gligorić)(#Gligoric), p. 37.[1972](Alexander)(#Alexander), p. 87. After that game, the match was moved back to the stage and proceeded without further serious incident. Fischer won seven of the next 19 games, losing only one and drawing eleven, to win the match 12½–8½ and become the 11th World Chess Champion.
The [War](Cold)(Cold War) trappings made the match a media sensation.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 271–73. It was called "The Match of the Century",[& Nei 1974](Byrne)(#Byrne), p. vii.[2006](Donner)(#Donner), p. 136 (originally published in *De Tijd*, June 28, 1972). "Even before a move has been made, this breathtaking, blood-curdling and heartrending encounter is justly being labelled as 'the Match of the Century'." and received front-page media coverage in the United States and around the world.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 370. The match made the covers of *[Time](Time (magazine))* and *[Newsweek](Newsweek)*. *Id.* at 19. Fischer's win was an American victory in a field that Soviet players – closely identified with and subsidized by the state – had dominated for the previous quarter-century. Kasparov remarked, "Fischer fits ideologically into the context of the Cold War era: a lone American genius challenges the Soviet chess machine and defeats it".[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 206.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 15. Dutch Grandmaster [Timman](Jan)(Jan Timman) calls Fischer's victory "the story of a lonely hero who overcomes an entire empire".[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 89. Fischer's sister observed, "Bobby did all this in a country almost totally without a chess culture. It was as if an [Eskimo](Eskimo) had cleared a tennis court in the snow and gone on to win the world championship".[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 13.
Upon Fischer's return to New York,[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), pp. 10–11. a Bobby Fischer Day was held....
}} He was offered numerous product endorsement offers worth "at least $5 million" ($ million today), all of which he declined.Larry Evans, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 13. He appeared on the cover of *[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)* with American Olympic swimming champion [Spitz](Mark)(Mark Spitz) and also appeared on [Dick Cavett Show](The)(The Dick Cavett Show), as well as on a [Hope](Bob)(Bob Hope) TV special. Membership in the US Chess Federation doubled in 1972, and peaked in 1974; in American chess, these years are commonly referred to as the "Fischer Boom". This match attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 2–3. "The 1972 championship will become immortalized in film, on the stage, in song. It will remain incontrovertibly the most notorious chess duel in history. There will never be another like it… A lone American star was challenging the long Soviet grip on the world title. His success would dispose of the Soviet's claim that their chess hegemony reflected the superiority of their political system…"
### Forfeiture of title
Fischer was scheduled to defend his title in 1975 against [Karpov](Anatoly)(Anatoly Karpov), who had [as his challenger](emerged)(World Chess Championship 1975). Fischer, who had played no competitive games since his World Championship match with Spassky, laid out a proposal for the match in September 1973, in consultation with FIDE official Fred Cramer. He made three principal (non-negotiable) demands:
#The match continues until one player wins 10 games, draws not counting.
#No limit to the total number of games played.
#In case of a 9–9 score, the champion (Fischer) retains the title, and the prize fund is split equally.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 471.
A FIDE Congress was held in 1974 during the [Nice](Nice, France) [Olympiad](Chess Olympiad). The delegates voted in favor of Fischer's 10-win proposal, but rejected his other two proposals, and limited the number of games in the match to 36.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 412–13. In response to FIDE's ruling, Fischer sent a cable to Euwe on June 27, 1974:[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 218–19.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 472.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 413–14.
The delegates responded by reaffirming their prior decisions, but did not accept Fischer's resignation and requested that he reconsider.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 414. Many observers considered Fischer's requested 9–9 clause unfair because it would require the challenger to win by at least two games (10–8).[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 46. "Grandmaster [Ree](Hans)(Hans Ree) remarked of Fischer's demand that the champion keep his title in the event of a 9–9 tie, 'They [FIDE] thought that this demand was too severe. It was rejected, understandably'." Botvinnik called the 9–9 clause "unsporting".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 417–18. Korchnoi, [Bronstein](David)(David Bronstein), and [Alburt](Lev)(Lev Alburt) considered the 9–9 clause reasonable.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 418–19.[& Tangborn 1999](Donaldson)(#Donaldson), p. 159. "In a letter to Larry Evans, published in *[Life](Chess)(Chess Life)* in November 1974, Fischer claimed the usual system (24 games with the first player to get 12½ points winning, and the champion retaining his title in the event of a 12–12 tie) encouraged the player in the lead to draw games, which he regarded as bad for chess. Not counting draws would be 'an accurate test of who is the world's best player'."[& Parr 1995](Denker)(#Denker), pp. 110–11. "Former US Champion [Denker](Arnold)(Arnold Denker), who was in contact with Fischer during the negotiations with FIDE, claimed that Fischer wanted a long match to be able to play himself into shape after a three-year layoff."
Due to the continued efforts of US Chess Federation officials,[1997](Mednis)(#Mednis), p. 282. a special FIDE Congress was held in March 1975 in Bergen, Netherlands,Bozidar Kazic (1975). "Anatoly Karpov New World Champion." *Chess Informant* 19. in which it was accepted that the match should be of unlimited duration, but the 9–9 clause was once again rejected, by a narrow margin of 35 votes to 32.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 414–16. FIDE set a deadline of April 1, 1975, for Fischer and Karpov to confirm their participation in the match. No reply was received from Fischer by April 3. Thus, by default, Karpov officially became World Champion.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 473. In his 1991 autobiography, Karpov professed regret that the match had not taken place, and claimed that the lost opportunity to challenge Fischer held back his own chess development. Karpov met with Fischer several times after 1975, in friendly but ultimately unsuccessful attempts to arrange a match, since Karpov would never agree to play to 10.[1991](Karpov)(#Karpov), pp. 159–65.
[Carney](Brian)(Brian Carney (editorialist)) opined in *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* that Fischer's victory over Spassky in 1972 left him nothing to prove, except that perhaps someone could someday beat him, and he was not interested in the risk of losing. He also opined that Fischer's refusal to recognize peers also allowed his paranoia to flower: "The world championship he won ... validated his view of himself as a chess player, but it also insulated him from the humanizing influences of the world around him. He descended into what can only be considered a kind of madness".
Bronstein felt that Fischer "had the right to play the match with Karpov on his own conditions".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 419–20. Korchnoi stated:[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 418.
Soviet GM Lev Alburt felt that the decision to not concede to Fischer's demands rested on Karpov's "sober view of what he was capable of".[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 419. Years later, in his 1992 match against Spassky, Fischer said that Karpov refused to play against him under Fischer's conditions.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 247. "**Roger Cohen:** Why, after turning down so many offers to make a comeback, did you accept this one? **Bobby Fischer:** That's not quite true. As I recall, for example, Karpov in 1975 was the one who refused to play under conditions…"
## Sudden obscurity
After the 1972 World Chess Championship, Fischer did not play a competitive game in public for nearly 20 years.[& Stefanovic (1992)](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), p. 22. In 1977 in [Massachusetts](Cambridge,)(Cambridge, Massachusetts), he played three games against the [MIT](MIT) [Greenblatt](Richard Greenblatt (programmer)) computer program, winning them all.
He moved to the Los Angeles area and associated with the [Church of God](Worldwide)(Worldwide Church of God) for a time.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 210. "His connection to the Church was always somewhat ambiguous. He was not a registered member, since he hadn't agreed to be baptized by full immersion in water by Armstrong or one of his ministers. And since he wasn't considered a duly recognized convert, he was sometimes referred to as a 'co-worker' or, less politely, as a 'fringer' — someone on the fringes or edges of the Church but not totally committed to its mission. The Church imposed a number of rules that Bobby thought were ridiculous and refused to adhere to [...]" On May 26, 1981, while walking in Pasadena, Fischer was arrested by a police patrolman, because he resembled a man who had just committed a robbery in the area.[(1982)](Fischer)(#F1982), p. 1. Fischer, who alleged that he was slightly injured during the arrest,[1982](Fischer)(#F1982), p. 2. said that he was held for two days, subjected to assault and various types of mistreatment,[1982](Fischer)(#F1982), pp. 3–14. and released on $1,000 [bail](bail).[1982](Fischer)(#F1982), pp. 10–12. Fischer published a 14-page pamphlet detailing his allegations of police misconduct, saying that his arrest had been "a frame up and set up".[1982](Fischer)(#F1982), p. 14.
In 1981, Fischer stayed at the home of grandmaster [Biyiasas](Peter)(Peter Biyiasas) in San Francisco, where, over a period of four months, he defeated Biyiasas seventeen times in a series of speed games.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 224. In an interview with *Sports Illustrated'' reporter William Nack, Biyiasas assessed Fischer's play:
In 1988–1990, Fischer had a relationship with German chess player Petra Stadler, who had been put in touch with Fischer by Spassky. When Stadler later published a book about the affair, Spassky apologized to Fischer.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p.225
## 1992 Spassky rematch
Fischer emerged after twenty years of isolation to play Spassky (then tied for 96th–102nd on the FIDE rating list) in a "Revenge Match of the 20th century" in 1992. This match took place in [Stefan](Sveti)(Sveti Stefan) and [Belgrade](Belgrade), [Yugoslavia](Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), in spite of a [Nations](United)(United Nations) [embargo](embargo) that included sanctions on commercial activities. Fischer demanded that the organizers bill the match as "The World Chess Championship", although [Kasparov](Garry)(Garry Kasparov) was the recognized FIDE World Champion. Fischer insisted he was still the true World Champion, and that for all the games in the FIDE-sanctioned World Championship matches, involving Karpov, Korchnoi, and Kasparov, the outcomes had been prearranged. The purse for the rematch was US$5 million, with $3.35 million of the purse to go to the winner.[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), p. 8. This was and still is the largest purse for a match in chess history.
According to grandmaster [Soltis](Andrew)(Andrew Soltis):[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), p. 280.
Fischer won the match with 10 wins, 5 losses, and 15 draws.[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 382. Kasparov stated, "Bobby is playing OK, nothing more. Maybe his strength is 2600 or 2650. It wouldn't be close between us".[1993](Waitzkin)(#Waitzkin), p. 298. [Seirawan](Yasser)(Yasser Seirawan) believed that the match proved that Fischer's playing strength was "somewhere in the top ten in the world".[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), p. 283.
Fischer and Spassky gave ten press conferences during the match.[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan). The content of the first nine press conferences, in full, at pp. 13, 15–21, 53–57, 86–90, 114–18, 149–54, 170–75, 208–14, 227–31, 256–60. The tenth press conference was not transcribed, p. 272. Seirawan attended the match and met with Fischer on several occasions; the two analyzed some match games and had personal discourse. Seirawan later wrote: "After September 23 [1992], I threw most of what I'd ever read about Bobby out of my head. Sheer garbage. Bobby is the most misunderstood, misquoted celebrity walking the face of the earth."[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), p. 291. He added that Fischer was not camera shy, smiled and laughed easily, was "a fine wit" and "wholly enjoyable conversationalist".[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), pp. 85, 96, 303.
The [Department of the Treasury](US)(United States Department of the Treasury) warned Fischer before the start of the match that his participation was illegal, that it would violate President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush)'s imposing [Nations Security Council](United)(United Nations Security Council) [757](Resolution)(:wikisource:United Nations Security Council Resolution 757) sanctions against engaging in economic activities in Yugoslavia.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 243–44. In response, during the first scheduled press conference on September 1, 1992, in front of the international press, Fischer spat on the US order, saying "this is my reply". His violation of the order led US Federal officials to initiate a warrant for his arrest upon completion of the match, citing, in pertinent part, "[50](Title)(50 USC) [USC](United States Code) §§1701, 1702, and 1705 and Executive Order 12810".[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 255. "On December 15, 1992, a single count indictment in federal court in Washington, D.C., was handed down by a grand jury against Bobby Fischer for violating economic sanctions, through an executive order issued by President George Bush. A letter to that effect was sent to Bobby in Belgrade, and upon announcement of the indictment, federal officials issued a warrant for his arrest."
Before the rematch against Spassky, Fischer had won a training match against Svetozar Gligorić in Sveti Stefan with six wins, one loss, and three draws.Edward Winter. "[Fischer v Gligorić Training Match (1992)](http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/fischergligoric.html)", *Chess Notes*
## Later life and death
### Life as an émigré
After the 1992 match with Spassky, Fischer, now a fugitive, slid back into relative obscurity, taking up residence in [Budapest](Budapest), Hungary, and allegedly having a relationship with young Hungarian chess master Zita Rajcsányi. Fischer stated that standard chess was stale and that he now played blitz games of [variant](chess)(chess variant)s, such as [Chess960](Chess960). He visited the Polgár family in Budapest and analyzed many games with [Judit](Judit Polgár), [Zsuzsa](Susan Polgar), and [Polgár](Zsófia)(Zsófia Polgár).[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 65, 106–09.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 255–62. In 1998 and 1999, he also stayed at the house of young Hungarian grandmaster [Leko](Peter)(Peter Leko).
From 2000 to 2002, Fischer lived in [Baguio](Baguio) in the Philippines, residing in the same compound as the Filipino grandmaster [Torre](Eugenio)(Eugenio Torre), a close friend who had acted as his during his 1992 match with Spassky. Torre introduced Fischer to a 22 year-old woman named Marilyn Young. On May 21, 2001, Marilyn Young gave birth to a daughter named Jinky Young, and claimed that Fischer was the child's father, a claim ultimately disproven by DNA after Fischer's death.
### Comments on September 11 attacks
Shortly after midnight on September 12, 2001, Philippines local time (approximately four hours after the [11, 2001, terrorist attacks](September)(September 11 attacks) in the US), Fischer was interviewed live by Pablo Mercado on the [Baguio](Baguio) station of the [Radyo](Bombo)(Bombo Radyo Philippines) network. Fischer stated that he was happy that the attacks had happened, while expressing his view on United States and Israeli [policy](foreign)(foreign policy), saying, "I applaud the act. Look, nobody gets ... that the US and Israel have been slaughtering the Palestinians ... for years."[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 122. He also said, "The horrible behavior that the US is committing all over the world ... This just shows you, that what goes around, comes around, even for the United States." Fischer also referenced the movie *[Days in May](Seven)(Seven Days in May)* and said he hoped for a military [d'état](coup)(coup d'état) in the US: "[hope](I) the country will be taken over by the military—they'll close down all the synagogues, arrest all the Jews, execute hundreds of thousands of Jewish ringleaders."Fischer's radio broadcasts show that he was "out of his mind ... a victim of his own mental illness". [& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 66–67. In response to Fischer's statements about 9/11, the [Chess Federation](US)(United States Chess Federation) passed a motion to cancel his right to membership in the organization. Fischer's right to become a member was reinstated in 2007.
### Detention in Japan
Fischer lived for a time in Japan. On July 13, 2004, acting in response to a letter from US officials, Japanese immigration authorities arrested him at [International Airport](Narita)(Narita International Airport) near Tokyo for allegedly using a revoked US [passport](passport) while trying to board a [Airlines](Japan)(Japan Airlines) flight to [Aquino International Airport](Ninoy)(Ninoy Aquino International Airport) in [Manila](Manila), [Philippines](Philippines).[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 2. "[Fischer's] worry was that the U.S. government might finally have caught up with him. He'd violated State Department economic sanctions against Yugoslavia by playing a $5 million chess match against Boris Spassky in [Stefan](Sveti)(Sveti Stefan), [Montenegro](Montenegro), in 1992, and an arrest warrant had been issued at that time. If he went back to the United States, he'd have to stand trial, and the penalty, if he was convicted, would be anywhere from ten years in prison to $250,000 in fines, or both, plus possible forfeiture of his $3.5 million winnings." Fischer resisted arrest, and claimed to have sustained bruises, cuts and a broken tooth in the process. At the time, Fischer had a passport (originally issued in 1997 and updated in 2003 to add more pages) that, according to US officials, had been revoked in November 2003 due to his outstanding arrest-warrant for the Yugoslavia sanctions violation. Despite the outstanding arrest-warrant in the US, Fischer said that he believed the passport was still valid.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 281–82. "There were problems with the revocation of the passport, however. Fischer never received the notice and therefore couldn't appeal it, which according to law he had the right to do. The Justice Department claimed that the letter had been sent to the hotel in Bern (the location Bobby had given to the embassy) and was returned to them with no forwarding address appended. It was dated December 11, 2003, and when a faxed copy of the letter was ultimately examined, it didn't have an address for Fischer on it, the implication being that the embassy had never sent the letter to Bern." The authorities held Fischer at a custody center for 16 days before transferring him to another facility. Fischer said that his cell was windowless and he had not seen the light of day during that period, and that the staff had ignored his complaints about constant tobacco smoke in his cell.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 282. "Not knowing that his arrest was imminent, and believing that his passport was legal, on July 13, 2004, [Fischer] went to Narita Airport in Tokyo to board a plane bound for Manila. He was arrested and shackled in chains."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 282, 293. "...on July 13, 2004... [Fischer] was arrested..." "...on March 23, 2005, [Fischer] was released from his cell."
Tokyo-based Canadian journalist and consultant John Bosnitch set up the "Committee to Free Bobby Fischer" after meeting Fischer at Narita Airport and offering to assist him. Boris Spassky wrote a letter to US President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush), asking "For mercy, charity," and, if that was not possible, "to put [him] in the same cell with Bobby Fischer" and "to give [them] a chess set". It was reported that Fischer and [Watai](Miyoko)(Miyoko Watai), the President of the Japanese Chess Association (with whom he had reportedly been living since 2000) wanted to become legally married. It was also reported that Fischer had been living in the Philippines with Marilyn Young during the same period. Fischer applied for German citizenship, on the grounds that his father was German. Fischer stated that he wanted to [his US citizenship](renounce)(renunciation of United States citizenship), and appealed to [Secretary of State](US)(United States Secretary of State) [Powell](Colin)(Colin Powell) to help him do so, though to no effect. Japan's Justice Minister rejected Fischer's request for asylum and ordered his deportation., March 23, 2005. "[Fischer] was picked up by limousine supplied by the Icelandic embassy, given his new Icelandic passport, and he and Miyoko, hand in hand, sped to Narita Airport." Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 293.
While in prison, Bobby Fischer legally married Miyoko Watai on September 6, 2004.
### Citizenship and residency in Iceland
Seeking ways to evade deportation to the United States, Fischer wrote a letter to the government of Iceland in early January 2005, requesting Icelandic citizenship.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 288–89. "Honorable Members of Althingi: I … sincerely thank the Icelandic nation for the friendship it has shown to me ever since I came to your country many years ago and competed for the title of World Champion in chess… For the past six months I have been forcibly and illegally imprisoned in Japan… During this period my health has steadily deteriorated… I would therefore like to formally request that Althingi grant me Icelandic citizenship so that I may actually enjoy the offer of residence in Iceland that your Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. David Oddsson had so graciously extended to me. Most Respectfully, BOBBY FISCHER" Sympathetic to Fischer's plight, but reluctant to grant him the full benefits of citizenship, Icelandic authorities granted him an [passport](alien's)(alien's passport). When this proved insufficient for the Japanese authorities, the [Althing](Althing) (the Icelandic Parliament), at the behest of [Lombardy](William)(William Lombardy), agreed unanimously to grant Fischer [citizenship](full)(Icelandic citizenship) in late March for humanitarian reasons, as they felt he was being unjustly treated by the United States and Japanese governments,[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 293. "The RJF [James Fischer](Robert) members called virtually every member of parliament to lobby for citizenship: full, citizenship... an Extraordinary Session of Parliament was called for Saturday, Match 21, 2005. Three rounds of discussion took place in the space of twelve minutes, and questions were posed regarding the extent of the emergency. The answers were succinct and forthcoming: Bobby Fischer's improper incarceration was a violation of his rights; all he was really guilty of was moving some wooden pieces across a chessboard; he'd been a friend of Iceland and had a historical connection to it, and now he needed the country's help". Act Respecting the Granting of Citizenship, no. 16/2005. and also in recognition of his 1972 match, which had "put Iceland on the map".
After arriving in [Reykjavík](Reykjavík) in late March, Fischer gave a press conference. He lived a reclusive life in Iceland, avoiding entrepreneurs and others who approached him with various proposals.
Fischer moved into an apartment in the same building as his close friend and spokesman, Garðar Sverrisson.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 305. Garðar's wife, Kristín Þórarinsdóttir, was a nurse and later looked after Fischer as a terminally ill patient. Garðar's two children, especially his son, were very close to Fischer.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 319. Fischer also developed a friendship with Magnús Skúlason, a psychiatrist and chess player who later recalled long discussions with him on a wide variety of subjects.
On December 10, 2006, Fischer telephoned an Icelandic television station that had just broadcast a chess game in which one player blundered such that his opponent was able to mate on the next move. Although he tried to change his mind upon seeing the mate, the [rule](touch-move)(touch-move rule) forced him to play the blunder. Fischer pointed out a winning [combination](combination (chess)) that could have been played instead of the blunder or the other attempted move, but had been missed by the player and commentators.
In 2005, some of Fischer's belongings were auctioned on [eBay](eBay). Fischer claimed, in 2006, that the belongings sold in the US without his permission were worth "hundreds of millions of [US] dollars; even billions of dollars."[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 118. In the same interview, Fischer also said that [UBS](UBS) Bank had closed an account of his and liquidated his assets against his wishes, transferring the funds to a bank in Iceland.
### Death, estate dispute, and exhumation
On January 17, 2008, Fischer died at age 64 from degenerative [failure](kidney)(kidney failure) at the [Hospital](Landspítali)(Landspítali Hospital) (National University Hospital of Iceland) in Reykjavík.Death:
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* [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 317. He originally had a [tract blockage](urinary)(urinary tract blockage) but refused surgery or medication.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 316–17. "Bobby started to have urinary problems and thought it might simply be caused by an enlarged [prostate](prostate) gland, at first denying that anything was seriously wrong with him. His lungs were also bothering him and he was having difficulty breathing. Since he had a lifelong distrust of doctors, he tolerated the discomfort until late September 2007, when his pain and inability to urinate became excruciating. He went to a doctor... [conducted a blood test which showed that](who) he had a blocked urinary tract... [that](and) his kidneys... were not functioning properly... Bobby refused to take any medicine, and the idea of being hooked up to a [dialysis](Kidney dialysis) machine to cleanse his blood every few days for the rest of his life was out of the question."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 317. "'It's possible that Bobby was just giving up, letting go of his life, beginning a slow form of suicide'. Interview of Pal Benko by author, summer 2008, New York." Magnús Skúlason reported Fischer's response to leg massages: "Nothing soothes as much as the human touch."[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 318.
On January 21, Fischer was buried in the small Christian cemetery of [Laugardælir](Laugardælir) church, outside the town of [Selfoss](Selfoss (town)), southeast of Reykjavík, after a Catholic funeral presided over by Fr. Jakob Rolland of the diocese of Reykjavík. In accordance with Fischer's wishes, only [Watai](Miyoko)(Miyoko Watai), Garðar Sverrisson, and Garðar's family were present.Burial:
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Fischer's estate was estimated at 140 million [ISK](Icelandic króna) (about £1 million, or US$2 million). It quickly became the object of a legal battle involving claims from four parties, with Miyoko Watai ultimately inheriting what remained of Fischer's estate after government claims. The four parties were Fischer's Japanese wife, Miyoko Watai; his alleged Filipino daughter, Jinky Young, and her mother, Marilyn Young; his two American nephews, Alexander and Nicholas Targ, and their father, [Targ](Russell)(Russell Targ); and the US government (claiming unpaid taxes).
Marilyn Young claimed that Jinky was Fischer's daughter, citing as evidence Jinky's birth and baptismal certificates, photographs, a transaction record dated December 4, 2007, of a bank remittance by Fischer to Jinky, and Jinky's DNA through her blood samples. However, Magnús Skúlason, a friend of Fischer's, said that he was certain that Fischer was not the girl's father. In addition, the validity of Miyoko Watai's marriage to Fischer was challenged.
On June 16, 2010, Iceland's supreme court ruled in favor of a petition on behalf of Jinky Young to have Fischer's remains exhumed. The exhumation was performed on July 5, 2010, in the presence of a doctor, a priest, and other officials. A DNA sample was taken and Fischer's body was then reburied.
On August 17, 2010, it was announced that results of DNA testing had ruled out Fischer as the father of Jinky Young. On March 3, 2011, an Icelandic district court ruled that Miyoko Watai and Fischer had married on September 6, 2004, and that, as Fischer's widow and heir, Watai was therefore entitled to inherit Fischer's estate. Fischer's nephews were ordered to pay Watai's legal costs, amounting to [ISK](Icelandic króna) 6.6 million (approximately $57,000).
## Personal life
### Religious affiliation
Although Fischer's [was Jewish](mother)(Matrilineality in Judaism), Fischer rejected attempts to label him as Jewish. In a 1962 interview with ''[Harper's](Harper's)*, asked if he was Jewish, he replied that he was "part-Jewish" through his mother. In the same interview he was quoted as saying: "I read a book lately by [Nietzsche](Friedrich Nietzsche) and he says religion is just to dull the senses of the people. I agree."[1962](Ginzburg)(#Ginzburg), p. 54. In a 1984 letter to the editor of the *[Judaica](Encyclopaedia)(Encyclopaedia Judaica)*, Fischer demanded that they remove his name from future editions.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 26–27.
Fischer associated with the [Church of God](Worldwide)(Grace Communion International) in the mid-1960s. The church prescribed [Sabbath](Saturday)(Sabbath in seventh-day churches), and forbade work (and competitive chess) on Sabbath.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 15. According to his friend and colleague [Evans](Larry)(Larry Evans (chess grandmaster)), in 1968 Fischer felt philosophically that "the world was coming to an end" and he might as well make some money by publishing *My 60 Memorable Games*; Fischer thought that the [Rapture](Rapture) was coming soon.*[Life](Chess)(Chess Life)'', April 2009, p. 10.
During the mid-1970s, Fischer contributed significant money to the Worldwide Church of God.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), pp. 301–02. "Where was Fischer? For several years, he lived in the bosom of the Worldwide Church of God in Pasadena, where he was called 'a co-worker'. The church fed him, they gave him comfortable accommodation in Mocking Bird Lane, they even flew him around in a private jet. In return, Fischer handed over around a third ($61,200) of his Icelandic prize money." In 1972, one journalist stated that "Fischer is almost as serious about religion as he is about chess", and the champion credited his faith with greatly improving his chess.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 143. "Bobby tried to live and practice his beliefs; he felt truly *born again*, and he was applying the same sense of discipline and reverence to the Bible that he had all his life to chess. [...] But eventually his religious commitments began tearing him apart. He couldn't spend ten or twelve hours a day studying chess and another six to eight hours on Bible studies [...]" Yet prophecies by [W. Armstrong](Herbert)(Herbert W. Armstrong) went unfulfilled.This led Fischer to believe that Armstrong was really a "false prophet". [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 212. Fischer eventually left the church in 1977, "accusing it of being 'Satanic', and vigorously attacking its methods and leadership".[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 302.
Towards the end of his life, Fischer became interested in Catholicism. He bought his friend Gardar Sverrisson a copy of "Basic Catechism: Creed, Sacraments, Morality, Prayer" so Gardar could explain the religion better to him. According to Sverrisson, Fischer talked to him about transformation of society through creation of harmony and that "the only hope for the world is through Catholicism." Fischer was also known to have read a synopsis of [K. Chesterton](G.)(G. K. Chesterton)'s works in the years leading up to his death. He requested a Catholic funeral, and this final service was presided over by Catholic priest Jakob Rolland.
### Antisemitism
Fischer made numerous [antisemitic](Antisemitism) statements and professed a general hatred for Jews from at least the early 1960s.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 30, 44. [Hein Donner](Jan)(Jan Hein Donner) wrote that at the time of Bled 1961, "He idolized [Hitler](Adolf Hitler) and read everything about him that he could lay his hands on. He also championed a brand of antisemitism that could only be thought up by a mind completely cut off from reality." Donner took Fischer to a war museum, which "left a great impression, since [Fischer] is not an evil person, and afterwards he was more restrained in his remarks—to me, at least."
From the 1980s on, Fischer's comments about Jews were a major theme in his public and private remarks.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 41, 45, 61, 66, 90, 92, 95, 101, 107, 117–20. He openly [the Holocaust](denied)(Holocaust denial), and called the United States "a farce controlled by dirty, [hook-nosed](Jewish nose), [circumcised](circumcision) Jew bastards". Between 1999 and 2006, Fischer's primary means of communicating with the public was radio interviews. He participated in at least 34 such broadcasts, mostly with radio stations in the Philippines, but also in Hungary, Iceland, Colombia, and Russia. In 1999, he gave a radio call-in interview to a station in Budapest, Hungary, during which he described himself as the "victim of an [Jewish conspiracy](international)(Jewish conspiracy#Jewish world domination)". In another radio interview, Fischer said that it became clear to him in 1977, after reading *The Secret World Government* by [Cherep-Spiridovich](Count)(Arthur Cherep-Spiridovich), that Jewish agencies were targeting him.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), p. 123. Fischer's sudden reemergence was apparently triggered when some of his belongings, which had been stored in a [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), storage unit, were sold by the landlord, who claimed it was in response to nonpayment of rent.[& Jongkind 2003](Böhm)(#Bohm), pp. 41, 65–66, 118–19, 121. Fischer was also upset that [UBS](UBS) had liquidated his assets and closed his account without his permission. When asked who he thought was responsible for the actions UBS had taken, Fischer replied: "There's no question that the Jew-controlled United States is behind this—that's obvious."[Fischer on Icelandic Radio](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3468) April 11, 2006. Fischer, at a press conference upon [return to Reykjavik, Iceland](his)(Bobby Fischer#Citizenship and residency in Iceland), lashed out at Jeremy Schaap, the son of the late [Schaap](Dick)(Dick Schaap), a sportswriter who had been a father figure to Fischer when growing up, calling his father a "Jewish snake" for doubting Fischer's sanity in his later writings.
Fischer's library contained antisemitic and racist literature such as *[Kampf](Mein)(Mein Kampf)*, *[Protocols of the Elders of Zion](The)(The Protocols of the Elders of Zion)*, and ''The White Man's Bible* and *Nature's Eternal Religion* by [Klassen](Ben)(Ben Klassen), founder of the [Church of the Creator](World)(Creativity Movement).[2009](DeLucia)(#DeLucia2009), pp. 160–62, 166.Fischer wrote of *Nature's Eternal Religion'' in a 1979 letter to Benko, The book shows that Christianity itself is just a Jewish hoax and one more Jewish tool for their conquest of the world. ... Unfortunately the author is an extreme racist and this somewhat spoils the book. A notebook written by Fischer contains sentiments such as "12/13/99 It's time to start randomly killing Jews".[2009](DeLucia)(#DeLucia2009), pp. 290, 292. Despite his views, Fischer remained on good terms with Jewish chess players.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 27.
### Speculation on psychological condition
While as far as is known Fischer was never formally diagnosed with a mental disorder, there has been widespread comment and speculation concerning his psychological condition based on his extreme views and unusual behavior. [Fine](Reuben)(Reuben Fine), psychologist and chess player, who met Fischer many times, said that "Some of Bobby's behavior is so strange, unpredictable, odd and bizarre that even his most ardent apologists have had a hard time explaining what makes him tick" and described him as "a troubled human being" with "obvious personal problems".''Bobby Fischer's Conquest of the World's Chess Championship: The Psychology and Tactics of the Title Match'', 1973. .
Valery Krylov, advisor to [Karpov](Anatoly)(Anatoly Karpov) and a specialist in the "psycho-physiological rehabilitation of sportsmen", believed Fischer had [schizophrenia](schizophrenia). Psychologist [G. Ponterotto](Joseph)(Joseph G. Ponterotto), from secondhand sources, concludes that "Bobby did not meet all the necessary criteria to reach diagnoses of schizophrenia or [syndrome](Asperger)(Asperger syndrome). The evidence is stronger for [personality disorder](paranoid)(paranoid personality disorder)." Magnús Skúlason, a chess player, psychiatrist and head doctor of Sogn Institution for Mentally Ill Offenders near [Selfoss](Selfoss (town)), befriended Fischer towards the end of Fischer's life. From *Endgame*, Fischer's 2011 biography by Frank Brady:
## Contributions to chess
### Writings
* ''Bobby Fischer's Games of Chess'' (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1959). . An early collection of 34 lightly annotated games, including "[Game of the Century](The)(The Game of the Century (chess))" against Donald Byrne.
* "A Bust to the King's Gambit" (*American Chess Quarterly*, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Summer 1961), pp. 3–9).
* "The Russians Have Fixed World Chess" (*[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)*, Vol. 17, No. 8 (August 20, 1962), pp. 18–19, 64–65). This is the controversial article in which Fischer asserted that several of the Soviet players in the [Curaçao Candidates' tournament](1962)(World Chess Championship 1963#Candidates Tournament) had colluded with one another to prevent him [Fischer] from winning the tournament.
* "The Ten Greatest Masters in History" (*Chessworld*, Vol. 1, No. 1 (January–February 1964), pp. 56–61). An article in which Fischer named [Morphy](Paul)(Paul Morphy), [Staunton](Howard)(Howard Staunton), [Steinitz](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Steinitz), [Tarrasch](Siegbert)(Siegbert Tarrasch), [Chigorin](Mikhail)(Mikhail Chigorin), [Alekhine](Alexander)(Alexander Alekhine), [Raúl Capablanca](José)(José Raúl Capablanca), [Spassky](Boris)(Boris Spassky), [Tal](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tal), and [Reshevsky](Samuel)(Samuel Reshevsky) as the greatest players of all time. Fischer's criterion for inclusion on his list was his own subjective appreciation of their games rather than their achievements.[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 78.
* *[Fischer Teaches Chess](Bobby)(Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess)* (1966), co-written with Donn Mosenfelder and Stuart Margulies.Bantam Books, May 1972, . The extent of Fischer's contribution has been questioned.[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), p. 10. "[Fischer] contributed some ideas, but chiefly his name, to *Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess*."
* "Checkmate" column from December 1966 to December 1969 in ''[Life](Boys')(Boys' Life)*, later assumed by Larry Evans.
* *[60 Memorable Games](My)(My 60 Memorable Games)* (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1969, and Faber and Faber, London, 1969; Batsford 2008 (algebraic notation)). Studied by Kasparov at a young age; "A classic of painstaking and objective analysis that modestly includes three of his losses."[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), pp. 138–39.
* *I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse!'' (1982). A self-published booklet on an incident in which Fischer was booked for vagrancy.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), pp. 227–28.
### Opening theory
Fischer's opening repertoire was narrow in some ways. As White, Fischer almost exclusively played 1.e4, calling it "best by test", throughout his career.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 251. "Fischer's main and almost exclusive weapon with White is 1 e4. The range of stratagems that he employs after 1 e4 is extremely wide." He played 1.d4 only once in a serious game, during a blitz tournament. In spite of this narrowness, he was considered by some of his rivals to be unpredictable in his opening play, and a difficult opponent to prepare for.[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 270. "He employs a limited range of openings. Of course, this is not a sign of Fischer's limited creativity, since he compensates for this by a very profound and sound knowledge of the variations he favours ."
As Black, Fischer would usually play the [Sicilian](Najdorf)(Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation) against 1.e4, and the [Indian Defense](King's)(King's Indian Defense) against 1.d4, only rarely venturing into the [Nimzo-Indian](Nimzo-Indian Defense), [Benoni](Benoni Defense), [Grünfeld](Grünfeld Defence) or [Neo-Grünfeld](Neo-Grünfeld Defence).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), pp. 251–62. Fischer acknowledged difficulty playing against the [Variation](Winawer)(French Defense#Winawer Variation:3...Bb4) of the [Defense](French)(French Defense) (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4), but maintained that the Winawer was unsound because it exposed Black's [kingside](kingside), and that, in his view, "Black was trading off his good bishop with 3...Bb4 and ...Bxc3."[2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 31. Later on Fischer said: "I may yet be forced to admit that the Winawer is sound. But I doubt it! The defense is anti-positional and weakens the K-side."[1969](Fischer)(#F1969), p. 151.
Fischer was renowned for his opening preparation and made numerous contributions to chess opening theory.[& Soltis 1974](Bisguier)(#Bisguier), p. 208. He was one of the foremost experts on the [Lopez](Ruy)(Ruy Lopez).[& Voronkov 2005](Plisetsky)(#Plisetsky), p. 322 (quoting March 20, 1972, letter from Paul Keres to the USSR Chess Federation). A line of the [Variation](Exchange)(Ruy Lopez, Exchange Variation) (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5.0-0) is sometimes called the "Fischer Variation" after he successfully resurrected it at the [Havana Olympiad](1966)(17th Chess Olympiad). Fischer's lifetime score with the move 5.0-0 in tournament and match games was eight wins, three draws, and no losses (86.36%).
Fischer was a recognized expert in the black side of the Najdorf Sicilian and the King's Indian Defense.Andrew Soltis, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), pp. 29, 32–33. He used the [Defense](Grünfeld)(Grünfeld Defence) and [Defense](Neo-Grünfeld)(Neo-Grünfeld Defence) to win his celebrated games against Donald and Robert Byrne, and played a [novelty](theoretical)(theoretical novelty) in the Grünfeld against reigning world champion Mikhail Botvinnik, refuting Botvinnik's prepared analysis .L.S. Blackstock, in [& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), p. 36.Andrew Soltis, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 25. In the Nimzo-Indian Defense, the line beginning with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3 b6 5.Ne2 Ba6 was named after him.
Fischer established the viability of the so-called [Pawn Variation](Poisoned)(Poisoned Pawn Variation) of the Najdorf Sicilian (1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6). This bold queen sortie, to snatch a pawn at the expense of development, had been considered dubious, but Fischer succeeded in proving its soundness.Andrew Soltis, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 30. Out of ten tournament and match games as Black in the Poisoned Pawn, Fischer scored 70%, winning five, drawing four, and losing only one: the 11th game of his 1972 match against Spassky. Following Fischer's use, the Poisoned Pawn Variation became a respected line, utilized by many of the world's leading players. Fischer's 10.f5 in this line against Efim Geller quickly became the main line of the Poisoned Pawn.
On the white side of the [Sicilian](Sicilian Defence), Fischer made advances to the theory of the line beginning 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 (or e6) 6.Bc4,[1997](Mednis)(#Mednis), pp. 56, 146. which has sometimes been named after him.Mednis calls 6.Bc4 against the Najdorf Variation "Fischer's 6 B-QB4". [1997](Mednis)(#Mednis), pp. 56, 74, 80, 88.
In 1961, prompted by a loss the year before to Spassky, Fischer wrote an article titled "A to the [Gambit](King's)(King's Gambit)" for the first issue of the *[Chess Quarterly](American)(American Chess Quarterly)*, in which he stated, "In my opinion, the King's Gambit is busted. It loses by force." Fischer recommended 1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 d6,Fischer 1961, pp. 4–9. which has since become known as the [Defense](Fischer)(Fischer Defense), as a refutation to the King's Gambit.Andrew Soltis, in [2009](Müller)(#Muller), p. 29. Fischer later played the King's Gambit as White in three tournament games, winning them all.[& O'Connell 1973](Wade)(#Wade), pp. 27, 76–77, 253, 256.
### Endgame
Fischer had excellent [endgame](Chess endgame) technique.[& Soltis 1974](Bisguier)(#Bisguier), p. 214. International Master [Silman](Jeremy)(Jeremy Silman) listed him as one of the five best endgame players (along with [Lasker](Emanuel)(Emanuel Lasker), [Rubinstein](Akiba)(Akiba Rubinstein), [Raúl Capablanca](José)(José Raúl Capablanca), and [Smyslov](Vasily)(Vasily Smyslov)), calling Fischer a "master of bishop endings". The endgame of a [rook](rook (chess)), [bishop](bishop (chess)), and [pawns](pawn (chess)) against a rook, [knight](knight (chess)), and pawns has sometimes been called the "Fischer Endgame" because of several instructive wins by Fischer (with the bishop), including three against [Taimanov](Mark)(Mark Taimanov) in 1970 and 1971.
### Fischer clock
In 1988, Fischer filed for for a new type of [clock](chess)(game clock), which gave each player a fixed period at the start of the game and then added a small increment after each completed move.[& Whyld 1992](Hooper)(#Whyld), p. 422.
An example of Fischer's patented clock was made for, and used in, the [rematch between Fischer and Spassky](1992)(Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)).[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 246. Clocks based on the "Fischer clock" soon became standard in major chess tournaments.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 307. Fischer would later complain that he was cheated out of the royalties for this invention.
### Fischer Random
Following his re-emergence onto the chess scene with his 1992 match against Spassky, Fischer heavily disparaged chess as it was being played at the highest levels.[& Stefanovic 1992](Seirawan)(#Seirawan), p. 17 As a result, on June 19, 1996, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Fischer announced and advocated a variant of chess called Fischerandom (later also known as Chess960). The goal of Fischerandom was to ensure that a game between two players is a contest between their understandings of chess, rather than their abilities to prepare opening strategies or memorize opening lines.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 260.
### Legacy
Some grandmasters compared Fischer's play to that of a computer[1973](Schonberg)(#Schonberg), p. 270. "William Lombardy characterized Fischer's game as machinelike, with 'terrifically accurate positional play but never boring... His opening repertory is encompassing... His end game is practically flawless. Bobby is the most complete player I've ever seen'."[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 22. "Referring to the future chess computer, Jim Sherwin [aka: [Sherwin](James)(James Sherwin)], an American [chess] player who knew Fischer well, described him as 'a prototype [Blue](Deep)(Deep Blue (chess computer)).' The Soviet analysis showed that even when faced with an unexpected position, Fischer took not longer than fifteen or twenty minutes to make his move; other grandmasters might take twice as long. Nor did Fischer appear to be governed by any psychologically predetermined system or technique." or a player without noticeable weaknesses.
Biographers David Edmonds and John Eidinow wrote:
assurance would begin to disintegrate. A Fischer move, which at first glance looked weak, would be reassessed. It must have a deep master plan behind it, undetectable by mere mortals (more often than not they were right, it did). The US grandmaster Robert Byrne labeled the phenomenon "Fischer-fear". Grandmasters would wilt, their suits would crumple, sweat would glisten on their brows, panic would overwhelm their nervous systems. Errors would creep in. Calculations would go awry. There was talk among grandmasters that Fischer hypnotized his opponents, that he undermined their intellectual powers with a dark, mystic, insidious force.[& Eidinow 2004](Edmonds)(#Edmonds), p. 23.
}}
Kasparov wrote that Fischer "became the detonator of an avalanche of new chess ideas, a revolutionary whose revolution is still in progress". In January 2009, reigning world champion [Anand](Viswanathan)(Viswanathan Anand) described him as "the greatest chess player who ever lived". Serbian GM [Ljubojević](Ljubomir)(Ljubomir Ljubojević) called Fischer, "A man without frontiers. He didn't divide the East and the West, he brought them together in their admiration of him."
German GM [Müller](Karsten)(Karsten Müller) wrote:
### Head-to-head record versus selected grandmasters
(Rapid, blitz, and blindfold games not included; listed as +wins −losses =draws.)
* **[Tal](Mikhail)(Mikhail Tal)** +2−4=5
* **[Botvinnik](Mikhail)(Mikhail Botvinnik)** +0−0=1
* **[Smyslov](Vasily)(Vasily Smyslov)** +3−1=5
* **[Spassky](Boris)(Boris Spassky)** +17−11=28
* **[Euwe](Max)(Max Euwe)** +1−1=1
* **[Petrosian](Tigran)(Tigran Petrosian)** +8−4=15
* [Geller](Efim)(Efim Geller) +3−5=2
* [Gligorić](Svetozar)(Svetozar Gligorić) +7−4=8
* [Keres](Paul)(Paul Keres) +4−3=3
* [Korchnoi](Victor)(Victor Korchnoi) +2−2=4
* [Larsen](Bent)(Bent Larsen) +9−2=1
* [Najdorf](Miguel)(Miguel Najdorf) +4−1=4
* [Polugaevsky](Lev)(Lev Polugaevsky) +0−0=1
* [Bronstein](David)(David Bronstein) +0−0=2
* [Reshevsky](Samuel)(Samuel Reshevsky) +9−4=13
* [Taimanov](Mark)(Mark Taimanov) +7−0=1
* [Ivkov](Borislav)(Borislav Ivkov) +4−2=4
* [Benko](Pal)(Pal Benko) +8−3=7
### Internet chess playing speculation
In 2001, [Short](Nigel)(Nigel Short) wrote in *[Sunday Telegraph](The)(The Sunday Telegraph)* chess column that he believed he had been secretly playing Fischer on the [Chess Club](Internet)(Internet Chess Club) (ICC) in speed chess matches. Subsequently others claimed to have played Fischer as well.
Fischer denied ownership of the account.
## In popular culture
### In film
* The 1993 film *[for Bobby Fischer](Searching)(Searching for Bobby Fischer)*, adopted from its [eponym](eponym)ous book, uses Fischer's name in the title even though the film and book are about the life of chess prodigy [Waitzkin](Joshua)(Joshua Waitzkin), whose father wrote the book. Outside of the United States, it was released as *Innocent Moves*. The title refers to the search for Fischer's successor after his disappearance from competitive chess, since Waitzkin's father feels that his son could be that successor. Fischer claimed never to have seen the film and complained that it invaded his privacy by using his name without his permission.[2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 267. Fischer never received any compensation from the film, calling it "a monumental swindle". Quoted in [2011](Brady)(#Brady2011), p. 268.
* In April 2009, the documentary *[and Bobby Fischer](Me)(Me and Bobby Fischer)*, about Fischer's last years as his old friend Saemundur Palsson gets him out of jail in Japan and helps him settle in Iceland, was premiered in Iceland. The film was produced by Friðrik Guðmundsson with music by [Kristinn Óttarsson](Guðlaugur)(Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson), [Björk](Björk) and [Arnaldur Melax](Einar)(Einar Arnaldur Melax).
* In October 2009, the biographical film *Bobby Fischer Live* was released, with Damien Chapa directing and starring as Fischer.
* In 2011, documentary filmmaker Liz Garbus released *[Fischer Against the World](Bobby)(Bobby Fischer Against the World)*, which explores the life of Fischer, with interviews from [Kasparov](Garry)(Garry Kasparov), [Saidy](Anthony)(Anthony Saidy), and others.
* On September 16, 2015, the American biographical film *[Sacrifice](Pawn)(Pawn Sacrifice)* was released, starring [Maguire](Tobey)(Tobey Maguire) as Fischer, [Schreiber](Liev)(Liev Schreiber) as [Spassky](Boris)(Boris Spassky), [Rabe](Lily)(Lily Rabe) as [Fischer](Joan)(Joan Fischer), and [Sarsgaard](Peter)(Peter Sarsgaard) as [Lombardy](William)(William Lombardy).
### Other media
* The musical *[Chess](Chess (musical))*, with lyrics by [Rice](Tim)(Tim Rice) and music by [Ulvaeus](Björn)(Björn Ulvaeus) and [Andersson](Benny)(Benny Andersson), tells the story of two chess champions. The musical is loosely based on the 1972 World Championship match between Fischer and Spassky, and in later stage productions the American player is named "Freddie Trumper", a reference to Fischer.[Hartston](William)(William Hartston) (1986) *Chess: The Making of the Musical*, Pavilion Books, p. 10. .
* During the 1972 Fischer–Spassky match, the Soviet [bard](bard (Soviet Union)) [Vysotsky](Vladimir)(Vladimir Vysotsky) wrote an ironic two-song cycle "Honor of the Chess Crown". The first song is about a rank-and-file Soviet worker's preparation for the match with Fischer; the second is about the game. Many expressions from the songs have become [catchphrase](catchphrase)s in Russian culture.
* British [sophisti-pop](sophisti-pop) band [Sprout](Prefab)(Prefab Sprout) reference Fischer in their 1984 song [Fanfare"]("Cue)(Swoon (Prefab Sprout album)) in the lyrics "When Bobby Fischer's plane touches the ground/He'll take those Russian boys and play them out of town".
* In a season 21 episode of *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*, in a sketch set at a chess tournament, the [cheerleaders](Spartan)(Recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches introduced 1995–1996), played by [Ferrell](Will)(Will Ferrell) and [Oteri](Cheri)(Cheri Oteri), sang a cheer with references to Fischer and his reclusion, including the lyrics "Where is he?/I don't know/I don't know".
*In episode [of season 3](6)(List of Drunk History episodes) of *[History](Drunk)(Drunk History)*, titled 'Games', comedian and author [Fulcher](Rich)(Rich Fulcher) retold the story of the [World Chess Championship](1972)(World Chess Championship 1972) match between Fischer and Spassky. In the episode, [Killam](Taran)(Taran Killam) plays Fischer, and [Johnson](Jake)(Jake Johnson) plays Spassky.
## Tournament, match, and team event summaries
Fischer played 752 tournament games in his career, winning 417, drawing 251, and losing 84."Bobby Fischer, the Career and Complete Games of the American World Chess Champion", by Karsten Muller, 2009, Russel Enterprises, Milford, CT, p. 398 These include, however, games when he was very young; if only the games after he turned 20 are considered, he played 311 tournament games and lost 23, a 7.4% loss percentage.
### Tournaments
The 1955 US Amateur Championship was the first tournament organized by the US Chess Federation in which Fischer entered. Before this tournament, he had played in the Brooklyn Chess Club Championships, in some tournaments organized by the Brooklyn YMCA Chess and Checker Club, and in a [chess](correspondence)(correspondence chess) tournament organized by *Chess Review*.
### Matches
### International Team events
## Notable games
*[Byrne](Donald)(Donald Byrne) vs. Fischer, New York 1956; [Defense](Grünfeld)(Grünfeld Defense), 5.Bf4 (D92), . Played when Fischer was 13 years old, "this game appeared in chess magazines around the world, provoking the delight of the public and the amazement of the experts."[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 213. It was dubbed "[Game of the Century](The)(The Game of the Century (chess))" by [Kmoch](Hans)(Hans Kmoch) in *[Review](Chess)(Chess Review)*.*[Review](Chess)(Chess Review)*, December 1956, p. 374.
*[Gligorić](Svetozar)(Svetozar Gligorić) vs. Fischer, Bled 1961; [Indian Defense](King's)(King's Indian Defense), [Variation](Classical)(King's Indian Defence#Classical Variation), Mar del Plata Variation (E98), . "A genuine drawn masterpiece" according to [Kasparov](Garry)(Garry Kasparov).[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 281. [Soltis](Andrew)(Andrew Soltis) rated it as one of "The 100 Best Chess Games of the 20th Century".
) 23.Nxc8 Nxf1 24.Nb6 Qc7 25.Rxf1 Qxb6 26.b4 Qxb4 27.Rb1 Qa5 28.Nxc5 Qxc5 29.Qxg6+ Bg7 30.Rxb7 Qd4 31.Bd3 Rf4 32.Qe6+ Kh8 33.Qg6 ½–½}}
*[Byrne](Robert)(Robert Byrne (chess player)) vs. Fischer, 1963/64 US Championship; [Defense](Neo-Grünfeld)(Grünfeld Defence#Neo-Grünfeld Defence), 0–1; [annotated](http://www.lifemasteraj.com/old_af-dl/byrfisrpg0.html). From an almost position, Fischer beats a strong international master in —"a game that was immediately recognized as an all-time classic".[1973](Brady)(#Brady1973), p. 74.
) Nxg2 19.Kxg2 d4 20.Nxd4 Bb7+ 21.Kf1 Qd7 0–1}}
*Fischer vs. [Taimanov](Mark)(Mark Taimanov), Vancouver Candidates Final 1971; 4th match game, [Defense](Sicilian)(Sicilian Defense), [Variation](Taimanov)(Sicilian Defence#Taimanov Variation) (B47), . Fischer's patient and accurate handling of bishop vs. knight, first in the rook and minor piece [endgame](Chess endgame), and then after rooks were , has become a staple of endgame instructional literature.
) 24.Re5 b6 25.Bf1 a5 26.Bc4 Rf8 27.Kg2 Kd6 28.Kf3 Nd7 29.Re3 Nb8 30.Rd3+ Kc7 31.c3 Nc6 32.Re3 Kd6 33.a4 Ne7 34.h3 Nc6 35.h4 h5 36.Rd3+ Kc7 37.Rd5 f5 38.Rd2 Rf6 39.Re2 Kd7 40.Re3 g6 41.Bb5 Rd6 42.Ke2 Kd8 43.Rd3 Kc7 44.Rxd6 Kxd6 45.Kd3 Ne7 46.Be8 Kd5 47.Bf7+ Kd6 48.Kc4 Kc6 49.Be8+ Kb7 50.Kb5 Nc8 51.Bc6+ Kc7 52.Bd5 Ne7 53.Bf7 Kb7 54.Bb3 Ka7 55.Bd1 Kb7 56.Bf3+ Kc7 57.Ka6 Ng8 58.Bd5 Ne7 59.Bc4 Nc6 60.Bf7 Ne7 61.Be8 Kd8 62.Bxg6 Nxg6 63.Kxb6 Kd7 64.Kxc5 Ne7 65.b4 axb4 66.cxb4 Nc8 67.a5 Nd6 68.b5 Ne4+ 69.Kb6 Kc8 70.Kc6 Kb8 71.b6 1–0}}
*Fischer vs. [Petrosian](Tigran)(Tigran Petrosian), Buenos Aires Candidates Final 1971; 7th match game, [Defense](Sicilian)(Sicilian Defense), [Variation](Taimanov)(Sicilian Defence#Taimanov Variation) (B42), 1–0. Fischer's unconventional choice of 22.Nxd7+, exchanging a well-posted knight for an apparently passive bishop, has been widely praised.[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), p. 264. "This is perhaps Fischer's most famous and instructive move and is still being cited today. Annotating a Short–Svidler game from the 2002 Russia-World match, the magazine *64* commented that even a superbly placed Black knight on an open file will interfere with heavy pieces and therefore should be removed in 'the classic example of the seventh game of the Fischer–Petrosian match'." However, in 2020 [engine](chess engine)-assisted analysis by [Müller](Karsten)(Karsten Müller) and [News](ChessBase)(ChessBase#News site) readers came to the conclusion that 22.a4 wins, while 22.Nxd7+ only draws against correct defense.
) 22.Nxd7+ Rxd7 23.Rc1 Rd6 24.Rc7 Nd7 25.Re2 g6 26.Kf2 h5 27.f4 h4 28.Kf3 f5 29.Ke3 d4+ 30.Kd2 Nb6 31.Ree7 Nd5 32.Rf7+ Ke8 33.Rb7 Nxf4 34.Bc4 1–0}}
*Fischer vs. [Spassky](Boris)(Boris Spassky), [Chess Championship 1972](World)(World Chess Championship 1972); 6th match game, [Gambit Declined](Queen's)(Queen's Gambit Declined), [Defense](Tartakower)(Queen's Gambit Declined#QGD Main Variations) (D59), 1–0; [on the 1972 match page](annotated)(World Chess Championship 1972#Game 6). Fischer called this game his best of the match.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 438. [Geller](Efim)(Efim Geller) had told Spassky about the strong move 14...Qb7 during their preparation, but Spassky had forgotten the advice and played 14...a6. Geller won with 14...Qb7 against [Timman](Jan)(Jan Timman) in the AVRO 1973 tournament.
*Boris Spassky vs. Fischer, World Chess Championship 1972; 13th match game, [Defense](Alekhine)(Alekhine Defense), [Variation](Modern)(Alekhine Defense#Modern Variation), Alburt Variation (B04), 0–1; [on the 1972 match page](annotated)(World Chess Championship 1972#Game 13). Botvinnik called this game "the highest creative achievement of Fischer". He resolved a drawish [bishops endgame](opposite-colored)(opposite-colored bishops endgame) by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook. "Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook. Nothing similar had been seen before in chess."[2003](Soltis)(#Soltis2003), p. 271.
*[vs. Boris Spassky, 1992](Fischer)(Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)); 1st match game, [Lopez](Ruy)(Ruy Lopez), [Variation](Breyer)(Ruy Lopez#Breyer Variation) (C95), 1–0; [on the 1992 match page](annotated)(Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)#Game 1). Fischer's "fine" victory in his first competitive game in 20 years "made a great impression on the chess world", although in Kasparov's view, Spassky's play was below the standard of the leading grandmasters of the time.[2004](Kasparov)(#Kasparov), p. 488.
## See also
*[of works on Bobby Fischer](Bibliography)(Bibliography of works on Bobby Fischer)
* [of chess players by peak FIDE rating](List)(List of chess players by peak FIDE rating)
* [of Jewish chess players](List)(List of Jewish chess players)
## Notes
## References
### Bibliography
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## External links
*
* [A list of books about Fischer and Kasparov](http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/fischerkasparov.html) compiled by [Winter](Edward)(Edward Winter (chess historian))
* [Archive of Fischer's personal homepage](https://web.archive.org/web/20080121125138/http://www.fischer.jp/)
* [Bobby Fischer Live Radio Interviews (1999–2006)](http://bobbyfischerpage.tripod.com/)
* [Extensive collection of Fischer photographs, Echecs-photos online](https://web.archive.org/web/20120218125427/http://www.echecs-photos.be/BobbyFischer-photos/index.html)
* ["Bobby Fischer's Pathetic Endgame"](https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200212/chun/), Rene Chun, The Atlantic, December 2002
* [Articles about Bobby Fischer by Edward Winter](https://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/fischerfeaturearticles.html)
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Imperial, royal and noble ranks
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imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks
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# Imperial, royal and noble ranks
*Revision ID: 1158683759 | Timestamp: 2023-06-05T16:08:31Z*
---
Traditional rank amongst European [royalty](monarch), [peers](peerage), and [nobility](nobility) is rooted in [Antiquity](Late)(Late Antiquity) and the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages). Although they vary over time and among [region](geographic)(geographic region)s (for example, one region's prince might be equal to another's [duke](grand)(grand duke)), the following is a reasonably comprehensive list that provides information on both general ranks and specific differences. Distinction should be made between reigning (or formerly reigning) families and the nobility – the latter being a social class subject to and created by the former.
## Ranks and titles
### English titles
The feudal system was a social and economic system that dominated Europe during the Middle Ages. Under this system, land was granted to nobles in exchange for their loyalty and military service to the monarch. These nobles were given titles such as Baron, Earl, and Duke, which were passed down through the male line of the family.
Barons were the lowest rank of nobility and were granted small parcels of land. Earls were the next highest rank and were responsible for larger territories. Dukes were the highest rank of nobility and were responsible for the largest territories, known as duchies. The monarch was the ultimate authority and was able to grant and revoke titles as they saw fit.
In the 14th century, the peerage began to emerge as a separate entity from the feudal system. The peerage consisted of those who held titles granted by the monarch, but who did not necessarily hold any land or have any feudal responsibilities.
The peerage was divided into five ranks; from highest to lowest, these are: Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount, and Baron.
The peerage system became more formalized over time. By the 18th century, peerages were no longer granted as a reward for military service, but instead were granted as a way to recognize social status and political influence.
There are two types of peerages in England: hereditary and life peerages. Hereditary peerages are those that are passed down through the male line of the family. Life peerages, on the other hand, are granted to an individual for their lifetime only and do not pass down to their heirs.
Before 1958, life peerages were relatively rare, and were held not to entitle the bearer to sit in the [of Lords](House)(House of Lords). Since the [Peerages Act 1958](Life)(Life Peerages Act 1958), nearly all new peerages are life baronies.
In addition to peerages, there are also a number of honorary titles in England. These titles do not carry any legal or social privileges, but are instead granted as a way to recognize individuals for their contributions to society.
Some common honorary titles include Knighthood, Damehood, and Companion of Honour. These titles are granted by the monarch and are not hereditary.
### Sovereign
* The word *monarch* is derived from the [Greek](Greek language) , *monárkhēs*, "sole ruler" (from , *mónos*, "single" or "sole", and , *árkhōn*, [archon](archon), "leader", "ruler", "chief", the word being the present participle of the verb , *árkhein*, "to rule", "to lead", this from the noun , *arkhē*, "beginning", "authority", "principle") through the [Latin](Latin)ized form .
* The word *sovereign* is derived from the [Latin](Latin) ("above").
* [Autocrat](Autocracy) is derived from the Greek : ("self") and ("to hold power"), and may be translated as "one who rules by themself".
#### Common titles for European, Latin American, and Asian monarchs
Many titles listed may also be used by lesser nobles – non-sovereigns – depending on the historical period and state. The sovereign titles listed below are grouped together into categories roughly according to their degree of dignity; these being: imperial (Emperor/Empress, etc.), royal (King/Queen, Grand Duke, etc.), others (sovereign Prince, sovereign Duke, etc.), and religious.
##### Imperial titles
*"**[Emperor](Emperor)**" (in [English](English language)), **** (in [Portuguese](Portuguese language)), **** (in [Spanish](Spanish language)) and **** (in [French](French language)), from the Latin ****, was originally a military title.[https://www.infoplease.com/whos-who-monarchy] A look at the aristocratic pecking order|author=David Johnson|date=7 May 2019}} Soldiers would salute the leader of a victorious army as ''. In English, the feminine form is **Empress** (the Latin is **). The realm of an emperor or empress is termed an *Empire*. Other words meaning Emperor include:
****[Caesar](Caesar (title))**, the appellation of [Roman](Rome) emperors derived from the Roman dictator [Caesar](Julius)(Julius Caesar), whose great-nephew and adopted son [Julius Caesar Augustus](Gaius)(Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus) became the first emperor of Rome. Augustus' four successors were each made the adoptive son of his predecessor, and were therefore legally entitled to use "Caesar" as a constituent of their names; after Nero, however, the familial link of the [dynasty](Julio-Claudian)(Julio-Claudian dynasty) was disrupted and use of the word *Caesar* continued as a title only.
** **[Kaiser](Kaiser)**, derived from Caesar, primarily used in Germanic countries. The feminine form in German is ****.
****[Augustus](Augustus (title)),** a Roman honorific title which means 'Venerable' or 'Majestic', used by Roman Emperors from the beginning of the Empire onwards.
****[kai Autokrator](Basileus)(Autokrator),** [Greek](Medieval)(Medieval Greek) title meaning "sovereign and autocrat", used by the [Byzantine Emperors](Greek)(Byzantine Empire) from the 9th century onwards.
****[/ Tzar / Csar / Czar](Tsar)(Tsar)**, derived as shortened variant of the Slavic pronunciation of Caesar (*tsyasar*), the feminine form is **[Tsaritsa](Tsaritsa)**, primarily used in Bulgaria, and after that in Russia and other Slavic countries, although in English **Tsarina** was also sometimes used.
****[(皇帝)](Huangdi)(Emperor of China)**, the [monarch](Imperial)(Imperial monarch) during [China](Imperial)(Imperial China).
****[Tlahtloāni](Huēyi)(Tlatoani)**, the [Nahuatl](Classical)(Classical Nahuatl) term for the ruler of multiple , a [pre-Hispanic](pre-Hispanic) city-state in [Mesoamerica](Mesoamerica), commonly referring to the head of the Aztec Triple Alliance, or [Empire](Aztec)(Aztec Empire). It is variously translated in English as "Great Speaker" or the equivalent to the European "[king](great)(great king)" or "[king](high)(high king)", though more usually as "[Emperor](Emperor)".Lockhart (2001, p.238); Schroeder (2007, p.3). See also the entry for ["TLAHTOANI"](http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/tl/nahuatlTLAHTLI.html#TLAHTOANI) , in Wimmer (2006)
****[Samrat](Emperor)**, (Sanskrit: samrāt or ) is an [India](ancient)(ancient India)n title meaning 'A paramount sovereign, universal lord'.*The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary*, Vaman Shivaram Apte The feminine form is **Samrājñī** or ****.[Chakravarti](Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)) And [Chhatrapati](Chhatrapati) are Also use to describe the Emperor status
**
**
****[Tennō](Emperor of Japan) ()**, which means "heavenly sovereign" in Japanese. Is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Historically, he is also the highest authority of the Shinto religion as he and his family are said to be the direct descendants of the sun-goddess Amaterasu.
****Kōtei ()**, Japanese title primarily used for emperors of other nations (e.g. Rome, Russia, Germany). *Tennō* refers only to an emperor of Japan, whereas *kōtei* refers to an emperor of any country.
** **[Khagan](Khagan)**, derived from khan of khans, used by the Central Asian nomads.
*****[Kehan (天可汗)](Tian)(Khan of Heaven)** meaning [Heavenly](Tian) [Khagan](Khagan). Given to [Taizong](Tang)(Tang Taizong) and [Gaozong](Tang)(Tang Gaozong) by Turkic nomads.
** **[Padishah](Padishah)**, Persian *pād* "master" and *shāh* "king". Used in the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire) and the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire).
** **[Shahanshah](Shahanshah)**, Persian title meaning "king of kings". Used by Persian (Iranian monarchs)
** **[tōn Basileōn](Basileus)(King of Kings)**, [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek language) title meaning "king of kings", used by [the Great](Alexander)(Alexander the Great) after the similar title of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia. A translation from Ancient Persian [Shahanshah](Shahanshah).
** **[Nägäst](Nəgusä)(Emperor of Ethiopia)**, title of the rulers of [Ethiopia](Ethiopia), meaning "king of kings", used alongside **[Negus](Negus)**, a royal title in the Ethiopian Semitic languages.
** **[Mepe-Mepeta](Mepe-Mepeta)**, Georgian for "king of kings."
** **[Omukama](Omukama of Bunyoro)**, commonly translated as "king of kings", is a title associated with the [Bunyoro-Kitara](Bunyoro) in [Uganda](Uganda). It is also the title of the [of Toro](Omukama)(Omukama of Toro).
****[Inca](Sapa)(Sapa Inca)**, The **Sapa Inca** (Hispanicized spelling) or **Sapa Inka** ([Quechua](Quechua language) for "the only Inca"), also known as **Apu** ("divinity"), **Inka Qhapaq** ("mighty Inca"), or simply **Sapa** ("the only one"), was the ruler of the [of Cusco](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Cusco) and, later, the monarch of the [*Tawantinsuyu*](Inca Empire) (called [Empire](Inca)(Inca Empire) by historians) and the [State](Neo-Inca)(Neo-Inca State).
##### Royal titles
***[King](King)**, from the Germanic **kuningaz*, roughly meaning "son of the people." (See: [kingship](Germanic)(Germanic kingship)) The realm of a King is termed a *Kingdom* (sovereign kings are ranked above vassal kings). The female equivalent of a King, or the consort of a King is a **[Queen](Queen regnant)**, from the Germanic **kwoeniz*, or **kwenon*, "wife"; cognate of [Greek](Greek language) γυνή, *gynē*, "woman"; from [PIE](Proto-Indo-European language) **gʷḗn*, "woman". . Regardless of a ruler's gender, their realm is known as a *kingdom*.
****Rei** (in [Portuguese](Portuguese language) and [Catalan](Catalan language)), **Rey** (in [Spanish](Spanish language)), **Re** (in [Italian](Italian language)), **Roi** (in [French](French language)), **Rege** (in [Romanian](Romanian language)) - Derived from Latin **[Rex](Rex (title))**, meaning "ruler". Rex is cognate with Raja, *Rí*, Reign, Regina, etc.
****[Basileus](Basileus)**, from [Greek](Mycenaean)(Mycenaean Greek) meaning "chieftain", used by various Ancient Greek rulers.
****[Arka](Armenian nobility)** is a royal title (king) in Great Armenia. Another used name was **Tagavor**, which also appeared later in Cilician Armenia.
****Melech**, ancient Hebrew king. The word for queen is **Malka**.
****[(王)](Wang)(Chinese sovereign)**, the [of state](head)(head of state) of [China](Ancient)(Ancient China).
****Król** (in [Polish](Polish language)) **Král** (in [Czech](Czech language)), **Király** (in [Hungarian](Hungarian language)), **Король** (in [Russian](Russian language) and [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language)), **Краљ** / **Kralj** (in [and Serbian](Croatian)(Serbian language)), **Крал** (in [Bulgarian](Bulgarian language)), **Crai** (in [Romanian](Romanian language)), **[Korol](Korol)** – Derived from Old East Slavic Король *king*, used in Kazakh, Tatar, and Kyrgyz languages. The *korol*, *krol*, *kral*, *крал* and *kiraly* versions used in Central and Eastern Europe derive from the name of [Charlemagne](Charlemagne).
****[Tsenpo](List of emperors of Tibet)**, also known as **Ihase** or "Divine Son", was the title of the monarchs of [Tibet](Tibetan Empire).
****[Chanyu](Chanyu)**, short for **Chengli Gutu Chanyu** (撐犁孤塗單于) was a title used by supreme nomadic rulers of Inner Asia. Meaning "Son of Heaven, Ruler of the North", it was later superseded by the title **[Khagan](Khagan)**.
****[Rí](Rí)**, [Gaelic](Goidelic languages) title meaning **king**, of which there were several grades, the highest being **[Rí](Ard)(Ard Rí)** (high king). Cognate with Indian *Raja*, Latin *Rex*, and ancient Gaulish *Rix*.
****[Raja](Raja)**, Sanskrit, later [Hindustani](Hindustani language), for "king". Cognate with Latin *Rex*, Irish *Rí*, etc. The female equivalent is **Rani**. The Filipino feminine equivalent is **Hara**.
*****[Maharaja](Maharaja)**, Sanskrit, later [Hindustani](Hindustani language), for "great king". It's the title of kings in the Indian subcontinent. The feminine equivalent is **Maharani**.
*****[Devaraja](Devaraja)**, literally "god king". A title in the [Empire](Khmer)(Khmer Empire) and throughout [Java](Java)
*****[Rai](Rai (title))**, Urdu and Bengali, for "king" in the Indian Subcontinent.
*****[Rana](Rana (title))**, was used to be a title for martial sovereignty of [Rajput](Rajput) rulers in the Indian subcontinent.
****[Eze](Eze)**, the [Igbo](Igbo language) word for the King or Ruler of a kingdom or city-state. It is cognate with Obi and Igwe.
****[Oba](Oba (king))**, the [Yoruba](Yoruba language) word for King or Ruler of a kingdom or city-state. It is used across all the traditional Yoruba lands, as well as by the Edo, throughout Nigeria, Benin, and Togo.
*** **[Alaafin](Alaafin)**, or "Man of the Palace" in the Yoruba language, was the title of the ruler of the medieval [Empire](Oyo)(Oyo Empire) in northwestern [Yorubaland](Yorubaland). He is considered the supreme overlord of the empire and expected to keep tributaries safe from attack as well as mediate disputes between various kings (Obas) and their people within the Empire.
****[Kabaka](Kabaka of Buganda)**, ruler of [Buganda](Kingdom of Buganda), a realm within Uganda in East Africa.
****[Shah](Shah)**, [Persia](Persia)n word for king, from Indo-European for "he who rules". Used in Persia, alongside **[Shahanshah](Shahanshah)**. The title of the sons of a Shah is **Shahzade / Shahzadeh**. The female title is **[Shahbanu](Shahbanu)**
****[Boqor](Boqor)**, [Somali](Somalis) for King. However, in practice, it is the [inter pares](primus)(primus inter pares) or "King of Kings". The title is etymologically derived from one of the Afro-Asiatic Somali language terms for "belt", in recognition of the official's unifying role within the greater society. Furthermore, Boqor is linguistically related to the style *Paqar*, which was employed by rulers in the early Nile Valley state of **[Meroe](Meroe)**.
****Ō** **(王)**, Japanese, meaning "king", or "sovereign". Also the title of the ruler of ancient Japan [(倭王)](waō)(Wa (Japan)). The female title is **Joō** (女王).
****[Sultan](Sultan)**, from Arabic and originally referring to one who had "power", more recently used as synonym for a king. The feminine equivalent is a **Sultana**.
****[Khan](Khan (title))**, from the [Turco-Mongol](Turco-Mongol) word for "ruler" or “king”. A Khan's realm is called a Khanate.
****[Malik](Malik)**, Arabic for "king". The feminine equivalent is a **Malika**.
**[**Mwami**](King of Rwanda) in [Rwanda](Rwanda) and neighbouring regions in the Congo. The female counterpart is **Mwamikazi**.
****[Almamy](Almami)**, King of [Toro](Futa)(Imamate of Futa Toro), a pre-colonial kingdom of the [people](Toucouleur)(Toucouleur people). From the old [Pulaar](Pulaar language) title *"Almamy"* (king).
****[a Sinig](Maad)(Maad a Sinig)**, King of [Sine](Kingdom of Sine), a pre-colonial kingdom of the [people](Serer)(Serer people). From the old Serer title *"Maad"* (king).
****[Saloum](Maad)(Maad Saloum)**, ruler of [Saloum](Kingdom of Saloum), a pre-colonial kingdom of the Serer people.
****[Susuhunan](Susuhunan)**, "he to whom homage is paid", title of the Javanese monarch of the [Sunanate](Surakarta)(Surakarta Sunanate).
****[Teigne](Teigne (title))**, ruler of [Baol](Baol), previously a pre-colonial Serer kingdom.
****[Tlahtloāni](Tlatoani)**, the [Nahuatl](Classical)(Classical Nahuatl) term for the ruler of an , a [pre-Hispanic](pre-Hispanic) city-state in Mesoamerica variously translated in English as "king," "ruler," (or [in the political sense]("speaker")(Speaker (politics))). A ** is a female ruler, or [regnant](queen)(queen regnant).Schroeder (2007, pp.3–4). See also the entry for ["CIHUATLAHTOANI"](http://sites.estvideo.net/malinal/c/nahuatlCIHUAQ.html#CIHUATLAHTOANI) in Wimmer (2006).
****[Lugal](Lugal)**, is the [Sumerian](Sumerian language) term for "king, ruler". Literally, the term means "big man."
****[Chu Ba Wang （西楚霸王）](Xi)(Xiang Yu)** meaning the [King of](Hegemon)(Hegemony) [Chu](Western)(Chu (state)).
** **[Taewang](Taewang)**, literally "greatest king", a Korean title for the rulers of the [Goguryeo](Goguryeo) Empire.
** **[Anax](Anax)**, from Mycenaean *wanax* for "high king". Outranked *Basileus* in Mycenaean usage.
** **[Pharaoh](Pharaoh)**, *"Man of the Great House (Palace)"* used in **[Egypt](Ancient)(Ancient Egypt)** to denote the kings of the upper and lower kingdoms of the [Nile](Nile) river valley.
****[Faama](Faama)**, title of the rulers of the [Mali](pre-imperial)(pre-imperial Mali), meaning "king".
****[Mansa](Mansa (title))**, title of the rulers of the [Empire](Mali)(Mali Empire)
****[Omanhene](Omanhene)** or **Ohene**, an Akan title meaning *King of the Nation*, with Ohene simply meaning *King*. **Ohemaa**, the maternal counterpart (his mother, sister, aunt (*referred to as a 2nd mother*), cousin (*referred to as sister*)), has equal power and selects which son she wants to lead the people. The Akan king rules on behalf of his mother who is the true power of the land. If the Ohemaa doesn't select any male relative to lead on her behalf, then she can take the role as King or Omanhene.
** **Mwenematapa**, title of the rulers of the [Empire](Mutapa)(Kingdom of Mutapa). It means "Prince of the Realm" in Shona. Also spelled **Mwene Mutapa** or in Portuguese transliteration **Monomotapa**.
** **[Bretwalda](Bretwalda)**, monarchs of [England](Anglo-Saxon)(Anglo-Saxon England).
** **[di-Pertuan Agong](Yang)(Yang di-Pertuan Agong)**, the official title of the [Malaysia](Malaysia)n head of state, and means "He who is Made Supreme Lord" and is generally glossed in English as "king". The officeholder is elected from among the heads of the nine royal states.
****[Lamane](Lamane)**, *"master of the land"* or *"chief owner of the soil"* in old [language](Serer)(Serer language) were the ancient hereditary kings and [gentry](landed)(landed gentry) of the [people](Serer)(Serer people) found in [Senegal](Senegal), the [Gambia](Gambia) and [Mauritania](Mauritania). The Lamanes were guardians of [religion](Serer)(Serer religion) and many of them have been canonized as Holy Saints (*Pangool*).
** **[Otumfuo](List of rulers of Asante)**, literally "the powerful one", an [Akan](Akan people) title to mean a king. It is thought to originate with the Akan state of [Akwamu](Akwamu). It is still used amongst the Akwamu and now the [Asante](Asante people) people.
** **Qhapaq**, written as **Capac** in Spanish texts, the Inca word for "king"
##### Princely, ducal, and other sovereign titles
* **[vizier](Grand)(Grand vizier)** was the title of the effective head of government ([prime-minister](prime-minister)) of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. The office of Grand Vizier was first held by officials in the later [Caliphate](Abbasid)(Abbasid Caliphate). It was then held in the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire), the [Caliphate](Sokoto)(Sokoto Caliphate), the [Empire](Safavid)(Safavid Empire) and [Morocco](Morocco). In the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Vizier held the imperial seal and could convene all other viziers (ministers) to attend to affairs of the state; the viziers in conference were called "Kubbealtı viziers" in reference to their meeting place, the Kubbealtı ('under the dome') in [Palace](Topkapı)(Topkapı Palace). His offices were located at the Sublime Porte. Today, the Prime Minister of Pakistan is referred to in Urdu as Wazir-e-azam, which translates literally to Grand Vizier
* **[Khedive](Khedivate)** (/kəˈdiːv/, Ottoman Turkish: خدیو, romanized: hıdiv; Arabic: خديوي, romanized: khudaywī) was an honorific title of Persian origin used for the sultans and grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire, but most famously for the [viceroy](viceroy) of Egypt from 1805 to 1914.
***[Duke](Grand)(Grand Duke)** is considered to be part of the reigning nobility ("Royalty", in German *Hochadel*; their correct form of address is "Royal Highness").Meyers Taschenlexikon Geschichte 1982, vol 1, p21-22 The title [Grand Duke](Bosnian)(Bosnian Grand Duke) (, ) appeared at the beginning of the 14th century as different type of this title, unique for the [medieval state](Bosnian)(Bosnian medieval state). It was a court title, bestowed by the monarch to highest military commander, usually reserved for the most influential and most capable among highest Bosnian nobility. To interpret it as an office post rather than a court rank could be equally accurate, and although it was retained for life by a nobleman who gained it, it was not meant to be hereditary, at least not at first. However, in the last several decades of the Bosnian medieval state it became hereditary, which means it became more than just an office or a court rank.
** **[Archduke](Archduke)**, ruler of an archduchy; used exclusively by the [Habsburg](Habsburg) dynasty and its junior branch of [Habsburg-Lorraine](Habsburg-Lorraine) which ruled the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) (until 1806), the [Empire](Austrian)(Austrian Empire) (1804–1867), the [Mexican Empire](Second)(Second Mexican Empire) (1863-1867) and the [Empire](Austro-Hungarian)(Austro-Hungarian Empire) (1867–1918) for imperial family members of the dynasty, each retaining it as a subsidiary title when founding sovereign [branch](cadet)(cadet branch)es by acquiring thrones under different titles (e.g., [Tuscany](Grand Duke of Tuscany), [Modena](Duke of Modena)); it was also used for those ruling some Habsburg territories such as those that became the modern so-called "Benelux" nations (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg); The title was created [forgery](by)(Privilegium Maius) in 1358 by the Habsburgs themselves to establish a precedence of their princes over the other titleholders of high nobility of the era; therefore the rank was not recognized by the other ruling dynasties until 1453Meyers Taschenlexikon Geschichte 1982, vol 2, p. 106.
* **Sovereign [Prince](Prince)**, from the Latin *princeps*, meaning "one who takes first [place]". The feminine form is **Princess.** Variant forms include the German *[Fürst](Fürst)* and Russian *[Knyaz](Knyaz) (князь)* and the feminine form *[Knyaginya](Knyaginya) (княгиня)*.
****[Datu](Datu)** in the [Visayas](Visayas) and [Mindanao](Mindanao) which, together with the term **[Raja](Raja)** ( in the [of Cebu](Rajahnate)(Rajahnate of Cebu) and [of Maynila](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Maynila)) and **[Lakan](Lakan)** (title widely used on the island of [Luzon](Luzon)), are the [Filipino](Filipino language) equivalents of "sovereign prince" and thus, glossed as "ruler". The female equivalent is a **Dayang**. (Cf. also **[Principalía](Principalía)** – the hispanized and Christianized [Datu](Datu) class during the Spanish colonial period in the [Philippines](Philippines).)*Esta institucion (Cabecería de Barangay), mucho más antigua que la sujecion de las islas al Gobierno, ha merecido siempre las mayores atencion. En un principio eran las cabecerías hereditarias, y constituian la verdadera hidalguía del país; mas del dia, si bien en algunas provincias todavía se tramiten por sucesion hereditaria, las hay tambien eleccion, particularmente en las provincias más inmediatas á Manila, en donde han perdido su prestigio y son una verdadera carga. En las provincias distantes todavía se hacen respetar, y allí es precisamente en donde la autoridad tiene ménos que hacer, y el órden se conserva sin necesidad de medidas coercitivas; porque todavía existe en ellas el gobierno patriarcal, por el gran respeto que la plebe conserva aún á lo que llaman aquí **principalía**. (Translation: *This institution (Cabecera de Barangay), much older than the fastening of the islands to the Government, has always deserved the most attention. In the beginning they were the hereditary heads, and they constituted the true chivalry of the country; but of the day, although in some provinces they are still transacted by hereditary succession, there are also elections, particularly in the provinces closest to Manila, where they have lost their prestige and are a real burden. In the distant provinces they are still enforced, and that is precisely where authority has less to do, and the order is preserved without the need for coercive measures; because the patriarchal government still exists in them, because of the great respect that the plebs still retain for what they call here principalía.FERRANDO*.) *FERRANDO, Fr Juan & FONSECA OSA, Fr Joaquin (1870–1872). Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las Islas Filipinas y en las Misiones del Japon, China, Tung-kin y Formosa (Vol. 1 of 6 vols) (in Spanish). Madrid: Imprenta y esteriotipia de M Rivadeneyra. OCLC 9362749.''L'institution des chefs de barangay a été empruntée aux Indiens chez qui on la trouvée établie lors de la conquête des Philippines; ils formaient, à cette époque une espèce de noblesse héréditaire. L'hérédité leur a été conservée aujourd hui: quand une de ces places devient vacante, la nomination du successeur est faite par le surintendant des finances dans les pueblos qui environment la capitale, et, dans les provinces éloignées, par l'alcalde, sur la proposition du gobernadorcillo et la présentation des autres membres du barangay; il en est de même pour les nouvelles créations que nécessite de temps à autre l'augmentation de la population. Le cabeza, sa femme et l'aîné de ses enfants sont exempts du tributo.'' MALLAT de BASSILAU, Jean (1846). Les Philippines: Histoire, géographie, moeurs. Agriculture, industrie et commerce des Colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie (2 vols) (in French). Paris: Arthus Bertrand Éd. . OCLC 23424678, p. 356.
***[Nizam](Nizam (title))**, The word is derived from the Arabic language Nizām (نظام), meaning order, arrangement. Nizām-ul-mulk was a title first used in [Urdu](Urdu) around 1600 to mean Governor of the realm or Deputy for the Whole Empire.
***[Despot](Despot (court title))**, Greek for "lord, master", initially an appellation for the Byzantine emperor, later the senior court title, awarded to sons and close relatives of the emperor. In the 13th–15th centuries borne by autonomous and independent rulers in the Balkans.
***Voievod şi domn**, title held by the sovereign princes of [Wallachia](Wallachia) and [Moldavia](Moldavia). [Voievod](Voivode) (from Slavic) means in this context supreme military commander while [Domn](Domnitor) (from lat. *[dominus](Dominus (title)))* means master, lord, autocrat. The "civilian" title of *domn* holds a kind of primacy. The office/authority is called "domnie" (roughly "lordship") rather than voievodship (as is the case of similar named but lesser Slavic titles). The prince is called upon as "doamne" ("mylord")*.*
* **Sovereign [Duke](Duke)**, from the Latin *[Dux](Dux)*, meaning "leader," a military rank in the [Roman Empire](late)(Dominate). Variant forms include **[Doge](Doge)** and **[Duce](Duce)**; it has also been modified into **[Archduke](Archduke)** (meaning "chief" Duke), **[Duke](Grand)(Grand Duke)** (literally "large", or "big" Duke; see above under royal titles), **Vice Duke** ("deputy" Duke), etc. The female equivalent is **Duchess**.
** **[Doge](Doge)**, elected lord and head of state in several Italian city-states
** **[Ealdorman](Ealdorman)**, [English](Old)(Old English) for "elder man", rendered *Dux* in Latin.
***Tuanku**, literally "My Master" (Tuan Ku), the title of the rulers of the nine Royal states of [Malaysia](Malaysia); all princes and princesses of the Royal Families also receive the appellation **[Tunku](Tunku)** (literally "My Lord" (Tun Ku) or spelt **[Tengku](Tengku)**) or **[Raja](Raja)**.
* **[Sheikh](Sheikh)** is often used as a title for Arab royal families. Some Emirs of the Arabian Peninsula use the title Sheikh ("elder" or "lord"), as do other members of the extended family.
* **[Emir](Emir)**, often rendered *Amir* in older English usage; from the Arabic "to command." The female form is **Emira** (Amirah). Emir is the root of the naval rank "Admiral". Is usually translated as Prince in English.
** **[al-umara](Amir)(Amir al-umara)**, Emir of Emirs.
* **[Mir](Mir (title))**: According to the book [Inscriptions on Indian Monuments](Persian)(Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments), *Mir* is most probably an Arabized form of *Pir*. [*Pir*](Pir (Sufism)) in [Persian](Old)(Old Persian) and [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) means the old, the wise man, the chief and the great leader. It was Arabized as Mir then, with *Al*(A) ([definite article](Arabic)(Arabic definite article)), it was pronounced as Amir.
**In the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), *Mir-i Miran* was used as the Persian equivalent to the Turkish title *[Beylerbey](Beylerbey)* ("Bey of Beys"), alongside the Arabic equivalent *[al-Umara](Amir)(Amir al-Umara)* ("Emir of Emirs").Zetterstéen (1986), p. 446
* **[Bey](Bey)**, or *[Beg/Baig](Baig)*, Turkish for "Chieftain."
** **[Begum](Begum)**, female royal and aristocratic title from Central and South Asia.
** **[Beylerbey](Beylerbey)**, Bey of Beys.
** **[Atabeg](Atabeg)**, word is a compound of two Turkic words: ata, "ancestor", and beg or bey, "lord, leader, prince".
** **[Khan](Beg)(Beg Khan)**, concatenation of Baig and Khan.
** **[Bek](Khagan)(Khagan Bek)**, title used by [Khazars](Khazars).
** **[Derebey](Derebey)**, [feudal](feudalism) lord in [Anatolia](Anatolia) and the [Pontic](Black Sea) areas of [Lazistan](Lazistan) and [Acara](Adjara) in the 18th century.
* **[Dey](Dey)**, title given to the rulers of the [of Algiers](Regency)(Regency of Algiers) and [Tripoli](Tripoli, Libya) under the Ottoman Empire from 1671 onwards.
* **[Sardar](Sardar)**, also spelled as **Sirdar**, **Sardaar** or **Serdar**, is a title of nobility (*sir-*, *sar/sair-* means "head or authority" and *-dār* means "holder" in [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) and [Avestan](Avestan language))
##### Tribal titles
*"**[chief](Tribal)(Tribal chief)**"
* **[Tadodaho](Tadodaho)**, derived from the name of the first "keeper of the council fire" of the **[Confederacy](Iroquois)(Iroquois Confederacy)**, **[Haudenosaunee](Haudenosaunee)**, or **[Nations](Five)(Iroquois)**, refers to the individual with the highest authority in both their modern territory and their spiritual way of life.
* **[Taoiseach](Taoiseach)** () means leader. An Irish [chief](clan)(clan chief). Since 1937, this has been the title for the elected prime ministers of [Ireland](Republic of Ireland), in both Irish and English.
* **[Tánaiste](Tánaiste)** () is the second in command of an Irish clan. Since 1937, this has been the title in both Irish and English for the deputy head of the Irish government, nominated by the serving Taoiseach to act in that role during the Taoiseach's temporary absence.
* **[Tòiseach](Tòiseach)**, the Scottish Gaelic for clan chief.
* **[Tywysog](Tywysog)** (), in modern [Welsh](Welsh language), means "[Prince](Prince)" and is cognate with Taoiseach and Tòiseach. Derived from the proto-Celtic **[towissākos](wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/towissākos)* "chieftain, leader".
* **[ruirech](Rí)(Rí ruirech)**, "king of over-kings", or *rí cóicid*, a provincial King in Ireland.
* **Corono**, leader of a large tribe in Celtic [Gallaecia](Gallaecia). In later Latin inscriptions, they would sometimes be referred to as *Princeps*.Pena Granha, A. (2007): "Galicia, cuna de los celtas de la Europa Atlántica", in Anuario Brigantino, no. 30, pp. 57-88.
* **[Fon](Fon (title))**, the regional and tribal leaders in Cameroon.
* **Odikro**, an Akan chieftain. *Obahemaa* female maternal counterpart.
***[Cacique](Cacique)**, derived from the [Taíno](Taíno language) word **kasike**, for pre-Columbian monarchs in the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and Lesser Antilles.
***[Lonko](Lonko)**, chief of several [Mapuche](Mapuche) communities.
***[Ratu](Ratu)**, A [Fiji](Fiji)an chiefly title that is also found in Javanese culture.
* '''[nui](Aliʻi)(Ali'i)**, was the supreme monarch of various Hawaiian islands. They are the supreme high chiefs (chief of chiefs). This title would later be used by rulers of the entire Hawaiian chain of islands.
***[Ajaw](Ajaw)''', In Maya meaning "lord", "ruler", "king" or "leader". Was the title of the ruler in the Classic Maya polity. A variant being the title of K'inich Ajaw or "Great Sun King" as it was used to refer to the founder of the [Copán](Copán) dynasty, [Yax K'uk' Mo'](K'inich)(K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo'). The female equivalent is a **Ix-ajaw**.
***[Uinik](Halach)(Halach Uinik)**, In Maya meaning "real man", "person of fact" or "person of command". Was the title of the ruler in the Post-Classic Maya polity ([Kuchkabal](Kuchkabal)).
##### Religious titles
* **[Pope](Pope)**, also "**[Pontiff](Supreme)(Supreme Pontiff)** of the [Church](Universal)(Roman Catholic Church) and [Vicar](Vicar) of Christ", is considered the [successor](apostolic)(Apostolic succession) of [Peter](Saint)(Saint Peter), one of the [Apostles](Twelve)(Twelve Apostles) (primary [disciples](Disciple (Christianity))) of [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ). Once wielding substantial secular power as the ruler of the [States](Papal)(Papal States) and leader of [Christendom](Christendom), the Pope is also the absolute ruler of the sovereign state **[City](Vatican)(Vatican City)**. Also the title of the leader of the [Church](Coptic)(Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria), considered successor of the Apostle [Mark the Evangelist](Saint)(Mark the Evangelist). The word *pope* is derived from Latin and Italian *papa*, a familiar form of "father".
* **[Catholicos](Catholicos of All Armenians)** is the Chief Bishop, Patriarch of the Armenian Orthodox Church. The earliest ecclesiastical use of the title Catholicos was by the Bishop of Armenia, head of the Armenian Orthodox Apostolic Church, in the 4th century.
***[Patriarch](Patriarch)** is the highest ecclesial title used in the [Christian](Eastern)(Eastern Christian) tradition. Some patriarchs are also styled as popes.
* **[Caliph](Caliph)** means 'successor' (to [Muhammad](Muhammad)), both a religious and a secular leader. The ruler of the [caliphate](caliphate) was the secular head of the international Muslim community, as a nation. To claim the Caliphate was, theoretically, to claim stewardship over Muslims on earth, under the sovereignty of Allah. (See ''Amir al-Mu'minin* above). This did not necessarily mean that the Caliph was himself the supreme authority on Islamic law or theology; that still fell to the *Ulema''. The role of the Caliph was to oversee and take responsibility for the Muslim community's political and governmental needs (both within and beyond the borders of his territorial realm), rather than to himself determine matters of doctrine.
** '''[al-Mu'minin](Amir)(Amir al-Mu'minin)**, or "Commander ( [Emir](Emir) ) of the Faithful," a title traditionally held by the [Caliphs](Caliphs) of [Islam](Islam) to denote their suzerainty over all Muslims, even (theoretically) those beyond their territorial borders. Currently, the [of Morocco](King)(King of Morocco) and the [of Sokoto](Sultan)(Sultan of Sokoto) hold this title, although neither officially claims the [Caliphate](Caliphate).
* **[Imam](Imam)**, Imam (/ɪˈmɑːm/; Arabic: إمام imām; plural: أئمة aʼimmah) is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, serve as community leaders, and provide religious guidance. Thus for Sunnis, anyone can study the basic Islamic sciences and become an Imam
* **[Lama](Dalai)(Dalai Lama)**, the highest authority in Tibetan (or more specifically [Gelug](Gelug)) Buddhism and a symbol of the unification of **[Tibet](Tibet)**, said to belong to a line of reincarnations of the [bodhisattva](bodhisattva) **[Avalokitesvara](Avalokitesvara)**. Among other incarnate Tibetan lamas, the second highest Gelug prelate is the **[Lama](Panchen)(Panchen Lama)**. From the time of the [Dalai Lama](Fifth)(Fifth Dalai Lama) until 1950 the Dalai Lamas effectively ruled Tibet. The chief of the rival [Kagyu](Kagyu) school of Tibetan Buddhism is the **[Karmapa](Karmapa)**.
* **[Saltigue](Saltigue)'*, the high priests and priestesses of the [people](Serer)(Serer people). They are the diviners in [religion](Serer)(Serer religion).
### Other sovereigns, royalty, peers, and major nobility
Several ranks were widely used (for more than a thousand years in Europe alone) for both sovereign rulers and non-sovereigns. Additional knowledge about the territory and historic period is required to know whether the rank holder was a sovereign or non-sovereign. However, joint precedence among rank holders often greatly depended on whether a rank holder was sovereign, whether of the same rank or not. This situation was most widely exemplified by the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) (HRE) in Europe. Several of the following ranks were commonly both sovereign and non-sovereign within the HRE. Outside of the HRE, the most common sovereign rank of these below was that of Prince. Within the HRE, those holding the following ranks who were also sovereigns had (enjoyed) what was known as an *[immediate](Imperial immediacy)* relationship with the Emperor. Those holding non-sovereign ranks held only a *mediate* relationship (meaning that the civil hierarchy upwards was mediated by one or more intermediaries between the rank holder and the Emperor).
#### Titles
* **[Prince](Prince)** (*Prinz* in German), junior members of a royal, grand ducal, ruling ducal or princely, or mediatised family. The title of *[Fürst](Fürst)* was usually reserved, from the 19th century, for rulers of principalities—the smallest sovereign entities (e.g., Liechtenstein, Lippe, Schwarzburg, Waldeck-and-Pyrmont)—and for heads of high-ranking, noble but non-ruling families (Bismarck, Clary und Aldringen, Dietrichstein, Henckel von Donnersmarck, Kinsky, Paar, Pless, Thun und Hohenstein, etc.). Cadets of these latter families were generally not allowed to use *Prinz*, being accorded only the style of count (*[Graf](Graf)*) or, occasionally, that of *Fürst* (Wrede, [Urach](House of Urach)) even though it was also a ruling title. Exceptional use of *Prinz* was permitted for some [morganatic](morganatic marriage) families (e.g., [Battenberg](Battenberg family), Montenuovo) and a few others (Carolath-Beuthen, Biron von Kurland).
** In particular, **[prince](Crown)(Crown prince)** (*Kronprinz* in German) was reserved for the heir apparent of an emperor or king.
** **[Prince](Grand)(Grand Prince)** (*Velikiy [Knyaz](Knyaz)''), ruler of a grand principality; a title primarily used in the medieval Kyivan Rus' principalities; It was also used by the [Romanov](Romanov)s of the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) for members of the imperial family.
** [Prince**](**Elector)(prince-elector) (*Kurfürst* in German), a rank for those who voted for the [Roman Emperor](Holy)(Holy Roman Emperor), usually sovereign of a state (e.g. the Margrave of Brandenburg, an elector, called the *Elector of Brandenburg*)
** **[Ban](Ban (title))**, noble title used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 20th century.
** **[Dauphin](Dauphin of France)**, title of the heir apparent of the royal family of [France](France), as he was the *de jure* ruler of the [Imperial](Kingdom of Arles) *Dauphiné* region in today's southeastern France (under the authority of the King)
** **[Infante](Infante)**, title of the cadet members of the royal families of [Portugal](Portugal) and [Spain](Spain)
****[Prince](Mexican)(Mexican Prince)** was the title created on June 22, 1822 by the Mexican [Congress](Constituent)(Constituent Congress) during the [Mexican Empire](First)(First Mexican Empire), to be granted to legitimate children who were not the heir or firstborn of the Emperor [de Iturbide](Agustín)(Agustín de Iturbide). Later, his grandsons were given the titles **Prince of Iturbide** by Emperor [I of Mexico](Maximilian)(Maximilian I of Mexico).
** **[Królewicz](Królewicz)**, title used by the children of the monarchs of [Poland](Crown of Poland) and later [Commonwealth](Polish–Lithuanian)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth)
****Ōji** (王子), Japanese, literally "sovereign-child", used only for the son of a monarch.
** **[Yuvraj](Yuvraj)**, is an Indian title for crown prince, the heir apparent to the throne of an Indian (notably Hindu) kingdom.
** **[Buumi](Buumi)**, first in line to the throne in [Serer](Serer people) pre-colonial kingdoms. The second in line is called a **[Thilas](Thilas)**, whereas the third in line is known as a **[Loul](Loul)**.
****Bai**, Filipino feminine equivalent of a prince.
** **Ampuan**, Maranao royal title which literally means "The One to whom one asks for apology"
** **Ginoo**, Ancient Filipino equivalent to noble man or prince (now used in the form "*Ginoóng*" as the analogue to "[mister](Mr)").
** **[Pillai](Pillai (title))**, Ancient South Indian title meaning "child", Prince for junior children of Emperors[Indian Epigraphical Dictionary, page 166](https://books.google.com/books?id=pySCGvdyYLIC&dq=indian+epigraphical+pillai+prince&pg=PA166)
** **[Morza](Morza)**, a *Tatar* title usually translated as "prince", it ranked below a Khan. The title was borrowed from Persian and Indian appellation [Mirza](Mirza (noble)) added to the names of certain nobles, which itself derived from *Emir.*
** **Daakyehene**, pronounced: *Daa-chi-hi-ni*, literally: *future king*. The feminine form is *Daakyehemaa*. An Akan prince.
** **[Knyaz](Knyaz)**, a title found in most Slavic languages, denoting a ruling or noble rank. It is usually translated into English as "Prince", but the word is related to the English *King* and the German *König*.
* **[Duke](Duke)** (*[Herzog](Herzog)* in German), ruler of a [duchy](duchy); also for junior members of ducal and some grand ducal families.
* **[Marquess](Marquess)**, **[Margrave](Margrave)**, or **[Marquis](Marquis)** (literally "Count of a March" (=Border territory)) was the ruler of a [marquessate](Marches), [margraviate](Marches), or [march](Marches). The female equivalent is **Marchioness**.
** **[Župan](Grand)(Grand Župan)**, a more influential *Župan*.
* **[Count](Count)**, theoretically the ruler of a [county](county); known as an **[Earl](Earl)** in modern Britain; known as a **[Graf](Graf)** in German, known as **Conde** in Spain and Mexico, known as a **[Serdar](Serdar (Ottoman rank))** in Montenegro and Serbia. The female equivalent is **Countess**, which in Britain also refers to an earl's wife.
** **[Landgrave](Landgrave)** (literally "Land Count"), a German title, ruler of a landgraviate (large / provincial territory).
** **[Župan](Župan)**, noble and administrative title used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 21st century.
** **[Ispán](Ispán)**, leader of a castle district (a fortress and the royal lands attached to it) in the [of Hungary](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Hungary) from the early 11th century.
* **[Viscount](Viscount)** (vice-count), theoretically the ruler of a [viscounty](viscounty), which did not develop into a [title](hereditary)(hereditary title) until much later. The female equivalent is **Viscountess**. In the case of French viscounts and viscountesses, it is customary to leave the titles untranslated as **vicomte** and **vicomtesse** .
** **[Sahib](Sahib)**, name of Arabic origin meaning "holder, master or owner."
* **[Baron](Baron)**, theoretically the ruler of a [barony](feudal barony) – some barons in some countries may have been "free barons" (*liber baro*) and as such, regarded (themselves) as higher barons. The female equivalent is **Baroness**.
** **[Freiherr](Freiherr)**, a German word meaning literally "Free Master" or "Free Lord" (i.e. not subdued to feudal chores or drudgery), is the German equivalent of the English term "Baron", with the important difference that unlike the British Baron, he is not a "[of the Realm](Peer)(Peer of the Realm)" (member of the high aristocracy).Meyers Taschenlexikon Geschichte 1982, vol 1, p. 22 & vol 2, p. 198. The female equivalent is **Freifrau**.
****[Primor](Primor)**, a [noble title](Hungarian)(Hungarian nobility), originally the highest rank of [Székely](Székelys) nobility, usually compared to [baron](baron) (or less commonly, [count](count)). Originally, *primores* could *de jure* not be evicted from his fiefdom, even by the King of Hungary (although such instances did occur).
** **[Zamindar](Zamindar)** were considered to be equivalent to lords and barons; in some cases they were independent sovereign princes.
** **[Jagir](Jagir)**, also spelled as **Jageer** ([Devanagari](Devanagari): जागीर, [Persian](Persian language): جاگیر, *ja-* meaning "place", *-gir* meaning "keeping, holding") The feudal owner/lord of the Jagir were called **Jagirdar** or **Jageerdar**
** **[Rais](Rais)**, is a used by the rulers of Arab states and South Asia.
** **[Subahdar](Subahdar)**, is normally appointed from the Mughal princes or the officers holding the highest mansabs.
****[Deshmukh](Deshmukh)**, [Marathi](Marathi language) for "ruler". It is an equivalent to a lord of the land.
** **[(m.)/Principala (f.)](Principal)(Principalía)**, a person belonging to the aristocratic ruling class of Filipino nobles called *[Principalía](Principalía)*, roughly equivalent to ancient Roman [Patricians](Patrician (ancient Rome)), through whom the Spanish Monarchs ruled the Philippines during the colonial period ( to 1898).*"Esta institucion (Cabecería de Barangay), mucho más antigua que la sujecion de las islas al Gobierno, ha merecido siempre las mayores atencion. En un principio eran las cabecerías hereditarias, y constituian la verdadera hidalguía del país; mas del dia, si bien en algunas provincias todavía se tramiten por sucesion hereditaria, las hay tambien eleccion, particularmente en las provincias más inmediatas á Manila, en donde han perdido su prestigio y su una verdadera carga. En las provincias distantes todavía se hacen respetar, y allí es precisamente en donde la autoridad tiene ménos que hacer, y el órden se conserva sin necesidad de medidas coercitivas; porque todavía existe en ellas el gobierno patriarcal, por el gran respeto que la plebe conserva aún á lo que llaman aquí principalía."* FERRANDO, Fr Juan & FONSECA OSA, Fr Joaquin (1870–1872). *Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las Islas Filipinas y en las Misiones del Japon, China, Tung-kin y Formosa*, (Vol. 1 of 6 vols, in Spanish). Madrid: Imprenta y esteriotipia de M Rivadeneyra, p. 61.*Durante la dominación española, el cacique, jefe de un barangay, ejercía funciones judiciales y administrativas. A los tres años tenía el tratamiento de don y se reconocía capacidad para ser gobernadorcillo, con facultades para nombrarse un auxiliar llamado primogenito, siendo hereditario el cargo de jefe*. *Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana*. VII. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S.A. 1921, p. 624.
****[Regents](Regents)**: A regent (from Latin regens: ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state pro tempore (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy, or the throne is vacant and the new monarch has not yet been determined. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency. A regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title granted to a monarch's most trusted advisor or personal assistant. If the regent is holding their position due to their position in the line of succession, the compound term prince regent is often used; if the regent of a minor is their mother, she would be referred to as queen regent.
### Minor nobility, landed gentry, and other aristocracy
The distinction between the ranks of the major nobility (listed above) and the minor nobility, listed here, was not always a sharp one in all nations. But the precedence of the ranks of a Baronet or a Knight is quite generally accepted for where this distinction exists for most nations. Here the rank of Baronet (ranking above a Knight) is taken as the highest rank among the ranks of the minor nobility or landed gentry that are listed below.
#### Titles
* **[Baronet](Baronet)** is a hereditary title ranking below Baron but above Knight; this title is granted only in the United Kingdom and is variously considered to be "the head of the *nobiles minores*" or "the lowest of the *nobiles majores*" of that country.
* **[Dominus](Dominus (title))** was the Latin title of the feudal, superior and mesne, lords, and also an ecclesiastical and academical title (equivalent of [Lord](Lord))
* **[Vidame](Vidame)**, a minor French aristocrat
* **[Vavasour](Vavasour)**, also a petty French feudal lord
* **[Seigneur](Seigneur)** or **[of the manor](Lord)(Lord of the manor)** rules a smaller local fief
* **[Captal](Captal)**, archaic Gascon title equivalent to seigneur
* **[Knight](Knight)** is the central rank of the Medieval aristocratic system in Europe (and having its equivalents elsewhere), usually ranking at or near the top of the Minor Nobility
* **[Patrician](Patrician (post-Roman Europe))** is a dignity of minor nobility or landed gentry (most often being hereditary) usually ranking below Knight but above Esquire
* **[Fidalgo](Fidalgo)** or **[Hidalgo](Hidalgo (Spanish nobility))** is a minor Portuguese and Spanish aristocrat (respectively; from ''filho d'algo* / *hijo de algo'', lit. "son of something")
* **[Nobile](Nobile (aristocracy))** is an Italian title of nobility for prestigious families that never received a title
* **[Edler](Edler)** is a minor aristocrat in Germany and Austria during those countries' respective imperial periods.
* **[Jonkheer](Jonkheer)** is an [honorific](honorific) for members of noble Dutch families that never received a title. An untitled noblewoman is styled *Jonkvrouw*, though the wife of a *Jonkheer* is a *Mevrouw* or, sometimes, *Freule*, which could also be used by daughters of the same.
* **[Junker](Junker)** is a German noble honorific, meaning "young nobleman" or otherwise "young lord".
* **[Reis](Reis (military rank))** is an obscure aristocratic title from the coastlines of Lebanon and Syria that is roughly equivalent to a Baron. The word itself can be translated as "Commodore", and is found only among a few of the former "Merchant Aristocrat" houses of the former Mount Lebanon Emirate. The only legitimate holders of this title are those that trace their lineage back to vassals of [al-Din II](Fakhr)(Fakhr al-Din II) that arrived from Italy via the alliance with the [Medici](Medici).
* **[Skartabel](Skartabellat)** is a minor Polish aristocrat.
* **[Baron](Scottish)(Scottish feudal barony)** is a hereditary feudal nobility dignity, outside the [peerage](Scots)(peerage of Scotland), recognised by [Lyon](Lord)(Lord Lyon) as a member of the Scots *[noblesse](noblesse)* and ranking below a Lord of Parliament but above a Scottish [Laird](Laird)Ruling of the Court of the Lord Lyon (26 February 1948, Vol. IV, page 26): "With regard to the words 'untitled nobility' employed in certain recent birthbrieves in relation to the (Minor) Baronage of Scotland, Finds and Declares that the (Minor) Barons of Scotland are, and have been both in this nobiliary Court and in the Court of Session recognised as a 'titled nobility' and that the estait of the Baronage (i.e. *Barones Minores*) are of the ancient Feudal Nobility of Scotland". in the British system. However, Scottish Barons on the European continent are considered and treated equal to European barons.
* **[Laird](Laird)** is a Scottish hereditary feudal dignity ranking below a Scottish Baron but above an Esquire
* **[Esquire](Esquire)** is a rank of [gentry](gentry) originally derived from [Squire](Squire) and indicating the status of an attendant to a knight, an apprentice knight, or a [manorial](manorialism) lord;Dodd, Charles R. (1843) *A manual of dignities, privilege, and precedence: including lists of the great public functionaries, from the revolution to the present time*, London: Whittaker & Co., pp.248,251 [https://archive.org/details/manualofdignitie00dodc] it ranks below Knight (or in Scotland below Laird) but above [Gentleman](Gentleman)
* **[Gentleman](Gentleman)** is the basic rank of [gentry](landed)(landed gentry) (ranking below Esquire), historically primarily associated with land; within British Commonwealth nations it is also roughly equivalent to some minor nobility of some continental European nations
* **[Bibi](Bibi (title))**, means Miss in Urdu and is frequently used as a respectful title for women in South Asia when added to the given name
* **[Lalla](Lalla (title))**, is an Amazigh [of respect](title)(title of respect). The title is a prefix to her [name](given)(given name) or [name](personal)(personal name), and is used by females usually of noble or royal background.
* **[Sidi](Sidi)**, is a masculine title of respect, meaning "my master" in [Maltese](Maltese language), [Darija](Darija) and [Arabic](Egyptian)(Egyptian Arabic).
* **Dvoryanin**, the word (); a member of [nobility](Russian)(Russian nobility)
In Germany, the constitution of the [Republic](Weimar)(Weimar Republic) in 1919 ceased to accord privileges to members of dynastic and noble families. Their titles henceforth became legal parts of the family name, and traditional forms of address (e.g., "Hoheit" or "[Durchlaucht](Durchlaucht)") ceased to be accorded to them by governmental entities. The last title was conferred on 12 November 1918 to [von Kleefeld](Kurt)(Kurt von Kleefeld). The actual rank of a title-holder in Germany depended not only on the nominal rank of the title, but also the degree of [sovereignty](sovereignty) exercised, the rank of the title-holder's [suzerain](suzerain), and the length of time the family possessed its status within the nobility (*Uradel, Briefadel, altfürstliche, neufürstliche*, see: [nobility](German)(German nobility)). Thus, any reigning sovereign ranks higher than any [deposed](abolished monarchy) or [mediatized](German Mediatisation) sovereign (e.g., the *[Fürst](Fürst)* of [Waldeck](Waldeck (state)), sovereign until 1918, was higher than the [of Arenberg](Duke)(Duke of Arenberg), head of a mediatized family, although *[Herzog](Herzog)* is nominally a higher title than *Fürst*). However, former holders of higher titles in extant monarchies retained their relative rank, i.e., a queen dowager of Belgium outranks the reigning Prince of Liechtenstein. Members of a formerly sovereign or mediatized house rank higher than the nobility. Among the nobility, those whose titles derive from the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) rank higher than the holder of an equivalent title granted by one of the German monarchs after 1806.
In Austria, nobility titles may no longer be used since 1918.
== See also ==
* [Clergy](Clergy)
* [title](Courtesy)(Courtesy title)
* [Addresses](Ecclesiastical)(Ecclesiastical Addresses)
* [titles of nobility](False)(False titles of nobility)
* [of address in the United Kingdom](Forms)(Forms of address in the United Kingdom)
* [particle](Nobiliary)(Nobiliary particle)
* [kingdom](Petty)(Petty kingdom)
* [of the church](Prince)(Prince of the church)
* [and noble styles](Royal)(Royal and noble styles)
* [title](Subsidiary)(Subsidiary title)
* [title](Substantive)(Substantive title)
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Hereditary titles](https://web.archive.org/web/20041213144833/http://hereditarytitles.com/) (archived 13 December 2004)
* [Unequal and Morganatic Marriages in German Law](http://www.heraldica.org/topics/royalty/g_morganat.htm)
* [Noble, Princely, Royal, and Imperial Titles](http://www.heraldica.org/topics/odegard/titlefaq.htm)
* [British noble titles](http://www.chinet.com/~laura/html/titles01.html)
* [Fake titles](http://www.faketitles.com/)
[of national or ethnic leadership](Category:Titles)(Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership)
[*](Category:Noble titles)
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Matthew Rhys
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matthew_rhys
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# Matthew Rhys
*Revision ID: 1158942361 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T06:19:53Z*
---
| birth_place = [Cardiff](Cardiff), Wales
| education = [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art)
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1997–present
| spouse = [Russell](Keri)(Keri Russell) (m. )
| children = 1
}}
**Matthew Rhys Evans** ( ; born 8 November 1974) is a Welsh actor. He gained recognition for playing [Walker](Kevin)(Kevin Walker (Brothers & Sisters)) in the family drama series *[& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series))* (2006–2011) and [Jennings](Philip)(Philip Jennings (The Americans)) in the spy drama series *[Americans](The)(The Americans)* (2013–2018). For his performance in *The Americans*, he received a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series) and nominations for two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama). He received further Golden Globe and Emmy nominations for playing the [role](titular)(Perry Mason) in the period series *[Mason](Perry)(Perry Mason (2020 TV series))* (2020–2023).
In film, Rhys appeared as [Thomas](Dylan)(Dylan Thomas) in *[Edge of Love](The)(The Edge of Love)* (2008) and as [Ellsberg](Daniel)(Daniel Ellsberg) in *[Post](The)(The Post (film))* (2017) and starred as a cynical journalist in *[Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood](A)(A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood)* (2019). He has also voiced several characters in animated series, including *[Owl House](The)(The Owl House)* (2020–2023).
## Early life
Rhys was born in [Cardiff](Cardiff), Wales, on 8 November 1974 (some sources say 4 November). His first language is [Welsh](Welsh language). Matthew Rhys |url=https://www.visitwales.com/explore/literature/dylan-thomas/being-dylan |access-date=2 February 2019 |publisher=Visit Wales}} He grew up in Cardiff and attended [Welsh-medium](Welsh medium education) schools, Ysgol Gynradd Gymraeg Melin Gruffydd (in [Cardiff](Whitchurch,)(Whitchurch, Cardiff)) and [Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf](Ysgol)(Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf) (in [North, Cardiff](Llandaff)(Llandaff North)). In 1993, he was awarded the [Rothermere](Patricia)(Patricia Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere) Scholarship.
At age 17, after playing [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) in a school musical, he applied to and was accepted at the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) (RADA) in London.
During Rhys's time at RADA, he appeared in the [BBC](BBC) police series *[Backup](Backup (TV series))* and in *[of America](House)(House of America)*. He returned to Cardiff to act in his own language in the Welsh film *Bydd yn Wrol* (*Be Brave*), for which he won Best Actor at the [Cymru](BAFTA)(BAFTA Cymru) (Welsh BAFTAs).
## Career
[[File:Matthew Rhys at 2007 GLAAD Awards.jpg|thumb|upright|Rhys at the 2007 [Awards](GLAAD)(GLAAD Media Award)]]
[[File:A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood 05 (48734827821).jpg|thumb|upright|*[Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood](A)(A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood)* premiere, [Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto Film Festival), 2019]]
In January 1998, Rhys went to New Zealand to star in *Greenstone*, a colonial costume drama for television. He then landed a role in *[Titus](Titus (film))*, Julie Taymor's adaptation of *[Andronicus](Titus)(Titus Andronicus)*, starring [Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins) and [Lange](Jessica)(Jessica Lange). Next he played Ray in [Hewitt](Peter)(Peter Hewitt (director))'s film comedy, *[Happened to Harold Smith?](Whatever)(Whatever Happened to Harold Smith?)* After returning to Wales, he did two consecutive films with [Pryce](Jonathan)(Jonathan Pryce): *[Testimony of Taliesin Jones](The)(The Testimony of Taliesin Jones)*, a film about a dysfunctional single-parent family in which he played the elder son, and [Sugarman](Sara)(Sara Sugarman)'s comedy *[Annie Mary](Very)(Very Annie Mary)*, in which he played the role of Nob. Rhys would later reunite with *Very Annie Mary* star [Griffiths](Rachel)(Rachel Griffiths) on *[& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series))*.
In 2000, Rhys played the lead role in *[Metropolis](Metropolis (British TV series))*, a drama series for [TV](Granada)(Granada TV) about the lives of six twenty-somethings living in London. Next he starred in *Peaches*, the film of the play written and directed by [Grosso](Nick)(Nick Grosso). Rhys starred as Benjamin in the 2000 world premiere of the stage adaptation of *[Graduate](The)(The Graduate)*, alongside [Turner](Kathleen)(Kathleen Turner) at the [Theatre](Gielgud)(Gielgud Theatre) in London's [End](West)(West End of London).
Rhys travelled to Ireland to star in the 18th-century swashbuckling adventure, *[Abduction Club](The)(The Abduction Club)*. He played the lead role of Darren Daniels in *Tabloid*, and then returned to New Zealand to shoot the epic drama *[Lost World](The)(The Lost World (2001 film))* for the BBC. His other film credits include the independent horror film *[Deathwatch](Deathwatch (2002 film))* in [Prague](Prague) and *[Fakers](Fakers)*, a comic crime caper.
In 2003, he played Justin Price in the [episode](final)(Columbo (season 10)#ep69) of the long-running television series *[Columbo](Columbo)*.
He appeared opposite [Murphy](Brittany)(Brittany Murphy) in the independent feature *[and Other Disasters](Love)(Love and Other Disasters)*, in *[Territory](Virgin)(Virgin Territory)* opposite [Christensen](Hayden)(Hayden Christensen), [Roth](Tim)(Tim Roth) and [Barton](Mischa)(Mischa Barton), and playing poet [Thomas](Dylan)(Dylan Thomas) in the love quadrangle biographical film *[Edge of Love](The)(The Edge of Love)*.
He moved to [Monica](Santa)(Santa Monica, California) after being cast in [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)'s show *[& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series))*, as gay lawyer [Walker](Kevin)(Kevin Walker (Brothers & Sisters)). The show had a five-season run, coming to an end in 2011.
In January 2012, Rhys appeared in a [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) two-part drama adaptation of [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens)' last novel, *[Mystery of Edwin Drood](The)(The Mystery of Edwin Drood)*, left unfinished at his death in 1870. The [Broadcasting Service](Public)(PBS) (PBS) aired it in the United States as one feature-length episode on 15 April 2012.
In 2012, Rhys reprised Sir [Guinness](Alec)(Alec Guinness)' 1959 double role of John Barratt / Jacques DeGué in a new adaptation of [du Maurier](Daphne)(Daphne du Maurier)'s *[Scapegoat](The)(The Scapegoat (Du Maurier novel))*.[Island Pictures](http://www.island-pictures.co.uk) That same year, Rhys was cast as "Jimmy" in the [Theatre Company](Roundabout)(Roundabout Theatre Company)'s [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) revival of [Osborne](John)(John Osborne)'s play, *[Back in Anger](Look)(Look Back in Anger)*, at the [Pels Theatre](Laura)(Laura Pels Theatre) in the Harold and Miriam Steinberg Center for Theatre. The production played a limited engagement through 8 April 2012. In 2013, Rhys starred in the television adaptation of the [James](P. D.)(P. D. James) novel *[Comes to Pemberley](Death)(Death Comes to Pemberley (TV series))* as [Austen](Jane)(Jane Austen) hero [Darcy](Fitzwilliam)(Mr. Darcy).
He starred opposite [Russell](Keri)(Keri Russell) in the [FX](FX (TV channel)) series *[Americans](The)(The Americans)*, a 1980s [War](Cold)(Cold War) spy drama about Russian [KGB](KGB) sleeper agents (Rhys and Russell, who portray married KGB agents with two children, among other agents and handlers). Rhys and Russell are partners off-screen as well. The show debuted in January 2013. The sixth season airing in 2018 was the final season of *The Americans*. Rhys received a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) for the sixth season.
On 15 July 2008, Rhys was honoured by [University](Aberystwyth)(Aberystwyth University) as a Fellow. On 8 August 2008, he was honoured at the [National Eisteddfod](Welsh)(National Eisteddfod of Wales) by being accepted as a member to the druidic order of the [Gorsedd](Gorsedd) of the Bards, for his contributions to the [language](Welsh)(Welsh language) and Wales. His bardic name in the Gorsedd is Matthew Tâf. In August 2009, Rhys took to the stage with the [Youth Orchestra of Wales](National)(National Youth Orchestra of Wales) as part of the National Eisteddfod.
## Personal life
Rhys has been in a relationship with his *[Americans](The)(The Americans)* co-star [Russell](Keri)(Keri Russell) since 2014. They had their first child, a son, in 2016. In interviews conducted in 2021, they referred to each other as husband and wife.
He is a supporter of [Cymru](Plaid)(Plaid Cymru), actively supporting [independence](Welsh)(Welsh independence).
## Affiliations
* Patron, [Theatre](Hijinx)(Hijinx Theatre), based at [Millennium Centre](Wales)(Wales Millennium Centre), [Bay](Cardiff)(Cardiff Bay)
* Patron, Asylum Justice, a charity based in Cardiff, Wales, that provides free legal advice and representation for asylum seekers and other vulnerable migrants
* Charity Champion, The [Ark Appeal](Noah's)(Noah's Ark Children's Hospital for Wales), a charity that raises funds for the development of the [Hospital for Wales](Children's)(Noah's Ark Children's Hospital for Wales)
* Patron, [Prize](Iris)(Iris Prize), Cardiff's International Gay and Lesbian Short Film Prize
* Ambassador, Bobath Children's Therapy Centre Wales, a charity that treats children with [palsy](cerebral)(cerebral palsy) from all over Wales
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Theatre
### Other projects, contributions
* Produced television documentary, *Mr Hollywood*, for [S4C](S4C)-TV (2010), about the life of [J. Griffith](Griffith)(Griffith J. Griffith), Welsh-American industrialist and philanthropist after whom [Park](Griffith)(Griffith Park) is named.
* Wrote *Patagonia: Crossing the Plain* (2010) – a photographic account of his month-long journey on horseback while filming a documentary on [Patagonia](Patagonia), and the Welsh settlers who made it their home having journeyed from [Wales](Wales) in the late 19th century.
* Set up his own production company, *Patagonia* (2011), which has two projects in development. One of them involves the adaptation of a book called *[Julie](Operation)(Operation Julie)'', written by Lyn Ebenezer,[Ebenezer – Cymru](Lyn)(:cy:Lyn Ebenezer) about the biggest LSD drugs bust (in Wales's history); Rhys bought the film rights in December 2010.
* Set to star in the upcoming FX's TV show *Wyrd* and also co-produce the show alongside his partner Keri Russell.
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*[The Think Tank](http://vimeo.com/8893511)
*[Everything Carries Me To You](http://vimeo.com/27540552)
}}
[births](Category:1974)(Category:1974 births)
[Welsh male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Welsh male actors)
[Welsh male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Welsh male actors)
[of RADA](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of RADA)
[of the Gorsedd](Category:Bards)(Category:Bards of the Gorsedd)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[educated at Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf](Category:People)(Category:People educated at Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf)
[actors from Cardiff](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Cardiff)
[male Shakespearean actors](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh male Shakespearean actors)
[male stage actors](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh male stage actors)
[male film actors](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh male voice actors)
[actors](Category:Welsh-speaking)(Category:Welsh-speaking actors)
[expatriates in the United States](Category:Welsh)(Category:Welsh expatriates in the United States)
[Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners)
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Daredevil_ Born Again
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daredevil__born_again
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# Daredevil: Born Again
*Revision ID: 1160201556 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T01:06:56Z*
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***Daredevil: Born Again*** is an upcoming American television series created by Matt Corman and Chris Ord for the streaming service [Disney+](Disney+), based on the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) character [Daredevil](Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)). It is intended to be [of](part)(List of Marvel Cinematic Universe television series#Marvel Studios) the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) produced by [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios), sharing continuity with [films of the franchise](the)(List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films), and will be the second series centered on the character following *[Daredevil](Daredevil (TV series))* (2015–2018) by [Television](Marvel)(Marvel Television). Corman and Ord serve as [writer](head)(head writer)s of the series with [Cuesta](Michael)(Michael Cuesta) as one of its directors. The series is also produced by [Television](20th)(20th Television).
[Cox](Charlie)(Charlie Cox) reprises his role as [Murdock / Daredevil](Matt)(Matt Murdock (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) from [Netflix television series](Marvel's)(Marvel's Netflix television series) and prior Marvel Studios productions, with [D'Onofrio](Vincent)(Vincent D'Onofrio), [Bernthal](Jon)(Jon Bernthal), and [Holt](Sandrine)(Sandrine Holt) also starring. Development of the series began by March 2022 and the hiring of Corman and Ord was revealed that May. The series' title and episode count was revealed in July. Filming began in early March 2023 in [York](New)(New York (state)) before it was suspended in June due to the [Writers Guild of America strike](2023)(2023 Writers Guild of America strike). Cuesta joined the series by the start of filming, with [Nachmanoff](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Nachmanoff), [Johnson](Clark)(Clark Johnson), and [Boyd](David)(David Boyd (cinematographer)) also directing.
*Daredevil: Born Again* is scheduled to premiere on Disney+ in early 2024, and will consist of 18 episodes for its first season. It will be part of [Five](Phase)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Five) of the MCU. A second season is planned.
## Cast and characters
* [Cox](Charlie)(Charlie Cox) as [Murdock / Daredevil](Matt)(Matt Murdock (Marvel Cinematic Universe)):A blind lawyer from [Kitchen, New York](Hell's)(Hell's Kitchen, New York), who leads a double life as a masked vigilante. Cox appreciated being able to reprise the role in the film *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)* (2021) and the [Disney+](Disney+) series *[Attorney at Law](She-Hulk:)(She-Hulk: Attorney at Law)* (2022) before returning for this series, since he was able to have "a bit of fun" and see Murdock interact with characters [Netflix series](the)(Daredevil (TV series)) was unable to feature, before *Born Again* was able to "set our own tone.. and explore and develop all of the possibilities of his life back in New York". Cox had begun training for the role by October 2022, focusing on [martial arts](mixed)(mixed martial arts) (MMA) training in the hope of portraying Murdock as someone who has training in various fight styles that he can employ depending on who he is fighting, rather than just being an all-around brawler.
* [D'Onofrio](Vincent)(Vincent D'Onofrio) as [Fisk / Kingpin](Wilson)(Wilson Fisk (Marvel Cinematic Universe)): A powerful businessman and crime lord.
* [Bernthal](Jon)(Jon Bernthal) as [Castle / Punisher](Frank)(Frank Castle (Marvel Cinematic Universe)):A vigilante who aims to fight the criminal underworld by any means necessary, no matter how lethal the results. Bernthal reprises his role from [Netflix](Netflix)'s *Daredevil* and *[Punisher](The)(The Punisher (TV series))* (2017–2019).
* [Holt](Sandrine)(Sandrine Holt) as [Fisk](Vanessa)(Vanessa Fisk): Wilson's wife. [Zurer](Ayelet)(Ayelet Zurer) portrayed the character in *Daredevil*.
Additionally, [Gandolfini](Michael)(Michael Gandolfini), [Levieva](Margarita)(Margarita Levieva), [M. James](Nikki)(Nikki M. James), [Gaston](Michael)(Michael Gaston), Arty Froushan, and series' director [Johnson](Clark)(Clark Johnson) have been cast in undisclosed roles.
## Episodes
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The series will consist of 18 episodes, with [Cuesta](Michael)(Michael Cuesta) directing the first episode; other directors are expected to work on blocks of episodes. [Johnson](Clark)(Clark Johnson) directs two episodes, while [Nachmanoff](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Nachmanoff) and [Boyd](David)(David Boyd (cinematographer)) also direct on the series.
## Production
### Background
*[Daredevil](Daredevil (TV series))*, from [Television](Marvel)(Marvel Television) and [Studios](ABC)(ABC Studios), premiered on [Netflix](Netflix) in April 2015, and lasted for three seasons until its cancellation in November 2018. Netflix said the three seasons would remain on the service, while the character would "live on in future projects for Marvel". *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* noted that, unlike some of the other [series on Netflix](Marvel)(Marvel's Netflix television series) that were also cancelled, "the door seems to be wide open" for the series to continue elsewhere, potentially on Disney's streaming service, [Disney+](Disney+). However, *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* felt this was unlikely, especially since, as reported by *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*, the original deal between Marvel and Netflix stipulated that the characters could not appear in any non-Netflix series or films for at least two years following the cancellation of *Daredevil*. [A. Mayer](Kevin)(Kevin A. Mayer), chairman of [Disney Direct-to-Consumer and International](Walt)(Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer and International), noted that, while it had not yet been discussed, there was a possibility that Disney+ could revive the series. [Hulu](Hulu)'s senior vice president of originals, Craig Erwich, said his streaming service was also open to reviving the series.
Star [Cox](Charlie)(Charlie Cox) was saddened by the cancellation, explaining that he was excited by the plans for a fourth season which he and the rest of the cast and crew had expected to be made. He was hopeful there would be an opportunity to portray [Murdock / Daredevil](Matt)(Matt Murdock (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) again in some form. [Rutberg](Amy)(Amy Rutberg), who portrayed [Stahl](Marci)(Marci Stahl) in the series, said the cast and crew had expected it to last for five seasons, with a new antagonist being introduced in the fourth before a final showdown between Daredevil and [Fisk / Kingpin](Wilson)(Wilson Fisk (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) ([D'Onofrio](Vincent)(Vincent D'Onofrio)) in the fifth. In June 2020, Cox was contacted by [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) president [Feige](Kevin)(Kevin Feige) about reprising his role for Marvel Studios' [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) productions, with Feige confirming in December 2021 that Cox would reprise the role for Marvel Studios. He first did so in the film *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)* (2021), with D'Onofrio first reprising his role as Fisk in the Disney+ series *[Hawkeye](Hawkeye (2021 TV series))* (2021). *Daredevil* was moved from Netflix to Disney+ in March 2022 after Netflix's license for the series ended and Disney regained the rights.
### Development
In March 2022, Cox discussed a potential [reboot](Reboot (fiction)) for the character and series, believing it should begin a few years after the end of the previous series and be "re-imagined" as slightly different rather than continue from where the [season of the Netflix series](third)(Daredevil (season 3)) finished. He also discussed a new series potentially not being rated [TV-MA](TV-MA) as the Netflix series was, stating that he believed Marvel Studios would be able to create a faithful version of the character with those restrictions even though he personally found the comics "more exciting, readable, relatable when it lives in a darker space" such as [Michael Bendis](Brian)(Brian Michael Bendis) and [Maleev](Alex)(Alex Maleev)'s [run](comics)(Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)#2000s). Additionally, he felt attributes of the character such as his age, Christian guilt, and history with women tended to cover more mature subjects. Cox was hopeful that a new series could have a more faithful adaptation of the "[Again](Born)(Born Again (comics))" storyline from the comics, which he described as "kind of a PG comic" and a guide for how the series could work with that rating. Later in the month, *Production Weekly* included a *Daredevil* reboot in their report of upcoming projects in development. Feige and [Gary](Chris)(Chris Gary) were listed as producers. The series was confirmed to be in development for Disney+ in late May, with Matt Corman and Chris Ord attached as [writer](head)(head writer)s and executive producers. *The Hollywood Reporter* said it was the first of the Marvel Netflix series to "get a new but continued series", later stating it would "technically be its fourth season". *Deadline Hollywood* also described it as a fourth season.
During the 2022 [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con), the series was announced as *Daredevil: Born Again* and revealed to have 18 episodes for its first season. Cox called an 18-episode series "a huge undertaking", but felt Murdock being a lawyer allowed for many story possibilities, believing that was one of the reasons that amount of episodes was chosen for this character. The series shares its name with the comic storyline "Born Again", which elements of the Netflix series' third season had been inspired by. Christian Holub at *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* believed the title was a reference to the character "literally being 'born again' into the official MCU" rather than the series being an adaptation of the "Born Again" comic. Cox described *Born Again* as a "whole new thing" and not a fourth season of the Netflix series and he felt that was "the way to go" in order to make a different series. In March 2023, [Cuesta](Michael)(Michael Cuesta) was revealed to be directing the first episode of the series. Additional directors were expected to direct blocks of episodes for the series. [Nachmanoff](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Nachmanoff) and [Johnson](Clark)(Clark Johnson)—who was previously a director on the Marvel Netflix series *[Cage](Luke)(Luke Cage (TV series))* (2016–2018)—were revealed as additional directors in May, with Johnson hired to direct two episodes. [Boyd](David)(David Boyd (cinematographer)) was also set to direct. Executive producers include Marvel Studios' Feige, [D'Esposito](Louis)(Louis D'Esposito), Gary, and [Amanat](Sana)(Sana Amanat), alongside Corman and Ord. [Television](20th)(20th Television) also produces the series.
Development on a second season had begun by March 2023, with D'Onofrio stating that there were plans for "gigantic payoffs" during the second season.
### Writing
[Godfree](Grainne)(Grainne Godfree) and Jill Blankenship are working on the series, alongside Aisha Porter-Christie, [Feige](David)(David Feige), Devon Kliger, Thomas Wong, and Zachary Reiter. Cox believed the series would be dark but not as gory as the Netflix series, and wanted to take what worked from *Daredevil* and broaden it for *Born Again* while also appealing to a younger audience. D'Onofrio stated that the series *[Echo](Echo (TV series))* would lead into the events of *Born Again*. Kevin Feige noted Marvel Studios was hoping to experiment with more episodic, "self-contained" episodes with the series, unlike some of their [Four series](Phase)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Four#Television series) that had a larger story split into various episodes.
### Casting
In June 2022, *Variety* reported that Cox and D'Onofrio were expected to return for the series. Their casting was confirmed a month later at San Diego Comic-Con. Cox was notified by Marvel Studios by early 2022 that they were looking to feature the character in another project following his appearances in *No Way Home* and the Disney+ series *[Attorney at Law](She-Hulk:)(She-Hulk: Attorney at Law)* (2022), and learned that it was *Born Again* shortly before the series was formally announced at San Diego Comic-Con. In December, [Gandolfini](Michael)(Michael Gandolfini), [Levieva](Margarita)(Margarita Levieva), and [Holt](Sandrine)(Sandrine Holt) were cast in undisclosed major roles. *Deadline Hollywood* stated Gandolfini was potentially portraying "an ambitious guy from [Island](Staten)(Staten Island)" named Liam, and that Levieva and Holt were reportedly playing love interests for Cox and D'Onofrio; Holt was later revealed to be playing [Fisk](Vanessa)(Vanessa Fisk), who was portrayed by [Zurer](Ayelet)(Ayelet Zurer) in *Daredevil*. In January 2023, [M. James](Nikki)(Nikki M. James) was cast in an undisclosed role. In March 2023, it was revealed that [Bernthal](Jon)(Jon Bernthal) would reprise his role of [Castle / Punisher](Frank)(Frank Castle (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) from the Marvel Netflix series for *Born Again*. At that time, additional cast members from *Daredevil*, such as [Ann Woll](Deborah)(Deborah Ann Woll) (who played [Page](Karen)(Karen Page (Marvel Cinematic Universe))) and [Henson](Elden)(Elden Henson) ([Nelson](Foggy)(Foggy Nelson (Marvel Cinematic Universe))), were not expected to return, and it was unclear if those characters would make appearances in *Born Again*. It was also revealed that [Gaston](Michael)(Michael Gaston) and Arty Froushan were part of the cast, with Froushan in a major role, reported to be an associate of Fisk's named Harry. Clark Johnson was revealed in May to be cast in a recurring role, reported to be named Cherry.
### Filming
[[File:Picket line Writers Guild Strike.jpg|thumb|200px|[Picketers](Picketers) participating in the [Writers Guild of America strike](2023)(2023 Writers Guild of America strike) on May 10, 2023, at the series' set that resulted in filming being shut down.]]
Cuesta directed the first episode of the series, with Nachmanoff, Johnson, and Boyd also directing on the series. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on March 6, 2023, in [York](New)(New York (state)), under the [title](working)(working title) *Out the Kitchen*. Filming took place in [Yonkers](Yonkers, New York) outside the city's mayor's office from March 7 through March 10, and moved to New York City in [Harlem](Harlem), Manhattan on March 13 and 14, and in [Brooklyn](Williamsburg,)(Williamsburg, Brooklyn) and at the [Municipal Building](Manhattan)(Manhattan Municipal Building) on March 15; Williamsburg was previously used as a shooting location for *Daredevil*. Filming took place at the [York County Courthouse](New)(New York County Courthouse) on March 17. Soundstage work occurred at [Studios](Silvercup)(Silvercup Studios) East in [Queens](Queens). Filming was set to take place at Silvercup East on May 8, when [picketers](picketers) participating in the [Writers Guild of America strike](2023)(2023 Writers Guild of America strike) caused production to shut down with no filming occurring. Filming was planned to resume the following day. Because of the strike, Corman and Ord were unable to be on set. After further picketing on May 10 at the series' set in Brooklyn that once again shut down filming, production was paused for the remainder of the week. Production occurred at Silvercup East on June 9 after further on location picketing, before it was shut down for the day on June 12 again due to picketing. Production was soon suspended until after the strike concluded. Filming was expected to last for eight months.
### Editing
Cedric Nairn-Smith serves as an editor. Nairn-Smith previously worked on the Marvel Studios series *[Knight](Moon)(Moon Knight (TV series))* (2022) and *[Ironheart](Ironheart (TV series))* (2024).
## Release
*Daredevil: Born Again* will debut in early 2024 on [Disney+](Disney+), and will consist of 18 episodes. It will be part of [Five](Phase)(Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Five) of the MCU.
## References
}}
## External links
*
*
}}
[American crime television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American crime television series)
[American drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American drama television series)
[action television series](Category:American)(Category:American action television series)
[(Marvel Comics) television series](Category:Daredevil)(Category:Daredevil (Marvel Comics) television series)
[original programming](Category:Disney+)(Category:Disney+ original programming)
[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[Cinematic Universe: Phase Five television series](Category:Marvel)(Category:Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Five television series)
[drama television series](Category:Serial)(Category:Serial drama television series)
[series by Marvel Studios](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Marvel Studios)
[series reboots](Category:Television)(Category:Television series reboots)
[shows about blind people](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows about blind people)
[shows filmed in New York (state)](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows filmed in New York (state))
[shows filmed in New York City](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows filmed in New York City)
[shows set in Manhattan](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in Manhattan)
[television series](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming television series)
[television series](Category:Vigilante)(Category:Vigilante television series)
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Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
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eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors
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# Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
*Revision ID: 1157599724 | Timestamp: 2023-05-29T18:12:41Z*
---
In [algebra](linear)(linear algebra), an **eigenvector** () or **characteristic vector** of a [transformation](linear)(Linear map) is a nonzero [vector](Vector space) that changes at most by a [scalar](Scalar (mathematics)) factor when that linear transformation is applied to it. The corresponding **eigenvalue**, often denoted by \lambda, is the factor by which the eigenvector is scaled.
[Geometrically](Geometry), a transformation matrix [rotates](Rotation (geometry)), [stretches](Scaling (geometry)), or [shears](Shear mapping) the vectors it acts upon. An eigenvector, corresponding to a [real](Real number) nonzero eigenvalue for that matrix, points in a direction in which it is stretched by the transformation, and is neither rotated nor sheared. The eigenvalue is the factor by which an eigenvector is stretched. If the eigenvalue is negative, the direction is reversed.
## Formal definition
If is a linear transformation from a vector space over a [field](Field (mathematics)) into itself and is a [nonzero](zero vector) vector in , then is an eigenvector of if is a scalar multiple of . This can be written as
T(\mathbf{v}) = \lambda \mathbf{v},
where is a scalar in , known as the **eigenvalue**, **characteristic value**, or **characteristic root** associated with .
There is a direct correspondence between *n*-by-*n* [matrices](square)(Square matrix) and linear transformations from an [*n*-dimensional](Dimension) vector space into itself, given any [basis](Basis (linear algebra)) of the vector space. Hence, in a finite-dimensional vector space, it is equivalent to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors using either the language of [matrices](Matrix (mathematics)), or the language of linear transformations.
If is finite-dimensional, the above equation is equivalent to
A\mathbf{u} = \lambda \mathbf{u}.
where is the matrix representation of and is the [vector](coordinate)(coordinate vector) of .
## Overview
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors feature prominently in the analysis of linear transformations. The prefix *[eigen-](wikt:eigen-)* is adopted from the [German](German language) word *[eigen](wikt:eigen#German)* ([cognate](cognate) with the [English](English language) word *[own](wikt:own#English)*) for 'proper', 'characteristic', 'own'. Originally used to study [axes](principal)(principal axis (mechanics)) of the rotational motion of [bodies](rigid)(rigid body), eigenvalues and eigenvectors have a wide range of applications, for example in [analysis](stability)(stability theory), [analysis](vibration)(vibration analysis#eigenvalue problem), [orbital](atomic)(atomic orbital)s, [recognition](facial)(eigenface), and [diagonalization](matrix)(Eigendecomposition of a matrix).
In essence, an eigenvector **v** of a linear transformation *T* is a nonzero vector that, when *T* is applied to it, does not change direction. Applying *T* to the eigenvector only scales the eigenvector by the scalar value *λ*, called an eigenvalue. This condition can be written as the equation
T(\mathbf{v}) = \lambda \mathbf{v},
referred to as the **eigenvalue equation** or **eigenequation**. In general, *λ* may be any [scalar](scalar (mathematics)). For example, *λ* may be negative, in which case the eigenvector reverses direction as part of the scaling, or it may be zero or [complex](complex number).
[[File:Mona Lisa eigenvector grid.png|thumb|320px|In this [mapping](shear)(shear mapping) the red arrow changes direction, but the blue arrow does not. The blue arrow is an eigenvector of this shear mapping because it does not change direction, and since its length is unchanged, its eigenvalue is 1.]]
[[of a linear operator.gif|thumb|200px|A 2×2 real and symmetric matrix representing a stretching and shearing of the plane. The eigenvectors of the matrix (red lines) are the two special directions such that every point on them will just slide on them.](File:Eigenvectors)]
The [Lisa](Mona)(Mona Lisa) example pictured here provides a simple illustration. Each point on the painting can be represented as a vector pointing from the center of the painting to that point. The linear transformation in this example is called a [mapping](shear)(shear mapping). Points in the top half are moved to the right, and points in the bottom half are moved to the left, proportional to how far they are from the horizontal axis that goes through the middle of the painting. The vectors pointing to each point in the original image are therefore tilted right or left, and made longer or shorter by the transformation. Points *along* the horizontal axis do not move at all when this transformation is applied. Therefore, any vector that points directly to the right or left with no vertical component is an eigenvector of this transformation, because the mapping does not change its direction. Moreover, these eigenvectors all have an eigenvalue equal to one, because the mapping does not change their length either.
Linear transformations can take many different forms, mapping vectors in a variety of vector spaces, so the eigenvectors can also take many forms. For example, the linear transformation could be a [operator](differential)(differential operator) like \tfrac{d}{dx}, in which case the eigenvectors are functions called [eigenfunction](eigenfunction)s that are scaled by that differential operator, such as
\frac{d}{dx}e^{\lambda x} = \lambda e^{\lambda x}.
Alternatively, the linear transformation could take the form of an *n* by *n* matrix, in which case the eigenvectors are *n* by 1 matrices. If the linear transformation is expressed in the form of an *n* by *n* matrix *A*, then the eigenvalue equation for a linear transformation above can be rewritten as the matrix multiplication
A\mathbf v = \lambda \mathbf v,
where the eigenvector *v* is an *n* by 1 matrix. For a matrix, eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be used to [the matrix](decompose)(matrix decomposition)—for example by [diagonalizing](diagonalizable matrix) it.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors give rise to many closely related mathematical concepts, and the prefix *eigen-* is applied liberally when naming them:
* The set of all eigenvectors of a linear transformation, each paired with its corresponding eigenvalue, is called the **eigensystem** of that transformation.
* The set of all eigenvectors of *T* corresponding to the same eigenvalue, together with the zero vector, is called an **eigenspace**, or the **characteristic space** of *T* associated with that eigenvalue.
* If a set of eigenvectors of *T* forms a [basis](basis (linear algebra)) of the domain of *T*, then this basis is called an **eigenbasis**.
## History
Eigenvalues are often introduced in the context of [algebra](linear)(linear algebra) or [theory](matrix)(matrix (mathematics)). Historically, however, they arose in the study of [form](quadratic)(quadratic form)s and [equation](differential)(differential equation)s.
In the 18th century, [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler) studied the rotational motion of a [body](rigid)(rigid body), and discovered the importance of the [axes](principal)(Principal axis (mechanics)). p. xxviiii [29]), Segner derives a third-degree equation in *t*, which proves that a body has three principal axes of rotation. He then states (on the same page): *"Non autem repugnat tres esse eiusmodi positiones plani HM, quia in aequatione cubica radices tres esse possunt, et tres tangentis t valores."'' (However, it is not inconsistent [there](that) be three such positions of the plane HM, because in cubic equations, [there] can be three roots, and three values of the tangent t.)
* The relevant passage of Segner's work was discussed briefly by [Cayley](Arthur)(Arthur Cayley). See: A. Cayley (1862) "Report on the progress of the solution of certain special problems of dynamics," *Report of the Thirty-second meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; held at Cambridge in October 1862*, **32**: 184–252; see especially [books|plainurl=y|id=S_RJAAAAcAAJ|page=225}} pp. 225–226.]( [Lagrange](Joseph-Louis)(Joseph-Louis Lagrange) realized that the principal axes are the eigenvectors of the inertia matrix.
In the early 19th century, [Cauchy](Augustin-Louis)(Augustin-Louis Cauchy) saw how their work could be used to classify the [surface](quadric)(quadric surface)s, and generalized it to arbitrary dimensions. Cauchy also coined the term *racine caractéristique* (characteristic root), for what is now called *eigenvalue*; his term survives in *[equation](characteristic)(Secular equation)*. Augustin Cauchy (1839) "Mémoire sur l'intégration des équations linéaires" (Memoir on the integration of linear equations), *Comptes rendus*, **8**: 827–830, 845–865, 889–907, 931–937. [From p. 827:](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2967c/f833.item.r.zoom) ''"On sait d'ailleurs qu'en suivant la méthode de Lagrange, on obtient pour valeur générale de la variable prinicipale une fonction dans laquelle entrent avec la variable principale les racines d'une certaine équation que j'appellerai l'*équation caractéristique*, le degré de cette équation étant précisément l'order de l'équation différentielle qu'il s'agit d'intégrer."'' (One knows, moreover, that by following Lagrange's method, one obtains for the general value of the principal variable a function in which there appear, together with the principal variable, the roots of a certain equation that I will call the "characteristic equation", the degree of this equation being precisely the order of the differential equation that must be integrated.)}}
Later, [Fourier](Joseph)(Joseph Fourier) used the work of Lagrange and [Laplace](Pierre-Simon)(Pierre-Simon Laplace) to solve the [equation](heat)(heat equation) by [of variables](separation)(separation of variables) in his famous 1822 book *[analytique de la chaleur](Théorie)(Théorie analytique de la chaleur)*. [Sturm](Charles-François)(Charles-François Sturm) developed Fourier's ideas further, and brought them to the attention of Cauchy, who combined them with his own ideas and arrived at the fact that real [matrices](symmetric)(symmetric matrix) have real eigenvalues. This was extended by [Hermite](Charles)(Charles Hermite) in 1855 to what are now called [matrices](Hermitian)(Hermitian matrix).
Around the same time, [Brioschi](Francesco)(Francesco Brioschi) proved that the eigenvalues of [matrices](orthogonal)(orthogonal matrix) lie on the [circle](unit)(unit circle), and [Clebsch](Alfred)(Alfred Clebsch) found the corresponding result for [matrices](skew-symmetric)(skew-symmetric matrix). Finally, [Weierstrass](Karl)(Karl Weierstrass) clarified an important aspect in the [theory](stability)(stability theory) started by Laplace, by realizing that [matrices](defective)(defective matrix) can cause instability.
In the meantime, [Liouville](Joseph)(Joseph Liouville) studied eigenvalue problems similar to those of Sturm; the discipline that grew out of their work is now called *[theory](Sturm–Liouville)(Sturm–Liouville theory)*. [Schwarz](Hermann Schwarz) studied the first eigenvalue of [equation](Laplace's)(Laplace's equation) on general domains towards the end of the 19th century, while [Poincaré](Henri Poincaré) studied [equation](Poisson's)(Poisson's equation) a few years later.
At the start of the 20th century, [Hilbert](David)(David Hilbert) studied the eigenvalues of [operator](integral)(integral operator)s by viewing the operators as infinite matrices. He was the first to use the [German](German language) word *eigen*, which means "own", to denote eigenvalues and eigenvectors in 1904,PPN252457811_1904&DMDIDdmdlog11&LOGIDlog11&PHYSIDphys57#navi) (Fundamentals of a general theory of linear integral equations. (First report)), *Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse* (News of the Philosophical Society at Göttingen, mathematical-physical section), pp. 49–91. [From p. 51:](http://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PPNPPN252457811_1904&DMDIDdmdlog11&LOGIDlog11&PHYSIDphys57#navi) (In particular, in this first report I arrive at formulas that provide the [series] development of an arbitrary function in terms of some distinctive functions, which I call *eigenfunctions*: ... ) Later on the same page: (This success is mainly attributable to the fact that I do not, as it has happened until now, first of all aim at a proof of the existence of eigenvalues, ... )
* For the origin and evolution of the terms eigenvalue, characteristic value, etc., see: [Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (E)](http://jeff560.tripod.com/e.html)}} though he may have been following a related usage by [von Helmholtz](Hermann)(Hermann von Helmholtz). For some time, the standard term in English was "proper value", but the more distinctive term "eigenvalue" is the standard today.
The first numerical algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors appeared in 1929, when [von Mises](Richard)(Richard von Mises) published the [method](power)(power method). One of the most popular methods today, the [algorithm](QR)(QR algorithm), was proposed independently by [G. F. Francis](John)(John G. F. Francis) and [Kublanovskaya](Vera)(Vera Kublanovskaya) in 1961.
## Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are often introduced to students in the context of linear algebra courses focused on matrices.Cornell University Department of Mathematics (2016) [*Lower-Level Courses for Freshmen and Sophomores*](http://www.math.cornell.edu/m/Courses/Catalog/lowerlevel). Accessed on 2016-03-27.University of Michigan Mathematics (2016) [*Math Course Catalogue*](https://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/math/Home/Undergrad/Ugrad_Courses.pdf) . Accessed on 2016-03-27.
Furthermore, linear transformations over a finite-dimensional vector space can be represented using matrices, which is especially common in numerical and computational applications.
[[equation.svg|thumb|right|250px|Matrix *A* acts by stretching the vector **x**, not changing its direction, so **x** is an eigenvector of *A*.](File:Eigenvalue)]
Consider -dimensional vectors that are formed as a list of scalars, such as the three-dimensional vectors
\mathbf x = \begin{bmatrix}1\\-3\\4\end{bmatrix}\quad\mbox{and}\quad \mathbf y = \begin{bmatrix}-20\\60\\-80\end{bmatrix}.
These vectors are said to be [multiples](scalar)(scalar multiplication) of each other, or [parallel](Parallel (geometry)) or [collinear](collinearity), if there is a scalar such that
\mathbf x = \lambda \mathbf y.
In this case \lambda = -\frac{1}{20} .
Now consider the linear transformation of -dimensional vectors defined by an by matrix ,
A \mathbf v = \mathbf w,
or
\begin{bmatrix}
A_{11} & A_{12} & \cdots & A_{1n} \\
A_{21} & A_{22} & \cdots & A_{2n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
A_{n1} & A_{n2} & \cdots & A_{nn} \\
\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}
v_1 \\ v_2 \\ \vdots \\ v_n
\end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}
w_1 \\ w_2 \\ \vdots \\ w_n
\end{bmatrix}
where, for each row,
w_i = A_{i1} v_1 + A_{i2} v_2 + \cdots + A_{in} v_n = \sum_{j = 1}^n A_{ij} v_j.
If it occurs that and are scalar multiples, that is if
}}
then is an **eigenvector** of the linear transformation and the scale factor is the **eigenvalue** corresponding to that eigenvector. Equation () is the **eigenvalue equation** for the matrix .
Equation () can be stated equivalently as
}}
where is the by [matrix](identity)(identity matrix) and **0** is the zero vector.
### Eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial
Equation () has a nonzero solution *v* [and only if](if)(if and only if) the [determinant](determinant) of the matrix is zero. Therefore, the eigenvalues of *A* are values of *λ* that satisfy the equation
}}
Using the [formula for determinants](Leibniz)(Leibniz formula for determinants), the left-hand side of Equation () is a [polynomial](polynomial) function of the variable *λ* and the [degree](degree of a polynomial) of this polynomial is *n*, the order of the matrix *A*. Its [coefficient](coefficient)s depend on the entries of *A*, except that its term of degree *n* is always (−1)*n**λ**n*. This polynomial is called the *[polynomial](characteristic)(characteristic polynomial)* of *A*. Equation () is called the *characteristic equation* or the *secular equation* of *A*.
The [theorem of algebra](fundamental)(fundamental theorem of algebra) implies that the characteristic polynomial of an *n*-by-*n* matrix *A*, being a polynomial of degree *n*, can be [factored](factorization) into the product of *n* linear terms,
}}
where each *λ**i* may be real but in general is a complex number. The numbers *λ*1, *λ*2, ..., *λ**n*, which may not all have distinct values, are roots of the polynomial and are the eigenvalues of *A*.
As a brief example, which is described in more detail in the examples section later, consider the matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix}
2 & 1\\
1 & 2
\end{bmatrix}.
Taking the determinant of , the characteristic polynomial of *A* is
|A - \lambda I| = \begin{vmatrix}
2 - \lambda & 1 \\
1 & 2 - \lambda
\end{vmatrix} =
3 - 4\lambda + \lambda^2.
Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at and , which are the two eigenvalues of *A*. The eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue can be found by solving for the components of **v** in the equation In this example, the eigenvectors are any nonzero scalar multiples of
\mathbf v_{\lambda=1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ -1 \end{bmatrix}, \quad \mathbf v_{\lambda=3} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix}.
If the entries of the matrix *A* are all real numbers, then the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial will also be real numbers, but the eigenvalues may still have nonzero imaginary parts. The entries of the corresponding eigenvectors therefore may also have nonzero imaginary parts. Similarly, the eigenvalues may be [number](irrational)(irrational number)s even if all the entries of *A* are [number](rational)(rational number)s or even if they are all integers. However, if the entries of *A* are all [number](algebraic)(algebraic number)s, which include the rationals, the eigenvalues must also be algebraic numbers (that is, they cannot magically become [number](transcendental)(transcendental number)s).
The non-real roots of a real polynomial with real coefficients can be grouped into pairs of [conjugate](complex)(complex conjugate)s, namely with the two members of each pair having imaginary parts that differ only in sign and the same real part. If the degree is odd, then by the [value theorem](intermediate)(intermediate value theorem) at least one of the roots is real. Therefore, any [matrix](real)(real matrix) with odd order has at least one real eigenvalue, whereas a real matrix with even order may not have any real eigenvalues. The eigenvectors associated with these complex eigenvalues are also complex and also appear in complex conjugate pairs.
### Algebraic multiplicity
Let *λ**i* be an eigenvalue of an *n* by *n* matrix *A*. The **algebraic multiplicity** *μ**A*(*λ**i*) of the eigenvalue is its [as a root](multiplicity)(Multiple roots of a polynomial) of the characteristic polynomial, that is, the largest integer *k* such that (*λ* − *λ**i*)*k* [evenly](divides)(polynomial division) that polynomial.
Suppose a matrix *A* has dimension *n* and *d* ≤ *n* distinct eigenvalues. Whereas Equation () factors the characteristic polynomial of *A* into the product of *n* linear terms with some terms potentially repeating, the characteristic polynomial can instead be written as the product of *d* terms each corresponding to a distinct eigenvalue and raised to the power of the algebraic multiplicity,
|A - \lambda I| = (\lambda_1 - \lambda)^{\mu_A(\lambda_1)}(\lambda_2 - \lambda)^{\mu_A(\lambda_2)} \cdots (\lambda_d - \lambda)^{\mu_A(\lambda_d)}.
If *d* = *n* then the right-hand side is the product of *n* linear terms and this is the same as Equation (). The size of each eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity is related to the dimension *n* as
\begin{align}
1 &\leq \mu_A(\lambda_i) \leq n, \\
\mu_A &= \sum_{i=1}^d \mu_A\left(\lambda_i\right) = n.
\end{align}
If *μ**A*(*λ**i*) = 1, then *λ**i* is said to be a *simple eigenvalue*. If *μ**A*(*λ**i*) equals the geometric multiplicity of *λ**i*, *γ**A*(*λ**i*), defined in the next section, then *λ**i* is said to be a *semisimple eigenvalue*.
### Eigenspaces, geometric multiplicity, and the eigenbasis for matrices
Given a particular eigenvalue *λ* of the *n* by *n* matrix *A*, define the [set](Set (mathematics)) *E* to be all vectors **v** that satisfy Equation (),
E = \left\{\mathbf{v} : \left(A - \lambda I\right) \mathbf{v} = \mathbf{0}\right\}.
On one hand, this set is precisely the [kernel](kernel (linear algebra)) or nullspace of the matrix (*A* − *λI*). On the other hand, by definition, any nonzero vector that satisfies this condition is an eigenvector of *A* associated with *λ*. So, the set *E* is the [union](Union (set theory)) of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors of *A* associated with *λ*, and *E* equals the nullspace of (*A* − *λI*). *E* is called the **eigenspace** or **characteristic space** of *A* associated with *λ*. In general *λ* is a complex number and the eigenvectors are complex *n* by 1 matrices. A property of the nullspace is that it is a [subspace](linear)(linear subspace), so *E* is a linear subspace of \mathbb{C}^n.
Because the eigenspace *E* is a linear subspace, it is [closed](closure (mathematics)) under addition. That is, if two vectors **u** and **v** belong to the set *E*, written , then or equivalently . This can be checked using the [property](distributive)(distributive property) of matrix multiplication. Similarly, because *E* is a linear subspace, it is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if and *α* is a complex number, or equivalently . This can be checked by noting that multiplication of complex matrices by complex numbers is [commutative](commutative property). As long as **u** + **v** and *α***v** are not zero, they are also eigenvectors of *A* associated with *λ*.
The dimension of the eigenspace *E* associated with *λ*, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with *λ*, is referred to as the eigenvalue's **geometric multiplicity** *γ**A*(*λ*). Because *E* is also the nullspace of (*A* − *λI*), the geometric multiplicity of *λ* is the dimension of the nullspace of (*A* − *λI*), also called the *nullity* of (*A* − *λI*), which relates to the dimension and rank of (*A* − *λI*) as
\gamma_A(\lambda) = n - \operatorname{rank}(A - \lambda I).
Because of the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, an eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity must be at least one, that is, each eigenvalue has at least one associated eigenvector. Furthermore, an eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity cannot exceed its algebraic multiplicity. Additionally, recall that an eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity cannot exceed *n*.
1 \le \gamma_A(\lambda) \le \mu_A(\lambda) \le n
To prove the inequality \gamma_A(\lambda)\le\mu_A(\lambda), consider how the definition of geometric multiplicity implies the existence of \gamma_A(\lambda) [orthonormal](Orthonormality) eigenvectors \boldsymbol{v}_1,\, \ldots,\, \boldsymbol{v}_{\gamma_A(\lambda)}, such that A \boldsymbol{v}_k = \lambda \boldsymbol{v}_k. We can therefore find a (unitary) matrix V whose first \gamma_A(\lambda) columns are these eigenvectors, and whose remaining columns can be any orthonormal set of n - \gamma_A(\lambda) vectors orthogonal to these eigenvectors of A. Then V has full rank and is therefore invertible, and AV=VD with D a matrix whose top left block is the diagonal matrix \lambda I_{\gamma_A(\lambda)}. This implies that (A - \xi I)V = V(D - \xi I). In other words, A - \xi I is similar to D - \xi I, which implies that \det(A - \xi I) = \det(D - \xi I). But from the definition of D we know that \det(D - \xi I) contains a factor (\xi - \lambda)^{\gamma_A(\lambda)}, which means that the algebraic multiplicity of \lambda must satisfy \mu_A(\lambda) \ge \gamma_A(\lambda).
Suppose A has d \leq n distinct eigenvalues \lambda_1, \ldots, \lambda_d, where the geometric multiplicity of \lambda_i is \gamma_A (\lambda_i). The total geometric multiplicity of A,
\begin{align}
\gamma_A &= \sum_{i=1}^d \gamma_A(\lambda_i), \\
d &\le \gamma_A \le n,
\end{align}
is the dimension of the [sum](Linear subspace#Sum) of all the eigenspaces of A's eigenvalues, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors of A. If \gamma_A=n, then
* The direct sum of the eigenspaces of all of A's eigenvalues is the entire vector space \mathbb{C}^n.
* A basis of \mathbb{C}^n can be formed from n linearly independent eigenvectors of A; such a basis is called an **eigenbasis**
* Any vector in \mathbb{C}^n can be written as a linear combination of eigenvectors of A.
### Additional properties of eigenvalues
Let A be an arbitrary n \times n matrix of complex numbers with eigenvalues \lambda_1, \ldots, \lambda_n. Each eigenvalue appears \mu_A(\lambda_i) times in this list, where \mu_A(\lambda_i) is the eigenvalue's algebraic multiplicity. The following are properties of this matrix and its eigenvalues:
* The [trace](trace (linear algebra)) of A, defined as the sum of its diagonal elements, is also the sum of all eigenvalues,
*: \operatorname{tr}(A) = \sum_{i=1}^n a_{ii} = \sum_{i=1}^n \lambda_i = \lambda_1 + \lambda_2 + \cdots + \lambda_n.
* The [determinant](determinant) of A is the product of all its eigenvalues,
*: \det(A) = \prod_{i=1}^n \lambda_i = \lambda_1\lambda_2 \cdots \lambda_n.
* The eigenvalues of the kth power of A; i.e., the eigenvalues of A^k, for any positive integer k, are \lambda_1^k, \ldots, \lambda_n^k.
* The matrix A is [invertible](invertible matrix) if and only if every eigenvalue is nonzero.
* If A is invertible, then the eigenvalues of A^{-1} are \frac{1}{\lambda_1}, \ldots, \frac{1}{\lambda_n} and each eigenvalue's geometric multiplicity coincides. Moreover, since the characteristic polynomial of the inverse is the [polynomial](reciprocal)(reciprocal polynomial) of the original, the eigenvalues share the same algebraic multiplicity.
* If A is equal to its [transpose](conjugate)(conjugate transpose) A^*, or equivalently if A is [Hermitian](Hermitian matrix), then every eigenvalue is real. The same is true of any [symmetric](symmetric matrix) real matrix.
* If A is not only Hermitian but also [positive-definite](positive-definite matrix), positive-semidefinite, negative-definite, or negative-semidefinite, then every eigenvalue is positive, non-negative, negative, or non-positive, respectively.
* If A is [unitary](unitary matrix), every eigenvalue has absolute value |\lambda_i|=1.
* if A is a n\times n matrix and \{\lambda_1,\ldots,\lambda_k\} are its eigenvalues, then the eigenvalues of matrix I+A (where I is the identity matrix) are \{\lambda_1+1,\ldots,\lambda_k+1\}. Moreover, if \alpha\in\mathbb C, the eigenvalues of \alpha I+A are \{\lambda_1+\alpha,\ldots,\lambda_k+\alpha\}. More generally, for a polynomial P the eigenvalues of matrix P(A) are \{P(\lambda_1), \ldots, P(\lambda_k)\}.
### Left and right eigenvectors
Many disciplines traditionally represent vectors as matrices with a single column rather than as matrices with a single row. For that reason, the word "eigenvector" in the context of matrices almost always refers to a **right eigenvector**, namely a *column* vector that *right* multiplies the n \times n matrix A in the defining equation, Equation (),
A \mathbf v = \lambda \mathbf v.
The eigenvalue and eigenvector problem can also be defined for *row* vectors that *left* multiply matrix A. In this formulation, the defining equation is
\mathbf u A = \kappa \mathbf u,
where \kappa is a scalar and u is a 1 \times n matrix. Any row vector u satisfying this equation is called a **left eigenvector** of A and \kappa is its associated eigenvalue. Taking the transpose of this equation,
A^\textsf{T} \mathbf u^\textsf{T} = \kappa \mathbf u^\textsf{T}.
Comparing this equation to Equation (), it follows immediately that a left eigenvector of A is the same as the transpose of a right eigenvector of A^\textsf{T}, with the same eigenvalue. Furthermore, since the characteristic polynomial of A^\textsf{T} is the same as the characteristic polynomial of A, the eigenvalues of the left eigenvectors of A are the same as the eigenvalues of the right eigenvectors of A^\textsf{T}.
### Diagonalization and the eigendecomposition
Suppose the eigenvectors of *A* form a basis, or equivalently *A* has *n* linearly independent eigenvectors **v**1, **v**2, ..., **v***n* with associated eigenvalues *λ*1, *λ*2, ..., *λ**n*. The eigenvalues need not be distinct. Define a [matrix](square)(square matrix) *Q* whose columns are the *n* linearly independent eigenvectors of *A*,
: Q = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf v_1 & \mathbf v_2 & \cdots & \mathbf v_n \end{bmatrix}.
Since each column of *Q* is an eigenvector of *A*, right multiplying *A* by *Q* scales each column of *Q* by its associated eigenvalue,
: AQ = \begin{bmatrix} \lambda_1 \mathbf v_1 & \lambda_2 \mathbf v_2 & \cdots & \lambda_n \mathbf v_n \end{bmatrix}.
With this in mind, define a diagonal matrix Λ where each diagonal element Λ*ii* is the eigenvalue associated with the *i*th column of *Q*. Then
: AQ = Q\Lambda.
Because the columns of *Q* are linearly independent, Q is invertible. Right multiplying both sides of the equation by *Q*−1,
: A = Q\Lambda Q^{-1},
or by instead left multiplying both sides by *Q*−1,
: Q^{-1}AQ = \Lambda.
*A* can therefore be decomposed into a matrix composed of its eigenvectors, a diagonal matrix with its eigenvalues along the diagonal, and the inverse of the matrix of eigenvectors. This is called the [eigendecomposition](eigendecomposition of a matrix) and it is a [transformation](similarity)(matrix similarity). Such a matrix *A* is said to be *similar* to the diagonal matrix Λ or *[diagonalizable](diagonalizable matrix)*. The matrix *Q* is the change of basis matrix of the similarity transformation. Essentially, the matrices *A* and Λ represent the same linear transformation expressed in two different bases. The eigenvectors are used as the basis when representing the linear transformation as Λ.
Conversely, suppose a matrix *A* is diagonalizable. Let *P* be a non-singular square matrix such that *P*−1*AP* is some diagonal matrix *D*. Left multiplying both by *P*, . Each column of *P* must therefore be an eigenvector of *A* whose eigenvalue is the corresponding diagonal element of *D*. Since the columns of *P* must be linearly independent for *P* to be invertible, there exist *n* linearly independent eigenvectors of *A*. It then follows that the eigenvectors of *A* form a basis if and only if *A* is diagonalizable.
A matrix that is not diagonalizable is said to be [defective](defective matrix). For defective matrices, the notion of eigenvectors generalizes to [eigenvector](generalized)(generalized eigenvector)s and the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues generalizes to the [normal form](Jordan)(Jordan normal form). Over an algebraically closed field, any matrix *A* has a [normal form](Jordan)(Jordan normal form) and therefore admits a basis of generalized eigenvectors and a decomposition into [eigenspace](generalized)(generalized eigenspace)s.
### Variational characterization
In the [Hermitian](Hermitian matrix) case, eigenvalues can be given a variational characterization. The largest eigenvalue of H is the maximum value of the [form](quadratic)(quadratic form) \mathbf x^\textsf{T} H \mathbf x / \mathbf x^\textsf{T} \mathbf x. A value of \mathbf x that realizes that maximum, is an eigenvector.
### Matrix examples
#### Two-dimensional matrix example
[[File:Eigenvectors.gif|right|frame|The transformation matrix *A* = \left[2 & 1\\ 1 & 2 \end{smallmatrix}\right](\begin{smallmatrix}) preserves the direction of purple vectors parallel to **v***λ*=1 = [−1](1)T and blue vectors parallel to **v***λ*=3 = [1](1)T. The red vectors are not parallel to either eigenvector, so, their directions are changed by the transformation. The lengths of the purple vectors are unchanged after the transformation (due to their eigenvalue of 1), while blue vectors are three times the length of the original (due to their eigenvalue of 3). See also: [extended version, showing all four quadrants](An)(:File:Eigenvectors-extended.gif).]]
Consider the matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix}
2 & 1\\
1 & 2
\end{bmatrix}.
The figure on the right shows the effect of this transformation on point coordinates in the plane. The eigenvectors *v* of this transformation satisfy Equation (), and the values of *λ* for which the determinant of the matrix (*A* − *λI*) equals zero are the eigenvalues.
Taking the determinant to find characteristic polynomial of *A*,
\begin{align}
|A - \lambda I|
&= \left|\begin{bmatrix}
2 & 1 \\
1 & 2
\end{bmatrix} - \lambda\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1
\end{bmatrix}\right| = \begin{vmatrix}
2 - \lambda & 1 \\
1 & 2 - \lambda
\end{vmatrix} \\[6pt]
&= 3 - 4\lambda + \lambda^2 \\[6pt]
&= (\lambda - 3)(\lambda - 1).
\end{align}
Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at and , which are the two eigenvalues of *A*.
For , Equation () becomes,
(A - I)\mathbf{v}_{\lambda=1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 1\\ 1 & 1\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}v_1 \\ v_2\end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}0 \\ 0\end{bmatrix}
1v_1 + 1v_2 = 0
Any nonzero vector with *v*1 = −*v*2 solves this equation. Therefore,
\mathbf{v}_{\lambda=1} = \begin{bmatrix} v_1 \\ -v_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ -1 \end{bmatrix}
is an eigenvector of *A* corresponding to *λ* = 1, as is any scalar multiple of this vector.
For , Equation () becomes
\begin{align}
(A - 3I)\mathbf{v}_{\lambda=3} &=
\begin{bmatrix} -1 & 1\\ 1 & -1 \end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} v_1 \\ v_2 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \end{bmatrix} \\
-1v_1 + 1v_2 &= 0;\\
1v_1 - 1v_2 &= 0
\end{align}
Any nonzero vector with *v*1 = *v*2 solves this equation. Therefore,
\mathbf v_{\lambda=3} = \begin{bmatrix} v_1 \\ v_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix}
is an eigenvector of *A* corresponding to *λ* = 3, as is any scalar multiple of this vector.
Thus, the vectors **v***λ*=1 and **v***λ*=3 are eigenvectors of *A* associated with the eigenvalues and , respectively.
#### Three-dimensional matrix example
Consider the matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 3 & 4 \\
0 & 4 & 9
\end{bmatrix}.
The characteristic polynomial of *A* is
\begin{align}
|A-\lambda I| &= \left|\begin{bmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 3 & 4 \\
0 & 4 & 9
\end{bmatrix} - \lambda\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{bmatrix}\right| =
\begin{vmatrix}
2 - \lambda & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 3 - \lambda & 4 \\
0 & 4 & 9 - \lambda
\end{vmatrix}, \\[6pt]
&= (2 - \lambda)\bigl[- \lambda)(9 - \lambda) - 16\bigr]((3)
= -\lambda^3 + 14\lambda^2 - 35\lambda + 22.
\end{align}
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are 2, 1, and 11, which are the only three eigenvalues of *A*. These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors {{nowrap|\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T},}} {{nowrap|\begin{bmatrix} 0 & -2 & 1 \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T},}} and {{nowrap|\begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T},}} or any nonzero multiple thereof.
#### Three-dimensional matrix example with complex eigenvalues
Consider the [permutation matrix](cyclic)(permutation matrix)
A = \begin{bmatrix}
0 & 1 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 0
\end{bmatrix}.
This matrix shifts the coordinates of the vector up by one position and moves the first coordinate to the bottom. Its characteristic polynomial is 1 − *λ*3, whose roots are
\begin{align}
\lambda_1 &= 1 \\
\lambda_2 &= -\frac{1}{2} + i \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} \\
\lambda_3 &= \lambda_2^* = -\frac{1}{2} - i \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}
\end{align}
where i is an [unit](imaginary)(imaginary unit) with
For the real eigenvalue *λ*1 = 1, any vector with three equal nonzero entries is an eigenvector. For example,
A \begin{bmatrix} 5\\ 5\\ 5 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} 5\\ 5\\ 5 \end{bmatrix} =
1 \cdot \begin{bmatrix} 5\\ 5\\ 5 \end{bmatrix}.
For the complex conjugate pair of imaginary eigenvalues,
\lambda_2\lambda_3 = 1, \quad \lambda_2^2 = \lambda_3, \quad \lambda_3^2 = \lambda_2.
Then
A \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ \lambda_2 \\ \lambda_3 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} \lambda_2 \\ \lambda_3 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} =
\lambda_2 \cdot \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ \lambda_2 \\ \lambda_3 \end{bmatrix},
and
A \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ \lambda_3 \\ \lambda_2 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} \lambda_3 \\ \lambda_2 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} =
\lambda_3 \cdot \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ \lambda_3 \\ \lambda_2 \end{bmatrix}.
Therefore, the other two eigenvectors of *A* are complex and are \mathbf v_{\lambda_2} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & \lambda_2 & \lambda_3\end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T} and \mathbf v_{\lambda_3} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & \lambda_3 & \lambda_2\end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T} with eigenvalues *λ*2 and *λ*3, respectively. The two complex eigenvectors also appear in a complex conjugate pair,
\mathbf v_{\lambda_2} = \mathbf v_{\lambda_3}^*.
#### Diagonal matrix example
Matrices with entries only along the main diagonal are called *[matrices](diagonal)(diagonal matrices)*. The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are the diagonal elements themselves. Consider the matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0\\ 0 & 2 & 0\\ 0 & 0 & 3\end{bmatrix}.
The characteristic polynomial of *A* is
|A - \lambda I| = (1 - \lambda)(2 - \lambda)(3 - \lambda),
which has the roots , , and . These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of *A*.
Each diagonal element corresponds to an eigenvector whose only nonzero component is in the same row as that diagonal element. In the example, the eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,
\mathbf v_{\lambda_1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1\\ 0\\ 0 \end{bmatrix},\quad
\mathbf v_{\lambda_2} = \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 1\\ 0 \end{bmatrix},\quad
\mathbf v_{\lambda_3} = \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 0\\ 1 \end{bmatrix},
respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
#### Triangular matrix example
A matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all zero is called a *lower [matrix](triangular)(triangular matrix)*, while a matrix whose elements below the main diagonal are all zero is called an *upper triangular matrix*. As with diagonal matrices, the eigenvalues of triangular matrices are the elements of the main diagonal.
Consider the lower triangular matrix,
A = \begin{bmatrix}
1 & 0 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 0\\
2 & 3 & 3
\end{bmatrix}.
The characteristic polynomial of *A* is
|A - \lambda I| = (1 - \lambda)(2 - \lambda)(3 - \lambda),
which has the roots , , and . These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of *A*.
These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,
\mathbf v_{\lambda_1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1\\ -1\\ \frac{1}{2}\end{bmatrix},\quad
\mathbf v_{\lambda_2} = \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 1\\ -3\end{bmatrix},\quad
\mathbf v_{\lambda_3} = \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 0\\ 1\end{bmatrix},
respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
#### Matrix with repeated eigenvalues example
As in the previous example, the lower triangular matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix}
2 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 3 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 3
\end{bmatrix},
has a characteristic polynomial that is the product of its diagonal elements,
|A - \lambda I| = \begin{vmatrix}
2 - \lambda & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 2- \lambda & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 3- \lambda & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 3- \lambda
\end{vmatrix} =
(2 - \lambda)^2(3 - \lambda)^2.
The roots of this polynomial, and hence the eigenvalues, are 2 and 3. The *algebraic multiplicity* of each eigenvalue is 2; in other words they are both double roots. The sum of the algebraic multiplicities of all distinct eigenvalues is *μ**A* = 4 = *n*, the order of the characteristic polynomial and the dimension of *A*.
On the other hand, the *geometric multiplicity* of the eigenvalue 2 is only 1, because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T} and is therefore 1-dimensional. Similarly, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 3 is 1 because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T}. The total geometric multiplicity *γ**A* is 2, which is the smallest it could be for a matrix with two distinct eigenvalues. Geometric multiplicities are defined in a later section.
### Eigenvector-eigenvalue identity
For a [matrix](Hermitian)(Hermitian matrix), the norm squared of the *j*th component of a normalized eigenvector can be calculated using only the matrix eigenvalues and the eigenvalues of the corresponding [matrix](minor)(Minor (linear algebra)),
|v_{i,j}|^2 = \frac{\prod_{k}{(\lambda_i-\lambda_k(M_j))}}{\prod_{k \neq i}{(\lambda_i-\lambda_k)}},
where M_j is the [submatrix](submatrix) formed by removing the *j*th row and column from the original matrix. This identity also extends to [matrices](diagonalizable)(Diagonalizable matrix), and has been rediscovered many times in the literature.
## Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of differential operators
The definitions of eigenvalue and eigenvectors of a linear transformation *T* remains valid even if the underlying vector space is an infinite-dimensional [Hilbert](Hilbert space) or [space](Banach)(Banach space). A widely used class of linear transformations acting on infinite-dimensional spaces are the [operator](differential)(differential operator)s on [space](function)(function space)s. Let *D* be a linear differential operator on the space **C**∞ of infinitely [differentiable](derivative) real functions of a real argument *t*. The eigenvalue equation for *D* is the [equation](differential)(differential equation)
D f(t) = \lambda f(t)
The functions that satisfy this equation are eigenvectors of *D* and are commonly called **eigenfunctions**.
### Derivative operator example
Consider the derivative operator \tfrac{d}{dt} with eigenvalue equation
\frac{d}{dt}f(t) = \lambda f(t).
This differential equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by *dt*/*f*(*t*) and [integrating](Integration (calculus)). Its solution, the [function](exponential)(exponential function)
f(t) = f(0)e^{\lambda t},
is the eigenfunction of the derivative operator. In this case the eigenfunction is itself a function of its associated eigenvalue. In particular, for *λ* = 0 the eigenfunction *f*(*t*) is a constant.
The main [eigenfunction](eigenfunction) article gives other examples.
## General definition
The concept of eigenvalues and eigenvectors extends naturally to arbitrary [transformations](linear)(linear map) on arbitrary vector spaces. Let *V* be any vector space over some [field](field (algebra)) *K* of [scalars](scalar (mathematics)), and let *T* be a linear transformation mapping *V* into *V*,
T:V \to V.
We say that a nonzero vector **v** ∈ *V* is an **eigenvector** of *T* if and only if there exists a scalar *λ* ∈ *K* such that
{{NumBlk|:
|T(\mathbf{v}) = \lambda \mathbf{v}.
|
}}
This equation is called the eigenvalue equation for *T*, and the scalar *λ* is the **eigenvalue** of *T* corresponding to the eigenvector **v**. *T*(**v**) is the result of applying the transformation *T* to the vector **v**, while *λ***v** is the product of the scalar *λ* with **v**.
### Eigenspaces, geometric multiplicity, and the eigenbasis
Given an eigenvalue *λ*, consider the set
E = \left\{\mathbf{v} : T(\mathbf{v}) = \lambda \mathbf{v}\right\},
which is the union of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors associated with *λ*. *E* is called the **eigenspace** or **characteristic space** of *T* associated with *λ*.
By definition of a linear transformation,
\begin{align}
T(\mathbf{x} + \mathbf{y}) &= T(\mathbf{x}) + T(\mathbf{y}),\\
T(\alpha \mathbf{x}) &= \alpha T(\mathbf{x}),
\end{align}
for **x**, **y** ∈ *V* and *α* ∈ *K*. Therefore, if **u** and **v** are eigenvectors of *T* associated with eigenvalue *λ*, namely **u**, **v** ∈ *E*, then
\begin{align}
T(\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}) &= \lambda (\mathbf{u} + \mathbf{v}),\\
T(\alpha \mathbf{v}) &= \lambda (\alpha \mathbf{v}).
\end{align}
So, both **u** + **v** and α**v** are either zero or eigenvectors of *T* associated with *λ*, namely **u** + **v**, *α***v** ∈ *E*, and *E* is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. The eigenspace *E* associated with *λ* is therefore a linear subspace of *V*.; [for the eigenspace](Lemma)(b:The Book of Mathematical Proofs/Algebra/Linear Transformations#Lemma for the eigenspace)
If that subspace has dimension 1, it is sometimes called an **eigenline**.
The **geometric multiplicity** *γ**T*(*λ*) of an eigenvalue *λ* is the dimension of the eigenspace associated with *λ*, i.e., the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with that eigenvalue. By the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, *γ**T*(*λ*) ≥ 1 because every eigenvalue has at least one eigenvector.
The eigenspaces of *T* always form a [sum](direct)(direct sum). As a consequence, eigenvectors of *different* eigenvalues are always linearly independent. Therefore, the sum of the dimensions of the eigenspaces cannot exceed the dimension *n* of the vector space on which *T* operates, and there cannot be more than *n* distinct eigenvalues.; ; ; ; and [for linear independence of eigenvectors](Lemma)(b:Famous Theorems of Mathematics/Algebra/Linear Transformations#Lemma for linear independence of eigenvectors)}}
Any subspace spanned by eigenvectors of *T* is an [subspace](invariant)(invariant subspace) of *T*, and the restriction of *T* to such a subspace is diagonalizable. Moreover, if the entire vector space *V* can be spanned by the eigenvectors of *T*, or equivalently if the direct sum of the eigenspaces associated with all the eigenvalues of *T* is the entire vector space *V*, then a basis of *V* called an **eigenbasis** can be formed from linearly independent eigenvectors of *T*. When *T* admits an eigenbasis, *T* is diagonalizable.
### Spectral theory
If *λ* is an eigenvalue of *T*, then the operator (*T* − *λI*) is not [one-to-one](One to one correspondence), and therefore its inverse (*T* − *λI*)−1 does not exist. The converse is true for finite-dimensional vector spaces, but not for infinite-dimensional vector spaces. In general, the operator (*T* − *λI*) may not have an inverse even if *λ* is not an eigenvalue.
For this reason, in [analysis](functional)(functional analysis) eigenvalues can be generalized to the [of a linear operator](spectrum)(spectrum (functional analysis)) *T* as the set of all scalars *λ* for which the operator (*T* − *λI*) has no [bounded](bounded operator) inverse. The spectrum of an operator always contains all its eigenvalues but is not limited to them.
### Associative algebras and representation theory
One can generalize the algebraic object that is acting on the vector space, replacing a single operator acting on a vector space with an [representation](algebra)(algebra representation) – an [algebra](associative)(associative algebra) acting on a [module](module (mathematics)). The study of such actions is the field of [theory](representation)(representation theory).
The [concept of weight](representation-theoretical)(weight (representation theory)) is an analog of eigenvalues, while *weight vectors* and *weight spaces* are the analogs of eigenvectors and eigenspaces, respectively.
## Dynamic equations
The simplest [equation](difference)(difference equation)s have the form
: x_t = a_1 x_{t-1} + a_2 x_{t-2} + \cdots + a_k x_{t-k}.
The solution of this equation for *x* in terms of *t* is found by using its characteristic equation
: \lambda^k - a_1\lambda^{k-1} - a_2\lambda^{k-2} - \cdots - a_{k-1}\lambda-a_k = 0,
which can be found by stacking into matrix form a set of equations consisting of the above difference equation and the *k* – 1 equations x_{t-1} = x_{t-1},\ \dots,\ x_{t-k+1} = x_{t-k+1}, giving a *k*-dimensional system of the first order in the stacked variable vector \begin{bmatrix} x_t & \cdots & x_{t-k+1} \end{bmatrix} in terms of its once-lagged value, and taking the characteristic equation of this system's matrix. This equation gives *k* characteristic roots \lambda_1,\, \ldots,\, \lambda_k, for use in the solution equation
: x_t = c_1\lambda_1^t + \cdots + c_k\lambda_k^t.
A similar procedure is used for solving a [equation](differential)(differential equation) of the form
: \frac{d^k x}{dt^k} + a_{k-1}\frac{d^{k-1}x}{dt^{k-1}} + \cdots + a_1\frac{dx}{dt} + a_0 x = 0.
## Calculation
The calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is a topic where theory, as presented in elementary linear algebra textbooks, is often very far from practice.
### Classical method
The classical method is to first find the eigenvalues, and then calculate the eigenvectors for each eigenvalue. It is in several ways poorly suited for non-exact arithmetics such as [floating-point](floating-point).
#### Eigenvalues
The eigenvalues of a matrix A can be determined by finding the roots of the characteristic polynomial. This is easy for 2 \times 2 matrices, but the difficulty increases rapidly with the size of the matrix.
In theory, the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial can be computed exactly, since they are sums of products of matrix elements; and there are algorithms that can find all the roots of a polynomial of arbitrary degree to any required [accuracy](accuracy). However, this approach is not viable in practice because the coefficients would be contaminated by unavoidable [error](round-off)(round-off error)s, and the roots of a polynomial can be an extremely sensitive function of the coefficients (as exemplified by [polynomial](Wilkinson's)(Wilkinson's polynomial)). Even for matrices whose elements are integers the calculation becomes nontrivial, because the sums are very long; the constant term is the [determinant](determinant), which for an n \times n matrix is a sum of n! different products.
Explicit [formulas](algebraic)(algebraic solution) for the roots of a polynomial exist only if the degree n is 4 or less. According to the [theorem](Abel–Ruffini)(Abel–Ruffini theorem) there is no general, explicit and exact algebraic formula for the roots of a polynomial with degree 5 or more. (Generality matters because any polynomial with degree n is the characteristic polynomial of some [matrix](companion)(companion matrix) of order n.) Therefore, for matrices of order 5 or more, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors cannot be obtained by an explicit algebraic formula, and must therefore be computed by approximate [method](numerical)(numerical method)s. Even the [formula](exact)(Cubic function#General solution to the cubic equation with real coefficients) for the roots of a degree 3 polynomial is numerically impractical.
#### Eigenvectors
Once the (exact) value of an eigenvalue is known, the corresponding eigenvectors can be found by finding nonzero solutions of the eigenvalue equation, that becomes a [of linear equations](system)(linear system) with known coefficients. For example, once it is known that 6 is an eigenvalue of the matrix
A = \begin{bmatrix} 4 & 1\\ 6 & 3\end{bmatrix}
we can find its eigenvectors by solving the equation A v = 6 v, that is
\begin{bmatrix} 4 & 1\\ 6 & 3\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}x \\y\end{bmatrix} = 6 \cdot \begin{bmatrix}x \\y\end{bmatrix}
This matrix equation is equivalent to two [equation](linear)(linear equation)s
\left\{ \begin{aligned} 4x + y &= 6x \\ 6x + 3y &= 6y\end{aligned} \right.
that is
\left\{ \begin{aligned} -2x + y &= 0 \\ 6x - 3y &= 0\end{aligned} \right.
Both equations reduce to the single linear equation y=2x. Therefore, any vector of the form \begin{bmatrix} a & 2a \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T}, for any nonzero real number a, is an eigenvector of A with eigenvalue \lambda = 6.
The matrix A above has another eigenvalue \lambda=1. A similar calculation shows that the corresponding eigenvectors are the nonzero solutions of 3x+y=0, that is, any vector of the form \begin{bmatrix} b & -3b \end{bmatrix}^\textsf{T}, for any nonzero real number b.
### Simple iterative methods
The converse approach, of first seeking the eigenvectors and then determining each eigenvalue from its eigenvector, turns out to be far more tractable for computers. The easiest algorithm here consists of picking an arbitrary starting vector and then repeatedly multiplying it with the matrix (optionally normalizing the vector to keep its elements of reasonable size); this makes the vector converge towards an eigenvector. [variation](A)(inverse iteration) is to instead multiply the vector by {{nowrap|(A - \mu I)^{-1};}} this causes it to converge to an eigenvector of the eigenvalue closest to {{nowrap|\mu \in \mathbb{C}.}}
If \mathbf{v} is (a good approximation of) an eigenvector of A, then the corresponding eigenvalue can be computed as
: \lambda = \frac{\mathbf{v}^* A\mathbf{v}}{\mathbf{v}^* \mathbf{v}}
where \mathbf{v}^* denotes the [transpose](conjugate)(conjugate transpose) of \mathbf{v}.
### Modern methods
Efficient, accurate methods to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors of arbitrary matrices were not known until the [algorithm](QR)(QR algorithm) was designed in 1961. Combining the [transformation](Householder)(Householder transformation) with the LU decomposition results in an algorithm with better convergence than the QR algorithm. For large [Hermitian](Hermitian matrix) [matrices](sparse)(sparse matrix), the [algorithm](Lanczos)(Lanczos algorithm) is one example of an efficient [method](iterative)(iterative method) to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors, among several other possibilities.
Most numeric methods that compute the eigenvalues of a matrix also determine a set of corresponding eigenvectors as a by-product of the computation, although sometimes implementors choose to discard the eigenvector information as soon as it is no longer needed.
## Applications
### Eigenvalues of geometric transformations
The following table presents some example transformations in the plane along with their 2×2 matrices, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors.
The characteristic equation for a rotation is a [equation](quadratic)(quadratic equation) with [discriminant](discriminant) D = -4(\sin\theta)^2, which is a negative number whenever is not an integer multiple of 180°. Therefore, except for these special cases, the two eigenvalues are complex numbers, \cos\theta \pm i\sin\theta; and all eigenvectors have non-real entries. Indeed, except for those special cases, a rotation changes the direction of every nonzero vector in the plane.
A linear transformation that takes a square to a rectangle of the same area (a [mapping](squeeze)(squeeze mapping)) has reciprocal eigenvalues.
===Schrödinger equation===
[[File:HAtomOrbitals.png|thumb|271px|The [wavefunction](wavefunction)s associated with the [state](bound)(bound state)s of an [electron](electron) in a [atom](hydrogen)(hydrogen atom) can be seen as the eigenvectors of the [atom Hamiltonian](hydrogen)(hydrogen atom) as well as of the [momentum operator](angular)(angular momentum operator). They are associated with eigenvalues interpreted as their energies (increasing downward: n = 1,\, 2,\, 3,\, \ldots) and [momentum](angular)(angular momentum) (increasing across: s, p, d, ...). The illustration shows the square of the absolute value of the wavefunctions. Brighter areas correspond to higher [density](probability)(probability density function) for a position [measurement](measurement in quantum mechanics). The center of each figure is the [nucleus](atomic)(atomic nucleus), a [proton](proton).]]
An example of an eigenvalue equation where the transformation T is represented in terms of a differential operator is the time-independent [equation](Schrödinger)(Schrödinger equation) in [mechanics](quantum)(quantum mechanics):
: H\psi_E = E\psi_E \,
where H, the [Hamiltonian](Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)), is a second-order [operator](differential)(differential operator) and \psi_E, the [wavefunction](wavefunction), is one of its eigenfunctions corresponding to the eigenvalue E, interpreted as its [energy](energy).
However, in the case where one is interested only in the [state](bound)(bound state) solutions of the Schrödinger equation, one looks for \psi_E within the space of [integrable](square)(Square-integrable function) functions. Since this space is a [space](Hilbert)(Hilbert space) with a well-defined [product](scalar)(scalar product), one can introduce a [set](basis)(Basis (linear algebra)) in which \psi_E and H can be represented as a one-dimensional array (i.e., a vector) and a matrix respectively. This allows one to represent the Schrödinger equation in a matrix form.
The [notation](bra–ket)(bra–ket notation) is often used in this context. A vector, which represents a state of the system, in the Hilbert space of square integrable functions is represented by |\Psi_E\rangle. In this notation, the Schrödinger equation is:
: H|\Psi_E\rangle = E|\Psi_E\rangle
where |\Psi_E\rangle is an **eigenstate** of H and E represents the eigenvalue. H is an [observable](observable) [operator](self-adjoint)(self-adjoint operator), the infinite-dimensional analog of Hermitian matrices. As in the matrix case, in the equation above H|\Psi_E\rangle is understood to be the vector obtained by application of the transformation H to |\Psi_E\rangle.
### Wave transport
[Light](Light), [wave](acoustic)(acoustic wave)s, and [microwave](microwave)s are randomly [scattered](Scattering theory) numerous times when traversing a static [system](disordered)(disordered system). Even though multiple scattering repeatedly randomizes the waves, ultimately coherent wave transport through the system is a deterministic process which can be described by a field transmission matrix \mathbf{t}. The eigenvectors of the transmission operator \mathbf{t}^\dagger\mathbf{t} form a set of disorder-specific input wavefronts which enable waves to couple into the disordered system's eigenchannels: the independent pathways waves can travel through the system. The eigenvalues, \tau, of \mathbf{t}^\dagger\mathbf{t} correspond to the intensity transmittance associated with each eigenchannel. One of the remarkable properties of the transmission operator of diffusive systems is their bimodal eigenvalue distribution with \tau_\max = 1 and \tau_\min = 0. Furthermore, one of the striking properties of open eigenchannels, beyond the perfect transmittance, is the statistically robust spatial profile of the eigenchannels.
### Molecular orbitals
In [mechanics](quantum)(quantum mechanics), and in particular in [atomic](atomic physics) and [physics](molecular)(molecular physics), within the [Hartree–Fock](Hartree–Fock) theory, the [atomic](atomic orbital) and [orbital](molecular)(molecular orbital)s can be defined by the eigenvectors of the [operator](Fock)(Fock operator). The corresponding eigenvalues are interpreted as [potential](ionization)(ionization potential)s via [theorem](Koopmans')(Koopmans' theorem). In this case, the term eigenvector is used in a somewhat more general meaning, since the Fock operator is explicitly dependent on the orbitals and their eigenvalues. Thus, if one wants to underline this aspect, one speaks of nonlinear eigenvalue problems. Such equations are usually solved by an [iteration](iteration) procedure, called in this case [field](self-consistent)(self-consistent field) method. In [chemistry](quantum)(quantum chemistry), one often represents the Hartree–Fock equation in a non-[orthogonal](orthogonal) [set](basis)(basis set (chemistry)). This particular representation is a [eigenvalue problem](generalized)(generalized eigenvalue problem) called [equations](Roothaan)(Roothaan equations).
### Geology and glaciology
In [geology](geology), especially in the study of [till](glacial)(glacial till), eigenvectors and eigenvalues are used as a method by which a mass of information of a clast fabric's constituents' orientation and dip can be summarized in a 3-D space by six numbers. In the field, a geologist may collect such data for hundreds or thousands of [clasts](clasts) in a soil sample, which can only be compared graphically such as in a Tri-Plot (Sneed and Folk) diagram, or as a Stereonet on a Wulff Net.
The output for the orientation tensor is in the three orthogonal (perpendicular) axes of space. The three eigenvectors are ordered \mathbf v_1, \mathbf v_2, \mathbf v_3 by their eigenvalues E_1 \geq E_2 \geq E_3;
\mathbf v_1 then is the primary orientation/dip of clast, \mathbf v_2 is the secondary and \mathbf v_3 is the tertiary, in terms of strength. The clast orientation is defined as the direction of the eigenvector, on a [rose](compass)(compass rose) of [360°](turn (geometry)). Dip is measured as the eigenvalue, the modulus of the tensor: this is valued from 0° (no dip) to 90° (vertical). The relative values of E_1, E_2, and E_3 are dictated by the nature of the sediment's fabric. If E_1 = E_2 = E_3, the fabric is said to be isotropic. If E_1 = E_2 > E_3, the fabric is said to be planar. If E_1 > E_2 > E_3, the fabric is said to be linear.
### Principal component analysis
[[File:GaussianScatterPCA.png|thumb|right|PCA of the [Gaussian distribution](multivariate)(multivariate Gaussian distribution) centered at (1, 3) with a standard deviation of 3 in roughly the (0.878, 0.478) direction and of 1 in the orthogonal direction. The vectors shown are unit eigenvectors of the (symmetric, positive-semidefinite) [matrix](covariance)(covariance matrix) scaled by the square root of the corresponding eigenvalue. Just as in the one-dimensional case, the square root is taken because the [deviation](standard)(standard deviation) is more readily visualized than the [variance](variance).]]
The [eigendecomposition](Eigendecomposition of a matrix#Real symmetric matrices) of a [symmetric](symmetric matrix) [semidefinite](positive)(positive semidefinite matrix) (PSD) [matrix](positive semidefinite matrix) yields an [basis](orthogonal)(orthogonal basis) of eigenvectors, each of which has a nonnegative eigenvalue. The orthogonal decomposition of a PSD matrix is used in [analysis](multivariate)(multivariate statistics), where the [sample](sample variance) [matrices](covariance)(covariance matrix) are PSD. This orthogonal decomposition is called [component analysis](principal)(principal component analysis) (PCA) in statistics. PCA studies [relation](linear)(linear relation)s among variables. PCA is performed on the [matrix](covariance)(covariance matrix) or the [matrix](correlation)(correlation matrix) (in which each variable is scaled to have its [variance](sample)(sample variance) equal to one). For the covariance or correlation matrix, the eigenvectors correspond to [components](principal)(principal component analysis) and the eigenvalues to the [explained](variance)(explained variance) by the principal components. Principal component analysis of the correlation matrix provides an [basis](orthogonal)(orthogonal basis) for the space of the observed data: In this basis, the largest eigenvalues correspond to the principal components that are associated with most of the covariability among a number of observed data.
Principal component analysis is used as a means of [reduction](dimensionality)(dimensionality reduction) in the study of large [set](data)(data set)s, such as those encountered in [bioinformatics](bioinformatics). In [methodology](Q)(Q methodology), the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix determine the Q-methodologist's judgment of *practical* significance (which differs from the [significance](statistical)(statistical significance) of [testing](hypothesis)(hypothesis testing); cf. [for determining the number of factors](criteria)(Scree's test)). More generally, principal component analysis can be used as a method of [analysis](factor)(factor analysis) in [equation model](structural)(structural equation model)ing.
### Vibration analysis
[[Shape of a Tuning Fork at Eigenfrequency 440.09 Hz.gif|thumb|Mode shape of a tuning fork at eigenfrequency 440.09 Hz](File:Mode)]
Eigenvalue problems occur naturally in the vibration analysis of mechanical structures with many [of freedom](degrees)(Degrees of freedom (mechanics)). The eigenvalues are the [frequencies](natural)(Natural frequency) (or **eigenfrequencies**) of vibration, and the eigenvectors are the shapes of these vibrational modes. In particular, undamped vibration is governed by
m\ddot{x} + kx = 0
or
m\ddot{x} = -kx
that is, acceleration is proportional to position (i.e., we expect x to be sinusoidal in time).
In n dimensions, m becomes a [matrix](mass)(mass matrix) and k a [matrix](stiffness)(stiffness matrix). Admissible solutions are then a linear combination of solutions to the [eigenvalue problem](generalized)(generalized eigenvalue problem)
kx = \omega^2 mx
where \omega^2 is the eigenvalue and \omega is the (imaginary) [frequency](angular)(angular frequency). The principal [mode](vibration)(vibration mode)s are different from the principal compliance modes, which are the eigenvectors of k alone. Furthermore, [vibration](damped)(damped vibration), governed by
m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = 0
leads to a so-called [eigenvalue problem](quadratic)(quadratic eigenvalue problem),
\left(\omega^2 m + \omega c + k\right)x = 0.
This can be reduced to a generalized eigenvalue problem by [manipulation](algebraic)(quadratic eigenvalue problem#Methods of Solution) at the cost of solving a larger system.
The orthogonality properties of the eigenvectors allows decoupling of the [equation](differential)(differential equation)s so that the system can be represented as linear summation of the eigenvectors. The eigenvalue problem of complex structures is often solved using [element analysis](finite)(finite element analysis), but neatly generalize the solution to scalar-valued vibration problems.
### Eigenfaces
[[File:Eigenfaces.png|thumb|200px|[Eigenface](Eigenface)s as examples of eigenvectors]]
In [processing](image)(image processing), processed images of faces can be seen as vectors whose components are the [brightness](brightness)es of each [pixel](pixel). The dimension of this vector space is the number of pixels. The eigenvectors of the [matrix](covariance)(covariance matrix) associated with a large set of normalized pictures of faces are called **[eigenface](eigenface)s**; this is an example of [component analysis](principal)(principal component analysis). They are very useful for expressing any face image as a [combination](linear)(linear combination) of some of them. In the [recognition](facial)(Facial recognition system) branch of [biometrics](biometrics), eigenfaces provide a means of applying [compression](data)(data compression) to faces for [identification](Recognition of human individuals) purposes. Research related to eigen vision systems determining hand gestures has also been made.
Similar to this concept, **eigenvoices** represent the general direction of variability in human pronunciations of a particular utterance, such as a word in a language. Based on a linear combination of such eigenvoices, a new voice pronunciation of the word can be constructed. These concepts have been found useful in automatic speech recognition systems for speaker adaptation.
### Tensor of moment of inertia
In [mechanics](mechanics), the eigenvectors of the [of inertia tensor](moment)(inertia tensor) define the [axes](principal)(principal axis (mechanics)) of a [body](rigid)(rigid body). The [tensor](tensor) of moment of [inertia](inertia) is a key quantity required to determine the rotation of a rigid body around its [of mass](center)(center of mass).
### Stress tensor
In [mechanics](solid)(solid mechanics), the [stress](stress (mechanics)) tensor is symmetric and so can be decomposed into a [diagonal](diagonal) tensor with the eigenvalues on the diagonal and eigenvectors as a basis. Because it is diagonal, in this orientation, the stress tensor has no [shear](Shear (mathematics)) components; the components it does have are the principal components.
### Graphs
In [graph theory](spectral)(spectral graph theory), an eigenvalue of a [graph](graph theory) is defined as an eigenvalue of the graph's [matrix](adjacency)(adjacency matrix) A, or (increasingly) of the graph's [matrix](Laplacian)(Laplacian matrix) due to its [Laplace operator](discrete)(discrete Laplace operator), which is either D - A (sometimes called the *combinatorial Laplacian*) or I - D^{-1/2}A D^{-1/2} (sometimes called the *normalized Laplacian*), where D is a diagonal matrix with D_{ii} equal to the degree of vertex v_i, and in D^{-1/2}, the ith diagonal entry is 1/\sqrt{\deg(v_i)}. The kth principal eigenvector of a graph is defined as either the eigenvector corresponding to the kth largest or kth smallest eigenvalue of the Laplacian. The first principal eigenvector of the graph is also referred to merely as the principal eigenvector.
The principal eigenvector is used to measure the [centrality](eigenvector centrality) of its vertices. An example is [Google](Google)'s [PageRank](PageRank) algorithm. The principal eigenvector of a modified [matrix](adjacency)(adjacency matrix) of the World Wide Web graph gives the page ranks as its components. This vector corresponds to the [distribution](stationary)(stationary distribution) of the [chain](Markov)(Markov chain) represented by the row-normalized adjacency matrix; however, the adjacency matrix must first be modified to ensure a stationary distribution exists. The second smallest eigenvector can be used to partition the graph into clusters, via [clustering](spectral)(spectral clustering). Other methods are also available for clustering.
### Basic reproduction number
The basic reproduction number (R_0) is a fundamental number in the study of how infectious diseases spread. If one infectious person is put into a population of completely susceptible people, then R_0 is the average number of people that one typical infectious person will infect. The generation time of an infection is the time, t_G, from one person becoming infected to the next person becoming infected. In a heterogeneous population, the next generation matrix defines how many people in the population will become infected after time t_G has passed. R_0 is then the largest eigenvalue of the next generation matrix.
## See also
* [theory](Antieigenvalue)(Antieigenvalue theory)
* [Eigenoperator](Eigenoperator)
* [Eigenplane](Eigenplane)
* [Eigenmoments](Eigenmoments)
* [algorithm](Eigenvalue)(Eigenvalue algorithm)
* [to eigenstates](Introduction)(Introduction to eigenstates)
* [normal form](Jordan)(Jordan normal form)
* [of numerical-analysis software](List)(List of numerical-analysis software)
* [eigenproblem](Nonlinear)(Nonlinear eigenproblem)
* [eigenvalue](Normal)(Normal eigenvalue)
* [eigenvalue problem](Quadratic)(Quadratic eigenvalue problem)
* [value](Singular)(Singular value)
* [of a matrix](Spectrum)(Spectrum of a matrix)
## Notes
### Citations
## Sources
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| date = 12 August 2002 | page = 111
| isbn = 978-007139880-0
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## Further reading
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## External links
* [What are Eigen Values?](http://www.physlink.com/education/AskExperts/ae520.cfm) – non-technical introduction from PhysLink.com's "Ask the Experts"
* [Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors Numerical Examples](http://people.revoledu.com/kardi/tutorial/LinearAlgebra/EigenValueEigenVector.html) – Tutorial and Interactive Program from Revoledu.
* [Introduction to Eigen Vectors and Eigen Values](https://web.archive.org/web/20100325112901/http://khanexercises.appspot.com/video?v=PhfbEr2btGQ) – lecture from Khan Academy
* [Eigenvectors and eigenvalues | Essence of linear algebra, chapter 10](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFDu9oVAE-g&list=PLZHQObOWTQDPD3MizzM2xVFitgF8hE_ab&index=14) – A visual explanation with [3Blue1Brown](3Blue1Brown)
* [Matrix Eigenvectors Calculator](https://www.symbolab.com/solver/matrix-eigenvectors-calculator) from Symbolab (Click on the bottom right button of the 2x12 grid to select a matrix size. Select an n \times n size (for a square matrix), then fill out the entries numerically and click on the Go button. It can accept complex numbers as well.)
### Theory
* [Computation of Eigenvalues](http://www.sosmath.com/matrix/eigen1/eigen1.html)
* [Numerical solution of eigenvalue problems](http://www.cs.utk.edu/~dongarra/etemplates/index.html) Edited by Zhaojun Bai, [Demmel](James)(James Demmel), Jack Dongarra, Axel Ruhe, and [van der Vorst](Henk)(Henk van der Vorst)
[algebra](Category:Abstract)(Category:Abstract algebra)
[algebra](Category:Linear)(Category:Linear algebra)
[physics](Category:Mathematical)(Category:Mathematical physics)
[theory](Category:Matrix)(Category:Matrix theory)
[value decomposition](Category:Singular)(Category:Singular value decomposition)
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John, King of England
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john,_king_of_england
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# John, King of England
*Revision ID: 1160295390 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T15:13:01Z*
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* }}
| issue =
| issue-link = #Issue
| house = [Plantagenet](House of Plantagenet)/[Angevin](Angevin kings of England)
| father = [II, King of England](Henry)(Henry II, King of England)
| mother = [Duchess of Aquitaine](Eleanor,)(Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine)
| birth_date = 24 December 1166
| birth_place = [Palace](Beaumont)(Beaumont Palace), Oxford, England
| death_date = 19 October 1216 (aged 49)
| death_place = [Castle, Nottinghamshire](Newark)(Newark Castle, Nottinghamshire), England
| burial_place = [Cathedral](Worcester)(Worcester Cathedral), England
}}
**John** (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was [of England](King)(King of England) from 1199 until his death. He lost the [of Normandy](Duchy)(Duchy of Normandy) and most of his other French lands to King [II of France](Philip)(Philip II of France), resulting in the collapse of the [Empire](Angevin)(Angevin Empire) and contributing to the subsequent growth in power of the French [dynasty](Capetian)(Capetian dynasty) during the 13th century. The [revolt](baronial)(First Barons' War) at the end of John's reign led to the sealing of , a document considered an early step in the evolution of the [of the United Kingdom](constitution)(constitution of the United Kingdom).
John was the youngest of the four surviving sons of King [II of England](Henry)(Henry II of England) and Duchess [of Aquitaine](Eleanor)(Eleanor of Aquitaine). He was nicknamed **John Lackland** ([French:](Norman)(Norman language) *Jean sans Terre *) because he was not expected to inherit significant lands.Norgate (1902), pp. 1–2. He became Henry's favourite child following the failed [of 1173–1174](revolt)(revolt of 1173–1174) by his brothers [the Young King](Henry)(Henry the Young King), [Richard](Richard I of England), and [Geoffrey](Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany) against the King. John was appointed [of Ireland](Lord)(Lord of Ireland) in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. He unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against the royal administrators of his brother, King Richard, while Richard was participating in the [Crusade](Third)(Third Crusade), but he was proclaimed king after Richard died in 1199. He came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace [of Le Goulet](treaty)(treaty of Le Goulet) in 1200.
When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of [Norman](Normans), [Breton](Breton people), and [Anjou](County of Anjou) nobles resulted in the [of his empire in northern France](collapse)(French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204)) in 1204. He spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. His judicial reforms had a lasting effect on the [common law](English)(English common law) system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue. An argument with [Innocent III](Pope)(Pope Innocent III) led to John's [excommunication](excommunication) in 1209, a dispute he finally settled in 1213. John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed because of the French victory over John's allies at the [of Bouvines](battle)(battle of Bouvines). When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles. Although John and the barons agreed to the peace treaty in 1215, neither side complied with its conditions. Civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by [VIII of France](Louis)(Louis VIII of France). It soon descended into a stalemate. John died of [dysentery](dysentery) contracted while on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son [III](Henry)(Henry III of England) went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year.
Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards. Historian [Bradbury](Jim)(Jim Bradbury) has summarised the current historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general".Bradbury (2007), p. 353. Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian [Turner](Ralph)(Ralph H. Turner) describes as "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", such as pettiness, spitefulness, and cruelty.Turner, p. 23. These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the [era](Victorian)(Victorian era), and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in films and stories depicting the [Hood](Robin)(Robin Hood) legends.
## Early life (1166–1189)
### Childhood and the Angevin inheritance
[[1154-en (Angevin Empire).svg|thumb|300px|alt=A coloured map of medieval France, showing the Angevin territories in the west, the royal French territories in the north-east, and the County of Toulouse in the south-east.|The Angevin continental empire (red shades) in the late 12th century](Image:France)]
John was born on 24 December 1166.Fryde, Greenway, Porter and Roy, p. 37. His father, King [II of England](Henry)(Henry II of England), had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard — [Anjou](County of Anjou), [Normandy](Duchy of Normandy) and [England](Kingdom of England) — and expanded his empire by conquering [Brittany](Duchy of Brittany).Warren, p. 21. John's mother was [Eleanor](Eleanor of Aquitaine), the powerful [of Aquitaine](duchess)(duchess of Aquitaine), who had a tenuous claim to [Toulouse](County of Toulouse) and [Auvergne](County of Auvergne) in southern [France](Kingdom of France) and was the former wife of King [VII of France](Louis)(Louis VII of France). The territories of Henry and Eleanor formed the [Empire](Angevin)(Angevin Empire), named after Henry's paternal title as [of Anjou](Count)(Count of Anjou) and, more specifically, its seat in [Angers](Angers). The Empire, however, was inherently fragile: although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry, the disparate parts each had their own histories, traditions and governance structures.Barlow, p. 275; Warren, p. 23. As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of Henry's power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the modern concept of an empire at all. Some of the traditional ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time.Barlow, p. 284. The future of the empire upon Henry's eventual death was not secure: although the custom of [primogeniture](primogeniture), under which an eldest son would inherit all his father's lands, was slowly becoming more widespread across Europe, it was less popular amongst the Norman kings of England.Barlow, p. 305. Most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, and hoping that his children would continue to work together as allies after his death.Warren, p. 27. To complicate matters, much of the Angevin empire was held by Henry only as a [vassal](vassal) of the king of France of the rival line of the [of Capet](House)(House of Capet). Henry had often allied himself with the [Roman Emperor](Holy)(Holy Roman Emperor) against France, making the feudal relationship even more challenging.Barlow, p. 281.
Shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a [nurse](wet)(wet nurse), a traditional practice for medieval noble families.Turner, p. 31. Eleanor then left for [Poitiers](Poitiers), the capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and his sister [Joan](Joan of England, Queen of Sicily) north to [Abbey](Fontevrault)(Fontevrault Abbey).Warren, p. 26. This may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career. Eleanor spent the next few years conspiring against Henry and neither parent played a part in John's very early life. John was probably, like his brothers, assigned a *magister* whilst he was at Fontevrault, a teacher charged with his early education and with managing the servants of his immediate household; John was later taught by [de Glanvill](Ranulf)(Ranulf de Glanvill), a leading English administrator.Turner, p. 31; Warren, p. 26. John spent some time as a member of the household of his eldest living brother [the Young King](Henry)(Henry the Young King), where he probably received instruction in hunting and military skills.
John grew up to be around tall, relatively short, with a "powerful, barrel-chested body" and dark red hair; he looked to contemporaries like an inhabitant of [Poitou](Poitou).McLynn, pp. 27, 77. John enjoyed reading and, unusually for the period, built up a travelling library of books.Warren, p. 140. He enjoyed gambling, in particular at [backgammon](backgammon), and was an enthusiastic hunter, even by medieval standards.Warren, pp. 139–40; McLynn, p. 78 He liked music, although not songs.McLynn, p. 78. John would become a "connoisseur of jewels", building up a large collection, and became famous for his opulent clothes and also, according to French chroniclers, for his fondness for bad wine.Warren, p. 139; McLynn, p. 78; Danziger and Gillingham, p. 26. As John grew up, he became known for sometimes being "genial, witty, generous and hospitable"; at other moments, he could be jealous, over-sensitive and prone to fits of rage, "biting and gnawing his fingers" in anger.McLynn, p. 78, 94; Turner, p. 30.
### Early life
[[Image:Eleonora Jindra2.jpg|thumb|alt=An illuminated manuscript, showing Henry and Aquitaine sat on thrones, accompanied by two staff. Two elaborate birds form a canopy over the pair of rulers.|John's parents, [II](Henry)(Henry II of England) and [Eleanor](Eleanor of Aquitaine), holding court]]
During John's early years, Henry attempted to resolve the question of his succession. Henry the Young King had been crowned King of England in 1170, but was not given any formal powers by his father; he was also promised Normandy and Anjou as part of his future inheritance. His brother [Richard](Richard I of England) was to be appointed the count of Poitou with control of Aquitaine, whilst his brother [Geoffrey](Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany) was to become the duke of Brittany.Carpenter (2004), p. 223; Turner, p. 35. At this time it seemed unlikely that John would ever inherit substantial lands, and he was jokingly nicknamed "Lackland" by his father.McLynn, p. 36.
Henry II wanted to secure the southern borders of Aquitaine and decided to betroth his youngest son to Alais, the daughter and heiress of [III of Savoy](Humbert)(Humbert III of Savoy).Turner, p. 36. As part of this agreement John was promised the future inheritance of [Savoy](Savoy), [Piedmont](Piedmont), [Maurienne](Maurienne), and the other possessions of Count Humbert. For his part in the potential marriage alliance, Henry II transferred the castles of [Chinon](Château de Chinon), [Loudun](Loudun) and [Mirebeau](Mirebeau) into John's name; as John was only five years old his father would continue to control them for practical purposes. Henry the Young King was unimpressed by this; although he had yet to be granted control of any castles in his new kingdom, these were effectively his future property and had been given away without consultation. Alais made the trip over the Alps and joined Henry II's court, but she died before marrying John, which left the prince once again without an inheritance.
In 1173 John's elder brothers, backed by Eleanor, rose in revolt against Henry in the short-lived [of 1173 to 1174](rebellion)(Revolt of 1173–1174). Growing irritated with his subordinate position to Henry II and increasingly worried that John might be given additional lands and castles at his expense, Henry the Young King travelled to [Paris](Paris) and allied himself with Louis VII.Carpenter (2004), p. 223. Eleanor, irritated by her husband's persistent interference in Aquitaine, encouraged Richard and Geoffrey to join their brother Henry in Paris. Henry II triumphed over the coalition of his sons, but was generous to them in the peace settlement agreed at [Montlouis](Montlouis-sur-Loire). Henry the Young King was allowed to travel widely in Europe with his own household of knights, Richard was given Aquitaine back, and Geoffrey was allowed to return to Brittany; only Eleanor was imprisoned for her role in the revolt.Carpenter (2004), p. 243.
John had spent the conflict travelling alongside his father, and was given widespread possessions across the Angevin empire as part of the Montlouis settlement; from then onwards, most observers regarded John as Henry II's favourite child, although he was the furthest removed in terms of the royal succession. Henry II began to find more lands for John, mostly at various nobles' expense. In 1175 he appropriated the estates of the late [of Cornwall](Earl)(Reginald de Dunstanville, 1st Earl of Cornwall) and gave them to John. The following year, Henry disinherited the sisters of [of Gloucester](Isabella)(Isabella of Gloucester), contrary to legal custom, and betrothed John to the now extremely wealthy Isabella.Turner, p. 37. In 1177, at the Council of Oxford, Henry dismissed [FitzAldelm](William)(William FitzAldelm) as the [of Ireland](Lord)(Lordship of Ireland) and replaced him with the ten-year-old John.
[[Image:The Children of Henry2 England.jpg|thumb|left|350px|alt=An illuminated diagram showing Henry II and the heads of his children; coloured lines connect the two to show the lineal descent|13th-century depiction of [II](Henry)(Henry II of England) and his legitimate children, left to right: [William](William IX, Count of Poitiers), [Henry](Henry the Young King), [Richard](Richard I of England), [Matilda](Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony), [Geoffrey](Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany), [Eleanor](Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile), [Joan](Joan of England, Queen of Sicily) and John]]
Henry the Young King fought a short war with his brother Richard in 1183 over the status of England, Normandy and Aquitaine. Henry II moved in support of Richard, and Henry the Young King died from [dysentery](dysentery) at the end of the campaign. With his primary heir dead, Henry rearranged the plans for the succession: Richard was to be made King of England, albeit without any actual power until the death of his father; Geoffrey would retain Brittany; and John would now become the Duke of Aquitaine in place of Richard. Richard refused to give up Aquitaine; Henry II was furious and ordered John, with help from Geoffrey, to march south and retake the duchy by force. The two attacked the capital of Poitiers, and Richard responded by attacking Brittany. The war ended in stalemate and a tense family reconciliation in England at the end of 1184.
In 1185 John made his [visit to Ireland](first)(John's first expedition to Ireland), accompanied by 300 knights and a team of administrators.Warren, p. 35. Henry had tried to have John officially proclaimed King of Ireland, but Pope [III](Lucius)(Lucius III) would not agree. John's first period of rule in Ireland was not a success. Ireland had only recently been conquered by Anglo-Norman forces, and tensions were still rife between Henry II, the new settlers and the existing inhabitants.Warren, p. 36. John infamously offended the [Irish rulers](local)(List of Irish kingdoms) by making fun of their unfashionable long beards, failed to make allies amongst the Anglo-Norman settlers, began to lose ground militarily against the Irish and finally returned to England later in the year, blaming the viceroy, [de Lacy](Hugh)(Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath), for the fiasco.
The problems amongst John's wider family continued to grow. His elder brother Geoffrey died during a tournament in 1186, leaving a posthumous son, [Arthur](Arthur I, Duke of Brittany), and an elder daughter, [Eleanor](Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany).Warren, p. 37. Geoffrey's death brought John slightly closer to the throne of England. The uncertainty about what would happen after Henry's death continued to grow; Richard was keen to join a new [crusade](crusades) and remained concerned that whilst he was away Henry would appoint John his formal successor.Turner, p. 39; Warren, p. 38.
Richard began discussions about a potential alliance with Philip II in Paris during 1187, and the next year Richard gave homage to Philip in exchange for support for a war against Henry.Turner, p. 38. Richard and Philip fought a joint campaign against Henry, and by the summer of 1189 the king made peace, promising Richard the succession.Warren, p. 38. John initially remained loyal to his father, but changed sides once it appeared that Richard would win. Henry died shortly afterwards.
## Richard's reign (1189–1199)
[[Image:Philippe Auguste et Richard Acre.jpg|thumb|alt=A picture showing King Richard sat beside King Philip II, the latter is receiving a key from two Arabs; a castle, presumably Acre, can be seen in the top right of the picture.|[I](Richard)(Richard I) (left) and [II Augustus](Philip)(Philip II Augustus) at [Acre](Acre, Israel) during the [Crusade](Third)(Third Crusade)]]
When Richard became king in September 1189, he had already declared his intention of joining the [Crusade](Third)(Third Crusade). He set about raising the huge sums of money required for this expedition through the sale of lands, titles and appointments, and attempted to ensure that he would not face a revolt while away from his empire.Warren, pp. 38–39. John was made [of Mortain](Count)(Count of Mortain), was married to the wealthy Isabella of Gloucester, and was given valuable lands in Lancaster and the counties of [Cornwall](Cornwall), [Derby](Derby), [Devon](Devon), [Dorset](Dorset), [Nottingham](Nottingham) and [Somerset](Somerset), all with the aim of buying his loyalty to Richard whilst the King was on crusade.Warren, pp. 39–40. Richard retained royal control of key castles in these counties, thereby preventing John from accumulating too much military and political power. The King named his four-year-old nephew Arthur as his heir.Barlow, p. 293; Warren p. 39. In return, John promised not to visit England for the next three years, thereby in theory giving Richard adequate time to conduct a successful crusade and return from the [Levant](Levant) without fear of John seizing power.Warren, p. 40. Richard left political authority in England—the post of justiciar—jointly in the hands of Bishop [de Puiset](Hugh)(Hugh de Puiset) and [de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex](William)(William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex), and made [Longchamp](William)(William Longchamp), the [of Ely](Bishop)(Bishop of Ely), his chancellor.Warren, p. 39. Mandeville immediately died, and Longchamp took over as joint justiciar with Puiset, which would prove a less than satisfactory partnership. Eleanor, the queen mother, convinced Richard to allow John into England in his absence.
The political situation in England rapidly began to deteriorate. Longchamp refused to work with Puiset and became unpopular with the English nobility and clergy.Warren, p. 41. John exploited this unpopularity to set himself up as an alternative ruler with his own royal court, complete with his own justiciar, chancellor and other royal posts, and was happy to be portrayed as an alternative regent, and possibly the next king.Warren, pp. 40–41. Armed conflict broke out between John and Longchamp, and by October 1191 Longchamp was isolated in the [of London](Tower)(Tower of London) with John in control of the city of London, thanks to promises John had made to the citizens in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.Inwood, p. 58. At this point [of Coutances](Walter)(Walter of Coutances), the [of Rouen](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Rouen), returned to England, having been sent by Richard to restore order.Warren, p. 42. John's position was undermined by Walter's relative popularity and by the news that Richard had married whilst in Cyprus, which presented the possibility that Richard would have legitimate children and heirs.Warren, p. 43.
[[File:King John hunting - Statutes of England (14th C), f.116 - BL Cotton MS Claudius D II.jpg|thumb|left|alt=An illuminated picture of King John riding a white horse and accompanied by four hounds. The king is chasing a stag, and several rabbits can be seen at the bottom of the picture.|John on a [hunt](stag)(Deer hunting)]]
The political turmoil continued. John began to explore an alliance with King [II of France](Philip)(Philip II of France), who had returned from the crusade in late 1191. John hoped to acquire Normandy, Anjou and the other lands in France held by Richard in exchange for allying himself with Philip. John was persuaded not to pursue an alliance by his mother. Longchamp, who had left England after Walter's intervention, now returned, and argued that he had been wrongly removed as justiciar.Warren, p. 44. John intervened, suppressing Longchamp's claims in return for promises of support from the royal administration, including a reaffirmation of his position as heir to the throne. When Richard still did not return from the crusade, John began to assert that his brother was dead or otherwise permanently lost. Richard had in fact been captured shortly before Christmas 1192, while en route to England, by [Leopold V of Austria](Duke)(Duke Leopold V of Austria) and was handed over to [Henry VI](Emperor)(Emperor Henry VI), who held him for ransom. John seized the opportunity and went to Paris, where he formed an alliance with Philip. He agreed to set aside his wife, Isabella of Gloucester, and marry Philip's sister, [Alys](Alys, Countess of the Vexin), in exchange for Philip's support.Warren, p. 45. Fighting broke out in England between forces loyal to Richard and those being gathered by John. John's military position was weak and he agreed to a truce; in early 1194 the King finally returned to England, and John's remaining forces surrendered.Warren, p. 46. John retreated to Normandy, where Richard finally found him later that year. Richard declared that John—despite being 27 years old—was merely "a child who has had evil counsellors" and forgave him, but removed his lands with the exception of Ireland.Warren, pp. 46–47.
For the remaining years of Richard's reign, John supported his brother on the continent, apparently loyally.Warren, p. 47. Richard's policy on the continent was to attempt to regain through steady, limited campaigns the castles he had lost to Philip II whilst on crusade. He allied himself with the leaders of [Flanders](County of Flanders), [Boulogne](County of Boulogne) and the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) to apply pressure on Philip from Germany.Fryde (2007), p. 336. In 1195 John successfully conducted a sudden attack and siege of [Évreux](Évreux) castle, and subsequently managed the defences of Normandy against Philip. The following year, John seized the town of [Gamaches](Gamaches) and led a raiding party within of Paris, capturing the Bishop of [Beauvais](Beauvais). In return for this service, Richard withdrew his (ill-will) towards John, restored him to the county of Gloucestershire and made him again the Count of Mortain.
## Early reign (1199–1204)
### Accession to the throne, 1199
[[Image:Donjonvuegénérale.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of a tall grey castle, with a taller keep visible beyond the main walls.|The [donjon](donjon) of [Gaillard](Château)(Château Gaillard); the loss of the castle would prove devastating for John's military position in Normandy]]
After Richard's death on 6 April 1199 there were two potential claimants to the Angevin throne: John, [claim](whose)(proximity of blood) rested on being the sole surviving son of Henry II, and young Arthur I of Brittany, who held a claim as the son of John's elder brother Geoffrey.Carpenter (2004), p. 264. Richard appears to have started to recognise John as his heir presumptive in the final years before his death, but the matter was not clear-cut and medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided.Barlow, p. 305; Turner, p. 48. With Norman law favouring John as the only surviving son of Henry II and Angevin law favouring Arthur as the only son of Henry's elder son, the matter rapidly became an open conflict. John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned at Westminster Abbey, backed by his mother, Eleanor. Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton, Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of Philip II, who remained committed to breaking up the Angevin territories on the continent.Warren, p. 53. With Arthur's army pressing up the [Valley](Loire)(Loire Valley) towards [Angers](Angers) and Philip's forces moving down the valley towards [Tours](Tours), John's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two.Warren, p. 51.
Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns.Barrett, p. 91. The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles, such as [Gaillard](Château)(Château Gaillard), at strategic points, built and maintained at considerable expense.Warren, pp. 57–58; Barlow, p. 280. It was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications, which slowed the progress of any attack.Warren, p. 57. Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or [mercenary](mercenary) forces.Warren, p. 59. Feudal levies could be raised only for a fixed length of time before they returned home, forcing an end to a campaign; mercenary forces, often called [Brabançons](Brabançons) after the [of Brabant](Duchy)(Duchy of Brabant) but actually recruited from across northern Europe, could operate all year long and provide a commander with more strategic options to pursue a campaign, but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces.Huscroft, pp. 169–170. As a result, commanders of the period were increasingly drawing on larger numbers of mercenaries.Huscroft, p. 170.
After his coronation, John moved south into France with military forces and adopted a defensive posture along the eastern and southern Normandy borders.Carpenter (2004), p. 264; Turner, p. 100. Both sides paused for desultory negotiations before the war recommenced; John's position was now stronger, thanks to confirmation that the counts [IX of Flanders](Baldwin)(Baldwin IX of Flanders) and [of Boulogne](Renaud)(Renaud of Boulogne) had renewed the anti-French alliances they had previously agreed to with Richard. The powerful Anjou nobleman [des Roches](William)(William des Roches) was persuaded to switch sides from Arthur to John; suddenly the balance seemed to be tipping away from Philip and Arthur in favour of John.Warren, p. 54. Neither side was keen to continue the conflict, and following a papal truce the two leaders met in January 1200 to negotiate possible terms for peace. From John's perspective, what then followed represented an opportunity to stabilise control over his continental possessions and produce a lasting peace with Philip in Paris. John and Philip negotiated the May 1200 [of Le Goulet](Treaty)(Treaty of Le Goulet); by this treaty, Philip recognised John as the rightful heir to Richard in respect to his French possessions, temporarily abandoning the wider claims of his client, Arthur.Turner, p. 98. John, in turn, abandoned Richard's former policy of containing Philip through alliances with Flanders and Boulogne, and accepted Philip's right as the legitimate feudal overlord of John's lands in France.Warren, p. 55. John's policy earned him the disrespectful title of "John Softsword" from some English chroniclers, who contrasted his behaviour with his more aggressive brother, Richard.Warren, p. 63.
### Second marriage and consequences, 1200–1202
[[Image:IsabelledAngouleme.jpg |thumb|alt=A photograph of a medieval tomb with a carving of Isabella on top. She is lying with her hands clasped, wearing a blue dress.|The effigy of [of Angoulême](Isabella)(Isabella of Angoulême), John's second wife, in [Abbey](Fontevraud)(Fontevraud Abbey) in France]]
The new peace would last only two years; war recommenced in the aftermath of John's decision in August 1200 to marry [of Angoulême](Isabella)(Isabella of Angoulême). In order to remarry, John first needed to abandon his wife Isabella, Countess of Gloucester; the King accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get the necessary [dispensation](papal)(papal dispensation) to marry the Countess in the first place—as a cousin, John could not have legally wedded her without this. It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême. Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with her, and John may have been motivated by desire for an apparently beautiful, if rather young, girl (Isabella of Angoulême was either 12 or 14 at the time of their marriage). On the other hand, the Angoumois lands that came with her were strategically vital to John: by marrying Isabella, John was acquiring a key land route between Poitou and Gascony, which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine.Turner, p. 99.
Isabella, however, was already engaged to [IX of Lusignan](Hugh)(Hugh IX of Lusignan), an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of [I, Count of Eu](Raoul)(Raoul I of Lusignan), who possessed lands along the sensitive eastern Normandy border. Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella, so the marriage threatened the interests of the [Lusignans](Lusignans), whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine.Turner, pp. 98–99. Rather than negotiating some form of compensation, John treated Hugh "with contempt"; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John, who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy.
Although John was the Count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans, they could legitimately appeal John's actions in France to his own feudal lord, Philip. Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202, citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case. John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way. He argued that he need not attend Philip's court because of his special status as the Duke of Normandy, who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court. Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the Duke of Normandy, but as the Count of Poitou, which carried no such special status. When John still refused to come, Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities, reassigned all of John's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur—with the exception of Normandy, which he took back for himself—and began a fresh war against John.
### Loss of Normandy, 1202–1204
[[Image:1202 French campaign.svg|thumb|275px|alt=A map of France showing John's bold sweep towards Mirebeau with a red arrow.|John's successful 1202 campaign, which culminated in the victory of the [of Mirebeau](battle)(battle of Mirebeau); red arrows indicate the movement of John's forces, blue those of Philip II's forces and light blue those of Philip's Breton and Lusignan allies]]
John initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199: avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles.Turner, p. 100. John's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed, and Philip began to make steady progress in the east. John became aware in July that Arthur's forces were threatening his mother, Eleanor, at Mirebeau Castle. Accompanied by William de Roches, his [seneschal](seneschal) in Anjou, he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her. His forces caught Arthur by surprise and captured the entire rebel leadership at the [of Mirebeau](battle)(battle of Mirebeau). With his southern flank weakening, Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John's army.
John's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau, but John's treatment of his new prisoners and of his ally, William de Roches, quickly undermined these gains. De Roches was a powerful Anjou noble, but John largely ignored him, causing considerable offence, whilst the King kept the rebel leaders in such bad conditions that twenty-two of them died.Turner, pp. 100–101. At this time most of the regional nobility were closely linked through kinship, and this behaviour towards their relatives was regarded as unacceptable.Turner, p. 101. William de Roches and other of John's regional allies in Anjou and Brittany deserted him in favour of Philip, and Brittany rose in fresh revolt. John's financial situation was tenuous: once factors such as the comparative military costs of [materiel](materiel) and soldiers were taken into account, Philip enjoyed a considerable, although not overwhelming, advantage of resources over John.Holt (1984), p. 94; Turner, p. 94; Bradbury (1998), p. 159; Moss, p. 119.
Further desertions of John's local allies at the beginning of 1203 steadily reduced his freedom to manoeuvre in the region. He attempted to convince [Innocent III](Pope)(Pope Innocent III) to intervene in the conflict, but Innocent's efforts were unsuccessful. As the situation became worse for John, he appears to have decided to have Arthur killed, with the aim of removing his potential rival and of undermining the rebel movement in Brittany. Arthur had initially been imprisoned at Falaise and was then moved to Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains uncertain, but modern historians believe he was murdered by John. The annals of [Abbey](Margam)(Margam Abbey) suggest that "John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in the castle of Rouen ... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the [Seine](Seine)."McLynn, p. 306. Rumours of the manner of Arthur's death further reduced support for John across the region. Arthur's sister, [Eleanor](Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany), who had also been captured at Mirebeau, was kept imprisoned by John for many years, albeit in relatively good conditions.Warren, p. 83.
[[Image:Normandy campaign 1204.png|thumb|350px|left|alt=A map of Normandy, showing Philip's invasion with a sequence of blue arrows, and the Breton advance from the west shown in light blue.|[II](Phillip)(Philip II of France)'s successful invasion of [Normandy](Duchy of Normandy) in 1204; blue arrows indicate the movement of Philip II's forces and light blue Philip's Breton allies]]
In late 1203, John attempted to relieve [Gaillard](Château)(Château Gaillard), which although [by Philip](besieged)(Siege of Château Gaillard) was guarding the eastern flank of Normandy. John attempted a synchronised operation involving land-based and water-borne forces, considered by most historians today to have been imaginative in conception, but overly complex for forces of the period to have carried out successfully.Turner, p. 102. John's relief operation was blocked by Philip's forces, and John turned back to Brittany in an attempt to draw Philip away from eastern Normandy. John successfully devastated much of Brittany, but did not deflect Philip's main thrust into the east of Normandy. Opinions vary amongst historians as to the military skill shown by John during this campaign, with most recent historians arguing that his performance was passable, although not impressive.
John's situation began to deteriorate rapidly. The eastern border region of Normandy had been extensively cultivated by Philip and his predecessors for several years, whilst Angevin authority in the south had been undermined by Richard's giving away of various key castles some years before.Power, pp. 135–136. His use of mercenaries in the central regions had rapidly eaten away his remaining support in this area too, which set the stage for a sudden collapse of Angevin power.Power, p. 135. John retreated back across the Channel in December, sending orders for the establishment of a fresh defensive line to the west of Chateau Gaillard. In March 1204, Gaillard fell. John's mother Eleanor died the following month. This was not just a personal blow for John, but threatened to unravel the widespread Angevin alliances across the far south of France. Philip moved south around the new defensive line and struck upwards at the heart of the Duchy, now facing little resistance. By August, Philip had taken Normandy and advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou as well.Turner, pp. 102–103. John's only remaining possession on the Continent was now the Duchy of Aquitaine.Turner, p. 103.
## John as king
### Kingship and royal administration
[[Image:Pipe roll 1194.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of a hand written medieval pipe roll, with a handwritten list of entries and a formal stamp in the centre of the document|A [roll](pipe)(pipe roll), part of the increasingly sophisticated system of royal governance at the turn of the 13th century]]
The nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John's predecessors had ruled using the principle of ("force and will"), taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law.Turner, p. 149. Both Henry II and Richard had argued that kings possessed a quality of "[majesty](divine)(Divine right of kings)"; John continued this trend and claimed an "almost imperial status" for himself as ruler. During the 12th century, there were contrary opinions expressed about the nature of kingship, and many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, and take counsel of the leading members of the realm. There was as yet no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. Despite his claim to unique authority within England, John would sometimes justify his actions on the basis that he had taken council with the barons. Modern historians remain divided as to whether John suffered from a case of "royal [schizophrenia](schizophrenia)" in his approach to government, or if his actions merely reflected the complex model of Angevin kingship in the early 13th century.Warren, p. 178; Turner, p. 156.
John inherited a sophisticated system of administration in England, with a range of royal agents answering to the Royal Household: the [Chancery](Chancery (medieval office)#In England) kept written records and communications; the Treasury and the [Exchequer](Exchequer) dealt with income and expenditure respectively; and various judges were deployed to deliver justice around the kingdom.Warren, p. 127. Thanks to the efforts of men like [Walter](Hubert)(Hubert Walter), this trend towards improved record keeping continued into his reign.Bartlett, p. 200. Like previous kings, John managed a [peripatetic](wikt:peripatetic) court that travelled around the kingdom, dealing with both local and national matters as he went.Warren, p. 130. John was very active in the administration of England and was involved in every aspect of government.Warren, p. 132. In part he was following in the tradition of [I](Henry)(Henry I of England) and Henry II, but by the 13th century the volume of administrative work had greatly increased, which put much more pressure on a king who wished to rule in this style. John was in England for much longer periods than his predecessors, which made his rule more personal than that of previous kings, particularly in previously ignored areas such as the north.Warren, p. 132; Huscroft, p. 171.
The administration of justice was of particular importance to John. Several new processes had been introduced to English law under Henry II, including *[disseisin](novel)(novel disseisin)* and ''[d'ancestor](mort)(mort d'ancestor)''.Huscroft, p. 182. These processes meant the royal courts had a more significant role in local law cases, which had previously been dealt with only by regional or local lords.Huscroft, p. 184. John increased the professionalism of local sergeants and bailiffs, and extended the system of coroners first introduced by Hubert Walter in 1194, creating a new class of borough coroners.McLynn, p. 366; Hunnisett, pp. 1–3. The King worked extremely hard to ensure that this system operated well, through judges he had appointed, by fostering legal specialists and expertise, and by intervening in cases himself.Warren, pp. 143–144. He continued to try relatively minor cases, even during military crises.Warren, p. 144. Viewed positively, [Warren](Lewis)(W. L. Warren) considers that John discharged "his royal duty of providing justice ... with a zeal and a tirelessness to which the English common law is greatly endebted". Seen more critically, John may have been motivated by the potential of the royal legal process to raise fees, rather than a desire to deliver simple justice; his legal system also applied only to free men, rather than to all of the population.McLynn, p. 366. Nonetheless, these changes were popular with many free tenants, who acquired a more reliable legal system that could bypass the barons, against whom such cases were often brought.Carpenter (2004), p. 273. John's reforms were less popular with the barons themselves, especially as they remained subject to arbitrary and frequently vindictive royal justice.
### Economy
[[Image:Penny john.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of the front and back of a silver penny, the design dominated by a triangle in the centre of each coin. One side shows King John's head.|A [silver](silver) King John [penny](penny), amongst the first struck in [Dublin](Dublin)]]
One of John's principal challenges was acquiring the large sums of money needed for his proposed campaigns to reclaim Normandy.Turner, p. 79. The Angevin kings had three main sources of income available to them, namely revenue from their personal lands, or *[demesne](demesne)*; money raised through their rights as a feudal lord; and revenue from taxation. Revenue from the royal demesne was inflexible and had been diminishing slowly since the [conquest](Norman)(Norman conquest). Matters were not helped by Richard's sale of many royal properties in 1189, and taxation played a much smaller role in royal income than in later centuries. English kings had widespread feudal rights which could be used to generate income, including the [scutage](scutage) system, in which feudal military service was avoided by a cash payment to the King. He derived income from fines, court fees and the sale of [charter](charter)s and other privileges.Lawler and Lawler, p. 6. John intensified his efforts to maximise all possible sources of income, to the extent that he has been described as "avaricious, miserly, extortionate and moneyminded".McLynn, p. 288. He also used revenue generation as a way of exerting political control over the barons: debts owed to the crown by the King's favoured supporters might be forgiven; collection of those owed by enemies was more stringently enforced.
[[File:John penny.jpg|left|thumb|alt=A photograph of the "heads" side of a silver coin|A [silver](silver) King John [penny](penny)]]
The result was a sequence of innovative but unpopular financial measures. John levied scutage payments eleven times in his seventeen years as king, as compared to eleven times in total during the reign of the preceding three monarchs.Turner, p. 87. In many cases these were levied in the absence of any actual military campaign, which ran counter to the original idea that scutage was an alternative to actual military service. John maximised his right to demand relief payments when estates and castles were inherited, sometimes charging enormous sums, beyond barons' abilities to pay. Building on the successful sale of sheriff appointments in 1194, the King initiated a new round of appointments, with the new incumbents making back their investment through increased fines and penalties, particularly in the forests.Carpenter (2004), p. 272. Another innovation of Richard's, increased charges levied on widows who wished to remain single, was expanded under John. John continued to sell charters for new towns, including the planned town of [Liverpool](Liverpool), and charters were sold for markets across the kingdom and in [Gascony](Gascony).Hodgett, p. 57; Johnson, p. 142. The King introduced new taxes and extended existing ones. The Jews, who held a [position](vulnerable)(Economy of England in the Middle Ages#Jewish contribution to the English economy) in medieval England, protected only by the King, were subject to huge taxes; £44,000 was extracted from the community by the [tallage](tallage) of 1210; much of it was passed on to the Christian debtors of Jewish moneylenders.Medieval financial figures have no easy contemporary equivalent, due to the different role of money in the economy. John created a new tax on income and movable goods in 1207—effectively a version of a modern income tax—that produced £60,000; he created a new set of import and export duties payable directly to the Crown.Turner, p. 95. He found that these measures enabled him to raise further resources through the confiscation of the lands of barons who could not pay or refused to pay.Turner, p. 148.
At the start of John's reign there was a [change in prices](sudden)(Economy of England in the Middle Ages#Development of estate management), as bad harvests and high demand for food resulted in much higher prices for grain and animals. This inflationary pressure was to continue for the rest of the 13th century and had long-term economic consequences for England.Danziger and Gillingham, p. 44. The resulting social pressures were complicated by bursts of [deflation](deflation) that resulted from John's military campaigns.Bolton pp. 32–33. It was usual at the time for the King to collect taxes in silver, which was then re-minted into new coins; these coins would then be put in barrels and sent to royal castles around the country, to be used to hire mercenaries or to meet other costs.Stenton, p. 163. At those times when John was preparing for campaigns in Normandy, for example, huge quantities of silver had to be withdrawn from the economy and stored for months, which unintentionally resulted in periods during which silver coins were simply hard to come by, commercial credit difficult to acquire and deflationary pressure placed on the economy. The result was political unrest across the country.Bolton, p. 40. John attempted to address some of the problems with the English currency in 1204 and 1205 by carrying out a radical overhaul of the coinage, improving its quality and consistency.Barlow, p. 329.
### Royal household and
[[File:John of England (John Lackland).jpg|thumb|upright|King John presenting a church, painted c. 1250–1259 by [Paris](Matthew)(Matthew Paris) in his ]]
John's royal household was based around several groups of followers. One group was the , his immediate friends and knights who travelled around the country with him. They also played an important role in organising and leading military campaigns.Turner, pp. 144–145; Church (1999), p. 133. Another section of royal followers were the ; these were the senior officials and agents of the King and were essential to his day-to-day rule.Turner, p. 144. Being a member of these inner circles brought huge advantages, as it was easier to gain favours from the King, file lawsuits, marry a wealthy heiress or have one's debts remitted.Turner, p. 147. By the time of Henry II, these posts were increasingly being filled by "new men" from outside the normal ranks of the barons. This intensified under John's rule, with many lesser nobles arriving from the continent to take up positions at court; many were mercenary leaders from Poitou.Turner, p. 145. These men included soldiers who would become infamous in England for their uncivilised behaviour, including [de Breauté](Falkes)(Falkes de Breauté), Geard d'Athies, Engelard de Cigongé, and [Marc](Philip)(Philip Marc).Barlow, p. 326. Many barons perceived the King's household as what Ralph Turner has characterised as a "narrow clique enjoying royal favour at barons' expense" staffed by men of lesser status.
This trend for the King to rely on his own men at the expense of the barons was exacerbated by the tradition of Angevin royal ("anger and ill-will") and John's own personality.Huscroft, p. 70. From Henry II onwards, had come to describe the right of the King to express his anger and displeasure at particular barons or clergy, building on the Norman concept of —royal ill-will.Huscroft, p. 170; Mason, p. 128. In the Norman period, suffering the King's ill-will meant difficulties in obtaining grants, honours or petitions; Henry II had infamously expressed his fury and ill-will towards [Becket](Thomas)(Thomas Becket), which ultimately resulted in Becket's death. John now had the additional ability to "cripple his vassals" on a significant scale using his new economic and judicial measures, which made the threat of royal anger all the more serious.Warren, p. 184.
John was deeply suspicious of the barons, particularly those with sufficient power and wealth to potentially challenge him. Numerous barons were subjected to his , even including the famous knight [Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke](William)(William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke), normally held up as a model of utter loyalty.Warren, p. 185. The most infamous case, which went beyond anything considered acceptable at the time, was that of the powerful [de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber](William)(William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber), who held lands in Ireland.Warren, p. 184; Turner, p. 23. De Braose was subjected to punitive demands for money, and when he refused to pay a huge sum of 40,000 [marks](Mark (money)) (equivalent to £26,666 at the time),Both the mark and the pound sterling were accountancy terms in this period; a mark was worth around two-thirds of a pound. his wife, [Maud](Maud de Braose), and one of their sons were imprisoned by John, which resulted in their deaths.Warren, p. 185; Turner, p. 169. De Braose died in exile in 1211, and his grandsons remained in prison until 1218. John's suspicions and jealousies meant that he rarely enjoyed good relationships with even the leading loyalist barons.Turner, p. 139.
### Personal life
[[Image:John family.jpg|thumb|350px|alt=A family tree, with John in a circle and his children's heads represented in circles, linked by coloured lines.|A 13th-century depiction of John and his legitimate children, (l to r) [Henry](Henry III of England), [Richard](Richard of Cornwall), [Isabella](Isabella of England), [Eleanor](Eleanor of England, Countess of Leicester) and [Joan](Joan of England, Queen of Scotland)]]
John's personal life greatly affected his reign. Contemporary chroniclers state that John was sinfully lustful and lacking in [piety](piety).Turner, p. 166. It was common for kings and nobles of the period to keep mistresses, but chroniclers complained that John's mistresses were married noblewomen, which was considered unacceptable. John had at least five children with mistresses during his first marriage, and two of those mistresses are known to have been noblewomen.Turner, p. 166, Vincent, p. 193. John's behaviour after his second marriage is less clear, however. None of his known illegitimate children were born after he remarried, and there is no actual documentary proof of adultery after that point, although John certainly had female friends amongst the court throughout the period.Vincent, p. 193. The specific accusations made against John during the baronial revolts are now generally considered to have been invented for the purposes of justifying the revolt; nonetheless, most of John's contemporaries seem to have held a poor opinion of his sexual behaviour.
The character of John's relationship with his second wife, Isabella of Angoulême, is unclear. John married Isabella whilst she was relatively young—her exact date of birth is uncertain, and estimates place her between at most 15 and more probably towards nine years old at the time of her marriage.Vincent, pp. 174–175. Even by the standards of the time, she was married whilst very young.Vincent, p. 175. John did not provide a great deal of money for his wife's household and did not pass on much of the revenue from her lands, to the extent that historian Nicholas Vincent has described him as being "downright mean" towards Isabella.Vincent, p. 184. Vincent concluded that the marriage was not a particularly "amicable" one.Vincent, p. 196. Other aspects of their marriage suggest a closer, more positive relationship. Chroniclers recorded that John had a "mad infatuation" with Isabella, and certainly the King and Queen had conjugal relationships between at least 1207 and 1215; they had five children.Turner, p. 98; Vincent, p. 196. In contrast to Vincent, historian William Chester Jordan concludes that the pair were a "companionable couple" who had a successful marriage by the standards of the day.Jordan, cited in Turner, p. 12.
John's lack of religious conviction has been noted by contemporary chroniclers and later historians, with some suspecting that he was at best impious, or even [atheistic](atheistic), a very serious issue at the time.McLynn, p. 290. Contemporary chroniclers catalogued his various anti-religious habits at length, including his failure to take communion, his blasphemous remarks, and his witty but scandalous jokes about church doctrine, including jokes about the implausibility of the [of Jesus](Resurrection)(Resurrection of Jesus). They commented on the paucity of John's charitable donations to the Church.McLynn, pp. 78, 290. Historian [McLynn](Frank)(Frank McLynn) argues that John's early years at Fontevrault, combined with his relatively advanced education, may have turned him against the church. Other historians have been more cautious in interpreting this material, noting that chroniclers also reported his personal interest in the life of [Wulfstan](St)(St Wulfstan) and his friendships with several senior clerics, most especially with [of Lincoln](Hugh)(Hugh of Lincoln), who was later declared a saint.Turner, p. 120. Financial records show a normal royal household engaged in the usual feasts and pious observances—albeit with many records showing John's offerings to the poor to atone for routinely breaking church rules and guidance.Turner, p. 120; Carpenter (2004), p. 276. The historian Lewis Warren has argued that the chronicler accounts were subject to considerable bias and the King was "at least conventionally devout", citing his [pilgrimages](Christian pilgrimage) and interest in religious scripture and commentaries.Warren, pp. 171–172.
## Later reign (1204–1214)
### Continental policy
[[Image:BitvaLincoln1217.jpg|thumb|300px|alt=A drawing of a medieval castle, with a tall tower with a flag on top; a crossbowman is firing an arrow from the battlements at two horsemen.|An early-13th-century drawing by [Paris](Matthew)(Matthew Paris) showing contemporary warfare, including the use of [castle](castle)s, [crossbow](crossbow)men and mounted [knight](knight)s]]
During the remainder of his reign, John focused on trying to retake Normandy.Turner, p. 106. The available evidence suggests that he did not regard the loss of the Duchy as a permanent shift in Capetian power. Strategically, John faced several challenges:Turner, pp. 106–107. England itself had to be secured against possible French invasion, the sea-routes to Bordeaux needed to be secured following the loss of the land route to Aquitaine, and his remaining possessions in Aquitaine needed to be secured following the death of his mother, Eleanor, in April 1204. John's preferred plan was to use Poitou as a base of operations, advance up the [Valley](Loire)(Loire Valley) to threaten Paris, pin down the French forces and break Philip's internal lines of communication before landing a maritime force in the Duchy itself. Ideally, this plan would benefit from the opening of a second front on Philip's eastern frontiers with Flanders and Boulogne—effectively a re-creation of Richard's old strategy of applying pressure from Germany. All of this would require a great deal of money and soldiers.Turner, p. 107.
John spent much of 1205 securing England against a potential French invasion. As an emergency measure, he recreated a version of Henry II's [of Arms of 1181](Assize)(Assize of Arms of 1181), with each [shire](shire) creating a structure to mobilise local levies. When the threat of invasion faded, John formed a large military force in England intended for Poitou, and a large fleet with soldiers under his own command intended for Normandy. To achieve this, John reformed the English feudal contribution to his campaigns, creating a more flexible system under which only one knight in ten would actually be mobilised, but would be financially supported by the other nine; knights would serve for an indefinite period. John built up a strong team of engineers for siege warfare and a substantial force of professional crossbowmen.Barlow, p. 336. The King was supported by a team of leading barons with military expertise, including [Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury](William)(William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury), [the Marshal](William)(William the Marshal), [de Lacy](Roger)(Roger de Lacy (1170–1211)) and, until he fell from favour, the [lord](marcher)(marcher lord) William de Braose.
John had already begun to improve his [Channel](English Channel) forces before the loss of Normandy and he rapidly built up further maritime capabilities after its collapse. Most of these ships were placed along the [Ports](Cinque)(Cinque Ports), but [Portsmouth](HMNB Portsmouth) was also enlarged.Warren, p. 123. By the end of 1204 he had around 50 large [galley](galley)s available; another 54 vessels were built between 1209 and 1212.Turner, p. 106; Warren, p. 123 [of Wrotham](William)(William of Wrotham) was appointed "keeper of the galleys", effectively John's chief admiral. Wrotham was responsible for fusing John's galleys, the ships of the Cinque Ports and pressed merchant vessels into a single operational fleet. John adopted recent improvements in ship design, including new large transport ships called *buisses* and removable [forecastle](forecastle)s for use in combat.
Baronial unrest in England prevented the departure of the planned 1205 expedition, and only a smaller force under William Longespée deployed to Poitou. In 1206 John departed for Poitou himself, but was forced to divert south to counter a threat to [Gascony](Gascony) from [VIII of Castile](Alfonso)(Alfonso VIII of Castile). After a successful campaign against Alfonso, John headed north again, taking the city of Angers. Philip moved south to meet John; the year's campaigning ended in stalemate and a two-year truce was made between the two rulers.Turner, pp. 107–108.
During the truce of 1206–1208, John focused on building up his financial and military resources in preparation for another attempt to recapture Normandy.Turner, p. 108. John used some of this money to pay for new alliances on Philip's eastern frontiers, where the growth in Capetian power was beginning to concern France's neighbours. By 1212 John had successfully concluded alliances with his nephew [IV](Otto)(Otto IV), a contender for the crown of Holy Roman Emperor in Germany, as well as with the counts Renaud of Boulogne and [of Flanders](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand of Flanders). The invasion plans for 1212 were postponed because of fresh English baronial unrest about service in Poitou. Philip seized the initiative in 1213, sending his elder son, [Louis](Louis VIII of France), to invade Flanders with the intention of next launching an invasion of England. John was forced to postpone his own invasion plans to counter this threat. He launched his new fleet to attack the French at the harbour of [Damme](Damme).Turner, p. 109. The attack was a success, destroying Philip's vessels and any chances of an invasion of England that year. John hoped to exploit this advantage by invading himself late in 1213, but baronial discontent again delayed his invasion plans until early 1214, in what was his final Continental campaign.
### Scotland, Ireland and Wales
[[Image:Jan Anglie psici.jpg|thumb|alt=A drawing of King John wearing a crown and a red robe. The king is sat down and stroking two hunting dogs.|A 13th-century depiction of John with two [dog](hunting)(hunting dog)s]]
In the late 12th and early 13th centuries [border](the)(Anglo-Scottish border) and political relationship between England and Scotland was disputed, with the kings of Scotland claiming parts of what is now northern England. John's father, Henry II, had forced [the Lion](William)(William the Lion) to swear fealty to him at the [of Falaise](Treaty)(Treaty of Falaise) in 1174.Carpenter (2004), p. 224. This had been rescinded by Richard I in exchange for financial compensation in 1189, but the relationship remained uneasy.Carpenter (2004), p. 255. John began his reign by reasserting his sovereignty over the disputed northern counties. He refused William's request for the earldom of [Northumbria](Northumbria), but did not intervene in Scotland itself and focused on his continental problems.Carpenter (2004), p. 277; Duncan, p. 251. The two kings maintained a friendly relationship, meeting in 1206 and 1207,Duncan, p. 252. until it was rumoured in 1209 that William was intending to ally himself with Philip II of France.Carpenter (2004), p. 277; Duncan, p. 260 John invaded Scotland and forced William to sign the Treaty of Norham, which gave John control of William's daughters and required a payment of £10,000.Carpenter (2004), p. 277. This effectively crippled William's power north of the border, and by 1212 John had to intervene militarily to support William against his internal rivals. John made no efforts to reinvigorate the Treaty of Falaise, though, and William and his son [II of Scotland](Alexander)(Alexander II of Scotland) in turn remained independent kings, supported by, but not owing fealty to, John.Duncan, p. 268.
John remained Lord of Ireland throughout his reign. He drew on the country for resources to fight his war with Philip on the continent.Carpenter (2004), p. 278. Conflict continued in Ireland between the Anglo-Norman settlers and the indigenous Irish chieftains, with John manipulating both groups to expand his wealth and power in the country. During Richard's rule, John had successfully increased the size of his lands in Ireland, and he continued this policy as king.Carpenter (2004), pp. 278–279. In 1210 the King crossed into Ireland with a large army to crush a rebellion by the Anglo-Norman lords; he reasserted his control of the country and used a new charter to order compliance with English laws and customs in Ireland.Carpenter (2004), pp. 280–281. John stopped short of trying to actively enforce this charter on the native Irish kingdoms, but historian David Carpenter suspects that he might have done so, had the baronial conflict in England not intervened. Simmering tensions remained with the native Irish leaders even after John left for England.Carpenter (2004), p. 282; Duffy, pp. 242–243.
Royal power in Wales was unevenly applied, with the country divided between the [lords](marcher)(Welsh Marches) along the borders, royal territories in [Pembrokeshire](Pembrokeshire) and the more independent native Welsh lords of North Wales. John took a close interest in Wales and knew the country well, visiting every year between 1204 and 1211 and marrying his illegitimate daughter, [Joan](Joan, Lady of Wales), to the Welsh prince [the Great](Llywelyn)(Llywelyn the Great).Carpenter (2004), pp. 282–283. The King used the marcher lords and the native Welsh to increase his own territory and power, striking a sequence of increasingly precise deals backed by royal military power with the Welsh rulers.Carpenter (2004), p. 283. A major royal expedition to enforce these agreements occurred in 1211, after Llywelyn attempted to exploit the instability caused by the removal of William de Braose, through the [uprising of 1211](Welsh)(Welsh uprising of 1211).Carpenter (2004), p. 284. John's invasion, striking into the Welsh heartlands, was a military success. Llywelyn came to terms that included an expansion of John's power across much of Wales, albeit only temporarily.
### Dispute with the Pope and excommunication
[[Image:Innozenz3.jpg|thumb|alt=A painting of Pope Innocent III, wearing his formal robes and a tall, pointed hat.|[Innocent III](Pope)(Pope Innocent III), who excommunicated John in 1209]]
When the [of Canterbury](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Canterbury), Hubert Walter, died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III that would lead to the King's [excommunication](excommunication). The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the Church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre" and established "its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft.Huscroft, p. 190. After the 1140s, these principles had been largely accepted within the English Church, albeit with an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome.Huscroft, p. 189; Turner, p. 121. [changes](These)(Investiture Controversy) brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question. Pope Innocent was, according to historian Ralph Turner, an "ambitious and aggressive" religious leader, insistent on his rights and responsibilities within the church.Turner, p. 119.
John wanted [de Gray](John)(John de Gray), the [of Norwich](Bishop)(Bishop of Norwich) and one of his own supporters, to be appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, but the [chapter](cathedral)(cathedral chapter) for [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral) claimed the exclusive right to elect the Archbishop. They favoured [Reginald](Reginald (sub-prior)), the chapter's [sub-prior](sub-prior).Turner, p. 125. To complicate matters, the bishops of the [of Canterbury](province)(province of Canterbury) also claimed the right to appoint the next archbishop. The chapter secretly elected Reginald and he travelled to Rome to be confirmed; the bishops challenged the appointment and the matter was taken before Innocent.Turner, pp. 125–126. John forced the Canterbury chapter to change their support to John de Gray, and a messenger was sent to Rome to inform the papacy of the new decision.Turner, p. 126. Innocent disavowed both Reginald and John de Gray, and instead appointed his own candidate, [Langton](Stephen)(Stephen Langton). John refused Innocent's request that he consent to Langton's appointment, but the Pope consecrated Langton anyway in June 1207.
John was incensed about what he perceived as an abrogation of his customary right as monarch to influence the election. He complained both about the choice of Langton as an individual, as John felt he was overly influenced by the Capetian court in Paris, and about the process as a whole.Turner, p. 127. He barred Langton from entering England and seized the lands of the archbishopric and other papal possessions. Innocent set a commission in place to try to convince John to change his mind, but to no avail. Innocent then placed [interdict](an)(Papal Interdict of 1208) on England in March 1208, prohibiting clergy from conducting religious services, with the exception of baptisms for the young, and confessions and absolutions for the dying.Turner, p. 128; Harper-Bill, p. 304.
[[Image:RochesterCastle.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|left|alt=A photograph of a tall stone castle keep; most of the towers are square, but one, rebuilt after a siege, is circular.|[Castle](Rochester)(Rochester Castle) in [Kent](Kent), one of the many properties owned by the disputed [of Canterbury](archbishopric)(archbishopric of Canterbury), and an important fortification in the final years of John's reign]]
John treated the interdict as "the equivalent of a papal declaration of war".Turner, p. 128. He responded by attempting to punish Innocent personally and to drive a wedge between those English clergy that might support him and those allying themselves firmly with the authorities in Rome. John seized the lands of those clergy unwilling to conduct services, as well as those estates linked to Innocent himself; he arrested the illicit concubines that many clerics kept during the period, releasing them only after the payment of fines; he seized the lands of members of the church who had fled England, and he promised protection for those clergy willing to remain loyal to him. In many cases, individual institutions were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates.Poole, pp. 446–447. By 1209 the situation showed no signs of resolution, and Innocent threatened to excommunicate John if he did not acquiesce to Langton's appointment.Turner, p. 131. When this threat failed, Innocent excommunicated the King in November 1209. Although theoretically a significant blow to John's legitimacy, this did not appear to worry the King greatly. Two of John's close allies, Emperor Otto IV and Count [VI of Toulouse](Raymond)(Raymond VI of Toulouse), had already suffered the same punishment themselves, and the significance of excommunication had been somewhat devalued. John simply tightened his existing measures and accrued significant sums from the income of vacant sees and abbeys: one 1213 estimate, for example, suggested the church had lost an estimated 100,000 marks (equivalent to £66,666 at the time) to John.Harper-Bill, p. 306. Official figures suggest that around 14% of annual income from the English church was being appropriated by John each year.Harper-Bill, p. 307.
Innocent gave some dispensations as the crisis progressed.Harper-Bill, p. 304. Monastic communities were allowed to celebrate Mass in private from 1209 onwards, and late in 1212 the [Viaticum](Holy)(Holy Viaticum) for the dying was authorised.Harper-Bill, pp. 304–305. The rules on burials and lay access to churches appear to have been steadily circumvented, at least unofficially. Although the interdict was a burden to much of the population, it did not result in rebellion against John. By 1213, though, John was increasingly worried about the threat of French invasion.Turner, p. 133. Some contemporary chroniclers suggested that in January Philip II of France had been charged with deposing John on behalf of the papacy, although it appears that Innocent merely prepared secret letters in case Innocent needed to claim the credit if Philip did successfully invade England.Bartlett, pp. 404–405; Turner, p. 133.
Under mounting political pressure, John finally negotiated terms for a reconciliation, and the papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the [legate](papal)(papal legate) [Verraccio](Pandulf)(Pandulf Verraccio) in May 1213 at the [Church](Templar)(Knights Templar in England#Churches) at [Dover](Dover).Turner, p. 133; Lloyd, p. 213. As part of the deal, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to the papacy for a feudal service of 1,000 [marks](Mark (currency)) (equivalent to £666 at the time) annually: 700 marks (£466) for England and 300 marks (£200) for Ireland, as well as recompensing the Church for revenue lost during the crisis.Turner, p. 133; Harper-Bill, p. 308. The agreement was formalised in the , or Golden [Bull](Papal bull). This resolution produced mixed responses. Although some chroniclers felt that John had been humiliated by the sequence of events, there was little public reaction.Turner, pp. 133–134. Innocent benefited from the resolution of his long-standing English problem, but John probably gained more, as Innocent became a firm supporter of John for the rest of his reign, backing him in both domestic and continental policy issues.Turner, p. 134. Innocent immediately turned against Philip, calling upon him to reject plans to invade England and to sue for peace. John paid some of the compensation money he had promised the Church, but he ceased making payments in late 1214, leaving two-thirds of the sum unpaid; Innocent appears to have conveniently forgotten this debt for the good of the wider relationship.Harper-Bill, p. 308.
## Failure in France and the First Barons' War (1215–1216)
[[Image:Bataille de Bouvines.jpg|thumb|alt=An illuminated picture of two armies of mounted knights fighting; the French side are on the left, the Imperial on the right.|The French victory at the [of Bouvines](battle)(battle of Bouvines) doomed John's plan to retake Normandy in 1214 and led to the [Barons' War](First)(First Barons' War).]]
### Tensions and discontent
Tensions between John and the barons had been growing for several years, as demonstrated by the 1212 plot against the King.Turner, pp. 173–174. Many of the disaffected barons came from the north of England; that faction was often labelled by contemporaries and historians as "the Northerners". The northern barons rarely had any personal stake in the conflict in France, and many of them owed large sums of money to John; the revolt has been characterised as "a rebellion of the king's debtors".Carpenter (2004), p. 273, after Holt (1961). Many of John's military household joined the rebels, particularly amongst those that John had appointed to administrative roles across England; their local links and loyalties outweighed their personal loyalty to John.Church (1999), p. 154. Tension also grew across North Wales, where opposition to the 1211 treaty between John and Llywelyn was turning into open conflict.Rowlands, pp. 284–285. For some the appointment of [des Roches](Peter)(Peter des Roches) as [justiciar](justiciar) was an important factor, as he was considered an "abrasive foreigner" by many of the barons.Carpenter (2004), p. 287. The failure of John's French military campaign in 1214 was probably the final straw that precipitated the baronial uprising during John's final years as king; [Holt](James)(J. C. Holt) describes the path to civil war as "direct, short and unavoidable" following the defeat at Bouvines.Turner, pp. 173–174; Holt (1961), p. 100.
### Failure of the 1214 French campaign
In 1214 John began his final campaign to reclaim Normandy from Philip. He was optimistic, as he had successfully built up alliances with the Emperor Otto, Renaud of Boulogne and Ferdinand of Flanders; he was enjoying papal favour; and he had successfully built up substantial funds to pay for the deployment of his experienced army.Barlow, p. 335. Nonetheless, when John left for Poitou in February 1214, many barons refused to provide military service; mercenary knights had to fill the gaps.Carpenter (2004), p. 286. John's plan was to split Philip's forces by pushing north-east from Poitou towards Paris, whilst Otto, Renaud and Ferdinand, supported by William Longespée, marched south-west from Flanders.
The first part of the campaign went well, with John outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of Prince Louis and retaking the county of Anjou by the end of June.Carpenter (2004), p. 286; Warren, p. 221. John besieged the castle of [Roche-au-Moine](Roche-au-Moine), a key stronghold, forcing Louis to give battle against John's larger army.Warren, p. 222. The local Angevin nobles refused to advance with John; left at something of a disadvantage, John retreated back to [Rochelle](La)(La Rochelle). Shortly afterwards, King Philip won the hard-fought [of Bouvines](battle)(battle of Bouvines) in the north against Otto and John's other allies, bringing an end to John's hopes of retaking Normandy.Warren, p. 224. A peace agreement was signed in which John returned Anjou to Philip and paid him compensation; the truce was intended to last for six years. John arrived back in England in October.
### Pre-war tensions and
[[Image:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=A photograph of a page of Magna Carta, a wide page of dense, small medieval writing.|One of four surviving original copies of , agreed by John and the barons in 1215. [Library](British)(British Library), London.]]
Within a few months of John's return, rebel barons in the north and east of England were organising resistance to his rule.Turner, p. 174. John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms and sponsored discussions in Oxford between his agents and the rebels during the spring.Turner, p. 178. He appears to have been playing for time until Pope Innocent III could send letters giving him explicit papal support. This was particularly important for John, as a way of pressuring the barons but also as a way of controlling Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury.Turner, p. 179. In the meantime, John began to recruit fresh mercenary forces from Poitou, although some were later sent back to avoid giving the impression that John was escalating the conflict. The King announced his intent to become a crusader, a move which gave him additional political protection under church law.Warren, p. 233.
Letters of support from the Pope arrived in April but by then the rebel barons had organised. They congregated at [Northampton](Northampton) in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, appointing [fitz Walter](Robert)(Robert fitz Walter) as their military leader.Turner, pp. 174, 179. This self-proclaimed "Army of God" marched on [London](London), taking the capital as well as [Lincoln](Lincoln, England) and [Exeter](Exeter).Turner, p. 180. John's efforts to appear moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful, but once the rebels held London they attracted a fresh wave of defectors from John's royalist faction. John instructed Langton to organise peace talks with the rebel barons.
John met the rebel leaders at [Runnymede](Runnymede), near [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle), on 15 June 1215. Langton's efforts at mediation created a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; it was later renamed , or "Great Charter".Turner, pp. 180, 182. The charter went beyond simply addressing specific baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform, albeit one focusing on the rights of free men, not serfs and [labour](unfree)(unfree labour).Turner, p. 182. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, new taxation only with baronial consent and limitations on [scutage](scutage) and other feudal payments.Turner, pp. 184–185. A council of twenty-five barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter, whilst the rebel army would stand down and London would be surrendered to the King.Turner, p. 189.
Neither John nor the rebel barons seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The rebel barons suspected that the proposed baronial council would be unacceptable to John and that he would challenge the legality of the charter; they packed the baronial council with their own hardliners and refused to demobilise their forces or surrender London as agreed.Turner, pp. 189–190. Despite his promises to the contrary, John appealed to Innocent for help, observing that the charter compromised the Pope's rights under the 1213 agreement that had appointed him John's feudal lord.Turner, p. 190. Innocent obliged; he declared the charter "not only shameful and demeaning, but illegal and unjust" and excommunicated the rebel barons. The failure of the agreement led rapidly to the [Barons' War](First)(First Barons' War).
### War with the barons
[[John's campaign 1215-6.png|thumb|250px|alt=A map of England showing King John's march north and back south with solid black and dashed arrows.|John's campaign from September 1215 to March 1216](Image:King)]
The rebels made the first move in the war, seizing the strategic [Castle](Rochester)(Rochester Castle), owned by Langton but left almost unguarded by the archbishop.Turner, p. 192. John was well prepared for a conflict. He had stockpiled money to pay for mercenaries and ensured the support of the powerful [lords](marcher)(marcher lords) with their own feudal forces, such as William Marshal and [de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester](Ranulf)(Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester).Turner, p. 191. The rebels lacked the engineering expertise or heavy equipment necessary to assault the network of royal castles that cut off the northern rebel barons from those in the south.Turner, p. 191; Barlow, p. 354. John's strategy was to isolate the rebel barons in London, protect his own supply lines to his key source of mercenaries in Flanders, prevent the French from landing in the south-east, and then win the war through slow attrition. John put off dealing with the badly deteriorating situation in North Wales, where Llywelyn the Great was leading a rebellion against the 1211 settlement.Rowlands, pp. 286–287.
John's campaign started well. In November John retook Rochester Castle from rebel baron [d'Aubigny](William)(William d'Aubigny (rebel)) in a sophisticated assault. One chronicler had not seen "a siege so hard pressed or so strongly resisted", whilst historian Reginald Brown describes it as "one of the greatest [siege] operations in England up to that time".Turner, p. 192 citing Brown, pp. 10–11; Turner, p. 193. Having regained the south-east John split his forces, sending William Longespée to retake the north side of London and East Anglia, whilst John himself headed north via [Nottingham](Nottingham) to attack the estates of the northern barons.Turner, p. 193. Both operations were successful and the majority of the remaining rebels were pinned down in London. In January 1216 John marched against Alexander II of Scotland, who had allied himself with the rebel cause.Duncan, p. 267. John took back Alexander's possessions in northern England in a rapid campaign and pushed up towards [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) over a ten-day period.
The rebel barons responded by inviting the French prince Louis to lead them: Louis had a claim to the English throne by virtue of his marriage to [of Castile](Blanche)(Blanche of Castile), a granddaughter of Henry II.Turner, pp. 191–192. Philip may have provided him with private support but refused to openly support Louis, who was excommunicated by Innocent for taking part in the war against John. Louis' planned arrival in England presented a significant problem for John, as the prince would bring with him naval vessels and siege engines essential to the rebel cause.Barlow, p. 356. Once John contained Alexander in Scotland, he marched south to deal with the challenge of the coming invasion.
Prince Louis intended to land in the south of England in May 1216, and John assembled a naval force to intercept him. Unfortunately for John, his fleet was dispersed by bad storms and Louis landed unopposed in [Kent](Kent). John hesitated and decided not to attack Louis immediately, either due to the risks of open battle or over concerns about the loyalty of his own men. Louis and the rebel barons advanced west and John retreated, spending the summer reorganising his defences across the rest of the kingdom.Turner, p. 194. John saw several of his military household desert to the rebels, including his half-brother, William Longespée. By the end of the summer the rebels had regained the south-east of England and parts of the north.
## Death
[[Image:King John's tomb.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of the tomb of King John; a large carved, square, stone block supports a carved effigy of the king lying down.|King John's tomb in [Cathedral](Worcester)(Worcester Cathedral)]]
In September 1216, John began a fresh, vigorous attack. He marched from the [Cotswolds](Cotswolds), feigned an offensive to relieve the besieged Windsor Castle, and attacked eastwards around London to [Cambridge](Cambridge) to separate the rebel-held areas of [Lincolnshire](Lincolnshire) and East Anglia.Turner, p. 194; Warren, p. 253. From there he travelled north to relieve the rebel siege at Lincoln and back east to [Lynn](King's Lynn), probably to order further supplies from the continent.Warren, p. 253. In Lynn, John contracted [dysentery](dysentery), which would ultimately prove fatal. Meanwhile, Alexander II invaded northern England again, taking Carlisle in August and then marching south to give homage to Prince Louis for his English possessions; John narrowly missed intercepting Alexander along the way.Turner, p. 194; Duncan, p. 267; Warren, p. 253. Tensions between Louis and the English barons began to increase, prompting a wave of desertions, including William Marshal's son [William](William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke) and William Longespée, who both returned to John's faction.McLynn, p. 455; Warren, p. 253.
### Crown Jewels
John returned west but is said to have lost much of his baggage train along the way.Warren, p. 254. [of Wendover](Roger)(Roger of Wendover) provides the most graphic account of this, suggesting that the King's belongings, including the [Crown Jewels](English)(English Crown Jewels), were lost as he crossed one of the tidal estuaries which empties into [Wash](the)(the Wash), being sucked in by [quicksand](quicksand) and [whirlpool](whirlpool)s. Accounts of the incident vary considerably between the various chroniclers and the exact location of the incident has never been confirmed; the losses may have involved only a few of his pack-horses.Warren, pp. 284–285; Barlow, p. 356. Modern historians assert that by October 1216 John faced a "stalemate", "a military situation uncompromised by defeat".Turner, p. 195; Barlow, p. 357.
John's illness grew worse and by the time he reached [Castle, Nottinghamshire](Newark)(Newark Castle, Nottinghamshire), he was unable to travel any farther; he died on the night of 18/19 October.Warren, pp. 254–255. Numerous—probably fictitious—accounts circulated soon after his death that he had been killed by poisoned ale, poisoned plums or a "surfeit of peaches".Given-Wilson, p. 87. His body was escorted south by a company of mercenaries and he was buried in [Cathedral](Worcester)(Worcester Cathedral) in front of the altar of St Wulfstan.Warren, p. 255; McLynn, p. 460. A new [sarcophagus](sarcophagus) with an [effigy](effigy) was made for him in 1232, in which his remains now rest.Danziger and Gillingham, p. 270.
In his will, John ordered that his niece Eleanor, who might have had a claim to the throne of his successor, [III](Henry)(Henry III of England), never be released from prison.Tuten, Belle S.; Billado, Tracey L. *Feud, violence, and practice: Essays in medieval studies in honor of Stephen D. White*, pp. 280–285
## Legacy
[[File:English and French holdings 1180-1223.png|thumb|300px|Changes in [Angevin](Angevin kings of England) and [Capetian](House of Capet) holdings in France. Blue: French royal domains,
Green: Fiefs held on behalf of the French crown,
Yellow: Church lordships,
Red: Fiefs held on behalf of the English crown]]
In the aftermath of John's death, William Marshal was declared the protector of the nine-year-old Henry III.McLynn, p. 460. The civil war continued until royalist victories at the battles of [Lincoln](Battle of Lincoln (1217)) and [Dover](Battle of Dover (1217)) in 1217. Louis gave up his claim to the English throne and signed the [of Lambeth](Treaty)(Treaty of Lambeth). The failed agreement was resuscitated by Marshal's administration and reissued in an edited form in 1217 as a basis for future government.Danziger and Gillinham, p. 271; Huscroft, p. 151. Henry III continued his attempts to reclaim Normandy and Anjou until 1259, but John's continental losses and the consequent growth of Capetian power in the 13th century proved to mark a "turning point in European history".Carpenter (2004), p. 270.
John's first wife, Isabella, Countess of Gloucester, was released from imprisonment in 1214; she remarried twice, and died in 1217. John's second wife, Isabella of Angoulême, left England for [Angoulême](Angoulême) soon after the king's death; she became a powerful regional leader, but largely abandoned the children she had had by John.Vincent, p. 206. Their eldest son, Henry III, ruled as King of England for the majority of the 13th century. Their other son, [of Cornwall](Richard)(Richard of Cornwall), became a noted European leader and ultimately the [of the Romans](King)(King of the Romans) in the Holy Roman Empire.Carpenter (1996), p. 223. Their daughter [Joan](Joan of England, Queen of Scotland) became Queen of Scotland on her marriage to Alexander II. Another daughter, [Isabella](Isabella of England), was Holy Roman Empress as the wife of [Frederick II](Emperor)(Emperor Frederick II).Carpenter (2004), p. 344. The youngest daughter, [Eleanor](Eleanor of England, Countess of Leicester), married William Marshal's son, also called William, and later the famous English rebel [de Montfort](Simon)(Simon de Montfort).Carpenter (2004), p. 306.
By various mistresses John had eight, possibly nine, sons—[Richard](Richard FitzRoy), Oliver, John, Geoffrey, Henry, Osbert Gifford, Eudes, Bartholomew and probably Philip—and two or three daughters—Joan, Maud and probably Isabel.Richardson, p. 9. Of these, Joan became the most famous, marrying Prince Llywelyn the Great of Wales.Carpenter (2004), p. 328.
### Historiography
[[Image:BritLibRoyal14CVIIFol006rMattParisSelfPort.jpg|thumb|alt=A medieval sketch of Matthew Paris, dressed as a monk and on his hands and knees.|A self-portrait of [Paris](Matthew)(Matthew Paris), one of the first historians of John's reign]]
Historical interpretations of John have been subject to considerable change over the centuries. Medieval [chronicle](chronicle)rs provided the first contemporary, or near contemporary, histories of John's reign. One group of chroniclers wrote early in John's life, or around the time of his accession, including [of Devizes](Richard)(Richard of Devizes), [of Newburgh](William)(William of Newburgh), [of Hoveden](Roger)(Roger of Hoveden) and [de Diceto](Ralph)(Ralph de Diceto).Gillingham (2007), p. 2. These historians were generally unsympathetic to John's behaviour under Richard's rule, but slightly more positive towards the very earliest years of John's reign.Holt (1963), p. 19, cited Gillingham (2007) p. 4.
Reliable accounts of the middle and later parts of John's reign are more limited, with [of Canterbury](Gervase)(Gervase of Canterbury) and [of Coggeshall](Ralph)(Ralph of Coggeshall) writing the main accounts; neither of them were positive about John's performance as king.Warren, p. 7; Gillingham (2007), p. 15. Much of John's later, negative reputation was established by two chroniclers writing after his death, [of Wendover](Roger)(Roger of Wendover) and [Paris](Matthew)(Matthew Paris), the latter claiming that John attempted conversion to Islam in exchange for military aid from the [Almohad](Almohad) ruler [al-Nasir](Muhammad)(Muhammad al-Nasir)—a story modern historians consider untrue.Warren, pp. 11, 14.
In the 16th century political and religious changes altered the attitude of historians towards John. [Tudor](Tudor period) historians were generally favourably inclined towards the King, focusing on his opposition to the Papacy and his promotion of the special rights and prerogatives of a king. Revisionist histories written by [Foxe](John)(John Foxe), [Tyndale](William)(William Tyndale) and [Barnes](Robert)(Robert Barnes (martyr)) portrayed John as an early Protestant hero, and Foxe included the King in his *[of Martyrs](Book)(Book of Martyrs)*.Bevington, p. 432. [Speed](John)(John Speed)'s *Historie of Great Britaine* in 1632 praised John's "great renown" as a king; he blamed the bias of medieval chroniclers for the King's poor reputation.Gillingham (2007), p. 4.
[[Image:Foxe's Book of Martyrs title page.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A photograph of the wood block print of the Book of Martyrs. The book's title is in the centre and various scenes from the book are depicted around it.|[Foxe](John)(John Foxe)'s *[of Martyrs](Book)(Book of Martyrs)*, officially titled *Acts and Monuments*, which took a positive view of John's reign]]
By the Victorian period in the 19th century, historians were more inclined to draw on the judgements of the chroniclers and to focus on John's moral personality. [Norgate](Kate)(Kate Norgate), for example, argued that John's downfall had been due not to his failure in war or strategy, but due to his "almost superhuman wickedness", whilst James Ramsay blamed John's family background and his cruel personality for his downfall.Norgate (1902), p. 286; Ramsay, p. 502. Historians in the "[Whiggish](Whiggish)" tradition, focusing on documents such as the [Book](Domesday)(Domesday Book) and , trace a progressive and [universalist](universalist) course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period.Dyer, p. 4; Coss, p. 81.
These historians were often inclined to see John's reign, and his signing of in particular, as a positive step in the constitutional development of England, despite the flaws of the King himself. [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill), for example, argued that "[w]hen the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns".Churchill, p. 190.
In the 1940s, new interpretations of John's reign began to emerge, based on research into the record evidence of his reign, such as [roll](pipe)(pipe roll)s, charters, court documents and similar primary records. Notably, an essay by [Galbraith](Vivian)(Vivian Galbraith) in 1945 proposed a "new approach" to understanding the ruler.Galbraith, pp. 128–130, cited Gillingham (2007), p. 1. The use of recorded evidence was combined with an increased scepticism about two of the most colourful chroniclers of John's reign, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris.Turner, pp. 22–23. In many cases the detail provided by these chroniclers, both writing after John's death, was challenged by modern historians.Warren, pp. 11–16.
Interpretations of the and the role of the rebel barons in 1215 have been significantly revised: although the charter's symbolic, constitutional value for later generations is unquestionable, in the context of John's reign most historians now consider it a failed peace agreement between "partisan" factions.Huscroft, p. 174; Barlow, p. 353. There has been increasing debate about the nature of John's Irish policies. Specialists in Irish medieval history, such as Sean Duffy, have challenged the conventional narrative established by [Warren](Lewis)(Lewis Warren), suggesting that Ireland was less stable by 1216 than was previously supposed.Duffy, pp. 221, 245.
Most historians today, including John's recent biographers Ralph Turner and Lewis Warren, argue that John was an unsuccessful monarch, but note that his failings were exaggerated by 12th- and 13th-century chroniclers. [Bradbury](Jim)(Jim Bradbury) notes the current consensus that John was a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general", albeit, as Turner suggests, with "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", including pettiness, spitefulness and cruelty.Bradbury (2007), p. 353; Turner, p. 23. [Gillingham](John)(John Gillingham), author of a major biography of Richard I, follows this line too, although he considers John a less effective general than do Turner or Warren, and describes him "one of the worst kings ever to rule England".Gillingham (2001), p. 125.
Bradbury takes a moderate line, but suggests that in recent years modern historians have been overly lenient towards John's numerous faults.Bradbury (2007), p. 361. Popular historian [McLynn](Frank)(Frank McLynn) maintains a counter-revisionist perspective on John, arguing that the King's modern reputation amongst historians is "bizarre", and that as a monarch John "fails almost all those [tests] that can be legitimately set".McLynn, pp. 472–473. According to [Warren Hollister](C.)(C. Warren Hollister), "The dramatic ambivalence of his personality, the passions that he stirred among his own contemporaries, the very magnitude of his failures, have made him an object of endless fascination to historians and biographers."Hollister, p. 1.
### Popular representations
[[Image:FirstFolioKingJohn.jpg|thumb|alt=A photograph of the first page of Shakespeare's play "King John", with two columns of text below.|Shakespeare's play *[Life and Death of King John](The)(The Life and Death of King John)*]]
Popular representations of John first began to emerge during the Tudor period, mirroring the revisionist histories of the time. The anonymous play *[Troublesome Reign of King John](The)(The Troublesome Reign of King John)* portrayed the King as a "[proto-Protestant](Proto-Protestantism) martyr", similar to that shown in [Bale](John)(John Bale)'s morality play *[Johan](Kynge)(John Bale#Kynge Johan)*, in which John attempts to save England from the "evil agents of the Roman Church".Curren-Aquino (1989a), p. 19.; Harris, p. 91. By contrast, Shakespeare's *[John](King)(King John (play))*, a relatively anti-Catholic play that draws on *The Troublesome Reign* for its source material, offers a more "balanced, dual view of a complex monarch as both a proto-Protestant victim of Rome's machinations and as a weak, selfishly motivated ruler".Curren-Aquino (1989a), p. 19; McEachern, p. 329; Bevington, p. 454.
[Munday](Anthony)(Anthony Munday)'s play *[Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington](The)(The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington)* portrays many of John's negative traits, but adopts a positive interpretation of the King's stand against the Roman Catholic Church, in line with the contemporary views of the Tudor monarchs.Potter, p. 70. By the middle of the 17th century, plays such as [Davenport](Robert)(Robert Davenport (dramatist))'s *[John and Matilda](King)(King John and Matilda)*, although based largely on the earlier Elizabethan works, were transferring the role of Protestant champion to the barons and focusing more on the tyrannical aspects of John's behaviour.Maley, p. 50.
Nineteenth-century fictional depictions of John were heavily influenced by Sir [Scott](Walter)(Walter Scott)'s historical romance, *[Ivanhoe](Ivanhoe)*, which presented "an almost totally unfavourable picture" of the King; the work drew on 19th-century histories of the period and on Shakespeare's play.Tulloch, p. 497. Scott's work influenced the late-19th-century children's writer [Pyle](Howard)(Howard Pyle)'s book *[Merry Adventures of Robin Hood](The)(The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood)*, which in turn established John as the principal villain within the traditional [Hood](Robin)(Robin Hood) narrative.D'Ammassa, p. 94.
During the 20th century, John was normally depicted in fictional books and films alongside Robin Hood. [De Grasse](Sam)(Sam De Grasse)'s role as John in the black-and-white [film version](1922)(Douglas Fairbanks in Robin Hood) shows John committing numerous atrocities and acts of torture.Aberth, p. 166. [Rains](Claude)(Claude Rains) played John in the [colour version](1938)(The Adventures of Robin Hood) alongside [Flynn](Errol)(Errol Flynn), starting a trend for films to depict John as an "effeminate ... arrogant and cowardly stay-at-home".Potter, p. 210. The character of John acts either to highlight the virtues of King Richard, or contrasts with the [of Nottingham](Sheriff)(Sheriff of Nottingham), who is usually the "swashbuckling villain" opposing Robin.
An extreme version of this trend can be seen in the 1973 [cartoon version](Disney)(Robin Hood (1973 film)), for example, which depicts John, voiced by [Ustinov](Peter)(Peter Ustinov), as a "cowardly, thumbsucking lion".Potter, p. 218. Popular works that depict John beyond the Robin Hood legends, such as [Goldman](James)(James Goldman)'s play and later film, *[Lion in Winter](The)(The Lion in Winter)*, set in 1183, commonly present him as an "effete weakling", in this instance contrasted with the more masculine Henry II, or as a tyrant, as in [A. Milne](A.)(A. A. Milne)'s poem for children, "King John's Christmas".Elliott, pp. 109–110; Seel, p. 7.
## Issue
John and Isabella of Angoulême had five children:
# [III, King of England](Henry)(Henry III, King of England) (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272)
# [King of the Romans](Richard,)(Richard, King of the Romans) (5 January 1209 – 2 April 1272)
# [Queen of Scotland](Joan,)(Joan of England, Queen of Scotland) (22 July 1210 – 4 March 1238)
# [Holy Roman Empress](Isabella,)(Isabella of England) (1214 – 1 December 1241)
# [Countess of Pembroke](Eleanor,)(Eleanor, Countess of Pembroke) (1215 – 13 April 1275)
John had several mistresses, including one named Suzanne.Warren, p. 189n His known illegitimate children are:
# [FitzRoy](Richard)(Richard FitzRoy) ( – June 1246), whose mother was Adela, John's first cousin
# [Lady of Wales](Joan,)(Joan, Lady of Wales) ( – February 1237), also known by her Welsh name of Siwan
# John (fl. 1201), who became a clerk
# Geoffrey (died 1205), held the honour of PerchePainter, p. 232
# [fitz Regis](Oliver)(Oliver fitz Regis) (bef. 1199 – 1218/1219), whose mother was Hawise, sister of [FitzWarin](Fulk)(Fulk FitzWarin)
# Osbert Giffard
## Genealogical table
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
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## External links
* [John Lackland](https://www.royal.uk/john-lackland) at the official website of the British monarchy
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[ ](Category:John, King of England)
[births](Category:1166)(Category:1166 births)
[deaths](Category:1216)(Category:1216 deaths)
[English monarchs](Category:12th-century)(Category:12th-century English monarchs)
[English monarchs](Category:13th-century)(Category:13th-century English monarchs)
[Dukes of Normandy](Category:12th-century)(Category:12th-century Dukes of Normandy)
[Dukes of Normandy](Category:13th-century)(Category:13th-century Dukes of Normandy)
[from dysentery](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from dysentery)
[of Cornwall](Category:Earls)(Category:Earls of Cornwall)
[people of French descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of French descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Scottish descent)
[Sheriffs of Somerset](Category:High)(Category:High Sheriffs of Somerset)
[of Plantagenet](Category:House)(Category:House of Plantagenet)
[temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church](Category:People)(Category:People temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church)
[from Oxford](Category:People)(Category:People from Oxford)
[Hood characters](Category:Robin)(Category:Robin Hood characters)
[of the Barons' Wars](Category:People)(Category:People of the Barons' Wars)
[at Worcester Cathedral](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Worcester Cathedral)
[of Anjou](Category:House)(Category:House of Anjou)
[peers of France](Category:13th-century)(Category:13th-century peers of France)
[of Gloucester](Category:Earls)(Category:Earls of Gloucester)
[disease deaths in England](Category:Infectious)(Category:Infectious disease deaths in England)
[of Henry II of England](Category:Children)(Category:Children of Henry II of England)
[of Glamorgan](Category:Lords)(Category:Lords of Glamorgan)
[Category:Proto-Protestants](Category:Proto-Protestants)
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Event Horizon _film
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event_horizon__film
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# Event Horizon (film)
*Revision ID: 1160327294 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:48:11Z*
---
| writer = [Eisner](Philip)(Philip Eisner)
| starring =
| music = [Kamen](Michael)(Michael Kamen)
| cinematography = [Biddle](Adrian)(Adrian Biddle)
| editing = Martin Hunter
| production_companies =
| distributor = Paramount Pictures
| released =
| runtime = 96 minutes
| country =
* United States
}}
| language = English
| budget = $60 million
| gross = $42 million
}}
***Event Horizon*** is a 1997 [fiction horror](science)(science fiction horror) film directed by [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson) and written by [Eisner](Philip)(Philip Eisner). It stars [Fishburne](Laurence)(Laurence Fishburne), [Neill](Sam)(Sam Neill), [Quinlan](Kathleen)(Kathleen Quinlan) and [Richardson](Joely)(Joely Richardson). Set in 2047, it follows a crew of astronauts sent on a rescue mission after a missing spaceship, the *Event Horizon*, spontaneously appears in orbit around [Neptune](Neptune), only to discover that a sinister force has come back with it.
The film had a troubled production, with filming and editing rushed by [Paramount](Paramount Pictures) when it became clear that *[Titanic](Titanic (1997 film))* would not meet its projected release. The original 130-minute cut of the film was heavily edited by the studio's demand, to Anderson's consternation.
On release, the film was a commercial and critical failure, grossing $42 million on a $60 million production budget. However, it began to sell well on [video](home)(home video); its initial DVD release sold so well that Paramount contacted Anderson to begin working on a restoration of the deleted footage, but it had been either lost or destroyed. In the years since, the film has developed a [following](cult)(cult film) and is referenced in other works of popular culture.
## Plot
In 2047, a distress signal is received from the *Event Horizon*, a [starship](starship) that disappeared during its maiden voyage to [Centauri](Proxima)(Proxima Centauri) seven years earlier. The ship mysteriously reappears in a [orbit](decaying)(orbital decay) around [Neptune](Neptune), and the rescue vessel *Lewis and Clark* is dispatched to investigate. Its crew—Capt. Miller, second-in-command Lt. Starck, pilot Smith, medical technician Peters, engineer Ensign Justin, doctor D.J., and rescue technician Cooper—is joined by Dr. William Weir, the *Event Horizon*s designer. He briefs them on the ship's experimental gravity drive with a simple visualization of how it [space-time](folds)(Wormhole). The distress signal consists of a series of screams and howls but D.J. believes he hears the [Latin](Latin) phrase ("Save me").
Upon boarding the *Event Horizon* the crew finds evidence of a massacre. As they search for survivors, the ship's gravity drive activates and briefly pulls Justin into a portal while also causing a shock wave that damages the *Lewis and Clark*. The crew are all forced to board the *Event Horizon* while Justin emerges in a [state](catatonic)(catatonia). He attempts [suicide](suicide) by decompression, but is saved by Miller, forcing the crew to place Justin in [stasis](suspended animation). Smith and Cooper are sent on a spacewalk to repair the hull of the *Lewis and Clark*.
The crew begins having hallucinations corresponding to their fears and regrets. Miller sees a subordinate he was forced to abandon to his death; Peters sees her son with his legs covered in bloody lesions; Weir sees an eyeless vision of his late wife urging him to join her. They discover a video log of the *Event Horizon*s crew fornicating and mutilating each other shortly after first engaging the gravity drive. The log ends with a shot of the *Event Horizon*s captain, holding his own eyes gouged from their sockets and speaking the Latin phrase from the earlier distress call. D.J. translates the complete phrase as ("Save from [hell](hell)").
Weir explains that the ship's drive opened a gateway to a hellish dimension outside the [universe](known)(universe), and that the *Event Horizon* has attained [sentience](sentience). Miller decides to destroy it and orders an evacuation while Peters is lured to her death by a hallucination of her son. Weir, who has gouged out his own eyes and is possessed by the evil presence, destroys the *Lewis and Clark* and kills Smith. Weir then kills D.J. by [vivisecting](Vivisection) him and corners Starck on the [bridge](bridge (nautical)). Miller confronts Weir, who overpowers him and initiates a 10-minute countdown to activate the gravity drive and return to the other dimension.
Cooper uses his space suit's oxygen supply to propel himself back to the ship and appears at the bridge window. Weir shoots at him, shattering the window, causing Weir to be blown into space by the decompression. Miller, Starck, and Cooper survive and manage to seal off the ship's bridge. With their own ship destroyed, Miller plans to split the *Event Horizon* in two with explosives and use its forward section as a lifeboat. He is attacked by hallucinations which turn out to be the resurrected and further mutilated Weir. Miller fights him off and detonates the explosives, sacrificing himself.
The gravity drive activates, pulling the ship's stern section into a black hole. Starck and Cooper enter stasis beside a comatose Justin and wait to be rescued. Seventy-two days later, the wreckage of the *Event Horizon* is boarded by a rescue party who discover the survivors in stasis. Starck sees Weir posing as one of the rescuers and screams in terror, but wakes up and realizes that it was a nightmare. Cooper and the rescue team try to calm the terrified Starck as the doors close.
## Cast
as Captain John Kilpack, commanding officer of the *Event Horizon*.
* Holley Chant as Claire Weir, Dr. Weir's wife.
* Barclay Wright as Denny Peters, Peters' son.
* [Huntley](Noah)(Noah Huntley) as Edmund Corrick, Miller's former shipmate from the *Goliath*.
* [Jezek](Robert)(Robert Jezek) as Rescue Technician, rescues the survivors of the *Lewis and Clark*.
}}
## Production
### Development
After *[Kombat](Mortal)(Mortal Kombat (1995 film))* (1995) was a commercial success in the United States, English director [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson) was inundated with screenplay offers, as well as the opportunity to direct the *Mortal Kombat* sequel *[Kombat: Annihilation](Mortal)(Mortal Kombat: Annihilation)* (1997) and the upcoming *[X-Men](X-Men (film))* (2000). He turned down the offers in favor of making an [R-rated](Motion Picture Association of America film rating system) horror film, wanting to shift away from making another [PG-13](PG-13) film. [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) sent him [Eisner](Philip)(Philip Eisner)'s original script for *Event Horizon*, which they had been trying to develop with producers [Gordon](Lawrence)(Lawrence Gordon (producer)) and [Levin](Lloyd)(Lloyd Levin). According to Eisner, he first [pitched](pitch (filmmaking)) its concept to Gordon as a "haunted house story in space", which the producer thought had potential: "Luckily", said Eisner, "he liked the idea enough to trust me to do it."
Anderson's initial reaction to the script, which involved the cruiseship *Event Horizon* experiencing a series of hauntings by "tentacular" aliens, it having crossed the threshold of their planet or "dimension", was that it bore striking resemblance to *[Alien](Alien (film))* (1979). Producer and longtime collaborator [Bolt](Jeremy)(Jeremy Bolt) felt it was a "terrific concept" but was "very dense" in terms of length and the storyline was "a bit lost." Anderson did not want to direct a mimicry of *Alien*, so he gave the script a major rewrite, picturing a "classic haunted house movie." He incorporated significant influences of moderately successful horror films such as [Wise](Robert)(Robert Wise)'s *[Haunting](The)(The Haunting (1963 film))* (1963) and [Kubrick](Kubrick)'s *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))* (1980), because they created suspense from the unknown—the evil presence was hidden from the viewer—and their endings induced ambiguities of perception in the audience. He said he was also interested in the concept of [Hell](Hell), and of "the ship itself being possessed rather than going 'Oh, it's an alien consciousness that is doing this,'" and added these to the script. Anderson also said that the science fiction film *[Solaris](Solaris (1972 film))* (1972) was the inspiration for *Event Horizon*.
Screenwriter [Eisner](Philip)(Philip Eisner) acknowledged that *[40,000](Warhammer)(Warhammer 40,000)* influenced the story. In the setting of *Warhammer 40,000*, spaceships travel the galaxy by passing through "the Warp"—a parallel dimension where faster-than-light travel is possible, conceptually similar to "[hyperspace](hyperspace)" in *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)*, but which is also inhabited by evil spirits that can infiltrate the ship and possess the crew if said ship is not properly shielded. Fans consider *Event Horizon* to be an unofficial prequel to *Warhammer 40,000*, when humankind discovers the Warp and learns of its dangers the hard way.
### Filming and effects
Filming took place in [Studios](Pinewood)(Pinewood Studios). Anderson modeled the *Event Horizon* ship after [Dame Cathedral](Notre)(Notre Dame Cathedral) using an architectural cam program. Effects supervisors [Yuricich](Richard)(Richard Yuricich) and [Corbould](Neil)(Neil Corbould) kept most visuals [in-camera](In-camera effect), and moving sets were constructed for the gyrosphere gravity drive and the revolving tunnel. For scenes depicting zero gravity, the actors were hung upside down in harnesses and spun around. The original script had more zero gravity scenes, but budget constraints had the filmmakers introduce magnetic boots. Because the majority of scenes were filmed in a studio on gothic-inspired sets, Anderson felt the cast experienced a kind of "cabin fever" that better served their performances.
### Editing
As Anderson explained, directors usually have a standard 10-week editing period to produce a film's first cut, as guaranteed by the [Guild of America](Directors)(Directors Guild of America). However, due to the short production schedule, the rapidly approaching release date, and the fact that principal photography had not finished, Anderson agreed to a six-week editing period, and promised to deliver the film by August 1997, as Paramount wanted a hit film before ''[Titanic's](Titanic (1997 film))'' planned September release date. When the main unit wrapped, Anderson was supposed to start editing the film, but he had two weeks of shooting left with the [unit](second)(second unit), shortening post-production to just four weeks, during which only a rough cut could be assembled. He noted that at two hours and 10 minutes, it was overly long, with weak direction and acting that could have used another editing pass; unfinished special effects; and a poor sound mix.
In [screening](test)(test screening)s, the cut was poorly received. There were complaints about the extreme gore, and Anderson and producer [Bolt](Jeremy)(Jeremy Bolt) claim that some members of the test audience fainted. Paramount executives, who had stopped watching the [dailies](dailies) before any of the gore was shot, and were seeing the complete film for the first time along with the audience, were similarly shocked by how gruesome it was, and demanded a shorter runtime with less gore. Anderson agreed that while his first cut was too long, Paramount forced him to make one that was instead too short, and that the film would benefit by the restoration of around 10 minutes of footage, including some of the deleted gore.
### Lost footage
... influenced by [Bosch](Hieronymus Bosch) and [Bruegel](Pieter Bruegel the Elder)... so there was a beauty to it, even though it was very disturbing. |source=—Paul W. S. Anderson}}
When the initial [DVD](DVD) release was a surprise hit, the studio and Anderson became interested in assembling a [cut](director's)(director's cut), but found that the excised footage had not been carefully stored and much of it had gone missing. The director's cut was abandoned and instead a special-edition two-DVD set was released, featuring one deleted scene, two extended scenes, and a few shots of deleted material in the included [making-of](making-of) featurette. The footage is of "[video](Videotape)" quality.
Known deleted scenes include a meeting scene between Weir and people in charge of the mission in which they discuss *Event Horizon*, some dialogue of which remained present in the theatrical trailer; more backstory for Cooper and Justin, including a stronger explanation for Justin entering the black hole; a deleted backstory of the relationship between Starck and Miller; additional scenes explaining what the gateway to hell/black hole is; Miller finding a tooth floating in *Event Horizon*; a longer version of the scene where Peters hallucinates that her son's mangled legs are covered in maggots; a scene where Weir hallucinates that Justin turns into his wife Claire; a bloodier version of Weir's wife Claire's suicide; a longer version of the scene where Miller finds D.J.'s vivisected body with his guts on the table; and a longer version of the "Visions From Hell" scene during Miller's final fight with Weir, with more shots of *Event Horizon* crew being tortured.
The "bloody orgy" video was also longer. As Anderson was sometimes too busy filming other scenes, second-unit director Vadim Jean filmed some parts of it. Real-life amputees were used for special effects scenes where *Event Horizon* crew members were mutilated, and [film](pornographic)(pornographic film) actors were hired to make the sex and rape scenes more realistic and graphic.
The film's final ending was a combination of two unused alternate endings. One did not have a jump scare at the end when the last two survivors are found by another rescue crew and Starck hallucinates that she sees Weir, although there was a similar version of the scene included in this ending where she hears screams of the *Event Horizon* crew and screams before Cooper wakes her. This was the film's original ending in the shooting script. The second ending had Miller fighting with the burned man from his visions at the core instead of with Weir, but this was changed due to the negative test screening.
In an *Event Horizon* Q&A in 2011, Anderson was asked when extra footage would be made available. "Never," he said, explaining that much of it was gone forever. However, in a 2012 interview, he announced that producer [Levin](Lloyd)(Lloyd Levin) had found a [VHS](VHS) tape with his original rough cut. He said that after finishing *[Evil: Retribution](Resident)(Resident Evil: Retribution)*, he planned to watch the recovered footage for the first time since assembling the film. In a January 2017 interview, he reiterated that a director's cut would never be released, as the footage no longer existed. Asked about the VHS tape, he said neither he nor Levin had seen it yet, as Levin had moved to Spain; however, he was still excited about watching it at some point.
### Music
[Kamen](Michael)(Michael Kamen) was hired to compose the film's score. Director [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson), a fan of hybrid genre music, invited the [dance music](electronic)(electronic dance music) duo [Orbital](Orbital (band)) to collaborate with Kamen and to provide synthesized sounds for the film's unsettling atmosphere.
A soundtrack album was released which combined various cues from the score into four tracks of approximately ten minutes.
## Reception
### Box office
*Event Horizon* was released on August 15, 1997, and was a box office failure, grossing only $26,616,590 against a $60 million production budget in the United States. Internationally it grossed nearly $16 million, for a worldwide total of $42 million.
### Critical response
On review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), *Event Horizon* holds an approval rating of 32% based on 87 reviews and an average rating of 5/10. Its consensus reads, "Despite a strong opening that promises sci-fi thrills, *Event Horizon* quickly devolves into an exercise of style over substance whose flashy effects and gratuitous gore fail to mask its overreliance on horror clichés." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film holds a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "D+" on an A+ to F scale.
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave the film two out of four stars, commending its atmosphere and noting the opening portion as particularly well crafted; however, he felt it never managed to become the intense, thought-provoking experience it wanted to be. *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* critic [Hunter](Stephen)(Stephen Hunter) called the film "pointlessly loud", with more devotion to style than scares and a satisfying explanation of its supernatural experiences. In a lukewarm review, *[Empire](Empire (magazine))* magazine wrote: "That the film never fulfils its promise is down to its over reliance on horror vagaries in a precision-built sci-fi milieu, ultimately leaving too many unanswered queries. A sharper script and a more credible solution could have turned this impressive hokum into a force to be reckoned with". Ebert and some other critics noted the influence of Tarkovsky's *[Solaris](Solaris (1972 film))* on *Event Horizon*.
The film had some early supporters. *[Film](Total)(Total Film)* gave it 3 out of 5, stating: "Excellent special effects and an *[Alien](Alien (film))*-esque feel make this supernatural horror film ('*[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))* in space,' as most critics have called it, pretty accurately) well worth a look." [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) gave it a B−, stating, "Just when you've written off this deep-space nightmare as a late-summer melange of *Alien*, *[Voyage](Fantastic)(Fantastic Voyage)*, *The Shining*, and a dozen more forgettable otherworldly thrillers, it unleashes some of the most unsettling horror imagery in years", whereas *[Out](Time)(Time Out (magazine))* magazine mentioned that "despite its shortcomings, this is never dull. The movie avoids Alien space monster clichés brilliantly and the soundtrack contains more of the 'Boo!' effects than I've heard since *Halloween*."
### Legacy and re-evaluation
In the years since its release, *Event Horizon* has developed a [following](cult)(cult film) and has been referenced in other works of popular culture. During the 25th anniversary of its release, Anderson said, "It's finally got the reaction now that I was hoping it would get 25 years ago." *[Film](Total)(Total Film)* mentioned that "the film has been cemented in pop culture history as both a cult classic and vital addition to the sci-fi/horror subgenre", calling it "a misunderstood cult classic". While interviewing Anderson for its 25th anniversary, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s J. Kim Murphy commented that the film "is full of striking images". [Space.com](Space.com) described the depiction of Hell as "cult sci-fi film's stylish nightmares." *[Collider](Collider (website))* called it "a grand, ambitious vision that tries to marry elements from the *Alien* films (the first half-hour or so hews very closely to *[Aliens](Aliens (film))*) with spiritual depth. It doesn't quite pull all of it together, but where the pieces do fit work better than expected, a film aiming for A+ that is content with its B grade. So yes, *Event Horizon* is indeed worthy of its reevaluation." *[Forbes](Forbes)* described it as "Anderson's nightmarish epic", while *[Fangoria](Fangoria)*s Scott Wampler said that this was Anderson's best film. *[IGN](IGN)* described the film's "lasting legacy and impact on other media" such as the *[Space](Dead)(Dead Space)* videogame series, and how it "found enough of an audience over the years that it's continued to be part of the pop culture landscape." [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) mentioned that "its unforgettable imagery, standout cast, and escalating thrills have made it a celebrated cult classic for horror aficionados", citing its continuing influence on popular culture.
## Future
### Potential films
In December 2011, Paul W.S. Anderson and Jeremy Bolt stated that there have been ongoing discussions to explore additional movies that would expand the *Event Horizon* story, in the form of a prequel and a sequel. Potential stories to be developed include following the first crew aboard the *Event Horizon* and their mission that led to their disappearance for seven years, as well as a continuation film detailing the events that followed the rescue of Lt. M.L. Starck, T.F. Cooper, and Ensign "Baby Bear" Justin. By October 2020 however, after years of no development, Anderson stated that he had not returned to the property in any continuation because he did not want to take away from the experience of the original film. In August 2022, Anderson reiterated that talk of a prequel and/or sequel is always ongoing, and stated that what has kept the projects from becoming a reality is his desire to preserve the original film's ambiguity.
### Television series
In August 2019, a television series based on the film was reported to be in development by [Television](Paramount)(Paramount Television) and [Studios](Amazon)(Amazon Studios). [Wingard](Adam)(Adam Wingard) will direct the series, in addition to serving as executive producer alongside Larry Gordon, Lloyd Levin, and Jeremy Platt. Gordon and Levin previously held producer roles on the original feature film.
## See also
* [in film](1997)(1997 in film)
* [of incomplete or partially lost films](List)(List of incomplete or partially lost films)
* [of films featuring space stations](List)(List of films featuring space stations)
* [of science fiction horror films](List)(List of science fiction horror films)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*[Script of the movie on Scripts.com](https://www.scripts.com/script/event_horizon_856)
[films](Category:1997)(Category:1997 films)
[horror films](Category:1997)(Category:1997 horror films)
[science fiction horror films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s science fiction horror films)
[supernatural horror films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s supernatural horror films)
[psychological horror films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s psychological horror films)
[science fiction horror films](Category:British)(Category:British science fiction horror films)
[science fiction horror films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction horror films)
[English-language films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s English-language films)
[scored by Michael Kamen](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Michael Kamen)
[about astronauts](Category:Films)(Category:Films about astronauts)
[directed by Paul W. S. Anderson](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Paul W. S. Anderson)
[set in 2047](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2047)
[set in the future](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the future)
[set on spacecraft](Category:Films)(Category:Films set on spacecraft)
[shot at Pinewood Studios](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot at Pinewood Studios)
[about wormholes](Category:Films)(Category:Films about wormholes)
[in film](Category:Neptune)(Category:Neptune in film)
[about parallel universes](Category:Films)(Category:Films about parallel universes)
[set around Proxima Centauri](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction set around Proxima Centauri)
[splatter films](Category:American)(Category:American splatter films)
[splatter films](Category:British)(Category:British splatter films)
[Pictures films](Category:Paramount)(Category:Paramount Pictures films)
[American films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s American films)
[British films](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s British films)
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Horus
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horus
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# Horus
*Revision ID: 1160304900 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T16:35:29Z*
---
| symbol = [of Horus](Eye)(Eye of Horus)
| parents = [Osiris](Osiris) and [Isis](Isis), [Osiris](Osiris) and [Nephthys](Nephthys), [Hathor](Hathor)
| siblings = [Anubis](Anubis), [Bastet](Bastet)
| consort = [Hathor](Hathor), [Isis](Isis), [Serket](Serket) [Nephthys](Nephthys)
| offspring = [Ihy](Ihy), [Sons of Horus](Four)(Four Sons of Horus) (Horus the Elder)
| greek_equivalent = [Apollo](Apollo)
| hiero = G5
| equivalent1 = [Mandulis](Mandulis)
| equivalent1_type = Nubian
}}
**Horus**, also known as **Heru** or **Hor** in [Egyptian](Ancient)(Egyptian language), is one of the most significant [Egyptian deities](ancient)(ancient Egyptian deities) who served many functions, most notably as god of kingship, healing, protection, the sun and the sky. He was worshipped from at least the late [Egypt](prehistoric)(prehistoric Egypt) until the [Kingdom](Ptolemaic)(Ptolemaic Kingdom) and [Egypt](Roman)(Egypt (Roman province)). Different forms of Horus are recorded in history, and these are treated as distinct gods by [Egyptologists](Egyptology)."The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, Horus: by Edmund S. Meltzer, pp. 164–168, Berkley, 2003, . These various forms may be different manifestations of the same multi-layered deity in which certain attributes or [syncretic](Syncretism) relationships are emphasized, not necessarily in opposition but complementary to one another, consistent with how the Ancient Egyptians viewed the multiple facets of reality."The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", Edited by Donald B. Redford, p106 & p165, Berkley, 2003, . He was most often depicted as a [falcon](falcon), most likely a [falcon](lanner)(lanner falcon) or [falcon](peregrine)(peregrine falcon), or as a man with a falcon head.Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). *The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt*. Thames & Hudson. p. 202.
The earliest recorded form of Horus is the [deity](tutelary)(tutelary deity) of [Nekhen](Nekhen) in [Egypt](Upper)(Upper Egypt), who is the first known national god, specifically related to the ruling [pharaoh](pharaoh) who in time came to be regarded as a manifestation of Horus in life and [Osiris](Osiris) in death. The most commonly encountered family relationship describes Horus as the son of [Isis](Isis) and Osiris, and he plays a key role in the [myth](Osiris)(Osiris myth) as Osiris's heir and the rival to [Set](Set (deity)), the murderer and brother of Osiris. In another tradition, [Hathor](Hathor) is regarded as his mother and sometimes as his wife.
[Aelianus](Claudius)(Claudius Aelianus) wrote that Egyptians called the god [Apollo](Apollo) "Horus" in their own [language](Ancient Greek). However, [Plutarch](Plutarch), elaborating further on the same tradition reported by the [Greeks](Greeks); specified that the one "Horus" whom the Egyptians equated with the Greek Apollo was in fact "Horus the Elder", who is distinct from Horus the son of Osiris and Isis (that would make him "the Younger").
## Etymology
Horus is recorded in [hieroglyphs](Egyptian)(Egyptian hieroglyphs) as *ḥr.w* "Falcon", 𓅃; the original pronunciation has been reconstructed as in [Egyptian](Old)(Old Egyptian) and early [Egyptian](Middle)(Middle Egyptian), in later [Egyptian](Middle)(Middle Egyptian), and in [Egyptian](Late)(Late Egyptian). Additional meanings are thought to have been "the distant one" or "one who is above, over".Meltzer, Edmund S. (2002). Horus. In D. B. Redford (Ed.), *The ancient gods speak: A guide to Egyptian religion* (pp. 164). New York: [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), USA. As the language changed over time, it appeared in [varieties](Coptic)(Coptic language) variously as or (Ϩⲟⲣ) and was adopted into [Greek](ancient)(ancient Greek) as *Hōros* (pronounced at the time as ). It also survives in [Egyptian](Late)(Late Egyptian) and Coptic [name](theophoric)(theophoric name) forms such as [Siese](Siese)
"son of Isis" and [Harsiese](Harsiese (disambiguation)) "Horus, Son of Isis".
## Horus and the pharaoh
[[File:Le roi Ramsès parmi les dieux (Louvre, B 13).jpg|thumb|Horus offers [life](Ankh) to the pharaoh, [II](Ramesses)(Ramesses II). Painted limestone. Circa 1275 BCE, 19th dynasty. From the small temple built by Ramses II in [Abydos](Abydos, Egypt), [museum](Louvre)(Louvre museum), [Paris](Paris), [France](France).|left]]
The [pharaoh](pharaoh) was associated with many specific deities. He was identified directly with Horus, who represented kingship itself, and he was seen as the son of Ra, who ruled and regulated nature as the pharaoh ruled and regulated society.
The [Texts](Pyramid)(Pyramid Texts) () describe the nature of the pharaoh in different characters as both Horus and Osiris. The pharaoh as Horus in life became the pharaoh as Osiris in death, where he was united with the other gods. New incarnations of Horus succeeded the deceased pharaoh on earth in the form of new pharaohs.The lineage of Horus, the eventual product of unions between the children of [Atum](Atum), may have been a means to explain and justify pharaonic power. The gods produced by Atum were all representative of cosmic and terrestrial forces in Egyptian life. By identifying Horus as the offspring of these forces, then identifying him with Atum himself, and finally identifying the Pharaoh with Horus, the Pharaoh theologically had dominion over all the world.
## Origin mythology
In one tale, Horus is born to the goddess Isis after she retrieved all the dismembered body parts of her murdered husband Osiris, except his [penis](Human penis#Object of worship), which was thrown into the Nile and eaten by a [catfish](catfish), or sometimes depicted as instead by a [crab](crab), and according to [Plutarch](Plutarch)'s account used her magic powers to [resurrect](Resurrection) Osiris and fashion a [phallus](phallus) to conceive her son (older Egyptian accounts have the penis of Osiris surviving).
After becoming pregnant with Horus, Isis fled to the [Delta](Nile)(Nile Delta) [marshlands](Marsh) to hide from her brother [Set](Set (deity)), who jealously killed Osiris and who she knew would want to kill their son. There Isis bore a divine son, Horus. As birth, death and rebirth are recurrent themes in Egyptian lore and cosmology, it is not particularly strange that Horus also is the brother of [Osiris](Osiris) and [Isis](Isis), by [Nut](Nut (goddess)) and [Geb](Geb), together with [Nephthys](Nephthys) and [Set](Set (deity)). This elder Horus is called Hrw-wr - Hourou'Ur - as opposed to Hrw-P-Khrd - the younger Horus, at some point adopted by the Greeks as [Harpocrates](Harpocrates).
[[File:Jewel_Osiris_family-E_6204-IMG_0641-gradient.jpg|alt=Gold statuette of three human figures. On the right is a woman with a horned headdress, in the center is a squatting man with a tall crown on a pedestal, and on the left is a man with the head of a falcon.|thumb|300x300px|Osiris is depicted on a [lazuli](lapis)(lapis lazuli) pillar in the center, flanked by Horus on the left and [Isis](Isis) on the right in this [Dynasty](Twenty-second)(Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt) statuette]]
### Genealogy
## Mythological roles
### Sky god
[[File:Ram-headed falcon amulet-E 80-IMG 2503-with reflection-gradient.jpg|thumb|Horus, [Louvre](Louvre), [ring](Shen)(Shen ring)s in his grasp]]
[[and Seth crowning Ramesses III, detail of Horus.JPG|left|thumb|Detail of Horus's face, from a statue of Horus and Set placing the crown of Upper Egypt on the head of Ramesses III. Twentieth Dynasty, early 12th century BC.](File:Horus)]
Since Horus was said to be the sky, he was considered to also contain the Sun and Moon. Egyptians believed that the Sun was his right eye and the Moon his left and that they traversed the sky when he, a falcon, flew across it. Later, the reason that the Moon was not as bright as the sun was explained by a tale, known as *[Contendings of Horus and Seth](The)(The Contendings of Horus and Seth)*. In this tale, it was said that Seth, the patron of [Egypt](Upper)(Upper Egypt), and Horus, the patron of [Egypt](Lower)(Lower Egypt), had battled for Egypt brutally, with neither side victorious, until eventually, the gods sided with Horus.
As Horus was the ultimate victor he became known as *ḥr.w or* "Horus the Great", but more usually translated as "Horus the Elder". In the struggle, Set had lost a [testicle](testicle), and Horus' eye was gouged out.
Horus was occasionally shown in art as a naked boy with a finger in his mouth sitting on a [lotus](Nymphaea lotus#The white lotus in Ancient Egypt) with his mother. In the form of a youth, Horus was referred to as *nfr ḥr.w* "Good Horus", transliterated Neferhor, Nephoros or Nopheros (reconstructed as ).
[[File:Eye of Horus bw.svg|thumb|[of Horus](Eye)(Eye of Horus) or *Wedjat*]]
The [of Horus](Eye)(Eye of Horus) is an ancient Egyptian symbol of protection and royal power from deities, in this case from Horus or [Ra](Ra). The symbol is seen on images of Horus' mother, Isis, and on other deities associated with her. In the Egyptian language, the word for this symbol was "wedjat" (*wɟt*).Pommerening, Tanja, Die altägyptischen Hohlmaße (*Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur*, Beiheft 10), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag, 2005M. Stokstad, "Art History" It was the eye of one of the earliest Egyptian deities, [Wadjet](Wadjet), who later became associated with [Bastet](Bastet), [Mut](Mut), and Hathor as well. Wadjet was a [deity](solar)(solar deity) and this symbol began as her all-seeing eye. In early artwork, Hathor is also depicted with this eye. Funerary amulets were often made in the shape of the Eye of Horus. The Wedjat or Eye of Horus is "the central element" of seven "[gold](gold), [faience](faience), [carnelian](carnelian) and [lazuli](lapis)(lapis lazuli)" bracelets found on the mummy of [II](Shoshenq)(Shoshenq II). The Wedjat "was intended to protect the king [here] in the afterlife" and to ward off evil. Egyptian and Near Eastern sailors would frequently paint the symbol on the bow of their vessel to ensure safe sea travel.Charles Freeman, *The Legacy of Ancient Egypt*, Facts on File, Inc. 1997. p. 91
### Conflict between Horus and Set
[[of a man wearing a tall crown lying on a bier as a bird hovers over his phallus. A falcon-headed man stands at the foot of the bier and a woman with a headdress like a tall chair stands at the head.|right|thumb|300x300px|Isis, in the form of a bird, copulates with the deceased Osiris. At either side are Horus, although he is as yet unborn, and Isis in human form.](File:Abydos_Tempelrelief_Sethos_I._36.JPG|alt=Relief)]
Horus was told by his mother, Isis, to protect the people of Egypt from [Set](Set (deity)), the god of the desert, who had killed Horus' father, Osiris. Horus had many battles with Set, not only to avenge his father but to choose the rightful ruler of Egypt. In these battles, Horus came to be associated with Lower Egypt and became its patron.
[[spears Set, who appears in the form of a hippopotamus, as Isis looks on](File:Edfu47.JPG|left|thumb|Horus)]
According to *The Contendings of Horus and Seth*, Set is depicted as trying to prove his dominance by seducing Horus and then having [intercourse](sexual)(sexual intercourse) with him. However, Horus places his hand between his thighs and catches Set's [semen](semen), then subsequently throws it in the river so that he may not be said to have been inseminated by Set. Horus (or Isis herself in some versions) then deliberately spreads his semen on some [lettuce](lettuce), which was Set's favourite food. After Set had eaten the lettuce, they went to the gods to try to settle the argument over the rule of Egypt. The gods first listened to Set's claim of dominance over Horus, and call his semen forth, but it answered from the river, invalidating his claim. Then, the gods listened to Horus' claim of having dominated Set, and call his semen forth, and it answered from inside Set.Fleming, Fergus, and Alan Lothian. *The Way to Eternity: Egyptian Myth*. Duncan Baird Publishers, 1997. pp. 80–81
[[File:Tomb_TT3_of_Pashedu_(Kairoinfo4u).jpg|right|thumb|A personified Eye of Horus offers incense to the enthroned god [Osiris](Osiris) in a painting from the tomb of [Pashedu](Pashedu), thirteenth century BC]]
However, Set still refused to relent, and the other gods were getting tired from over eighty years of fighting and challenges. Horus and Set challenged each other to a boat race, where they each raced in a boat made of stone. Horus and Set agreed, and the race started. But Horus had an edge: his boat was made of wood painted to resemble stone, rather than true stone. Set's boat, being made of heavy stone, sank, but Horus' did not. Horus then won the race, and Set stepped down and officially gave Horus the throne of Egypt.Mythology, published by DBP, Chapter: Egypt's divine kingship. Upon becoming king after Set's defeat, Horus gives offerings to his deceased father Osiris, thus reviving and sustaining him in the afterlife. After the New Kingdom, Set was still considered the lord of the desert and its oases.
In many versions of the story, Horus and Set divide the realm between them. This division can be equated with any of several fundamental dualities that the Egyptians saw in their world. Horus may receive the fertile lands around the Nile, the core of Egyptian civilization, in which case Set takes the barren desert or the foreign lands that are associated with it; Horus may rule the earth while Set dwells in the sky; and each god may take one of the two traditional halves of the country, Upper and Lower Egypt, in which case either god may be connected with either region. Yet in the [Theology](Memphite)(Memphite Theology), [Geb](Geb), as judge, first apportions the realm between the claimants and then reverses himself, awarding sole control to Horus. In this peaceable union, Horus and Set are reconciled, and the dualities that they represent have been resolved into a united whole. Through this resolution, the order is restored after the tumultuous conflict.[[File:Seth + horus.jpg|thumb|Horus and Set binding together [upper](Upper Egypt) and [Egypt](lower)(lower Egypt)]]Egyptologists have often tried to connect the conflict between the two gods with political events early in Egypt's history or prehistory. The cases in which the combatants divide the kingdom, and the frequent association of the paired Horus and Set with the union of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggest that the two deities represent some kind of division within the country. Egyptian tradition and archaeological evidence indicate that Egypt was united at the beginning of its history when an Upper Egyptian kingdom, in the south, conquered Lower Egypt in the north. The Upper Egyptian rulers called themselves "followers of Horus", and Horus became the tutelary deity of the unified polity and its kings. Yet Horus and Set cannot be easily equated with the two halves of the country. Both deities had several cult centers in each region, and Horus is often associated with Lower Egypt and Set with Upper Egypt. Other events may have also affected the myth. Before even Upper Egypt had a single ruler, two of its major cities were [Nekhen](Nekhen), in the far south, and [Nagada](Nagada), many miles to the north. The rulers of Nekhen, where Horus was the patron deity, are generally believed to have unified Upper Egypt, including Nagada, under their sway. Set was associated with Nagada, so it is possible that the divine conflict dimly reflects an enmity between the cities in the distant past. Much later, at the end of the [Dynasty](Second)(Second Dynasty of Egypt) (), Pharaoh [Seth-Peribsen](Seth-Peribsen) used the [animal](Set)(Set animal) to write his [serekh](serekh) name in place of the falcon hieroglyph representing Horus. His successor [Khasekhemwy](Khasekhemwy) used both Horus and Set in the writing of his serekh. This evidence has prompted conjecture that the Second Dynasty saw a clash between the followers of the Horus king and the worshippers of Set led by Seth-Peribsen. Khasekhemwy's use of the two animal symbols would then represent the reconciliation of the two factions, as does the resolution of the myth.Meltzer in Redford, pp. 165–166
### Golden Horus Osiris
Horus gradually took on the nature as both the son of Osiris and Osiris himself. He was referred to as Golden Horus Osiris.Yoyotte, Jean, Une notice biographique du roi Osiris, BIFAO 77 (1977), p.145Hymn to Osiris Un-Nefer, Translated by E.A.Wallis BudgeBudge, E.A. Wallis ; 1901, Egyptian Magic, Kegan, Paul, Trench and Trübner & Co., London In the [of Denderah](temple)(Dendera Temple complex) he is given the full royal titulary of both that of Horus and Osiris. He was sometimes believed to be both the father of himself as well as his own son, and some later accounts have Osiris being brought back to life by Isis.E.A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian resurrection, Volume 2 (London: P. L. Warner; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1911), 31.
## Other forms of Horus
File:Horus as falcon (crowned).svg|Horus represented as a crowned falcon
File:Haroeris.svg|Har-em-akhet, a form of Horus in which he had the body of a lion, based on depictions from antiquity
File:Hor-imy-shenut.svg|Hor-imy-shenut, a form of Horus in which he had the body of a crocodile
### Heru-ur (Horus the Elder)
Heru-ur (or Herwer), (Haroeris to the Ptolemaic Greeks), also known as ***Horus the Elder***, was a form of Horus, where he was the son of [Geb](Geb) and [Nut](Nut (goddess)). He was one of the oldest gods of ancient Egypt, being worshipped at the influential [Predynastic](Predynastic Egypt) town of [Nekhen](Nekhen) (Hierakonpolis).Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 200 By the Old Kingdom he had become the first national god and the patron of the Pharaoh.
He was called the son of truth – signifying his role as an important upholder of [Maat](Maat). His right eye was the Sun and the left one was the Moon. Heru-ur was sometimes depicted fully as a falcon, he was sometimes given the title **Kemwer**, meaning "(the) great black (one)".
Other variants include *Hor Merti* 'Horus of the two eyes' and *Horkhenti Irti*.Patricia Turner, Charles Russell Coulter, *Dictionary of ancient deities*, 2001.
### Heru-pa-khered (Horus the Younger)
Heru-pa-khered ([Harpocrates](Harpocrates) to the Ptolemaic Greeks), also known as **Horus the Younger**, is represented in the form of a youth wearing a lock of hair (a sign of youth) on the right of his head while sucking his finger. In addition, he usually wears the united crowns of Egypt, the crown of Upper Egypt and the crown of Lower Egypt. He is a form of the rising sun, representing its earliest light.
### Heru-Behdeti (Horus of [Behdet](Behdet))
The [sun](winged)(Ancient Egyptian winged sun) of Horus of [Edfu](Edfu) is a symbol in associated with [divinity](divinity), [royalty](Royal family), and power in ancient Egypt. The winged sun is symbolic also of the eternal soul. When placed above the temple doors it served as a reminder to the people of their eternal nature. The winged sun was depicted on the top of pylons in the ancient temples throughout Egypt.
### Her-em-akhet (Horus in the Horizon)
Her-em-akhet (or Horemakhet), (*Harmakhis* in Greek), represented the dawn and the early morning sun. He was often depicted as a sphinx with the head of a man (like the [Sphinx of Giza](Great)(Great Sphinx of Giza)), or as a [hieracosphinx](hieracosphinx), a creature with a lion's body and a falcon's head and wings, sometimes with the head of a [lion](lion) or [ram](Sheep) (the latter providing a link to the god [Khepri](Khepri), the rising sun). It was believed that he was the inspiration for the [Sphinx of Giza](Great)(Sphinx of Giza), constructed under the order of [Khafre](Khafre), whose head it depicts.
Other forms of Horus include:
**Hor Merti* ('Horus of the Two Eyes');
**Horkhenti Irti*;
**Her-sema-tawy* ('Horus Uniter of the Two Lands'), the Greek *Harsomptus*, depicted like the double-crowned Horus
**Her-iunmutef* or *Iunmutef*, depicted as a priest with a leopard-skin over the torso;
**Herui* (the "double falcon or Horuses"), the 5th [nome](Nome (Egypt)) god of [Egypt](Upper)(Upper Egypt) in [Coptos](Coptos)
File:Harpocrates gulb 082006.JPG|*Heru-pa-khered* ("Horus the younger", known as Harpocrates to the Greeks) in the form of a child wearing the pschent and a [of youth](sidelock)(sidelock of youth)
File:Medinet Habu Ramses III. Tempelrelief 15.JPG|*Heru-Behdeti* ("Horus of Behedet") as a winged sun disk on the ceiling to the entrance to the temple of Ramses III
File:Edfu17 c.jpg|*Her-em-akhet* (Greek: Harmakhis), the wall relief of a hieracosphinx depicted at the Temple of Horus in Edfu
File:Seth + Horus = 2 terres.jpg|*Her-sema-tawy* ('Horus, Uniter of the Two Lands'), tying the papyrus and reed plants in the *[tawy](sema)(Upper and Lower Egypt)* symbol for the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt opposite with [Set](Set (deity)) (Sutekh)
File:Iunmutef (Her-Iunmutef).jpg|*Her-iunmutef* (*Iunmutef*), ('Horus, Pillar of His Mother'), depicted as a priest wearing a leopard-skin over torso in the [of Nefertari](Tomb)(Tomb of Nefertari), [of the Queens](Valley)(Valley of the Queens)
File:Egypt sahura and god of nomo.jpg|[*Herui*](Nomos of Harawî), the 5th [nome](Nome (Egypt)) god of [Egypt](Upper)(Upper Egypt) in [Coptos](Coptos) besides the pharaoh [Sahure](Sahure)
## Celebrations of Horus
The Festival of Victory (Egyptian: Heb Nekhtet) was an annual Egyptian festival dedicated to the god Horus. The Festival of Victory was celebrated at the Temple of Horus at Edfu, and took place during the second month of the [of the Emergence](Season)(Season of the Emergence) (or the sixth month of the [calendar](Egyptian)(Egyptian calendar)).
The ceremonies which took place during the Festival of Victory included the performance of a sacred drama which commemorated the victory of Horus over Set. The main actor in this drama was the king of Egypt himself, who played the role of Horus. His adversary was a hippopotamus, who played the role of Set. In the course of the ritual, the king would strike the hippopotamus with a harpoon. The destruction of the hippopotamus by the king commemorated the defeat of Set by Horus, which also legitimised the king.
It is unlikely that the king attended the Festival of Victory every year; in many cases he was probably represented by a priest. It is also unlikely that a real hippopotamus was used in the festival every year; in many cases it was probably represented by a model.H. W. Fairman. The Triumph of Horus: An Ancient Egyptian Sacred Drama. London, 1974
The 4th-century Roman author [Macrobius](Macrobius) mentions another annual Egyptian festival dedicated to Horus in his *[Chronicon](Chronicon)*. Macrobius specifies this festival as occurring on the [solstice](winter)(winter solstice). The 4th-century Christian bishop [of Salamis](Epiphanius)(Epiphanius of Salamis) also mentions a winter solstice festival of Horus in his *[Panarion](Panarion)*. However, this festival is not attested in any native Egyptian sources.
## Suggested influence on Christianity
William R. Cooper's 1877 book and [S](Acharya)(Acharya S)'s self-published 2008 book, among others, have suggested that there are many similarities between the story of Horus and the much later story of Jesus. This outlook remains very controversial and is disputed.C Henderson, S Hayes, Debunking the Horus-Jesus Connection, 2015, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996Houdmann, S. Michael, Questions about Jesus Christ, WestBow Press, 2013
## In popular culture
Declan Hannigan portrays Horus in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) television series *[Knight](Moon)(Moon Knight (TV series))* (2022).
In the film series [at the Museum*](*Night)(Night at the Museum (film series)), a group of underworld warrior deities appear in *[at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian](Night)(Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian)* when Kahmunrah uses the combination to open the gate to the [underworld](Duat) and summon an army of Horus warriors. The warriors appear from the underworld carrying spears ready to attack and join Kahmunrah's fight to take over the world.
Horus is a Warrior class God in the [online battle arena](Multiplayer)(Multiplayer online battle arena) game [Smite](Smite (video game)) with the title of "The Rightful Heir".
In the [fantasy](fantasy) [film](action)(action film) *[of Egypt](Gods)(Gods of Egypt (film))* Horus is portrayed [Coster-Waldau](Nikolaj)(Nikolaj Coster-Waldau), who also portrays [Lannister](Jaime)(Jaime Lannister) in *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)*. In the film, he helps out a mortal named Bek to stop his uncle Set while also trying to reclaim his throne and bring peace to Egypt.
## Gallery
File:Golden head of Horus 01.jpg|Horus, patron deity of Hierakonpolis (near [Edfu](Edfu)), the predynastic capital of Upper Egypt. Its head was executed by means of beating the gold then connecting it with the copper body. A uraeus is fixed to the diadem which supports two tall openwork feathers. The eyes are inlaid with obsidian. [Dynasty](Sixth)(Sixth Dynasty of Egypt).
File:La Tombe de Horemheb cropped.jpg|Horus (right) in the Tomb of Horemheb ([KV57](KV57)) in the Valley of the Kings
File:Temple of Edfu 05.jpg|Horus relief in the [of Edfu](Temple)(Temple of Edfu)
File:British Museum - Room 62 (21390272978).jpg|In Duat Horus conducts [Hunefer](Hunefer) to a shrine in which Osiris sits enthroned
File:Abydos Tempelrelief Sethos I. 24.JPG|Relief in the [of Seti I](temple)(temple of Seti I (Abydos)) of pharaoh [I](Seti)(Seti I) presenting an offering to Horus
File:Head of Horus for attachment MET LC-52 95 2 EGDP023644.jpg|Head of Horus statue, 664–30 BCE, Late Period–Ptolemaic Period
File:Copper alloy statues.jpg|Copper-alloy of Horus (centre) as a Roman officer with *[contrapposto](contrapposto)* stances ([Archaeological Museum, Athens](National)(National Archaeological Museum, Athens))
File:Horus - Temple of Seti I (3500450346).jpg|Relief of Horus in the temple of [I](Seti)(Seti I) in [Abydos](Abydos, Egypt)
File:God Horus as a falcon wearing the Double Crown of Egypt. 27th dynasty. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich.jpg|God Horus as a falcon wearing the Double Crown of Egypt. 27th dynasty. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich
File:Horus R01.jpg|Statue of Horus from the reign of [II](Amenhotep)(Amenhotep II) ([Dynasty](Eighteenth)(Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt), ca. 1400 BCE) in the [royal de Mariemont](Musée)(Musée royal de Mariemont), [Belgium](Belgium)
File:Head of a Falcon (Horus) from Memphis, Egypt produced after 1196 BCE Penn Museum.jpg|Head of Horus from Memphis, 1196 BCE, Penn Museum
File:S F-E-CAMERON Hatshepsut Hawk - 83d40m - Wadjet -2pstcrpt.JPG|Horus represented in relief with [Wadjet](Wadjet) and wearing the double crown. [Temple of Hatshepsut](Mortuary)(Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut)
File:Temple of Edfu, Statue of Horus 2, Egypt.jpg|Statue of Horus in the [of Edfu](Temple)(Temple of Edfu)
File:Falcon Horus, deity of Hierakonpolis, on a Naqada IIC jar, British Museum EA 36328.jpg|Falcon Horus, deity of Hierakonpolis, on a [II](Naqada)(Naqada II)C jar, circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA36328.
## See also
* [deity](Sky)(Sky deity)
* [of Quraish](Hawk)(Hawk of Quraish)
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Britannica Online: Horus (Egyptian God)](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/272528/Horus)
[ ](Category:Horus)
[gods](Category:Egyptian)(Category:Egyptian gods)
[themes in mythology](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT themes in mythology)
[deities](Category:Falcon)(Category:Falcon deities)
[gods](Category:Savior)(Category:Savior gods)
[and weather gods](Category:Sky)(Category:Sky and weather gods)
[gods](Category:Solar)(Category:Solar gods)
[gods](Category:Lunar)(Category:Lunar gods)
[deities](Category:Tutelary)(Category:Tutelary deities)
[kings](Category:Mythological)(Category:Mythological kings)
[deities](Category:Lion)(Category:Lion deities)
[humanoids](Category:Avian)(Category:Avian humanoids)
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Karma _Taylor Swift song
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karma__taylor_swift_song
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# Karma (Taylor Swift song)
*Revision ID: 1160322485 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:08:18Z*
---
| recorded =
| studio = * Rough Customer (Brooklyn)
* [Lady](Electric)(Electric Lady Studios) (New York City)
* [Henson](Jim Henson Company Lot#Facilities) (Los Angeles)
| genre = * [Disco](Disco)
* [electroclash](electroclash)
* [chillwave](chillwave)
| length = 3:24
| label = [Republic](Republic Records)
| writer = * Taylor Swift
* [Antonoff](Jack)(Jack Antonoff)
* [Sounwave](Sounwave)
* [Sweet](Jahaan)(Jahaan Sweet)
* Keanu Beats
| producer = * Taylor Swift
* Jack Antonoff
* Sounwave
* Keanu Beats
| chronology = [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift)
| prev_title = [Alcott](The)(The Alcott)
| prev_year = 2023
| next_title = [Summer](Cruel)(Cruel Summer (Taylor Swift song))
| next_year = 2023
| misc =
|header=Music video|type=single}}
}}
"**Karma**" is a song by American singer-songwriter [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift), from her tenth studio album, *[Midnights](Midnights)* (2022). Swift wrote and produced the song with [Antonoff](Jack)(Jack Antonoff), [Sounwave](Sounwave), and Keanu Beats, and [Sweet](Jahaan)(Jahaan Sweet) was an additional writer. [Records](Republic)(Republic Records) released the song to US radio on May 1, 2023, as the third single from *Midnights*. A remix featuring American rapper [Spice](Ice)(Ice Spice) was released on May 26, 2023, as part of an extended *Midnights* edition.
In the lyrics of "Karma", Swift proclaims how her "good [karma](karma)" brought her good things in life, as opposed to her detractors. Musically, the song combines [disco](disco), [electroclash](electroclash), and [chillwave](chillwave) with elements of [techno](techno), [pop](alternative)(alternative pop), and [wave](new)(New wave music). Its production is characterized by glossy beats and quivering [synthesizer](synthesizer)s. Contemporary critics regarded "Karma" as a highlight on *Midnights*, praising its bright production, [earworm](earworm) melody, and zany lyricism.
Commercially, "Karma" has charted in the top 10 in Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, the Philippines, and the United States, and the top 20 in Greece, Malaysia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, and the United Kingdom; it peaked at number two on the US [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) and number six on the [Global 200](*Billboard*)(Billboard Global 200) chart. Swift performed "Karma" live as the closing song of her sixth headlining concert tour, [Eras Tour](the)(the Eras Tour) (2023). The music video for "Karma" premiered on the May 26, 2023, at the Eras Tour show at [Rutherford, New Jersey](East)(East Rutherford, New Jersey), and it was released the following day. The [fantasy](high)(high fantasy) video, directed by Swift, features [cosmic](Cosmos) and [celestial](Outer space) concepts, steered by [effects](digital)(Digital Effects (studio)).
## Background and release
[[File:Ice Spice Next Wav by Keinoflo uploaded by James Tamim V9 (cropped) 2022.png|thumb|upright|[Spice](Ice)(Ice Spice) (*pictured* in 2022) is the first female rapper to collaborate with Swift on a song]]
Singer-songwriter [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) released her fifth studio album, *[1989](1989 (Taylor Swift album))* (2014), to critical and commercial success. During promotion of *1989*, Swift's public image suffered from increasing [tabloid](Tabloid journalism) scrutiny, in part brought by a highly publicized dispute with American rapper [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) and media personality [Kardashian](Kim)(Kim Kardashian) over West's 2016 single "[Famous](Famous (Kanye West song))." Swift went on a hiatus and secluded herself from public appearances. To a question in an April 2016 interview with *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))*, Swift replied, "[Karma](Karma) is real." In November 2017, Swift released her sixth studio album, *[Reputation](Reputation (album))*, accompanied by its lead single "[What You Made Me Do](Look)(Look What You Made Me Do)", which contained lyrics referencing karma. She released her seventh studio album, *[Lover](Lover (album))*, in August 2019, amidst another controversy—a [dispute](Taylor Swift masters controversy) with her former record label, [Machine Records](Big)(Big Machine Records), and its new owner [Braun](Scooter)(Scooter Braun) over the [masters](Mastering (audio)) of [first six albums](her)(Taylor Swift albums discography#Studio albums). The music video of the fourth single, "[Man](The)(The Man (Taylor Swift song))" (2020), contained [graffiti](graffiti) spelling out karma.
On August 28, 2022, Swift announced her tenth studio album, *[Midnights](Midnights)*, set for release on October 21, 2022. The tracklist was not immediately revealed. [Antonoff](Jack)(Jack Antonoff), a longtime collaborator of Swift who had worked with her since *1989*, was confirmed as a producer on *Midnights* by a video posted to Swift's [Instagram](Instagram) account on September 16, 2022. Beginning on September 21, 2022, Swift began unveiling the track-list in a randomized order through her short video series on [TikTok](TikTok), called *Midnights Mayhem with Me*. It consisted of 13 episodes, with one song revealed every episode. Swift rolls a [cage](lottery)(Lottery machine#Gravity Pick) containing 13 [pong](ping)(Table tennis) balls numbered from one to thirteen, each representing a track of *Midnights*, and when a ball drops out, she disclosed the title of the corresponding track on the album. In the eighth episode on October 6, 2022, Swift announced the title of the eleventh track as "Karma".
*Midnights* was released on October 21, 2022, via [Records](Republic)(Republic Records). In April 2023, American trade publication *[Hits](Hits (magazine))* reported that "Karma" is set to be serviced to US radio as the album's third single, following "[Anti-Hero](Anti-Hero (song))" and "[Haze](Lavender)(Lavender Haze)". [Mediabase](Mediabase) affiliate AllAccess confirmed the single's release date to US [adult contemporary](hot)(hot adult contemporary) radio as May 1, 2023, followed by its release to [hit radio](contemporary)(contemporary hit radio) on May 2.
### Remix
On April 27, 2023, as per *[Songwriter](American)(American Songwriter)*, [Atlantic](Atlantic Records) and [Records](Capitol)(Capitol Records) former music executive Shawn Barron suggested that American rapper [Spice](Ice)(Ice Spice) could collaborate with Swift on a single after they had met at the [iHeartRadio Music Awards](2023)(2023 iHeartRadio Music Awards). On May 24, Swift and Ice Spice announced via social media a remixed version of "Karma" featuring the latter and posted the cover artwork. The remix is a bonus track on the special editions of *Midnights*, released on May 26. Its announcement was met with backlash from some social media users, who interpreted the remix as "damage control" after Swift was criticized online for reportedly dating English singer-songwriter [Healy](Matty)(Matty Healy), who had laughed at "racist" jokes made by American comedians [Friedland](Adam)(Adam Friedland) and [Mullen](Nick)(Nick Mullen) about Ice Spice during their podcast. Following the release of the remix, however, Swift revealed in a [Spotify](Spotify) interview that Ice Spice's team reached out first to suggest a collaboration as Ice Spice has been a fan of Swift, who had been listening to Ice Spice's music while rehearsing for [Eras Tour](the)(the Eras Tour) (2023). Swift also dubbed Ice Spice "[her] new favorite artist".
## Composition
"Karma" is three minutes and 24 seconds long. It is an upbeat, [synth](Synthesizer)-heavy, [disco](disco), [electroclash](electroclash) and [chillwave](chillwave) Beats Per Minute |url=https://beatsperminute.com/album-review-taylor-swift-midnights/ |access-date=November 5, 2022 |website=Beats Per Minute |archive-date=November 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104144526/https://beatsperminute.com/album-review-taylor-swift-midnights/ |url-status=live }} song. Lyrically, it is a "[track](diss)(Diss (music))" with comical tones. The playful track incorporates warm beats, warbled synths, and elements of [wave](new)(New wave music), [pop](alternative)(alternative pop), and [techno](techno). Beats Per Minute |url=https://beatsperminute.com/album-review-taylor-swift-midnights/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104144526/https://beatsperminute.com/album-review-taylor-swift-midnights/ |archive-date=November 4, 2022 |access-date=November 5, 2022 |website=Beats Per Minute}} In the lyrics, a narrator talks about her "good [karma](karma)" that brought her good things in life. She does not seek revenge on her enemies and instead lets the universe takes its course; while karma makes her detractors suffer for their wrongdoings, it bolsters her for her good deeds. In an interview with [Music](Apple)(Apple Music), Swift said she wrote "Karma" from "a perspective of feeling really happy, really proud of the way your life is, feeling like this must be a reward for doing stuff right". The remix features Ice Spice in a new second verse and [interjection](interjection)s throughout the song.
Words and Music for "Karma" were written by Taylor Swift, Jack Antonoff, Mark Anthony Spears, Keanu Torres and Jahaan Akil Sweet. The song was originally published in the key of Eb Major and starts with Eb/Db/Fm7/Cm7/Db/Fm7/Cm7/Db progression with lyrics "You're talking shit for the hell of it, addicted to betrayal but you're relevant. You're terrified to look down, 'cause if you dare, you'll see the glare of eve'ryone you burned just to get there. It's coming back a...". The tempo of the score is "Moderate Pop".
## Critical reception
*[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* named it the fourth best song of 2022; they called it an "album-defining hit" that combines Swift's "mastermind" lyrics and the "sleekest, most flexible" production. John Wohlmacher of [Per Minute*](*Beats)(Beats Per Minute (website)) hailed "Karma" as an "immediate masterpiece" and lauded the "bright and colorful" music. *[Songwriter](American)(American Songwriter)* listed it as one of the 24 best songs of 2022, and called it the "[hit](sleeper)(sleeper hit)" of *Midnights*; praise was directed towards Swift's lyrical approach, the "effervescent" chorus, and Antonoff's production. Rania Aniftos of *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* praised the song's "carefree and anthemic" chorus.
In a mixed review of the remix, Shaad D'Souza of *[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))* opined that the collaboration was a "clash of sensibilities" that diminished the appeal of the original version. He found that Ice Spice's delivery lacked the "velocity" of her previous remixes.
## Commercial performance
[[File:Taylor Swift Eras Tour - Arlington TX 20230331 - Karma (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Swift performing "Karma" on [Eras Tour](the)(the Eras Tour) in March 2023|alt=Taylor Swift onstage wearing boots, a faux-fur coat and a sparkling purple dress]]
Upon the release of *Midnights*, all of the album's tracks entered the [Global 200](*Billboard*)(Billboard Global 200), with nine of those within the top 10; "Karma" debuted at number 10. The tracks set the record for the most simultaneous top-10 entries and made Swift the first artist to occupy the entire top five of the Global 200.
In the United States, "Karma" debuted at number nine on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100). All of the album's 20 tracks debuted in the top 45 of the Hot 100, giving Swift a total of 188 Hot 100 entries. Swift became the first act to occupy the entire top 10 of the Hot 100 concurrently and the woman with the most top-10 entries (40), surpassing [Madonna](Madonna) (38).
After it was sent to US radio, the song reached number six on [Top 40](Mainstream)(Mainstream Top 40), number eight on [Top 40](Adult)(Adult Top 40), and number 24 in [Contemporary](Adult)(Adult Contemporary (chart)). Following the release of the [Spice](Ice)(Ice Spice) remix, "Karma" rose to new peaks on the *Billboard* Hot 100, [Songs](Streaming)(Streaming Songs), [Song Sales](Digital)(Digital Songs), and Radio Songs charts at numbers two, four, two, and 12, respectively. The remix also marked Ice Spice's third career top-10 entry and highest-charting song, and made *Midnights* the first album since [Weeknd](the)(the Weeknd)'s *[Hours](After)(After Hours (The Weeknd album))* (2020) to produce three top-two singles. Ice Spice also became the artist with the most top-five Hot 100 entries in 2023. "Karma" marked the third consecutive top-ten entry on the Adult Top 40 chart from *Midnights*, and Swift's 28th career entry, surpassing [5](Maroon)(Maroon 5) for the all-time record.
The song peaked at number four in Canada and was [certified](Music recording certification) platinum after it sold over 80,000 units. The song reached number nine in New Zealand and received a gold certification after it surpassed 15,000 units. Elsewhere, the song peaked number two in Australia, number seven in the Philippines, number eight in Ireland, number 12 in Singapore, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom, number 18 in Malaysia, number 25 in Vietnam, and various positions in other countries
## Music video
Swift directed the music video for "Karma". She premiered it on May 26, 2023, at the first [Rutherford](East)(East Rutherford, New Jersey) show of her [Tour](Eras)(The Eras Tour) (2023), where she was joined by Ice Spice as a surprise guest to perform the song. The video was released to [YouTube](YouTube) on May 27.
The video features heavy digital effects, incorporating heavy "cosmic or [celestial](Outer space)" imagery. Swift adopts various attires and [personification](personification)s in the video, in various locations. She appears as a comical "[Pollyanna](Pollyanna)" on a yellow brick road featured in a *[of Oz](Wizard)(The Wizard of Oz (1939 film))*-themed storybook, and as a green "giantess" covered by forest and mountain, whereas Ice Spice is in a "heavenly [formation](cloud)(List of cloud types)." Swift is also seen in lightbulb, and trapped in an [hourglass](hourglass). Swift and Ice Spice also climb a staircase and lasso the [Moon](Moon) and [Saturn](Saturn), respectively. Ice Spice delivers her rap verse from inside a golden clamshell.
The video received positive reviews. *Billboard* journalist Katie Atkinson said "the video is packed with stunning visuals". Jennifer Zahn of *[Vulture](Vulture (website))* called it a "magic-heavy" music video.
## Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the [notes](liner)(liner notes) of *Midnights*.
;Recording
* [Recorded](Sound recording and reproduction) by [Antonoff](Jack)(Jack Antonoff) and Laura Sisk at Rough Customer Studio ([Brooklyn](Brooklyn)), [Lady Studios](Electric)(Electric Lady Studios) (New York City), and [Recording Studio](Henson)(Jim Henson Company Lot#Facilities) (Los Angeles)
* [Mixed](Mixing (music)) at MixStar Studios ([Beach, Virginia](Virginia)(Virginia Beach, Virginia))
* [Mastered](Mastered) at [Sound](Sterling)(Sterling Sound) ([New Jersey](Edgewater,)(Edgewater, New Jersey))
* [Sounwave](Sounwave)'s performance was recorded by himself at Sound of Waves Studios (Los Angeles)
* [Sweet](Jahaan)(Jahaan Sweet)'s performance was recorded by himself at The Sweet Spot (Los Angeles)
* Keanu Beats' performance was recorded by himself ([Melbourne](Melbourne), Australia)
;Personnel
* [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) – vocals, songwriter, and producer
* Jack Antonoff – songwriter, producer, [engineer](Audio engineer), drums, [programming](Programming (music)), percussion, [synths](synthesizer), [Juno](Roland Juno-60), [Omnichord](Omnichord), and recording
* Sounwave – songwriter, producer, engineer, programming, and recording
* Keanu Beats – producer, engineer, synths, and recording
* Jahaan Sweet – songwriter, co-producer, engineer, keyboard, [pad](synth)(synth pad), and recording
* Laura Sisk – engineer and recording
* Megan Searl – assistant engineer
* John Sher – assistant engineer
* John Rooney – assistant engineer
* [Aguilar](Mark)(Slick Aguilar) – assistant engineer
* [Ghenea](Serban)(Serban Ghenea) – mix engineer
* Bryce Bordone – assistant mix engineer
* [Merrill](Randy)(Randy Merrill) – mastering engineer
## Charts
## Certifications
## Release history
## Notes
## References
[songs](Category:2022)(Category:2022 songs)
[singles](Category:2023)(Category:2023 singles)
[Swift songs](Category:Taylor)(Category:Taylor Swift songs)
[Spice songs](Category:Ice)(Category:Ice Spice songs)
[written by Taylor Swift](Category:Songs)(Category:Songs written by Taylor Swift)
[written by Jack Antonoff](Category:Songs)(Category:Songs written by Jack Antonoff)
[written by Sounwave](Category:Songs)(Category:Songs written by Sounwave)
[recordings produced by Taylor Swift](Category:Song)(Category:Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift)
[recordings produced by Jack Antonoff](Category:Song)(Category:Song recordings produced by Jack Antonoff)
[songs](Category:Chillwave)(Category:Chillwave songs)
[songs](Category:Electroclash)(Category:Electroclash songs)
[disco songs](Category:American)(Category:American disco songs)
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Cunnilingus
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cunnilingus
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# Cunnilingus
*Revision ID: 1160342456 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:52:31Z*
---
Eat Pussy}}
[[woman performing cunnilingus on another woman](File:Wiki-cunnilingus.png|right|thumb|289x289px|A)]
**Cunnilingus** is an [sex](oral)(oral sex) act involving a person stimulating the [vulva](vulva) of another by using the tongue and lips. The [clitoris](clitoris) is the most sexually sensitive part of the human female genitalia, and its stimulation may result in a woman becoming [aroused](sexually)(Sexual arousal) or achieving [orgasm](orgasm).
Cunnilingus can be sexually arousing for participants and may be performed by a [partner](sexual)(sexual partner) as [foreplay](foreplay) to incite sexual arousal before other sexual activities (such as [vaginal](Sexual intercourse) or [anal](Anal sex) intercourse) or as an erotic and physically intimate act on its own. Cunnilingus can be a risk for contracting [transmitted infections](sexually)(Sexually transmitted disease) (STIs), but the transmission risk for oral sex, especially [HIV](HIV) transmission, is significantly lower than for vaginal or anal sex.
Oral sex is often regarded as [taboo](taboo), but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice. Commonly, heterosexual couples do not regard cunnilingus as affecting the [virginity](virginity) of either partner, while [lesbian](lesbian) couples commonly do regard it as a form of virginity loss.See [pages 11](https://books.google.com/books?id=6qNCeI2AcY4C&pg=PT11) and [47-49](https://books.google.com/books?id=pXXZn_qSoDoC&pg=PA48) for male virginity, how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and for how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in vaginal sex. People may also have negative feelings or [inhibition](sexual)(sexual inhibition)s about giving or receiving cunnilingus or may refuse to engage in it.
## Etymology and terminology
The term *cunnilingus* is derived from the [Latin](Latin) words *cunnus*, meaning "vulva", and *-lingus*, from the verb *lingere*, meaning "to lick". There are numerous slang terms for cunnilingus, including "drinking from the furry cup", "carpet munching", and "[muff-diving](wikt:muff diving)". Additional common slang terms used are "giving lip", "[service](lip)(wikt:lip_service)", or "[the velvet](tipping)(Tipping the Velvet)"; this last is an expression that novelist [Waters](Sarah)(Sarah Waters) claims to have "plucked from the relative obscurity of Victorian porn"."Taking Velvet public: author Sarah Waters reflects on the sensation she started by writing Tipping the Velvet, the novel that became a smash UK miniseries that's now set to conquer America." *The Advocate (The national gay & lesbian newsmagazine)*, 13 May 2003. It is also popularly known in the urban community as "dining at the Y" or "DATY". A person who performs cunnilingus may be referred to as a "cunnilinguist".
## Practice
### General
General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct [clitoral](Clitoris) stimulation to achieve orgasm. [Hite](Shere)(Shere Hite)'s research on [female sexuality](human)(human female sexuality) reports that, for most women, orgasm is easily achieved by cunnilingus because of the direct clitoral stimulation (including stimulation to other external parts of the vulva that are physically related to the clitoris) that may be involved during the act.
A person who performs cunnilingus on someone might be referred to as the giving partner, and the other person as the receiving partner. During the activity, the receiving female's partner may use fingers to open the [majora](labia)(labia majora) (genital lips) to enable the tongue to better stimulate the clitoris, or the female may separate the labia for her partner. Separating the legs wide would also usually open the vulva sufficiently for the partner to orally reach the clitoris.
Some [manual](sex)(sex manual)s recommend beginning with a gentler, less focused stimulation of the [labia](labia) and the whole genital area. The tip, blade, or underside of the tongue may be used, and so might the nose, chin, teeth and lips. Movements can be slow or fast, regular or erratic, firm or soft, according to the participants' preferences. The tongue can be inserted into the vagina, either stiffened or moving. The performing partner may also hum to produce vibration.
Cunnilingus may be accompanied by [fingering](Fingering (sexual act)) the vagina or anus, or by the use of a [toy](sex)(sex toy); for penetration of the vagina, the aim may be to stimulate the [G-spot](G-spot).
Women may consider [hygiene](personal)(personal hygiene) before practicing oral sex important, as poor hygiene can lead to odors, accumulation of sweat and micro-residue (such as [lint](Lint (material)), urine or menstrual blood), which the giving partner may find unpleasant. Some women [or trim their pubic hair](remove)(bikini waxing).
[Autocunnilingus](Autocunnilingus), which is cunnilingus performed by a female on herself, may be possible,"autocunnilingus", *The Complete Dictionary of Sexology*, expanded ed., ed. Robert T. Francoeur *et al*., New York: Continuum, 1995, , p. 49. but an unusually high degree of flexibility is required, which may be possessed only by [contortion](contortion)ists."Schlangenfrau gesucht" - "Sought: snake-woman", Mario Günther-Bruns, *Sexgott: 1.000 Tabubrüche*, Diana 60223, Munich: Heyne, 2013, , [n. p.](https://books.google.com/books?id=K-i2CuvUwNMC&dq=autocunnilingus&pg=PT10) Eva Christina, *The Book of Kink: Sex Beyond the Missionary*, New York: Perigee, 2011, , , [n. p.](https://books.google.com/books?id=SFcWmcGLXJ4C&dq=autocunnilingus&pg=PT52) Jesse Bering, "So Close, and Yet So Far Away: The Contorted History of Autofellatio", in *Why Is the Penis Shaped Like That?: And Other Reflections on Being Human*, New York: [American](Scientific)(Scientific American) / Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 2012, , pp. 11–16, [p. 16](https://books.google.com/books?id=BO2j5b2hs8IC&q=get+a+chance+to+talk+about+auto-cunnilingus&pg=PA291) .Drawing, *Art of Love: Nearly 100 Sex Positions and Wealth of Illustrated Material from Foreplay to Anatomy*, e-book, Mobilereference.com, 2007, , [n.p.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q384wPT-KFEC&dq=autocunnilingus&pg=PT1)
### Specific positions
[[File:Detail of Édouard-Henri Avril (23).jpg|thumb|right|[Avril](Édouard-Henri)(Édouard-Henri Avril)'s depiction of cunnilingus in the spreadeagle position]]
Any position which offers a sex partner oral access to a female's crotch area is suitable for cunnilingus, including:
*In the [style](doggy)(doggy style) position, the woman may crouch on all fours while her partner performs oral sex on her from behind or from below.
*While [facesitting](facesitting), the woman may sit on or above her partner's face. In this position, she has more control over her body movements and can guide her partner or auto-stimulate against the partner's face.
*While lying on her back, the woman may spread her legs or pull them up to her chest, or place them on her partner's shoulders. She may lie on any surface, such as a table or floor.
*Partners may engage in mutual stimulation via the [position](69)(69 position).
*The woman may sit on a chair or use some other support.
*During the [spreadeagle](Spreadeagle (position)) position, the woman's arms and legs are spread wide.
*The woman may stand while her partner is either sitting or on the knees. However, in this position the clitoris is more difficult to reach and stimulate orally. The woman may lean against a wall or hold onto furniture for support.
### During menstruation
Cunnilingus may be performed during [menstruation](menstruation), which may be called "to earn one's red wings" in slang. The phrase is a reference to menstrual blood stains in the shape of a small bird's wings that are liable to form on the giving partner's cheeks during the act.
The red wing patch was common among the [Angels](Hells)(Hells Angels) by the mid-1960s,[S. Thompson](Hunter)(Hunter S. Thompson), ''Hell's Angels* (1966) Ch. 10 and the slang term continued to be known among [gang](biker)(biker gang)s in the 1980s.*[North Carolina Reports: Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of North Carolina](https://books.google.com/books?id=lzBOAQAAIAAJ&q=earn+red+wings+cunnilingus) *, volume 304. Published by Edwards & Broughton, in 1981. P.454. [Legman](Gershon)(Gershon Legman) saw the act/badge not only as functioning a [homosocial](Homosociality) tie, but also as reflecting a deep and primitive belief in the lifegiving powers of blood.G Legman, *Rationale of the Dirty Joke Vol II* (Herts 1973) p. 195-200
[elder Mirabeau](The)(Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau), in his *Erotika Biblion* of 1783,A Wyngaard, *Bad Books* (2013) p. 61 saw cunnilingus during menstruation as an extreme act, linked with the submissive worship of the [goddess](Mother)(Mother goddess),J Fritscher, *Popular Witchcraft* (2004) p. 190 and by extension to the [Mass](Black)(Black Mass).G Legman, *Rationale of the Dirty Joke Vol II'' (Herts 1973) p. 192-3
## Health aspects
### Sexually transmitted infections
[Chlamydia](Chlamydia infection), [papillomavirus](human)(human papillomavirus) (HPV), [gonorrhea](gonorrhea), [syphilis](syphilis), [herpes](herpes simplex virus), [hepatitis](hepatitis) (multiple strains), and other [transmitted infections](sexually)(Sexually transmitted disease) (STIs) can be transmitted through oral sex. Also see [Fact Sheet](https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats08/2008survFactSheet.PDF) Any sexual exchange of bodily fluids with a person infected with [HIV](HIV), the virus that causes [AIDS](HIV/AIDS), poses a risk of infection. Risk of STI infection, however, is generally considered significantly lower for oral sex than for [vaginal](Sexual intercourse) or [sex](anal)(anal sex), with HIV transmission considered the lowest risk with regard to oral sex. Furthermore, the documented risk of HIV transmission through cunnilingus is lower than that associated with [fellatio](fellatio), vaginal or anal intercourse.
There is an increased risk of STI if the receiving partner has wounds on her genitals, or if the giving partner has wounds or open sores on or in his or her mouth, or [gums](bleeding)(Bleeding on probing). Brushing the teeth, flossing, or undergoing dental work soon before or after performing cunnilingus can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are [microscopic](Microscopic scale), increase the chances of contracting STIs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common [bacteria](bacteria) and [virus](virus)es found in, around and secreted from the genital regions. Because of the aforementioned factors, medical sources advise the use of [barrier methods](effective)(Safe sex#Barrier protection) when performing or receiving cunnilingus with a partner whose STI status is unknown.
Cunnilingus during menstruation is considered high risk for the partner performing cunnilingus because there may be a high concentration of virus in menstrual blood, such as [B](hepatitis)(hepatitis B).
### HPV and oral cancer
Links have been reported between oral sex and [cancer](oral)(oral cancer) with human papillomavirus (HPV)-infected people. A 2005 research study suggested that performing unprotected oral sex on a person infected with HPV might increase the risk of oral cancer. The study found that 36 percent of the cancer patients had HPV compared to only 1 percent of the healthy control group.
A 2007 study found a [correlation](correlation) between oral sex and [cancer](throat)(Head and neck cancer). It is believed that this is due to the transmission of HPV, a virus that has been implicated in the majority of cervical cancers and which has been detected in throat cancer tissue in numerous studies. The study concludes that people who had one to five oral sex partners in their lifetime had approximately a doubled risk of throat cancer compared with those who never engaged in this activity, and those with more than five oral sex partners had a 250 percent increased risk.
### Mechanical trauma to the tongue
The [frenulum](lingual)(Frenulum of tongue) (underside of the tongue) is vulnerable to [ulceration](mouth ulcer) by repeated friction during sexual activity ("[tongue](cunnilingus)(cunnilingus tongue)"). Ulceration of the lingual frenulum caused by cunnilingus is horizontal, the lesion corresponding to the contact of the under surface of the tongue with the edges of the lower front teeth when the tongue is in its most forward position. This type of lesion resolves in 7–10 days, but may recur with repeated performances. Chronic ulceration at this site can cause linear fibrous [hyperplasia](hyperplasia). The incisal edges of the mandibular teeth can be smoothed to minimize the chance of trauma.
## Cultural and religious views
### General views
[[File:Achille Devéria erotism.jpg|right|thumb|289x289px|A man performing cunnilingus on a woman at a formal party, depicted by French artist [Devéria](Achille)(Achille Devéria)]]
[[File:OttomanCunnilingusOrientalism.jpg|thumb|right|An [Orientalist](Orientalism) depiction of cunnilingus by [Devéria](Achille)(Achille Devéria)|252x252px]]
Cultural views on giving or receiving cunnilingus range from aversion to high regard. It has been considered [taboo](taboo), or discouraged, in many cultures and parts of the world. In [Taoism](Taoism), cunnilingus is revered as a [fulfilling practice](spiritually)(Taoist sexual practices) that is believed to enhance longevity.
In modern [culture](Western)(Western culture), oral sex is widely practiced among adolescents and adults. Laws of some jurisdictions regard cunnilingus as [sex](penetrative)(Sexual penetration) for the purposes of [offenses](sexual)(Sex and the law) with regard to the act, but most countries do not have laws which ban the practice, in contrast to anal sex or [sex](extramarital)(extramarital sex).
People give various reasons for their dislike or reluctance to perform cunnilingus, or having cunnilingus performed on them. Some regard cunnilingus and other forms of oral sex as unnatural because the practices do not result in reproduction. Some cultures attach symbolism to different parts of the body, leading some people to believe that cunnilingus is ritually unclean or humiliating.
While commonly believed that [sexual practices](lesbian)(lesbian sexual practices) involve cunnilingus for all [who have sex with women](women)(women who have sex with women), some lesbian or bisexual women dislike cunnilingus due to not liking the experience or due to psychological or social factors, such as regarding it as unclean. Other lesbian or bisexual women believe that it is a necessity or largely defines lesbian sexual activity. Lesbian couples are more likely to consider a woman's dislike of cunnilingus as a problem than heterosexual couples are, and it is common for them to seek therapy to overcome [inhibitions](Sexual inhibition) regarding it.
Oral sex is also commonly used as a means of preserving [virginity](virginity), especially among heterosexual pairings; this is sometimes termed *[virginity](technical)(technical virginity)* (which additionally includes anal sex, [masturbation](mutual)(mutual masturbation) and other [sex](non-penetrative)(non-penetrative sex) acts, but excludes penile-vaginal sex). The concept of "technical virginity" or [abstinence](sexual)(sexual abstinence) through oral sex is particularly popular among teenagers. By contrast, lesbian pairings commonly consider oral sex or fingering as resulting in virginity loss, though definitions of virginity loss vary among lesbians as well.
### Taoism
Cunnilingus is accorded a revered place in [Taoism](Taoism). This is because the practice was believed to achieve longevity, by preventing the loss of semen, vaginal and other bodily liquids, whose loss is believed to bring about a corresponding loss of vitality. Conversely, by either semen retention or ingesting the secretions from the vagina, a person can conserve and increase their ''[ch'i](ch'i),'' or original vital breath.(London: Wildwood House, 1969) p. 97.
According to Philip Rawson (in Paz, p. 97), these half-poetic, half-medicinal metaphors explain the popularity of cunnilingus among people: "The practice was an excellent method of imbibing the precious feminine fluid" (Paz, p. 97). But the Taoist ideal is not just about the male's being enriched by female secretions; the female also benefits from her communion with the male, a feature that has led [sinologist](sinology) Kristofer Schipper to denounce the ancient handbooks on the "Art of the Bedroom" as embracing a "kind of glorified male vampirism" that is not truly Taoist at all.[Schipper](Kristofer)(Kristofer Schipper). [1982] 1993. *The Taoist Body*. trans. Karen C. Duval. Berkeley; Los Angeles; (London: University of California Press). p. 148
## See also
*[Anilingus](Anilingus)
*[Facesitting](Facesitting)
*[Fellatio](Fellatio)
## References
## Further reading
* [Legman](Gershon)(Gershon Legman): *The Guilt of the Templars*. [Books Inc.](Basic)(Basic Books), New York, 1966.
* Gershon Legman: *[of the Dirty Joke](Rationale)(Rationale of the Dirty Joke): An Analysis of Sexual Humor*, [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster), 1968.
[ ](Category:Cunnilingus)
[sex](Category:Non-penetrative)(Category:Non-penetrative sex)
[eroticism](Category:Oral)(Category:Oral eroticism)
[positions](Category:Sex)(Category:Sex positions)
[acts](Category:Sexual)(Category:Sexual acts)
[Category:Vulva](Category:Vulva)
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Alibaba Group
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alibaba_group
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# Alibaba Group
*Revision ID: 1158989131 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T14:28:54Z*
---
||[Seng Index](Hang)(Hang Seng Index) component}}
| ISIN =
| industry =
| foundation = [Hangzhou](Hangzhou), [Zhejiang](Zhejiang), China
| founder = [Ma](Jack)(Jack Ma)
| location = No. 969 West Wen Yi Road
| location_city =
}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people =
| products =
| services =
| revenue = (US$134.567 billion, 2022)
| operating_income = (US$10.985 billion, 2022)
| net_income = (US$7.427 billion, 2022)
| assets = (US$267.467 billion, 2022)
| equity = (US$169.189 billion, 2022)
| owner = [Group](SoftBank)(SoftBank Group) (23.9% Based on outstanding ordinary shares as of July 15, 2022.)
| num_employees = 254,941 (31 March 2022)
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid = See [and affiliated entities](companies)(#Companies and affiliated entities)
| location_country =
| homepage =
}}
| ci =
| order = st
| altname =
| pic = Alibaba in Calligraphical Chinese Characters.svg
| piccap = "Alibaba" in Chinese characters.
| y = Aléihbābā Jaahptyùhn
| footnotes =
}}
**Alibaba Group Holding Limited**, or **Alibaba** (), is a Chinese [multinational](Multinational corporation) [company](technology)(technology company) specializing in [e-commerce](e-commerce), [retail](retail), [Internet](Internet), and [technology](technology). Founded on 28 June 1999 in [Hangzhou](Hangzhou), [Zhejiang](Zhejiang), the company provides [consumer-to-consumer](consumer-to-consumer) (C2C), [business-to-consumer](business-to-consumer) (B2C), and [business-to-business](business-to-business) (B2B) sales services via [portal](web)(web portal)s, as well as [payment](electronic)(electronic payment) services, [search engine](shopping)(shopping search engine)s, and [computing](cloud)(cloud computing) services. It owns and operates a diverse portfolio of companies around the world in numerous business sectors.
On 19 September 2014, Alibaba's [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) (IPO) on the [York Stock Exchange](New)(New York Stock Exchange) raised US$25 billion, giving the company a market value of US$231 billion and, by far, then the largest IPO in world history. It is one of the top 10 most valuable corporations, and is named the 31st-largest public company in the world on the [Global 2000](*Forbes*)(Forbes Global 2000) 2020 list. In January 2018, Alibaba became the second Asian company to break the US$500 billion valuation mark, after its competitor [Tencent](Tencent). , Alibaba has the ninth-highest global [valuation](brand)(List of most valuable brands).
Alibaba is one of the world's [retailers and e-commerce companies](largest)(list of largest Internet companies). In 2020, it was also rated as the fifth-largest [intelligence](artificial)(artificial intelligence) company. It is also one of the biggest venture capital firms and investment corporations in the world, as well as the second largest financial services group behind [Visa](Visa Inc.) via its fintech arm [Group](Ant)(Ant Group). The company hosts the largest B2B (Alibaba.com), C2C ([Taobao](Taobao)), and B2C ([Tmall](Tmall)) marketplaces in the world. It has been expanding into the media industry, with revenues rising by triple percentage points year after year. News Apparel Magazine(AM)|url=https://apparelmag.com/alibaba-becomes-worlds-most-valuable-retail-brand|work=apparelmag.com|language=en|access-date=29 September 2017|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613184101/https://apparelmag.com/alibaba-becomes-worlds-most-valuable-retail-brand|url-status=live}} It also set the record on the 2018 edition of China's [Day](Singles')(Singles' Day), the world's biggest online and offline shopping day.
## Naming
The company's name came from the character [Baba](Ali)(Ali Baba) from the [Eastern](Middle)(Middle Eastern) folk-tale collection *[Thousand and One Nights](One)(One Thousand and One Nights)* because of its universal appeal. As [Ma](Jack)(Jack Ma), one of the founders, replied to Lorraine Hahn on [TalkAsia](TalkAsia):
}}
## History
On 28 June 1999, [Ma](Jack)(Jack Ma), with 17 friends and students founded Alibaba.com, a China-based [B2B](Business-to-business) marketplace site, in his [Hangzhou](Hangzhou) apartment. In October 1999, Alibaba received a US$25 million investment from Swedish Wallenberg family's [AB](Investor)(Investor AB), [Sachs](Goldman)(Goldman Sachs) and [SoftBank](SoftBank Group). In 1999, Wallenbergs [AB](Investor)(Investor AB) owned 6% of the shares. Alibaba.com was expected to improve the domestic e-commerce market and perfect an [platform](e-commerce)(Ecommerce platform) for Chinese enterprises, especially [and medium-sized enterprises](small)(small and medium-sized enterprises) (SMEs), to help export Chinese products to the global market as well as to address [Trade Organization](World)(World Trade Organization) (WTO) challenges. In 2002, Alibaba.com became profitable three years after launch. Ma wanted to improve the global e-commerce system, so from 2003 onward, Alibaba launched [Marketplace](Taobao)(Taobao), [Alipay](Alipay), Alimama.com, and Lynx.
When [eBay](eBay) announced its expansion into China in 2003, Ma viewed the American company as a foreign competitor and rejected eBay's buyout of Alibaba's subsidiary Taobao. By applying existing technologies, gaining trust in the Chinese e-commerce market, and expanding through dominating the market at a loss before making a return on additional services, Alibaba's subsidiaries outperformed eBay in the Chinese e-commerce market, claiming a growing percentage of consumers from eBay. Alibaba subsidiary Taobao would later force eBay out of the Chinese market, with eBay closing its unprofitable China Web unit, though the two companies would break even six years later.
In 2005, [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) invested in Alibaba through a [interest entity](variable)(variable interest entity) (VIE) structure, buying a 40% stake in the company for US$1 billion. This would as a result net in US$10 billion in Alibaba's IPO alone to Yahoo!.
According to Li Chuan, a senior executive at Alibaba, the company was planning in 2013 to open traditional brick and mortar retail outlets in partnership with Wanda Group, a Chinese real estate company. Additionally, Alibaba purchased a 25% stake in Hong Kong-listed Chinese department store chain Intime Retail in early 2014. In early 2017, Alibaba and Intime's founder Shen Guojun agreed to pay as much as HK$19.8 billion (US$2.6 billion) to take the store chain private. Alibaba's stake—28% from 2014's US$692 million investment—would rise to about 74% after the deal.
In April 2014, Alibaba invested in Lyft, along with [Management](Coatue)(Coatue Management), and [Horowitz](Andreessen)(Andreessen Horowitz); they led a US$250 million Series D financing round. On 5 June 2014, Alibaba bought a 50% stake of [Evergrande F.C.](Guangzhou)(Guangzhou Evergrande Taobao F.C.) from [Real Estate Group Ltd.](Evergrande)(Evergrande Real Estate) in a deal that was worth 1.2 billion yuan (US$192 million). On 5 September 2014, the group—in a regulatory filing with the [Securities and Exchange Commission](US)(US Securities and Exchange Commission) (SEC)—set a [US$](United States dollar)60- to $66- per-share price range for its scheduled [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) (IPO), the final price of which would be determined after an international roadshow to gauge the investor interest in Alibaba shares to shareholders. On 18 September 2014, Alibaba's IPO priced at US$68, raising US$21.8 billion for the company and investors. Alibaba was the biggest US IPO in history, bigger than Google, Facebook, and Twitter combined. On 19 September 2014, Alibaba's shares (BABA) began trading on the NYSE at an opening price of $92.70 at 11:55 am EST. On 22 September 2014, Alibaba's underwriters announced their confirmation that they had exercised a [option](greenshoe)(greenshoe option) to sell 15% more shares than originally planned, boosting the total amount of the IPO to $25 billion.
Alibaba and the underwriters of its IPO were sued in a California superior court in a consolidated [action](class)(class action) lawsuit. The lawsuit was filed in October 2015 on behalf of investors who purchased Alibaba's [depositary shares](American)(American depositary shares) alleging violations of the [Act](Securities)(Securities Act). Alibaba reached a settlement agreement in December 2018, subject to court approval, in which it agreed to pay $75 million to settle the lawsuit.
In January 2017, Alibaba and the [Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee) jointly announced an $800 million deal that would last until 2028 in where the company would sponsor the [Games](Olympic)(Olympic Games). In September 2018, Jack Ma, the main founder of Alibaba, announced that he would step down as chairman in a year's time so he could focus on philanthropy. In response to the announcement, *[Economist](The)(The Economist)* stated that Ma had a significant impact in China and worldwide via contributions and dedication to various businesses.
In May 2019, Bloomberg cited sources familiar with the matter as saying that Alibaba was considering raising $20 billion through a second listing in Hong Kong. On Tuesday, 10 September 2019, Jack Ma officially stepped down as the chairman of Alibaba, [Zhang](Daniel)(Daniel Zhang) succeeded him at the head of the company. In September 2019, the municipal government of Hangzhou announced that it was boosting its monitoring of the private sector by embedding government officials in Alibaba and other companies.
In November 2020, *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* reported that President [Jinping](Xi)(Xi Jinping) personally scuttled Jack Ma's [Group](Ant)(Ant Group) IPO. Bo Zhuang, chief China economist at TS Lombard said that the suspension "forms part of a wider political drive as the leadership seeks to widen and consolidate its control over finance and technology". What followed was an unexpected Chinese government-released draft on 10 November 2020, which gives regulatory authorities a wider latitude to regulate their biggest tech enterprises.
On 24 December 2020, [China](China) launched an antitrust investigation into Alibaba Group regulators, in a crackdown on China's booming Internet space's anti-competitive behavior. In December 2020, the shares of Alibaba Group suffered a historic stock price crash to the lowest close in around 6 months, following the antitrust investigation into the company by Chinese regulators. In December 2020, China's [Administration for Market Regulation](State)(State Administration for Market Regulation) (SAMR) stated that it opened an investigation into Alibaba over monopolistic practices. The country's [bank](central)(People's Bank of China), as well as three other regulators, confirmed in a separate statement that the affiliated [Group](Ant)(Ant Group) would also be summoned for discussions over "competition and consumer rights", where regulators instructed the company to return its focus to digital-payments. ''[Daily](People's)(People's Daily)'', the official newspaper of the [Committee of the Chinese Communist Party](Central)(Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party), endorsed the investigation shortly after the announcement, claiming the investigation to be "an important step in strengthening antimonopoly oversight in the internet sphere". As a result, from the antitrust probe, Alibaba lost nearly all of its stock-market gains in 2020, from $859 billion to $586 billion, by the end of December. Jack Ma, co-founder of both Alibaba and Ant Group, vanished from public view when Ant's IPO was suspended in early November, but resurfaced in January 2021 in a 50-second video, appearing briefly via video link at the digitally facilitated Rural Teacher Initiative. As of February 2021, he has yet to be seen in public. The video appearance caused Alibaba stock to jump more than 7%.
In February 2021, Alibaba sold $5 billion in bonds, the company's third large sale of [bonds](dollar)(Bond (finance)), issuing four sets priced to yield between 2.143% and 3.251%. The four sets of bonds were $1.5 billion of both 10 year and 30 year debt along with $1 billion of bonds due in 20 and 40 years. The 20 year bonds were designated as [notes](sustainability)(Economic dimensions of sustainability).
On April 9, 2021, as part of a Chinese crackdown on big tech, SAMR issued a $2.8 billion fine against Alibaba for anti-competitive practices and ordered Alibaba to file self-examination and compliance reports to the SAMR for three years. This amounted to [12%](https://potstickers.ai/invest/alibaba-nasdaq-baba-fined-2-75-billion-now-what/) of its 2020 net profit. Critics say the move tightens the Chinese's governments control of tech companies.
On 11 November 2021, it was reported that over the course of its [Singles' Day](11-day)(Singles' Day) sales extravaganza, Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba Group Holding received a record 540.3 billion yuan (S$114.4 billion) in orders, a 14 percent increase over the previous year.
In July 2022, the SEC added Alibaba to a list of companies facing delisting from U.S. stock exchanges if its auditors remain unable to examine Alibaba's books before 2024.
In December 2022, a [enterprise](state-owned)(State-owned enterprises of China) of the [Internet Investment Fund](China)(China Internet Investment Fund), established by the [Administration of China](Cyberspace)(Cyberspace Administration of China), took a 1 percent [share](golden)(golden share) investment in two Alibaba subsidiaries that control [Youku](Youku) and [UCWeb](UCWeb).
In March 2023, the company announced it would turn into a [company](holding)(holding company), while its subsidiaries would separate into six independent firms. The different entities will seek fundraising and market listings as China eases its crackdown on private enterprises. The big restructuring will see the company split into six organizations - Cloud Intelligence Group (cloud solutions), Taobao Tmall Commerce Group (local online commerce services), Local Services Group (delivery services), Cainiao Smart Logistics Group (logistics), Global Digital Commerce Group (AliExpress) and Digital Media and Entertainment Group (gaming, motion pictures and web services). *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* reported on 30 March that Jack Ma engineered this in talks with company CEO Daniel Zhang while he was overseas.
## Companies and affiliated entities
### E-commerce and retail service platforms
[[group Headquarters.jpg|thumb|Alibaba group Headquarters](File:Alibaba)]
[[File:Alibaba Binjiang Park.jpg|thumb|240px|Alibaba [Binjiang](Binjiang District) Campus in Hangzhou, headquarters for Alibaba's B2B service|alt=]]In 1999, Jack Ma launched the primary business of Alibaba, Alibaba.com, while working as an English teacher in Hangzhou. Alibaba.com later became the world's largest online B2B trading platform for small businesses as of 2014. Alibaba.com has three main services: the English language portal Alibaba.com, which handles sales between importers and exporters from more than 240 countries and regions, the Chinese portal 1688.com, which manages domestic B2B trade in China, and transaction-based retail website [AliExpress](AliExpress).com (全球速卖通), which allows smaller buyers to buy small quantities of goods at wholesale prices. Alibaba.com went public at the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in 2007, and was delisted again in 2012. In 2013, 1688.com launched a direct channel that was responsible for $30 million in daily transaction value.
In 2003, Alibaba launched Taobao Marketplace (淘宝网), offering a variety of products for retail sales. Taobao grew to become China's largest [C2C](Customer to customer) online shopping platform and later became the second most visited web site in China, according to [Internet](Alexa)(Alexa Internet). Taobao's growth was attributed to offering free registration and commission-free transactions using a free third-party payment platform. Advertising made up 75 percent of the company's total revenue, allowing it to break even in 2009. In 2010, Taobao's profit was estimated to be ¥1.5 billion (US$235.7 million), which was only about 0.4 percent of their total sales figure of ¥400 billion (US$62.9 billion) that year, way below the industry average of 2 percent, according to iResearch estimates. According to Zhang Yu, the director of Taobao, between 2011 and 2013, the number of stores on Taobao with annual sales under ¥100 thousand increased by 60%; the number of stores with sales between ¥10 thousand and ¥1 million increased by 30%, and the number of stores with sales over ¥1 million increased by 33%.
In April 2008, Taobao introduced a spin-off, [Mall](Taobao)(Tmall) (淘宝商城, later Tmall.com), an online retail platform to complement the Taobao C2C portal, offering global brands to an increasingly affluent Chinese consumer base. It became the eighth most visited web site in China as of 2013. In 2012, Tmall.com later changed its Chinese name to Tianmao (天猫, "sky cat"), reflecting off of Tmall's Chinese pronunciation. In March 2010, Taobao launched the group shopping website Juhuasuan (聚划算), offering "flash sales", which are products that are available at a discount for only a fixed time period. In October 2010, Taobao beta-launched eTao, a [shopping website](comparison)(comparison shopping website) that offers search results from mostly Chinese online shopping platforms, including product searches, sales and coupon searches. According to the Alibaba Group web site, eTao offers products from Amazon China, [Dangdang](Dangdang), Gome, [Yihaodian](Yihaodian), [Nike](Nike, Inc.) China, and Vancl, as well as Taobao and Tmall. As part of a restructuring of Taobao by Alibaba, these spin-offs became separate companies in 2011, with Tmall and eTao becoming separate businesses in June and Juhuasuan becoming a separate business later in October.
In 2010, Alibaba launched AliExpress.com, an online retail service made up of mostly small Chinese businesses offering products to international online buyers. It is the most visited e-commerce platform in Russia. It allows small businesses in China to sell to customers all over the world, resulting in a wide variety of products. It might be more accurate to compare AliExpress to eBay, though, as sellers are independent; it simply serves as a host for other businesses to sell to consumers. Similar to eBay, sellers on Aliexpress can be either companies or individuals. It connects Chinese businesses directly with buyers. The main difference from Taobao is that it's aimed primarily at international buyers, mainly the US, Russia, Brazil and Spain.
In 2013, Alibaba and six large Chinese logistics companies (including SF Express) established a company called [Cainiao](Cainiao) for delivery of packages in China. This network gradually grew to 14 local logistics companies in 2014. In 2016, Alibaba's [Taobao](Taobao) and [Tmall](Tmall), two of the world's largest and most popular online retail marketplaces, achieved a total transaction volume of 3 trillion yuan (US$478.6 billion). The company aims to double the transaction volume to 6 trillion yuan by 2020. , Taobao reached 580 million [active users](monthly)(monthly active users), while Tmall achieved 500 million monthly active users. ZDNet|last1=Lee|first1=Cyrus|work=ZDNet|language=en|access-date=22 January 2018|archive-date=26 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326230430/http://www.zdnet.com/article/alibaba-achieves-3-trillion-yuan-transaction-volume-milestone/|url-status=live}} It is also rapidly expanding its e-commerce network abroad. Alibaba has also announced that it will invest 100 billion yuan over five years to build a global logistics network, underpinning an aggressive overseas expansion, and demonstrating Alibaba's commitment to building the most efficient logistics network in China and around the world. It is investing a further 5.3 billion yuan in [Cainiao](Cainiao) Logistics to boost its stake to 51 percent from 47 percent. The investment would value Cainiao, a joint venture of top Chinese logistics firms, at around US$20 billion.
On 11 June 2014, Alibaba launched US shopping site 11 Main. The 11 Main marketplace hosts more than 1,000 merchants in categories such as clothing, fashion accessories and jewelry as well as interior goods and arts and crafts and it plans to keep adding more, said the company. On 23 June 2015, Alibaba announced that it is selling 11 Main to OpenSky, an online-marketplace operator based in New York.
[[File:Lazada Laguna warehouse.jpg|thumb|[Lazada](Lazada Group) warehouse in [Laguna](Cabuyao,)(Cabuyao, Laguna), Philippines during the company's 11.11 sale promotion in 2018. Lazada Group is a subsidiary of Alibaba Group and Alibaba co-founder [Peng Lei](Lucy)(Peng Lei) is [CEO](Chief executive officer) of the company.]]
In February 2015, Alibaba invests US$590 million in [Meizu](Meizu), acquiring an undisclosed minority stake.
In June 2015, Alibaba started a joint venture Koubei with its affiliate [Financial Group](Ant)(Ant Financial Services Group) to tap China's fast-growing local services market, each investing approximately US$483 million into the business for an equal equity stake.
In April 2016, Alibaba announced that it intended to acquire a controlling interest in Lazada by paying $500 million for new shares and buying $500M worth of shares from existing investors. Lazada Group is a Singaporean e-commerce company founded by Rocket Internet in 2011. Lazada operates sites in [Indonesia](Indonesia), [Malaysia](Malaysia), the [Philippines](Philippines), Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its sites launched in March 2012, with a business model of selling inventory to customers from its own warehouses. In 2013 it added a marketplace model that allowed third-party retailers to sell their products through Lazada's site. Lazada features a wide product offering in categories ranging from consumer electronics to household goods, toys, fashion and sports equipment. In March 2018, Alibaba announced its plan to invest an additional $2 billion in the company, totaling a $4 billion investment. Alibaba also plans to appoint Alibaba co-founder Lucy Peng as Lazada's new CEO.
In October 2016, Alibaba launched Alitrip, later named Fliggy, an online travel platform that is designed as an online mall for brands such as airline companies and agencies. Fliggy set the target audience as younger generation and it strives to become a one-stop service when they plan their trips, particularly in overseas travel. On 7 August 2017, Alibaba Group and [International](Marriott)(Marriott International) hotel group announced a comprehensive strategic co-operation. Two companies will set up a joint venture company. Through the docking technology system and the superiority resources, Fliggy has Marriott hotel flagship store. It has the same function with Marriott Chinese website and Marriott mobile app to create the best global travel experience for consumers.
In 2016, the [of the United States Trade Representative](Office)(Office of the United States Trade Representative) added Taobao back onto a list of notorious counterfeit platforms that includes the likes of torrent site [Pirate Bay](The)(The Pirate Bay). Alibaba denied wrongdoing and filed two lawsuits against the counterfeiters , but brands whose sales have been affected by the counterfeit products accused Alibaba of not doing enough.
In 2017, Alibaba started opening a chain of supermarkets, named Hema (盒马, lit. box horse), as part of the company's "new retail strategy," where customers can either order in the store or online for delivery in under 30 minutes. It offers a mobile app that recommends customers products based on data analytics. In addition, customers can have their groceries cooked to eat in the food court of the supermarket.
In October 2018, it was reported that Alibaba's Koubei have merged with online food delivery service platform [Ele.me](Ele.me) into a new local life service subsidiary. However, the newly formed Alibaba Local Life Service entity experienced major competition from local service giant [Meituan](Meituan), which is backed by [Tencent](Tencent), leading to rumours of planned layoffs in 2022.
In October 2020, Alibaba agreed to pay US$3.6 billion to take control of China's biggest hypermarket operator Sun Art from French billionaire [family](Mulliez)(Mulliez family). The deal doubled the group's stake in the hypermarket chain with a tootles ownership of 72%.
#### Gold Supplier membership
Alibaba.com offers a paid Gold Supplier membership to try to ensure that each seller is genuine; sellers' Gold Supplier status and the number of years it has been held are displayed. The supplier verification types and checks are listed on Alibaba.com's website, with more stringent checks for sellers outside China. While the majority of suppliers are reported to be genuine, there have been many cases of sellers, some with Gold Supplier status, seeking to defraud unsuspecting buyers. In February 2011, controversy ensued when Alibaba's corporate office admitted that it had granted the mark of integrity of its "China Gold Supplier" program to more than 2,000 dealers that had subsequently defrauded buyers; the firm's share price dropped "abruptly" after the announcement. A statement from the firm reported that Yan Limin, the general manager of Alibaba.com at the time, had been dismissed in March for "misconduct"; Phil Muncaster of UK's *The Register* additionally reported that "a further 28 employees had been involved in dodgy dealings".
As *The Economist* noted, the company's response has conflicting components: Alibaba's promulgated view that its corrective actions indicate its commitment to quality and integrity (where it contrasts itself with other scandal-associated Chinese business sectors), *versus* a damage control view suggesting that the subscription-driven, third-party verified "China Gold Supplier" program was endangered by diminished trust in its endorsement system, removing the incentive for global buyers to choose Alibaba as their business-to-business service, thus more broadly endangering Alibaba through impact on its brand and capabilities (the latter via the "defenestration of senior people"). The scandal was said to have placed the head of Alibaba Group, Jack Ma—who was described as having been furious over the scandal—in a position to personally fight to win back trust.
### Cloud computing and artificial intelligence technology
In conjunction with the company's 10th anniversary, Alibaba launched [Cloud](Alibaba)(Alibaba Cloud) in September 2009, aiming to build a cloud computing service platform, including e-commerce data mining, e-commerce data processing, and data customization. It has R&D centres and operators in Hangzhou, Beijing, Hong Kong, Singapore, Silicon Valley and Dubai. In July 2014, Alibaba Cloud entered into a partnership deal with Inspur. Alibaba Cloud is the largest high-end cloud computing company in China. In 2009, Alibaba acquired HiChina, the largest domain registration service and web hosting service company in China, and built it into Alibaba Cloud. On 28 July 2011, Alibaba Cloud released [AliOS](AliOS) (formerly *Yun OS* and *Aliyun OS*), a [distribution](Linux)(Linux distribution) designed for mobile devices. In the 2017 Computing Conference in Hangzhou, Alibaba launched [AliGenie](AliGenie), a China-based open-platform intelligent personal assistant. It is currently used in the [Genie](Tmall)(Tmall Genie) smart speaker.
In 2018, Alibaba's Wanli Min presented City Brain, a technology geared towards urban solutions such as streamlining traffic, detecting accidents and improving transport efficiency.
On 27 July 2019, Alibaba unveiled a [64-bit](64-bit computing) [RISC-V](RISC-V) [processor](Central processing unit) called the XuanTie-910 (Black Iron 910). It is a [nm](12)(14 nanometer) [16-core](Multi-core processor) with a clockrate of 2.5 GHz, and was designed by Alibaba's subsidiary T-Head (also known as Pingtouge). Alibaba claim the Xuantie-910 is faster than the [Cortex-A73](ARM)(ARM Cortex-A73) and is capable of 7.1 Coremark/MHz.
On 25 September 2019, Alibaba announced an [accelerator](AI)(AI accelerator) called the Hanguang 800. The Hanguang 800 contains 17 billion transistors built with a [nm](12)(14 nanometer) process and was designed by T-Head and DAMO Academy (Alibaba's research team). Alibaba claim it is capable of 78,563 images per second (IPS) inference and 500 IPS/W in ResNet-50. The Hanguang 800 will be available to be rented on Alibaba Cloud.
On 18 January 2022, [of the United States President Joe Biden](Administration)(Presidency of Joe Biden) started investigating Alibaba Cloud business's potential risk to the U.S. national security. This included scrutiny of storage facility of the U.S. clients' data by the provider and to determine whether the Chinese government can obtain access to the same.
On April 2023, Alibaba revealed its plans to release Tongyi Qianwen, a ChatGPT-like chatbot. Its name means “seeking an answer by asking a thousand questions".
This AI product, which can support both English and Chinese languages, will be incorporated into the company’s various business operations. It will initially be integrated into the messaging app, DingTalk, and the voice-activated smart speaker, Tmall Genie.
According to Alibaba, drafting emails, creating business proposals, and converting meeting dialogues into written notes are among Tongyi Qianwen’s capabilities. As of 12 April 2023, the company has not disclosed the specific date and timeline of Tongyi Qianwen's release.
#### Surveillance of Uyghurs
In December 2020, *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* reported that Alibaba had developed and marketed facial recognition and surveillance software configured to detect [Uyghur](Uyghurs) faces and those of other [minorities in China](ethnic)(ethnic minorities in China). Alibaba responded that it was "dismayed to learn" that its Alibaba Cloud subsidiary had developed this feature, defending that the technology was developed "in a testing environment" and that it "was not deployed by any customer." However, [IPVM](IPVM) reported in December 2020 that Alibaba refused to provide any proof the Uyghur recognition feature was just a "test" or "trial" and that Alibaba's own website showed Uyghur recognition as a live feature.
### FinTech and online payment platforms
[[File:Alipay payment 20160121.jpg|thumb|Food ordered with [Alipay](Alipay)]]
In 2004, the Alibaba Group launched Alipay, a third-party online payment platform. It also provides an [escrow](escrow) service, in which buyers can verify whether they are happy with goods they have bought before releasing money to the seller. Alibaba Group [off](spun)(Corporate spin-off) Alipay in 2010 in a controversial move. According to analyst research report, Alipay has the biggest market share in China with 300 million users and control of just under half of China's online payment market in February 2014. In 2013, Alipay launched a financial product platform called Yu'ebao (余额宝). Alipay partnered with the [Asset Management](Tianhong)(Tianhong Asset Management) to launch it to the general public. In 2015, Alibaba announced that they will introduce a system that can be paid by recognizing the owner's face. On 16 October 2014, the Alipay company was re-branded as [Financial Services](Ant)(Ant Financial) (now [Group](Ant)(Ant Group)).
One of the factors for Alibaba's success in this platform is the company's quick and reliable payment system, where it offers several types of payment systems such as [card](credit)(credit card), [card](debit)(debit card), Alipay, [Quick-pay](UnionPay), and [banking](online)(online banking). These payment systems help to cope with simultaneous cash flow transactions with ease and convenience. Ant Financial was ranked sixth in Fortune's *Change the World* list, recognized for the positive green environmental impact of its *Ant Forest*, the world's largest platform for tracking individuals' carbon footprints. Ant Financial and its partners have achieved considerable success in the reduction of emissions. Ant Financial is the highest valued [fintech](fintech) company in the world, and the world's most valuable [(start-up) company](unicorn)(Unicorn (finance)), with a valuation of US$150 billion.
### Entertainment services
Alibaba created a new live entertainment business unit under its **Digital Media and Entertainment Group** which focuses on ticketing, content creation and live experiences, bringing its entertainment ticketing platform *Damai* and its content creation and technology units *MaiLive* and *Maizuo* under one roof. It aims to provide a platform for live events (e.g. [concert](concert)s, [plays](Play (theatre)), [esports](esports) and [sport](sport)s events), as well as supporting content partners and leveraging Alibaba's data capability for offline shows. It also provides the online digital distribution service 9Apps, which hosts downloadable content and applications.
In March 2014, Alibaba agreed to acquire a controlling stake in [Media Group](ChinaVision)(Alibaba Pictures) for $804 million. The two firms announced they would establish a strategic committee for potential future opportunities in online entertainment and other media areas. The company was renamed Alibaba Pictures Group. In March 2015, Alibaba Group launched [AliMusic](AliMusic) as its music division. Xiami Music and Tiantian Music are two of music steaming APP owned by AliMusic. AliMusic named [Xiaosong](Gao)(Gao Xiaosong) as the chairman and Song Ke as chief executive officer in July 2015. Alizila.com|date=2015-07-20|work=Alizila.com|access-date=2018-03-02|language=en-US|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613103920/http://www.alizila.com/alibaba-names-renowned-musician-gao-xiaosong-run-music-unit-2/|url-status=live}} In 2017, Tencent Music has expected $10bn IPO by signing a rights deal with Alibaba, strengthening its position within the important Chinese market. Under the terms of the deal Alibaba will gain the right to stream music from international labels such as [Music](Sony)(Sony Music), [Music Group](Universal)(Universal Music Group) and [Entertainment](YG)(YG Entertainment), which already have exclusive deals with Tencent, in return for offering to its catalogue from [Records](Rock)(Rock Records), [International Music](HIM)(HIM International Music) and so on. In April 2014, Alibaba and [Capital](Yunfeng)(Yunfeng Capital), a private equity company controlled by Alibaba's founder, Jack Ma, agreed to acquire a combined 18.5 percent stake in [Tudou](Youku)(Youku Tudou), which broadcasts a series of popular television programs and other videos over the Internet.
In August 2020, Ant Financial, a subsidiary of Alibaba, launched the IPO program, valued at US$200 billion.
### Internet services
In 2004, the Alibaba Group released Aliwangwang, an instant messaging software service for interactions between customer and online sellers. By 2014, there are 50 million Aliwangwang users, making it the second-largest instant messaging tool in China. In October 2013, the Alibaba's chairman Jack Ma announced that the Alibaba Group would no longer use Tencent's messaging application [WeChat](WeChat), and would henceforth promote its own messaging application and service, Laiwang. In April 2014, Alibaba Group and [UCWeb](UCWeb), a Chinese provider of mobile internet software technology and services, launched [Shenma](Shenma) (神马), a mobile-only search engine, as part of a [venture](joint)(joint venture).[Alibaba, UCWeb plan mobile-search joint venture](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/alibaba-ucweb-plan-mobile-search-joint-venture-2014-04-28) , *MarketWatch*, 28 Apr 2014[Alibaba, UCWeb Team Up In Mobile Search](https://www.forbes.com/sites/russellflannery/2014/04/28/alibaba-ucweb-team-up-in-mobile-search/) , *Forbes* magazine, 28 Apr. 2014 Later in June, the Alibaba Group acquired UCWeb, with an international product portfolio that includes a mobile browsing service (UC Browser), app and game distribution platforms (9Apps and 9Game), a mobile traffic platform (UC Union) and [News](UC)(UC News) that primarily caters to all types of news in the India market (as an aggregator) among others.[Alibaba to buy out UCWeb in China's biggest internet merger](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-alibaba-group-ucweb-idUSKBN0EM04P20140611) , *Reuters*, 11 June 2014[Alibaba Fully Buys Out UCWeb in China's Biggest Internet Deal Ever](https://www.forbes.com/sites/jlim/2014/06/11/alibaba-fully-buys-out-ucweb-in-chinas-biggest-internet-deal-ever/) , *Forbes* magazine, 11 June 2014[Alibaba to Acquire Rest of UCWeb to Boost Mobile Offering](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-11/alibaba-to-acquire-rest-of-ucweb-to-boost-its-mobile-offerings.html) , *Bloomberg*, 11 June 2014[UCWeb to accelerate international expansion after Alibaba merger](http://www.pcworld.com/article/2362820/ucweb-to-accelerate-international-expansion-after-alibaba-merger.html) , *PCWorld*, 12 June 2014[UCWeb—The final piece of Alibaba's puzzle](http://www.ejinsight.com/20140613-alibabas-final-piece-of-the-puzzle-ucweb/) , *HongKong Economic Journal*, 13 Jun 2014 Alibaba's Y Projects Business Unit developed the Xuexi Qiangguo app, which is used to teach [Jinping Thought](Xi)(Xi Jinping Thought).
In October 2005, Alibaba Group formed a strategic partnership with Yahoo! and acquired Yahoo! China, a Chinese portal previously launched on 24 September 1999 that focuses on Internet services like news, email, and search. In April 2013, Alibaba Group announced that, as part of the agreement to buy back the Yahoo! Mail stake, that they would suspend technological support for China Yahoo! Mail service and begin migration of Yahoo! China Mail accounts. Several options were offered to users to make the transition as smooth as possible, and Yahoo! China users had four months to migrate their accounts to the Aliyun mail service, the [Mail](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! Mail) service in the United States, or to another third-party e-mail provider of the user's choice.Steadman, Ian. (22 April 2013) [Yahoo! decides to close its Chinese mail service (Wired UK)](https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-04/22/yahoo-china-email) . Wired.co.uk. Retrieved on 21 September 2013. Yahoo! China closed its mail service on 19 August 2013. E-mails sent to Yahoo! China accounts could be forwarded to an Alimail box until 31 December 2014. Users were also allowed to transfer e-mail accounts to yahoo.com or any other e-mail service. It is estimated there are no more than a million users with Yahoo! Mail for China and chances are they also own other e-mail accounts.
In 2014, Alibaba Group founded [DingTalk](DingTalk), an enterprise communication and collaboration platform. Also known as Ding Ding, the app was developed as part of efforts to compete with rival Tencent's WeChat. DingTalk is managed by Alibaba's cloud computing division.
### Others
In 2014, Alibaba and Yunfeng Capital, a private equity firm, launched AliHealth when the two companies bought a 54% stake in [21CN](CITIC)(CITIC 21CN) for HK$1.33 billion (US$171 million). It is listed on the [Kong Stock Exchange](Hong)(Hong Kong Stock Exchange) as . It positions itself as a pharmaceutical e-commerce business and medical services. In the same year, Alibaba acquired Chinese map supplier [AutoNavi](AutoNavi). In April 2015, the group also reached an agreement to transfer its online B2C pharmacy, Tmall Medical (yao.Tmall.com), to AliHealth. The integration provides consumers a wide range of pharmaceutical and health products available in China. In 2015, Alibaba later launched its [Shanghai](Shanghai)-based sports division, AliSports, after a consolidation of some of the parent company's existing business units. The new company's operations encompass television and digital sports rights, event operation, venue commercialization, copyright, media, business development, gaming, and ticketing. AliSports secured exclusive title sponsorship of the [Club World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA Club World Cup) from 2015 to 2022. The company announced a Champion of Champions [sevens](rugby)(rugby sevens) tournament in 2017, to be played in Shanghai for the highest prize money ever offered in the sport.
In December 2015, Alibaba agreed to acquire the *[China Morning Post](South)(South China Morning Post)* and other media assets belonging to the group for a consideration of $266 million. Although Alibaba promised editorial independence, vice-chairman [Tsai](Joseph)(Joseph Tsai) said that Alibaba believes that "the world needs a plurality of views when it comes to China coverage. China's rise as an economic power and its importance to world stability is too important for there to be a singular thesis." The acquisition attracted media concerns over what this would mean for the newspaper's coverage.
Other subsidiaries of Alibaba include Hangzhou Ali Venture Capital and Alibaba Entrepreneurs Fund. Hangzhou Ali Venture Capital (杭州阿里创业投资) is a company 80% owned by [Ma](Jack)(Jack Ma) and another manager of Alibaba. For regulatory purpose, Alibaba Group did not own the company directly, but by [pleading](pleading). It was considered as a subsidiary and/or consolidated entity of Alibaba Group. Ali Venture Capital is a shareholder of [Enlight Media](Beijing)(Beijing Enlight Media) and a [shareholder](domestic)(A-share (mainland China)) of [Unicom](China)(China Unicom). The Alibaba Entrepreneurs Fund is a non-profit making initiative launched by Alibaba Group in 2015.
Alibaba also has invested in more than ten startups in [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong) including DayDayCook, [GoGoVan](GoGoVan), WeLend and Qupital. In 2019, Alibaba launched China-Russia flights in collaboration with [Post](Russian)(Russian Post) to assure fast shipping of products.
## Corporate governance
[[File:Enabling eCommerce- Small Enterprises, Global Players (39008130265) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[Ma](Jack)(Jack Ma), founder and the former executive chairman of the Alibaba Group|alt=]]Alibaba's main co-founder Jack Ma is the former [chairman](executive)(Chairman) of the Alibaba Group from its creation to 10 September 2019. The current executive chairman is Daniel Zhang, who succeeded Ma on 10 September 2019, and is also Alibaba's [CEO](Chief executive officer) since 2015. [Tsai](Joseph)(Joseph Tsai) is Alibaba's executive vice-chairman since 2013. [Michael Evans](J.)(J. Michael Evans) is Alibaba's president since 2015. The board of directors of Alibaba includes top management Jack Ma, Joseph Tsai, Daniel Zhang, and J. Michael Evans, and director Eric Jing, plus independent directors such as Chee Hwa Tung, Walter Kwauk, Börje E. Ekholm, and Wan Ling Martello, as well as [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) co-founder and former CEO [Yang](Jerry)(Jerry Yang). [Son](Masayoshi)(Masayoshi Son) (founder and CEO of [SoftBank](SoftBank Group)) formerly served on the firm's board before stepping down in 2020. Besides Ma, Tsai, Zhang, and Evans, senior management also includes Toby Xu ([financial officer](Chief)(Chief financial officer)) Judy Tong ([human resources officer](Chief)(Chief human resources officer)), Jeff Zhang ([technology officer](Chief)(Chief technology officer) and President of Alibaba Cloud Intelligence), Sophie Wu ([customer officer](Chief)(Chief customer officer)), Tim Steinert (General Counsel and Secretary), Jessie Zheng ([risk officer](Chief)(Chief risk officer) and CRGO/Chief Platform Governance Officer), Angel Zhao (Head of Alibaba Globalization Leadership Group), Chris Tung ([marketing officer](Chief)(Chief marketing officer)), Trudy Dai (President of Wholesale Marketplaces), Fan Jiang (President of [Taobao](Taobao).com), and Jet Jing (President of [Tmall](Tmall).com).
Previously, Jack Ma served as the CEO of the Alibaba Group since its creation, but later stepped down in 2013, choosing [Lu](Jonathan)(Jonathan Lu) as his successor. The Alibaba Group under Lu was performing well, though there were rumors that Ma was growing distrustful in Lu's ability to lead the company. Daniel Zhang, who served as [COO](Chief operating officer) of Alibaba under Lu, succeeded Lu as CEO in 2015. On 10 September 2018, Ma chose Zhang to succeed him as executive chairman of the Alibaba Group after his stepping down announcement, and this would go into effect in 1 year on 10 September 2019.
Since 2012, the Chinese Communist Party has had a [Committee](Party)(Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary) in place in the company and has over 2,000 party members as Alibaba employees. In 2019, the Chinese government began embedding officials inside major technology companies, including Alibaba.
Alibaba has been criticized for censorship on its platforms, this includes both censorship ordered by the Chinese government and [self-censorship](self-censorship).
During the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine), Alibaba refused to join the [calls for withdrawal from the Russian market](international)(Non-government reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). Research from [University](Yale)(Yale University) published on August 10, 2022 identifying how companies were reacting to Russia's invasion identified Alibaba in the worst category of "Digging in", meaning Defying Demands for Exit: companies defying demands for exit/reduction of activities.
## Financial data
## See also
* [interest entity](Variable)(Variable interest entity)
* [Amazon](Amazon (company))
## References
## External links
*
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Joseph Gordon-Levitt
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joseph_gordon-levitt
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# Joseph Gordon-Levitt
*Revision ID: 1159286761 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T11:33:59Z*
---
| birth_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| education = [University](Columbia)(Columbia University)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1988–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| relatives = [Gordon](Michael)(Michael Gordon (film director)) (grandfather)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Joseph Gordon-Levitt)
}}
**Joseph Leonard Gordon-Levitt** (; born February 17, 1981) is an American actor, writer, and director. He has received [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Joseph Gordon-Levitt), including nominations for the [Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy) for his leading performances in *[Days of Summer](500)(500 Days of Summer)* (2009) and *[50/50](50/50 (2011 film))* (2011). He is the founder of the online media platform [HitRecord](HitRecord) whose projects such as *[on TV](HitRecord)(HitRecord on TV)* (2014–15) and *Create Together* (2020) won him two [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s in the category of [Interactive Program](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Interactive Program).
Born in Los Angeles to a Jewish family, Gordon-Levitt began his acting career as a child, appearing in the films *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))* (1992), *[Matrimony](Holy)(Holy Matrimony (1994 film))* (1994), and *[in the Outfield](Angels)(Angels in the Outfield (1994 film))* (1994), which earned him a [Artist Award](Young)(Young Artist Award) and a [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) nomination. He played the role of [Solomon](Tommy)(Tommy Solomon (3rd Rock from the Sun)) in the TV series *[Rock from the Sun](3rd)(3rd Rock from the Sun)* (1996–2001). He had a supporting role in *[Things I Hate About You](10)(10 Things I Hate About You)* (1999) and voiced [Hawkins](Jim)(Jim Hawkins (character)) in the Disney animated *[Planet](Treasure)(Treasure Planet)* (2002) before taking a break from acting to study at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University), but dropped out in 2004 to resume his acting career.
Since returning to acting, Gordon-Levitt has starred in *[Manic](Manic (2001 film))* (2001), *[Skin](Mysterious)(Mysterious Skin)* (2004), *[Brick](Brick (film))* (2005), *[Joe: The Rise of Cobra](G.I.)(G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra)* (2009), *[Inception](Inception)* (2010), *[Dark Knight Rises](The)(The Dark Knight Rises)* (2012), *[Looper](Looper (film))* (2012), and *[Lincoln](Lincoln (film))* (2012). He portrayed [Petit](Philippe)(Philippe Petit) in the [Zemeckis](Robert)(Robert Zemeckis)-directed film *[Walk](The)(The Walk (2015 film))* (2015) and [whistleblower](whistleblower) [Snowden](Edward)(Edward Snowden) in the [Stone](Oliver)(Oliver Stone) film *[Snowden](Snowden (film))* (2016). In 2020, he had a supporting role in the legal drama *[Trial of the Chicago 7](The)(The Trial of the Chicago 7)*.
In 2013, he wrote and directed *[Jon](Don)(Don Jon)*, a comedy-drama film that was released to positive reviews and earned him an [Spirit Award](Independent)(Independent Spirit Awards) nomination for [First Screenplay](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best First Screenplay). He previously directed and edited two short films, both of which were released in 2010: ''[M. Morgansen's Date with Destiny](Morgan)(Morgan M. Morgansen's Date with Destiny)* and *[and Destiny's Eleventeenth Date: The Zeppelin Zoo](Morgan)(Morgan and Destiny's Eleventeenth Date: The Zeppelin Zoo)*. In 2021, he wrote, directed and starred in a comedy drama series *[Corman](Mr.)(Mr. Corman)'' on [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+).
## Early life
Joseph Leonard Gordon-Levitt was born on February 17, 1981, in [Angeles, California](Los)(Los Angeles, California),Sources include:
*
* and was raised in the [Oaks](Sherman)(Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles) neighborhood.[http://www.lamag.com/culture/lastory/story.aspx?ID=1771942] He is [Jewish](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jewish), from a family that is "not strictly religious"Various sources:
*
* Dovey, Rachel. ["Joseph Gordon-Levitt: Hollywood's Boy Wonder Grows Up"](https://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2010/10/joseph-gordon-levitt-hollywoods-boy-wonder-grows-u.html?a=1)
* , *Paste magazine*, October 11, 2010.
*
* and his parents were among the founders of the [Jewish Alliance](Progressive)(Progressive Jewish Alliance).Various sources:
* Roderick, Kevin. ["Joseph Gordon-Levitt gives shout out to KPFK"](http://www.laobserved.com/archive/2011/09/joseph_gordon-levitt_give.php) , *LA Observed*, September 29, 2011.
*
*
* Gordon-Levitt's father, Dennis Levitt, was once the news director for the [Radio](Pacifica)(Pacifica Radio) station, [KPFK-FM](KPFK). His mother, Jane Gordon, ran for the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) in California during the 1970s for the [and Freedom Party](Peace)(Peace and Freedom Party (United States)); she met Dennis Levitt while she was working as the program guide editor for KPFK-FM. Gordon-Levitt's maternal grandfather, [Gordon](Michael)(Michael Gordon (film director)) (1909–1993), was a Hollywood film director. Gordon-Levitt had an older brother, Dan, a photographer and [spinner](fire)(Fire dancing) who died in 2010 at the age of 36.[Sundance 2014: Joseph Gordon-Levitt gives stirring tribute to late brother at HitRECord event](https://www.ew.com/article/2014/01/18/sundance-2014-joseph-gordon-levitt-hitrecord) – *Entertainment Weekly* Gordon-Levitt attended [Nuys High School](Van)(Van Nuys High School) and graduated in 1999.
## Career
### Early acting work
[[File:Joseph Gordon-Levitt Mar 2009.jpg|thumb|upright|Gordon-Levitt at a promotional event for *[Days of Summer](500)(500 Days of Summer)* in 2009]]
Gordon-Levitt joined a musical theater group at the age of four and played the [Scarecrow](Scarecrow (Oz)) in a production of *[Wizard of Oz](The)(The Wizard of Oz (adaptations))*. Subsequently, he was approached by an agent and began appearing on television and in commercials for [Jim](Sunny)(Sunny Jim) peanut butter, [Puffs](Cocoa)(Cocoa Puffs), [Pop-Tarts](Pop-Tarts), and [Shoes](Kinney)(Kinney Shoes).
At age six he starred in several [made-for-television](made-for-television) films. In 1991, he played both [Collins](David)(Dark Shadows (1991 TV series)) and [Collins](Daniel)(Dark Shadows (1991 TV series)) in the *[Shadows](Dark)(Dark Shadows (1991 TV series))* television series and appeared in the film *[River Runs Through It](A)(A River Runs Through It (film))* . In the same year, he made an appearance as a boy who witnesses a murder in an episode of [Leap](Quantum)(Quantum Leap). During 1992–93, he played in *[Powers That Be](The)(The Powers That Be (TV series))*, a sitcom starring [Forsythe](John)(John Forsythe), as a clever young boy named Pierce Van Horne. Also in 1992, he portrayed [Kingsley](Gregory)(Gregory Kingsley) in the made-for-TV film *Switching Parents*, based on Kingsley's real life case of "divorcing" his parents. In 1994, he starred in the Disney film *[in the Outfield](Angels)(Angels in the Outfield (1994 film))* as an orphan who sees angels. In 1996, he got the role of [Solomon](Tommy)(Tommy Solomon (3rd Rock from the Sun)) on the sitcom *[Rock from the Sun](3rd)(3rd Rock from the Sun)*. The series ran for six seasons. The *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* noted that Gordon-Levitt was a "Jewish kid playing an [extraterrestrial](extraterrestrial life) pretending to be a Jewish kid". During the 1990s, he was frequently featured in teenage magazines. He also made an appearance on ''['70s Show](That)(That '70s Show)'' in 1998 as Buddy, a gay teenager who assumes his friend (main character Eric Forman) is gay as well, in the episode "[Buddy](Eric's)(Eric's Buddy)".
Gordon-Levitt had a supporting role in 1998's *[H20: 20 Years Later](Halloween)(Halloween H20: 20 Years Later)*, the 1999 film *[Things I Hate About You](10)(10 Things I Hate About You)*, a modern-day adaptation of Shakespeare's *[Taming of the Shrew](The)(The Taming of the Shrew)*, and voiced Jim Hawkins in *[Planet](Treasure)(Treasure Planet)* (2002), a Disney adaptation of the novel *[Island](Treasure)(Treasure Island)*. In 2000, he began attending [University](Columbia)(Columbia University). He studied history, literature, and French poetry. He became an avid [Francophile](Francophile) and a French speaker. He also dated actress [Stiles](Julia)(Julia Stiles) and the two lived in [Jay Hall](John)(John Jay Hall). He said that moving to New York City from his hometown forced him to grow as a person. He dropped out in 2004 to concentrate on acting again.
### Later acting work
Gordon-Levitt has said that he made a conscious decision to "be in good movies" after returning to acting. His films include 2001's drama *[Manic](Manic (2001 film))* which was set in a [institution](mental)(Psychiatric hospital), *[Skin](Mysterious)(Mysterious Skin)* (2004) in which he played a gay prostitute and [sexual abuse](child)(child sexual abuse) victim, and *[Brick](Brick (film))* (2005), a modern-day [noir](film)(film noir) set [a high school](at)(San Clemente High School (San Clemente, California)). In *Brick* he had the lead role of Brendan Frye, a teen who becomes involved in an underground drug ring while investigating a murder. *Brick* received positive reviews, with *The [Daily](Minnesota)(Minnesota Daily)*s critic commenting that Gordon-Levitt played the character "beautifully", saying the performance was "true to (the) film's style", "unfeeling but not disenchanted", and "sexy in the most ambiguous way." Another review describes the performance as "astounding".
[thumb](File:Uncle Bob Postcard.jpg)
In 2001 Gordon-Levitt made his debut on the New York stage to excellent reviews in the Off-Broadway premiere of [Pendleton](Austin)(Austin Pendleton)'s "Uncle Bob" at The SoHo Playhouse. Gordon-Levitt starred opposite [Morfogen](George)(George Morfogen) in the gritty two character play. The production was directed by Courtney Moorehead and produced by Steven Sendor.
He starred opposite [Sandvoss](Steve)(Steve Sandvoss) as a young judgmental missionary in *[Days](Latter)(Latter Days)* (2003), a film that centers on a sexually repressed [Mormon](Mormon) missionary (Sandvoss) who falls for his gay neighbor. He also had roles in *[Havoc](Havoc (2005 film))* and *[Shadowboxer](Shadowboxer)*.
[[File:Joseph Gordon-Levitt by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Gordon-Levitt at [WonderCon](WonderCon) 2012]]
His next role was in 2007's *[Lookout](The)(The Lookout (2007 film))* in which he played Chris Pratt, a janitor involved in a [heist](bank)(bank robbery). In reviewing the film, *[Philadelphia Inquirer](The)(The Philadelphia Inquirer)* described Gordon-Levitt as a "surprisingly formidable, and formidably surprising, leading man", while [York* magazine](*New)(New York (magazine)) stated that he is a "major [rasa](tabula)(tabula rasa) actor ... a minimalist", and his character is effective because he "doesn't seize the space ... by what he takes away from the character." The *San Francisco Chronicle* specified that he "embodies, more than performs, a character's inner life." His 2008 and 2009 films include *[Stop-Loss](Stop-Loss (film))*, directed by [Peirce](Kimberly)(Kimberly Peirce) and revolving around American soldiers returning from the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War), and *[Killshot](Killshot (film))* in which he played a hoodlum partnered with a hired killer played by [Rourke](Mickey)(Mickey Rourke).
Gordon-Levitt played a lead role opposite to friend [Deschanel](Zooey)(Zooey Deschanel) in *[Days of Summer](500)(500 Days of Summer)*, a well-received 2009 release about the deconstruction of a relationship. His performance, described as "the real key" to what makes the film work, credits him with using "his usual spell in subtle gradations." *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s Todd McCarthy praised his performance, saying he "expressively alternates between enthusiasm and forlorn disappointment in the manner [Lemmon](Jack)(Jack Lemmon) could". [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* said the film "hits you like a blast of pure romantic oxygen" and credited both lead actors for playing "it for real, with a grasp of subtlety and feeling that goes beyond the call of breezy duty." He was subsequently nominated for a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award).
He later played villain [Commander](Cobra)(Cobra Commander) in *[Joe: The Rise of Cobra](G.I.)(G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra)*. On November 21, 2009, he hosted *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*. In 2010, he replaced [Franco](James)(James Franco) and starred alongside [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) in [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan)'s science fiction thriller *[Inception](Inception)*, which received favorable reviews.
In 2011, Gordon-Levitt began filming Christopher Nolan's *[Dark Knight Rises](The)(The Dark Knight Rises)* in which he played [Blake](John)(Robin in other media#Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy), a police officer who emerges as a key ally of Batman. In *[Rush](Premium)(Premium Rush)*, he played the starring role of a [fixie-riding](fixie), brash [messenger](bicycle)(bicycle messenger); he portrayed the younger version of [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis)' character, in a shared role for the time-travel thriller *[Looper](Looper (film))*; and the supporting role of [Todd Lincoln](Robert)(Robert Todd Lincoln) in [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg)'s biopic *[Lincoln](Lincoln (film))*. All three films were released in 2012.
Gordon-Levitt played a new character, Johnny, in the sequel *[City: A Dame to Kill For](Sin)(Sin City: A Dame to Kill For)* (2014), described by the filmmakers as "a cocky gambler who disguises a darker mission to destroy his most foul enemy at his best game". In October 2013, it was reported that he was one of the frontrunners to play [Lang / Ant-Man II](Scott)(Scott Lang (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) for [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios)' superhero film *[Ant-Man](Ant-Man (film))* which eventually went to [Rudd](Paul)(Paul Rudd).
[[- random -5 (14094372762).jpg|right|thumb|upright|Gordon-Levitt in 2013](File:WP)]
In 2015, Gordon-Levitt starred as [Petit](Philippe)(Philippe Petit) in the biographical drama *[Walk](The)(The Walk (2015 film))*, directed by [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)-winning director [Zemeckis](Robert)(Robert Zemeckis). Gordon-Levitt then played [Security Agency](National)(National Security Agency) surveillance leaker [Snowden](Edward)(Edward Snowden) in *[Snowden](Snowden (film))*, directed by [Stone](Oliver)(Oliver Stone). The film was released in North America on September 16, 2016, and also starred [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley), [Leo](Melissa)(Melissa Leo), [Quinto](Zachary)(Zachary Quinto), [Wilkinson](Tom)(Tom Wilkinson), and [Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage).
In 2017, Gordon-Levitt had a voice cameo in *[Wars: The Last Jedi](Star)(Star Wars: The Last Jedi)*. In 2019, Gordon-Levitt starred in *[7500](7500 (film))* directed by [Vollrath](Patrick)(Patrick Vollrath), which had its world premiere at the [Film Festival](Locarno)(Locarno Film Festival) on August 9, 2019. It was released on June 19, 2020, by [Studios](Amazon)(Amazon Studios). That same year, Gordon-Levitt had a voice cameo in *[Out](Knives)(Knives Out)*.
Gordon-Levitt starred in *[Power](Project)(Project Power)*, directed by [Schulman](Ariel)(Ariel Schulman) and [Joost](Henry)(Henry Joost), opposite [Foxx](Jamie)(Jamie Foxx) and [Fishback](Dominique)(Dominique Fishback); it was released on August 14, 2020, by [Netflix](Netflix). He next played lawyer Richard Schultz in the drama film *[Trial of the Chicago 7](The)(The Trial of the Chicago 7)*. The film was written and directed by [Sorkin](Aaron)(Aaron Sorkin), and released September 25, 2020. In March 2021, it was announced that Gordon-Levitt would voice [Cricket](Jiminy)(Jiminy Cricket) in [Zemeckis](Robert)(Robert Zemeckis)' [film adaptation](live-action)(Pinocchio (2022 live-action film)) of *[Pinocchio](Pinocchio (1940 film))*. In 2022, he starred as [Kalanick](Travis)(Travis Kalanick), former CEO of [Uber](Uber), in [Showtime's](Showtime (TV network)) anthology series [Pumped*](*Super)(Super Pumped (TV series)), based on the bestselling book *[Pumped: The Battle for Uber](Super)(Super Pumped: The Battle for Uber)* by Mike Isaac.
### Directing and producing
Gordon-Levitt's first film as director, the 24-minute-long *Sparks* was an adaptation of a short story by [Leonard](Elmore)(Elmore Leonard) starring [Gugino](Carla)(Carla Gugino) and [Stoltz](Eric)(Eric Stoltz). *Sparks* was selected for the 2009 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) to be shown as part of a new program for short films. In 2010, he directed another short film, ''Morgan and Destiny's Eleventeenth Date: The Zeppelin Zoo''. It premiered at two houses during the [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest) festival in [Austin](Austin, Texas).
He was one of the many producers of the Broadway show ''[Snowshow](Slava's)(Slava's Snowshow)*.
In 2013, Gordon-Levitt wrote, directed, and starred in his screenwriting and directorial debut, *[Jon](Don)(Don Jon)''. The film also stars [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson), [Moore](Julianne)(Julianne Moore), and [Danza](Tony)(Tony Danza) and it premiered at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) in January 2013. Following the premiere, the film was acquired by [Media](Relativity)(Relativity Media) and Gordon-Levitt stated: "I always intended this to be a movie for a mass popular audience. Everyone told me it was a long shot ... I couldn't possibly be more grateful."
In September 2019, it was announced Gordon-Levitt would write, direct, star, and executive produce *[Corman](Mr.)(Mr. Corman)*, a comedy-drama series produced by [A24](A24) for [TV+](Apple)(Apple TV+).
#### HitRecord
HitRecord (pronounced ; often stylized as hitREC●rd)
Gordon-Levitt created the platform in 2010 after a period of stagnation in his acting career. "I wanted to be creative, and no one was letting me [I said](so) OK, I have to figure out something to do on my own." The company has $6.4 million in venture capital.
On 6 November 2020, Gordon-Levitt released *Hong Kong Never Sleeps*, a collaborative short film paying homage to Hong Kong created on hitRECord, on his Facebook page. It features photos and videos he collected from Hong Kongers since August 2020, which some themed around the [Kong protests starting in 2019](Hong)(Hong Kong protests (2019-present)), and voice by actors he recruited in October 2020. 立場報道 立場新聞|url=https://www.thestandnews.com/politics/joseph-gordon-levitt-%E8%A3%BD-%E4%B8%8D%E7%9C%A0%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF-%E7%89%87%E6%AE%B5-%E5%90%AB%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%8F%E5%8F%8D%E4%BF%AE%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%97%E7%88%AD%E5%BD%B1%E5%83%8F/|access-date=2021-03-04|website=立場新聞 Stand News|language=en|archive-date=March 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319071523/https://www.thestandnews.com/politics/joseph-gordon-levitt-%E8%A3%BD-%E4%B8%8D%E7%9C%A0%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF-%E7%89%87%E6%AE%B5-%E5%90%AB%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%8F%E5%8F%8D%E4%BF%AE%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%97%E7%88%AD%E5%BD%B1%E5%83%8F/|url-status=live}}
## Personal life
On October 4, 2010, Gordon-Levitt's older brother, Daniel Gordon-Levitt, was found dead in [Hollywood](Hollywood, Los Angeles), [California](California), at the age of 36. According to the Los Angeles County Coroner's Office, Daniel's cause of death was "[ketamine](ketamine) intoxication, with the injury occurring by intake of overdose". Joseph Gordon-Levitt has publicly disputed the claim that his brother's death was caused by a drug overdose.
In October 2013, Gordon-Levitt identified himself as a [feminist](feminist), giving credit to his mother: "My mom brought me up to be a feminist. She was active in the movement in the 1960s and 1970s. The Hollywood movie industry has come a long way since its past. It certainly has a bad history of sexism, but it ain't all the way yet."
In December 2014, Gordon-Levitt married Tasha McCauley, the founder and CEO of technology company Fellow Robots. Their first child, a son, was born in August 2015. Their second son was born in June 2017. He and McCauley do not want to reveal any details of their children to the media, including their first names. He has been living with his family in [Wellington](Wellington) since October 2020, after moving his new TV production to New Zealand in response to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
Gordon-Levitt has expressed support for the [altruism](effective)(effective altruism) movement. Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Julia Galef, AJ Jacobs, and William MacAskill|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyweG9__CCQ|language=en|access-date=2021-12-03}} In 2017, he spoke at the [Altruism Global](Effective)(Effective Altruism Global) conference in San Francisco.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video games
## Discography
### Albums
### Singles
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1981)(Category:1981 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male child actors](Category:American)(Category:American male child actors)
[feminist writers](Category:American)(Category:American feminist writers)
[feminists](Category:Male)(Category:Male feminists)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male musical theatre actors](Category:American)(Category:American male musical theatre actors)
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[people of Romanian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Romanian-Jewish descent)
[people of Polish-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent)
[people of Russian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent)
[University School of General Studies alumni](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia University School of General Studies alumni)
[American male actors](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American male actors)
[American writers](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American writers)
[feminists](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish feminists)
[actors from Los Angeles](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Los Angeles)
[Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
[from Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles](Category:People)(Category:People from Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles)
[Nuys High School alumni](Category:Van)(Category:Van Nuys High School alumni)
[directors from Los Angeles](Category:Film)(Category:Film directors from Los Angeles)
[from California](Category:Screenwriters)(Category:Screenwriters from California)
[musicians](Category:Feminist)(Category:Feminist musicians)
[Emmy Award winners](Category:Primetime)(Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners)
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[people](Category:Disney)(Category:Disney people)
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Carey Mulligan
|
carey_mulligan
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# Carey Mulligan
*Revision ID: 1160161257 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:21:33Z*
---
| birth_place = London, England
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2004–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Carey Mulligan)
}}
**Carey Hannah Mulligan** (born 28 May 1985) is an English actress. She has received [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Carey Mulligan), including a [Academy Film Award](British)(British Academy Film Award), in addition to nominations for two [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards), three [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), and a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award).
Mulligan made her professional acting debut on stage in [Elyot](Kevin)(Kevin Elyot)'s play *Forty Winks* (2004) at the [Court Theatre](Royal)(Royal Court Theatre). She made her film debut with a supporting role in [Wright](Joe)(Joe Wright)'s romantic drama *[& Prejudice](Pride)(Pride & Prejudice (2005 film))* (2005), followed by diverse roles in television, including the drama series *[House](Bleak)(Bleak House (2005 TV serial))* (2005), the television film *[Abbey](Northanger)(Northanger Abbey (2007 film))* (2007), and a guest appearance in *[Who](Doctor)(Doctor Who)*, where she played [Sparrow](Sally)(Sally Sparrow). She made her [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) debut in the revival of [Chekhov](Anton)(Anton Chekhov)'s *[Seagull](The)(The Seagull)* (2008), which earned her a [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award) nomination.
Mulligan's breakthrough role came as a 1960s schoolgirl in the coming-of-age film *[Education](An)(An Education)* (2009), for which she won the [Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role), and received a nomination for the [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress). She gained further acclaim for her performances in *[Let Me Go](Never)(Never Let Me Go (2010 film))* (2010), *[Drive](Drive (2011 film))* (2011), *[Shame](Shame (2011 film))* (2011), *[Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby (2013 film))* (2013), *[Llewyn Davis](Inside)(Inside Llewyn Davis)* (2013), *[from the Madding Crowd](Far)(Far from the Madding Crowd (2015 film))* (2015), *[Suffragette](Suffragette (film))* (2015), *[Mudbound](Mudbound (film))* (2017), *[Wildlife](Wildlife (film))* (2018), and *[Said](She)(She Said (film))* (2022). For her performance in the Broadway revival of [Hare](David)(David Hare (playwright))'s *[Skylight](Skylight (play))* (2015), she was nominated for the [Award for Best Actress in a Play](Tony)(Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play), and for her portrayal of a vigilante in the black comedy *[Young Woman](Promising)(Promising Young Woman)* (2020), Mulligan received her second Academy Award nomination.
Mulligan has been an ambassador for the [Society](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's Society) since 2012, and an ambassador for [Child](War)(War Child (charity)) since 2014. She has been married to singer-songwriter [Mumford](Marcus)(Marcus Mumford) since 2012. They have two children.
## Early life and education
Carey Hannah Mulligan was born on 28 May 1985 in London, to Nano (née Booth) and Stephen Mulligan. Her father, a hotel manager, is of Irish descent and is originally from [Liverpool](Liverpool). Her mother, a university lecturer, is from [Llandeilo](Llandeilo), Wales.*England & Wales, 1984–2004.* Gives name at birth as "Carey Hannah Mulligan" Her parents met while they were both working in a hotel in their twenties. In ''[Grandparents' War](My)(My Grandparents' War)'' (2019), she explored her maternal grandfather Denzil Booth's role as naval radar artillery officer on at the [of Okinawa](Battle)(Battle of Okinawa) and then sailing into [Bay](Tokyo)(Tokyo Bay) at the end of [War II](World)(World War II).
When Mulligan was three, her father's hotel manager work took the family to Germany. While living there, she and her brother attended the [School of Düsseldorf](International)(International School of Düsseldorf).Abramowitz, Rachel ["Carey Mulligan Gets An Education"](https://articles.latimes.com/2009/oct/08/entertainment/et-mulligan8) *Los Angeles Times* When she was eight, she and her family moved back to the UK. As a teenager, she was educated at [School](Woldingham)(Woldingham School), an independent school in [Surrey](Surrey).
Her interest in acting sparked from watching her brother perform in a school production of *[King and I](The)(The King and I)* when she was six. During rehearsals, she pleaded with his teachers to let her be in the play. They let her join the chorus. While enrolled in Woldingham School as a teen, she was heavily involved in theatre. She was the student head of the drama department there, performing in plays and musicals, conducting workshops with younger students, and helping put on productions.["ABC News Mulligan"](https://abcnews.go.com/widgets/mediaViewer/image?id=9931402). ABC News
When she was 16, she attended a production of *[Henry V](Henry V (play))* starring [Branagh](Kenneth)(Kenneth Branagh). His performance emboldened her and reinforced her belief that she wanted to pursue a career in acting. She wrote a letter to Branagh asking him for advice. "I explained that my parents didn't want me to act, but that I felt it was my vocation in life," she said. Branagh's sister replied: "Kenneth says that if you feel such a strong need to be an actress, you must be an actress."Fox, Chloe ["Carey Mulligan All or Nothing"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/3669189/Carey-Mulligan-All-or-nothing.html). *The Telegraph*.
Mulligan's parents disapproved of her acting ambitions and wished for her to attend a university like her brother. At age 17, she applied to three London drama schools instead of the universities she was expected to apply to, but was not invited to attend them. During her final year at Woldingham School, actor/screenwriter [Fellowes](Julian)(Julian Fellowes) delivered a lecture at the school on the production of the film *[Park](Gosford)(Gosford Park)*. Mulligan briefly talked to him after the lecture and asked him for advice on an acting career. Fellowes tried to dissuade her from the profession and suggested she "marry a lawyer" instead. Undeterred, she later sent Fellowes a letter in which she stated she was serious about acting and that it was her purpose in life.
Several weeks later, Fellowes's wife Emma invited Mulligan to a dinner she and her husband were hosting for young aspiring actors. It facilitated an introduction between Mulligan and a casting assistant that led to an audition for a role in *Pride and Prejudice*. She auditioned three times, and was eventually given the role of Kitty Bennet.Fuller, Graham ["Actress Carey Mulligan, Emotionally Speaking"](http://www.theartsdesk.com/features/actress-carey-mulligan-emotionally-speaking) "The Arts Desk"Buck, Joan ["The Talented Miss Mulligan"](http://www.vogue.com/magazine/article/the-talented-miss-mulligan) *Vogue*Clements, Erin ["Three Things to Know About An Education Star Carey Mulligan"](http://www.elle.com/_mobile/news/culture/three-things-to-know-about-an-education-star-carey-mulligan-1755) "Elle.com" During her late teens and early twenties, she worked as a [pub](pub) barmaid and an errand-runner for [Studios](Ealing)(Ealing Studios) between acting jobs.["Carey Mulligan Returns Home"](http://www.hamhigh.co.uk/news/carey_mulligan_returns_home_empty_handed_from_oscars_1_632715) Hamhigh.co.uk,
## Career
### 2004–2008: Early work
In 2004 Mulligan made her stage debut in the play *Forty Winks* at the [Court Theatre](Royal)(Royal Court Theatre) in London.Billington, Michael ["Forty Winks Guardian Review"](http://www.guardiannews.com/stage/2004/nov/04/theatre) "The Guardian"Spencer, Charles ["Forty Winks Telegraph Review"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/drama/3626618/A-dramatist-recycling-himself.html) "The Telegraph" She made her film debut the following year in [Wright](Joe)(Joe Wright)'s 2005 film adaptation of the [Austen](Jane)(Jane Austen) novel *[& Prejudice](Pride)(Pride & Prejudice (2005 film))*, portraying Kitty Bennet alongside [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley). Later that year, she won the role of orphan Ada Clare in the [award](BAFTA)(British Academy Television Awards)-winning BBC adaption of [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens)' *[House](Bleak)(Bleak House (2005 TV serial))*, her television debut.["Why Carey's Delighted to be an Orphan"](http://www.scotsman.com/news/why-carey-s-delighted-to-be-an-orphan-1-967676)*The Scotsman*
Among her 2007 projects were *[Boy Jack](My)(My Boy Jack (film))*, starring [Radcliffe](Daniel)(Daniel Radcliffe), another Jane Austen adaptation, *[Abbey](Northanger)(Northanger Abbey (2007 film))*, starring [Jones](Felicity)(Felicity Jones), and the *Doctor Who* episode "[Blink](Blink (Doctor Who))", which won her the [Award](Constellation)(Constellation Awards) for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode. She rounded out 2007 by appearing in an acclaimed stage revival of *[Seagull](The)(The Seagull#Translating The Seagull)*, in which she played Nina alongside [Scott Thomas](Kristin)(Kristin Scott Thomas) and [Ejiofor](Chiwetel)(Chiwetel Ejiofor). *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* called her performance "quite extraordinarily radiant and frank." While in the middle of the production, she had to have an [appendectomy](appendectomy), preventing her from being able to perform for a week. For her debut Broadway performance in the 2008 American transfer of *[Seagull](The)(The Seagull)*, she was nominated for a [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award), but lost to [Lansbury](Angela)(Angela Lansbury) for *[Spirit](Blithe)(Blithe Spirit (play))*.
### 2009–2014: Breakthrough and critical success
[[File:Carey Mulligan 2010.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Mulligan at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2010)(2010 Toronto International Film Festival)]]
Her big breakthrough came when, at 24, she was cast in her first leading role as Jenny in the 2009 independent film *[Education](An)(An Education)*, directed by Danish filmmaker [Scherfig](Lone)(Lone Scherfig) and written by [Hornby](Nick)(Nick Hornby). Over a hundred actresses auditioned for the part, but Mulligan's audition impressed Scherfig the most. The film and her performance received rave reviews, and she was nominated for an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award), [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild), [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe), [Choice](Critics)(Critics' Choice Movie Award) and won a [Award](BAFTA)(British Academy of Film and Television Arts). Lisa Schwarzbaum of *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* and Todd McCarthy of *Variety* both compared her performance to that of [Hepburn](Audrey)(Audrey Hepburn). [Stone*](*Rolling)(Rolling Stone (magazine))'s [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) described her as having given a "sensational, starmaking performance," Mulligan was the recipient of the BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination, which is voted on by the British public.
In 2010, she was invited to join the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences),
That same year she starred in the film adaptation of [Ishiguro](Kazuo)(Kazuo Ishiguro)'s acclaimed novel *[Let Me Go](Never)(Never Let Me Go (2010 film))* with [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley), and [Garfield](Andrew)(Andrew Garfield). She won a British Independent Award for her performance.
That same year she starred in the [Stone](Oliver)(Oliver Stone)-directed film *[Street: Money Never Sleeps](Wall)(Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps)*. Screened out of competition at the [Cannes Film Festival](2010)(2010 Cannes Film Festival), it was her first major studio project. Later that year she also provided vocals for the song "[About Love](Write)(Write About Love (song))" by [& Sebastian](Belle)(Belle & Sebastian).["New Belle and Sebastian: "Write About Love" "](https://pitchfork.com/news/39957-new-belle-and-sebastian-write-about-love/) 7 September 2010, Pitchfork
She returned to the stage in the [Theater Company](Atlantic)(Atlantic Theater Company)'s off-Broadway play adaptation of [Bergman](Ingmar)(Ingmar Bergman)'s *[a Glass, Darkly](Through)(Through a Glass Darkly (film))*, from 13 May – 3 July 2011. Mulligan played the central character, a mentally unstable woman, and received glowing praise from reviewers. [Brantley](Ben)(Ben Brantley), theater critic for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, wrote that Mulligan's performance was "acting of the highest order"; he also described her as "extraordinary" and "one of the finest actresses of her generation."
[[File:Carey Mulligan (8784968226).jpg|thumb|upright|Mulligan at the Australian premiere of *[Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby (2013 film))* in 2013]]
Mulligan co-starred in two critically acclaimed films in 2011. The first being [Winding Refn](Nicolas)(Nicolas Winding Refn)'s
*[Drive](Drive (2011 film))*, with [Gosling](Ryan)(Ryan Gosling). The second film was [McQueen](Steve)(Steve McQueen (director))'s sex-addiction drama *[Shame](Shame (2011 film))* alongside [Fassbender](Michael)(Michael Fassbender) Both films were major film festival hits. *Drive* debuted at 2011 [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival) and *Shame* debuted at 2011 [Film Festival](Venice)(Venice Film Festival), both to rave reviews. She was nominated for her second BAFTA award—Best Supporting Actress—for the film *Drive* which also garnered a total of 4 BAFTA award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director.["2012 BAFTA Nominations"](https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jan/17/baftas-2012-shortlist)*The Guardian* For her performance in *Shame*, she received critical praise as well as a [Independent Film Award](British)(British Independent Film Award) nomination for [Supporting Actress](Best)(British Independent Film Award - Best Supporting Actress).
In 2013, she starred as [Buchanan](Daisy)(Daisy Buchanan) in [Luhrmann](Baz)(Baz Luhrmann)'s *[Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby (2013 film))* opposite [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio), which was released in May 2013. Mulligan auditioned for the role of Daisy in late 2010. While attending a *Vogue* fashion dinner in New York City in November, [Luhrmann](Baz)(Baz Luhrmann)’s wife, Catherine Martin, told her she had the part. In May 2012, she was a co-chair, alongside [Wintour](Anna)(Anna Wintour), for the 2012 [Ball](Met)(Met Ball) Gala themed Schiaparelli and Prada: Impossible Conversations. In 2013, she also starred in [and Ethan Coen](Joel)(Joel and Ethan Coen)'s black comedy *[Llewyn Davis](Inside)(Inside Llewyn Davis)* alongside [Isaac](Oscar)(Oscar Isaac), and [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake). The film premiered at the [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival) to rave reviews.
In 2014, she starred in the London revival of the play *[Skylight](Skylight (play))* with [Nighy](Bill)(Bill Nighy) and [Beard](Matthew)(Matthew Beard (British actor)), directed by [Daldry](Stephen)(Stephen Daldry), at [Theatre](Wyndham's)(Wyndham's Theatre) in London's West End.[Skylight review – Hare revival is a Thatcherite play for today](https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2014/jun/22/skylight-bill-nighy-carey-mulligan-wyndhams-review-hare-revival-thatcherite-play-for-today) [Observer](The)(The Observer), 22 June 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014. It won the [Evening Standard Theatre Award](2014)(Evening Standard Award) for Revival of the Year and was nominated for the [Olivier Award for Best Revival](2014)(Laurence Olivier Award).
She followed the production when it transferred to Broadway at the [Golden Theatre](John)(John Golden Theatre) in April 2015.
The transfer was a massive success. The play won the [Award for Best Revival](Tony)(Tony Award for Best Revival) and she earned her first Tony Award nomination for [Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play](Best)(Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play).
### 2015–present: Continued acclaim
Mulligan has continued to earn acclaim for her portrayal of a wide range of complex characters. In 2015, Mulligan was praised for her roles in two acclaimed films released that year. She starred in [Vinterberg](Thomas)(Thomas Vinterberg)'s [adaptation](film)(Far from the Madding Crowd (2015 film)) of [Hardy](Thomas)(Thomas Hardy)'s novel *[from the Madding Crowd](Far)(Far from the Madding Crowd)* with [Schoenaerts](Matthias)(Matthias Schoenaerts), [Sturridge](Tom)(Tom Sturridge), and [Sheen](Michael)(Michael Sheen), as well as [Gavron](Sarah)(Sarah Gavron)'s *[Suffragette](Suffragette (film))* with [Bonham Carter](Helena)(Helena Bonham Carter), [Whishaw](Ben)(Ben Whishaw), [Gleeson](Brendan)(Brendan Gleeson) and [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep).
In 2017, she starred in [Netflix](Netflix)'s *[Mudbound](Mudbound (film))*, directed by [Rees](Dee)(Dee Rees). The film was met with critical acclaim. On review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 97% with the consensus reading, "Mudbound offers a well-acted, finely detailed snapshot of American history whose scenes of rural class struggle resonate far beyond their period setting." The film earned four [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nominations including [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) for Rees.
[[File:Carey Mulligan TIFF 2018.jpg|thumb|upright|Mulligan attending the premiere of *[Wildlife](Wildlife (film))* at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2018)(2018 Toronto International Film Festival)]]
In 2018, she starred in [Dano](Paul)(Paul Dano)'s directorial debut film *[Wildlife](Wildlife (film))* with [Gyllenhaal](Jake)(Jake Gyllenhaal). The film was written by Dano and [Kazan](Zoe)(Zoe Kazan), and is an adaptation of [Ford](Richard)(Richard Ford)’s [of the same name](novel)(Wildlife (novel)). The film debuted at the [Cannes Film Festival](71st)(71st Cannes Film Festival) and received rave reviews from critics. The film has earned a 94% on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) with the consensus reading, "Wildlife's portrait of a family in crisis is beautifully composed by director Paul Dano – and brought brilliantly to life by a career-best performance from Carey Mulligan." For her performance, Mulligan received an [Spirit Award](Independent)(Independent Spirit Awards) nomination for [Actress](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead).
Mulligan stepped back into television as a [Inspector](Detective)(Detective Inspector) in *[Collateral](Collateral (TV series))*, a [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) limited series, receiving plaudits from American and British critics. Mulligan praised creator [David Hare](Sir)(David Hare (playwright)) for seamlessly accommodating her pregnancy into the script.
Mulligan appeared off Broadway in the solo show, *Girls and Boys* at the [Lane Theatre](Minetta)(Minetta Lane Theatre). The show was written by [Kelly](Dennis)(Dennis Kelly) and directed by Lyndsey Turner. Her performance was praised, with *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* calling it "perfection". While promoting the show on [Colbert](Stephen)(Stephen Colbert)'s *[Show with Stephen Colbert](Late)(Late Show with Stephen Colbert)*, Mulligan described being injured while the curtain was going down. [Cooper](Bradley)(Bradley Cooper), who was in the audience, visited her backstage and carried her to urgent care.
In 2020, Mulligan starred in [Fennell](Emerald)(Emerald Fennell)'s [comedy](black)(black comedy) [film](thriller)(thriller film) *[Young Woman](Promising)(Promising Young Woman)*, alongside [Burnham](Bo)(Bo Burnham) and [Brie](Alison)(Alison Brie). She also served as an executive producer on the film, which debuted at the 2020 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) to great acclaim. The website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) lists the film's rating as 90%, with a critics consensus reading, "A boldly provocative, timely thriller, *Promising Young Woman* is an auspicious feature debut for writer-director Emerald Fennell — and a career highlight for Carey Mulligan." Due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) the film's release was delayed to 25 December 2020. For her performance, she received her second [Award](Academy)(93rd Academy Awards) nomination for [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) and won the [Choice Movie Award for Best Actress](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress) among many other honours. After winning [Female Lead](Best)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead) at the [Independent Spirit Awards](36th)(36th Independent Spirit Awards), Mulligan dedicated her award to the late [McCrory](Helen)(Helen McCrory).
In 2021, Mulligan replaced [Kidman](Nicole)(Nicole Kidman) in *[Dig](The)(The Dig (2021 film))*, a film about the events of the 1939 excavation of [Hoo](Sutton)(Sutton Hoo), co-starring [Fiennes](Ralph)(Ralph Fiennes) and [James](Lily)(Lily James). It received a [release](limited)(limited release) in the United Kingdom, followed by a streaming release via [Netflix](Netflix). The following year, Mulligan portrayed [Twohey](Megan)(Megan Twohey), one of the real life *[York Times](New)(The New York Times)* reporters who broke the [Weinstein](Harvey)(Harvey Weinstein) scandal, in [Schrader](Maria)(Maria Schrader)'s *[Said](She)(She Said (film))*, based on the book [the same name](of)(She Said (book)). For her performance, Mulligan received a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) nomination for [Supporting Actress](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture).
#### Upcoming projects
Mulligan will star as [Montealegre](Felicia)(Felicia Montealegre) in [Cooper](Bradley)(Bradley Cooper)'s directorial *[Maestro](Maestro (2023 film))*, a biopic based on the life of [Bernstein](Leonard)(Leonard Bernstein), alongside Cooper and [Strong](Jeremy)(Jeremy Strong (actor)). The film is set to be released on [Netflix](Netflix) in 2023. She will also star with [Sandler](Adam)(Adam Sandler) in [Netflix](Netflix)'s adaptation of the science fiction novel *[of Bohemia](Spaceman)(Spaceman of Bohemia)*, directed by [Renck](Johan)(Johan Renck). In addition, she will have a voice role in the [motion](stop)(stop motion) animated feature *[Wildwood](Wildwood (novel)#Film adaptation)*, based on the fantasy [of the same name](novel)(Wildwood (novel)).
In May 2023, it was announced that Mulligan would star in the comedy *One for the Money*. The film is due to shoot this summer.
## Personal life
Mulligan is married to [Mumford](Marcus)(Marcus Mumford), the lead singer of [& Sons](Mumford)(Mumford & Sons). They were childhood pen pals who lost touch and reconnected as adults. A few weeks after completing production on the film *[Llewyn Davis](Inside)(Inside Llewyn Davis)*, in which they were both involved, they married on 21 April 2012.
They have two children.
## Philanthropy
Aside from acting, Mulligan was among the actresses who took part in the *Safe Project*—each was photographed in the place she feels safest—for a 2010 series to raise awareness of [trafficking](sex)(sex trafficking). She donated the [Vionnet](Vionnet) gown she wore at the [BAFTAs](2010)(2010 BAFTAs) to the *Curiosity Shop*, which sells its donations to raise money for charity.
Mulligan became the ambassador of the [Society](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's Society) in 2012, with the goal of raising awareness and research funding for Alzheimers and [dementia](dementia). Her grandmother lived with [disease](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's disease) for the final 17 years of her life, during which she no longer recognised Mulligan. She helped host and participated in the 2012 Alzheimer's Society *Memory Walk* and was one of the sponsored Alzheimer's Society runners in the 2013 Nike *Run to the Beat* half-marathon in London.
In 2014, Mulligan became an ambassador for the charity [Child](War)(War Child (charity)) and visited the [Republic of Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of Congo) in this role.
## Acting credits
### Film
### Television
### Stage
### Podcast
## Discography
## Awards and nominations
## See also
* [of British Academy Award nominees and winners](List)(List of British Academy Award nominees and winners)
*[of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
*[of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories](List)(List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1985)(Category:1985 births)
[English actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English actresses)
[from London](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from London)
[narrators](Category:Audiobook)(Category:Audiobook narrators)
[Actress BAFTA Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actress BAFTA Award winners)
[expatriates in the United States](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates in the United States)
[film actresses](Category:English)(Category:English film actresses)
[health activists](Category:English)(Category:English health activists)
[people of Irish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Irish descent)
[people of Welsh descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Welsh descent)
[radio actresses](Category:English)(Category:English radio actresses)
[stage actresses](Category:English)(Category:English stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:English)(Category:English television actresses)
[voice actresses](Category:English)(Category:English voice actresses)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[educated at Woldingham School](Category:People)(Category:People educated at Woldingham School)
[abuse victim advocates](Category:Sexual)(Category:Sexual abuse victim advocates)
[Award winners](Category:WFTV)(Category:WFTV Award winners)
[Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners)
|
Trinity _nuclear test
|
trinity__nuclear_test
|
# Trinity (nuclear test)
*Revision ID: 1160268053 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T11:56:14Z*
---
| test_site = Trinity Site, [Mexico](New)(New Mexico)
| date =
| test_type = [Atmospheric](Nuclear weapons testing#Types)
| device_type = [Plutonium](Plutonium) [implosion](implosion-type nuclear weapon) [fission](nuclear fission)
| yield =
| next_test = [Crossroads](Operation)(Operation Crossroads)
}}
| nearest_city= [New Mexico](Bingham,)(Bingham, New Mexico)
| locmapin = New Mexico#USA
| area =
| built =
| designated_nrhp_type2 = December 21, 1965
| added = October 15, 1966
| refnum = 66000493
}}
**Trinity** was the [name](code)(code name) of the first detonation of a [weapon](nuclear)(nuclear weapon). It was conducted by the [States Army](United)(United States Army) at 5:29 a.m. on July 16, 1945, as part of the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project). The test was conducted in the [del Muerto](Jornada)(Jornada del Muerto) desert about southeast of [New Mexico](Socorro,)(Socorro, New Mexico), on what was then the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range, now part of [Sands Missile Range](White)(White Sands Missile Range). The only structures originally in the vicinity were the [Ranch House](McDonald)(McDonald Ranch House) and its ancillary buildings, which scientists used as a laboratory for testing bomb components. A base camp was constructed, and there were 425 people present on the weekend of the test.
The [name](code)(code name) "Trinity" was assigned by [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer), the director of the [Alamos Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos Laboratory), inspired by the poetry of [Donne](John)(John Donne). The test was of an [implosion-design](implosion-type nuclear weapon) [plutonium](plutonium) device, nicknamed the "Gadget", of the same design as the [Man](Fat)(Fat Man) bomb later [over Nagasaki](detonated)(atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), Japan, on August 9, 1945. The complexity of the design required a major effort from the Los Alamos Laboratory, and concerns about whether it would work led to a decision to conduct the first [test](nuclear)(nuclear weapons testing). The test was planned and directed by [Bainbridge](Kenneth)(Kenneth Bainbridge).
Fears of a [fizzle](fizzle (nuclear explosion)) did lead to the construction of a steel containment vessel called Jumbo that could contain the plutonium, allowing it to be recovered, although ultimately this was not used in the test. A rehearsal was held on May 7, 1945, in which of high explosive spiked with radioactive isotopes were detonated. The Gadget's detonation released the explosive energy of about . Observers included [Bush](Vannevar)(Vannevar Bush), [Chadwick](James)(James Chadwick), [Conant](James)(James Bryant Conant), [Farrell](Thomas)(Thomas Farrell (general)), [Fermi](Enrico)(Enrico Fermi), [Bethe](Hans)(Hans Bethe), [Feynman](Richard)(Richard Feynman), [Groves](Leslie)(Leslie Groves), Robert Oppenheimer, [Oppenheimer](Frank)(Frank Oppenheimer), [Taylor](Geoffrey)(G. I. Taylor), [Tolman](Richard)(Richard Tolman), [Teller](Edward)(Edward Teller), and [von Neumann](John)(John von Neumann).
The test site was declared a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark) district in 1965, and listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places) the following year.
People living in the surrounding area near the site were unaware of the project and later not included in the 1990 [Exposure Compensation Act](Radiation)(Radiation Exposure Compensation Act) support for affected 'downwinders' which addressed serious community health problems resulting from similar test conducted at the [Test Site](Nevada)(Nevada Test Site).
## Background
The creation of [weapon](nuclear)(nuclear weapon)s arose from scientific and political developments of the 1930s. The decade saw many new discoveries about the nature of atoms, including the existence of [fission](nuclear)(nuclear fission). The concurrent rise of [fascist](fascist) governments in Europe led to a fear of a [nuclear weapon project](German)(German nuclear weapon project), especially among scientists who were refugees from [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) and other fascist countries. When their calculations showed that nuclear weapons were theoretically feasible, the British and United States governments supported an all-out effort to build them.
These efforts were transferred to the authority of the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army) in June 1942, and became the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project). [General](Brigadier)(Brigadier General (United States)) [R. Groves, Jr.](Leslie)(Leslie R. Groves, Jr.) was appointed its director in September 1942. The weapons development portion of this project was located at the [Alamos Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos Laboratory) in northern [Mexico](New)(New Mexico), under the directorship of physicist [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer). The [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago), [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) and the [Laboratory](Radiation)(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) at the [of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley) conducted other development work.
Production of the [fissile](fissile) [isotopes](isotopes) [uranium-235](uranium-235) and [plutonium-239](plutonium-239) were enormous undertakings given the technology of the 1940s, and accounted for 80% of the total costs of the project. [enrichment](Uranium)(Uranium enrichment) was carried out at the [Engineer Works](Clinton)(Clinton Engineer Works) near [Ridge, Tennessee](Oak)(Oak Ridge, Tennessee). Theoretically, enriching uranium was feasible through preexisting techniques, but it proved difficult to scale to industrial levels and was extremely costly. Only 0.72 percent of natural uranium is uranium-235, and it was estimated that it would take 27,000 years to produce a gram of uranium with [spectrometer](mass)(mass spectrometer)s, but kilogram amounts were required.
Plutonium is a [element](synthetic)(synthetic element) with complicated physical, chemical and metallurgical properties. It is not found in nature in appreciable quantities. Until mid-1944, the only plutonium that had been isolated had been produced in [cyclotron](cyclotron)s in microgram amounts, whereas weapons required kilograms. In April 1944, physicist [Segrè](Emilio)(Emilio Segrè), the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory's P-5 (Radioactivity) Group, received the first sample of reactor-bred plutonium from the [Graphite Reactor](X-10)(X-10 Graphite Reactor) at Oak Ridge. He discovered that, in addition to the [plutonium-239](plutonium-239) isotope, it also contained significant amounts of [plutonium-240](plutonium-240). The Manhattan Project produced plutonium in [reactor](nuclear)(nuclear reactor)s at the [Engineer Works](Hanford)(Hanford Engineer Works) near [Washington](Hanford,)(Hanford, Washington).
The longer the plutonium remained irradiated inside a reactor—necessary for high yields of the metal—the greater the content of the plutonium-240 isotope, which undergoes [fission](spontaneous)(spontaneous fission) at thousands of times the rate of plutonium-239. The extra [neutron](neutron)s it released meant that there was an unacceptably high probability that plutonium in a [fission weapon](gun-type)(gun-type fission weapon) would detonate too soon after a [mass](critical)(critical mass) was formed, producing a "[fizzle](fizzle (nuclear test))"—a [explosion](nuclear)(nuclear explosion) many times smaller than a full explosion. This meant that the [Man](Thin)(Thin Man (nuclear bomb)) bomb design that the laboratory had developed would not work properly.
The Laboratory turned to an alternative, albeit more technically difficult, design, an [nuclear weapon](implosion-type)(implosion-type nuclear weapon). In September 1943, mathematician [von Neumann](John)(John von Neumann) had proposed a design in which a fissile [core](pit (nuclear weapon)) would be surrounded by two different [explosives](high)(high explosives) that produced [wave](shock)(shock wave)s of different speeds. Alternating the faster- and slower-burning explosives in a carefully calculated configuration would produce a compressive wave upon their simultaneous detonation. This so-called "[lens](explosive)(explosive lens)" focused the shock waves inward with enough force to rapidly compress the plutonium core to several times its original density. This reduced the size of a critical mass, making it supercritical. It also activated a small [source](neutron)(neutron source) at the center of the core, the [initiator](modulated neutron initiator), which assured that the chain reaction began in earnest at the right moment. Such a complicated process required research and experimentation in engineering and [hydrodynamics](hydrodynamics) before a practical design could be developed. The entire Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized in August 1944 to focus on the design of a workable implosion bomb.
## Preparation
### Decision
[[Test Site.jpg|thumb|right|Map of the Trinity Site](File:Trinity)]
The idea of testing the implosion device was brought up in discussions at Los Alamos in January 1944 and attracted enough support for Oppenheimer to approach Groves. Groves gave approval, but he had concerns. The Manhattan Project had spent a great deal of money and effort to produce the plutonium, and he wanted to know whether there would be a way to recover it. The Laboratory's Governing Board then directed [Ramsey](Norman)(Norman Ramsey) to investigate how this could be done. In February 1944, Ramsey proposed a small-scale test in which the explosion was limited in size by reducing the number of generations of chain reactions, and that it take place inside a sealed containment vessel from which the plutonium could be recovered.
The means of generating such a controlled reaction were uncertain, and the data obtained would not be as useful as that from a full-scale explosion. Oppenheimer argued that the "implosion gadget must be tested in a range where the energy release is comparable with that contemplated for final use." In March 1944, he obtained Groves's tentative approval for testing a full-scale explosion inside a containment vessel, although Groves was still worried about how he would explain the loss of "a billion dollars worth" of plutonium to a Senate Committee in the event of a failure.
### Code name
The exact origin of the code name "Trinity" for the test is unknown, but it is often attributed to Oppenheimer as a reference to the poetry of [Donne](John)(John Donne), which in turn references the Christian belief of the [Trinity](Trinity) (i.e. God as one being existing as three persons). In 1962, Groves wrote to Oppenheimer about the origin of the name, asking if he had chosen it because it was a name common to rivers and peaks in the West and would not attract attention, and elicited this reply:
}}
That still does not make a Trinity, but in another, better known devotional poem Donne opens,
:[my heart, three person'd God](Batter)(Batter my heart, three person'd God).}}
### Organization
In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to [Bainbridge](Kenneth)(Kenneth Bainbridge), a professor of physics at [University](Harvard)(Harvard University), working under explosives expert [Kistiakowsky](George)(George Kistiakowsky). Bainbridge's group was known as the E-9 (Explosives Development) Group. Stanley Kershaw, formerly from the [Safety Council](National)(National Safety Council), was made responsible for safety. [Captain](Captain (United States O-3)) Samuel P. Davalos, the assistant post engineer at Los Alamos, was placed in charge of construction. [Lieutenant](First)(First Lieutenant) Harold C. Bush became commander of the Base Camp at Trinity. Scientists [Penney](William)(William Penney), [Weisskopf](Victor)(Victor Weisskopf) and [Moon](Philip)(Philip Burton Moon) were consultants. Eventually seven subgroups were formed:
* TR-1 (Services) under [H. Williams](John)(John Harry Williams)
* TR-2 (Shock and Blast) under [H. Manley](John)(John Henry Manley)
* TR-3 (Measurements) under [R. Wilson](Robert)(Robert R. Wilson)
* TR-4 (Meteorology) under J. M. Hubbard
* TR-5 (Spectrographic and Photographic) under Julian E. Mack
* TR-6 (Airborne Measurements) under [Waldman](Bernard)(Bernard Waldman)
* TR-7 (Medical) under Louis H. Hempelmann
The E-9 group was renamed the X-2 (Development, Engineering and Tests) Group in the August 1944 reorganization.
### Test site
[[File:TrinitySiteISS008-E-5604.jpg|thumb|right|Trinity Site (red arrow) near [Malpais](Carrizozo)(Carrizozo Malpais)]]
Safety and security required a remote, isolated and unpopulated area. The scientists also wanted a flat area to minimize secondary effects of the blast, and with little wind to spread radioactive fallout. Eight candidate sites were considered: the [Valley](Tularosa)(Tularosa Basin); the [del Muerto Valley](Jornada)(Jornada del Muerto Valley); the area southwest of [New Mexico](Cuba,)(Cuba, New Mexico), and north of [Thoreau](Thoreau, New Mexico); and the lava flats of the [Malpais National Monument](El)(El Malpais National Monument), all in New Mexico; the [Luis Valley](San)(San Luis Valley) near the [Sand Dunes National Monument](Great)(Great Sand Dunes National Monument) in Colorado; the [Training Area](Desert)(Desert Training Center) and [Nicolas Island](San)(San Nicolas Island) in Southern California; and the sand bars of [Island](Padre)(Padre Island), Texas.
The sites were surveyed by car and by air by Bainbridge, R. W. Henderson, Major W. A. Stevens and Major [de Silva](Peer)(Peer de Silva). The site finally chosen, after consulting with [General](Major)(Major General (United States)) [Ent](Uzal)(Uzal Ent), the commander of the [Air Force](Second)(Second Air Force) on September 7, 1944, lay at the northern end of the [Bombing Range](Alamogordo)(Alamogordo Bombing Range), in [County](Socorro)(Socorro County, New Mexico) near the towns of [Carrizozo](Carrizozo, New Mexico) and [Antonio](San)(San Antonio, New Mexico).().
The only structures in the vicinity were the [Ranch House](McDonald)(McDonald Ranch House) and its ancillary buildings, about to the southeast. Like the rest of the Alamogordo Bombing Range, it had been acquired by the government in 1942. The [land](patented)(patented land) had been [condemned](eminent domain) and [rights](grazing)(grazing rights) suspended. Scientists used this as a laboratory for testing bomb components. Bainbridge and Davalos drew up plans for a base camp with accommodation and facilities for 160 personnel, along with the technical infrastructure to support the test. A construction firm from [Texas](Lubbock,)(Lubbock, Texas) built the barracks, officers' quarters, mess hall and other basic facilities. The requirements expanded and, by July 1945, 250 people worked at the Trinity test site. On the weekend of the test, there were 425 present.
[[basecamp.jpg|thumb|left|The Trinity test base camp](File:Trinity)]
Lieutenant Bush's twelve-man [MP](Military Police Corps (United States)) unit arrived at the site from Los Alamos on December 30, 1944. This unit established initial security checkpoints and horse patrols. The distances around the site proved too great for the horses, so they were repurposed for [polo](polo) playing, and the MPs resorted to using jeeps and trucks for transportation. Maintenance of morale among men working long hours under harsh conditions along with dangerous reptiles and insects was a challenge. Bush strove to improve the food and accommodation, and to provide organized games and nightly movies.
Throughout 1945, other personnel arrived at the Trinity Site to help prepare for the bomb test. They tried to use water out of the ranch wells, but found the water so [alkaline](alkaline) they could not drink it. They were forced to use [Navy](U.S.)(U.S. Navy) [soap](saltwater)(saltwater soap) and hauled drinking water in from the firehouse in Socorro. Gasoline and diesel were purchased from the [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil) plant there. Military and civilian construction personnel built warehouses, workshops, a magazine and commissary. The [siding](railroad)(siding (rail)) at Pope, New Mexico, was upgraded by adding an unloading platform. Roads were built, and of telephone wire was strung. Electricity was supplied by portable generators.
Due to its proximity to the bombing range, the base camp was accidentally bombed twice in May. When the lead plane on a practice night raid accidentally knocked out the generator or otherwise doused the lights illuminating their target, they went in search of the lights, and since they had not been informed of the presence of the Trinity base camp, and it was lit, bombed it instead. The accidental bombing damaged the stables and the carpentry shop, and a small fire resulted.
### Jumbo
[[- Jumbo brought to site.jpg|thumb|right|Jumbo arrives at the site](File:Trinity)]
Responsibility for the design of a containment vessel for an unsuccessful explosion, known as "Jumbo", was assigned to Robert W. Henderson and Roy W. Carlson of the Los Alamos Laboratory's X-2A Section. The bomb would be placed into the heart of Jumbo, and if the bomb's detonation was unsuccessful, the outer walls of Jumbo would not be breached, making it possible to recover the bomb's plutonium. [Bethe](Hans)(Hans Bethe), Victor Weisskopf, and [O. Hirschfelder](Joseph)(Joseph O. Hirschfelder), made the initial calculations, followed by a more detailed analysis by Henderson and Carlson. They drew up specifications for a steel sphere in diameter, weighing and capable of handling a pressure of . After consulting with the steel companies and the railroads, Carlson produced a scaled-back cylindrical design that would be much easier to manufacture. Carlson identified a company that normally made boilers for the Navy, [& Wilcox](Babcock)(Babcock & Wilcox); they had made something similar and were willing to attempt its manufacture.
As delivered in May 1945, Jumbo was in diameter and long with walls thick, and weighed . A special train brought it from the B&W plant in [Ohio](Barberton,)(Barberton, Ohio), to the siding at Pope, where it was loaded on a large trailer and towed across the desert by [tractor](crawler)(crawler tractor)s. At the time, it was the heaviest item ever shipped by rail.
[[- Jumbo after test.jpg|thumb|The Jumbo container after the test](File:Trinity)]
For many of the Los Alamos scientists, Jumbo was "the physical manifestation of the lowest point in the Laboratory's hopes for the success of an implosion bomb." By the time it arrived, the reactors at Hanford produced plutonium in quantity, and Oppenheimer was confident that there would be enough for a second test. The use of Jumbo would interfere with the gathering of data on the explosion, the primary objective of the test. An explosion of more than would vaporize the steel and make it hard to measure the thermal effects. Even would send fragments flying, presenting a hazard to personnel and measuring equipment. It was therefore decided not to use it. Instead, it was hoisted up a steel tower from the explosion, where it could be used for a subsequent test. In the end, Jumbo survived the explosion, although its tower did not.
Jumbo was destroyed on April 16, 1946, when an Army ordnance team detonated eight 500 lb bombs in the bottom of the steel container. Jumbo, with its steel banding around the middle, had been designed specifically to contain the 5000 lbs of high explosive in Gadget while it was suspended in the center of the vessel. With the bombs sitting in the bottom of Jumbo, the resulting blast sent fragments flying in all directions as far as three quarters of a mile. Who authorized the destruction of Jumbo remains controversial. The rusting skeleton of Jumbo sits in the parking lot at the Trinity site on the White Sands Missile Range, where it was moved in 1979.
The development team also considered other methods of recovering active material in the event of a dud explosion. One idea was to cover it with a cone of sand. Another was to suspend the bomb in a tank of water. As with Jumbo, it was decided not to proceed with these means of containment either. The CM-10 (Chemistry and Metallurgy) group at Los Alamos also studied how the active material could be chemically recovered after a contained or failed explosion.
### 100-ton test
[[100t test.ogg|thumb|right|0.1 kiloton conventional explosives rehearsal test, Trinity](File:Trinity)]
Because there would be only one chance to carry out the test correctly, Bainbridge decided that a rehearsal should be carried out to allow the plans and procedures to be verified, and the instrumentation to be tested and calibrated. Oppenheimer was initially skeptical but gave permission, and later agreed that it contributed to the success of the Trinity test.
A wooden platform was constructed to the south-east of Trinity [zero](ground)(ground zero) and of [B](Composition)(Composition B) explosive (with the explosive power of ) were stacked on top of it. Kistiakowsky assured Bainbridge that the explosives used were not susceptible to shock. This was proven correct when some boxes fell off the elevator lifting them up to the platform. Flexible tubing was threaded through the pile of boxes of explosives. A radioactive slug from Hanford with of [ray](beta)(beta ray) activity and of [ray](gamma)(gamma ray) activity was dissolved, and Hempelmann poured it into the tubing.
The test was scheduled for May 5 but was postponed for two days to allow for more equipment to be installed. Requests for further postponements had to be refused because they would have affected the schedule for the main test. The detonation time was set for 04:00 [War Time](Mountain)(history of time in the United States#War Time 1918 and 1942) (MWT), on May 7, but there was a 37-minute delay to allow the observation plane, a [B-29 Superfortress](Boeing)(Boeing B-29 Superfortress) from the [Army Air Forces Base Unit](216th)(216th Army Air Forces Base Unit) flown by Major Clyde "Stan" Shields, to get into position.
[[Test - 100 Ton Test - High Explosive Stack 002.jpg|thumb|left|Men stack crates of high explosives for the 100-ton test](File:Trinity)]
The fireball of the conventional explosion was visible from [Army Air Field](Alamogordo)(Alamogordo Army Air Field) away, but there was little shock at the base camp away. Shields thought that the explosion looked "beautiful", but it was hardly felt at . [L. Anderson](Herbert)(Herbert L. Anderson) practiced using a converted [Sherman](M4)(M4 Sherman) tank lined with lead to approach the and blast crater and take a sample of dirt, although the radioactivity was low enough to allow several hours of unprotected exposure. An electrical signal of unknown origin caused the explosion to go off 0.25 seconds early, ruining experiments that required split-second timing. The [piezoelectric](piezoelectric) gauges developed by Anderson's team correctly indicated an explosion of , but [Alvarez](Luis)(Luis Walter Alvarez) and Waldman's airborne condenser gauges were far less accurate.
In addition to uncovering scientific and technological issues, the rehearsal test revealed practical concerns as well. Over 100 vehicles were used for the rehearsal test, but it was realized more would be required for the main test, and they would need better roads and repair facilities. More radios were required, and more telephone lines, as the telephone system had become overloaded. Lines needed to be buried to prevent damage by vehicles. A [teletype](Teleprinter) was installed to allow better communication with Los Alamos. A town hall was built to allow for large conferences and briefings, and the mess hall had to be upgraded. Because dust thrown up by vehicles interfered with some of the instrumentation, of road was sealed at a cost of .
### The Gadget
[[File:HD.4G.053 (10540204545).jpg|thumb|right|[Bradbury](Norris)(Norris Bradbury), group leader for bomb assembly, stands next to the assembled Gadget atop the test tower. Later, he became the director of Los Alamos, after the departure of Oppenheimer.]]
[[File:Fat Man physics package.jpg|thumb|Mockup of the Gadget physics package at the Nuclear Weapons Instructional Museum, [Air Force Base](Kirtland)(Kirtland Air Force Base)]]
The term "[gadget](gadget)" was a laboratory [euphemism](euphemism) for a bomb, from which the laboratory's weapon physics division, "G Division", took its name in August 1944. At that time it did not refer specifically to the Trinity Test device as it had yet to be developed, but once it was, it became the laboratory code name. The Trinity Gadget was officially a Y-1561 device, as was the [Man](Fat)(Fat Man) used a few weeks later in the [of Nagasaki](bombing)(atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). The two were very similar, with only minor differences, the most obvious being the absence of fuzing and the external ballistic casing. The bombs were still under development, and small changes continued to be made to the Fat Man design.
To keep the design as simple as possible, a near solid spherical core was chosen rather than a hollow one, although calculations showed that a hollow core would be more efficient in its use of plutonium. The core was compressed to [super-criticality](prompt)(prompt critical) by the implosion generated by the high explosive lens. This design became known as a "Christy Core" or "Christy pit" after physicist [F. Christy](Robert)(Robert F. Christy), who made the solid pit design a reality after it was initially proposed by [Teller](Edward)(Edward Teller). Along with the pit, the whole [package](physics)(physics package) was also informally nicknamed "Christy['s] Gadget".
Of the several [of plutonium](allotropes)(allotropes of plutonium), the metallurgists preferred the malleable δ ([delta](Delta (letter))) [phase](Phase (matter)). This was stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with [gallium](gallium). Two equal hemispheres of plutonium-gallium alloy were plated with silver, and designated by serial numbers HS-1 and HS-2. The radioactive core generated 15 W of heat, which warmed it up to about , and the silver plating developed blisters that had to be filed down and covered with gold foil; later cores were plated with [nickel](nickel) instead. The Trinity core consisted of just these two hemispheres. Later cores also included a ring with a triangular cross-section to prevent jets forming in the gap between them.
[[Man design model.png|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Basic nuclear components of the Gadget. The uranium slug containing the plutonium sphere was inserted late in the assembly process.](File:Fat)]
A trial assembly of the Gadget without the active components or explosive lenses was carried out by the bomb assembly team headed by [Bradbury](Norris)(Norris Bradbury) at Los Alamos on July 3. It was driven to Trinity and back. A set of explosive lenses arrived on July 7, followed by a second set on July 10. Each was examined by Bradbury and Kistiakowsky, and the best ones were selected for use. The remainder were handed over to [Creutz](Edward)(Edward Creutz), who conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos without nuclear material. This test brought bad news: magnetic measurements of the simultaneity of the implosion seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail. Bethe worked through the night to assess the results and reported that they were consistent with a perfect explosion.
Assembly of the nuclear capsule began on July 13 at the McDonald Ranch House, where the master bedroom had been turned into a [room](clean)(clean room). The polonium-beryllium [initiator]("Urchin")(Urchin (detonator)) was assembled, and [Slotin](Louis)(Louis Slotin) placed it inside the two hemispheres of the plutonium core. [Smith](Cyril)(Cyril Stanley Smith) then placed the core in the natural uranium [tamper](tamper (nuclear weapon)) plug, or "slug". Air gaps were filled with gold foil, and the two halves of the plug were held together with uranium washers and screws which fit smoothly into the domed ends of the plug. The completed capsule was then driven to the base of the tower.
[[File:Slotin-Lehr-Gadget-Tamper-Plug.jpg|thumb|right|[Slotin](Louis)(Louis Slotin) and Herbert Lehr with the Gadget prior to insertion of the tamper plug (visible in front of Lehr's left knee)]]
At the tower, a temporary [bolt](eye)(eye bolt) was screwed into the capsule and a [hoist](chain)(Hoist (device)) was used to lower the capsule into the gadget. As the capsule entered the hole in the uranium tamper, it stuck. [Bacher](Robert)(Robert Bacher) realized that the heat from the plutonium core had caused the capsule to expand, while the explosives assembly with the tamper had cooled during the night in the desert. By leaving the capsule in contact with the tamper, the temperatures equalized and, in a few minutes, the capsule had slipped completely into the tamper. The eye bolt was then removed from the capsule and replaced with a threaded uranium plug, a boron disk was placed on top of the capsule, an aluminum plug was screwed into the hole in the pusher, and the two remaining high explosive lenses were installed. Finally, the upper [Dural](Duralumin) polar cap was bolted into place. Assembly was completed at about 16:45 on July 13.
The Gadget was hoisted to the top of a steel tower. The height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber, as detonation in the air would maximize the amount of energy applied directly to the target (as the explosion expanded in a spherical shape) and would generate less [fallout](nuclear)(nuclear fallout). The tower stood on four legs that went into the ground, with concrete footings. Atop it was an oak platform, and a shack made of [iron](corrugated)(corrugated iron) that was open on the western side. The Gadget was hauled up with an electric winch. A truckload of mattresses was placed underneath in case the cable broke and the Gadget fell. The seven-man arming party, consisting of Bainbridge, Kistiakowsky, [McKibben](Joseph)(Joseph McKibben) and four soldiers including Lieutenant Bush, drove out to the tower to perform the final arming shortly after 22:00 on July 15.
### Personnel
[[tower.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The "shot tower" constructed for the test](File:Trinity)]
In the final two weeks before the test, some 250 personnel from Los Alamos were at work at the Trinity site, and Lieutenant Bush's command had ballooned to 125 men guarding and maintaining the base camp. Another 160 men under Major T.O. Palmer were stationed outside the area with vehicles to evacuate the civilian population in the surrounding region should that prove necessary. They had enough vehicles to move 450 people to safety and had food and supplies to last them for two days. Arrangements were made for Alamogordo Army Air Field to provide accommodation. Groves had warned the [of New Mexico](Governor)(Governor of New Mexico), [J. Dempsey](John)(John J. Dempsey), that [law](martial)(martial law) might have to be declared in the southwestern part of the state.
Shelters were established due north, west, and south of the tower, known as N-10,000, W-10,000 and S-10,000. Each had its own shelter chief: Robert Wilson at N-10,000, John Manley at W-10,000 and [Oppenheimer](Frank)(Frank Oppenheimer) at S-10,000. Many other observers were around away, and some others were scattered at different distances, some in more informal situations. [Feynman](Richard)(Richard Feynman) claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the goggles provided, relying on a truck windshield to screen out harmful [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) wavelengths.
Bainbridge asked Groves to keep his VIP list down to just ten. He chose himself, Oppenheimer, [Tolman](Richard)(Richard Tolman), [Bush](Vannevar)(Vannevar Bush), [Conant](James)(James Bryant Conant), Brigadier General [F. Farrell](Thomas)(Thomas F. Farrell), [Lauritsen](Charles)(Charles Lauritsen), [Isaac Rabi](Isidor)(Isidor Isaac Rabi), Sir [Taylor](Geoffrey)(G. I. Taylor), and Sir [Chadwick](James)(James Chadwick). The VIPs viewed the test from Compania Hill, about northwest of the tower. The observers set up a [pool](betting)(betting pool) on the results of the test. Edward Teller was the most optimistic, predicting . He wore gloves to protect his hands, and sunglasses underneath the [goggles](welding)(welding goggles) that the government had supplied everyone with. Teller was also one of the few scientists to actually watch the test (with eye protection), instead of following orders to lie on the ground with his back turned. He also brought suntan lotion, which he shared with the others.
[[device readied.jpg|thumb|left|The Gadget is unloaded at the base of the tower for the final assembly](File:Trinity)]
Others were less optimistic. Ramsey chose zero (a complete [dud](dud)), Robert Oppenheimer chose , Kistiakowsky , and Bethe chose . Rabi, the last to arrive, took by default, which would win him the pool. In a video interview, Bethe stated that his choice of 8 kt was exactly the value calculated by Segrè, and he was swayed by Segrè's authority over that of a more junior [unnamed](but) member of Segrè's group who had calculated 20 kt. [Fermi](Enrico)(Enrico Fermi) offered to take wagers among the top physicists and military present on whether the atmosphere would ignite, and if so whether it would destroy just the state, or incinerate the entire planet. This last result had been previously calculated by Bethe to be almost impossible, + → + (alpha particle) + 17.7 MeV..}} although for a while it had caused some of the scientists some anxiety. Bainbridge was furious with Fermi for scaring the guards who, unlike the physicists, did not have the advantage of their knowledge about the scientific possibilities (some GIs had asked to be relieved from manning their stations). His own biggest fear was that nothing would happen, in which case he would have to head back to the tower to investigate.
Julian Mack and [Brixner](Berlyn)(Berlyn Brixner) were responsible for photography. The photography group employed some fifty different cameras, taking motion and still photographs. Special [Fastax](Fastax) cameras taking 10,000 frames per second would record the minute details of the explosion. [Spectrograph](Spectrograph) cameras would record the wavelengths of light emitted by the explosion, and [camera](pinhole)(pinhole camera)s would record gamma rays. A rotating drum spectrograph at the station would obtain the spectrum over the first hundredth of a second. Another, slow recording one would track the fireball. Cameras were placed in bunkers only from the tower, protected by steel and lead glass, and mounted on sleds so they could be towed out by the lead-lined tank. Some observers brought their own cameras despite the security. Segrè brought in [Aeby](Jack)(Jack Aeby) with his 35 mm Perfex 44. He would take the only known well-exposed color photograph of the detonation explosion.
## Explosion
### Detonation
[[view of *Gadget* device detonation and subsequent fireball, with estimated yield of 25 kilotons of TNT.](File:TrinityFireballGif.gif|thumb|left|Close-up)]
The scientists wanted good visibility, low humidity, light winds at low altitude, and westerly winds at high altitude for the test. The best weather was predicted between July 18 and 21, but the [Conference](Potsdam)(Potsdam Conference) was due to start on July 16 and President [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) wanted the test to be conducted before the conference began. It was therefore scheduled for July 16, the earliest date at which the bomb components would be available.
The detonation was initially planned for 04:00 [MWT](Mountain Time Zone) but was postponed because of rain and lightning from early that morning. It was feared that the danger from [radiation](radiation) and fallout would be increased by rain, and lightning had the scientists concerned about a premature detonation. A crucial favorable weather report came in at 04:45, and the final twenty-minute countdown began at 05:10, read by [Allison](Samuel)(Samuel King Allison). By 05:30 the rain had gone. There were some communication problems. The shortwave radio frequency for communicating with the B-29s was shared with the [of America](Voice)(Voice of America), and the FM radios shared a frequency with a railroad freight yard in [Antonio](San)(San Antonio), Texas.
[[File:Trinitite-detail3.jpg|thumb|right|[Trinitite](Trinitite)]]
Two circling B-29s observed the test, with Shields again flying the lead plane. They carried members of [Alberta](Project)(Project Alberta), who would carry out airborne measurements during the atomic missions. These included [Captain](Captain (United States O-6)) [Parsons](Deak)(Deak Parsons), the Associate Director of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the head of Project Alberta; [Alvarez](Luis)(Luis Walter Alvarez), [Agnew](Harold)(Harold Agnew), [Waldman](Bernard)(Bernard Waldman), [Panofsky](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Panofsky), and [Penney](William)(William Penney). The overcast sky obscured their view of the test site.
At 05:29:21 MWT (± 15 seconds), the device exploded with an energy equivalent to . The desert sand, largely made of [silica](silica), melted and became a mildly radioactive light green glass, which was named [trinitite](trinitite). The explosion created a crater approximately deep and wide. The radius of the trinitite layer was approximately .
At the time of detonation, the surrounding mountains were illuminated "brighter than daytime" for one to two seconds, and the heat was reported as "being as hot as an oven" at the base camp. The observed colors of the illumination changed from purple to green and eventually to white. The roar of the shock wave took 40 seconds to reach the observers. It was felt over away, and the [cloud](mushroom)(mushroom cloud) reached in height.
Ralph Carlisle Smith, watching from Compania Hill, wrote:}}
In his official report on the test, Farrell (who initially exclaimed, "The long-hairs have let it get away from them!") wrote: }}
[L. Laurence](William)(William L. Laurence) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* had been transferred temporarily to the Manhattan Project at Groves's request in early 1945. Groves had arranged for Laurence to view significant events, including Trinity and the atomic bombing of Japan. Laurence wrote press releases with the help of the Manhattan Project's public relations staff. He later recalled that }}
[[File:Trinity shot color.jpg|thumb|Original color-exposed photograph by [Aeby](Jack)(Jack Aeby), July 16, 1945.]]
After the initial euphoria of witnessing the explosion had passed, Bainbridge told Oppenheimer, "Now we are all sons of bitches." Rabi noticed Oppenheimer's reaction: "I'll never forget his walk"; Rabi recalled, "I'll never forget the way he stepped out of the car ... his walk was like *[Noon](High)(High Noon)* ... this kind of strut. He had done it."
Oppenheimer later recalled that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from a [Hindu](Hindu) holy book, the *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita)* (XI,12):
}}
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time:
Oppenheimer read the original text in [Sanskrit](Sanskrit), "" (XI,32), which he translated as "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds". In the literature, the quote usually appears in the form *shatterer* of worlds, because this was the form in which it first appeared in print, in [magazine](*Time*)(Time (magazine)) on November 8, 1948. It later appeared in Robert Jungk's *Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists* (1958), which was based on an interview with Oppenheimer. See Hijiya, *The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer*}}}}
John R. Lugo was flying a U.S. Navy transport at , east of [Albuquerque](Albuquerque), en route to the west coast. "My first impression was, like, the sun was coming up in the south. What a ball of fire! It was so bright it lit up the cockpit of the plane." Lugo radioed Albuquerque. He got no explanation for the blast but was told, "Don't fly south."
File:Trinity-ground-zero-men-in-crater.jpg|Ground zero after the test
File:Trinity Test Fireball 25ms.jpg|The *Trinity* explosion, 25 ms after detonation. The viewed fireball hemisphere's highest point in this image is about high.
File:Trinity crater (annotated) 2.jpg|An aerial photograph of the Trinity crater shortly after the test..}}
### Energy measurements
[[Test - Lead lined Sherman tank.jpg|thumb|Lead-lined Sherman tank used in Trinity test](File:Trinity)]
The T (Theoretical) Division at Los Alamos had predicted a yield of between . Immediately after the blast, the two lead-lined Sherman tanks made their way to the crater. [analysis](Radiochemical)(Nuclear weapon yield) of soil samples that they collected indicated that the total yield (or energy release) had been around .
Fifty beryllium-copper diaphragm microphones were also used to record the pressure of the [wave](blast)(blast wave). These were supplemented by mechanical pressure gauges. These indicated a blast energy of ± , with only one of the mechanical pressure gauges working correctly that indicated .
Fermi prepared his own experiment to measure the energy that was released as blast. He later recalled that:}}
There were also several [ray](gamma)(gamma ray) and [detector](neutron)(neutron detector)s; few survived the blast, with all the gauges within of ground zero being destroyed, but sufficient data were recovered to measure the gamma ray component of the ionizing radiation released.
The official estimate for the total yield of the Trinity gadget, which includes the energy of the blast component together with the contributions from the [light output](explosion's)(bhangmeter) and both forms of [radiation](ionizing)(ionizing radiation), is , of which about was contributed by fission of the plutonium core, and about was from fission of the natural uranium tamper. A re-analysis of data published in 2021 put the yield at .
As a result of the data gathered on the size of the blast, the detonation height for the [of Hiroshima](bombing)(bombing of Hiroshima) was set at to take advantage of the [stem](mach)(blast wave#Mach Stem Formation) blast reinforcing effect. The final Nagasaki burst height was so the Mach stem started sooner. The knowledge that implosion worked led Oppenheimer to recommend to Groves that the uranium-235 used in a [Boy](Little)(Little Boy) gun-type weapon could be used more economically in a [core with plutonium](composite)(pit (nuclear weapon)). It was too late to do this with the first Little Boy, but the composite cores would soon enter production.
### Civilian detection
Civilians noticed the bright lights and huge explosion. Groves, therefore, had the Second Air Force issue a press release with a cover story that he had prepared weeks before, which framed the explosion as the accidental destruction of a [magazine](Magazine (artillery)) on the base. The press release, written by Laurence, stated: }}
Laurence had prepared four releases, covering outcomes ranging from an account of a successful test (the one which was used) to catastrophic scenarios involving serious damage to surrounding communities, evacuation of nearby residents, and a placeholder for the names of those killed. As Laurence was a witness to the test, he knew that the last release, if used, might be his own obituary. A newspaper article published the same day stated that "the blast was seen and felt throughout an area extending from [Paso](El)(El Paso, Texas) to [City](Silver)(Silver City, New Mexico), [Gallup](Gallup, New Mexico), Socorro, and [Albuquerque](Albuquerque, New Mexico)." An [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) article quoted a partially blind woman, Georgia Green, being driven to class away near Lemitar who felt the flash and asked "What's that?" The articles appeared in New Mexico, but East Coast newspapers ignored them.
Information about the Trinity test was made public shortly after the [of Hiroshima](bombing)(bombing of Hiroshima). The [Report](Smyth)(Smyth Report), released on August 12, 1945, gave some information on the blast, and the edition released by [University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press) a few weeks later incorporated the War Department's press release on the test as Appendix 6, and contained the famous pictures of a "bulbous" Trinity fireball. Groves, Oppenheimer and other dignitaries visited the test site in September 1945, wearing white canvas overshoes to prevent fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.
### Official notifications
The results of the test were conveyed to the [of War](Secretary)(Secretary of War) [L. Stimson](Henry)(Henry L. Stimson) at the Potsdam Conference in Germany in a coded message from his assistant [L. Harrison](George)(George L. Harrison):
}}
The message arrived at the "Little White House" in the Potsdam suburb of [Babelsberg](Babelsberg) and was at once taken to Truman and Secretary of State [F. Byrnes](James)(James F. Byrnes). Harrison sent a follow-up message which arrived on the morning of July 18:
}}
Because Stimson's summer home at High Hold was on [Island](Long)(Long Island) and Harrison's farm near [Virginia](Upperville,)(Upperville, Virginia), this indicated that the explosion could be seen away and heard away.
### Fallout
Film badges used to measure exposure to radioactivity indicated that no observers at N-10,000 had been exposed to more than 0.1 [roentgens](roentgen (unit)) (half of the [Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements](National)(National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements) recommended daily radiation exposure limit), but the shelter was evacuated before the radioactive cloud could reach it. The explosion was more efficient than expected and the thermal updraft drew most of the cloud high enough that little fallout fell on the test site. The crater was far more radioactive than expected due to the formation of [trinitite](trinitite), and the crews of the two lead-lined Sherman tanks were subjected to considerable exposure. Anderson's dosimeter and film badge recorded 7 to 10 roentgens, and one of the tank drivers, who made three trips, recorded 13 to 15 roentgens.
[[File:Trinity Ground Zero.jpg|thumb|left|Major General [Groves](Leslie)(Leslie Groves) and [Oppenheimer](Robert)(Robert Oppenheimer) at the Trinity shot tower remains a few weeks later. The white overshoes were to prevent the [trinitite](trinitite) fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.]]
The heaviest fallout contamination outside the restricted test area was from the detonation point, on Chupadera Mesa. The fallout there was reported to have settled in a white mist onto some of the livestock in the area, resulting in local [burns](beta)(beta burns) and a temporary loss of [dorsal](dorsum (anatomy)) or back hair. Patches of hair grew back discolored white. The Army bought 88 cattle in all from [rancher](rancher)s; the 17 most significantly marked were kept at Los Alamos, while the rest were shipped to [Ridge](Oak)(Clinton Engineer Works) for long-term observation. Dose reconstruction published on September 1, 2020, by researchers working under the auspices of the [Cancer Institute](National)(National Cancer Institute) documented that five counties in New Mexico experienced the greatest radioactive contamination: [Guadalupe](Guadalupe County, New Mexico), [Lincoln](Lincoln County, New Mexico), [Miguel](San)(San Miguel County, New Mexico), [Socorro](Socorro County, New Mexico), and [Torrance](Torrance County, New Mexico).
In August 1945, shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima, the [Kodak](Kodak) Company observed [spotting](autoradiograph) and [fogging](fogging (photography)) on their film, which was at that time usually packaged in cardboard containers. J. H. Webb, an employee of the Kodak Company, studied the matter and concluded that the contamination must have come from a nuclear explosion somewhere in the United States. He discounted the possibility that the Hiroshima bomb was responsible, due to the timing of the events. A hot spot of fallout contaminated the river water that a [mill](paper)(paper mill) in [Indiana](Indiana) used to manufacture the [pulp](cardboard)(paper pulp) from [husks](corn)(corn husks). Originally published under the title "Worse Than We Knew". Aware of the gravity of his discovery, Webb kept this secret until 1949., discussing
This incident, along with the next continental US tests in 1951, set a precedent. In subsequent atmospheric nuclear tests at the [test site](Nevada)(Nevada test site), [States Atomic Energy Commission](United)(United States Atomic Energy Commission) officials gave the photographic industry maps and forecasts of potential contamination, as well as expected fallout distributions, which enabled them to purchase uncontaminated materials and take other protective measures.
## Site today
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In September 1953, about 650 people attended the first [Site](Trinity)(McDonald Ranch House) open house. Visitors to a Trinity Site open house are allowed to see the ground zero and McDonald Ranch House areas. More than seventy years after the test, residual radiation at the site was about ten times higher than normal [radiation](background)(background radiation) in the area. The amount of radioactive exposure received during a one-hour visit to the site is about half of the total radiation exposure which a U.S. adult receives on an average day from natural and medical sources.
On December 21, 1965, the Trinity Site was declared a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark) district,|title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Trinity Site|date=January 14, 1975 |author=Richard Greenwood |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=June 21, 2009}} and |title=Accompanying 10 photos, from 1974 |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=August 24, 2014}} and on October 15, 1966, was listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places). The landmark includes the base camp where the scientists and support group lived, ground zero where the bomb was placed for the explosion, and the McDonald ranch house, where the plutonium core to the bomb was assembled. One of the old [instrumentation](instrumentation) bunkers is visible beside the road just west of ground zero. An inner oblong fence was added in 1967, and the corridor barbed wire fence that connects the outer fence to the inner one was completed in 1972.
A special tour of the site was conducted on July 16, 1995, to mark the 50th anniversary of the Trinity test. About 5,000 visitors arrived to commemorate the occasion, the largest crowd for any open house. Since then, the open houses have usually averaged two to three thousand visitors. The site is still a popular destination for those interested in [tourism](atomic)(atomic tourism), though it is only open to the public twice a year during the Trinity Site Open House on the first Saturdays of April and October. In 2014, the White Sands Missile Range announced that due to budgetary constraints, the site would only be open once a year, on the first Saturday in April. In 2015, this decision was reversed, and two events were scheduled, in April and October. The base commander, Brigadier General [R. Coffin](Timothy)(Timothy R. Coffin), explained that: }}
## Gallery
File:1995 Trinity Site.jpg|Visitors to the Trinity site in 1995 for 50th anniversary in 1995
File:TrinitySiteHistoricalMarkerHighwaySign.jpg|Trinity Site Historical Marker, 2008
File:Trinity Site - Remnants of Jumbo - 2010.jpg|Remnants of Jumbo, 2010
File:Closeup of Plaque on Monument at Trinity Site.jpg|Closeup of plaque on obelisk, 2018
File:Trinitite Display at Trinity Site Open House.jpg|[Trinitite](Trinitite) display table, 2018
File:Sign Prohibiting Removal of Trinite at Ground Zero.jpg|Sign warning against removal of trinitite, 2018
File:Crowds gathering around the Ground Zero Obelisk at Trinity Site.jpg|People gather around Ground Zero, 2018
File:Post-WW II Atomic Bomb Casing Almost Identical to the Fatman Bomb Casing Used Over Nagasaki.jpg|Post World War II atomic bomb casing
## Notes
## Citations
## References
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## External links
* ["The Trinity test"](https://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/national-security-science/2020-summer/trinity-feature.shtml) a 2020 article by Virginia Grant published in [National Security Science](https://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/national-security-science/) magazine
* [Trinity Remembered: 60th Anniversary](http://www.trinityremembered.com/)
* [The Trinity test](https://www.sandia.gov/labnews/2000/11/03/trinity-story/) on the [National Laboratories](Sandia)(Sandia National Laboratories) website
* [Trinity Test Fallout Pattern](http://www.atomicarchive.com/Maps/TrinityMap.shtml)
* [Trinity Test Photographs](https://www.atomicarchive.com/media/photographs/trinity/index.html)
* ["My Radioactive Vacation"](http://www.randomuseless.info/vacation/vacation.html), report of a visit to the Trinity site, with pictures comparing its past with its present state
* [Visiting Trinity](https://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/08/poison_in_the_i.html) Short article by Ker Than at *[Quarks Daily](3)(3 Quarks Daily)*
* ["War Department release on New Mexico test, July 16, 1945"](https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/documents/smyth-report/smyth_appendix_6.html), from the [Report](Smyth)(Smyth Report), with eyewitness reports from Groves and Farrell (1945)
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* [Trinity's cloud (1945)](http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2012/03/30/trinitys-cloud-1945/), photographs of mushroom cloud
* [Video of the site, original blast, and the ranch where the bomb was assembled](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqge1SbMjp8/) from 2017
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[in 1945](Category:Explosions)(Category:Explosions in 1945)
[in military history](Category:1945)(Category:1945 in military history)
[in New Mexico](Category:1945)(Category:1945 in New Mexico)
[in science](Category:1945)(Category:1945 in science)
[in the United States](Category:1945)(Category:1945 in the United States)
[1945 events in the United States](Category:July)(Category:July 1945 events in the United States)
[nuclear weapons testing](Category:American)(Category:American nuclear weapons testing)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[tourism](Category:Atomic)(Category:Atomic tourism)
[names](Category:Code)(Category:Code names)
[in the United States](Category:Explosions)(Category:Explosions in the United States)
[districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico](Category:Historic)(Category:Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico)
[of New Mexico](Category:History)(Category:History of New Mexico)
[of Socorro County, New Mexico](Category:History)(Category:History of Socorro County, New Mexico)
[of the Manhattan Project](Category:History)(Category:History of the Manhattan Project)
[facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico](Category:Military)(Category:Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in New Mexico)
[history of New Mexico](Category:Military)(Category:Military history of New Mexico)
[Historic Landmarks in New Mexico](Category:National)(Category:National Historic Landmarks in New Mexico)
[Register of Historic Places in Socorro County, New Mexico](Category:National)(Category:National Register of Historic Places in Socorro County, New Mexico)
[Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties](Category:New)(Category:New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties)
[attractions in Alamogordo, New Mexico](Category:Tourist)(Category:Tourist attractions in Alamogordo, New Mexico)
[attractions in Socorro County, New Mexico](Category:Tourist)(Category:Tourist attractions in Socorro County, New Mexico)
[Basin](Category:Tularosa)(Category:Tularosa Basin)
[War II on the National Register of Historic Places](Category:World)(Category:World War II on the National Register of Historic Places)
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Blue Beetle
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blue_beetle
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# Blue Beetle
*Revision ID: 1159161450 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T17:06:04Z*
---
*Blue Beetle* (film)}}
**Blue Beetle** is the name of three [fiction](fiction)al [superhero](superhero)es appearing in a number of American [book](comic)(comic book)s published by a variety of companies since 1939. The most recent of the companies to own rights to Blue Beetle is [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), which bought the rights to the character in 1983, using the name for three distinct characters over the years.
The original Blue Beetle was created by [Nicholas Wojtkoski](Charles)(Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski) and [Comics](Fox)(Fox Comics) and later owned by [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics). The first Beetle was **[Garret](Dan)(Dan Garret)** (later spelled Dan Garrett), who initially gained superpowers from a special vitamin, which was later changed to gaining powers from a "sacred scarab". The original Blue Beetle was featured in not only his own comic but also a weekly [serial](radio)(Golden Age of Radio).
The second Blue Beetle, created by Charlton and later taken over by [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), was the successor to Dan Garrett known as **[Kord](Ted)(Ted Kord)**. Kord "jumped" to the DC Comics universe during the *[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths)* alongside a number of other Charlton Comics characters. The second Blue Beetle later starred in his own 24-issue comic. Kord never had any super powers but used science to create various devices to help him fight crime. He became a member of the [League of America](Justice)(Justice League) and was later killed during the prelude to DC Comics' *[Crisis](Infinite)(Infinite Crisis)* cross over.
The third Blue Beetle, created by [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), is **[Reyes](Jaime)(Jaime Reyes)** (pronounced “Hi-meh”), a teenager who discovers that the original Blue Beetle scarab morphs into a battle suit allowing him to fight crime and travel in space. Over the years, Reyes became a member of the [Titans](Teen)(Teen Titans) and starred in two Blue Beetle comic series. In DC Comics' 2011 "New 52" reboot, Jaime Reyes was the primary Blue Beetle character, only occasionally referring to past versions. With the subsequent continuity revision "DC Rebirth", the previous versions were restored.
## Publication history
The original Blue Beetle, [Garret](Dan)(Dan Garret), [appeared](first)(First appearance) in [Comics](Fox)(Fox Comics)' *[Men Comics](Mystery)(Mystery Men Comics)* #1 (cover-dated Aug. 1939), with art by Charles Nicholas Wojtkoski (as [Nicholas](Charles)(Charles Nicholas#Charles Wojtkoski)), though the [Comics Database](Grand)(Grand Comics Database) tentatively credits [Eisner](Will)(Will Eisner) as the scripter.Wojtkoski's family has supplied the online comics encyclopedia "The Lambiek Comiclopedia" with documentation to support the overall Wojtkoski credit. Another artist, [Nicholas Cuidera](Charles)(Charles Nicholas#Chuck Cuidera), also drew Blue YEEtle stories later, and has claimed to have been the creator, but comics historians credit Wojtkoski.
*
* A rookie [officer](police)(police officer), he wore a special bulletproof costume and took "Vitamin 2X" which endowed him with super-energy, and he was assisted by a neighborhood pharmacist in his fight against crime. Blue Beetle starred in a comic book series, [strip](comic)(comic strip) and [radio](radio) serial, but like most [Age](Golden)(Golden Age of Comic Books) superheroes, he fell into obscurity in the 1950s. The comic book series saw a number of anomalies in publication: 19 issues, #12 through #30, were published through [Publishing](Holyoke)(Holyoke Publishing); no issue #43 was published; publication frequency varied throughout the run; and there were gaps where issues were not published, with large ones occurring in early 1947 and between mid-1948 and early 1950.
In the mid-1950s, Fox Comics went out of business and sold the printing plates for some stories featuring the Blue Beetle to [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics). Reprinted stories from the original *Blue Beetle* series were initially published in Charlton's anthology comic *Space Adventures* #13-14 (Oct. 1954, Jan. 1955). Charlton Comics then began publishing their own *Blue Beetle* series, taking over numbering from the horror anthology series *The Thing!*, beginning with issue #18 (Feb. 1955). Issues #18-19 consisted entirely of reprinted Fox Comics stories; #20-21 included new adventures of the Golden Age character. The series was cancelled after these four issues, with numbering taken over from #22 onwards by *Mr. Muscles*. One more original story starring the Golden Age incarnation of the character was published as a backup feature in *Nature Boy* #3 (Mar. 1956).
In 1964, Charlton Comics began publishing a new series of *Blue Beetle* which substantially revamped the hero, reinventing him as a university professor and altering the spelling of his name to Dan Garrett. The first issue (Jun. 1964) was a new origin story that depicted Dan Garrett coming into possession of a mystical Egyptian [scarab](Scarab (artifact)) that granted him superpowers and beginning his career as the Blue Beetle. After five issues were published, the next issue was numbered as #50 (Jul. 1965), taking over numbering from the anthology comic *Unusual Tales*. The series ended with issue #54 (Feb.-Mar. 1966), its numbering taken over afterwards by the anthology comic *Ghostly Tales*. Issues #1-5 and #50-53 were written by [Gill](Joe)(Joe Gill) and issue #54 by [Thomas](Roy)(Roy Thomas); art for all ten issues was by [Fraccio](Bill)(Bill Fraccio) and [Tallarico](Tony)(Tony Tallarico).
Later in 1966, Blue Beetle was reinvented again in a set of backup stories published in *[Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom)* #83 (Nov. 1966) through #86, plotted and drawn by [Ditko](Steve)(Steve Ditko): they introduced [Kord](Ted)(Blue Beetle (Ted Kord)), a student of Dan Garrett's, who took on the role of Blue Beetle following Garrett's apparent death. Kord was an inventor hero, using a variety of gadgets, with a day job of running his own research lab. This Beetle received his own series in 1967, also by Ditko, which ran for five issues until the entire Charlton "Action Heroes" line of comic books ceased publication in 1968. The story planned for a sixth issue was eventually printed, without coloring, in the fan publication *Charlton Portfolio* #1 in 1974.
Both Blue Beetles reappeared in the third issue of *[Americomics](Americomics)*, a title published by [Comics](AC)(AC Comics) in 1983-84. In the first story in this issue, Ted Kord fought a bogus Dan Garrett, but the second story was more significant. It revealed that the original 1940s Dan was reincarnated as the Silver Age version (minus his memories of his earlier existence) by some unspecified "gods", presumably the ones responsible for his mystic scarab. The gods subsequently resurrected Dan again and sent him off to save Ted Kord's life (leaving him a note saying simply, "Try not to get killed this time"). After this adventure, Kord turned the Blue Beetle name back over to Dan. *Americomics* was canceled after issue #6, and so far this story has never been referenced by any other publisher.
With the rest of the Charlton Comics superhero line-up, Blue Beetle was sold to [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) in 1983. A new *Blue Beetle* series starring Ted Kord began publication in 1986, integrating the hero into the DC Comics shared universe. The series ran for 24 issues (Jun. 1986-May 1988), all written by [Wein](Len)(Len Wein). While the series largely carried over the status quo and characters from Charlton Comics, some new elements were introduced: most notably, Ted Kord was made a billionaire industrialist as his research lab was reinvented as the massively successful R & D company Kord Industries.
Blue Beetle became a member of the [League](Justice)(Justice League) upon the launch of a new series in 1987, beginning with *Justice League* #1 (May 1987). Depicted with a more comedic tone than in the *Blue Beetle* solo comic, Ted Kord became best friends with team-mate [Gold](Booster)(Booster Gold). Blue Beetle remained as a main character on the series as it was re-titled *Justice League International* and then *Justice League America*. Following the event miniseries *[Hour](Zero)(Zero Hour: Crisis in Time!)*, both Blue Beetle and Booster Gold left the series and began starring in the new team title *[Justice](Extreme)(Extreme Justice)*, which ran for issues #0-18 (Jan. 1995-Jul. 1996). Ted Kord later became a recurring character in *[of Prey](Birds)(Birds of Prey (team))*, and starred in the 2003-04 miniseries *Formerly Known as the Justice League*. The character of Ted Kord was killed off in the one-shot comic *[to Infinite Crisis](Countdown)(Countdown to Infinite Crisis)* (May 2005).
In 2006, DC introduced a new Blue Beetle, teenager [Reyes](Jaime)(Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)), whose powers are derived from the scarab, now revealed as a piece of advanced alien technology. The series was initially written by [Giffen](Keith)(Keith Giffen) and [Rogers](John)(John Rogers (writer)), with artist [Hamner](Cully)(Cully Hamner).["Cully Hamner talks about the BLUE BEETLE"](https://www.firstcomicsnews.com/whos-that-bug-hamner-on-the-blue-beetle/) by [Offenberger](Rik)(Rik Offenberger), [Comics News](First)(First Comics News), December 7, 2005 Giffen left in issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by a new artist, [Albuquerque](Rafael)(Rafael Albuquerque (artist)). Rogers left the title with issue #25 to concentrate on his television series *[Leverage](Leverage (American TV series))*. After three fill-in issues, [Sturges](Lilah)(Lilah Sturges) became the main writer in issue #29, but the series was cancelled with issue #36. Editor [DiDio](Dan)(Dan DiDio) put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that *Blue Beetle* was "a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way".
All three incarnations of *Blue Beetle* were depicted in *Booster Gold* (vol. 2) #6. Following the cancellation of Jaime Reyes' solo series, the character was brought back to star in a backup feature in *Booster Gold*, once again written by Sturges. The backup feature ran through issues #21-25 (Aug.-Dec. 2009) and #28-29 (Mar.-Apr. 2010).
A new *Blue Beetle* comic was launched as part of [New 52](The)(The New 52) initiative in September 2011, with Jaime Reyes' history being rebooted with a new origin and without any apparent history of Kord or Garrett as prior Blue Beetles. The new book was written by [Bedard](Tony)(Tony Bedard) and drawn by Ig Guara. *Blue Beetle* was cancelled after issue #16 (Mar. 2013); Jaime Reyes's story was then continued in the new title *[Threshold](Threshold (DC Comics))*, written by Keith Giffen, which ultimately ran for eight issues (Mar.-Oct. 2013).
The 2016 publishing initiative [Rebirth](DC)(DC Rebirth) restored the history of Dan Garrett and Ted Kord as previous Blue Beetles. A new *Blue Beetle* series was launched that year, with a one-shot special *Blue Beetle: Rebirth* (Oct. 2016) preceding *Blue Beetle* #1 (Nov. 2016), once again written by Keith Giffen. The series starred Jaime Reyes, while also featuring Ted Kord as an ex-superhero who acts as his mentor. The series ran until issue #18 (Apr. 2018).
Ted Kord, once again as Blue Beetle, co-starred alongside Booster Gold in the 2021-22 limited series *Blue & Gold* by Dan Jurgens. Jaime Reyes remains the primary Blue Beetle for DC Comics, however, starring in the 2022-23 limited series *Blue Beetle: Graduation Day* written by Josh Trujillo and illustrated by Adrián Gutiérrez.
## Blue Beetles
### Dan Garret / Dan Garrett
The original [Age](Golden)(Golden Age of Comic Books) Blue Beetle is Dan Garret,In the earliest Golden Age appearances and during the mid-1960s run by writer-artist [Ditko](Steve)(Steve Ditko), the original Blue Beetle was referred to as Dan "Garret", spelled with one "t". son of a police officer killed by a criminal. This [Feature Syndicate](Fox)(Fox Feature Syndicate) version of the character debuted in *Mystery Men Comics* #1 (August 1939), and began appearing in his own 60-issue series shortly thereafter. Fox Feature Syndicate sponsored a "Blue Beetle Day" at the [New York World's Fair](1939)(1939 New York World's Fair) on August 7, 1940, beginning at 10:30 a.m. and including 300 children in relay-race finals at the Field of Special Events, following preliminaries in New York City parks. The race was broadcast over radio station [WMCA](WMCA (AM)). Abstract; full article requires fee or subscription
[Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics) reprinted some stories in its [anthology](anthology) titles and in a four-issue *Blue Beetle* reprint series numbered 18–21, although there is no evidence that they obtained the rights to the character - just that they purchased the printing plates to earlier stories.
In 1964, during the [Age](Silver)(Silver Age of Comic Books) of comics, Charlton revised the character for a new Blue Beetle series. Charlton's new Blue Beetle retained the original's name (adding a second "t"), but none of his powers or origin, making him a different character. This Beetle was [archaeologist](Archaeology) Dan Garrett, who obtained a number of superhuman powers (including super strength and vision, flight, and the ability to generate energy blasts) from a mystical [scarab](Scarab (artifact)) he found during a dig in [Egypt](Egypt), where it had been used to imprison an evil mummified Pharaoh. He would transform into the Blue Beetle by saying the words "Kaji Dha!" This version, by writer [Gill](Joe)(Joe Gill) and artist [Tallarico](Tony)(Tony Tallarico), was played at least initially for [camp](Camp (style)), with stories like "The Giant Mummy Who was Not Dead". The Charlton Dan Garrett version of the Blue Beetle ran only until 1966 before his replacement debuted.
The Charlton version of Dan Garrett was spotlighted in the second issue of DC's 1980s *[Origins](Secret)(Secret Origins)* series, in which his origin was retold along with that of Ted Kord. Subsequent appearances by Dan Garrett (in flashback stories) include guest spots or cameos in *[Inc.](Infinity,)(Infinity, Inc.)*, *[Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom)*, *[Year One](JLA:)(Justice League)*, and *Legends of the DC Universe*.
The character briefly returned in [Comics](DC)(DC Comics)' first run of *Blue Beetle*, resurrected by his mystical scarab to battle against his successor. He can also be seen in various flashback stories. His 1940s incarnation is briefly glimpsed in DC's 1993 limited series *The Golden Age*.
In issue #0 of the *[Superpowers](Project)(Project Superpowers)* miniseries, the [Feature Syndicate](Fox)(Fox Feature Syndicate) version of the Blue Beetle appeared in flashbacks (as by now the character/spelling "Dan Garret" was in the public domain). To avoid trademark conflicts with [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), he is referred to in this series by the nickname "Big Blue".
### Ted Kord
The replacement Blue Beetle created by [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics), and later published by [Americomics](Americomics) and [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), is Ted Kord, a former student of Dan Garrett, a genius-level inventor and a gifted athlete. Kord and Garrett were investigating Kord's Uncle Jarvis when they learned Jarvis was working to create an army of androids to take over Earth. Garrett changed into Blue Beetle, but was killed in battle. As he died, he passed on to Kord the responsibility of being Blue Beetle, but was unable to pass on the mystical scarab.*Blue Beetle* (vol. 5) #2 (Charlton Comics, August 1967).
Ted had the scarab for some time, but never used it. He carried it during the *[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths)* when he was chosen by the [Monitor](Monitor (comics)) to protect the multiple Earths, but it only reacted when he was attacked; it did not give him superpowers.
During the "[of Superman](Death)(The Death of Superman)" saga, the Blue Beetle and the other JLA members tried to stop [Doomsday](Doomsday (comics))'s path of destruction. Doomsday displayed his near-invulnerability and, while brutally defeating the League, put the Blue Beetle into a coma.*Justice League America* #69 Upon recovery, he continued his tenure with the JLA as well as its offshoot, [Justice](Extreme)(Extreme Justice).
Blue Beetle discovered a renewed [Checkmate](Checkmate (comics)) organization led by [Lord](Maxwell)(Maxwell Lord), with a database containing information on every metahuman on Earth. He was captured and executed with a single gunshot to the head. Before dying, he had used the scarab in an attempt to contact [Marvel](Captain)(Captain Marvel (DC Comics)), but was forced to leave it with the wizard [Shazam](Shazam (wizard)) in the Rock of Eternity when the wizard sent him back to [Earth](Earth).*[to Infinite Crisis](Countdown)(Countdown to Infinite Crisis)* one-shot (May 2005)
Some time later, [Gold](Booster)(Booster Gold), along with Jaime, Dan, and the [Beetle](Black)(Black Beetle (DC Comics)) in the guise of a Blue Beetle from the future, travels back in time to rescue Kord moments before his death.
### Jaime Reyes
**Jaime Reyes** is a teenager who lives in [Paso, Texas](El)(El Paso, Texas), with his father, mother, and little sister; his father owns a garage and his mother is a nurse. Jaime has offered to help his father out at the garage, but his father has turned him down. He feels Jaime should enjoy his childhood for as long as he can, and should attempt to further his education. He finds the scarab in a vacant lot and it fuses with him while he sleeps.*Blue Beetle* (vol. 7) #1 (2006) After Booster Gold revealed Jaime's new powers to him, Jaime was swept up in the climactic battle with [Eye](Brother)(OMAC (comics)#Brother Eye) during *[Crisis](Infinite)(Infinite Crisis)*. He later becomes a member of the [Titans](Teen)(Teen Titans), and is good friends with Rose Wilson ([Ravager](Ravager (comics))), [Robin](Robin (comics)), [Static](Static (DC Comics)), and others. In *[Titans](Teen)(Teen Titans)* (vol. 3) #83, he takes a break from the team to be with his mother.
Jaime has a girlfriend, the young sorceress [13](Traci)(Traci 13), who gets along well with Jaime's family. His large and loving family is a major source of strength and guidance for Jaime. [Smith aka the Peacemaker](Christopher)(Peacemaker (comics)) also became a mentor for the young Blue Beetle.
Jaime co-starred along with the rest of the former Justice League International in *[League: Generation Lost](Justice)(Justice League: Generation Lost)*.
Following DC's "[Flashpoint](Flashpoint (comics))" storyline *Blue Beetle* was one of 52 monthly titles launched in September 2011, again starring Jaime Reyes. The series was cancelled after 17 issues in January 2013.
## The Scarab – Khaji Da
The Blue Beetle scarab, previously shown as an artifact of magic, is later [retcon](retcon)ned as a tool of war of the [Reach](Reach (comics)), an ancient race of cosmic marauders. After being defeated by the [of the Universe](Guardians)(Guardians of the Universe) thousands of years ago and forced into a truce, the Reach poses as benevolent aliens lending their advanced technology to budding civilizations. The scarab is a gift for that world's champion, giving him amazing powers and the knowledge of the Reach to protect their peers. Secretly, the scarab is part of an advanced hive mind, with its own artificial intelligence covertly supplanting the wearer's own. The wearer is turned into the "ultimate infiltrator", a covert agent intended to take over its own world. However, the Blue Beetle Scarab is damaged and so instead of it controlling the host, it forms a symbiotic relationship with them.
The Blue Beetle scarab uses its serial number, Khaji Da, as its name.*Blue Beetle* (vol. 7) #25
In the New 52, the Reach forgoes the secrecy, and each wearer immediately becomes possessed by the scarab. It then uses its host's knowledge to decimate the world and prepare it for a full invasion by Reach forces.*Blue Beetle* (vol. 8) #0 (September 2012)
In *DC Universe: Rebirth*, Ted Kord and Jaime Reyes believe the scarab is an alien device that bonded to Jaime's spine. Kord is fascinated by this scarab and wants to investigate the potential of it while Jaime fears it. When Jaime leaves Kord's lab to get to school, Dr. Fate appears in the lab to warn Kord that the scarab is not an alien device, but it is instead magic. This further sparks Kord's interest in the potential of the scarab.
## Enemies
## Other versions
### Kingdom Come
Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) was seen in [Ross](Alex)(Alex Ross) and [Waid](Mark)(Mark Waid)'s limited series *[Come](Kingdom)(Kingdom Come (comics))*. He is shown with the rest of the Charlton "Action Heroes" not as a member of [Magog](Magog (comics))'s [Battalion](Justice)(Justice Battalion), but as part of [Batman](Batman)'s group and later of the MLF (Mankind Liberation Front). He would be shown later in the title in a suit of armor powered by the then-mystic scarab, working with Batman's team. In the novelization of the series, Batman thinks of Blue Beetle, along with [Arrow](Green)(Green Arrow) and [Canary](Black)(Black Canary), as his closest (at the time) friends. Blue Beetle is killed with most of the other heroes by a nuclear explosion.
### 52 Multiverse
[[Image:Blue Beetle Elseworld.jpg|thumb|The [Earth-19](Gotham by Gaslight#Countdown) Blue Beetle.]]
The final issue, #52, of DC Comics' 2006/2007 year-long weekly series *[52](52 (comics))* revealed that a "[Multiverse](Multiverse (DC Comics))" system of [parallel universes](52)(Worlds of the 52 multiverse), with each Earth being a different take on established DC Comics characters as featured in the mainstream continuity (designated as "New Earth") had come into existence. The Multiverse acts as a storytelling device that allows writers to introduce alternate versions of fictional characters, hypothesize "What if?" scenarios, revisit popular Elseworlds stories and allow these characters to interact with the mainstream continuity. For example, the Ted Kord of the *Kingdom Come* limited series is said to reside on Earth-22.
Spin-offs from the series *[to Final Crisis](Countdown)(Countdown to Final Crisis)* would introduce more alternate Blue Beetles in 2007. Earth-19 (the *[by Gaslight](Gotham)(Gotham by Gaslight)* universe), set in a Victorian-like era, has its own version of Dan Garrett who in his secret identity is the leading Egyptologist at the Gotham Museum of Natural History and wears a monocle, appearing in *The Search for Ray Palmer: Gotham by Gaslight*. The limited series *[Arena](Countdown:)(Countdown: Arena)* depicted three more: Earth-26 Blue Beetle, a swarm of sentient insects that form a man-shaped body (calling themselves "The Scarab"), Ted of Earth-33, an anthropomorphic beetle, the pet of Mr. and Mrs. Kord, and Earth-39 Blue Beetle, a younger version of Dan Garrett, who has bonded with his scarab in the same way as Jaime Reyes.*Countdown: Arena* #1–4 (December 2007)
A new version of the Blue Beetle known as "Blue Scarab" was shown as a member of the Justice League in the apocalyptic future depicted in *Justice League: Generation Lost*. He is stated as being the "descendant of the Blue Beetle", and has a very alien-looking appearance.*Justice League: Generation Lost* #14 (Late January 2011)
An evil version has appeared in the [universe of Qward](antimatter)(antimatter universe of Qward), the [universe](universe) of the [Syndicate of America](Crime)(Crime Syndicate of America), known as the Scarab.
## In other media
### Television
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle and Ted Kord appear in the *[Smallville](Smallville)* episode "Booster", portrayed by Jaren Brandt Bartlett and [Spence](Sebastian)(Sebastian Spence) respectively.
* The Jaime Reyes, Ted Kord, and Dan Garrett incarnations of Blue Beetle appear in *[The Brave and the Bold](Batman:)(Batman: The Brave and the Bold)*, with Reyes and Kord voiced by [Friedle](Will)(Will Friedle) and [Wheaton](Wil)(Wil Wheaton) respectively while Garrett is silent. Additionally, **[Ro](Kanjar)(Kanjar Ro)** (voiced by [Worden](Marc)(Marc Worden)) briefly uses the scarab in the episode "[Rise of the Blue Beetle!](The)(The Rise of the Blue Beetle!)" while an evil alternate universe version of Reyes called **Scarlet Scarab** appears in the episode "Deep Cover for Batman!" as a member of the [Syndicate](Injustice)(Crime Syndicate of America).
* The Jaime Reyes, Ted Kord, and Dan Garrett incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear in *[Justice](Young)(Young Justice (TV series))*, with Reyes voiced by [Lopez](Eric)(Eric Lopez (voice actor)) while Kord and Garrett are silent.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in *[League Action](Justice)(Justice League Action)*, voiced again by [T. Austin](Jake)(Jake T. Austin).
* The Ted Kord incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in the second season of *[Super Hero Girls](DC)(DC Super Hero Girls (TV series))* (2019), voiced by [Mittelman](Max)(Max Mittelman).
### Film
* The Dan Garret incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears on the cover of a comic book in the *[Watchmen](Watchmen (film))* tie-in *[the Hood](Under)(Watchmen (film)#Home media)*.
* An evil, unidentified, alternate universe incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in *[League: Crisis on Two Earths](Justice)(Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths)* as a minor member of the [Syndicate](Crime)(Crime Syndicate of America).
* The Ted Kord incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in *[Death and Return of Superman](The)(The Death and Return of Superman (film))*, portrayed by [Barats](Luke)(Barats and Bereta).
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in the [Universe Animated Original Movie](DC)(DC Universe Animated Original Movies) (DCUAOM) *[League vs. Teen Titans](Justice)(Justice League vs. Teen Titans)*, voiced by [T. Austin](Jake)(Jake T. Austin).
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in the DCUAOM *[Titans: The Judas Contract](Teen)(Teen Titans: The Judas Contract)*, voiced again by Jake T. Austin.
* The Ted Kord incarnation of the Blue Beetle makes a cameo appearance in *[Titans Go! To the Movies](Teen)(Teen Titans Go! To the Movies)*.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in the DCUAOM *[League Dark: Apokolips War](Justice)(Justice League Dark: Apokolips War)*.
* The Ted Kord incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in *[Showcase: Blue Beetle](DC)(DC Showcase)*, voiced by [Lanter](Matt)(Matt Lanter).
* The Ted Kord incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in *[Titans Go! & DC Super Hero Girls: Mayhem in the Multiverse](Teen)(Teen Titans Go! & DC Super Hero Girls: Mayhem in the Multiverse)*, voiced again by an uncredited [Mittelman](Max)(Max Mittelman).
* A [self-titled](Blue Beetle (film)) film centered around Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle and set in the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe) is in development, with Gareth Dunnet-Alcocer serving as screenwriter, [Manuel Soto](Angel)(Angel Manuel Soto) directing, and [Maridueña](Xolo)(Xolo Maridueña) cast in the title role.*[Big Screen Leaks](https://bigscreenleaks.wixsite.com/bigscreenleaks/post/exclusive-xolo-maridue%C3%Bla-cast-as-blue-beetle)*
### Video games
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in *[Crisis](Infinite)(Infinite Crisis (video game))*.
* The Dan Garrett, Ted Kord, and Jaime Reyes incarnations of the Blue Beetle appear as assist characters in *[Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure](Scribblenauts)(Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure)*.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in *[Batman 3: Beyond Gotham](Lego)(Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham)*.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in *[DC Super-Villains](Lego)(Lego DC Super-Villains)*.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in *[2](Injustice)(Injustice 2)*.
### Miscellaneous
* The Dan Garrett incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in a self-titled radio serial, voiced by [Lovejoy](Frank)(Frank Lovejoy) in the first 13 episodes and an uncredited actor in subsequent episodes.
* An unidentified, unrelated Blue Beetle appears in *[Electric Company](The)(The Electric Company)*, portrayed by [Boyd](Jim)(Jim Boyd (actor)). This version is a bumbling superhero who often makes matters worse and is known for wearing a mask, a hood with antennae, wings, tennis shoes, boxer shorts, and a T-shirt bearing his name.
* Ted Kord appears in the *[Come](Kingdom)(Kingdom Come (comics))* audio drama, by John Whitman.
* An unidentified Blue Beetle appears in *[League Unlimited](Justice)(Justice League Unlimited)* #5 and #8.
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle makes non-speaking background appearances in *[Super Hero Girls](DC)(DC Super Hero Girls)* (2015).
* The Jaime Reyes incarnation of the Blue Beetle appears in a screen test used to trial the concept of a Blue Beetle television series.
## Homages
* [Thomas](Roy)(Roy Thomas) wrote the Blue Beetle in one of his earliest professional credits and later created Blue Beetle [pastiches](pastiches) the [Scarab](Scarlet)(Scarlet Scarab) for [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) and the [Scarab](Silver)(Silver Scarab) for DC Comics.["The Return of Khepri"](http://www.fanzing.com/mag/fanzing48/feature1.shtml)
* [Moore](Alan)(Alan Moore) used the Dan Garret and Ted Kord incarnations of the Blue Beetle as inspiration for the two [Owl](Nite)(Nite Owl)s in his comic book series *[Watchmen](Watchmen)*.
## References
## External links
*
* [Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)](http://www.toonopedia.com/beetle2.htm) ([archived](https://www.webcitation.org/63gvVx8h0?url=http://www.toonopedia.com/beetle2.htm) from the original December 4, 2011) and [Blue Beetle (Ted Kord)](http://www.toonopedia.com/beetle3.htm) ([archived](https://archive.today/20120915080253/http://www.toonopedia.com/beetle3.htm) from the original December 4, 2011) at [Markstein's Toonopedia](Don)(Don Markstein's Toonopedia).
* [Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/b/blubeech.htm) and [Blue Beetle (Ted Kord)](http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/b/blubeet2.htm) at the International Catalogue of Superheroes
* [Blue Beetle (Dan Garrett)](http://comicbookdb.com/character.php?ID=2921), [Blue Beetle (Ted Kord)](http://comicbookdb.com/character.php?ID=253) and
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[ ](Category:Blue Beetle)
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|
Uyghurs
|
uyghurs
|
# Uyghurs
*Revision ID: 1160324596 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:26:19Z*
---
||}}
| image = Uyghur man in Kashgar.jpg
| image_caption = A Uyghur man in [Kashgar](Kashgar)
| total =
| region1 = [China](China)(mainly in [Xinjiang](Xinjiang))
| pop1 = 11.8 million
| ref1 =
| region2 = [Kazakhstan](Uyghurs in Kazakhstan)
| pop2 = 223,100 (2009)
| ref2 = Агентство Республики Каписью на 26,1% и составила 10098,6 тыс. человек. Увеличилась численность узбеков на 23,3%, составив 457,2 тыс. человек, уйгур – на 6%, составив 223,1 тыс. человек. Снизилась численность русских на 15,3%, составив 3797,0 тыс. человек; немцев – на 49,6%, составив 178,2 тыс. человек; украинцев – на 39,1%, составив 333,2 тыс. человек; татар – на 18,4%, составив 203,3 тыс. человек; других этносов – на 5,8%, составив 714,2 тыс. человек.
| region3 = [Pakistan](Uyghurs in Pakistan)
| pop3 = 200,000 (2010)
| ref3 =
| region4 = [Turkey](Uyghurs of Turkey)
| pop4 = 100,000–300,000
| ref4 =
| region5 = [Kyrgyzstan](Uyghurs in Kyrgyzstan)
| pop5 = 60,210 (2021)
| ref5 =
| region6 = [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan)
| pop6 = 48,500 (2019)
| ref6 =
| region7 = [States](United)(Uyghur Americans)
| pop7 = 8,905 (per US Census Bureau 2015) – 15,000 (per ETGE estimate 2021)
| ref7 =
| region8 = [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia)
| pop8 = 8,730 (2018)
| ref8 =
| region9 = [Australia](Australia)
| pop9 = 5,000–10,000
| ref9 =
| region10 = [Russia](Russia)
| pop10 = 3,696 (2010)
| ref10 =
| region11 = [Turkmenistan](Turkmenistan)
| pop11 = ~3,000
| ref11 =
| region12 = [Afghanistan](Afghanistan)
| pop12 = 2,000
| ref12 =
| region13 = [Japan](Japan)
| pop13 = 2,000 (2021)
| ref13 = ... 日本暮らしでも「中国の影」 |url=https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/world/20211106-OYT1T50026/ |website=読売新聞オンライン |access-date=14 July 2022 |language=ja |date=6 November 2021}}
| region14 = [Sweden](Sweden)
| pop14 = 2,000 (2019)
| ref14 =
| region15 = [Canada](Canada)
| pop15 = ~1,555 (2016)
| ref15 =
| region16 = [Germany](Germany)
| pop16 = ~750 (2013)
| ref16 =
| region17 = [Finland](Finland)
| pop17 = 327 (2021)
| ref17 =
| region18 = [Mongolia](Mongolia)
| pop18 = 258 (2000)
| ref18 =
| region19 = [Ukraine](Ukraine)
| pop19 = 197 (2001)
| ref19 = [State statistics committee of Ukraine – National composition of population, 2001 census](http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul1/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=100&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20&n_page=5) (Ukrainian)
| languages =
| religions = Predominantly [Islam](Sunni)(Sunni Islam), historically [Buddhism](Buddhism)
| related_groups = [Uzbeks](Uzbeks) and other [peoples](Turkic)(Turkic peoples)
}}
| s = 维吾尔
| t =
| p = Wéiwú'ěr
| w =
| mi =
}}
The **Uyghurs**,, , , |, IPA: |For the English pronunciation, see [Etymology](#Etymology)}}}} alternatively spelled **Uighurs**, History, Language, & Facts|website= Encyclopedia Britannica|language= en|access-date= 17 December 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181217154715/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uighur|archive-date= 17 December 2018|url-status=live}} **Uygurs** or **Uigurs**, are a [Turkic](Turkic peoples) ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of [Central](Central Asia) and [Asia](East)(East Asia). The Uyghurs are recognized as native to the [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) Uyghur Autonomous Region in [China](Northwest)(Northwest China). They are one of [55 officially recognized ethnic minorities](China's)(Ethnic minorities in China). The Uyghurs are recognized by the [government](Chinese)(Government of China) as a [minority](regional)(Regional language) and the [people](titular)(Titular nation) of Xinjiang.
The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of [oases](Oasis) scattered across the [Desert](Taklamakan)(Taklamakan Desert) within the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin). These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many [civilization](civilization)s including [China](History of China), the [Mongols](Mongol Empire), the [Tibetans](Tibetan Empire) and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century. Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity.
An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs still live in the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin). The rest of Xinjiang's Uyghurs mostly live in [Ürümqi](Ürümqi), the capital city of [Xinjiang](Xinjiang), which is located in the historical region of [Dzungaria](Dzungaria). The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are the [Uyghurs](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan County#Taoyuan Uyghurs) of north-central [Hunan](Hunan)'s [County](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan County). Significant [diasporic](Diaspora) communities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such as [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), [Kyrgyzstan](Kyrgyzstan), [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan) and Turkey. Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden. "The rest of the Diaspora is settled in Turkey (about 10,000 people) and, in smaller numbers, in Germany, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Canada, the US, India and Pakistan."
Since 2014, the [government](Chinese)(Government of China) has subjected Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread human rights abuses, including forced sterilization and forced labor, in what has been described as [genocide](Uyghur genocide). Scholars estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have been [detained](arbitrarily)(Arbitrary arrest and detention) in the [internment camps](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang internment camps) since 2017;Joanne Smith Finley (19 November 2020) "Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang", *Journal of Genocide Research*. doi: [10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109](doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109) Chinese government officials claim that these camps, created under [general secretary](CCP)(General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party) [Jinping](Xi)(Xi Jinping)'s [administration](Xi Jinping Administration), serve the goals of ensuring adherence to [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) (CCP) ideology, preventing [separatism](East Turkestan independence movement), fighting [terrorism](Xinjiang conflict), and providing [training](vocational)(Vocational education) to Uyghurs. Various scholars, human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount to [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity) or [genocide](genocide).
## Etymology
In the [language](Uyghur)(Uyghur language), the [ethnonym](ethnonym) is written in [script](Arabic)(Uyghur Arabic alphabet), Уйғур in [Cyrillic](Uyghur)(Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet) and *Uyghur* or *Uygur* (as the standard Chinese [romanization](romanization), [GB](National Standards of the People's Republic of China) 3304–1991) in [Latin](Uyghur Latin alphabet); they are all pronounced as . In [Chinese](Chinese language), this is [transcribed](Transcription into Chinese characters) into [characters](Chinese characters) as }} / }}, which is [romanized](Romanization of Chinese) in [pinyin](pinyin) as ''Wéiwú'ěr*.
In English, the name is officially spelled *Uyghur'' by the [government](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang#Politics) but also appears as *Uighur*, *Uigur* and *Uygur*. (These reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур.) The name is usually pronounced in English as (and thus preceded by the indefinite article "a"), although some Uyghurs and Uyghur scholars advocate for using the closer pronunciation instead (which, in contrast, calls for the article "an")
The term's original meaning is unclear. [Turkic](Old)(Old Turkic) inscriptions record a word *uyɣur* (); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata of [Yaglaqar](Yaglakar clan), came from the Uigur land." ().Sudzi inscription, [text](https://bitig.kz/?lang=e&mod=1&m=1&oid=33&word=JGLQR) at *Türik Bitig* It is transcribed into [Tang](Tang dynasty) annals as }} / }} (Mandarin: *Huíhé*, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] in [Chinese](Middle)(Middle Chinese)). It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in [interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates](the)(Göktürk civil war) (AD630–684). The *[History of the Five Dynasties](Old)(Old History of the Five Dynasties)* records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to }} / }} (Mandarin: *Huíhú*, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).Jiu Wudaishi, "vol. 138: [Huihu](https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E4%BA%94%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2/%E5%8D%B7138#%E5%9B%9E%E9%B6%BB)" quote: "回鶻，其先匈奴之種也。後魏時，號爲鐵勒，亦名回紇。唐元和四年，本國可汗遣使上言，改爲**回鶻**，義取****旋搏擊，如****之迅捷也。" translation: "*Huihu*, their ancestors had been a kind of *Xiongnu*. In [Wei](Later)(Northern Wei) time, they were also called *[Tiele](Tiele people)*, and also named *Huihe*. In the fourth year of [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty)'s [era](Yuanhe)(Emperor Xianzong of Tang#Early reign) [CE](809), their country's [Qaghan](Baoyi Qaghan) sent envoys and requested [name be](the) changed to *Huihu*, whose meaning is taken from a strike-and-return action, like a swift and rapid falcon."
Modern [etymological](Etymology) explanations for the name *Uyghur* range from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself" and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkic *uy/uð-*) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkic *oðğur-*). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time. The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than a [tribal](Tribe) designationHakan Özoğlu, p. 16. or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the [Oghuz](Toquz)(Toquz Oghuz). The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th century by the [Soviet](Soviet Union) [Bolsheviks](Bolsheviks) to replace the previous terms *[Turk](Turkic peoples)* and *Turki*.|name=turki}} The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin) who follow traditional Central Asian [sedentary](Sedentism) practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.
The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the [Wei](Northern)(Northern Wei) (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named *Yuanhe* (lit. "High Carts"), read as *Gāochē* in [Chinese](Mandarin)(Mandarin Chinese) but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as the *[Tiele](Tiele people)* (}} / }}, *Tiělè*).Weishu ["vol. 103 section Gāochē"](https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7103#%E9%AB%98%E8%BB%8A) text: transl. "Gaoche, probably remnant stocks of the ancient Red [Di](Beidi). Initially they had been called Dili, in the North they are considered Chile, the various [Xia](Huaxia) (i.e. [Chinese](Chinese people)) consider them **Gaoche Dingling** / **Dingling with High-Carts**. Their language and the Xiongnu's are similar though there are small differences. Or one may say they were sons-in-law / sororal nephews of their Xiongnu predecessors. Their tribes are Di, **Yuanhe**, Hulu, Jiepi, Hugu, Yiqijin."Theobald, Ulrich. (2012) ["Huihe 回紇, Huihu 回鶻, Weiwur 維吾爾, Uyghurs"](http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/uighurs.html) *ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art* *Gāochē* in turn has been connected to the [Uyghur](Uyghur language) *Qangqil* ( or Қаңқил).Rong, Xinjiang. (2018) "Sogdian Merchants and Sogdian Culture on the Silk Road" in *Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, Ca. 250–750* ed. Di Cosmo & Maas. p. 92 of 84–95
## Identity
[[File:KashgarNaan.jpg|thumb|A Uyghur *girde* [naan](naan) baker]]
[[File:Uyghur blacksmiths - Yengisar Flickr.webm|thumb|Uyghur blacksmiths at work. [Yengisar](Yengisar County), [Xinjiang](Xinjiang), China. Yengisar is famous for the quality of its knives.]]
[[tambur.jpg|thumb|Uyghur man in traditional clothing, playing a tambur, a traditional Uyghur instrument.](File:Uyghur)]
Throughout its history, the term *Uyghur* has had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of [Tiele](Tiele people) tribes in northern China, Mongolia and the [Mountains](Altai)(Altai Mountains), it later denoted citizenship in the [Khaganate](Uyghur)(Uyghur Khaganate). Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration from [Mongolia](Mongolia) into the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture. p.284: "The Uyghurs mixed with the Tocharian people and adopted their religion and their culture of oasis agriculture (Scharlipp 1992; Soucek 2000)." The fluid definition of *Uyghur* and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur [ethnography](ethnography) and [ethnogenesis](ethnogenesis). Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic [Saka](Saka) tribes and other [peoples](Indo-European)(Indo-European migrations) inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.
Uyghur activists identify with the [mummies](Tarim)(Tarim mummies), remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.
Genetics research based on [mtDNA](mtDNA) and [Y-DNA](Y-DNA) largely supports the Uyghur claim of indigenous descent. The Uyghurs are a mixed population, with predominantly East Eurasian [lineages](maternal)(Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup) and West Eurasian [lineages](paternal)(Y-DNA haplogroup), and in this respect are similar to the Bronze Age mummies of the Tarim Basin.
### Origin of modern nomenclature
The term "Uyghur" was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an 'ancient people'. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitled *The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia* said "the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol and [Kalmuck](Kalmuck)". (Original from Harvard University) Before 1921/1934, Western writers called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases "Turki" and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin to [Ili](Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture), [Ürümqi](Ürümqi) and [Dzungaria](Dzungaria) in the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as "[Taranchi](Taranchi)", meaning "farmer". The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as "Sart", "Turk" or "Turki". In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves "Chantou" if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim. The term "Chantou" (, meaning "Rag head" or "Turban Head") was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang, including by Hui (Tungan) people. These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity; for example those from [Kashgar](Kashgar) may refer to themselves as Kashgarliq or [Kashgari](Kashgari), while those from [Hotan](Hotan) identity themselves as "Hotani". Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang's Southern oases Kashgari, a term still used in some regions of Pakistan. The Turkic people also used "Musulman", which means "Muslim", to describe themselves.
[[File:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|A possible [Tocharian](Tocharians) or [Sogdia](Sogdia)n monk (left) with an East Asian Buddhist monk (right). A fresco from the [Thousand Buddha Caves](Bezeklik)(Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves), dated to the 9th or 10th century ([Kingdom](Kara-Khoja)(Kara-Khoja Kingdom)).]]
Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in [Altishahr](Altishahr) (the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his article *Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism*. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese [Khitay](Khitan people) before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and Musulmān (Muslim); the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulmān. Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.
The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) took the 9th-century ethnonym from the [Khaganate](Uyghur)(Uyghur Khaganate), then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang. It followed western European [orientalists](Orientalism) like [Klaproth](Julius)(Julius Klaproth) in the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectuals and a 19th-century proposal from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were descended from the [of Qocho](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Qocho) and [Khanate](Kara-Khanid)(Kara-Khanid Khanate) formed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate. Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term "Uyghur" is based on a decision from a 1921 conference in [Tashkent](Tashkent), attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang). There, "Uyghur" was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity, although they themselves note that the were not to be confused with the Uyghur Empire of medieval history. According to Linda Benson, the Soviets and their client [Shicai](Sheng)(Sheng Shicai) intended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as "Turki", "East Turkestani" or "Muslim".
On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang), grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "[nationality](Hui)(Five Races Under One Union)". The [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as "turban-headed Hui" to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.}} In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as [W. Hunter](George)(George W. Hunter (missionary)), [Fleming](Peter)(Peter Fleming (writer)), [Maillart](Ella)(Ella Maillart) and [Hedin](Sven)(Sven Hedin), referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as "Turki" in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor, [Shicai](Sheng)(Sheng Shicai), came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang's and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term "Uyghur" to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang. "Uyghur" replaced "rag-head".
Sheng Shicai's introduction of the "Uighur" name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as [Pan-Turkist](Pan-Turkism) [Jadid](Jadid)s and [Turkestan independence activists](East)(East Turkestan independence movement) [Amin Bughra](Muhammad)(Muhammad Amin Bughra) (Mehmet Emin) and [Sabri](Masud)(Masud Sabri). They demanded the names "Türk" or "Türki" be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed the [people](Hui)(Hui people) as Muslim [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese) and separate from his people, while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims. After the Communist victory, the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) under Chairman [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong) continued the Soviet classification, using the term "Uyghur" to describe the modern ethnicity.
In current usage, *Uyghur* refers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin) and [Ili](Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agents designate as "Uyghur" certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks of [County](Ruoqiang)(Ruoqiang County) and the [people](Dolan)(Dolan people), thought to be closer to the [Mongols](Oirat)(Oirats) and the [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people). The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people. In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.
Another ethnicity, the [Yugur](Western)(Yugur) of [Gansu](Gansu), identify themselves as the "Yellow Uyghur" (*Sarïq Uyghur*). Some scholars say the Yugurs' culture, language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang. Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the [Salar](Salar people) as sub-groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar.
"*Turkistani* is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs. For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity "*Turkistani*". Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic [nisba](Nisba (onomastics)#Nisba to a place) of their home city, such as "*Al-[Kashgari](Kashgari)*" from [Kashgar](Kashgar). Saudi-born Uyghur [Kashgari](Hamza)(Hamza Kashgari)'s family originated from Kashgar.
## Population
[[hunter in Kashgar](File:Uyghur-hunter-Kashgar.jpg|thumb|Uyghur)]
The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as in [County](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan County) where an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.
The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population. As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million. Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as the [Uyghur Congress](World)(World Uyghur Congress) and [American Association](Uyghur)(Uyghur American Association) claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million. Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million. Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with Professor [C. Gladney](Dru)(Dru C. Gladney) writing in the 2004 book ''[China's Muslim Borderland](Xinjiang:)(Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland)'' that there is "scant evidence" to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.
### Population in Xinjiang
### Genetics
A study of [DNA](mitochondrial)(Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup) (2004) (therefore the [genetic contribution](matrilineal)(Matrilineality)) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specific [haplogroup](haplogroup) in Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%. [in Kazakhstan](Uyghurs)(Uyghurs in Kazakhstan) on the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.
A study based on [DNA](paternal)(Y haplogroup) (2005) shows West Eurasian haplogroups (J and R) in Uyghurs make up 65% to 70% and East Asian haplogroups (C, N, D and O) 30% to 35%.
[[schoolchildren. Kashgar. 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Uyghur schoolchildren in Kashgar (2011)](File:Uighur)]
One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian ([Hotan](Hotan)) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European or [Asian](West)(Western Asia) (Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40% [Asia](East)(East Asia)n or [Siberia](Siberia)n ancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%. Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European/West Asian component at 52% (ranging individually from 44.9% to 63.1%) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47% (ranging individually from 30% to 55%) in the northern Uyghur population.
A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results.[[distance between different Eurasian populations and frequency of West- and East-Eurasian components.](File:Genetic_distances_Eurasian_West_Asian_East_Asian.png|thumb|Genetic)]
A study (2013) based on [DNA](autosomal)(autosomal DNA) shows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations. The analysis of the diversity of [B](cytochrome)(Cytochrome b) further suggests Uyghurs are closer to [Chinese](Han Chinese) and Siberian populations than to various [Caucasoid](Caucasoid) groups in West Asia or Europe. However, there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang's southern Uyghurs and Chinese population, but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese.
A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.
An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by the [Mountains](Tianshan)(Tianshan Mountains) which form a natural barrier, with gene flows from the east and west. The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups: one West-Eurasian component, associated with European ancestry (25–37%), one South Asian ancestry component (12–20%), and two East-Eurasian components with Siberian (15–17%) and East Asian ancestries (29–47%). In total, Uyghurs on average range from 44 to 64% Siberian/East Asian, 33.2% European, and 17.9% South Asian. Western Xinjiang shows more West Eurasian components than East Asian. It suggests at least two major waves of admixture, one ~3,750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang, and another occurring around 750 years ago.
A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.
## History
[[File:Uighur princes, Bezeklik, Cave 9, c. 8th-9th century AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01747.JPG|thumb|Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the [Thousand Buddha Caves](Bezeklik)(Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves), Xinjiang, China, 8th–9th century AD, wall painting]]
The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention. Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book *A History of East Turkestan*, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historian [Almas](Turghun)(Turghun Almas) incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history, and the [Uyghur Congress](World)(World Uyghur Congress) claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan. However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paper *History and Development of Xinjiang*, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the [Khaganate](Uyghur)(Uyghur Khaganate) in 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate. The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.
### Early history
Discovery of well-preserved [mummies](Tarim)(Tarim mummies) of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European-looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the [Age](Bronze)(Bronze Age) around 1800 BC. These people may have been of [Tocharian](Tocharians) origin, and some have suggested them to be the [Yuezhi](Yuezhi) mentioned in ancient Chinese texts. The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the [Indo-European](Indo-European languages) speaking [culture](Afanasevo)(Afanasevo culture) of Southern Siberia (c. 3500–2500 BC).David W. Anthony, "Two IE phylogenies, three PIE migrations, and four kinds of steppe pastoralism", *Journal of Language Relationship*, vol. 9 (2013), pp. 1–22 A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels of [North Eurasian](Ancient)(Ancient North Eurasian) ancestry, with smaller admixture from [Asians](Northeast)(Genetic history of East Asians). Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies' orientation suggests that they had been shamanists; meanwhile, Qurban Wäli claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as "Uyghur" rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists.
Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the [Saka](Saka) tribes, who were closely related to the European [Scythians](Scythians) and descended from the earlier [culture](Andronovo)(Andronovo culture), and who may have been present in the [Khotan](Khotan) and [Kashgar](Kashgar) area in the first millennium BC, as well as the [Sogdians](Sogdians) who formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD. There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend of [Khotan](Kingdom of Khotan) suggests that the city was founded by Indians from [Taxila](ancient)(Taxila (ancient)) during the reign of [Ashoka](Ashoka). Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the [Dingling](Dingling) as well as the [Xiongnu](Xiongnu) who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text the *[of Wei](Book)(Book of Wei)*, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler), but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.
The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the [Empire](Kushan)(Kushan Empire), which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin, where [Kharosthi](Kharosthi) texts have been found in [Loulan](Loulan Kingdom), [Niya](Niya (Tarim Basin)) and [Khotan](Kingdom of Khotan). Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city-states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the [Dynasty](Han)(Han Dynasty); others include [Kucha](Kucha), [Turfan](Turfan), [Karasahr](Karasahr) and [Kashgar](Kashgar). These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties. During the [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty) they were conquered and placed under the control of the [General to Pacify the West](Protectorate)(Protectorate General to Pacify the West), and the Indo-European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest. The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people, including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate, to form the modern Uyghurs. The Indo-European [language](Tocharian)(Tocharian language) later disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as the [Uyghur language](Old)(Old Uyghur language).
The early [peoples](Turkic)(Turkic peoples) descended from agricultural communities in [Asia](Northeast)(Northeast Asia) who moved westwards into [Mongolia](Mongolia) in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle. By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become [nomads](equestrian)(equestrian nomads). In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of [Asia](Central)(Central Asia) appear to have been progressively [Turkified](Turkification) by [Asian](East)(East Asian people) nomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia.. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.. "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations. The Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was not the product of migrations involving a homogeneous entity, but that of language diffusion."
### Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries)
[[Prince.jpg|thumb|upright|left|An 8th-century Uyghur Khagan](File:Uighur)]
The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the [Tiele](Tiele people), who lived in the valleys south of [Baikal](Lake)(Lake Baikal) and around the [River](Yenisei)(Yenisei River). They overthrew the [Turkic Khaganate](First)(First Turkic Khaganate) and established the [Khaganate](Uyghur)(Uyghur Khaganate).
The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840. It was administered from the imperial capital [Ordu-Baliq](Ordu-Baliq), one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the [Kirghiz](Yenisei)(Yenisei Kirghiz), another Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.
### Uyghur kingdoms (9th–11th centuries)
[[World 820.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c. 820 AD](File:Old)]
The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among the [Karluks](Karluks) and to places such as [Jimsar](Jimsar County), [Turpan](Turpan) and [Gansu](Gansu).}} These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was the [Kingdom](Ganzhou)(Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom) (870–1036) which ruled parts of Xinjiang, with its capital near present-day [Zhangye](Zhangye), Gansu, China. The modern [Yugur](Yugur)s are believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the [Xia](Western)(Western Xia) in 1036.
The second Uyghur kingdom, the [of Qocho](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Qocho) ruled a larger section of Xinjiang, also known as *Uyghuristan* in its later period, was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern [Gaochang](Gaochang)) and [Beshbalik](Jimsar County). The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or since. The Uyghurs were originally [Tengrists](Tengrism), shamanists, and [Manichaean](Manichaeism), but converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho accepted the [Khitai](Qara)(Qara Khitai) as its overlord in the 1130s, and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising [Empire](Mongol)(Mongol Empire). The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to the [Empire](Mongol)(Mongol Empire), but was finally destroyed by the [Khanate](Chagatai)(Chagatai Khanate) by the end of the 14th century.
### Islamization
In the tenth century, the [Karluks](Karluks), [Yagma](Yagma)s, [Chigils](Chigils) and other Turkic tribes founded the [Khanate](Kara-Khanid)(Kara-Khanid Khanate) in [Semirechye](Semirechye), Western [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan), and [Kashgaria](Kashgaria) and later conquered [Transoxiana](Transoxiana). The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the [Oghuz](Toquz)(Toquz Oghuz) and some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by others.
The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with [Satuq Bughra Khan](Sultan)(Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan), the first Turkic dynasty to do so. Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history; however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process. The Indo-Iranian [Saka](Sakas) Buddhist [of Khotan](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Khotan) was conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century, but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century.
[[File:Chagatai Khanate (1490).png|thumb|left|[Khanate](Chagatai)(Chagatai Khanate) ([Moghulistan](Moghulistan)) in 1490]]
The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first the [Kara-Khitans](Kara-Khitans) in the 12th century, followed by the [Mongols](Mongol Empire) in the 13th century. After the death of [Khan](Genghis)(Genghis Khan) in 1227, Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son, [Khan](Chagatai)(Chagatai Khan). The [Khanate](Chagatai)(Chagatai Khanate) split into two in the 1340s, and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part of [Moghulistan](Moghulistan), which meant "land of the Mongols". In the 14th century, a Chagatayid khan [Temür](Tughluq)(Tughlugh Timur) converted to Islam, [Genghisid](Genghisid) [nobilities](Mongol)(Mongolian nobility) also followed him to convert to Islam. His son [Khoja](Khizr)(Khizr Khoja) conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century. After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously [Uyghurs in Turfan](Buddhist)(Kingdom of Qocho) failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" ([Dzungars](Dzungar people)) were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area.
From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north, [Altishahr](Altishahr) (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, the [Dughlats](Dughlats), and later the [Khojas](Khoja (Turkestan)).
Islam was also spread by the [Sufis](Sufis), and branches of its [Naqshbandi](Naqshbandi) order were the [Khojas](Khoja (Turkestan)) who seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into two rival factions, the *Aqtaghlik* ("White Mountainers") Khojas (also called the [Afaqiyya](Afaq Khoja)) and the *Qarataghlik* ("Black Mountainers") Khojas (also called the Ishaqiyya). The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile.
### Qing rule
[[File:Khojis full-length portrait.jpg|thumb|left|Uyghur General [Khojis](Khojis) (-1781), governor of [Us-Turfan](Us-Turfan), who later resided at the Qing court in Beijing. Painting by a European Jesuit artist at the Chinese court in 1775.]]
In the 17th century, the Buddhist [Khanate](Dzungar)(Dzungar Khanate) grew in power in [Dzungaria](Dzungaria). The [conquest of Altishahr](Dzungar)(Dzungar conquest of Altishahr) ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the [Khanate](Yarkent)(Yarkent Khanate), after the Aqtaghlik [Khoja](Afaq)(Afaq Khoja) sought aid from the [Dalai Lama](5th)(5th Dalai Lama) and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.
The expansion of the Dzungars into [Mongol](Khalkha)(Khalkha Mongols) territory in [Mongolia](Mongolia) brought them into direct conflict with [China](Qing)(Qing dynasty) in the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the [Regions](Western)(Western Regions).
[[File:Turpan-minarete-emir-d07.jpg|thumb|Minaret of [Turpan](Turpan) ruler [Khoja](Emin)(Emin Khoja), built by his son and successor Suleiman in 1777 in the memory of his father (tallest minaret in China)]]
The [War](Dzungar–Qing)(Dzungar–Qing War) lasted a decade. During the Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called "Younger Khoja" (), also known as Khwāja-i Jahān, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja (), also known as Burhān al-Dīn, after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars, then they rebelled against the Qing in the [of the Altishahr Khojas](Revolt)(Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas) (1757–1759), an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such as [Khoja](Emin)(Emin Khoja) were allies of the Qing in this conflict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.
The [campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s](final)(Ten Great Campaigns) ended with the [genocide](Dzungar)(Dzungar genocide). The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.[Perdue 2009](https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA285) , p. 285. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[ed. Starr 2004](https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA243) , p. 243. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[Millward 1998](https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA102) , p. 102. The [Dzungaria](Dzungaria)n basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.[Tyler 2004](https://books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&pg=PA4) , p. 4. The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well. The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".
In [Beijing](Beijing), a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the [City](Forbidden)(Forbidden City), having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.
The [rebellion](Ush)(Ush rebellion) in 1765 by Uyghurs against the [Manchus](Manchus) occurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment. The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved.
File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur chieftain from Ush, Kucha and Aksu, with his wife.jpg|Uyghur chieftain from [Wushi](Uqturpan County), [Kucha](Kucha) and [Aksu](Aksu City), with his wife. *[Qing Zhigong Tu](Huang)(Huang Qing Zhigong Tu)*, 1769.[烏什庫車阿克蘇等城回目](:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 071.jpg)
File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur commoners from Ush, Kucha and Aksu.jpg|Uyghur commoners from [Wushi](Uqturpan County), [Kucha](Kucha) and [Aksu](Aksu City). *[Qing Zhigong Tu](Huang)(Huang Qing Zhigong Tu)*, 1769.[烏什庫車阿克蘇等處回人](:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 072.jpg)
File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur people from Hami in Anxi subprefecture.jpg|Uyghur people from [Hami](Hami), in Anxi subprefecture. *[Qing Zhigong Tu](Huang)(Huang Qing Zhigong Tu)*, 1769.[安西廳哈密回民](:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 077.jpg)
File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur from Ili, Taleqi, Chahan and Wusu, with his wife.jpg|Uyghur people from [Ili](Ili River), [Taleqi](Huocheng County), Chahan and [Wusu](Wusu). *[Qing Zhigong Tu](Huang)(Huang Qing Zhigong Tu)*, 1769.[伊犂塔勒奇察罕烏蘇等處回人](:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 066.jpg)
### Yettishar
During the [Revolt (1862–1877)](Dungan)(Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)), Andijani Uzbeks from the [of Kokand](Khanate)(Khanate of Kokand) under [Khan](Buzurg)(Buzurg Khan) and [Beg](Yaqub)(Yaqub Beg) expelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom called [Yettishar](Yettishar) ("Country of Seven Cities"). Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included [Kashgar](Kashgar), [Yarkand](Yarkant County), [Khotan](Hotan), [Aksu](Aksu, Xinjiang), [Kucha](Kucha), [Korla](Korla), and [Turpan](Turpan). Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General [Zongtang](Zuo)(Zuo Zongtang) attacked Yettishar in 1876.
### Qing reconquest
After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan, and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as "Muslim land" or southern marches of the Tian Shan, were reorganized into a province named *Xinjiang*, meaning "New Territory".
### First East Turkestan Republic
In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic [Jadidists](Jadidism) had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin, who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule. In 1931, the [Rebellion](Kumul)(Kumul Rebellion) erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932, which later led to the creation of the [East Turkestan Republic](First)(First East Turkestan Republic), officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan. Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933. The First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan, and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by a [Muslim army](Chinese)(36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)) under [Ma Zhancang](General)(Ma Zhancang) and [Fuyuan](Ma)(Ma Fuyuan) and fell following the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai's rule over East Turkestan/Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943. In April 1937, remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as the [Rebellion in Xinjiang](Islamic)(Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)) and briefly established an independent government, controlling areas from Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, and even parts of Khotan, before it was crushed in October 1937, following Soviet intervention. Sheng Shicai purged 50,000 to 100,000 people, mostly Uyghurs, following this uprising.
### Second East Turkestan Republic
The oppressive reign of [Shicai](Sheng)(Sheng Shicai) fueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region, and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U.S. support for the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)). This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people's discontent in the region, culminating in their support of the [Rebellion](Ili)(Ili Rebellion) in October 1944. The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of the [East Turkestan Republic](Second)(Second East Turkestan Republic) on 12 November 1944, in the three districts of what is now the [Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture](Ili)(Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture). Several pro-KMT Uyghurs like [Yusuf Alptekin](Isa)(Isa Yusuf Alptekin), Memet Emin Bugra, and Mesut Sabri opposed the [East Turkestan Republic](Second)(Second East Turkestan Republic) and supported the Republic of China. In the summer of 1949, the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan Republic and its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949. On 13 October 1949, the People's Liberation Army entered the region and the East Turkestan [Army](National)(Ili National Army) was merged into the PLA's 5th Army Corps, leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949.
### Contemporary era
}}|7214431
|2000|8405416
|2010|10069346
|footnote = Figures from Chinese Census
|}}
[[GROUPS 1967 map, "COMMUNIST CHINA ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS" by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Basic Geographic Intelligence, 1967 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of Xinjiang in 1967](File:"TURKIC")]
[[File:Xinjiang nationalities by prefecture 2000.png|thumb|Map showing the distribution of ethnicities in [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) according to census figures from 2000, the prefectures with Uyghur majorities are in blue.]]
Mao declared the founding of the [Republic of China](People's)(China) on 1 October 1949. He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the [Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture](Ili)(Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture), and appointed [Azizi](Saifuddin)(Saifuddin Azizi) as the region's first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity, mostly concentrated in the south-western Xinjiang. |year=2003 |isbn=978-7-105-05425-1}}
The [conflict](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang conflict) is an ongoing separatist conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzungaria and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and independence movements claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation.
Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support a [Pan-Islamic](Pan-Islamism) vision, exemplified by the [Turkestan Islamic Movement](East)(East Turkestan Islamic Movement), while others support a [Pan-Turkic](Pan-Turkism) vision, such as the [Turkestan Liberation Organization](East)(East Turkestan Liberation Organization). A third group would like an East Turkestan state, such as the [Turkestan independence movement](East)(East Turkestan independence movement). While the [Turkistan Government in Exile](East)(East Turkistan Government in Exile) strives for the restoration of East Turkistan's independence as a secular pluralistic Republic that guarantees freedom and civil liberties for all people. As a result, "[n]o Uyghur or East Turkestan group speaks for all Uyghurs, although it might claim to", and Uyghurs in each of these camps have committed violence against other Uyghurs who they think are too assimilated to Chinese or Russian society or are not religious enough. Mindful not to take sides, Uyghur "leaders" such as [Kadeer](Rebiya)(Rebiya Kadeer) mainly tried to garner international support for the "rights and interests of the Uyghurs", including the right to demonstrate, although the Chinese government has accused her of orchestrating the deadly [2009 Ürümqi riots](July)(July 2009 Ürümqi riots).
Eric Enno Tamm's 2011 book states that, "Authorities have censored Uyghur writers and 'lavished funds' on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as 'unifications (tongyi), never as conquests (zhengfu) or [annexation](annexation)s (tunbing)' "
#### Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang
Since 2014, Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious, cultural, economic and social lives. In Xinjiang, the Chinese government has expanded [surveillance](police)(police surveillance) to watch for signs of "religious extremism" that include [books](owning)(List of books banned by governments) about Uyghurs, growing a beard, having a [rug](prayer)(prayer rug), or [smoking](quitting)(smoking cessation) or drinking. The government had also installed cameras in the homes of private citizens.
Further, at least 120,000 (and possibly over 1 million) Uyghurs have been detained in mass detention camps, termed "[camps](re-education)(Xinjiang re-education camps)", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. Some of these facilities keep prisoners detained around the clock, while others release their inmates at night to return home. According to [government](Chinese)(Chinese government) operating procedures, the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) ideology. Inmates are continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests. *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* has reported inmates are required to "sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write 'self-criticism' essays," and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards. Chinese officials are sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.
[[File:Uyghurs protesting.jpg|left|thumb|Protesters Amsterdam with the [of East Turkestan](Flag)(Flag of East Turkestan)]]
In 2017, [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) released a report saying "The Chinese government agents should immediately free people held in unlawful 'political education' centers in Xinjiang, and shut them down." The internment, along with mass surveillance and intelligence officials inserting themselves into Uyghur families, led to widespread accusations of [genocide](cultural)(cultural genocide) against the [CCP](Chinese Communist Party). In particular, the size of the operation was found to have doubled over 2018. Satellite evidence suggests China destroyed more than two dozen Uyghur Muslim religious sites between 2016 and 2018.
The government denied the existence of the camps initially, but then changed their stance to claim that the camps serve to combat terrorism and give vocational training to the Uyghur people. Activists have called for the camps to be opened to visitors to prove their function. Media groups have reported that many in the camps were forcibly detained there in rough unhygienic conditions while undergoing political indoctrination. The lengthy isolation periods between Uyghur men and women has been interpreted by some analysts as an attempt to inhibit Uyghur procreation in order to change the ethnic demographics of the country.
An October 2018 [exposé](Exposé (journalism)) by the [BBC](BBC) claimed, based on analysis of [imagery](satellite)(satellite imagery) collected over time, that hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs were interned in rapidly expanding camps. It was also reported in 2019 that "hundreds" of writers, artists, and academics had been imprisoned, in what the magazine qualified as an attempt to "punish any form of religious or cultural expression" among Uyghurs."
Parallel to the forceful detainment of millions of adults, in 2017 alone at least half a million children were also forcefully separated from their families, and placed in pre-school camps with prison-style surveillance systems and 10,000 volt electric fences.
In 2019, a *New York Times* article reported that human rights groups and Uyghur activists said that the Chinese government was using technology from US companies and researchers to collect DNA from Uyghurs. They said China was building a comprehensive DNA database to be able to track down Uyghurs who were resisting the re-education campaign. Later that year, satellite photos confirmed the systematic destruction of Uyghur cemeteries.
There have been few sustained protests from Islamic countries against the treatment of Uyghurs in China. In December 2018, the [of Islamic Cooperation](Organization)(Organization of Islamic Cooperation) (OIC) initially acknowledged the disturbing reports from the region but it later issued a report saying that the OIC "commends the efforts of the People's Republic of China in providing care to its Muslim citizens; and looks forward to further cooperation between the OIC and the People's Republic of China." [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia), which hosts a significant number of ethnic Uyghurs, have refrained from any official criticism of the Chinese government,Ma Alexandra (April 2019). [A wave of Islamic countries started to stand up to China over its persecution of its Muslim minority. But then they all got spooked.](https://www.businessinsider.com/islamic-world-stopped-calling-out-chinas-muslim-persecution-2019-4) *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)*. Retrieved 17 May 2019. while Turkey's [Erdogan](President)(Recep Tayyip Erdoğan) tacitly supported China saying that "It is a fact that the people of all ethnicities in Xinjiang are leading a happy life amid China's development and prosperity" while visiting China, after its [Ministry](Foreign)(Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Turkey)) denounced China for "violating the fundamental human rights of Uyghur Turks". In 2019, Indonesian scholar [Aqil Siradj](Said)(Said Aqil Siradj) said the situation in Xinjiang was "really good" and suggested that the Indonesian government did not need to follow the Western countries in raising accusations of Uyghur persecution at international forums. Some observers have connected the lack of criticism from the Islamic world to Muslim countries' dependence on Chinese [aid](economic)(economic aid).
In July 2019, 22 countries, including Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany and Japan, raised concerns about "large-scale places of detention, as well as widespread surveillance and restrictions, particularly targeting Uyghurs and other minorities in Xinjiang". The 22 ambassadors urged China to end arbitrary detention and allow "freedom of movement of Uyghurs and other Muslim and minority communities in Xinjiang". However, none of these countries were predominantly Islamic countries. In June 2020, former United States President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) signed the [Human Rights Policy Act](Uyghur)(Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act), which authorizes the imposition of [sanctions](U.S.)(United States sanctions) against Chinese government officials responsible for re-education camps.
On 12 July 2019, ambassadors from 50 countries issued a joint letter to the President of the [Human Rights Council](UN)(United Nations Human Rights Council) and the [High Commissioner for Human Rights](UN)(Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) showing their support for China, despite condemnation by several states over the detention of as many as two million Uyghur Muslims. These countries included mainly countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. On 20 August 2019, Qatar withdrew its signature from the letter, ending its support for China over its treatment of Muslims.
According to a 2020 report by the [Strategic Policy Institute](Australian)(Australian Strategic Policy Institute) (ASPI), several Chinese firms were benefitting from the forced labor of Uyghurs, where more than 80 companies across the world were "directly or indirectly benefiting from the use of Uyghur workers outside Xinjiang through abusive labor transfer programs". While the United States and the United Kingdom had imposed restrictions on imports of [cotton](cotton) and other products from China, Japan was pressured to take action, and 12 major Japanese firms established a policy to cease business with the Chinese firms indicated by the ASPI to be using forced labor of Uyghurs.
In June 2020, German anthropologist [Zenz](Adrian)(Adrian Zenz), released a report alleging that Uyghur women, under the threat of internment, were being forced to [abort](Abortion) children, undergo [sterilization](Sterilization (medicine)) surgery, and be fitted with [devices](intrauterine)(IUD). The report revealed that growth rates in Xinjiang had declined 60% between 2015 and 2018, with the two largest [prefectures](Uyghur)(List of administrative divisions of Xinjiang) declining 84% in that same time period. The birth rate declined a further 24% across the region in 2019 alone compared to the 4.2% drop across all of China in the same year. The report also noted that in 2014, 2.5% of new IUD placements throughout the country were in Xinjiang. By 2018, 80% of new IUD placements were in Xinjiang despite the region comprising 1.8% of the national population. Zenz said that these efforts by China to repress the Uyghur birth rate met the criteria of genocide under Article II, Section D of the United Nations [Convention](Genocide)(Genocide Convention) by "imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group." The measures have also been compared to China's past [policy](one-child)(one-child policy) targeting its Han population. Pundits from *[Observer](Pakistan)(Pakistan Observer)*, [Antara](Antara (news agency)), and [Detik.com](Detik.com) disagreed with allegations of lowered Uyghur births, claiming their birth rate was higher than in earlier years and higher than the Han birth rate.
On July 6, 2020, the [Turkistan Government in Exile](East)(East Turkistan Government in Exile) and the [Turkistan National Awakening Movement](East)(East Turkistan National Awakening Movement) filed a complaint with the [Criminal Court](International)(International Criminal Court) (ICC), urging it to investigate and prosecute PRC officials for [genocide](genocide) and other [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity).
On 13 July 2020, China decided to take reciprocal measures against US officials and announced sanctions on US lawmakers and an envoy over the issue of Uyghur rights in Xinjiang.
In October 2020, 39 countries condemned China's human rights abuses against Uyghurs. Diplomats said some other countries were pressured by China not to join the other 39 countries condemning China's actions. Conversely, 54 countries have voiced their support for China, including North Korea, though one notable country not on either list is South Korea, who has looked to gain political autonomy in recent years by remaining neutral on key contentious issues.
In January 2021, British Foreign Secretary [Raab](Dominic)(Dominic Raab) said that China's treatment of Uyghurs amounts to [torture](torture). That same month, the [government](U.S.)(U.S. government) declared it a [genocide](genocide).
On 8 March 2021, the US-based nonpartisan think tank [Institute](Newlines)(Newlines Institute) released what was in their words "the first independent expert application of the 1948 Genocide Convention to the ongoing treatment of the Uyghurs in China." The report concluded "that China is responsible for breaches of each provision of Article II of the Convention" and "bears State responsibility for an ongoing genocide against the Uyghurs, in breach of the Genocide Convention."
In April 2021, [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) released a report that labelled the treatment of Uyghurs by the Chinese government as "crimes against humanity".
The treament of Uyghur Muslims in China has resulted in citizens of the ethnic minority group to [asylum](seek)(Asylum seeker) in other nations. A large number of these people chose to confide in the Muslim-majority nations like the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. However, having good ties with China, these countries began detaining and deporting the Uyghur Muslims back to China. Authorities in Dubai and other [Islam](Islam)ic countries received extradition requests from Beijing, as per which many exiled Uyghurs were detained, separated from their families and deported to China. Concerns were raised that while western countries like the [US](US) were calling it a "genocide", the Muslim-majority countries like the Emirates were ignoring the issue and rather deporting the Uyghurs to China. The Arab nations were focused on the crucial economic ties they maintained with China, which is a primary consumer of Middle East oil and a crucial trading and investment partner for these countries.
On 30 June 2021, a Han Chinese woman, Wu Huan, who was on the run to avoid extradition to China because her fiancé was considered a Chinese dissident, said in an interview that China has a secret jail in [Dubai](Dubai). According to Wu, she was abducted from a hotel in Dubai in late May and detained by Chinese officials for eight days at a villa converted into a jail, where she saw or heard two other prisoners, both Uyghurs. According to Wu, she identified the women as Uyghurs based on what she said was their distinctive appearance and accent. [police](Dubai)(Dubai police) denied the presence of any foreign government run detention centers within its borders.
In August 2022, the [Nations](United)(United Nations) released [report](a)(UN Human Rights Office assessment of human rights concerns in Xinjiang) alleging that China’s crackdown in Xinjiang may amount to [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity) against the Uyghurs, which included physical and mental torture, [labor](forced)(Forced labour), massive displacement, enforced [sterilization](Sterilization (medicine)) and separation of children from their parents. The report was criticized by some activists for not calling the crimes a [genocide](genocide). Many Uyghurs outside China saw it as a formal acknowledgement of the sufferings of Uyghurs in China, hoping it will add fuel to their campaign at the international level.
## Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan
Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around [County](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan County, Hunan) and other parts of [Changde](Changde) in [Hunan](Hunan) province. They are descended from [Bashi](Hala)(Hala Bashi), a Uyghur leader from [Turpan](Turpan) ([of Qocho](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Qocho)), and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during the [Rebellions](Miao)(Miao Rebellions (Ming Dynasty)) in the Ming Dynasty. The 1982 census recorded 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan. They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor. There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry. Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.
The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush [Miao](Miao people) rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. [Hui](Hui people) and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.
In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of [Changde](Changde) Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the [language](Uyghur)(Uyghur language), instead, they speak Chinese as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.
## Culture
### Religion
[[File:Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg|thumb|A [mosque](Uyghur)(Khotan Mosque) in [Khotan](Hotan)]]
The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise to [shamanism](shamanism) and [Tengrism](Tengrism). Uyghurs also practiced aspects of [Zoroastrianism](Zoroastrianism) such as [altar](fire)(fire altar)s, and adopted [Manichaeism](Manichaeism) as a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate, possibly in 762 or 763. Ancient Uyghurs also practiced [Buddhism](Buddhism in Central Asia) after they moved to Qocho, and some believed in [of the East](Church)(Church of the East).
People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period. Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land. There had been [Christian](Christianity in Xinjiang) conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by the [East Turkestan Republic](First)(First East Turkestan Republic) government agents. Because of persecution the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered. According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142 [in Kazakhstan](Uyghurs)(Uyghurs in Kazakhstan) were [Christians](Christians) in 2009.
Modern Uyghurs are primarily [Muslim](Muslims) and they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the [Hui](Hui people). The majority of modern Uyghurs are [Sunnis](Sunni Islam), although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders. While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities. The veil, however, has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular.
There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques. The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs, and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed. According to a 2020 report by the [Strategic Policy Institute](Australian)(Australian Strategic Policy Institute), since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.
In the early 21st century a new trend of Islam, [Salafism](Salafi movement), emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tend to demonstrate [pan-Islamism](pan-Islamism) and abandoned nationalism in favor of a desired caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China. Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the [Islamic Party](Turkistan)(Turkistan Islamic Party) in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.
### Language
[[of language areas of Xinjiang.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Map of language families in Xinjiang](File:Map)]
The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such as [Tocharian](Tocharian languages), [Saka](Saka language) (Khotanese), and [Gandhari](Gāndhārī language). The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages, which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. In the 11th century [al-Kashgari](Mahmud)(Mahmud al-Kashgari) noted that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script ([Khotanese](Saka language)). Writers of the Karakhanid period, Al-Kashgari and [Balasagun](Yusuf)(Yusuf Balasagun), referred to their Turkic language as *Khāqāniyya* (meaning royal) or the "language of Kashgar" or simply Turkic.
The modern Uyghur language is classified under the [Karluk](Karluk languages) branch of the [language family](Turkic)(Turkic languages). It is closely related to [Äynu](Äynu language), [Lop](Lop language), [Turki](Ili)(Ili Turki language) and [Chagatay](Chagatay language) (the East Karluk languages) and slightly less closely to [Uzbek](Uzbek language) (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an [language](agglutinative)(agglutinative language) and has a [subject-object-verb](subject-object-verb) word order. It has [harmony](vowel)(vowel harmony) like other Turkic languages and has noun and verb [cases](Grammatical case) but lacks distinction of gender forms.
Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. The [script](Arabic)(Arabic alphabet), known as the [alphabet](Chagatay)(Chagatay alphabet), was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts, for example the [Cyrillic](Cyrillic script)-based [Cyrillic alphabet](Uyghur)(Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet), a Latin [New Script](Uyghur)(Uyghur New Script) and later a reformed [Arabic alphabet](Uyghur)(Uyghur Arabic alphabet), which represents all vowels, unlike Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the [Latin alphabet](Uyghur)(Uyghur Latin alphabet), was also devised in the 21st century.
In the 1990s many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak [Chinese](Mandarin)(Mandarin Chinese).{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/china00pete/page/304|title=China the Silk Routes|author=Peter Neville-Hadley|series=[Guides](Cadogan)(Cadogan Guides)|publisher=[Pequot Press](Globe)(Globe Pequot Press)|page=304|year=1997|isbn=9781860110528|quote=Travelling east from Khotan{...}Many Uighurs speak no Chinese at all, and most hotels are even less likely to have English speakers than those elsewhere in China.}}
### Literature
[[File:Manicheans.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Leaf from an [Uyghur](Uyghur Khaganate)-[Manichaean](Chinese Manichaeism) version of the ‘‘[Arzhang](Arzhang)’’.]]
The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts, but there were also narrative, poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However it is the literature of the Kara-Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and histories of [peoples](Turkic)(Turkic peoples), and important works surviving from that era are *[Bilig](Kutadgu)(Kutadgu Bilig)*, "Wisdom of Royal Glory" by [Khass Hajib](Yusuf)(Yusuf Khass Hajib) (1069–70), [al-Kashgari](Mahmud)(Mahmud al-Kashgari)'s *Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk*, "A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects" (1072) and Ehmed Yükneki's *Etebetulheqayiq*. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the [Taẕkirah](Tadhkirah (Ahmadiyya)), biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints. The Turki language *Tadhkirah i Khwajagan* was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari. Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki-language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints were written. Perhaps the most famous and best-loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are [Ötkür](Abdurehim)(Abdurehim Ötkür)'s *Iz*, *Oyghanghan Zimin*, [Sabir](Zordun)(Zordun Sabir)'s *Anayurt* and [Samedi](Ziya)(Ziya Samedi)'s novels *Mayimkhan* and *Mystery of the years*.
Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such as [Abdul'ehed](Muyesser)(Muyesser Abdul'ehed), use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.
### Music
[[Meshrep.jpg|thumb|Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand](File:Uyghur)]
[Muqam](Muqam) is the classical musical style. The **12 Muqams** are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic [maqama](maqama)t [modal](Mode (music)) system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of [Eurasia](Eurasia) and [Africa](North)(North Africa). Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of [Xinjiang](Xinjiang), such as [Dolan](Dolan people), [Ili](Yining), [Kumul](Hami) and [Turpan](Turpan). The most fully developed at this point is the Western [Tarim](Tarim Basin) region's 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers [Akhun](Turdi)(Turdi Akhun) and [Akhun](Omar)(Omar Akhun) among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkish [taksim](Taqsim) performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.
The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by [UNESCO](UNESCO) as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
[Khan](Amannisa)(Amannisa Khan), sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam. Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a "[duttar](Dutar)".
Uzbek composer [Shaimardanova](Shakhida)(Shakhida Shaimardanova) uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.
### Dance
[Sanam](Sanam (dance)) is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people. It is commonly danced by people at weddings, festive occasions, and parties. The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment. Sama is a form of group dance for [Newruz](Newruz) (New Year) and other festivals. Other dances include the Dolan dances, Shadiyane, and Nazirkom. Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called *[dap](dap (drum))* are commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.
### Art
[[File:Turpan-bezeklik-pinturas-d02.jpg|thumb|Wall painting at [caves](Bezeklik)(Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves) in Flaming Mountains, Turpan Depression.]]
[[carpet factory](File:Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg|thumb|Xinjiang)]
During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's [Road](Silk)(Silk Road) discovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books, and documents. There are 77 [rock-cut](Rock cut architecture) caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with rounded [arch](arch) [ceiling](ceiling)s often divided into four sections, each with a [mural](mural) of [Buddha](Gautama Buddha). The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians, [Persians](Persians) and Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while others are masterpieces of religious art.
### Education
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the written [script](Mongolian script) for the [language](Mongolian)(Mongolian language). In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques and [madrassas](Madrasa). During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.
In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, school were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known as [mektep](Maktab (education)) or *maktab*, attached to the mosques, The *maktab* provided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral. Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools, some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century. In madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar and [law](Islamic)(Islamic Law) were taught. In the early 20th century, the [Jadid](Jadid)ists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on education and popularized the identity of "Turkestani".
In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal. Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools ()) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.[ALLÈS & CHÉRIF-CHEBBI & HALFON 2003](http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf) , p. 14.
Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese. Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred the Uyghur language school. However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems. By 2002, [University](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang University), originally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions, instruction in Chinese began in the first grade. A special senior-secondary [school](boarding)(boarding school) program for Uyghurs, the Xinjiang Class, with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000. Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s, with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week. The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction) among many Uyghurs, and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese. Uyghurs in China, unlike the [Hui](Hui people) and [Salar](Salar people) who are also mostly Muslim, generally do not oppose [coeducation](coeducation), however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys.
### Traditional medicine
Uyghur traditional medicine is known as [Unani](Unani) (طب یونانی), as historically used in the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire). Sir [Sykes](Percy)(Percy Sykes) described the medicine as "based on the ancient Greek theory" and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated in *Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia*.[Sykes & Sykes 1920](https://books.google.com/books?id=BC5yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA318) , p. 317-321. Today, traditional medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection.
### Cuisine
[[File:Uyghur polu closeup.JPG|thumb|Uyghur *[polu](Pilaf)* (, )]]
Uyghur food shows both [Asian](Central)(Central Asian cuisine) and [Chinese](Chinese cuisine) elements. A typical Uyghur dish is *polu* (or [pilaf](pilaf)), a dish found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of the Uyghur *polu*, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apricots may also be added. *Kawaplar* () or *[chuanr](chuanr)* (i.e., [kebab](kebab)s or grilled meat) are also found here. Another common Uyghur dish is *[leghmen](leghmen)* (, ), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping (*säy*, from Chinese *cai*, }}) usually made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes, onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers and cabbage. This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese *[lamian](lamian)*, but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur.
Uyghur food (, ) is characterized by [mutton](Lamb and mutton), [beef](beef), [camel](Camel meat) (solely [bactrian](Bactrian camel)), [chicken](Chicken (food)), [goose](goose), [carrot](carrot)s, [tomato](tomato)es, [onion](onion)s, [peppers](Capsicum), [eggplant](eggplant), [celery](celery), various [foods](dairy)(Dairy product) and fruits.
A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of [tea](tea) with home-baked bread, [yogurt](hardened)(hardened yogurt), [olive](olive)s, [honey](honey), [raisin](raisin)s and [almond](almond)s. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, [naan](naan) and fruit before the main dishes are ready.
*[Sangza](Sangza)* (, ) are crispy fried [flour](wheat)(wheat flour) dough twists, a holiday specialty. *[Samsa](Samsa (food))* (, ) are lamb [pie](pie)s baked in a special brick oven. *[Youtazi](Youtazi)* is steamed multi-layer bread. *Göshnan* (, ) are pan-grilled lamb pies. *[Pamirdin](Pamirdin)* () are baked pies stuffed with lamb, carrots and onions. *[Shorpa](Chorba)* is lamb [soup](soup) (, ). Other dishes include *[Toghach](Tohax)* () (a type of [bread](tandoor)(tandoor bread)) and *[Tunurkawab](Doner kebab)* (). *Girde* () is also a very popular [bagel](bagel)-like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside.
A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.
### Clothing
[[Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar](File:Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg|thumb|upright|Doppa)]
[Chapan](Chapan), a coat, and [doppa](doppa), a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwa telpek (*salwa tälpäk*, салва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.[Friederich 2007](https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA91) , pp.91–92.
In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s. Travelers of the period Sir [Sykes](Percy)(Percy Sykes) and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar "transacting business with their veils thrown back" but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were "in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar". In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.
[[Baziri (198247507).jpeg|thumb|left|Uyghur man having his head shaved in a bazaar. Shaving of head is now seen mostly among the older generations.](File:Qoy)]
[[girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to the Uyghurs](File:Uyghur-redhead.jpg|thumb|upright|Uyghur)]
Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head. Sir [Stein](Aurel)(Aurel Stein) observed that the "Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then". No hair cutting for men took place on the *ajuz ayyam*, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.
### Traditional handicrafts
[Yengisar](Yengisar County) is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives. The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (, ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (, ). Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer, but it has also led to ethnic tension. Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.
### Livelihood
[[women on their way to work, Kashgar. 2011.jpg|thumb|Uyghur women on their way to work in Kashgar, 2011](File:Uyghur)]
Most Uyghurs are agriculturists. Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called *karez* that brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially from [Ghulja](Yining)), sweet melons (from [Hami](Hami)), and grapes from [Turpan](Turpan). However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.
Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs. Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs). The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.
### Names
Since the arrival of Islam most Uyghurs have used "Arabic names", but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some. After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames. Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Ürümqi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard-to-understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation. Some pre-Islamic Uyghur names are preserved in [Turpan](Turpan) and [Qumul](Qumul). The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names.
## See also
*[Turkistan Organization](East)(East Turkistan Organization)
*[Eretnids](Eretnids)
*[tension](Hui-Uyghur)(Islam in China#Hui-Uyghur tension)
*[of Uyghurs](List)(List of Uyghurs)
*[Meshrep](Meshrep)
*[Muslims](Tibetan)(Tibetan Muslims)
*[Islamic Party](Turkistan)(Turkistan Islamic Party)
*[Islamic Party in Syria](Turkistan)(Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria)
*[genocide](Uyghur)(Uyghur genocide)
*[timeline](Uyghur)(Uyghur timeline)
*[in Beijing](Uyghurs)(Uyghurs in Beijing)
*[conflict](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang conflict)
## Explanatory notes
## References
### Citations
### General and cited sources
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## Further reading
* [Chinese Cultural Studies: Ethnography of China: Brief Guide acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu](https://web.archive.org/web/20160325074637/http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/chinethn.html)
* [Christopher I.](Beckwith,)(Beckwith, Christopher I.) (2009). *Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present*. Princeton University Press. .
*
* |year=2018|publisher=Brill|isbn=9780231147583}}
* |year=2016|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674660373}}
* |year=2018|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004384279}}
* Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. *The Turks in World History*. Oxford University Press. , (pbk.)
* |year=2020|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=9789888528097}}
* Hessler, Peter. *Oracle Bones: A Journey Through Time in China*. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.
*
* Human Rights in China: *China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions*, London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007
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* Kamberi, Dolkun. 2005. *Uyghurs and Uyghur identity*. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 150. Philadelphia, PA: Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
* Millward, James A. and Nabijan Tursun, (2004) "Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978" in ''Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland*, ed. S. Frederick Starr. Published by M. E. Sharpe. .
* Rall, Ted. *Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East?'' New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.
* |year=2020|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691202211}}
* Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam, ''Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road*, New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
* Thum, Rian. *The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History* (Harvard University Press; 2014) 323 pages
* Tyler, Christian. (2003). *Wild West China: The Untold Story of a Frontier Land''. John Murray, London. .
## External links
* [Map share of ethnic by county of China](https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193742/http://www.360doc.com/content/12/0813/22/276037_230028707.shtml) (archived 1 January 2016)
* [Xinjiang Video Project](https://archive.org/details/xinjiang-video-project/Xinjiang-Uyghurs-michael-dillon-documentary-2008.mp4) on [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive)
[ ](Category:Uyghurs)
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Pirates of the Caribbean_ The Curse of the Black Pearl
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pirates_of_the_caribbean__the_curse_of_the_black_pearl
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# Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl
*Revision ID: 1160174476 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T21:05:26Z*
---
*Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* (video game)|the soundtrack|Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (soundtrack)*Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* (soundtrack)}}
| story =
| based_on =
| producer = [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer)
| starring =
| cinematography = [Wolski](Dariusz)(Dariusz Wolski)
| editing =
| music = [Badelt](Klaus)(Klaus Badelt)
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Vista Pictures Distribution](Buena)(Buena Vista Pictures Distribution)
| released =
| runtime = 143 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $140 million
| gross = $654.3 million
}}
***Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl*** is a 2003 American [fantasy](Fantasy film) [supernatural](Supernatural fiction) [film](swashbuckler)(swashbuckler film) directed by [Verbinski](Gore)(Gore Verbinski). Produced by [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer) and distributed by [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures), the film is based on [Disney](Walt)(Walt Disney)'s [of the Caribbean attraction](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean (attraction)) at [theme parks](Disney)(Walt Disney Parks and Resorts) and the first film in the [of the Caribbean* film series](*Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean (film series)). The film stars [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp), [Rush](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey Rush), [Bloom](Orlando)(Orlando Bloom), and [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley). The story follows [pirate](piracy) [Jack Sparrow](Captain)(Jack Sparrow) (Depp) and [blacksmith](blacksmith) [Turner](Will)(Will Turner) (Bloom) as they rescue the kidnapped [Swann](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Swann) (Knightley) from the crew of the *[Pearl](Black)(Black Pearl)*, captained by [Barbossa](Hector)(Hector Barbossa) (Rush). Barbossa's crew attempts to retrieve the final pieces of a hoard of Aztec gold to break the curse laid on them when they stole it.
[Wolpert](Jay)(Jay Wolpert) developed a script in 2001, and [Beattie](Stuart)(Stuart Beattie) rewrote it in early 2002. Around that time, producer Jerry Bruckheimer became involved in the project; he had [Elliott](Ted)(Ted Elliott (screenwriter)) and [Rossio](Terry)(Terry Rossio) work on the script, adding the plot device of a [supernatural](supernatural) [curse](curse) to the story to bring it in line with the original theme park ride. Filming took place from October 2002 to March 2003 in [Vincent and the Grenadines](Saint)(Saint Vincent and the Grenadines) and on sets constructed around [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California).
The first film released under the Walt Disney Pictures banner to be rated PG-13 by the [MPAA](Motion Picture Association), *The Curse of the Black Pearl* had its world premiere at [Disneyland](Disneyland) Park in [California](Anaheim,)(Anaheim, California), on June 28, 2003. Defying low pre-release expectations, the film was a huge box-office success, grossed $654.3 million worldwide; making it the [film of 2003](fourth-highest-grossing)(2003 in film#Highest-grossing films). It received generally positive reviews from critics, with Depp's performance receiving universal acclaim. The film has been widely cited as the film that launched Depp as a box-office leading man after many years as a cult movie star. Depp won the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role), in addition to Best Actor nominations at the [Awards](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor), [BAFTAs](BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role), and [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy). *The Curse of the Black Pearl* was also nominated for four other [Awards](Academy)(76th Academy Awards) and [BAFTAs](57th British Academy Film Awards). The film became the first in a franchise, and was followed by four sequels: ''[Man's Chest](Dead)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest)* (2006), *[World's End](At)(Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End)* (2007), *[Stranger Tides](On)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides)* (2011), and *[Men Tell No Tales](Dead)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales)* (2017).
## Plot
In 1720, while sailing to [Royal](Port)(Port Royal), [Jamaica](Colony of Jamaica), aboard HMS *Dauntless'', Governor [Swann](Weatherby)(Weatherby Swann)'s crew encounters a [shipwreck](shipwreck) and recovers a boy, [Turner](Will)(Will Turner). Swann's daughter, [Elizabeth](Elizabeth Swann), discovers a golden pirate [medal](medal)lion around Will's neck, and takes it. Eight years later, Captain [Norrington](James)(James Norrington) is promoted to [commodore](Commodore (rank)) and proposes to Elizabeth. Her [corset](corset) makes her faint and fall into the sea, causing the medallion to emit a pulse. Captain [Sparrow](Jack)(Jack Sparrow), having just arrived in Port Royal to commandeer a ship, rescues Elizabeth. Norrington identifies Jack as a pirate, and a chase ensues. Jack encounters Will, now a [blacksmith](blacksmith). They duel, and Jack is imprisoned.
That night, the crew of the *[Pearl](Black)(Black Pearl)* attacks Port Royal, searching for the medallion. The pirates capture Elizabeth, taking her to meet [Barbossa](Captain)(Hector Barbossa). Elizabeth claims her last name is Turner, to conceal her identity as the governor's daughter. Barbossa explains that the medallion is the last of 882 gold pieces his crew took from a lost treasure of [Cortés](Hernán)(Hernán Cortés) on [de Muerta](Isla)(Isla de Muerta). Cortés had accepted the treasure as payment to prevent the [of Tenochtitlan](Fall)(Fall of Tenochtitlan), but did not fulfill his part of the bargain. The [gods](Aztec)(Aztec mythology) cursed the treasure; Barbossa and any members of his crew who took the coins were cursed and became [undead](undead) who can only feel endless hunger and pain whose true, skeletal forms are revealed in moonlight. To lift the curse, they must return the treasure, each coin stained with either its taker's blood or the blood of the taker's direct relative. Assuming Elizabeth is the daughter of [Turner](Bill)(William "Bootstrap Bill" Turner) (whom Barbossa tried to drown after discovering he sent the medallion to his child), Barbossa decides to use her blood on the medallion.
To save Elizabeth, whom he loves, Will frees Jack, who was the previous [captain](Sea captain) of the *Black Pearl* before Barbossa staged a [mutiny](mutiny). The two commandeer HMS *Interceptor*, a small [sloop-of-war](sloop-of-war), and head for [Tortuga](Tortuga (Haiti)). There, Jack enlists his friend [Gibbs](Joshamee)(Joshamee Gibbs) to help them assemble a crew. Chasing the *Pearl* to the Isla de Muerta, Will and Jack witness Barbossa cut Elizabeth's hand, stain the coin, and return it to the chest. As she is not Bill Turner's relative, the curse does not lift. Will rescues Elizabeth and brings her to the *Interceptor*, while Jack is captured by Barbossa and locked in the [brig](Military prison#brig) of the *Pearl*. The *Pearl* pursues the *Interceptor*, destroying it and taking Jack's crew hostage. Realizing that it is him Barbossa wants, Will makes a deal with Barbossa to release Elizabeth in exchange for his blood. Barbossa agrees, but [maroons](marooning) Jack and Elizabeth on an island. Elizabeth makes a [signal](smoke)(smoke signal), and Norrington brings the *Dauntless* to rescue Elizabeth and arrest Jack. Elizabeth promises to marry Norrington if he will pursue the *Pearl* and save Will.
That night, the *Dauntless* arrives at Isla de Muerta. Jack tells Norrington he will lure the pirates out to be ambushed by the crew of the *Dauntless*, but instead persuades Barbossa's crew to attack the *Dauntless* before they lift the curse and lose their immortality. Elizabeth escapes the *Dauntless* and frees Jack's crew from the brig of the *Pearl*. They refuse to rescue Jack and Will, so Elizabeth sets out on her own. Jack again switches sides, freeing Will and dueling Barbossa, while Elizabeth and Will fight off Barbossa's crewmen. When Barbossa stabs Jack, it is revealed that Jack took a piece of gold from the chest and is likewise cursed and unable to die. Jack shoots Barbossa, and Will returns both coins to the chest with his and Jack's blood on them. The curse is lifted; Barbossa dies from Jack's gunshot, and the rest of Barbossa's crew, no longer immortal, are arrested.
At Port Royal, Jack is to be hanged for piracy. Elizabeth diverts Norrington's attention while Will attempts a rescue, but Jack and Will are surrounded. Elizabeth intercedes and declares her love for Will. Governor Swann pardons Will and gives his blessing for Elizabeth to marry him. Jack dives into the sea and escapes aboard the nearby *Pearl*, reclaiming the ship and his new crew. Norrington permits Jack and the *Pearl* "one day's head start" before initiating pursuit.
## Cast
* [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) as [Sparrow](Jack)(Jack Sparrow): An eccentric and [trickster](trickster) pirate characterized by his slightly drunken swagger, slurred speech and awkwardly flailing hand gestures. He has gained a reputation with made-up stories of how he escaped from the deserted island he was put on. He is determined to regain the *[Pearl](Black)(Black Pearl)*, which he captained ten years before. The role was originally written especially for [Jackman](Hugh)(Hugh Jackman), thus the name "*Jack* Sparrow"; however, he was not well known outside of his native Australia, so Disney cast the more famous Depp as Jack.McKay, Holly (2010, December 1. ["Jack Sparrow Was Named After Hugh Jackman, Not Intended for Johnny Depp"](http://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/2010/12/01/exclusive-jack-sparrow-named-hugh-jackman-intended-johnny-depp/) *[News](Fox)(Fox News Channel). Retrieved on December 2, 2010. Depp found the script quirky: rather than trying to find treasure, the crew of the *Black Pearl'' were trying to return it in order to lift their curse; also, the traditional mutiny had already taken place. Initially Sparrow was, according to Bruckheimer, "a young [Lancaster](Burt)(Burt Lancaster), just the cocky pirate." At the first [read-through](read-through), Depp surprised the rest of the cast and crew by portraying the character in an off-kilter manner. After researching 18th-century pirates, Depp compared them to modern rock stars and decided to base his performance on [Richards](Keith)(Keith Richards), who would appear as Jack's father in [third film](the)(Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End). Although Verbinski and Bruckheimer had confidence in Depp, partly because it would be Bloom who was playing the traditional [Flynn](Errol)(Errol Flynn) type, Disney executives were confused, asking Depp whether the character was drunk or gay, and [Eisner](Michael)(Michael Eisner) at one point proclaimed, "He's ruining the film!" Even Bruckheimer "was slightly uncomfortable" with Depp's decision to actually cap his teeth with gold. Depp later recalled, "I said, 'Look, these are the choices I made. You know my work. So either trust me or give me the boot.' And luckily, they didn't."
* [Rush](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey Rush) as [Barbossa](Captain)(Hector Barbossa): The captain of the *Black Pearl*, he was Captain Jack Sparrow's first mate before he led a mutiny ten years before. He and his crew stole cursed Aztec gold, for which they are cursed to walk the earth forever. Barbossa was conceptualized as a villain, as a "dark trickster" and evil counterpart to Jack Sparrow,*Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* DVD audio commentary with [Beattie](Stuart)(Stuart Beattie), [Elliott](Ted)(Ted Elliott (screenwriter)), and [Wolpert](Jay)(Jay Wolpert) Johnny Depp created the name "Hector Barbossa" on set though the name was never revealed onscreen. Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa, as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity, but with a simple villainy that would suit the story's tone. Contrarily, Rush felt that he was playing the unsung hero of the film, who only dreamed about lifting the curse and living as a rich rogue with his prized pirate bride and developed an intricate backstory for the character to play him more convincingly.*Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* DVD featurette "Becoming Barbossa" Originally, Rush was only second choice for the role behind [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro), who turned it down as he expected the film to flop like previous [film](pirate)(pirate film)s did.B 105 FM interview with [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro) on 20 September 2007
* [Bloom](Orlando)(Orlando Bloom) as [Turner](Will)(Will Turner): A blacksmith's apprentice working in Port Royal, he is in love with Elizabeth Swann. Will struggles with the fact his father, "Bootstrap" Bill, was a pirate, unable to reconcile that he was a good man too. [Maguire](Tobey)(Tobey Maguire), [Law](Jude)(Jude Law), [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor), [Peyton](Ben)(Ben Peyton), [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) and [Ledger](Heath)(Heath Ledger) were considered for the role. [Hiddleston](Tom)(Tom Hiddleston) auditioned for the role. Bloom read the script after Geoffrey Rush, whom he was working with on *[Kelly](Ned)(Ned Kelly (2003 film))*, suggested it to him.
* [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley) as [Swann](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Swann): The daughter of Governor Weatherby Swann, Elizabeth has been fascinated with pirates since childhood. During the *Black Pearl* attack on Port Royal, she gives her name as Turner and is mistaken for "Bootstrap" Bill's child. She also is in love with Will Turner. Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski; he had not seen her performance in *[It Like Beckham](Bend)(Bend It Like Beckham)* and was impressed by her audition.
* [Davenport](Jack)(Jack Davenport) as [Norrington](James Norrington): An officer in the Royal Navy who is in love with Elizabeth and has a deep-seated dislike for pirates. The character was only named "Norrington" in the film, whereas his first name "James" was only revealed in a deleted scene. He first served as Lieutenant aboard HMS *Dauntless* in the beginning, then was a Captain promoted to Commodore for the remainder of the film.
* [R. McNally](Kevin)(Kevin R. McNally) as [Gibbs](Joshamee)(Joshamee Gibbs): Jack Sparrow's loyal first mate. The name "Joshamee Gibbs" only appeared in the credits, while only his last name was named onscreen. He was once a sailor for the Royal Navy, serving under Lieutenant Norrington aboard HMS *Dauntless*, and is the one who tells Will about the mutiny against Jack Sparrow as well as the pirate's marooning and legendary escape.
* [Saldana](Zoe)(Zoe Saldana) as [Anamaria](List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters#Anamaria): A female pirate who signs up to join Will Turner and Mr. Gibbs for a chance to confront Jack Sparrow for stealing her ship. He promises her the *Interceptor* in an attempt to assuage her. Screenwriter [Rossio](Terry)(Terry Rossio) confirmed that the name was chosen simply because "AnaMaria" is the middle name of his daughter.
* [Pryce](Jonathan)(Jonathan Pryce) as [Weatherby Swann](Governor)(Weatherby Swann): father of Elizabeth Swann and Governor of Port Royal, Jamaica. [Wilkinson](Tom)(Tom Wilkinson) was negotiated with to play the part, [Cox](Brian)(Brian Cox (actor)) turned down the role as he didn't want to work with Depp,https://www.gq.com/story/brian-cox-memoir-excerpt but the role went to Pryce, whom Depp idolized.
* [Etienne](Treva)(Treva Etienne) as Koehler: A member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*. Among other roles in the film, he is one of the pirates who visits Jack Sparrow in his prison cell and is later killed by Commodore Norrington.
* [Bailie](David)(David Bailie) as [Cotton](List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters#Cotton): A member of Jack's crew. He is introduced as a sailor who is mute because he had his tongue cut out and now has a parrot to talk for him.
* [Arenberg](Lee)(Lee Arenberg) as [Pintel](Pintel and Ragetti): A member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*. Along with Ragetti, Pintel provides the majority of the comic relief for the pirate side of the story. He says "Hello poppet" to Elizabeth, a line used in later films, as well as has an issue whenever someone says "[parley](parley)".
* [Crook](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Crook) as [Ragetti](Pintel and Ragetti): A member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*. Along with Pintel, Ragetti provides the majority of the comic relief for the pirate side of the story. He has a wooden eye that never seems to stay in place.
* [Goddard](Trevor)(Trevor Goddard) as Grapple: A member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*. This was Goddard's last on-screen appearance before his death.
* [C. Singleton, Jr.](Isaac)(Isaac C. Singleton Jr.) as Bo'sun: A member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*.
* Brye Cooper as Mallott, a member of Barbossa's cursed crew aboard the *Black Pearl*.
Supporting characters appearing in the film include [Klebba](Martin)(Martin Klebba) as [Marty](List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters#Marty), a dwarf pirate; [O'Hare](Damian)(Damian O'Hare) as [Gillette](Lt.)(List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters#Lieutenant Gillette); [Ellis](Greg)(Greg Ellis (actor)) as [Officer](List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters#Theodore Groves); as well as Giles New and [Barnett](Angus)(Angus Barnett) as [and Mullroy](Murtogg)(Murtogg and Mullroy). Although characters like Marty only had a single line of dialogue in the film, each of these characters reprise their roles in the *Pirates* sequels, respectively.
## Production
### Development
During the early 1990s, screenwriters [Elliott](Ted)(Ted Elliott (screenwriter)) and [Rossio](Terry)(Terry Rossio) began to think of a supernatural spin on the pirate genre. Walt Disney Pictures had [Wolpert](Jay)(Jay Wolpert) write a script based on the ride in 2001, which was based on a story created by the executives Brigham Taylor, Michael Haynes, and Josh Harmon. This story featured Will Turner as a prison guard who releases Sparrow to rescue Elizabeth, who is being held for ransom money by Captain Blackheart.
Disney was unsure whether to release the film in theaters or direct-to-video. The studio was interested in [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey) as Sparrow because of his resemblance to [Lancaster](Burt)(Burt Lancaster), who had inspired that script's interpretation of the character. If they chose to release it direct-to-video, [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken) or [Elwes](Cary)(Cary Elwes) would have been their first choices.
[Beattie](Stuart)(Stuart Beattie) was brought in to rewrite the script in March 2002, because of his knowledge of [piracy](piracy). When [Cook](Dick)(Dick Cook) managed to convince producer [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer) to join the project, he rejected the script because it was "a straight pirate movie." Later in March 2002, he brought Elliott and Rossio, who suggested making a [curse](supernatural)(The Rime of the Ancient Mariner)—as described in the opening narration of the ride—the film's plot.
In May 2002, [Verbinski](Gore)(Gore Verbinski) signed on to direct *Pirates of the Caribbean*. He was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre that had disappeared after the [Age of Hollywood](Golden)(Golden Age of Hollywood) and recalled his childhood memories of the ride, feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the "scary and funny" tone of it.
[Carrey](Jim)(Jim Carrey) was considered for the part of Jack Sparrow. However, the production schedule for *The Curse of the Black Pearl* conflicted with *[Almighty](Bruce)(Bruce Almighty)*. Others considered for the role include [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton) and [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken). Although Cook had been a strong proponent of adapting Disney's rides into films, the box-office failure of *[Country Bears](The)(The Country Bears)* (2002) made [Eisner](Michael)(Michael Eisner) attempt to shut down production of *Pirates of the Caribbean*. However, Verbinski told his concept artists to keep working on the picture, and when Eisner came to visit, the executive was astonished by what had been created.
As recalled in the book *[DisneyWar](DisneyWar)*, Eisner asked "Why does it have to cost so much?" Bruckheimer replied, "Your competition is spending $150 million," referring to franchises like *[Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings (film series))* and *[Matrix](The)(The Matrix (series))*. Eisner concurred, but with the stigma attached to theme-park adaptations, Eisner requested Verbinski and Bruckheimer remove some of the more overt references to the ride in the script, such as a scene where Sparrow and Turner enter the cave via a waterfall.
#### Influence of the *Monkey Island* series of games
Ted Elliott was allegedly writing a [Lucas](George)(George Lucas)-produced animated film adaptation of *[Curse of Monkey Island](The)(The Curse of Monkey Island)*, which was cancelled before its official announcement, three years prior to the release of *The Curse of the Black Pearl*.["World of Monkey Island"](http://www.worldofmi.com/comments.php?type=news&id=1259&action=read) . *WorldofMI.com*. Retrieved June 11, 2011. This film was allegedly in production at [Light and Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light and Magic) before being cancelled.
[Gilbert](Ron)(Ron Gilbert), the creator of the *Monkey Island* series, has jokingly expressed a bitterness towards *Pirates of the Caribbean*, specifically the [film](second)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest), for its similarities to his game. Gilbert has also stated that *[Stranger Tides](On)(On Stranger Tides)*, a novel by [Powers](Tim)(Tim Powers) which was adapted into the [film](fourth)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides), was the principal source of inspiration for his video games.["On Stranger Tides"](http://grumpygamer.com/6476640) . *GrumpyGamer.com*. Retrieved June 11, 2011.
### Filming and design
Verbinski did not want an entirely romanticized feel to the film: he wanted a sense of [fantasy](historical)(historical fantasy). Most of the actors wore prosthetics and contact lenses. Depp had contacts that acted as [sunglasses](sunglasses), while Rush and [Arenberg](Lee)(Lee Arenberg) wore dulled contacts that gave a sinister feel to the characters. [Crook](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Crook) wore two contacts to represent his character's wooden eye: a soft version, and a harder version for when it protrudes. In addition, their rotten teeth and [scurvy](scurvy) skin were dyed on, although Depp did have gold teeth added, which he forgot to remove after filming. Depp also used a genuine pistol which was made in 1760 in London, which the crew bought from a dealer in [Connecticut](Connecticut). A number of swords were built for the production by blacksmith [Swatton](Tony)(Tony Swatton). The crew spent five months creating the [cave](cave)rn in which Barbossa and the *Black Pearl* crew attempt to reverse their curse, filling it with five feet of water, 882 Aztec coins, and some gold paint on the styrofoam rocks for more impressions of treasure. The crew also built the [fortress](fortress) at [Royal](Port)(Port Royal) in [Palos Verdes, California](Rancho)(Rancho Palos Verdes, California), and Governor Swann's palace was built at [Beach](Manhattan)(Manhattan Beach, California). A fire broke out in September 2002, causing $525,000 worth of damage, though no one was injured.
[[barge used for *Dauntless*](File:Dauntlessbarge.jpg|thumb|The)]
The filmmakers chose [Vincent](St.)(Saint Vincent (Antilles)) as their primary shooting location, as it contained the quietest beach they could find, and built three piers and a backlot for Port Royal and [Tortuga](Geography of Pirates of the Caribbean#Tortuga). Of most importance to the film were the three ships: *Black Pearl*, *Dauntless*, and *Interceptor*. For budget reasons, the ships were built on docks, with only six days spent in the open sea for the battle between *Black Pearl* and *Interceptor*. *Dauntless* and *Black Pearl* were built on [barge](barge)s, with [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery) finishing the structures. *Black Pearl* was also built on the Spruce Goose stage, in order to control fog and lighting. *Interceptor* was a re-dressed , a full-scale replica sailing ship from [Washington](Aberdeen,)(Aberdeen, Washington), fully repainted before going on a 40-day voyage beginning December 2, 2002, arriving on location on January 12, 2003. A miniature was also built for the storm sequence.
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on October 9, 2002, and wrapped by March 7, 2003. The quick shoot was only marred by two accidents: as Jack Sparrow steals *Interceptor*, three of the ropes attaching it to *Dauntless* did not break at first, and when they did snap, debris hit Depp's knee, though he was not injured, and the way the incident played out on film made it look like Sparrow merely ducks. A more humorous accident was when the boat Sparrow was supposed to arrive in at Port Royal sank. In October, the crew was shooting scenes at Rancho Palos Verdes, by December they were shooting at [Vincent and the Grenadines](Saint)(Saint Vincent and the Grenadines), and in January they were at the cavern set at Los Angeles. The script often changed with Elliott and Rossio on set, with additions such as Gibbs ([McNally](Kevin)(Kevin McNally)) telling Will how Sparrow allegedly escaped from an island—strapping two turtles together with rope made of his back hair—and Pryce was written into the climactic battle to keep some empathy for the audience.
Because of the quick schedule of the shoot, [Light & Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light & Magic) immediately began visual effects work. While the skeletal forms of the pirates revealed by [moonlight](moonlight) take up relatively little screentime, the crew knew their computer-generated forms had to convince in terms of replicating performances and characteristics of the actors, or else the transition would not work. Each scene featuring them was shot twice: a reference plate with the actors, and then without them to add in the skeletons, an aesthetic complicated by Verbinski's decision to shoot the battles with handheld cameras. The actors also had to perform their scenes again on the [capture](motion)(motion capture) stage. With the shoot only wrapping up four months before release, Verbinski spent 18-hour days on the edit, while simultaneously spending time on 600 effects shots, 250 of which were merely removing modern sailboats from shots.
## Music
The [score](film)(film score) was composed by [Badelt](Klaus)(Klaus Badelt), while [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer) served as music producer. Seven other composers, including [Zanelli](Geoff)(Geoff Zanelli), who later went on to compose the score for *[of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales)* and [Djawadi](Ramin)(Ramin Djawadi), are credited for "additional music". Verbinski oversaw the score with Badelt and Zimmer, who headed 15 composers to finish it quickly.
Composer [Silvestri](Alan)(Alan Silvestri), who had collaborated with Verbinski on *[Hunt](Mouse)(Mouse Hunt)* and *[Mexican](The)(The Mexican)*, was originally hired to write the score for *The Curse of the Black Pearl*. However, due to creative differences between the producer [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer) and him, Silvestri left the project before recording any material. Verbinski and Bruckheimer decided to go with [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer)'s team instead, who were frequent collaborators of their productions. Verbinski asked Hans Zimmer, with whom he had worked on *[Ring](The)(The Ring (2002 film))*, to step in. Zimmer declined to do the bulk of the composing, as he was busy scoring *[Last Samurai](The)(The Last Samurai)*, a project during which he claimed he had promised not to take any other assignments. As a result, he referred Verbinski to Klaus Badelt,[SoundtrackNet : Interview – Hans Zimmer – Part 1](http://www.soundtrack.net/features/article/?id=205) a relatively new composer who had been a part of [Control Productions](Remote)(Remote Control Productions (American company)) (known as [Ventures](Media)(Media Ventures) at the time) for three years.
The song Elizabeth Swann sings in the opening of the film as a child, and then later on the island marooned with Jack Sparrow, is called ''[Ho (A Pirate's Life for Me)](Yo)(Yo_Ho_(A_Pirate%27s_Life_for_Me))* and was written by [Bruns](George)(George Bruns) with lyrics by ["X" Atencio](Xavier)(Xavier Atencio). It is the song heard throughout the attraction [of the Caribbean](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean (attraction)) in [Disneyland](Disneyland) and [Kingdom](Magic)(Magic Kingdom).
## Marketing and release
The first [trailer](teaser)(teaser trailer) was attached to *[Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers](The)(The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers)* while the [trailer](theatrical)(theatrical trailer) debuted in front of [Management*](*Anger)(Anger Management (film)) and Disney’s [*Holes*](Holes (film)).
### Rating
*Pirates of the Caribbean* was the first film released under the [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures) banner to be rated [PG-13](PG-13 (Motion Picture Association)) by the [MPAA](MPAA); one executive noted that she found the film too intense for her five-year-old child. Nonetheless, the studio was confident enough to add *The Curse of the Black Pearl'' subtitle to the film in case sequels were made, and to attract older children. Verbinski disliked the new title because it is the Aztec gold rather than the ship that is cursed, so he requested the title to be unreadable on the poster.
### Home media
The [DVD](DVD-Video) and [VHS](VHS) editions of the film were released December 1, 2003, in the UK and December 2, 2003, in the US, with 11 million copies sold in the first week, a record for live action video. It earned $235 million from DVDs as of January 2004. This [THX](THX) certified DVD release featured two discs, featuring three [track](commentary)(commentary track)s (Johnny Depp & Gore Verbinski; Jerry Bruckheimer, Keira Knightley & Jack Davenport; and the screenwriter team), various deleted scenes and documentaries, and a 1968 *[Disneyland](Walt Disney anthology television series)* episode about the theme park ride. A special three-disc edition was released on November 2, 2004, in the U.S. and April 25, 2005, in the UK.
A [PSP](PlayStation Portable) release of the film followed on April 19, 2005. The high-definition [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) Disc version of the film was released on May 22, 2007. This movie was also among the first to be sold at the [iTunes](iTunes) music store. *The Curse of the Black Pearl* had its UK television premiere on [Eve](Christmas)(Christmas Eve) 2007 on [One](BBC)(BBC One) at 20:30 and was watched by an estimated 7 million viewers.
On 2 January 2022, *The Curse of the Black Pearl* was released on [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray). However, the film's remaster was criticized by various online reviewers for being [upscaled](Video scaler) from [2K](2K resolution) resolution, excessive application of [noise reduction](digital)(Noise reduction) and various other shortcomings. THE WORST 4K DISC EVER? |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8bs84FVISc |language=en |access-date=2022-07-19}} A review by Martin Liebman of Blu-ray.com compared the release unfavorably to the previous 2007 Blu-ray release, stating: "The picture's grain has been reduced to a meshy, artificial appearance, looking frozen and flat and certainly less than genuine and flattering. Edge enhancement is in evidence. Textures have been scrubbed down and sharpened back up. Details appear waxy and lacking complexity [...] This is just a real clunker of a UHD image and one of the least impressive the format has seen."
## Reception
### Box office
Before its release, many journalists expected *Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* to be a [flop](Box-office bomb). The pirate genre had not been successful for years, with *[Island](Cutthroat)(Cutthroat Island)* (1995) being a notable flop. The film was also based on a theme park ride, and Depp, known mostly for starring in [film](cult)(cult film)s at the time, had little track record as a box-office [man](leading)(leading man).
*Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl* opened at #1 above *[3: Rise of the Machines](Terminator)(Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines)*, grossing $46,630,690 in its opening weekend and $70,625,971 since its Wednesday launch. It would also outgross another pirate-themed film, *[Legend of the Seven Seas](Sinbad:)(Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas)*. The film was overtaken by *[Boys II](Bad)(Bad Boys II)* during its second weekend, but still made $34 million. It eventually made its way to $654,264,015 worldwide ($305,413,918 domestically and $348,850,097 overseas), becoming the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2003. [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) estimates that the film sold over 50.64 million tickets in the US.
Internationally it dominated for seven consecutive weekends at the box office, tying the record of *[in Black II](Men)(Men in Black II)* at the time. Only three movies after that broke the record; its sequel, ''[Man's Chest](Dead)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest)*, (with nine consecutive #1 weekends and ten in total), *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* (with 11 consecutive #1 weekends) and *[Smurfs](The)(The Smurfs (film))'' (with eight consecutive #1 weekends). As of February 2021, it is the 141st-highest-grossing film of all time.
### Critical response
[[File:Johnny Depp 2009.jpg|thumb|Depp (shown here in 2003) earned universal acclaim for his performance as Jack Sparrow and won the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role). It later earned him nominations for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor), [Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role), and [Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy).]]
On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 80% based on 220 reviews, and an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It may leave you exhausted like the theme park ride that inspired it; however, you'll have a good time when it's over." At [Metacritic](Metacritic), which assigns a [average](weighted)(weighted average) rating to reviews, the film received an average score of 63 out of 100, based on reviews from 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Alan Morrison of *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* felt it was "the best blockbuster of the summer," acclaiming all the comic performances despite his disappointment with the swashbuckling sequences.
The performance of [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) as Jack Sparrow was particularly praised by critics and audiences alike. Review site PopMatters applauds Depp's performance by saying "Ingenious and mesmerizing, Johnny Depp embodies the film's essential fantasy, that a pirate's life is exciting and unfettered." [Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli) of ReelViews also applauds Depp's performance by saying "*Pirates of the Caribbean* belongs to Johnny Depp...Take away Depp, and you're left with a derivative and dull motion picture."
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) acclaimed the performances of Depp and Rush, and particularly that "It can be said that [Depp's] performance is original in its every atom. There has never been a pirate, or for that matter a human being, like this in any other movie... his behavior shows a lifetime of rehearsal." However, he felt the film went on for too long, a criticism shared by [Turan](Kenneth)(Kenneth Turan)'s negative review, feeling it "spends far too much time on its huge supporting cast of pirates (nowhere near as entertaining as everyone assumes) and on bloated adventure set pieces," despite having also enjoyed Depp's performance. [Kermode](Mark)(Mark Kermode) described the film as "a triumph of turgid theme-park hackery over the art of cinema".
### Accolades
For his performance as Captain Jack Sparrow, Johnny Depp won several awards, including [Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role) at the [Screen Actors Guild Awards](10th)(10th Screen Actors Guild Awards), Best Male Performance at the [MTV Movie Awards](2004)(2004 MTV Movie Awards), and Best Actor at the [Empire Awards](9th)(9th Empire Awards). Depp was also nominated for [Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy) at the [Golden Globe Awards](61st)(61st Golden Globe Awards), [Actor in a Leading Role](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role) at the [British Academy Film Awards](57th)(57th British Academy Film Awards), and [Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actor) at the [Academy Awards](76th)(76th Academy Awards), in which *The Curse of the Black Pearl* also received nominations for [Makeup](Best)(Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling), [Sound Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Editing), [Sound Mixing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound), and [Visual Effects](Best)(Academy Award for Best Visual Effects). Awards won by *Curse of the Black Pearl* include Best Make-up/Hair at the 57th British Academy Film Awards, [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Award) for Best Costumes, [Reel Award](Golden)(Golden Reel Award (Motion Picture Sound Editors)) for Sound Editing, two [Award](VES)(VES Award)s for Visual Effects, and the [Choice Award](People's)(People's Choice Awards) for Favorite Motion Picture.
; [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) Lists
* [100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)) – Nominated["AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) Ballot"](http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/Movies_ballot_06.pdf) . *AFI.com*. Retrieved January 13, 2012.
* [10 Top 10 – Fantasy](AFI's)(AFI's 10 Top 10#Fantasy) – Nominated["AFI's 10 Top 10 Ballot"](http://www.afi.com/drop/ballot.pdf) . *AFI.com*. Retrieved January 13, 2012.
## Sequels
The film spun off four sequels, with the latest sequel released in 2017. The first two were [sequels](back-to-back)(Back to back film production) in 2006 and 2007, ''[Man's Chest](Dead)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest)* and *[World's End](At)(Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End)*, respectively. The third sequel, *[Stranger Tides](On)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides)*, was released in 2011. The fourth sequel, *[Men Tell No Tales](Dead)(Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales)'', was slated to begin production in October 2014 for a summer 2016 release, but was eventually delayed to May 2017. It was directed by [Rønning](Joachim)(Joachim Rønning) and [Sandberg](Espen)(Espen Sandberg). , a sixth film was in development.
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[films](Category:2003)(Category:2003 films)
[action films](Category:2003)(Category:2003 action films)
[comedy films](Category:2003)(Category:2003 comedy films)
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[adventure comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s adventure comedy films)
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[fantasy action films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s fantasy action films)
[fantasy adventure films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s fantasy adventure films)
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[action adventure films](Category:American)(Category:American action adventure films)
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[fantasy adventure films](Category:American)(Category:American fantasy adventure films)
[winners (films)](Category:BAFTA)(Category:BAFTA winners (films))
[about curses](Category:Films)(Category:Films about curses)
[about undead](Category:Films)(Category:Films about undead)
[directed by Gore Verbinski](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Gore Verbinski)
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[scored by Klaus Badelt](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Klaus Badelt)
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[set in the 1720s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1720s)
[set on ships](Category:Films)(Category:Films set on ships)
[shot in Los Angeles County, California](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles County, California)
[shot in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
[with screenplays by Stuart Beattie](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Stuart Beattie)
[with screenplays by Ted Elliott](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Ted Elliott)
[with screenplays by Terry Rossio](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Terry Rossio)
[using motion capture](Category:Films)(Category:Films using motion capture)
[of the Caribbean (film series) films](Category:Pirates)(Category:Pirates of the Caribbean (film series) films)
[hunt films](Category:Treasure)(Category:Treasure hunt films)
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John Money
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john_money
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# John Money
*Revision ID: 1160045454 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T03:03:51Z*
---
| birth_place = [Morrinsville](Morrinsville), New Zealand
| death_date =
| death_place = [Maryland](Towson,)(Towson, Maryland), U.S.
| residence =
| citizenship =
| ethnicity =
| fields = [Psychology](Psychology)
| workplaces = [Hopkins University](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University)
| alma_mater = [University of Wellington](Victoria)(Victoria University of Wellington)[University](Harvard)(Harvard University)
| doctoral_advisor =
| academic_advisors =
| doctoral_students =
| notable_students =
| known_for =
| influenced = [Green](Richard)(Richard Green (sexologist)), [Zucker](Kenneth)(Kenneth Zucker)
| awards = [McKeen Cattell Fellow Award](James)(James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award)
| signature =
| footnotes =
}}
**John William Money** (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006) was a New Zealand American psychologist, [sexologist](sexologist) and professor at [Hopkins University](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University) known for his research on [sexual behavior](human)(human sexual behavior) and [gender](gender).
Working with endocrinologist [Migeon](Claude)(Claude Migeon), Money established the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic, the first clinic in the United States to perform sexual reassignment surgeries. Money advanced the use of more accurate terminology in sex research, coining the terms *[role](gender)(gender role)* and *[orientation](sexual)(sexual orientation)*. Despite widespread popular belief, Money did not coin '''gender identity'''. Money pioneered drug treatment for sex offenders in order to extinguish their sex drives. He began testing [anti-androgen](Antiandrogen) medications on offenders as early as 1966, which yielded successful results.
Starting in the 1990s, the work and research conducted by Money has been subjected to significant academic and public scrutiny. A 1997 academic study criticised Money's work in many respects, particularly in regard to the involuntary sex-reassignment of the child [Reimer](David)(David Reimer), and Money's sexual abuse of Reimer and his brother when they were children. Some of Money's sessions involved Money forcing the two children to perform sexual activities with each other, which Money then photographed. David Reimer lived a troubled life, eventually committing suicide at 38; his brother died of an overdose at age 36.
Money's writing has been translated into many languages and includes around 2,000 articles, books, chapters and reviews. He received around 65 honours, awards and degrees in his lifetime.
He was also a patron of many famous New Zealand artists, such as [Angus](Rita)(Rita Angus) and [Schoon](Theo)(Theo Schoon).
## Biography
Money was born in [Morrinsville](Morrinsville), New Zealand, to a [Protestant](Protestant) family of English and Welsh descent. He attended [Valley High School](Hutt)(Hutt Valley High School) and initially studied psychology at [University of Wellington](Victoria)(Victoria University of Wellington), graduating with a double master's degree in psychology and education in 1944. He was a junior member of the psychology faculty at the [of Otago](University)(University of Otago) in [Dunedin](Dunedin).
In 1947, at the age of 26, Money emigrated to the United States to study at the Psychiatric Institute of the [of Pittsburgh](University)(University of Pittsburgh). He left Pittsburgh and earned his PhD from [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) in 1952.
Money proposed and developed several theories and related terminology, including [identity](gender)(gender identity), [role](gender)(gender role), gender-identity/role and [lovemap](lovemap). He popularised the term *paraphilia* (appearing in the [DSM-III](DSM-III), which would later replace *perversions*) and introduced the term *sexual orientation* in place of *sexual preference*, arguing that attraction is not necessarily a matter of free choice. Although often misattributed to him, Money did not coin the term '''gender identity'''.
Money was a professor of [paediatrics](paediatrics) and [psychology](medical)(medical psychology) at [Hopkins University](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University) from 1951 until his death. In 1960 and 1961, he co-authored two papers with [Green](Richard)(Richard Green (sexologist)), "Incongruous Gender Role: Nongenital Manifestations in Prepubertal Boys" and "Effeminacy in Prepubertal Boys: Summary of Eleven Cases and Recommendations for Case Management."[[e moglie con John Money (1996).jpg|thumb|Money (right) with sexologist and his wife in Rome, 1996](File:Forleo)]
Money established the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic in 1965 along with [Migeon](Claude)(Claude Migeon) who was the head of paediatric endocrinology at Johns Hopkins. The hospital began performing sexual reassignment surgery in 1966, and was the first clinic in the United States to do so. At Johns Hopkins, Money was also involved with the Sexual Behaviors Unit, which ran studies on [surgery](sex-reassignment)(sex-reassignment surgery).
Money pioneered the use of drug treatment for sex offenders to extinguish their sex drives. According to a 1987 paper, he employed the drug Depo-Provera ([acetate](medroxyprogesterone)(medroxyprogesterone acetate)) for use on sex offenders at Johns Hopkins beginning in 1966. The practice later spread in the United States and Europe.
In 2002 he received the [Hirschfeld Medal](Magnus)(Magnus Hirschfeld Medal) from the [Society for Social-Scientific Sexuality Research](German)(German Society for Social-Scientific Sexuality Research).
Money held a series of unsuccessful theories relating to [Syndrome](Jacob's)(Jacob's Syndrome). Jacob's syndrome is a [condition](chromosomal)(chromosomal condition) in which an individual is born with XYY [chromosome](sex)(sex chromosome)s. Jacob's syndrome is today considered to have the most mild effects of other [based conditions](sex-chromosomal)(Aneuploidy), causing no major developmental differences. Despite this the condition was heavily [stigmatized](stigmatized) due to a lack of understanding towards it's effects, and was incorrectly thought to cause severe developmental problems. John Money unsuccessfully attempted to treat XYY boys and men (ages 15 to 37) with a history of behavior/educational problems by [castration](chemical)(chemical castration) using high-dose [Depo-Provera](Depo-Provera). The study failed with many participants suffering weight gain and some committing suicide, the case is often seen as a breach of [ethics](scientific)(Research#Research_ethics).
Money was also an early supporter of New Zealand's arts, both literary and visual. In 2002, as his [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease) worsened, Money donated a substantial portion of his art collection to the [Southland Art Gallery](Eastern)(Eastern Southland Art Gallery) in [Gore](Gore, New Zealand), New Zealand. In 2003, the New Zealand Prime Minister, Helen Clark, opened the John Money wing at the Eastern Southland Gallery.
Money died 7 July 2006, one day before his 85th birthday, in [Maryland](Towson,)(Towson, Maryland), of complications from Parkinson's disease.
## Books on sexology
Money co-edited a 1969 book *Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment*, which helped bring more acceptance to [reassignment surgery](sexual)(sexual reassignment surgery) and [transsexual](transsexual) individuals.
Money introduced numerous definitions related to gender in journal articles in the 1950s, many of them as a result of his studies of [intersex](intersex) morphology. His definition of [gender](gender) is based on his understanding of sex differences among human beings. According to Money, the fact that one sex produces [ova](ovum) and the other sex produces [sperm](sperm) is the irreducible criterion of sex difference. However, there are other *sex-derivative differences* that follow in the wake of this primary dichotomy. These differences involve the way urine is expelled from the human body and other questions of [dimorphism](sexual)(sexual dimorphism). According to Money's theory, *sex-adjunctive differences* are typified by the smaller size of females and their problems in moving around while [nursing](Breastfeeding) infants. This then makes it more likely that the males do the roaming and hunting.
*Sex-arbitrary differences* are those that are purely conventional: for example, colour selection (baby blue for boys, [for girls](pink)(Pink#The 20th century)). Some of the latter differences apply to life activities, such as career opportunities for men versus women. Finally, Money created the now-common term *[role](gender)(gender role)* which he differentiated from the concept of the more traditional terminology *sex role*. This grew out of his studies of intersex people. According to Money, the genitalia and erotic sexual roles were now, by his definition, to be included under the more general term "gender role" including all the non-genital and non-erotic activities that are defined by the conventions of society to apply to males or to females.
In his studies of intersex people, Money alleged that there are six variables that define sex. While in the average person all six would line up unequivocally as either all "male" or "female", in hermaphrodites any one or more than one of these could be inconsistent with the others, leading to various kinds of anomalies. In his seminal 1955 paper he defined these factors as:
# assigned sex and sex of rearing
# external genital morphology
# internal reproductive structures
# hormonal and secondary sex characteristics
# gonadal sex
# chromosomal sex
and added,
He then defined gender role as;
Money made the concept of *gender* a broader, more inclusive concept than one of masculine/feminine. For him, gender included not only one's status as a man or a woman, but was also a matter of personal recognition, social assignment, or legal determination; not only on the basis of one's genitalia but also on the basis of somatic and behavioural criteria that go beyond genital differences. In 1972, Money presented his theories in *Man and Woman, Boy and Girl*, a college level textbook. The book featured [Reimer](David)(David Reimer) as an example of gender reassignment.
In his book *Gay, Straight and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation*, Money develops a conception of "[bodymind](bodymind)".Money 1988, p. 116. "Bodymind" is a way for scientists, in developing a science about sexuality, to move on from the platitudes of dichotomy between [versus nurture](nature)(nature versus nurture), innate versus the acquired, biological versus the social, and psychological versus the physiological. He suggested that all of these capitalise on the ancient, pre-Platonic, pre-biblical conception of body versus the mind, and the physical versus the spiritual. In coining the term "bodymind", in this sense, Money wishes to move beyond these very ingrained principles of our folk or vernacular psychology.
Money also developed a view of "Concepts of Determinism" which, transcultural, transhistorical, and universal, all people have in common, sexologically or otherwise.Money 1988, pp. 114–119. These include pairbondage, troopbondage, abidance, ycleptance, foredoomance, with these coping strategies: adhibition (engagement), inhibition, explication. Money suggested that the concept of "threshold"Money 1988, p. 115. – the release or inhibition of sexual (or other) behavior – is most useful for sex research as a substitute for any concept of motivation. Moreover, it confers the distinct advantage of having continuity and unity to what would otherwise be a highly disparate and varied field of research. It also allows for the classification of sexual behavior. For Money, the concept of threshold has great value because of the wide spectrum to which it applies. "It allows one to think developmentally or longitudinally, in terms of stages or experiences that are programmed serially, or hierarchically, or cybernetically (i.e. regulated by mutual feedback)."
## Controversies
### Institutionalization of Janet Frame
Author [Frame](Janet)(Janet Frame) attended some of Money's classes at the University of Otago, as part of her teacher training. Frame was attracted to Money, and eager to please him.King, Michael. *An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.* Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp. 64-5. In October 1945, after Frame wrote an essay mentioning her thoughts of suicide, Money convinced Frame to enter the psychiatric ward at Dunedin Public Hospital, where she was misdiagnosed as suffering from [schizophrenia](schizophrenia).King, Michael. *An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.* Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp. 69–70.Frame, Janet. *An Autobiography.* (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 374–5King, Michael. *An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.* Penguin (NZ), 2002. p. 186. Frame then spent eight years in psychiatric institutions, during which she was subjected to [electroshock](electroconvulsive therapy) and [shock therapy](insulin)(insulin shock therapy).King, Michael. *An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.* Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp 97, 105. Frame narrowly missed being [lobotomized](lobotomized).Frame, Janet. *An Autobiography.* (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 222–23King, Michael. *An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.* Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp. 111–2. In Frame's autobiography, *An Angel at My Table*, Money is referred to as John Forrest.
### Sex reassignment of David Reimer
During his professional life, Money was respected as an expert on sexual behavior, especially known for his views that gender was learned rather than innate. However, it was later revealed that his most famous case of [Reimer](David)(David Reimer), born Bruce Reimer, was fundamentally flawed. In 1966, a botched [circumcision](circumcision) left eight-month-old Reimer without a penis. Money persuaded the baby's parents that [reassignment surgery](sex)(sex reassignment surgery) would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, Reimer underwent an [orchiectomy](orchiectomy), in which his testicles were surgically removed. He was reassigned to be raised as female and his name changed from Bruce to Brenda. Money further recommended hormone treatment, to which the parents agreed. Money then recommended a surgical procedure to create an artificial vagina, which the parents refused. Money published a number of papers reporting the reassignment as successful. David Reimer was raised under the "[gender rearing model](optimum)(optimum gender rearing model)" which was the [model](common)(medical model) for sex and gender socialization/[medicalization](medicalization) for [intersex](intersex) youth, the model was heavily criticized for being [sexist](sexist), and for assigning an arbitrary [binary](gender)(gender binary).
According to [Colapinto](John)(John Colapinto)'s biography of David Reimer, starting when Reimer and his twin Brian were six years old, Money showed the brothers pornography and forced the two to rehearse sexual acts. Money would order David to get down on all fours and Brian was forced to "come up behind [him] and place his crotch against [his] buttocks". Money also forced Reimer, in another sexual position, to have his "legs spread" with Brian on top. On "at least one occasion" Money took a photograph of the two children performing these acts.
When either child resisted Money, Money would get angry. Both Reimer and Brian recall that Money was mild-mannered around their parents, but ill-tempered when alone with them. Money also forced the two children to strip for "genital inspections"; when they resisted inspecting each other's genitals, Money got very aggressive. Reimer says, "He told me to take my clothes off, and I just did not do it. I just stood there. And he screamed, 'Now!' Louder than that. I thought he was going to give me a whupping. So I took my clothes off and stood there shaking."
Money's rationale for his treatment of the children was his belief that "childhood 'sexual rehearsal play "at thrusting movements and copulation" was important for a "healthy adult gender identity".
Both Reimer and Brian were traumatized by the "therapy", with Brian speaking about it "only with the greatest emotional turmoil", and David unwilling to speak about the details publicly. At 14 years old and in extreme psychological agony, David Reimer was finally told the truth by his parents. He chose to begin calling himself David, and he underwent surgical procedures to revert the female bodily modifications.
Despite the pain and turmoil of the brothers, for decades, Money reported on Reimer's progress as the "John/Joan case", describing apparently successful female gender development and using this case to support the feasibility of [reassignment](sex)(Sex reassignment therapy) and [reconstruction](surgical)(Sex reassignment surgery) even in non-[intersex](intersex) cases.
By the time this deception was discovered, the idea of a purely socially constructed gender identity and infant [medical interventions](Intersex)(Intersex medical interventions) had become the accepted medical and sociological standard.
David Reimer's case came to international attention in 1997 when he told his story to [Diamond](Milton)(Milton Diamond), an academic [sexologist](sexology), who persuaded Reimer to allow him to report the outcome in order to dissuade physicians from treating other infants similarly. Soon after, Reimer went public with his story, and [Colapinto](John)(John Colapinto) published a widely disseminated and influential account in *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine in December 1997. This was later expanded into [New York Times* best-selling](*The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) biography *[Nature Made Him](As)(As Nature Made Him): The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl* (2000), in which Colapinto described how—contrary to Money's reports—when living as Brenda, Reimer did not [identify](Gender identity) as a girl. He was ostracised and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"), and neither frilly dresses nor female hormones made him feel female.
In July 2002, Brian was found dead from an overdose of antidepressants. In May 2004, David committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a sawed-off shotgun at the age of 38. According to his mother, "he had recently become depressed after losing his job and separating from his wife."
Money argued that media response to Diamond's exposé was due to right-wing [bias](media)(media bias) and "the antifeminist movement." He said his detractors believed "masculinity and femininity are built into the genes so women should get back to the mattress and the kitchen".[Jesse](Walker,)(Jesse Walker) (24 May 2004). [The Death of David Reimer: A tale of sex, science, and abuse.](http://reason.com/archives/2004/05/24/the-death-of-david-reimer) *[Reason](Reason (magazine))* However, intersex activists also criticised Money, stating that the unreported failure had led to the surgical reassignment of thousands of infants as a matter of policy.[Who was David Reimer (also, sadly, known as "John/Joan")?](http://www.isna.org/faq/reimer) via [Society of North America](Intersex)(Intersex Society of North America). Retrieved 10 July 2006. Privately, Money was mortified by the case, colleagues said, and as a rule did not discuss it.Carey, Benedict (11 July 2006). [John William Money, 84, Sexual Identity Researcher, Dies](https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/us/11money.html), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
Researcher Mary Anne Case wrote that Money made "fraudulently deceptive claims about the malleability of gender in certain patients who had involuntarily undergone sex reassignment surgery" and that this fueled the [movement](anti-gender)(anti-gender movement).
### Opinions on paedophilia
Money participated in debates on [chronophilia](chronophilia)s, especially [paedophilia](paedophilia). He stated that both sexual researchers and the public do not make distinctions between affectional paedophilia and [sadistic](Sexual sadism disorder) paedophilia. Colapinto reported that, Money told *Paidika*, a Dutch journal, of pedophilia:
*, Spring 1991, vol. 2, no. 3, p. 5.}}
## Works
*Money, John. (1952). *Hermaphroditism: An Inquiry into the Nature of a Human Paradox*. Thesis (Ph.D.), [University](Harvard)(Harvard University).
*Money, John, and Patricia Tucker. (1975). *Sexual Signatures on Being a Man or a Woman.* Little Brown & Co:
*Money, John. (1985). *The Destroying Angel*. Prometheus.
*Money, John. (1986). *Venuses Penuses*. Prometheus.
*Money, John. (1986). *Lovemaps: Clinical Concepts of Sexual/Erotic Health and Pathology, Paraphilia, and Gender Transposition in Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity*. New York: Irvington.
*Money, John. (1988) *Gay, Straight, and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation*. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Money, John. (1989). *Vandalized Lovemaps: Paraphilic Outcome of 7 Cases in Pediatric Sexology*. Prometheus Books:
*Money, John. (1994). *Sex Errors of the Body and Related Syndromes: A Guide to Counseling Children, Adolescents, and Their Families *, 2nd ed. Baltimore: P.H. Brooks Publishing Company.
*Money, John. (1995). *Gendermaps: Social Constructionism, Feminism, and Sexosophical History*. New York: Continuum.
*Money, John, and Anke Ehrhardt. (1996). *Man & Woman, Boy & Girl: Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity*. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson. Originally published: 1972
*Money, John. (1999). *The Lovemap Guidebook: A Definitive Statement*. Continuum.
## See also
**[Comprachicos](Comprachicos)*
**[Intersexion](Intersexion)* – the impact of Money's theories on the treatment of intersex people is featured in this documentary
* [Stoller](Robert)(Robert Stoller)
## References
## Further reading
*Ehrhardt, Anke A. 'John Money, PhD' *[of Sex Research](Journal)(Journal of Sex Research)* **44.3** (2007): 223–224.
*
*
## External links
*
*[John Money Collection](http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/library/money.html) via the [Institute](Kinsey)(Kinsey Institute)
*[Review of John Colapinto's book on John Money and David Reimer](http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/011/136eioki.asp) from "[Weekly Standard](The)(The Weekly Standard)"
* Joanne Silberner, [The Legacy of Sex Researcher John Money](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5549668), [NPR](NPR)
*[John Money Kinsey Institute](https://kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/john-money.php)
[births](Category:1921)(Category:1921 births)
[deaths](Category:2006)(Category:2006 deaths)
[New Zealand medical doctors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century New Zealand medical doctors)
[sexologists](Category:American)(Category:American sexologists)
[disease deaths in Maryland](Category:Neurological)(Category:Neurological disease deaths in Maryland)
[from Parkinson's disease](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from Parkinson's disease)
[University alumni](Category:Harvard)(Category:Harvard University alumni)
[and medicine](Category:Intersex)(Category:Intersex and medicine)
[Hopkins University faculty](Category:Johns)(Category:Johns Hopkins University faculty)
[Zealand art collectors](Category:New)(Category:New Zealand art collectors)
[Zealand people of Welsh descent](Category:New)(Category:New Zealand people of Welsh descent)
[Zealand people of English descent](Category:New)(Category:New Zealand people of English descent)
[Zealand psychiatrists](Category:New)(Category:New Zealand psychiatrists)
[Zealand scientists](Category:New)(Category:New Zealand scientists)
[from Morrinsville](Category:People)(Category:People from Morrinsville)
[involved in scientific misconduct incidents](Category:People)(Category:People involved in scientific misconduct incidents)
[studies academics](Category:Transgender)(Category:Transgender studies academics)
[of Pittsburgh alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Pittsburgh alumni)
[staff of the University of Otago](Category:Academic)(Category:Academic staff of the University of Otago)
[University of Wellington alumni](Category:Victoria)(Category:Victoria University of Wellington alumni)
[educated at Hutt Valley High School](Category:People)(Category:People educated at Hutt Valley High School)
|
Alice, Darling
|
alice,_darling
|
# Alice, Darling
*Revision ID: 1160096091 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T11:43:35Z*
---
| starring =
| cinematography = Dylan & Tiara Purcell
| editing = Gareth C. Scales
| music = [Pallett](Owen)(Owen Pallett)
| production_companies =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 89 minutes
| country =
| language = English
| budget =
| gross = $165,264
}}
***Alice, Darling*** is a 2022 [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) film directed by [Nighy](Mary)(Mary Nighy), in her directorial debut, from a screenplay by Alanna Francis. The film stars [Kendrick](Anna)(Anna Kendrick), [Horn](Kaniehtiio)(Kaniehtiio Horn), Charlie Carrick, and [Mosaku](Wunmi)(Wunmi Mosaku).
*Alice, Darling* had its world premiere at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(2022 Toronto International Film Festival) on September 11, 2022, and was released in [cinemas](select)(limited theatrical release) on December 30, 2022, in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) at the AMC Sunset 5, before a wide release later in the United States on January 20, 2023, exclusively in [Theatres](AMC)(AMC Theatres).
## Plot
Alice is in a [abusive](psychologically)(emotional abuse) relationship with her boyfriend, Simon. After taking a vacation with friends, she decides to reassess her relationship with Simon and attempts to break her [codependency](codependency).
Simon allows Alice out for a rare evening at a bar with her two best friends Tess and Sophie. The women notice that she is distracted and flinches at each ping from her phone, and throughout the evening she constantly touches her hair. It is implied that Alice met Simon in Tess's circle. However, despite Simon's connection to Tess, he seems to be removing her from her friends. Sophie proposes that they should celebrate Tess’ birthday at her parents' house up north, which Alice readily agrees to. Rather than tell Simon the truth, she informs him it is a work trip to Minneapolis.
On the trip to the cottage, the trio makes a quick stop at a convenience store, where Alice spots a flyer for a missing girl, Andrea. The missing person case seems to consume Alice.
The three women spend time together at the cottage, the rural town and a lake near the cottage. Simon discovers where they are from reading Alice's emails and calls her, demanding she leave and return to him. Alice packs up but Tess hides her phone and wallet, while Sophie goes to the store as an excuse for Tess and Alice to spend time together. Tess tries to teach Alice to paddle board on the lake. She jokingly rocks the board thus Alice falls off and loses her earring, a gift from Simon. Alice in a panic dives down to find the earring. Unsuccessful, she returns to the shore where she suffers further panic attacks muttering the phrase that she "can't do another thing wrong". When pressed by Tess they have an argument and Alice confesses that she hid their [retreat](vacation)(Vacation) from Simon. Tess immediately questions Alice's well-being. Alice cancels her plan to leave and the next morning she joins the search party for Andrea. Somewhere near an abandoned cottage she finds lipstick and thinks it belongs to Andrea.
Back in the cottage, the women repair their friendship and have a good time. Alice starts opening up to her friends, even at one point telling them that Simon never hurt her physically but eventually admitting Simon subjected her to emotional abuse. Alice stops responding to Simon's messages, leading him to show up unannounced with grocery bags in hand. That evening at a very tense dinner, Simon pulls out a newspaper showing the news that the body of the missing girl was finally found. Alice takes out the lipstick and says what she thinks about it. Simon condescendingly attempts to shut her down.
The next morning, Alice packs and leaves the cottage, surprising her friends. On the way to the main road, Simon stops his car at a junction allowing a long line of cyclists to pass. Sophie catches up with the car and breaks the back windshield using a [maul](Splitting maul). Alice gets out and locks eyes with Sophie, signalling to her friend that she doesn't want to go with Simon. Simon meanwhile demands for Alice to get back into the car, but she firmly declines. Tess steps in between Simon and Alice forcing Simon to give up. He walks back to the car and aggressively throws Alice's possessions out before driving away.
The film concludes with Alice riding the paddle board and taking a dive into the lake.
## Cast
* [Kendrick](Anna)(Anna Kendrick) as Alice
* [Horn](Kaniehtiio)(Kaniehtiio Horn) as Tess
* Charlie Carrick as Simon
* [Mosaku](Wunmi)(Wunmi Mosaku) as Sophie
* Mark Winnick as Marcus
* [Fe](Carolyn)(Carolyn Fe) as Customer
## Production
In July 2021, it was announced [Kendrick](Anna)(Anna Kendrick), Charlie Carrick, [Mosaku](Wunmi)(Wunmi Mosaku), and [Horn](Kaniehtiio)(Kaniehtiio Horn) would star in the film, with [Nighy](Mary)(Mary Nighy) directing from a screenplay by Alanna Francis, with [Pictures](Elevation)(Elevation Pictures) set to distribute domestically in Canada and [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films) internationally.
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) took place from June 21 to July 20, 2021, in [Toronto](Toronto). The film doesn't hide the fact that the story is set in Toronto and surrounding areas, with location names and landmarks appearing clearly throughout the film.
## Release
The film was released in a limited capacity on December 30, 2022, in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) at the AMC Sunset 5, before having a wide release on January 20, 2023, exclusively in [Theatres](AMC)(AMC Theatres). It had its world premiere at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2022)(2022 Toronto International Film Festival) on September 11, 2022.
The film was released for [VOD](Video on demand) on February 3, 2023. It was released for [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [DVD](DVD) on March 14, 2023.
## Reception
### Accolades
## References
## External links
*
[films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 films)
[independent films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 independent films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American psychological thriller films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian psychological thriller films)
[Canadian films](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language Canadian films)
[shot in Toronto](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Toronto)
[films](Category:Lionsgate)(Category:Lionsgate films)
[Canadian films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s Canadian films)
[American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
[psychological thriller films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s psychological thriller films)
[about abuse](Category:Films)(Category:Films about abuse)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
|
Rhode Island
|
rhode_island
|
# Rhode Island
*Revision ID: 1159751649 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T09:27:12Z*
---
| motto = Hope
| anthem = "[Island's It for Me](Rhode)(Rhode Island's It for Me)"
| Former = [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations)
| population_demonym = Rhode Islander
| seat = [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island)
| LargestCity = capital
| LargestCounty = [Providence](Providence County, Rhode Island)
| LargestMetro = [Boston](Greater)(Greater Boston) (combined)[Providence](Providence metropolitan area) (metro and urban)
| Governor =
| Lieutenant Governor = (D)
| Legislature = [Island General Assembly](Rhode)(Rhode Island General Assembly)
| Upperhouse = [Senate](Rhode Island Senate)
| Lowerhouse = [of Representatives](House)(Rhode Island House of Representatives)
| Judiciary = [Island Supreme Court](Rhode)(Rhode Island Supreme Court)
| Senators =
| Representative =
| postal_code = RI
| TradAbbreviation = R.I.
| OfficialLang = **De jure**: None**De facto**: English
| area_rank = 50th
| area_total_sq_mi = 1,545}}
| area_total_km2 = 4,001
| area_land_sq_mi = 1,055
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_sq_mi = 169
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| population_as_of = 2020 Census Results
| population_rank = 45th
| 2010Pop = 1,098,163
| population_density_rank = 2nd
| 2000DensityUS = 1006
| 2000Density = 388
| State Symbol =
| MedianHouseholdIncome = $63,870
| IncomeRank = [15th](List of U.S. states and territories by income)
| AdmittanceOrder = 13th
| AdmittanceDate = May 29, 1790
| timezone1 = [Eastern](Eastern Time Zone)
| utc_offset1 = – 05:00
| timezone1_DST = EDT
| utc_offset1_DST = – 04:00
| Longitude = 71° 07′ W to 71° 53′ W
| Latitude = 41° 09′ N to 42° 01′ N
| width_mi = 37
| width_km = 60
| length_mi = 48
| length_km = 77
| elevation_max_point = [Hill](Jerimoth)(Jerimoth Hill)
| elevation_max_ft = 812
| elevation_max_m = 247
| elevation_ft = 200
| elevation_m = 60
| elevation_min_point = Atlantic Ocean
| elevation_min_ft = 0
| elevation_min_m = 0
| iso_code = US-RI
| website = www.ri.gov
| Capital =
| Representatives =
}}
**Rhode Island** (, like *road*)}}}} is a [state](U.S. state) in the [England](New)(New England) region of the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States). It is the [U.S. state by area](smallest)(List of U.S. states by area) and the [populous](seventh-least)(List of states and territories of the United States by population), with slightly less than 1.1 million residents [of 2020](as)(2020 United States census); but Rhode Island has grown at every [count](decennial)(United States census) since 1790 and is the [densely populated state](second-most)(List of U.S. states by population density), after [Jersey](New)(New Jersey). The state takes its name from [eponymous island](the)(Aquidneck Island), though nearly all of its land area is on the mainland. Rhode Island borders [Connecticut](Connecticut) to its west; [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) to its north and east; and the Atlantic Ocean to its south via [Island Sound](Rhode)(Rhode Island Sound) and [Island Sound](Block)(Block Island Sound); and shares a small [border](maritime)(maritime border) with [York](New)(New York (state)), east of [Island](Long)(Long Island). [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island) is its capital and most populous city.
[Americans](Native)(Native Americans of the United States) lived around [Bay](Narragansett)(Narragansett Bay) for thousands of years before English settlers began arriving in the early 17th century. Map, Population, History, Beaches, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rhode-Island-state |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127021203/https://www.britannica.com/place/Rhode-Island-state |archive-date=January 27, 2018 |access-date=2021-11-10 |website=Britannica |language=en}} Rhode Island was unique among the [British Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies) in having been founded by a refugee, [Williams](Roger)(Roger Williams), who fled [persecution](religious)(religious persecution) in the [Bay Colony](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Bay Colony) to establish a haven for religious liberty. He founded Providence in 1636 on land purchased from local tribes, thereby creating the first settlement in North America with an explicitly secular government. The [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations) subsequently became a destination for religious and political dissenters and social outcasts, earning it the moniker "Rogue's Island".
Rhode Island was the first colony to call for a [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress), which it did in 1774, and the first to renounce its allegiance to the British [Crown](The Crown), which it did on May 4, 1776. After the American Revolution, during which it was heavily occupied and contested, Rhode Island became the fourth state to ratify the [of Confederation](Articles)(Articles of Confederation), which it did on February 9, 1778. Because its citizens favored a weaker central government, it boycotted the [convention](1787)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) that had drafted the [States Constitution](United)(Constitution of the United States), which it initially refused to ratify; it finally did ratify it on May 29, 1790, the last of the original 13 states to do so.
The state was officially named the **State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations** since the colonial era, but came to be commonly known as "Rhode Island". In November 2020, the state's voters [an amendment](approved)(2020 Rhode Island Question 1) to the [constitution](state)(Constitution of Rhode Island) formally dropping "and Providence Plantations" from its full name. Its official nickname is the "Ocean State", a reference to its of coastline and the large bays and inlets that make up about 14% of its total area.
## Name
### Origin of the name
Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is on the mainland of the United States. Its official name was *State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations* from its beginning in 1636 until 2020. This name was derived from the merger of Colonial settlements around Narragansett bay, and outside the jurisdiction of Plymouth colony. The settlements of Rhode Island ([Newport](Newport, Rhode Island) and [Portsmouth](Portsmouth, Rhode Island)) were on Rhode Island, which is called [Island](Aquidneck)(Aquidneck Island). *Providence Plantations* referred to settlements on the mainland of Providence and [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island).
It is unclear how the island came to be named *Rhode Island*, but two historical events may have been influential:
* Explorer [da Verrazzano](Giovanni)(Giovanni da Verrazzano) noted the presence of an island near the mouth of [Bay](Narragansett)(Narragansett Bay) in 1524 which he likened to the island of [Rhodes](Rhodes) off the coast of Greece. Subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island which Verrazzano described, but the colonists who settled the area assumed that it was this island.
* [Block](Adriaen)(Adriaen Block) passed by the island during his expeditions in the 1610s, and he described it in a 1625 account of his travels as "an island of reddish appearance", which was "" in 17th-century Dutch, meaning a red or reddish island, supposedly evolving into the designation Rhode Island. Historians have theorized that this "reddish appearance" resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore.
The earliest documented use of the name "Rhode Island" for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams. The name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words: "Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island." The name "Isle of Rodes" is used in a legal document as late as 1646.[Office of the Secretary of State: A. Ralph Mollis: State Library](http://sos.ri.gov/library/history/name/) . Sos.ri.gov. Retrieved on April 12, 2014. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island "Red Island" ().
### Changes to the name
The first English settlement in Rhode Island was the town of Providence, which the [Narragansett](Narragansett people) granted to Roger Williams in 1636. At that time, Williams obtained no permission from the English crown, as he believed the English had no legitimate claim on Narragansett and [Wampanoag](Wampanoag) territory. Williams traveled to London in 1643, during the English Civil War, to obtain legal recognition of the new settlements. A [Patent](Letters patent) was granted to "the incorporation of Providence Plantations in Narragansett Bay in New England" by the Parliamentary committee on [Plantations](Foreign)(Plantation (settlement or colony)). After the English Civil war, a Royal Charter was granted in 1663, giving the colony an official name of the "Governor and Company of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England, in America." Following the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution), in 1790 the new state incorporated as the "State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations". However, as matter of convenience, the state came to be commonly known as simply "Rhode Island".
The word *plantation* in the state's name became a contested issue during the 20th century and the increased awareness of slavery and its role in early Rhode Island history. The General Assembly voted in 2009 to hold a referendum in November 2010 on removing "and Providence Plantations" from the official name. Advocates for excising *plantation* argued that the word symbolized a legacy of disenfranchisement for many Rhode Islanders, as well as the proliferation of slavery in the colonies and in the post-colonial United States. Advocates for retaining the name argued that *plantation* was simply an archaic synonym for *colony* and bore no relation to slavery. The people voted overwhelmingly (78% to 22%) to retain the entire original name.
In June 2020, State Senator [Metts](Harold)(Harold Metts) introduced a resolution for another ballot referendum on the subject, saying, "Whatever the meaning of the term 'plantations' in the context of Rhode Island's history, it carries a horrific connotation when considering the tragic and racist history of our nation." Governor [Raimondo](Gina)(Gina Raimondo) issued an executive order to remove the phrase from a range of official documents and state websites. In July, amidst the [Floyd protests](George)(George Floyd protests) and nationwide calls to address systemic racism, the resolution referring the question to the voters was passed by both houses of the [Island General Assembly](Rhode)(Rhode Island General Assembly): 69–1 in the [of Representatives](House)(Rhode Island House of Representatives), and 35–0 in the [Senate](Rhode Island Senate). (PDF) The change was then approved by voters 52.8% to 47.2% as part of the [United States elections](2020)(2020 United States elections), taking effect in November 2020 upon certification of the results.
## History
### Colonial era: 1636–1770
[[1636, Roger Williams and his followers founded the settlement of Providence Plantations](File:Alonzo_Chappel_-_The_Landing_of_Roger_Williams_in_1636_-_43.003_-_Rhode_Island_School_of_Design_Museum.jpg|thumb|In)]
In 1636, [Williams](Roger)(Roger Williams) was banished from the [Bay Colony](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Bay Colony) for his religious views, and he settled at the top of Narragansett Bay on land sold or given to him by Narragansett sachem [Canonicus](Canonicus). He named the site Providence, "having a sense of God's merciful providence unto me in my distress",An Album of Rhode Island History by Patrick T. Conley and it became a place of religious freedom where all were welcome.
In 1638 (after conferring with Williams), [Hutchinson](Anne)(Anne Hutchinson), [Coddington](William)(William Coddington), [Clarke](John)(John Clarke (Baptist minister)), [Sherman](Philip)(Philip Sherman), and other religious dissenters were allowed to settle on [Island](Aquidneck)(Aquidneck Island) (also known as Rhode Island), by the Narragansett Sachems [Canonicus](Canonicus) and [Miantonomi](Miantonomi). They were given a few items in reciprocity for their generosity. However, as Roger Williams made clear in a letter to John Winthrop in June 1638: "Sir, concerning the islands Prudence and…Aquedenick…neither of them were sold properly, for a thousand fathom would not have bought either, by strangers. The truth is, not a penny was demanded for either, and what was paid was only gratuity, though I chose, for better assurance and form, to call it sale." This settlement was first called Pocasset and then changed in 1639 to [Portsmouth](Portsmouth, Rhode Island). The town was governed by the [Compact](Portsmouth)(Portsmouth Compact). The island's southern part became the separate settlement of [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island) after disagreements among the founders.
[Gorton](Samuel)(Samuel Gorton) purchased lands at [Shawomet](Warwick, Rhode Island) in 1642 from the Narragansetts, precipitating a dispute with the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1644, Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport united for their common independence as the [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations), governed by an elected council and "president". Gorton received a separate charter for his settlement in 1648 which he named [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island) after his patron.
[Metacomet](Metacomet) was the [Wampanoag](Wampanoag people) tribe's war leader, whom the colonists called King Philip. They invaded and burned down several of the towns in the area during [Philip's War](King)(King Philip's War) (1675–1676), including Providence which was attacked twice. A force of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth militia under General [Winslow](Josiah)(Josiah Winslow) invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett Indian village in the [Swamp](Great)(Great Swamp Fight) in [Kingstown, Rhode Island](South)(South Kingstown, Rhode Island) on December 19, 1675. In one of the final actions of the war, an Indian associated with [Church](Benjamin)(Benjamin Church (ranger)) killed King Philip in [Rhode Island](Bristol,)(Bristol, Rhode Island).
[[1680, Newport was the third largest Anglo-American city. It remained a prosperous population center until the 1770s](File:Touro_Park,_Newport,_Rhode_Island.jpg|thumb|In)]
The colony was amalgamated into the [of New England](Dominion)(Dominion of New England) in 1686, as [James II](King)(James II of England) attempted to enforce royal authority over the autonomous colonies in [North America](British)(British North America), but the colony regained its independence under the Royal Charter after the [Revolution](Glorious)(Glorious Revolution) of 1688. Slaves were introduced in Rhode Island at this time, although there is no record of any law legalizing slave-holding. The colony later prospered under the slave trade, distilling rum to sell in Africa as part of a profitable [trade](triangular)(triangular trade) in slaves and sugar with the Caribbean. Rhode Island's legislative body passed an act in 1652 abolishing the holding of slaves (the first British colony to do so), but this edict was never enforced and Rhode Island continued to be heavily involved in the [trade](slave)(slave trade) during the post-revolution era. In 1774, the slave population of Rhode Island was 6.3% of the total (nearly twice the ratio of other [England](New)(New England) colonies).
[University](Brown)(Brown University) was founded in 1764 as the College in the British Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. It was one of nine [colleges](Colonial)(Colonial colleges) granted charters before the American Revolution but was the first college in America to accept students regardless of religious affiliation.Ted Widmer, *Brown: The History of An Idea* (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2015), 42.
### Revolutionary to Civil War period: 1770–1860
[[File:Destruction_of_the_schooner_Gaspé_in_the_waters_of_Rhode_Island_1772_(NYPL_b12349146-422875)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Providence Revolutionaries burned [*Gaspee*](HMS)(Gaspee Affair) in Warwick in protest of British customs laws]]
Rhode Island's tradition of independence and dissent gave it a prominent role in the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution). At approximately 2 a.m. on June 10, 1772, a band of Providence residents [attacked](Gaspee Affair) the grounded revenue schooner *[Gaspée](HMS)(HMS Gaspée (1773))*, burning it to the waterline for enforcing [trade regulations](unpopular)(Navigation Acts) within Narragansett Bay. Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown on May 4, 1776. It was also the last of the thirteen colonies to ratify the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution) on May 29, 1790, and only under threat of heavy trade tariffs from the other former colonies and after assurances were made that a [of Rights](Bill)(United States Bill of Rights) would become part of the Constitution.
[[Rhode Island 9 pence 1786 urn-3 HBS.Baker.AC 1104484.jpeg|alt=A nine-pence banknote issued by Rhode Island in 1786 with the inscription: ""STATE OF RHODE-ISLAND, &c. THIS Bill is equal to NINE PENCE in Lawful Silver Money, and shall be received in all Payments within this State, agreeable to an Act passed by the GENERAL ASSEMBLY of said State, at their May Sessions, holden at the City of Newport, A. D. 1786. 9d." ; "Committee" is written vertically, to the right of the signatures. ; Within seal: "DOMINE SPERAMUS IN TE".|thumb|A nine-pence banknote issued by Rhode Island in 1786.](File:Recto)]
During the Revolution, the British occupied Newport in December 1776. A combined Franco-American force fought to drive them off Aquidneck Island. Portsmouth was the site of the first African-American military unit, the [Rhode Island Regiment](1st)(1st Rhode Island Regiment), to fight for the U.S. in the unsuccessful [of Rhode Island](Battle)(Battle of Rhode Island) of August 29, 1778. A month earlier, the appearance of a French fleet off Newport caused the British to scuttle some of their own ships in an attempt to block the harbor. The British abandoned Newport in October 1779, concentrating their forces in New York City. An [of 5,500 French troops](expedition)(Expédition Particulière) under [Rochambeau](Count)(Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau) arrived in Newport by sea on July 10, 1780. The [march](celebrated)(Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route) to [Virginia](Yorktown,)(Yorktown, Virginia), in 1781 ended with the defeat of the British at the [of Yorktown](Siege)(Siege of Yorktown) and the [of the Chesapeake](Battle)(Battle of the Chesapeake).
Rhode Island was also heavily involved in the [Revolution](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution), which began in America in 1787 when [Somers](Thomas)(Thomas Somers (investor)) reproduced textile machine plans which he imported from England. He helped to produce the [Cotton Manufactory](Beverly)(Beverly Cotton Manufactory), in which [Brown](Moses)(Moses Brown (Providence)) of Providence took an interest. Moses Brown teamed up with [Slater](Samuel)(Samuel Slater) and helped to create the second cotton mill in America, a water-powered textile mill. The [Revolution](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution#Belgium) moved large numbers of workers into the cities, creating a permanently landless class who were, therefore, by the law of the time, also voteless. By 1829, 60% of the state's free white males were ineligible to vote. Several attempts were unsuccessfully made to address this problem, and a new state constitution was passed in 1843 allowing landless men to vote if they could pay a $1 [tax](poll)(Poll tax (United States)).
For the first several decades of statehood, Rhode Island was governed in accordance with the 1663 [charter](colonial)(Rhode Island Royal Charter). Voting rights were restricted to landowners holding at least $134 in property, disenfranchising well over half of the state's male citizens. The charter apportioned legislative seats equally among the state's towns, over-representing rural areas and under-representing the growing industrial centers. Additionally, the charter disallowed landless citizens from filing civil suits without endorsement from a landowner. Bills were periodically introduced in the legislature to expand suffrage, but they were invariably defeated. In 1841, activists led by [W. Dorr](Thomas)(Thomas W. Dorr) organized an extralegal convention to draft a state constitution, arguing the charter government violated the [Clause](Guarantee)(Guarantee Clause) in Article Four, Section Four of the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution). In 1849 in [v. Borden](Luther)(Luther v. Borden) the US Supreme Court declined to rule on this question, holding that it was a political question outside its jurisdiction. In 1842, the charter government and Dorr's supporters held separate elections, and two rival governments claimed sovereignty over the state. Dorr's supporters led an armed [rebellion](Dorr rebellion) against the charter government, and Dorr was arrested and imprisoned for treason against the state. Later that year, the legislature drafted a state constitution, removing property requirements for American-born citizens but keeping them in place for immigrants, and retaining urban under-representation in the legislature.
In the early 19th century, Rhode Island was subject to a tuberculosis outbreak which led to [hysteria about vampirism](public)(Rhode Island vampire panic).
### Civil War
[[File:Fort_Adams_02.jpg|thumb|The [States Naval Academy](United)(United States Naval Academy) was moved to [Adams](Fort)(Fort Adams) in Newport during the Civil War]]
During the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War), Rhode Island was the first Union state to send troops in response to [Lincoln](President)(Abraham Lincoln)'s request for help from the states. Rhode Island furnished 25,236 fighting men, of whom 1,685 died. On the home front, Rhode Island and the other northern states used their industrial capacity to supply the Union Army with the materials it needed to win the war. The [States Naval Academy](United)(United States Naval Academy) moved to Rhode Island temporarily during the war.
In 1866, Rhode Island abolished racial segregation in the public schools throughout the state.
### Gilded Age
[[File:The_Breakers_interior_05.jpg|thumb|Interior of [Breakers](The)(The Breakers), a Newport symbol of the Gilded Age]]
The 50 years following the Civil War were a time of prosperity and affluence that author William G. McLoughlin calls "Rhode Island's halcyon era". Rhode Island was a center of the [Age](Gilded)(Gilded Age) and provided a home or summer home to many of the country's most prominent industrialists. This was a time of growth in textile mills and manufacturing and brought an influx of immigrants to fill those jobs, bringing population growth and urbanization. In [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island), New York's wealthiest industrialists created a summer haven to socialize and build [mansions](grand)(Preservation Society of Newport County). Thousands of French-Canadian, Italian, Irish, and Portuguese immigrants arrived to fill jobs in the textile and manufacturing mills in Providence, Pawtucket, Central Falls, and Woonsocket.
### World War I
During World War I, Rhode Island furnished 28,817 soldiers, of whom 612 died. After the war, the state was hit hard by the [Influenza](Spanish)(Spanish Influenza).
In the 1920s and 1930s, rural Rhode Island saw a surge in [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan) membership, largely in reaction to large waves of [immigrants](immigrants) moving to the state. The Klan is believed to be responsible for burning the [Industrial School](Watchman)(Watchman Industrial School) in [Scituate](Scituate, Rhode Island), which was a school for African-American children.
### Growth in the modern era: 1929–present
Since the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), the [Island Democratic Party](Rhode)(Rhode Island Democratic Party) has dominated local politics. Rhode Island has comprehensive health insurance for low-income children and a large [safety net](social)(social safety net). Many urban areas still have a high rate of children in poverty. Due to an influx of residents from [Boston](Boston), increasing housing costs have resulted in more homelessness in Rhode Island.
[[Providence in 2008](File:Downtown_Providence_Rhode_Island_2008.jpg|thumb|Downtown)]
The 350th Anniversary of the founding of Rhode Island was celebrated with a free concert held on the tarmac of the Quonset State Airport on August 31, 1986. Performers included [Berry](Chuck)(Chuck Berry), [James](Tommy)(Tommy James), and headliner [Hope](Bob)(Bob Hope).
In 2003, a [fire](nightclub)(The Station nightclub fire) in [Warwick](West)(West Warwick, Rhode Island) claimed 100 lives and resulted in nearly twice as many injured, catching national attention. The fire resulted in criminal sentences.
In March 2010, areas of the state received record flooding due to rising rivers from heavy rain. The first period of rainy weather in mid-March caused localized flooding and, two weeks later, more rain caused more widespread flooding in many towns, especially south of Providence. Rain totals on March 29–30, 2010 exceeded 14 inches (35.5 cm) in many locales, resulting in the inundation of area rivers—especially the Pawtuxet River which runs through central Rhode Island. The overflow of the Pawtuxet River, nearly above flood stage, submerged a sewage treatment plant and closed a five-mile (8 km) stretch of [95](Interstate)(Interstate 95). In addition, it flooded two shopping malls, numerous businesses, and many homes in the towns of Warwick, West Warwick, Cranston, and Westerly. Amtrak service was also suspended between New York and Boston during this period. Following the flood, Rhode Island was in a state of emergency for two days. The [Emergency Management Agency](Federal)(Federal Emergency Management Agency) (FEMA) was called in to help flood victims.
## Geography
[[map of Rhode Island.](File:Rhode_Island_-_NED500_(transparent).png|thumb|Topographic)]
Rhode Island covers an area of within the New England region of the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States) and is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by [Island Sound](Rhode)(Rhode Island Sound) and the Atlantic Ocean.[Office of the Secretary of State: A. Ralph Mollis: State Library](http://sos.ri.gov/library/history/facts/) . Sos.ri.gov. Retrieved on July 12, 2013. It shares a narrow maritime border with New York State between Block Island and [Island](Long)(Long Island). The state's mean elevation is . It is only wide and long, yet the state has a tidal shoreline on [Bay](Narragansett)(Narragansett Bay) and the Atlantic Ocean of .Official Government Web Portal for the State of Rhode Island www.ri.gov/facts/history.php accessed May 24, 2014.
Rhode Island is nicknamed the Ocean State and has a number of oceanfront [beaches](List of beaches in Rhode Island). It is mostly flat with no real mountains, and the state's highest natural point is [Hill](Jerimoth)(Jerimoth Hill), above sea level. The state has two distinct natural regions. Eastern Rhode Island contains the lowlands of the Narragansett Bay, while Western Rhode Island forms part of the New England upland. Rhode Island's forests are part of the [coastal forests](Northeastern)(Northeastern coastal forests) ecoregion.
Narragansett Bay is a major feature of the state's topography. There are more than 30 islands within the bay; the largest is [Island](Aquidneck)(Aquidneck Island), which holds the municipalities of Newport, Middletown, and Portsmouth. The second-largest island is [Conanicut](Conanicut Island), and the third is [Prudence](Prudence Island). [Island](Block)(Block Island) lies about off the southern coast of the mainland and separates [Island Sound](Block)(Block Island Sound) and the Atlantic Ocean proper.US Geological Survey topographical map Providence 1:250,000 (NK 19-7) 1958US Geological Survey topographical map Block Island (1:100,000) 30 × 60 minute series 1984 (41071-A1-TM-100)
A rare type of rock called [Cumberlandite](Cumberlandite) is found only in Rhode Island (specifically, in the town of [Cumberland](Cumberland, Rhode Island)) and is the state rock. There were initially two known deposits of the mineral, but it is an ore of iron, and one of the deposits was extensively mined for its ferrous content.A somewhat similar ore has been described in [Taberg](Taberg), Sweden.
File:National-atlas-rhode-island.png|Map of Rhode Island, showing major cities and roads
File:Cliff Walk - Newport, Rhode Island, USA - August 15, 2015 08.jpg|Rocky shoreline in Newport
File:Ninigret Pond National Wildlife Refuge 2.JPG|[Pond National Wildlife Refuge](Ninigret)(Ninigret Pond)
File:Blackstone River in Rhode Island.jpg|Forest along the [River](Blackstone)(Blackstone River)
File:Aerial view of Trustom Pond National Wildlife Refuge (RI) (8158417032).jpg|[Pond](Trustom)(Trustom Pond), a [lagoon](lagoon) in [Kingstown](South)(South Kingstown, Rhode Island)
### Climate
[[File:Köppen Climate Types Rhode Island.png|thumb|[climate types](Köppen)(Köppen climate classification) of Rhode Island, using 1991–2020 [normals](climate)(Climatological normal).]]
Most of Rhode Island has a [continental climate](humid)(humid continental climate), with warm summers and cold winters. The state's southern coastal portions are the broad transition zone into subtropical climates, with hot summers and cool winters with a mix of rain and snow. [Island](Block)(Block Island) has an [climate](oceanic)(oceanic climate). The highest temperature recorded in Rhode Island was , recorded on August 2, 1975, in Providence.[Recorded Highest Temperatures by State ](http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001416.html) Information Please Almanac The lowest recorded temperature in Rhode Island was on February 5, 1996, in [Greene](Greene, Rhode Island).[Recorded Lowest Temperatures by State ](http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001416.html) Information Please Almanac Monthly average temperatures range from a high of to a low of .
Rhode Island is vulnerable to tropical storms and hurricanes due to its location in New England, catching the brunt of many storms that blow up the eastern seaboard. Hurricanes that have done significant damage in the state include the [New England hurricane](1938)(1938 New England hurricane), [Carol](Hurricane)(Hurricane Carol) (1954), [Donna](Hurricane)(Hurricane Donna) (1960), and [Bob](Hurricane)(Hurricane Bob) (1991).
### Cities and towns
Rhode Island is divided into [counties](five)(list of counties in Rhode Island) but it has no county governments. The entire state is divided into municipalities, which handle all local government affairs.
There are 39 cities and towns in Rhode Island. Major population centers today result from historical factors; development took place predominantly along the [Blackstone](Blackstone River), [Seekonk](Seekonk River), and [River](Providence)(Providence River)s with the advent of the water-powered mill. Providence is the base of a large metropolitan area.
The state's 19 largest municipalities ranked by population are :
#[Providence](Providence, Rhode Island) (190,934)
#[Cranston](Cranston, Rhode Island) (82,934)
#[Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island) (82,823)
#[Pawtucket](Pawtucket, Rhode Island) (75,604)
#[Providence](East)(East Providence, Rhode Island) (47,139)
#[Woonsocket](Woonsocket, Rhode Island) (43,240)
#[Cumberland](Cumberland, Rhode Island) (36,405)
#[Coventry](Coventry, Rhode Island) (35,688)
#[Providence](North)(North Providence, Rhode Island) (34,114)
#[Kingstown](South)(South Kingstown, Rhode Island) (31,931)
#[Warwick](West)(West Warwick, Rhode Island) (31,012)
#[Johnston](Johnston, Rhode Island) (29,568)
#[Kingstown](North)(North Kingstown, Rhode Island) (27,732)
#[Newport](Newport, Rhode Island) (25,163)
#[Westerly](Westerly, Rhode Island) (23,359)
#[Falls](Central)(Central Falls, Rhode Island) (22,583)
#[Lincoln](Lincoln, Rhode Island) (22,529)
#[Bristol](Bristol, Rhode Island) (22,493)
#[Smithfield](Smithfield, Rhode Island) (22,118)
Some of Rhode Island's cities and towns are further partitioned into villages, in common with many other New England states. Notable villages include [Kingston](Kingston, Rhode Island) in the town of South Kingstown, which houses the University of Rhode Island; [Wickford](Wickford, Rhode Island) in the town of North Kingstown, the site of an annual international art festival; and [Wakefield](Wakefield, Rhode Island) where the Town Hall is for the Town of South Kingstown.
File:Weybosset Street view, Providence, Rhode Island (6x4).jpg|alt=PPAC Square in Downtown Providence|1. [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island)
File:Warwick Rhode Island City Hall.jpg|alt=Warwick City Hall|2. [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island)
File:William H Hall Free Library, Cranston RI.jpg|alt=William H. Hall Free Library in Cranston|3. [Cranston](Cranston, Rhode Island)
File:Old Post Office, Pawtucket, Rhode Island.jpg|alt=Old Post Office in Pawtucket|4. [Pawtucket](Pawtucket, Rhode Island)
File:World War I Memorial and Taunton Plaza, East Providence RI.jpg|alt=Taunton Plaza, East Providence|5. [Providence](East)(East Providence, Rhode Island)
File:Woonsocket City Hall 2015.jpg|alt=Woonsocket City Hall|6. [Woonsocket](Woonsocket, Rhode Island)
File:Harris Mill (51965).jpg|alt=Harris Mill in Coventry|7. [Coventry](Coventry, Rhode Island)
File:Cumberland Town Hall RI.jpg|alt=Cumberland Town Hall|8. [Cumberland](Cumberland, Rhode Island)
File:Greystone Mills.jpg|alt=Greystone Mills in North Providence|9. [Providence](North)(North Providence, Rhode Island)
File:Kingston Rhode Island Free Library.jpg|alt=Kingston Free Library|10. [Kingstown](South)(South Kingstown, Rhode Island)
File:Clemence-Irons House - Johnston, Rhode Island.jpg|alt=Clemence-Irons House in Johnston|11. [Johnston](Johnston, Rhode Island)
File:West Warwick Memorial.jpg|alt=Memorial in West Warwick|12. [Warwick](West)(West Warwick, Rhode Island)
File:Old Narragansett Church Wickford front view.jpg|alt=Old Narragansett Church in Wickford|13. [Kingstown](North)(North Kingstown, Rhode Island)
File:Old Colony House Newport Rhode Island.jpg|alt=Old Colony House in Newport|14. [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island)
File:Downtown Westerly, RI.jpg|alt=Downtown Westerly|15. [Westerly](Westerly, Rhode Island)
## Landmarks
[[File:Rhode_Island_State_House_2.jpg|thumb|The [Island State House](Rhode)(Rhode Island State House) in Providence boasts the world's fourth largest self-supported marble dome]]
The [capitol building](state)(Rhode Island State House) is made of white Georgian marble. On top is the world's fourth largest self-supported marble dome. It houses the Rhode Island Charter granted by [Charles II](King)(Charles II of England) in 1663, the Brown University charter, and other state treasures.
The [Baptist Church of Providence](First)(First Baptist Church in America) is the oldest [church](Baptist)(Baptists in the United States) in the Americas, founded by [Williams](Roger)(Roger Williams) in 1638.
The first fully automated post office in the country is in Providence. There are many historic mansions in the seaside city of Newport, including [Breakers](The)(The Breakers), [House](Marble)(Marble House), and [Castle](Belcourt)(Belcourt Castle). Also there is the [Synagogue](Touro)(Touro Synagogue), dedicated on December 2, 1763, considered by locals to be the first synagogue within the United States (see below for information on New York City's claim), and still serving. The synagogue showcases the religious freedoms established by Roger Williams, as well as impressive architecture in a mix of the classic colonial and Sephardic style. The [Casino](Newport)(Newport Casino) is a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark) building complex that houses the [Tennis Hall of Fame](International)(International Tennis Hall of Fame) and features an active grass-court tennis club.
[[File:The_Towers,_Narragansett_Pier_RI.jpg|thumb|[Towers](The)(The Towers (Narragansett, Rhode Island)) are a [Narragansett](Narragansett, Rhode Island) landmark]]
[Route 1A](Scenic)(Rhode Island Route 1A) (known locally as Ocean Road) is in [Narragansett](Narragansett, Rhode Island). "[Towers](The)(The Towers (Narragansett, Rhode Island))" is also in Narragansett featuring a large stone arch. It was once the entrance to a famous Narragansett casino that burned down in 1900. The Towers now serve as an event venue and host the local Chamber of Commerce, which operates a tourist information center.
The [Tower](Newport)(Newport Tower (Rhode Island)) has been hypothesized to be of [Viking](Viking) origin, although most experts believe it was a Colonial-era windmill.
## Environment
### Environmental legislation
[[File:Block_Island_Wind_Farm.jpg|thumb|The [Island Wind Farm](Block)(Block Island Wind Farm) is the first commercial offshore wind farm in the United States]]
On May 29, 2014, Governor Lincoln D. Chafee announced that Rhode Island was one of eight states to release a collaborative Action Plan to put 3.3 million zero-emission vehicles on its roads by 2025. The plan's purpose is to reduce [gas](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas) and smog-causing emissions. The plan promotes [vehicle](zero-emissions)(zero-emissions vehicle)s and investments in the infrastructure to support them.
In 2014, Rhode Island received grants of $2,711,685 from the [Protection Agency](Environmental)(United States Environmental Protection Agency) to clean up [sites](Brownfield)(Brownfield land) in eight locations. The grants provided communities with funding to assess, clean up, and redevelop contaminated properties, boost local economies, and leverage jobs while protecting public health and the environment.
In 2013, the "Lots of Hope" program was established in the City of Providence to focus on increasing the city's green space and local food production, improve urban neighborhoods, promote healthy lifestyles and improve environmental sustainability. Supported by a $100,000 grant, the program will partner with the City of Providence, the Southside Community Land Trust, and the Rhode Island Foundation to convert city-owned vacant lots into productive urban farms.
In 2012, Rhode Island passed bill S2277/H7412, "An act relating to Health and Safety – Environmental Cleanup Objectives for Schools", informally known as the School Siting Bill. Sponsored by Senator [Pichardo](Juan)(Juan Pichardo) and Representative [Slater](Scott)(Scott A. Slater), and signed into law by the governor, it made Rhode Island the first US State to prohibit school construction on Brownfield sites where toxic vapors can potentially affect indoor air quality. It also creates a public participation process whenever a city or town considers building a school on any other kind of contaminated site.
### Environmental monitoring
The monitors [weed](invasive)(invasive weed)s throughout New England.
## Demographics
}}
[[Origins in Rhode Island.png|thumb|334x334px|Ethnic origins in Rhode Island](File:Ethnic)]
[[Island population map.png|thumb|Rhode Island population density map](File:Rhode)]
The [States Census Bureau](United)(United States Census Bureau) estimated Rhode Island's population was 1,059,361 on July 1, 2019, a 0.65% increase since the [United States census](2010)(2010 United States Census). At the [U.S. census](2020)(2020 United States census), its population was 1,097,379. The [of population](center)(center of population) of Rhode Island is in [County](Providence)(Providence County, Rhode Island), in the city of [Cranston](Cranston, Rhode Island). A corridor of population can be seen from the Providence area, stretching northwest following the [River](Blackstone)(Blackstone River) to [Woonsocket](Woonsocket, Rhode Island), where 19th-century mills drove industry and development.
According to [HUD](United States Department of Housing and Urban Development)'s 2022 [Homeless Assessment Report](Annual)(Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress), there were an estimated 1,577 [homeless](Homelessness) people in Rhode Island.
According to the 2010 census, 81.4% of the population was White (76.4% [white](non-Hispanic)(non-Hispanic white)), 5.7% was Black or African American, 0.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.9% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.3% from two or more races. 12.4% of the total population was of [Hispanic](Hispanic and Latino Americans) or Latino origin (they may be of any race).
Of the people residing in Rhode Island, 58.7% were born in Rhode Island, 26.6% were born in a different state, 2.0% were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas or born abroad to American parent(s), and 12.6% were foreign born.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, , Rhode Island had an estimated population of 1,056,298, which is an increase of 1,125, or 0.10%, from the prior year and an increase of 3,731, or 0.35%, since the year 2010. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 15,220 people (that is 66,973 births minus 51,753 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 14,001 people into the state. [Immigration](Immigration to the United States) from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 18,965 people, and migration within the country produced a net decrease of 4,964 people.
[Hispanics](Hispanics in the United States) in the state make up 12.8% of the population, predominantly Dominican, Puerto Rican, and Guatemalan populations. Rhode Island has the highest percentage of [Americans](Dominican)(Dominican Americans) in the country at 5.1% according to latest estimates, putting the state at sixth largest Dominican community in the country.
According to the [U.S. census](2000)(2000 United States Census), 84% of the population aged 5 and older spoke only [English](American)(American English), while 8.07% spoke Spanish at home, 3.80% Portuguese, 1.96% French, 1.39% Italian and 0.78% speak other languages at home accordingly.
The state's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic white, has declined from 96.1% in 1970 to 76.5% in 2011. In 2011, 40.3% of Rhode Island's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white.
6.1% of Rhode Island's population were reported as under 5, 23.6% under 18, and 14.5% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 52% of the population.
According to the 2010–2015 [Community Survey](American)(American Community Survey), the largest ancestry groups were [Irish](Irish American) (18.3%), [Italian](Italian American) (18.0%), [English](English American) (10.5%), [French](French American) (10.4%), and [Portuguese](Portuguese American) (9.3%). Rhode Island has some of the highest percentages of Irish Americans and Italian Americans. Italian Americans make up a plurality in central and southern Providence County and [Americans](French-Canadian)(French-Canadian Americans) form a large part of northern Providence County. Irish Americans have a strong presence in Newport and Kent counties. Americans of English ancestry still have a presence in the state as well, especially in [County](Washington)(Washington County, Rhode Island), and are often referred to as "[Yankees](Swamp)(Swamp Yankees)".
Rhode Island has a notable Lusophone community, having a higher percentage of Americans of Portuguese ancestry than any other state, including [American](Portuguese)(Portuguese American)s and [Verdean American](Cape)(Cape Verdean American)s. Additionally, the state also has the highest percentage of [Liberia](Liberia)n immigrants, with more than 15,000 residing in the state. African immigrants, including those from Cape Verde and Liberia, form significant and growing communities in Rhode Island. Rhode Island is one of the few states where Black people of recent foreign origin outnumber Black people of multigenerational American origin (African Americans). Rhode Island also has a sizable Asian community.
Although Rhode Island has the smallest land area of all 50 states, it has the [highest population density](second)(List of U.S. states by population density) of any state in the Union, second to that of New Jersey.
### Birth data
*Since 2016, data for births of [Hispanic](White)(White Hispanic and Latino Americans) origin are not collected, but included in one *Hispanic* group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
### Religion
}}
A Pew survey of Rhode Island residents' religious self-identification in 2014 showed the following distribution of affiliations: [Catholic](Catholic Church in the United States) 42%, [Protestant](Protestant) 30%, [Jewish](American Jews) 1%, [Witnesses](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witnesses) 2%, [Buddhism](Buddhism in the United States) 1%, [Mormonism](Mormonism) 1%, [Hinduism](Hinduism in the United States) 1%, and [Non-religious](Non-religious) 20%. The largest Christian denominations as of 2010 were the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) with 456,598 adherents, the [Church](Episcopal)(Episcopal Church (United States)) with 19,377, the [Baptist Churches USA](American)(American Baptist Churches USA) with 15,220, and the [Methodist Church](United)(United Methodist Church) with 6,901 adherents.
Rhode Island has had the highest proportion of Catholic residents of any state according to a study in 2000, mainly due to large Irish, Italian, and French-Canadian immigration in the past; recently, significant Portuguese and various Hispanic or Latino communities have also been established in the state. Though it has the highest overall Catholic percentage of any state, none of Rhode Island's individual counties ranks among the 10 most Catholic in the United States, as Catholics are evenly spread throughout the state.
According to the [Religion Research Institute](Public)(Public Religion Research Institute) (PRRI) in 2020, 67% of the population were Christian, spread among [evangelical](Evangelicalism) and [Protestant](mainline)(mainline Protestant)ism, and Roman Catholicism. In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute revealed 72% of the population were Christian.
[[File:Touro_Synagogue,_Newport,_Rhode_Island.jpg|thumb|[Synagogue](Touro)(Touro Synagogue) in Newport is the [existing synagogue building](oldest)(Oldest synagogues in the United States) in the United States]]
Rhode Island's Jewish community, centered in the Providence area, emerged during a wave of Jewish immigration predominantly from Eastern Europeans [shtetl](shtetl)s between 1880 and 1920. The presence of the [Synagogue](Touro)(Touro Synagogue) in Newport, the oldest existing synagogue in the United States, emphasizes that these second-wave immigrants did not create Rhode Island's first Jewish community; a comparatively smaller wave of [and Portuguese Jews](Spanish)(Spanish and Portuguese Jews) immigrated to Newport during the colonial era. In 2022, they made up 2% of the state's population.
The religiously unaffiliated since 2014 were 20% of the population, though the separate study by the Public Religion Research Institute determined the irreligious increased to 29% of the adult population. In 2022, the religiously unaffiliated declined to 24% of the population.
## Economy
The Rhode Island economy had a colonial base in fishing.
[[File:Slater_and_Wilkinson_Mills_-_exterior_&_water_power_systems.jpg|thumb|[Mill](Slater)(Slater Mill Historic Site) in Pawtucket is cited as the birthplace of the [Revolution in the United States](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution in the United States)|alt=Slater Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island]]
The Blackstone River Valley was a major contributor to the [American](Economic history of the United States) Industrial Revolution. It was in [Pawtucket](Pawtucket, Rhode Island) that [Slater](Samuel)(Samuel Slater) set up [Mill](Slater)(Slater Mill) in 1793, using the waterpower of the [River](Blackstone)(Blackstone River) to power his [mill](cotton)(cotton mill). For a while, Rhode Island was one of the leaders in textiles. However, with the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), most textile factories relocated to southern U.S. states. The textile industry still constitutes a part of the Rhode Island economy but does not have the same power.
Other important industries in Rhode Island's past included toolmaking, [jewelry](costume)(costume jewelry), and [silverware](cutlery). An interesting by-product of Rhode Island's industrial history is the number of abandoned factories, many of which are now condominiums, museums, offices, and low-income and elderly housing. Today, much of Rhode Island's economy is based on services, particularly healthcare and education, and still manufacturing to some extent. The state's nautical history continues in the 21st century in the form of [submarine](nuclear)(nuclear submarine) construction.
Per the 2013 American Communities Survey, Rhode Island has the highest paid elementary school teachers in the country, with an average salary of $75,028 (adjusted to inflation).
The headquarters of [Financial Group](Citizens)(Citizens Financial Group), the 14th largest bank in the United States, is in [Providence](Providence, Rhode Island). The Fortune 500 companies [Caremark](CVS)(CVS Caremark) and [Textron](Textron) are based in [Woonsocket](Woonsocket, Rhode Island) and Providence, respectively. [Global](FM)(FM Global), [Corporation](GTECH)(GTECH Corporation), [Hasbro](Hasbro), [Power Conversion](American)(American Power Conversion), Nortek, and [Mutual Insurance](Amica)(Amica Mutual Insurance) are all Fortune 1000 companies based in Rhode Island.
Rhode Island's 2000 total gross state production was $46.18 billion (adjusted to inflation), placing it 45th in the nation. Its 2000 *per capita* personal income was $41,484 (adjusted to inflation), 16th in the nation. Rhode Island has the lowest level of energy consumption per capita of any state. Additionally, Rhode Island is rated as the 5th most energy efficient state in the country. In December 2012, the state's unemployment rate was 10.2%. This has gradually reduced to 3.5% in November 2019, however, the coronavirus pandemic brought the unemployment rate to a high of 18.1% in April 2020. This has since reduced to 10.5% in September 2020 and is projected to further decrease to 7% in October 2020.
Health services are Rhode Island's largest industry. Second is tourism, supporting 39,000 jobs, with tourism-related sales at $4.56 billion (adjusted to inflation) in the year 2000. The third-largest industry is manufacturing. Its industrial outputs are submarine construction, shipbuilding, costume jewelry, fabricated metal products, electrical equipment, machinery, and boatbuilding. Rhode Island's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, vegetables, dairy products, and eggs. The largest single product is [milk](milk), which in 2017 totaled $4,563,000 in sales. [weed](Invasive)(Invasive weed)s here are monitored by the .
Rhode Island's taxes were appreciably higher than neighboring states', because Rhode Island's income tax was based on 25% of the payer's federal income tax payment. Former [Donald Carcieri](Governor)(Donald Carcieri) claimed the higher tax rate had an inhibitory effect on business growth in the state and called for reductions to increase the competitiveness of the state's business environment. In 2010, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a new state income tax structure that Governor Carcieri signed into law on June 9, 2010. The income tax overhaul has made Rhode Island competitive with other New England states by lowering its maximum tax rate to 5.99% and reducing the number of tax brackets to three. The state's first income tax was enacted in 1971.
### Largest employers
, Rhode Island's largest employers (excluding employees of municipalities) are:
## Transportation
### Bus
[[File:R-Line_bus_on_Exchange_Street,_October_2014.JPG|alt=A Pawtucket-bound RIPTA bus in Providence|thumb|The [Island Public Transit Authority](Rhode)(Rhode Island Public Transit Authority) operates a statewide system of bus transport]]
The [Island Public Transit Authority](Rhode)(Rhode Island Public Transit Authority) (RIPTA) operates statewide intra- and intercity bus transport from its hubs at [Plaza](Kennedy)(Kennedy Plaza) in Providence, [Pawtucket](Pawtucket, Rhode Island), and [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island). RIPTA bus routes serve 38 of Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns. ([Shoreham](New)(New Shoreham, Rhode Island) on [Island](Block)(Block Island) is not served). RIPTA operates 58 routes, including daytime trolley service (using trolley-style replica buses) in Providence and Newport.
### Ferry
From 2000 through 2008, RIPTA offered seasonal ferry service linking Providence and Newport (already connected by highway) funded by grant money from the [States Department of Transportation](United)(United States Department of Transportation). Though the service was popular with residents and tourists, RIPTA was unable to continue after the federal funding ended. Service was discontinued . The service resumed in 2016 and has been successful. The privately run Block Island Ferry links [Island](Block)(Block Island) with [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island) and [Narragansett](Narragansett, Rhode Island) with traditional and fast-ferry service, while the Prudence Island Ferry connects [Bristol](Bristol, Rhode Island) with [Island](Prudence)(Prudence Island). Private ferry services also link several Rhode Island communities with ports in [Connecticut](Connecticut), [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), and New York.
### Rail
[[File:Southbound_Northeast_Regional_at_Kingston_station,_May_2017.JPG|alt=A southbound Northeast Regional train stopped at Kingston Station|thumb|A southbound [Regional](Northeast)(Northeast Regional) train at [Station](Kingston)(Kingston station (Rhode Island))]]
The [Commuter Rail](MBTA)(MBTA Commuter Rail)'s [Line](Providence/Stoughton)(Providence/Stoughton Line) links Providence and [F. Green Airport](T.)(T. F. Green Airport) with Boston's [Station](South)(South Station), with an intermediate stop at [Falls](Pawtucket/Central)(Pawtucket/Central Falls) and several stations in Massachusetts. The line was later extended southward to [Junction](Wickford)(Wickford Junction (MBTA station)), with service beginning April 23, 2012. The state hopes to extend the MBTA line to [Kingston](Kingston Railroad Station (Rhode Island)) and [Westerly](Westerly (Amtrak station)), as well as explore the possibility of extending Connecticut's [Line East](Shore)(Shore Line East) to T.F. Green Airport. Amtrak's [Express](Acela)(Acela Express) stops at [Station](Providence)(Providence Station) (the only Acela stop in Rhode Island), linking Providence to other cities in the [Corridor](Northeast)(Northeast Corridor). Amtrak's [Regional](Northeast)(Northeast Regional) service makes stops at [Station](Providence)(Providence Station), [Kingston](Kingston Railroad Station (Rhode Island)), and [Westerly](Westerly (Amtrak station)).
### Aviation
Rhode Island's primary airport for passenger and cargo transport is [F. Green Airport](T.)(T. F. Green Airport) in [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island), though Rhode Islanders who wish to travel internationally on direct flights and those who seek a greater availability of flights and destinations often fly through [International Airport](Logan)(Logan International Airport) in Boston.
### Limited access highways
[[File:CAP-ARC-Flight,_Jamestown_and_Newport_bridges.jpg|thumb|The [Verrazzano Bridge](Jamestown)(Jamestown Verrazzano Bridge) (foreground) and [Pell Newport Bridge](Claiborne)(Claiborne Pell Newport Bridge) (background)|alt=The Jamestown Verrazzano Bridge and Claiborne Pell Newport Bridge]]
[95](Interstate)(Interstate 95 in Rhode Island) (I-95) runs southwest to northeast across the state, linking Rhode Island with other states along the [Coast](East)(East Coast of the United States). [I-295](Interstate 295 (Rhode Island-Massachusetts)) functions as a partial [beltway](ring road) encircling Providence to the west. [I-195](Interstate 195 (Rhode Island–Massachusetts)) provides a limited-access highway connection from Providence (and [Connecticut](Connecticut) and New York via I-95) to Cape Cod. Initially built as the easternmost link in the (now cancelled) extension of [I-84](Interstate 84 (east)) from [Connecticut](Hartford,)(Hartford, Connecticut), a portion of [Route 6](U.S.)(U.S. Route 6 in Rhode Island) (US 6) through northern Rhode Island is limited-access and links I-295 with downtown Providence.
Several Rhode Island highways extend the state's limited-access highway network. [Route 4](Rhode Island Route 4) is a major north–south freeway linking Providence and [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island) (via I-95) with suburban and beach communities along [Bay](Narragansett)(Narragansett Bay). [Route 10](Rhode Island Route 10) is an urban [connector](connector (road)) linking downtown Providence with [Cranston](Cranston (RI)) and [Johnston](Johnston, Rhode Island). [Route 37](Rhode Island Route 37) is an important east–west freeway through Cranston and Warwick and links I-95 with I-295. [Route 99](Rhode Island Route 99) links [Woonsocket](Woonsocket, Rhode Island) with Providence (via [Route 146](Rhode Island Route 146)). Route 146 travels through the [Valley](Blackstone)(Blackstone Valley), linking Providence and I-95 with [Massachusetts](Worcester,)(Worcester, Massachusetts) and the [Turnpike](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Turnpike). [Route 403](Rhode Island Route 403) links Route 4 with [Point](Quonset)(Quonset Point).
Several bridges cross [Bay](Narragansett)(Narragansett Bay) connecting [Island](Aquidneck)(Aquidneck Island) and [Island](Conanicut)(Conanicut Island) to the mainland, most notably the [Pell Newport Bridge](Claiborne)(Claiborne Pell Newport Bridge) and the [Bridge](Jamestown-Verrazano)(Jamestown-Verrazano Bridge).
### Bicycle paths
[[File:East_Bay_Bike_Path_in_Riverside,_October_2020.jpg|thumb|The [Bay Bike Path](East)(East Bay Bike Path) in [Riverside](Riverside, Rhode Island)|alt=Two paved bike lanes extend into the distance]]
The [Bay Bike Path](East)(East Bay Bike Path) stretches from Providence to Bristol along the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay, while the [River Bikeway](Blackstone)(Blackstone River Bikeway) will eventually link Providence and Worcester. In 2011, Rhode Island completed work on a marked on-road bicycle path through Pawtucket and Providence, connecting the East Bay Bike Path with the Blackstone River Bikeway, completing a bicycle route through the eastern side of the state. The [C. O'Neill Bike Path](William)(William C. O'Neill Bike Path) (commonly known as the South County Bike Path) is an path through South Kingstown and Narragansett. The [Secondary Bike Path](Washington)(Washington Secondary Rail Trail) stretches from Cranston to Coventry, and the [Mile River Greenway](Ten)(Ten Mile River Greenway) path runs through East Providence and Pawtucket.
### Future
In late 2019, the [Island Public Transit Authority](Rhode)(Rhode Island Public Transit Authority) released a draft of the Rhode Island Transit Master Plan, documenting and describing a variety of proposed improvements and additions to be made to the state's public transit network by 2040. Several different proposals were offered and still under consideration as of December 2020, including implementation of a [rapid transit](bus)(bus rapid transit) system, express bus routes, expansion of Amtrak and MBTA services throughout the state, and construction of a new [rail](light)(light rail) network through downtown Providence.
## Media
## Education
[[File:Brown's_University_Hall_in_2007.jpg|thumb|[Hall](University)(University Hall (Brown University)) at [University](Brown)(Brown University) is one of the oldest academic buildings in the United States.]]
### Primary and secondary schools
### Colleges and universities
Rhode Island has several colleges and universities:
* [University](Brown)(Brown University)
* [University](Bryant)(Bryant University)
* [College of Rhode Island](Community)(Community College of Rhode Island)
* [& Wales University](Johnson)(Johnson & Wales University)
* [War College](Naval)(Naval War College)
* [England Institute of Technology](New)(New England Institute of Technology)
* [College](Providence)(Providence College)
* [Island College](Rhode)(Rhode Island College)
* [Island School of Design](Rhode)(Rhode Island School of Design)
* [Williams University](Roger)(Roger Williams University)
* [Regina University of Newport](Salve)(Salve Regina University)
* [of Rhode Island](University)(University of Rhode Island)
## Culture
### Local accent
Some Rhode Islanders speak with the distinctive, [non-rhotic](Rhotic and non-rhotic accents), traditional [Island accent](Rhode)(Eastern New England English#Rhode Island English) linguists describe as a cross between [York City](New)(New York City English) and [accent](Boston)(Boston accent)s (e.g., "water" sounds like "watuh" )."[This phonemic and phonetic arrangement of the low back vowels makes Rhode Island more similar to New York City than to the rest of New England](http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/Atlas_chapters/Ch16_2nd.rev.pdf) ". Labov, William et al. (2006). *The Atlas of North American English*. Berlin: Mouton-de Gruyter. Many Rhode Islanders distinguish a strong *aw* sound (i.e., resist the [merger](cot–caught)(cot–caught merger) of Boston) much like one might hear in New Jersey or New York City; for example, the word *coffee* is pronounced . Rhode Islanders sometimes refer to [fountain](drinking)(drinking fountain)s as "bubblers", milkshakes as "cabinets", and overstuffed foot-long sandwiches (of whatever kind) as "grinders".Vaux, Bert; Jøhndal, Marius L. (2009). "[The Cambridge online survey of world Englishes](survey.johndal.com/results/)." University of Cambridge.
### Food and beverages
Rhode Island, like the rest of New England, has a tradition of [chowder](clam)(clam chowder). Both the white New England and the red Manhattan varieties are popular, but there is also a unique clear-broth chowder known as *Rhode Island Clam Chowder* available in many restaurants. A culinary tradition in Rhode Island is the *[cake](clam)(clam cake)* (also known as a clam fritter outside of Rhode Island), a deep fried ball of buttery dough with chopped bits of clam inside. They are sold by the half-dozen or dozen in most seafood restaurants around the state, and the quintessential summer meal in Rhode Island is chowder and clam cakes.
The [quahog](hard clam) is a large local clam usually used in a chowder. It is also ground and mixed with stuffing or spicy minced sausage, and then baked in its shell to form a *[stuffie](stuffie)*. [Calamari](Calamari) (squid) is sliced into rings and fried as an appetizer in most Italian restaurants, typically served Sicilian-style with sliced banana peppers and marinara sauce on the side. (In 2014, calamari became the official state appetizer.) [Casino](Clams)(Clams Casino) originated in Rhode Island, invented by Julius Keller, the [d'](maître)(Maître d'hôtel) in the original Casino next to the seaside Towers in Narragansett.Ruth Reichl, John Willoughby, Zanne Early Stewart The Gourmet Cookbook: More Than 1000 Recipes Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006 , 9780618806928
1056 pages page 50 [The Gourmet Cookbook](https://books.google.com/books?id=PwJgZhXZVNkC&dq=clams+casino+rhode+island&pg=PA50) Clams Casino resemble the beloved stuffed quahog but are generally made with the smaller littleneck or cherrystone clam and are unique in their use of bacon as a topping.
The official state drink of Rhode Island is *[milk](coffee)(coffee milk)*, a beverage created by mixing milk with coffee syrup. This unique syrup was invented in the state and is sold in almost all Rhode Island supermarkets, as well as its bordering states. [Johnnycake](Johnnycake)s have been a Rhode Island staple since Colonial times, made with corn meal and water then pan-fried much like pancakes.
Submarine sandwiches are called *grinders* throughout Rhode Island, and the Italian grinder, made with cold cuts such as ham, [prosciutto](prosciutto), [capicola](capicola), [salami](salami), and [cheese](Provolone)(Provolone cheese), is especially popular. [Linguiça](Linguiça) or [chouriço](chouriço) is a spicy Portuguese sausage often served with peppers and eaten with hearty bread.
### Rhode Island state symbols
|soil =
|sport =
|tartan = [Island State Tartan](Rhode)(Rhode Island State Tartan)
|toy =
|fruit = [Island Greening](Rhode)(Rhode Island Greening)
|image_route = Rhode Island 5.svg
|image_quarter = 2001 RI Proof.png
|quarter_release_date = 2001
}}
### In popular culture
The [brothers](Farrelly)(Farrelly brothers) and [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane) depict Rhode Island in popular culture, often making comedic [parodies](parodies) of the state. MacFarlane's television series *[Guy](Family)(Family Guy)* is based in a fictional Rhode Island city named Quahog, and notable local events and celebrities are regularly lampooned. [Griffin](Peter)(Peter Griffin) is seen working at the Pawtucket [brewery](brewery), and other state locations are mentioned.
The 1956 film *[Society](High)(High Society (1956 film))* (starring [Crosby](Bing)(Bing Crosby), [Kelly](Grace)(Grace Kelly), and [Sinatra](Frank)(Frank Sinatra)) was set in Newport, Rhode Island.
The [film adaptation](1974)(The Great Gatsby (1974 film)) of *[Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby)* was also filmed in Newport.
[Bouvier](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis) and [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy) were married at St. Mary's church in Newport. Their reception took place at [Farm](Hammersmith)(Hammersmith Farm), the Bouvier summer home in Newport.
Cartoonist [Bousquet](Don)(Don Bousquet), a state icon, has made a career out of Rhode Island culture, drawing Rhode Island-themed gags in *[Providence Journal](The)(The Providence Journal)* and *[Yankee](Yankee (magazine))* magazine. These cartoons have been reprinted in the *Quahog* series of paperbacks (*I Brake for Quahogs*, *Beware of the Quahog*, and *The Quahog Walks Among Us*.) Bousquet has also collaborated with humorist and *Providence Journal* columnist [Patinkin](Mark)(Mark Patinkin) on two books: *The Rhode Island Dictionary* and *The Rhode Island Handbook*.
The 1998 film *[Joe Black](Meet)(Meet Joe Black)* was filmed at [Mansion](Aldrich)(Aldrich Mansion) in the Warwick Neck area of [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island).
*[of Proof](Body)(Body of Proof)*s first season was filmed entirely in Rhode Island. The show premiered on March 29, 2011.
The 2007 [Carell](Steve)(Steve Carell) and [Cook](Dane)(Dane Cook) film *[in Real Life](Dan)(Dan in Real Life)* was filmed in various coastal towns in the state. The sunset scene with the entire family on the beach takes place at [Point](Napatree)(Napatree Point).
*[Shore](Jersey)(Jersey Shore (TV series))* star Pauly D filmed part of his spin-off *The Pauly D Project* in his hometown of Johnston.
The [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central) cable television series *[Period](Another)(Another Period)* is set in Newport during the [Age](Gilded)(Gilded Age).
### Notable firsts in Rhode Island
Rhode Island has been the first in a number of initiatives. The [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations) enacted the first law prohibiting slavery in America on May 18, 1652.
The first act of armed rebellion in America against the British Crown was the boarding and burning of the Revenue Schooner *HMS Gaspée* in Narragansett Bay on June 10, 1772. The idea of a [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress) was first proposed at a town meeting in Providence on May 17, 1774. Rhode Island elected the first delegates ([Hopkins](Stephen)(Stephen Hopkins (politician)) and [Ward](Samuel)(Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician))) to the Continental Congress on June 15, 1774. The Rhode Island General Assembly created the first standing army in the colonies (1,500 men) on April 22, 1775. On June 15, 1775, the first naval engagement took place in the American Revolution between an American sloop commanded by Capt. [Whipple](Abraham)(Abraham Whipple) and an armed tender of the British Frigate *Rose*. The tender was chased aground and captured. Later in June, the General Assembly created the American Navy when it commissioned the sloops *[Katy](USS *Providence* (1775)#Service as Katy)* and , armed with 24 guns and commanded by Abraham Whipple who was promoted to Commodore. Rhode Island was the first Colony to declare independence from Britain on May 4, 1776.
Slater Mill in Pawtucket was the first commercially successful cotton-spinning mill with a fully mechanized power system in America and was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution in the US. The oldest Fourth of July parade in the country is still held annually in [Rhode Island](Bristol,)(Bristol, Rhode Island). The first Baptist church in America was founded in Providence in 1638. [Smith Franklin](Ann)(Ann Smith Franklin) of the Newport *Mercury* was the first female newspaper editor in America (August 22, 1762). [Synagogue](Touro)(Touro Synagogue) is the oldest synagogue in America, founded in Newport in 1763.
Pelham Street in Newport was the first in America to be illuminated by gaslight in 1806. The first strike in the United States in which women participated occurred in Pawtucket in 1824. [Hill](Watch)(Watch Hill, Rhode Island) has the nation's oldest flying horses [carousel](carousel) that has been in continuous operation since 1850. The motion picture machine was patented in Providence on April 23, 1867. The first lunch wagon in America was introduced in Providence in 1872. The first nine-hole golf course in America was completed in Newport in 1890. The first state health laboratory was established in Providence on September 1, 1894. The [Island State House](Rhode)(Rhode Island State House) was the first building with an all-marble dome to be built in the United States (1895–1901). The first automobile race on a track was held in Cranston on September 7, 1896. The first automobile parade was held in Newport on September 7, 1899, on the grounds of Belcourt Castle.
### Miscellaneous local culture
Rhode Island is nicknamed "The Ocean State", and the nautical nature of Rhode Island's geography pervades its culture. Newport Harbor, in particular, holds many pleasure boats. In the lobby of [F. Green](T.)(T. F. Green Airport), the state's main airport, is a large life-sized sailboat, and the state's license plates depict an ocean wave or a sailboat.
[[File:Waves_at_Narragansett_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|Many Rhode Islanders visit [County](Washington)(Washington County, Rhode Island) for its beaches]]
The large number of beaches in [County](Washington)(Washington County, Rhode Island) lures many Rhode Islanders south for summer vacation.
The state constitution protects shore access, including swimming and gathering of seaweed.Constitution of the State of Rhode Island (1986), Article I, Section 17 The 1982 Rhode Island Supreme Court decision in *State v. Ibbison* defines the end of private land as the mean high tide line, which is difficult to determine in day-to-day activities, and has resulted in beach access conflicts. Underfunding of the [Island Coastal Resources Management Council](Rhode)(Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council) has resulted in lax enforcement against encroachment on public access and building of illegal structures.
The state was notorious for organized crime activity from the 1950s into the 1990s when the [crime family](Patriarca)(Patriarca crime family) held sway over most of New England from its Providence headquarters.
Rhode Islanders developed a unique style of architecture in the 17th century called the [stone-ender](stone-ender).
Rhode Island is the only state to still celebrate [over Japan Day](Victory)(Victory over Japan Day), which is officially named "Victory Day" but is sometimes referred to as "VJ Day". It is celebrated on the second Monday in August.
Nibbles Woodaway, more commonly referred to as "[Big Blue Bug](The)(Big Blue Bug)", is a 58-foot-long termite mascot for a Providence extermination business. Since its construction in 1980, it has been featured in several movies and television shows, and has come to be recognized as a cultural landmark by many locals. In more recent times, the Big Blue Bug has been given a mask to remind locals and visitors to mask-up during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Rhode Island).
### Sports
#### Professional
Rhode Island's only professional minor league team is the [Bruins](Providence)(Providence Bruins) [hockey](ice)(ice hockey) team of the [Hockey League](American)(American Hockey League), who are a top-level minor league affiliate of the [Bruins](Boston)(Boston Bruins). They play in the [Mutual Pavilion](Amica)(Amica Mutual Pavilion) in Providence and won the AHL's [Cup](Calder)(Calder Cup) during the [AHL season](1998–99)(1998–99 AHL season).
[[File:McCoy Stadium Pan.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The [Red Sox](Pawtucket)(Pawtucket Red Sox) played at [Stadium](McCoy)(McCoy Stadium)]]
The [Red Sox](Pawtucket)(Pawtucket Red Sox) baseball team was a [Triple-A](Triple-A (baseball)) [League](International)(International League) affiliate of the [Red Sox](Boston)(Boston Red Sox) from 1973 to 2020. They played at [Stadium](McCoy)(McCoy Stadium) in [Pawtucket](Pawtucket, Rhode Island) and had won four league titles, the [Cup](Governors')(Governors' Cup), in 1973, 1984, 2012, and 2014. McCoy Stadium also has the distinction of being home to the [professional baseball game](longest)(longest professional baseball game) ever played – 33 innings.
The [Reds](Providence)(Providence Reds) were a hockey team that played in the [Hockey League](Canadian-American)(Canadian–American Hockey League) (CAHL) from 1926 to 1936, and the [Hockey League](American)(American Hockey League) (AHL) from 1936 to 1977, the last season of which they played as the Rhode Island Reds. The team won the Calder Cup in 1938, 1940, 1949, and 1956. The Reds played at the Rhode Island Auditorium, on North Main Street in Providence, Rhode Island from 1926 through 1972, when the team affiliated with the New York Rangers and moved into the newly built Providence Civic Center. The team name came from the rooster known as the Rhode Island Red. They moved to New York in 1977, then to [Connecticut](Connecticut) in 1997, and are now called the [Wolf Pack](Hartford)(Hartford Wolf Pack).
The Reds are the oldest continuously operating minor-league hockey franchise in North America, having fielded a team in one form or another since 1926 in the CAHL. It is also the only AHL franchise to have never missed a season. The AHL returned to Providence in 1992 in the form of the Providence Bruins.
[[Baseball Champion Providence Grays](File:1884grays.jpg|thumb|1884)]
Before the great expansion of athletic teams all over the country, Providence and Rhode Island in general played a great role in supporting teams. The [Grays](Providence)(Providence Grays) won the first World Championship in baseball history in 1884. The team played their home games at the old Messer Street Field in Providence. The Grays played in the National League from 1878 to 1885. They defeated the New York Metropolitans of the American Association in a best of five-game series at the Polo Grounds in New York. Providence won three straight games to become the first champions in major league baseball history. [Ruth](Babe)(Babe Ruth) played for the minor league Providence Grays of 1914 and hit his only official minor league home run for them before the Grays' parent club, the [Red Stockings](Boston)(Boston Red Sox), recalled him.
The now-defunct professional football team the [Steam Roller](Providence)(Providence Steam Roller) won the 1928 NFL title. They played in a 10,000 person stadium called the Cycledrome. The [Steamrollers](Providence)(Providence Steamrollers) played in the [Association of America](Basketball)(Basketball Association of America) which became the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association).
Rhode Island is also home to a top semi-professional soccer club, the [Island Reds](Rhode)(RI Reds), which compete in the National premier soccer league, in the fourth division of U.S. Soccer.
Rhode Island is home to one top level non-minor league team, the [Island Rebellion](Rhode)(Rhode Island Rebellion) [league](rugby)(rugby league) team, a semi-professional rugby league team that competes in the [Rugby League](USA)(USA Rugby League), the Top Competition in the United States for the Sport of Rugby League. The Rebellion play their home games at Classical High School in Providence.
##### Current professional teams
##### Current semi-professional teams
#### Collegiate and amateur sports
[[File:Meade_Stadium.jpg|thumb|University of Rhode Island's [Stadium](Meade)(Meade Stadium) in [Kingston](Kingston, Rhode Island)]]
There are four [NCAA](NCAA) Division I schools in Rhode Island. All four schools compete in different conferences. The [University Bears](Brown)(Brown University) compete in the [League](Ivy)(Ivy League), the [University Bulldogs](Bryant)(Bryant Bulldogs) compete in the [East Conference](America)(America East Conference), the [College Friars](Providence)(Providence Friars) compete in the [East Conference](Big)(Big East Conference), and the [of Rhode Island Rams](University)(Rhode Island Rams) compete in the [10 Conference](Atlantic)(Atlantic 10 Conference). Three of the schools' football teams compete in the [Championship Subdivision](Football)(NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision), the second-highest level of [football](college)(college football) in the United States. Brown plays FCS football in the [League](Ivy)(Ivy League), Bryant plays FCS football in the [South Conference](Big)(Big South Conference) before that league merges its football operations with those of the [Valley Conference](Ohio)(Ohio Valley Conference) in 2023, and Rhode Island plays FCS football in CAA Football, the technically separate football league of the [Athletic Association](Colonial)(Colonial Athletic Association). All four Division I schools in the state compete in an intrastate all-sports competition known as the [State Cup](Ocean)(Ocean State Cup), with Bryant winning the most recent cup in 2011–12 academic year.
From 1930 to 1983, [Cup](America's)(America's Cup) races were sailed off Newport, and the extreme-sport [Games](X)(X Games) and [Games](Gravity)(Gravity Games) were founded and hosted in the state's capital city.
[[File:ITHF_Grounds_and_Newport_Casino_building.jpg|thumb|The [Tennis Hall of Fame](International)(International Tennis Hall of Fame) in Newport]]
The [Tennis Hall of Fame](International)(International Tennis Hall of Fame) is in Newport at the Newport Casino, site of the first U.S. National Championships in 1881. The Hall of Fame and Museum were established in 1954 by [Van Alen](Jimmy)(Jimmy Van Alen) as "a shrine to the ideals of the game".
Rhode Island is also home to the headquarters of the governing body for youth rugby league in the United States, the American Youth Rugby League Association or AYRLA. The AYRLA has started the first-ever Rugby League youth competition in Providence Middle Schools, a program at the RI Training School, in addition to starting the first High School Competition in the US in Providence Public High School.
## Government
}}
The capital of Rhode Island is Providence. The state's governor is [McKee](Daniel)(Daniel McKee) (D), and the lieutenant governor is [Matos](Sabina)(Sabina Matos) (D). [Raimondo](Gina)(Gina Raimondo) became Rhode Island's first female governor with a plurality of the vote in the November 2014 state elections. Its United States senators are [Reed](Jack)(Jack Reed (Rhode Island politician)) (D) and [Whitehouse](Sheldon)(Sheldon Whitehouse) (D). Rhode Island's two United States representatives are [Cicilline](David)(David Cicilline) (D-1) and [Magaziner](Seth)(Seth Magaziner) (D-2). *See [districts map](congressional)(List of United States congressional districts#Rhode Island).* Rhode Island is one of a few states that do not have an official governor's residence. *See [of Rhode Island Governors](List)(List of Rhode Island Governors).*
The state legislature is the [Island General Assembly](Rhode)(Rhode Island General Assembly), consisting of the 75-member [of Representatives](House)(Rhode Island House of Representatives) and the 38-member [Senate](Rhode Island Senate). The Democratic Party dominates both houses of the bicameral body; the Republican Party's presence is minor in the state government, with Republicans holding a handful of seats in both the Senate and House of Representatives.
## Elections
[[Island Presidential Election Results 2020.svg|left|thumb|County results of the 2020 Presidential election. Joe Biden (D) won every county.](File:Rhode)]
Rhode Island's population barely crosses the threshold beyond the minimum of three for additional votes in both the federal [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives) and [College](Electoral)(Electoral College (United States)); it is well represented relative to its population, with the [eighth-highest](List of U.S. states by population) number of electoral votes and [second-highest](List of U.S. states by population) number of House Representatives per resident. Based on its area, Rhode Island has the highest density of electoral votes of any state.
Federally, Rhode Island is a reliably Democratic state during presidential elections, usually supporting the Democratic presidential nominee. The state voted for the Republican presidential candidate until [1908](1908 United States presidential election). Since then, it has voted for the Republican nominee for president seven times, and the Democratic nominee 17 times. The last 16 presidential elections in Rhode Island have resulted in the Democratic Party winning the Ocean State's Electoral College votes 12 times. In the [presidential election](1980)(1980 United States presidential election), Rhode Island was one of six states to vote against [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan). Reagan was the last Republican to win any of the state's counties in a Presidential election until Donald Trump won Kent County in 2016. In 1988, [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) won over 40% of the state's popular vote, something no Republican has done since.
Rhode Island was the Democrats' leading state in 1960, 1964, 1968, 1988 and 2000, and second-best in 1968, 1972, 1996, and 2004. Rhode Island's most one-sided Presidential election result was in 1964, with over 80% of Rhode Island's votes going for [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson). In 2004, Rhode Island gave [Kerry](John)(John Kerry) more than a 20-percentage-point margin of victory (the third-highest of any state), with 59.4% of its vote. All but three of Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns voted for the Democratic candidate. The exceptions were East Greenwich, West Greenwich, and Scituate. taken from [web.mit.edu](http://web.mit.edu/cstewart/www/election2004.html) In 2008, Rhode Island gave [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) a 28-percentage-point margin of victory (the third-highest of any state), with 63% of its vote. All but one of Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns voted for the Democratic candidate (the exception being Scituate).
In a 2020 study, Rhode Island was ranked as the 19th easiest state for citizens to vote in.
## Legislation and taxes
Rhode Island is one of 21 states that have abolished capital punishment; it was second do so, just after [Michigan](Michigan), and carried out its last execution in the 1840s. Rhode Island was the second to last state to make prostitution illegal. Until November 2009 Rhode Island law [prostitution legal](made)(Prostitution in Rhode Island) provided it took place indoors. In a 2009 study Rhode Island was listed as the 9th safest state in the country.
In 2011, Rhode Island became the third state in the United States to pass legislation to allow the use of medical marijuana. On May 25, 2022, Rhode Island fully legalized recreational use of marijuana, becoming the nineteenth state to do so. Additionally, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed legislation that allowed civil unions which Governor [Chafee](Lincoln)(Lincoln Chafee) signed into law on July 2, 2011. Rhode Island became the eighth state to fully recognize either same-sex marriage or civil unions. Same-sex marriage became legal on May 2, 2013, and took effect August 1.
Rhode Island has some of the highest taxes in the country, particularly its property taxes, ranking seventh in local and state taxes, and sixth in real estate taxes.
## Notable people
* [Angell](Thomas)(Thomas Angell) (1618–1694) – co-founder of the [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations)
* [Babcock](Joshua)(Joshua Babcock) (1707–1783) – physician, American Revolution general, state Supreme Court justice, and postmaster
* [Clarke](John)(John Clarke (Baptist minister)) (1609–1676) – Baptist minister, co-founder of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, author of its influential charter, and a leading advocate of religious freedom in America
* [Coddington](William)(William Coddington) (1601–1678) – magistrate of the [of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations), Judge of Portsmouth, Judge of Newport, Governor of Portsmouth and Newport, Deputy Governor of the entire colony, and governor of the colony
* [Ellery](William)(William Ellery) (1727–1820) – a signer of the [States Declaration of Independence](United)(United States Declaration of Independence) as a representative of Rhode Island
* [Gorton](Samuel)(Samuel Gorton) (1593–1677) – settled [Warwick](Warwick, Rhode Island)
* [Greene](Nathanael)(Nathanael Greene) (1742–1786) – Continental Army officer, considered George Washington's most gifted officer
* [Hopkins](Esek)(Esek Hopkins) (1718–1802) – Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy during the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War)
* [Hopkins](Stephen)(Stephen Hopkins (politician)) (1707–1785) – Governor of Rhode Island, RI Supreme Court justice, Signatory of the Declaration of Independence
* [Hutchinson](Anne)(Anne Hutchinson) (1591–1643) – early settler of Newport, the catalyst of the [Controversy](Antinomian)(Antinomian Controversy)
* [P. Lovecraft](H.)(H. P. Lovecraft) (1890–1937) – author
* [Hazard Perry](Oliver)(Oliver Hazard Perry) (1785–1819) naval commander and hero of the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812), the best-known and most prominent member of the [family](Perry)(Perry family) naval dynasty
* [Slater](Samuel)(Samuel Slater) (1768–1835) – industrialist, "father of the industrial revolution"
* [Stuart](Gilbert)(Gilbert Stuart) (1755–1828) – painter, one of America's foremost portraitists
* [Mitchell Varnum](James)(James Mitchell Varnum) (1748–1789) – general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War
* [Ward](Samuel)(Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)) (1725–1776) – Supreme Court Justice, Governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and a delegate to the Continental Congress
* [Ward Jr.](Samuel)(Samuel Ward Jr.) (1756–1832) – American Revolutionary War soldier and delegate to the secessionist [Convention](Hartford)(Hartford Convention)
* [Williams](Roger)(Roger Williams (theologian)) (1603–1684) – founder of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, influential author, considered the first proponent of [of church and state](separation)(separation of church and state)
* [Whipple](Abraham)(Abraham Whipple) (1733–1819) – Continental Navy commander-in-chief
## See also
* [of Rhode Island-related articles](Index)(Index of Rhode Island-related articles)
* [of Rhode Island](Outline)(Outline of Rhode Island)
## Notes
## Citations
}}
## General bibliography
### Primary sources
* Dwight, Timothy. *Travels Through New England and New York* (circa 1800) 4 vol. (1969) Online at: [vol 1](http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN244525439) ; [vol 2](http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?did=D6116); [vol 3](http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?did=D6784); [vol 4](http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?did=D6003)
* [McPhetres, S. A. *A political manual for the campaign of 1868, for use in the New England states, containing the population and latest election returns of every town* (1868)](http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ADH0309)
* [Rhode Island's Geography and Climate](https://web.archive.org/web/20050630075906/http://www.sec.state.ri.us/resources_for/library/riinfo/riinfo/knowrhode)
### Secondary sources
* Adams, James Truslow. *The Founding of New England* (1921)
* Adams, James Truslow. *Revolutionary New England, 1691–1776* (1923)
* Adams, James Truslow. *New England in the Republic, 1776–1850* (1926)
* Andrews, Charles M. *The Fathers of New England: A Chronicle of the Puritan Commonwealths* (1919). Short survey by leading scholar.
* Axtell, James, ed. *The American People in Colonial New England* (1973), new social history
* Brewer, Daniel Chauncey. *Conquest of New England by the Immigrant* (1926).
* Coleman, Peter J. *The Transformation of Rhode Island, 1790–1860* (1963)
* Conforti, Joseph A. *Imagining New England: Explorations of Regional Identity from the Pilgrims to the Mid-Twentieth Century* (2001)
* Dennison, George M. *The Dorr War: Republicanism on Trial, 1831–1861* (1976)
* Hall, Donald, ed. Encyclopedia of New England (2005)
* Karlsen, Carol F. *The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England* (1998)
* Lovejoy, David S. *Rhode Island Politics and the American Revolution, 1760–1776* (1969)
* McLaughlin, William. *Rhode Island: A Bicentennial History* (1976)
* Moondancer & Strong Woman "Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England". Bauu Press. (2007).
* Palfrey, John Gorham. [*History of New England*](http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AJA1967) (5 vol. 1859–90)
*
* Sletcher, Michael. *New England*. (2004).
* Stephenson, Nathaniel Wright. *Nelson W. Aldrich, a Leader in American Politics* (1930).
* WPA. *Guide to Rhode Island* (1939).
* Zimmerman, Joseph F. *[The New England Town Meeting: Democracy in Action](https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-new-england-town-meeting-democracy-in-action-by-joseph-f-zimmerman.jsp) *. (1999)
## External links
*
* [State of Rhode Island Government website](http://www.ri.gov/)
* [Energy & Environmental Data for Rhode Island](https://web.archive.org/web/20110123145019/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=RI)
* [USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Rhode Island](http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=RI)
* [U.S. Census Bureau Quickfacts: Rhode Island](https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/RI)
* [Rhode Island laws](http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/Statutes/)
* [Scituate Art Festival](http://www.scituateartfestival.org/)
* [USDA Rhode Island State Facts](http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=44&StateName=Rhode%20Island#.U8Q1L7EXtQs)
* — Detailed Historical Article
* [Indian Place Names](http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rigenweb/IndianPlaceNames.html)
*
* [Rhode Island State Databases](https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221317/http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Rhode_Island) – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Rhode Island state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.
* [Rhode Island State Guide](https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/rhodeisland/) from the Library of Congress
* [Rhode Island State Archives Catalog for further information](https://catalog.sos.ri.gov/repositories/resources)
[ ](Category:Rhode Island)
[establishments in the United States](Category:1790)(Category:1790 establishments in the United States)
[England states](Category:New)(Category:New England states)
[United States](Category:Northeastern)(Category:Northeastern United States)
[and territories established in 1790](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1790)
[of the East Coast of the United States](Category:States)(Category:States of the East Coast of the United States)
[of the United States](Category:States)(Category:States of the United States)
[United States](Category:Contiguous)(Category:Contiguous United States)
|
Chinese Civil War
|
chinese_civil_war
|
# Chinese Civil War
*Revision ID: 1160161101 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:20:04Z*
---
– [December 1936](26)(Xi'an Incident) (First phase)()
|[August 1945](10)(Opening Campaign) – [December 1949](7)(Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan) ([phase](Second)(Chinese Communist Revolution); *[facto](de)(de facto)*)()
|[December 1949](7)(Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan) – [present](Frozen conflict) (*[jure](de)(de jure)*)()}}
| place = [China](Mainland)(Mainland China) (including [Hainan](Hainan)) and its coast, [border](China–Burma)(1960–1961 campaign at the China–Burma border)
| territory = * [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) control of [China](Mainland)(Mainland China), including [Hainan](Hainan)
* [Republic of China](People's)(China) [established](Proclamation of the People's Republic of China) in Mainland China
* [of the Republic of China](Government)(Government of the Republic of China) [evacuated](Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan) to the [of Taiwan](island)(Geography of Taiwan)
| result = [Communist](Chinese Communist Party) victory on the mainland and then diplomatic field in 1971, Taiwan Strait stalemate.
* Major combat ended, but no [armistice](armistice) or [treaty](peace)(peace treaty) signed
* The [Islamic insurgency](Kuomintang)(Kuomintang Islamic insurgency) against the People's Republic of China's rule continued in the provinces of [Gansu](Gansu), [Qinghai](Qinghai), [Ningxia](Ningxia), [Xinjiang](Xinjiang), [Yunnan](Yunnan) until 1958.
* Unretreated KMT forces left in [China](Mainland)(Mainland China) destroyed in the campaigns
* "Counterrevolutionaries" purged in [to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries](Campaign)(Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries)
* *De facto* existence of [Chinas](Two)(Two Chinas)
* Beginning of the [conflict](Cross-Strait)(Cross-Strait relations)
| combatant1 = **1927–1937:**
* [Kuomintang](Kuomintang)
*
***Supported by:*** [Germany](Nazi Germany)}}
| combatant2 = **1927–1937:**
[Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party)
* [Workers' and Peasants' Red Army](Chinese)(Chinese Red Army)
* [Soviet Republic](Chinese)(Chinese Soviet Republic) (1931–1937)
** [Soviet](Jiangxi–Fujian)(Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet) (1931–1934)
[People's Government](Fujian)(Fujian People's Government) (1933–1934)
***Supported by:***
* [International](Communist)(Communist International)
}}
| combatant1a = **1946–1949:**
* [Kuomintang](Kuomintang)
* [of China Armed Forces](Republic)(Republic of China Armed Forces)
***Supported by:***
}}
| combatant2a = **1946–1949:** [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party)
* [troops](Pre-PLA)(Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)) and [militia](Militia (China))
* [Mongolian People's Republic (1945–1945)](Inner)(Inner Mongolian People's Republic)
* [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army)
***Supported by:***
}}
| combatant1b = **1949–present:**
* [of China Armed Forces](Republic)(Republic of China Armed Forces)
***Supported by:***
}}
| combatant2b = **1949–present:**
[Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China)
* [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party)
* [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army)
***Supported by:*** (until [1961](Sino-Soviet split))
}}
| combatant1c =
| combatant2c =
| commander1 = **[Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek)}}**
([of the Kuomintang](Director-General)(Chairman of the Kuomintang))
[Chongxi](Bai)(Bai Chongxi)
| [Cheng](Chen)(Chen Cheng)
| [Zongren](Li)(Li Zongren)
| [Xishan](Yan)(Yan Xishan)
| [Yingqin](He)(He Yingqin)
| [Zongnan](Hu)(Hu Zongnan)
| [Zhutong](Gu)(Gu Zhutong)
| [Lihuang](Wei)(Wei Lihuang)
| [Yuming](Du)(Du Yuming)
| [Li-jen](Sun)(Sun Li-jen)
| [Zuoyi](Fu)(Fu Zuoyi)
| [Zhi](Liu)(Liu Zhi (ROC))
| [Yue](Xue)(Xue Yue)
| [Yaowu](Wang)(Wang Yaowu)
| [Enbo](Tang)(Tang Enbo)
| [Baitao](Huang)(Huang Baitao)
| [Lingfu](Zhang)(Zhang Lingfu)
| [Xueliang](Zhang)(Zhang Xueliang)
| [Yuxiang](Feng)(Feng Yuxiang)
(until 1930)
}}
| commander2 = **[Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong)**}}
([of the Chinese Communist Party](Chairman)(Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party))
[De](Zhu)(Zhu De)
| [Dehuai](Peng)(Peng Dehuai)
| [Enlai](Zhou)(Zhou Enlai)
| [Biao](Lin)(Lin Biao)
| [Bocheng](Liu)(Liu Bocheng)
| [Long](He)(He Long)
| [Yi](Chen)(Chen Yi (marshal))
| [Ronghuan](Luo)(Luo Ronghuan)
| [Xiangqian](Xu)(Xu Xiangqian)
| [Rongzhen](Nie)(Nie Rongzhen)
| [Jianying](Ye)(Ye Jianying)
| [Xiaoping](Deng)(Deng Xiaoping)
| [Yu](Su)(Su Yu)
| [Geng](Chen)(Chen Geng)
| [Jiaxiang](Wang)(Wang Jiaxiang)
| [Ting](Ye)(Ye Ting)
| [Gu](Bo)(Bo Gu)
| [De](Li)(Otto Braun (communist))
| [Guotao](Zhang)(Zhang Guotao)
(until 1936)
}}
| strength1 = 2 million (regular) 2.3 million (militia) (June 1946)
| strength2 = 1.2 million (regular) 2.6 million (militia) (July 1945)
| casualties1 = 1.5 million (1948–1949)
| casualties2 = 260,000 killed190,000 missing850,000 wounded (1945–1949)"The History of the Chinese People's Liberation Army." Beijing: People's Liberation Army Press. 1983.
| casualties3 =
* Above one estimate 1945–1949 set for combatants, with overall up to 6 million (including civilians)
* Early phase, 1928–1937: c. 7 million (including civilians)
* Concluding phase, 1945–1949: c. 2.5 million (including civilians)
}}
| s =
| p = Guó-Gòng Nèizhàn
| wuu = koh-gon-ne-tsoe
| j = gwok3 gung6 noi6 zin3
| poj = kok-kiōng lāi-chiàn
| l = Kuomintang-Communist Civil War
}}
The **Chinese Civil War** was fought between the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang)-led [government](Nationalist government) of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)) and forces of the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party), with armed conflict continuing intermittently from 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949, and ending with Communist control of mainland China.
The war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the [Alliance](KMT-CCP)(First United Front) collapsed during the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition), and the Nationalists controlled most of China. From 1937 to 1945, hostilities were mostly put on hold as the [United Front](Second)(Second United Front) fought the [invasion of China](Japanese)(Second Sino-Japanese War) with eventual help from the [of World War II](Allies)(Allies of World War II), but even then co-operation between the KMT and CCP was minimal and armed clashes between them were common. Exacerbating the divisions within China further was that a [government](puppet)(Wang Jingwei regime), sponsored by Japan and nominally led by [Jingwei](Wang)(Wang Jingwei), was set up to nominally govern the parts of China under Japanese occupation.
The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that the [defeat](Japanese)(Surrender of Japan) was imminent, and the communists [the upper hand](gained)(Chinese Communist Revolution) in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949.
The Communists gained control of mainland China and [established](Proclamation of the People's Republic of China) the [Republic of China](People's)(China) in 1949, forcing the leadership of the [of China](Republic)(Taiwan) to [to the island of Taiwan](retreat)(Republic of China retreat to Taiwan). Starting in the 1950s, a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the [Strait](Taiwan)(Taiwan Strait) has ensued, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC in mainland China [claiming](both)(One-China policy) to be the legitimate government of all China. After the [Taiwan Strait Crisis](Second)(Second Taiwan Strait Crisis), both tacitly ceased fire in 1979; however, no [armistice](armistice) or [treaty](peace)(peace treaty) has ever been signed.
## Background
Following the collapse of the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) and the [Revolution](1911)(1911 Revolution), [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) assumed the [presidency](President of the Republic of China) of the newly formed Republic of China, and was shortly thereafter succeeded by [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai). Yuan was frustrated in a [attempt](short-lived)(National Protection War) to [monarchy in China](restore)(Empire of China (1915–1916)), and China fell into [struggle](power)(Warlord Era) after his death in 1916.
The [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) (KMT), led by Sun Yat-sen, created a new government in [Guangzhou](Guangzhou) to rival the warlords who ruled over large swathes of China and prevented the formation of a solid central government. After Sun's efforts to obtain aid from Western countries were ignored, he turned to the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). In 1923, Sun and Soviet representative [Joffe](Adolph)(Adolph Joffe) in [Shanghai](Shanghai) pledged Soviet assistance to China's unification in the [Manifesto](Sun–Joffe)(Sun–Joffe Manifesto), a declaration of cooperation among the [Comintern](Comintern), KMT, and the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) (CCP). Comintern agent [Borodin](Mikhail)(Mikhail Borodin) arrived in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of both the CCP and the KMT along the lines of the [Party of the Soviet Union](Communist)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union). The CCP, which was initially a study group, and the KMT jointly formed the [United Front](First)(First United Front).March, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific. [1996] (1996). Greenwood Publishing Group. . p. 205.
In 1923, Sun sent [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek), one of his lieutenants, for several months of military and political study in Moscow.H.H. Chang, ''Chiang Kai Shek – Asia's Man of Destiny'' (Doubleday, 1944; reprint 2007 ). p. 126. Chiang then became the head of the [Military Academy](Whampoa)(Whampoa Military Academy) that trained the next generation of military leaders. The Soviets provided the academy with teaching material, organization, and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun raised a dedicated "army of the party", with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CCP members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including [Enlai](Zhou)(Zhou Enlai), who was made a political instructor.Ho, Alfred K. Ho, Alfred Kuo-liang. [2004] (2004). China's Reforms and Reformers. Greenwood Publishing Group. . p. 7.
Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis. The CCP itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925.Fairbank, John King. [1994] (1994). China: A New History. Harvard University Press. . As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.
However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CCP. The CCP then began movements in opposition of the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition), passing a resolution against it at a party meeting.
Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided.
Throughout this time, the Soviet Union sent money and spies to support the CCP. Without their support, the communist party likely would have failed. This is evidenced by documents showing other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, which all failed without support from the Soviet Union.
### Shanghai Massacre and Northern Expedition
In early 1927, the KMT-CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the KMT decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to [Wuhan](Wuhan), where communist influence was strong. However, Chiang and [Zongren](Li)(Li Zongren), whose armies defeated the warlord [Chuanfang](Sun)(Sun Chuanfang), moved eastward toward [Jiangxi](Jiangxi). The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT, and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's [Principles of the People](Three)(Three Principles of the People) by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong), Chiang's tolerance of the CCP in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.Zedong, Mao. Thompson, Roger R. [1990] (1990). Report from Xunwu. Stanford University Press. .
On 7 April, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On 12 April, in Shanghai, many Communist members in the KMT were purged through hundreds of arrests and executionsBrune, Lester H. Dean Burns, Richard Dean Burns. [2003] (2003). Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations. Routledge. . on the orders of General [Chongxi](Bai)(Bai Chongxi). The CCP referred to this as the *12 April Incident*, the White Terror, or the [Massacre](Shanghai)(Shanghai massacre of 1927).Zhao, Suisheng. [2004] (2004). A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford University Press. . This incident widened the rift between Chiang and [Jingwei](Wang)(Wang Jingwei), the leader of the left wing faction of the KMT who controlled the city of Wuhan.
Eventually, the left wing of the KMT also expelled CCP members from the Wuhan government, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai-shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928.Guo, Xuezhi. [2002] (2002). The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. . Soon, most of [China](eastern)(East China) was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat-sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.Theodore De Bary, William. Bloom, Irene. Chan, Wing-tsit. Adler, Joseph. Lufrano Richard. Lufrano, John. [1999] (1999). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Columbia University Press. . p. 328.
## Communist insurgency (1927–1937)
|t =
|p = Dìèrcì Guónèi Gémìng Zhànzhēng
}}
}}
On 1 August 1927, the Communist Party launched an [uprising](Nanchang uprising) in [Nanchang](Nanchang) against the Nationalist government in Wuhan. This conflict led to the creation of the [Army](Red)(Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army).Lee, Lai to. Trade Unions in China: 1949 To the Present. [1986] (1986). National University of Singapore Press. . On 4 August, the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong. Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CCP in Nanchang went into hiding. A CCP meeting on 7 August confirmed the objective of the party was to seize the political power by force, but the CCP was quickly suppressed the next day by the Nationalist government in Wuhan, led by Wang Jingwei. On 14 August, Chiang Kai-shek announced his temporary retirement, as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the CCP after the earlier split. Wang Jingwei took the leadership of KMT after Chiang.
Attempts were later made by the CCP to take the cities of [Changsha](Changsha), [Shantou](Shantou) and Guangzhou. The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers as well as armed [peasant](peasant)s established control over several areas in [China](southern)(southern China). KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions. Then, in September, Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan. September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection, known as the [Harvest Uprising](Autumn)(Autumn Harvest Uprising), led by Mao Zedong.Blasko, Dennis J. [2006] (2006). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. Routledge. . Borodin then returned to the Soviet Union in October via Mongolia. In November, Chiang Kai-shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him. On 11 December, the CCP started the [Uprising](Guangzhou)(Guangzhou Uprising), establishing a soviet there the next day, but lost the city by 13 December to a counter-attack under the orders of General [Fakui](Zhang)(Zhang Fakui). On 16 December, Wang Jingwei fled to France. There were now three capitals in China: the internationally recognized republic capital in [Beijing](Beijing), the CCP and [left-wing](left-wing) KMT at Wuhan and the right-wing KMT regime at [Nanjing](Nanjing), which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade.Esherick, Joseph. (2000). *Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950*. University of Hawaii Press. .Clark, Anne, Klein, Donald. eds. (1971). *Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism* (Harvard University Press), p. 134.
This marked the beginning of a ten-year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten-Year Civil War" (十年内战) which ended with the [Incident](Xi'an)(Xi'an Incident), when Chiang Kai-shek was forced to form the [United Front](Second)(Second United Front (China)) against invading forces from the [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan). In 1930, the [Plains War](Central)(Central Plains War) broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT; launched by [Yuxiang](Feng)(Feng Yuxiang), [Xishan](Yan)(Yan Xishan), and Wang Jingwei. The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of CCP activity in a series of five [campaigns](encirclement)(Encirclement Campaigns).Lynch, Michael. Clausen, Søren. [2003] (2003). Mao. Routledge. . The [first](First Encirclement Campaign against Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet) and [second](Second Encirclement Campaign against Honghu Soviet) campaigns failed, and the [third](Third Encirclement Campaign against Honghu Soviet) was aborted due to the [Incident](Mukden)(Mukden Incident). The [campaign](fourth)(Fourth Encirclement Campaign against Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet) (1932–1933) achieved some early successes, but Chiang's armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao's [Chinese Republic](Soviet)(Soviet Chinese Republic). During these campaigns, KMT columns struck swiftly into CCP areas, but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold.
Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a [campaign](fifth)(Fifth Encirclement Campaign against Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet) that involved the systematic encirclement of the [Soviet](Jiangxi)(Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet) region with fortified [blockhouse](blockhouse)s.Manwaring, Max G. Joes, Anthony James. [2000] (2000). Beyond Declaring Victory and Coming Home: The Challenges of Peace and Stability operations. Greenwood Publishing Group. . p. 58. The blockhouse strategy was devised and implemented in part by newly hired [Nazi](Nazism) advisors. Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike, this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses, each separated by about , to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources.
In October 1934, the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai-shek's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CCP with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating [Guotao](Zhang)(Zhang Guotao)'s army, which was much larger than Mao's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 [Li](Li (unit))); it became known as the [March](Long)(Long March).Zhang, Chunhou. Vaughan, C. Edwin. [2002] (2002). Mao Zedong as Poet and Revolutionary Leader: Social and Historical Perspectives. Lexington books. . pp. 58, 65.
This military retreat was undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai-Shek's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days." The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen." This marked Mao's position as the pre-eminent leader of the Party, with Zhou in second position to him.
The march ended when the CCP reached the interior of [Shaanxi](Shaanxi). [Guotao](Zhang)(Zhang Guotao)'s army (Red 4th Front Army), which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and his [Muslim](Chinese)(Hui people) allies, the [clique](Ma)(Ma clique). Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000–100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000–8,000 made it to Shaanxi.[Lucien](Bianco,)(Lucien Bianco). Bell, Muriel. [1971] (1971). Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949. Stanford University Press. . p. 68. The remnants of Zhang's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CCP, was never able to challenge Mao's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party.
The Kuomintang used [Kham](Kham)pa troops—who were former bandits—to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits" into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as [Wenhui](Liu)(Liu Wenhui). The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.
In 1936, Zhou Enlai and [Xueliang](Zhang)(Zhang Xueliang) grew closer, with Zhou even suggesting that he join the CCP. However, this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR. Later on, Zhou persuaded Zhang and [Hucheng](Yang)(Yang Hucheng), another warlord, to instigate the Xi'an Incident. Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army, instead focusing on the Japanese threat.
File:Nationalist China 1929 - 1937.PNG|The situation in China in 1929: After the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition), the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.
File:China Soviet Zones.png|Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns
File:The Long March 1934 - 1935.PNG|Route(s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March
File:Long-march.jpg|A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March
File:Chiang1926.jpg|[Generalissimo](Generalissimo) [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek), Commander-in-Chief of the [Revolutionary Army](National)(National Revolutionary Army), emerged from the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition) as the leader of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949))
File:National Revolutionary Army troops.png|NRA soldiers marching
File:National Revolutionary Army artillery.png|NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forces
## Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
[[File:Mao Zhou Zhu.jpg|thumb|right| The leaders of the Chinese Communist Party (L-R) [Enlai](Zhou)(Zhou Enlai), [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong), and [De](Zhu)(Zhu De)]]
During Japan's invasion and [of Manchuria](occupation)(Manchukuo), Chiang Kai-shek saw the CCP as the greater threat. Chiang refused to ally with the CCP, preferring to unite China by eliminating the warlord and CCP forces first. He believed his forces were too weak to face the [Imperial Army](Japanese)(Japanese Imperial Army); only after unification could the KMT mobilize against Japan. He ignored the Chinese people's discontent and anger at the KMT policy of compromise with the Japanese, instead ordering KMT generals [Xueliang](Zhang)(Zhang Xueliang) and [Hucheng](Yang)(Yang Hucheng) to suppress the CCP. However, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles with the Red Army.
On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident.Ye, Zhaoyan Ye, Berry, Michael. [2003] (2003). Nanjing 1937: A Love Story. Columbia University Press. . Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fight the Japanese. In 1937, Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China and its well-equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China.
The alliance of CCP and KMT was in name only.Buss, Claude Albert. [1972] (1972). Stanford Alumni Association. The People's Republic of China and Richard Nixon. United States. Unlike the KMT forces, CCP troops shunned [warfare](conventional)(conventional warfare) and instead waged [warfare](guerrilla)(guerrilla warfare) against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CCP and KMT during [War II](World)(World War II) was minimal. In the midst of the Second United Front, the CCP and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "[China](Free)(Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War))" (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese [governments](puppet)(Puppet state) such as [Manchukuo](Manchukuo) and the [National Government of China](Reorganized)(Reorganized National Government of China)).
The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CCP's [Fourth Army](New)(New Fourth Army) evacuate [Anhui](Anhui) and [Jiangsu](Jiangsu) Provinces, due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. The following year they were [ambushed](New Fourth Army incident) by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths.Schoppa, R. Keith. [2000] (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. . It also ended the Second United Front, formed earlier to fight the Japanese.
As clashes between the CCP and KMT intensified, countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the [Fourth Army incident](New)(New Fourth Army incident), US President [D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt) sent [envoy](special)(special envoy) [Currie](Lauchlin)(Lauchlin Currie) to talk with Chiang Kai-shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. The Soviet Union, allied more closely with the CCP, sent an imperative telegram to Mao in 1941, warning that civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. Chiang criticized the CCP in 1943 with the propaganda piece ''China's Destiny'', which questioned the CCP's power after the war, while the CCP strongly opposed Chiang's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.Chen, Jian. [2001] (2001). Mao's China and the Cold War. The University of North Carolina Press. .
In general, developments in the [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) were to the advantage of the CCP, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese-occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, a factor which proved costly to Chiang Kai-shek and his troops. Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, [Ichi-Go](Operation)(Operation Ichi-Go), in 1944, which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang's forces.Lary, Diana. [2007] (2007). China's Republic. Cambridge University Press. . The CCP also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics. By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million. About one hundred million people lived in CCP-controlled zones.
File:Situation at the End of World War Two.PNG|Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped)
## Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)
[[蔣介石與毛澤東.jpg|thumb|Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong met in Chongqing in 1945.](File:重慶會談)]
Under the terms of the Japanese [surrender](unconditional)(unconditional surrender) dictated by the Allies, Japanese troops were to surrender to KMT troops but not to the CCP, which was present in some of the occupied areas.Zarrow, Peter Gue. (2005). *China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949*. Routledge. . p. 338. In [Manchuria](Manchuria), however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek reminded Japanese troops to remain at their posts to receive the KMT, but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders from the Japanese and fighting those who resisted. [Wedemeyer](General)(Albert Coady Wedemeyer) of the United States Army became alarmed at these developments and wanted seven American divisions to be sent to China, but [Marshall](General)(George C. Marshall) replied that it should not be given priority over Japan and Korea.
The first post-war peace negotiation, attended by both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, was in [Chongqing](Chongqing) from 28 August to 10 October 1945. Chiang entered the meeting at an advantage because he had recently signed a [treaty](friendly)(Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance) with the Soviet Union while the Communists were still forcing the Japanese to surrender in some places. Mao was accompanied by American ambassador [J. Hurley](Patrick)(Patrick J. Hurley), who was devoted to Chiang but also wanted to ensure Mao's safety in light of the past history between the two Chinese leaders. It concluded with the signing of the [Tenth Agreement](Double)(Double Tenth Agreement).Xu, Guangqiu. [2001] (2001). *War Wings: The United States and Chinese Military Aviation, 1929–1949*. Greenwood Publishing Group. . p. 201. Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results. Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full-scale confrontations between the CCP and Chiang's troops were temporarily avoided.
[[File:Shangtang.jpg|thumb|[Campaign](Shangdang)(Shangdang Campaign), September–October 1945]]
In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge [Strategic Offensive Operation](Manchurian)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria) against the Japanese [Army](Kwantung)(Kwantung Army) in Manchuria and along the Chinese-Mongolian border.Bright, Richard Carl. [2007] (2007). *Pain and Purpose in the Pacific: True Reports of War*. Trafford Publishing. . This operation destroyed the Kwantung Army in just three weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai-shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CCP takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure.Lilley, James. *China hands: nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia*. PublicAffairs, New York, 2004 He therefore made a deal with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best-trained men and modern material into the region. However, the Soviets refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory and spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war-ravaged country. KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CCP. On 15 November 1945, the KMT began a campaign to prevent the CCP from strengthening its already strong base. At the same time, however, the return of the KMT also brought widespread graft and corruption, with an [OSS](Office of Strategic Services) officer remarking that the only winners were the Communists.
In the winter of 1945–46, [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin) commanded Marshal [Malinovsky](Rodion)(Rodion Malinovsky) to give Mao Zedong most [Japanese Army](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Army) weapons that were captured.
Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as [(Jinzhou)](Chinchow)(Jinzhou) by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the [Peninsula](Shandong)(Shandong Peninsula) that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists. The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full-scale war between CCP and KMT forces broke out on 26 June 1946. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.Hu, Jubin. (2003). *Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949*. Hong Kong University Press. .
File:Manchuria Operation map-es.svg|The [Soviet](Soviet) [Army](Red)(Red Army) [Manchuria](invaded)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria) in August 1945.
File:Chinese Communist troops marched north(1945) 03.jpg|Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural [Manchuria](Manchuria), 1945.
## Resumed fighting (1946–1949)
### Background and disposition of forces
|t =
|p = Dìsāncì Guónèi Gémìng Zhànzhēng
|altname = War of Liberation (mainland China)
|t2 =
|s2 =
|p2 = Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng
|wuu2 = chia-fhon-tsan-zen
|j2 = gaai2 fong3 zin3 zang1
|poj2 = kái-hòng chiàn-cheng
|altname3 = Anti-Communist Counter-insurgency War (Taiwan)
|t3 =
|s3 =
|p3 = Fǎngòng Kānluàn Zhànzhēng
|altname4 = Chinese People's Liberation War (mainland China)
|s4 =
|t4 =
|p4 = Zhōngguó Rénmín Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng
}}
}}
By the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the power of the Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Their "Liberated Zone" in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.
In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the [Red Army](Soviet)(Soviet Red Army) under the command of Marshal [Malinovsky](Rodion)(Rodion Malinovsky) continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria, while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them, which led to full-scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard-line faction who wanted a complete military take-over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists.Michael M Sheng, *Battling Western Imperialism*, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135 Before giving control to Communist leaders, on 27 March, Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.
Although [Marshall](General)(George Marshall) stated that he knew of no evidence that the CCP was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CCP was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks. When large numbers of well-trained KMT troops began to defect to the Communist forces, the CCP was finally able to achieve material superiority.*The New York Times*, 12 January 1947, p. 44.Zeng Kelin, *Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu* (General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997. pp. 112–113 The CCP's most effective political reform was its land reform policy. This drew the massive number of landless and starving peasants in the countryside into the Communist cause.[Huang](Ray)(Ray Huang), *cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji* (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's diary from a macro-history perspective), China Times Publishing Press, Taipei, 1994, pp. 441–443 This strategy enabled the CCP to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes; despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war's campaigns, manpower continued to grow. For example, during the [Campaign](Huaihai)(Huaihai Campaign) alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.[Ying-tai](Lung)(Lung Ying-tai), *dajiang dahai 1949*, Commonwealth Publishing Press, Taipei, 2009, p. 184
[[Revolutionary Army planes.png|thumb|Nationalist warplanes being prepared for an air raid on Communist bases](File:National)]
After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai-shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender. The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the [Northeast](Northeast China) (Manchuria). President [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists". In his memoirs he writes:
Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender", business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army. They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.
The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in [Beleaguer](Operation)(Operation Beleaguer). The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist-controlled areas. According to [Blum](William)(William Blum), American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.p23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London. Within less than two years after the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US—most of which was military aid.
### Outbreak of war
File:Chaing Kai-shek's Strategy 1947.PNG|Situation in 1947
File:Communist Offensives September through November 1948.PNG|Situation in the fall of 1948
File:Communist Offensives November 1948 - January 1949.PNG|Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949
File:Communist Offensives April - October 1949.PNG|Situation in April to October 1949
As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government in Nanjing and the Communist Party failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in [China](mainland)(mainland China) and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" (). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in [China](North)(North China) with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops). This marked the first stage of the final phase in the Chinese Civil War.
Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.
[[File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg|thumb|The PLA enters Beiping (today's Beijing) in the [Campaign](Pingjin)(Pingjin Campaign).]]
In March 1947, the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing the CCP capital of [Yan'an](Yan'an).Lilley, James R. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia. . The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947, CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the [Mountains](Dabie)(Dabie Mountains) area, restored and developed the [Plain](Central)(Central Plain (China)). At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, [China](North)(North China) and [China](East)(East China).
By late 1948, the CCP eventually captured the northern cities of [Shenyang](Shenyang) and [Changchun](Changchun) and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive [Campaign](Liaoshen)(Liaoshen Campaign).Westad, Odd Arne. [2003] (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. . pp. 192–193. The [1st Army](New)(New 1st Army), regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CCP conducted a brutal six-month [of Changchun](siege)(siege of Changchun) that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.Pomfret, John. "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says" [Seattle Times 2 October 2009](http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19901122&slug=1105487) Accessed: 2009-10-02. Archived [WebSite](https://web.archive.org/web/20111025143728/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19901122&slug=1105487)
[[File:Renault FT-17 in ROC.jpg|thumb|right|[of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)) FT tanks]]
The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948, the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. . Following a fierce battle, the CCP captured [Jinan](Jinan) and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The [Campaign](Huaihai)(Huaihai Campaign) of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CCP. The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.
The [Campaign](Pingjin)(Pingjin Campaign) resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.Finkelstein, David Michael. Ryan, Mark A. McDevitt, Michael. [2003] (2003). Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949. M.E. Sharpe. China. . p. 63. The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing [Zhangjiakou](Zhangjiakou), Tianjin along with its port and garrison at [Dagu](Taku Forts) and [Beiping](Beijing). The CCP brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops. There were 40,000 CCP casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.
[[File:ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg|thumb|The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost [Nanjing](Nanjing) (Nanking) they next moved to [Guangzhou](Guangzhou) (Canton), then to [Chongqing](Chongqing) (Chungking), [Chengdu](Chengdu) (Chengtu) and finally, [Xichang](Xichang) (Sichang) before arriving [Taipei](Taipei) in 1949.]]
After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million [veteran](veteran) KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces. Stalin initially favored a [government](coalition)(coalition government) in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." *Cold War History* 10.2 (2010): 185–202. Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, and began the [River Crossing Campaign](Yangtze)(Yangtze River Crossing Campaign). On 23 April, they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until 15 October, [Chongqing](Chongqing) until 25 November, and then [Chengdu](Chengdu) before [to Taiwan](retreating)(Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan) on 7 December. By late 1949, the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only [Tibet](Tibet) was left. A Chinese Muslim [Hui](Hui people) cavalry regiment, the 14th [Tungan](Dungan people) Cavalry, was sent by the Kuomintang to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the [Incident](Pei-ta-shan)(Pei-ta-shan Incident).
The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use Khampa troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the [Lama](Panchen)(Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama) to oppose the Communists. Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.
### Pushing south
[[File:PRCFounding.jpg|thumb|[Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong)'s proclamation of the founding of the People's Republic in 1949]]
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong [the founding](proclaimed)(Proclamation of the People's Republic of China) of the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China) with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers [from mainland China](retreated)(Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan) to the [of Taiwan](island)(Geography of Taiwan) in December after the PLA advanced into Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the [of Chengdu](fall)(Chengdu Campaign) on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. [2005] (2005). The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914. Routledge. . p. 376.
[[File:Hainan Island Campaign.png|thumb|Communist [of Hainan Island](conquest)(Battle of Hainan Island) in mid 1950]]
A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of [Quemoy](Kinmen) was thwarted in the [of Kuningtou](Battle)(Battle of Guningtou), halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.Qi, Bangyuan. Wang, Dewei. Wang, David Der-wei. [2003] (2003). The Last of the Whampoa Breed: Stories of the Chinese Diaspora. Columbia University Press. . p. 2. In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed [Taipei](Taipei) the [capital](temporary)(temporary capital) of the [of China](Republic)(Taiwan) and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.
The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the [conquest of Hainan Island](Communist)(Landing Operation on Hainan Island) in April 1950, the [Islands](Wanshan)(Wanshan Archipelago Campaign) off the Guangdong coast (May–August 1950), and [Island](Zhoushan)(Zhoushan Island) off Zhejiang (May 1950).MacFarquhar, Roderick. Fairbank, John K. Twitchett, Denis C. [1991] (1991). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. . p. 820.
## Aftermath and unsolved issues (1949–present)
[[Civila Chinesa (1946-1950).png|thumb|left|240px|Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949, and 1950)](File:Guèrra)]
Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC. Truman, seeking to exploit the possibility of a Titoist-style [split](Sino-Soviet)(Sino-Soviet split), announced in his United States Policy toward Formosa that the US would obey the Cairo Declaration's designation of Taiwan as Chinese territory and would not assist the Nationalists. However, the Communist leadership was not aware of this change of policy, instead becoming increasingly hostile to the US. The situation quickly changed after the sudden onset of the [War](Korean)(Korean War) in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the [States Seventh Fleet](United)(United States Seventh Fleet) to sail to the [Strait](Taiwan)(Taiwan Strait) as part of the [containment](containment) policy against potential Communist advance.Bush, Richard C. (2005). Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait. Brookings Institution Press.
[[File:Wuwangzaiju.JPG|thumb|"Forget not that you are in [Jǔ](Ju (city))"--a rock in Quemoy Island with Chiang Kai-shek's calligraphy signifying the retaking of one's homeland]]
In June 1949, the ROC declared a "closure" of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of [River](Min)(Min River (Fujian)) in [Fujian](Fujian) to the mouth of the [River](Liao)(Liao River) in [Liaoning](Liaoning).Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang Tsang. The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958. (2006). I.B. Tauris. . pp. 155, 115–120, 139–145 Since mainland China's railroad network was underdeveloped, north–south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen.
During [retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan](the)(Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan), KMT troops, who couldn't retreat to Taiwan, were left behind to fight a [war](guerrilla)(Guerrilla warfare) against the Communists. These [remnants](KMT)(Kuomintang) were eliminated in what the PRC called the [to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries](Campaign)(Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries) and the [to Suppress Bandits.](Campaigns)(:Category:Campaigns to Suppress Bandits) According to official statistics from the CCP in 1954, during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, at least 2.6 million people were arrested, some 1.29 million people were [imprisoned](Imprisonment), and 712,000 people were executed. Most of those killed were former Kuomintang officials, businessmen, former employees of Western companies and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect.Steven W. Mosher. *China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality.* [Books](Basic)(Basic Books), 1992. p. 73
Winning China proper in 1950, also after [of Tibet](Annexation)(Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China), the CCP controlled the entire mainland in late 1951 (excluding [Kinmen](Kinmen) and [Islands](Matsu)(Matsu Islands)). But a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to [Burma](Burma) and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the [Islamic Insurgency in China (1950–1958)](Kuomintang)(Kuomintang Islamic insurgency in China (1950–1958)) and [at the China–Burma Border](Campaign)(1960–61 campaign at the China–Burma border). Their leader, [Mi](Li)(Li Mi (ROC general)), was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of [Yunnan](Yunnan). Initially, the US-supported these remnants and the [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the [Nations](United)(United Nations) in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China.
After the ROC complained to the [Nations](United)(United Nations) against the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) for violating the [Treaty of Friendship and Alliance](Sino-Soviet)(Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance) to support the CCP, the [General Assembly Resolution 505](UN)(UN General Assembly Resolution 505) was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union.
In the end, the Communist military forces suffered 1.3 million combat casualties in the 1945–1949 phase of the war: 260,000 killed, 190,000 missing, and 850,000 wounded, discounting irregulars. Nationalist casualties in the same phase were recorded after the war by the PRC 5,452,700 regulars and 2,258,800 irregulars.
[[Crossing Monument - detail - P1070673.JPG|thumb|Monument in memory of the crossing of the Yangtze in Nanjing](File:Yangtze)]
### Taiwan Strait Tensions
Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in [Fujian](Fujian Province, Republic of China) as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the [Taiwan Strait Crisis](First)(First Taiwan Strait Crisis) began when the [PLA](People's Liberation Army) started shelling [Kinmen](Kinmen) and threatened to take the [Islands](Dachen)(Dachen Islands) in [Zhejiang](Zhejiang). On 20 January 1955, the [PLA](People's Liberation Army) [took](Battle of Yijiangshan Islands) nearby [Island](Yijiangshan)(Yijiangshan Island), with the entire ROC garrison of 720 troops killed or wounded defending the island. On 24 January of the same year, the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) passed the [Resolution](Formosa)(Formosa Resolution of 1955) authorizing the President to defend the ROC's offshore islands. The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis was brought to a close during the [conference](Bandung)(Asian–African Conference).
The [Taiwan Strait Crisis](Second)(Second Taiwan Strait Crisis) began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of [Quemoy](Kinmen) (by the PRC) and [Amoy](Xiamen) (by the ROC), and ended on November of the same year. PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai-shek's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided [assault](amphibious)(Amphibious warfare) ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On 7 September, the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing.
The third crisis occurred in 1995–96. The PLA responded to Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui's visit to the United States, and the U.S. recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan with military exercises. PLA actions were also meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the 1996 election. The U.S. deployed two aircraft carriers in response to the PLA's actions and Lee won the election. The carriers were not attacked and deescalation followed.
U.S. speaker [Pelosi](Nancy)(Nancy Pelosi)'s [to Taiwan](visit)(2022 United States congressional delegation visit to Taiwan) in August 2022 triggered the PLA to [military exercises](cause)(2022 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan) across the Taiwan Strait. She originally intended to travel to Taiwan in April 2022, but was delayed due to [COVID-19](COVID-19). She rescheduled the trip to August as part of a wider Asian trip. The White House was reported to have been initially divided over the appropriateness of the trip but later affirmed Pelosi's right to visit Taiwan. As a result, the PLA announced four days of unprecedented military live-fire drills, in six zones that encircle the island on the busiest international waterways and aviation routes. In response to the announcement, ROC officials complained that the PLA's live-fire drills were an invasion of Taiwan's territorial space and a direct challenge to free air and sea navigation.
### Political fallout
[[File:U2China.jpg|thumb|right|[U-2](Lockheed)(Lockheed U-2) wreckage (pilot [Liyi](Chang)(Chang Liyi)) on display at the [Museum](Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution) in Beijing]]
On 25 October 1971, the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) admitted the PRC and [the ROC](expelled)(China and the United Nations), which had been a founding member of the [Nations](United)(United Nations) and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.
By 1984, PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their hostilities through diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991. Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders". The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union", which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally, the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents: the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethnic organisations". By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.[*Decisive Encounters*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jbcoecrg5nec&q=chinese+civil+war.&pg=pr11) By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 21 Mar pp. 292–297 2003 (Google Books).
Under the new ROC president [Teng-hui](Lee)(Lee Teng-hui), the [Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion](Temporary)(Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion) was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang's quest to retake the mainland. In July 1999, Lee announced a "special diplomatic relationship". China was furious again, but the military drills were stopped by the [earthquakes](921)(1999 Jiji earthquake). It was the last tense moment of this civil war.
With the election in 2000 of [Progressive Party](Democratic)(Democratic Progressive Party) candidate [Shui-bian](Chen)(Chen Shui-bian), a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CCP. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the [Pan-Blue visit](2005)(2005 Pan-Blue visits to mainland China) continued to increase.
With the election of pro-mainland President [Ying-jeou](Ma)(Ma Ying-jeou) (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high-level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the [summit](Chen-Chiang)(Chen-Chiang summit) series. Although the [Strait](Taiwan)(Taiwan Strait) remains a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.
## Reasons for the Communist victory
The historian [Mitter](Rana)(Rana Mitter) concluded that the Nationalist government in 1945 had been "fundamentally destroyed by the war with Japan". Mitter writes that a lack of trust in the Nationalist government developed, as it was increasingly seen as "corrupt, vindictive, and with no overall vision of what China under its rule should look like".
Historian [Arne Westad](Odd)(Odd Arne Westad) says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek) and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to their side.Odd Arne Westad, *Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750* (2012) p. 291.
Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948: "After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious. I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed, time after time throughout our history, was not because of superior power used by our external enemies, but because of disintegration and rot from within."
The better-trained Communist army was also able to receive support from the USSR, which helped to counter the American aid that the Nationalists received. [Yun](Chen)(Chen Yun) said: "They did their best to help us, we were backed by the Soviet Union and North Korea."
Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the [Mission](Marshall)(Marshall Mission), and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by [Kung](H.H.)(H.H. Kung) and [V. Soong](T.)(T. V. Soong)'s family)[T.V. Soong – A Register of His Papers in the Hoover Institution Archives](http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/soong_register.pdf) media.hoover.org and KMT's military setback in Northeast China.
The main advantage of the Chinese Communist Party was the "extraordinary cohesion" within the top level of its leadership. These skills were not only secured from defections that came about during difficult times but also coupled with "communications and top level debates over tactics". The [style of leadership](charismatic)(Charismatic authority) of Mao Zedong created a "unity of purpose" and a "unity of command" which the KMT lacked. Apart from that, the CCP had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit; this was also derived from their [propaganda](Propaganda in China) skills that had also been decentralised successfully by portraying their opponents as "enemies of all groups of Chinese" and itself as "defenders of the nation" and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).For quotes see
In the Chinese Civil War after 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of [hyperinflation](hyperinflation) and the failure of [controls](price)(price controls) by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948 and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities' [class](middle)(middle class)es. In the meantime, the Communists continued their relentless land reform ([redistribution](land)(land redistribution)) programs to win the support of the population in the countryside.
Historians such as Jay Taylor, Robert Cowley, and Anne W. Carroll argue that the nationalists' failure was largely caused by external reasons outside of the KMT's control, most notably the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang with the withdrawal of aid, the US armed embargo, the failed pursuit of a détente between the nationalists and the communists, and the USSR's consistent support of the CPC in the Chinese Civil War.
## Atrocities
During the war, both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides.Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.Valentino, Benjamin A. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. 8 December 2005. p. 88
### Nationalist atrocities
Over several years after the 1927 [massacre](Shanghai)(Shanghai massacre), the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror.Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. [*Zhou Enlai: A Political Life*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC) . Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. . Retrieved 12 November 2022. p. 38 During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to [binding](foot)(foot binding), on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals. Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace.
From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.
### Communist atrocities
During the December 1930 [incident](Futian)(Futian incident), the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong.
Between 1931 and 1934 in the [Soviet](Jiangxi–Fujian)(Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet), the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor. According to [Weihan](Li)(Li Weihan), a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous [grave](mass)(mass grave)s throughout the CSR [Soviet Republic in Jiangxi](Chinese) that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." [Wentian](Zhang)(Zhang Wentian), another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre" The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as "class enemies", worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists. The Ruijin base, the seat of the first Red state, consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian. These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded, 1931, to the year after the Reds left, 1935. The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million — a drop of 20 percent. The fall in Red Fujian was comparable. Given that escapes were few, this means that altogether some 700,000 people died in the Ruijin base. A large part of these were murdered as “class enemies,” or were worked to death, or committed suicide, or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime.
During the [of Changchun](Siege)(Siege of Changchun), the [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army) implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade; this blockade caused the starvation of tensKoga, Yukiko (2016). Inheritance of Loss: China, Japan, and the Political Economy of Redemption After Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . to 150 thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.Lary, Diana (2015). China's Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords.DeMare, Brian James (2019). Land Wars: The Story of China's Agrarian Revolution. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. . The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. Party work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power. The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure.Saich *The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party* [Outline Land Law of 1947](https://books.google.com/books?id=w48YDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Outline+Land+Law%22+-wikipedia) Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.
In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign, the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs. The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.
## See also
* [of wars involving the People's Republic of China](List)(List of wars involving the People's Republic of China)
* [to suppress bandits in northeast China](Campaign)(Campaign to suppress bandits in northeast China)
* [to Suppress Bandits in Wuping](Campaign)(Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping)
* [to suppress bandits in southwestern China](Campaign)(Campaign to suppress bandits in southwestern China)
* [to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China](Campaign)(Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China)
## References
## Further reading
* Cheng, Victor Shiu Chiang. "Imagining China's Madrid in Manchuria: The Communist Military Strategy at the Onset of the Chinese Civil War, 1945–1946." *Modern China* 31.1 (2005): 72–114.
* Chi, Hsi-sheng. *Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–45* (U of Michigan Press, 1982).
* Dreyer, Edward L. *China at War 1901–1949* (Routledge, 2014).
* Dupuy, Trevor N. *The Military History of the Chinese Civil War* (Franklin Watts, Inc., 1969).
* Eastman, Lloyd E. "Who lost China? Chiang Kai-shek testifies." *China Quarterly* 88 (1981): 658–668.
* Eastman, Lloyd E., et al. *The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949* (Cambridge UP, 1991).
* Fenby, Jonathan. *Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China He Lost* (2003).
* Ferlanti, Federica. "The New Life Movement at War: Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu, 1938—1942" *European Journal of East Asian Studies* 11#2 (2012), pp. 187–212 [online](https://ccposters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Ferlanti.pdf) how Nationalist forces mobilized society
* Jian, Chen. "The Myth of America's “Lost Chance” in China: A Chinese Perspective in Light of New Evidence." *Diplomatic History* 21.1 (1997): 77–86.
* Lary, Diana. ''China's Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949* (Cambridge UP, 2015). [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Civil-War-1945-1949-Approaches/dp/1107678269/)
* Levine, Steven I. "A new look at American mediation in the Chinese civil war: the Marshall mission and Manchuria." *Diplomatic History* 3.4 (1979): 349–376.
* Lew, Christopher R. *The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War, 1945–49: An Analysis of Communist Strategy and Leadership* (Routledge, 2009).
* Li, Xiaobing. *China at War: An Encyclopedia* (ABC-CLIO, 2012).
* Lynch, Michael. *The Chinese Civil War 1945–49* (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).
* Mitter, Rana. "Research Note Changed by War: The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History." *Chinese Historical Review* 17.1 (2010): 85–95.
* Nasca, David S. *Western Influence on the Chinese National Revolutionary Army from 1925 to 1937.* (Marine Corps Command And Staff Coll Quantico Va, 2013). [online](https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a601601.pdf)
* Pepper, Suzanne. *Civil war in China: the political struggle 1945–1949* (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
* Reilly, Major Thomas P. *Mao Tse-Tung And Operational Art During The Chinese Civil War* (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015) [online](https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a357835.pdf).
* Shen, Zhihua, and Yafeng Xia. *Mao and the Sino–Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959: A New History.'' (Lexington Books, 2015).
* , advanced military history. [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Where-Chiang-Kai-shek-China-Twentieth-Century/dp/0253016924/)
* Taylor, Jeremy E., and Grace C. Huang. "'Deep changes in interpretive currents'? Chiang Kai-shek studies in the post-cold war era." *International Journal of Asian Studies* 9.1 (2012): 99–121.
* Taylor, Jay. *The Generalissimo* (Harvard University Press, 2009). biography of Chiang Kai-shek
* .
*
* Yick, Joseph K.S. *Making Urban Revolution in China: The CCP-GMD Struggle for Beiping-Tianjin, 1945–49* (Routledge, 2015).
## External links
* [Summary of Chinese Civil War 1946–1949](http://share.nanjing-school.com/dphistory/files/2014/09/Civil-War-1946-9-2i0pi2f.pdf)
* ["Armored Car Like Oil Tanker Used by Chinese" *Popular Mechanics*, March 1930](https://books.google.com/books?id=cOIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA364dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22) article and photo of armoured train of Chinese Civil War
* [Topographic maps of China Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954–](http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/china/)
* [Operational Art in the Chinese PLA's Huai Hai Campaign](https://web.archive.org/web/20090326011824/http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/download/csipubs/bjorge_huai.pdf)
* [Postal Stamps of the Chinese Post-Civil War Era](https://web.archive.org/web/20081121142532/http://www.fvdes.com/stamps/chinaweb/china_education_stamps.htm)
[Civil War](Category:Chinese)(Category:Chinese Civil War)
[in China](Category:Revolutions)(Category:Revolutions in China)
[involving the Republic of China](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving the Republic of China)
[involving the People's Republic of China](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving the People's Republic of China)
[period](Category:Interwar)(Category:Interwar period)
[civil wars](Category:Revolution-based)(Category:Revolution-based civil wars)
[civil wars](Category:Communism-based)(Category:Communism-based civil wars)
[of independence](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars of independence)
[of World War II](Category:Aftermath)(Category:Aftermath of World War II)
[history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)](Category:Military)(Category:Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949))
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